diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'old/13056.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/13056.txt | 18462 |
1 files changed, 18462 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/old/13056.txt b/old/13056.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..dc37431 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/13056.txt @@ -0,0 +1,18462 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The German Classics of The Nineteenth and +Twentieth Centuries, Vol. X., by Kuno Francke + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The German Classics of The Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, Vol. X. + Prince Otto Von Bismarck, Count Helmuth Von Moltke, Ferdinand Lassalle + +Author: Kuno Francke + +Release Date: July 30, 2004 [EBook #13056] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GERMAN CLASSICS *** + + + + +Produced by Stan Goodman, Jayam Subramanian and PG Distributed +Proofreaders + + + + + +VOLUME X + + +PRINCE OTTO VON BISMARCK + +COUNT HELMUTH VON MOLTKE + +FERDINAND LASSALLE + + + + + +THE GERMAN CLASSICS + +Masterpieces of German Literature + + + + + +TRANSLATED INTO ENGLISH + +Patrons' Edition + + + +IN TWENTY VOLUMES + + + +ILLUSTRATED + +1914 + + + + + + CONTENTS OF VOLUME X + + +Prince Otto Von Bismarck + + Bismarck as a National Type. By Kuno Francke. + + The Love Letters of Bismarck. Translated under the supervision of + Charlton T. Lewis. + + Correspondence of William I. and Bismarck. Translated by J.A. Ford. + + From "Thoughts and Recollections." Translated under the supervision of + A.J. Butler. + + Bismarck as an Orator. By Edmund von Mach. + + Speeches of Prince Bismarck. Translated by Edmund von Mach: + + Professorial Politics + + Speech from the Throne + + Alsace-Lorraine a Glacis Against France + + We Shall Never Go to Canossa! + + Bismarck as the "Honest Broker" + + Salus Publica--Bismarck's Only Lode-Star + + Practical Christianity + + We Germans Fear God, and Nought Else in the World + + Mount the Guards at the Warthe and the Vistula! + + Long Live the Emperor and the Empire! + + +Count Helmuth Von Moltke + + The Life of Moltke. By Karl Detlev Jessen. + + Letters and Historical Writings of Moltke: + + The Political and Military Conditions of the Ottoman Empire in 1836. + Translated by Edmund von Mach. + + A Trip to Brussa. Translated by Edmund von Mach. + + A Journey to Mossul. Translated by Edmund von Mach. + + A Bullfight in Spain. Translated by Edmund von Mach. + + Description of Moscow. Translated by Grace Bigelow. + + The Peace Movement. Translated by Edmund von Mach. + + Fighting on the Frontier. Translated by Clara Bell and Henry W. + Fischer. + + Battle of Gravelotte--St. Privat. Translated by Clara Bell and Henry + W. Fischer. + + Consolatory Thoughts on the Earthly Life and a Future Existence. + Translated by Mary Herms. + + +Ferdinand Lassalle + + The Life and Work of Ferdinand Lassalle. By Arthur N. Holcombe. + + The Workingmen's Programme. Translated by E.H. Babbitt. + + Science and the Workingmen. Translated by Thorstein B. Veblen. + + Open Letter to the Central Committee. Translated by E.H. Babbitt. + + + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS--VOLUME X + + + Bismarck Meeting Napoleon after the Battle of Sedan + + Prince Bismarck. By Franz von Lenbach + + Prince Bismarck. By Franz von Lenbach + + Princess Bismarck + + Coronation of King William I at Koenigsberg. By Adolph von Menzel + + Emperor William I. By Franz von Lenbach + + King William's Departure for the Front at the Beginning of the + Franco-German War. By Adolph von Menzel + + Prince Bismarck. By Franz von Lenbach + + The Berlin Congress. By Anton von Werner + + Prince Bismarck. By Franz von Lenbach + + The Bismarck Monument at Hamburg. By Lederer + + William I on his Deathbed. By Anton von Werner + + Moltke. By Anton von Werner + + Count Moltke + + Moltke at Sedan. By Anton von Werner + + King William at the Mausoleum of his Parents on the Day of the French + Declaration of War. By Anton von Werner + + The Capitulation of Sedan. By Anton von Werner + + Ferdinand Lassalle + + The Iron Foundry. By Adolph von Menzel + + Flax Barn in Laren. By Max Liebermann + + * * * * * + + + + +BISMARCK AS A NATIONAL TYPE[1] + +BY KUNO FRANCKE, PH.D., LL.D., Litt.D. Professor of the History of +German Culture, Harvard University. + + +No man since Luther has been a more complete embodiment of German +nationality than Otto von Bismarck. None has been closer to the German +heart. None has stood more conspicuously for racial aspirations, +passions, ideals. + +It is the purpose of the present sketch to bring out a few of these +affinities between Bismarck and the German people. + +I + +Perhaps the most obviously Teutonic trait in Bismarck's character is +its martial quality. It would be preposterous, surely, to claim +warlike distinction as a prerogative of the German race. Russians, +Frenchmen, Englishmen, Americans, undoubtedly, make as good fighters +as Germans. But it is not an exaggeration to say that there is no +country in the world where the army is as enlightened or as popular an +institution as it is in Germany. + +The German army is not composed of hirelings of professional fighters +whose business it is to pick quarrels, no matter with whom. It is, in +the strictest sense of the word, the people in arms. Among its +officers there is a large percentage of the intellectual elite of the +country; its rank and file embrace every occupation and every class of +society, from the scion of royal blood down to the son of the +seamstress. Although it is based upon the unconditional +acceptance of the monarchical creed, nothing is farther removed from +it than the spirit of servility. On the contrary, one of the very +first teachings which are inculcated upon the German recruit is that, +in wearing the "king's coat," he is performing a public duty, and that +by performing this duty he is honoring himself. Nor can it be said +that it is the aim of German military drill to reduce the soldier to a +mere machine, at will to be set in motion or be brought to a +standstill by his superior. The aim of this drill is rather to give +each soldier increased self-control, mentally no less than bodily; to +develop his self-respect; to enlarge his sense of responsibility, as +well as to teach him the absolute necessity of the subordination of +the individual to the needs of the whole. The German army, then, is by +no means a lifeless tool that might be used by an unscrupulous and +adventurous despot to gratify his own whims or to wreak his private +vengeance. The German army is, in principle at least, a national +school of manly virtues, of discipline, of comradeship, of +self-sacrifice, of promptness of action, of tenacity of purpose. +Although, probably, the most powerful armament which the world has +ever seen, it makes for peace rather than for war. Although called +upon to defend the standard of the most imperious dynasty of western +Europe, it contains more of the spirit of true democracy than many a +city government on this side of the Atlantic. + +All this has to be borne in mind if we wish to judge correctly of +Bismarck's military propensities. He has never concealed the fact that +he felt himself, above all, a soldier. One of his earliest public +utterances was a defense of the Prussian army against the sympathizers +with the revolution of 1848. His first great political achievement was +the carrying through, in the early sixties, of King William's army +reform in the face of the most stubborn and virulent opposition of a +parliamentary majority. Never, in the years following the formation of +the Empire, did his speech in the German Parliament rise to a higher +pathos than when he was asserting the military supremacy of the +Emperor, or calling upon the parties to forget their dissensions in +maintaining the defensive strength of the nation, or showering +contempt upon liberal deputies who seemed to think that questions of +national existence could be solved by effusions of academic oratory. +Over and over, during the last decade of his official career, did he +declare that the only thing which kept him from throwing aside the +worry and vexation of governmental duties and retiring to the much +coveted leisure of home and hearth, was the oath of vassal loyalty +constraining him to stand at his post until his imperial master +released him of his own accord. And at the very height of his +political triumphs he wrote to his sovereign: "I have always regretted +that my talents did not allow me to testify my attachment to the royal +house and my enthusiasm for the greatness and glory of the Fatherland +in the front rank of a regiment rather than behind a writing-desk. And +even now, after having been raised by your Majesty to the highest +honors of a statesman, I cannot altogether repress a feeling of regret +at not having been similarly able to carve out a career for myself as +a soldier. Perhaps I should have made a poor general, but if I had +been free to follow the bent of my own inclination I would rather have +won battles for your Majesty than diplomatic campaigns." + +It seems clear that both the defects and the greatness of Bismarck's +character are intimately associated with these military leanings of +his. He certainly was overbearing; he could tolerate no opposition; he +was revengeful and unforgiving; he took pleasure in the appeal to +violence; he easily resorted to measures of repression; he requited +insults with counter-insults; he had something of that blind _furor +Teutonicus_ which was the terror of the Italian republics in the +Middle Ages. These are defects of temper which will probably prevent +his name from ever shining with that serene lustre of international +veneration that has surrounded the memory of a Joseph II. or a +Washington with a kind of impersonal immaculateness. But his +countrymen, at least, have every reason to condone these defects; for +they are concomitant results of the military bent of German character, +and they are offset by such transcendent military virtues that we +would almost welcome them as bringing this colossal figure within the +reach of our own frailties and shortcomings. + +Three of the military qualities that made Bismarck great seem to me to +stand out with particular distinctness: his readiness to take the most +tremendous responsibilities, if he could justify his action by the +worth of the cause for which he made himself responsible; his +moderation after success was assured; his unflinching submission to +the dictates of monarchical discipline. + +Moritz Busch has recorded an occurrence, belonging to the autumn of +1877, which most impressively brings before us the tragic grandeur and +the portentous issues of Bismarck's career. It was twilight at Varzin, +and the Chancellor, as was his wont after dinner, was sitting by the +stove in the large back drawing-room. After having sat silent for a +while, gazing straight before him, and feeding the fire now and anon +with fir-cones, he suddenly began to complain that his political +activity had brought him but little satisfaction and few friends. +Nobody loved him for what he had done. He had never made anybody happy +thereby, he said, not himself, nor his family, nor any one else. Some +of those present would not admit this, and suggested "that he had made +a great nation happy." "But," he retorted, "how many have I made +unhappy! But for me three great wars would not have been fought; +eighty thousand men would not have perished; parents, brothers, +sisters, and wives would not have been bereaved and plunged into +mourning.... That matter, however, I have settled with God." "Settled +with God!"--an amazing statement, a statement which would seem the +height of blasphemy if it were not an expression of noblest manliness, +if it did not reveal the soul of a warrior dauntlessly fighting for a +great cause, risking for it the existence of a whole country as well +as his own happiness, peace, and salvation, and being ready to submit +the consequences, whatever they might be, to the tribunal of eternity. +To say that a man who is willing to take such responsibilities as +these makes himself thereby an offender against morality appears to me +tantamount to condemning the Alps as obstructions to traffic. A +people, at any rate, that glories in the achievements of a Luther has +no right to cast a slur upon the motives of a Bismarck. + +Whatever one may think of the worth of the cause for which Bismarck +battled all his life--the unity and greatness of Germany--it is +impossible not to admire the policy of moderation and self-restraint +pursued by him after every one of his most decisive victories. And +here again we note in him the peculiarly German military temper. +German war-songs do not glorify foreign conquest and brilliant +adventure; they glorify dogged resistance and bitter fight for house +and home, for kith and kin. The German army, composed as it is of +millions of peaceful citizens, is essentially a weapon of defense. And +it can truly be said that Bismarck, with all his natural +aggressiveness and ferocity, was in the main a defender, not a +conqueror. He defended Prussia against the intolerable arrogance and +un-German policy of Austria; he defended Germany against French +interference in the work of national consolidation; he defended the +principle of State sovereignty against the encroachments of the +Papacy; he defended the monarchy against the republicanism of the +Liberals and Socialists; and the supreme aim of his foreign policy +after the establishment of the German Empire was to guard the peace of +Europe. + +The third predominant trait of Bismarck's character that stamps him as +a soldier--his unquestioning obedience to monarchical discipline--is +so closely bound up with the peculiarly German conceptions of the +functions and the Purpose of the State, that it will be better to +approach this Part of his nature from the political instead of the +military side. + +II + +In no other of the leading countries of the world has the _laissez +faire_ doctrine had as little influence in political matters as in +Germany. Luther, the fearless champion of religious individualism, +was, in questions of government, the most pronounced advocate of +paternalism. Kant, the cool dissector of the human intellect, was at +the same time the most rigid upholder of corporate morality. It was +Fichte, the ecstatic proclaimer of the glory of the individual will, +who wrote this dithyramb on the necessity of the constant surrender of +private interests to the common welfare: "Nothing can live by itself +or for itself; everything lives in the whole; and the whole +continually sacrifices itself to itself in order to live anew. This is +the law of life. Whatever has come to the consciousness of existence +must fall a victim to the progress of all existence. Only there is a +difference whether you are dragged to the shambles like a beast with +bandaged eyes, or whether, in full and joyous presentiment of the life +which will spring forth from your sacrifice, you offer yourself freely +on the altar of eternity." + +Not even Plato and Aristotle went so far in the deification of the +State as Hegel. And if Hegel declared that the real office of the +State is not to further individual interests, to protect private +property, but to be an embodiment of the organic unity of public life; +if he saw the highest task and the real freedom of the individual in +making himself a part of this organic unity of public life, he voiced +a sentiment which was fully shared by the leading classes of the +Prussia of his time, and which has since become a part of the +political creed of the Socialist masses all over Germany. + +Here we have the moral background of Bismarck's internal policy. His +monarchism rested not only on his personal allegiance to the +hereditary dynasty, although no medieval knight could have been more +steadfast in his loyalty to his liege lord than Bismarck was in his +unswerving devotion to the Hohenzollern house. His monarchism +rested above all on the conviction that, under the present +conditions of German political life, no other form of government would +insure equally well the fulfilment of the moral obligations of the +State. + +[Illustration: PRINCE BISMARCK _From the Painting by Franz von +Lenbach_ COURTESY OF MR. HUGO RESINGER NEW YORK] + +He was by no means blind to the value of parliamentary institutions. +More than once has he described the English Constitution as the +necessary outcome and the fit expression of the vital forces of +English society. More than once has he eulogized the sterling +political qualities of English landlordism, its respect for the law, +its common sense, its noble devotion to national interests. More than +once has he deplored the absence in Germany of "the class which in +England is the main support of the State--the class of wealthy and +therefore conservative gentlemen, independent of material interests, +whose whole education is directed with a view to their becoming +statesmen, and whose only aim in life is to take part in public +affairs"; and the absence of "a Parliament, like the English, +containing two sharply defined parties whereof one forms a sure and +unswerving majority which subjects itself with iron discipline to its +ministerial leaders." We may regret that Bismarck himself did not do +more to develop parliamentary discipline; that, indeed, he did +everything in his power to arrest the healthy growth of German party +life. But it is at least perfectly clear that his reasons for refusing +to allow the German parties a controlling influence in shaping the +policy of the government were not the result of mere despotic caprice, +but were founded upon thoroughly German traditions, and upon a +thoroughly sober, though one-sided, view of the present state of +German public affairs. + +To him party government appeared as much of an impossibility as it had +appeared to Hegel. The attempt to establish it would, in his opinion, +have led to nothing less than chaos. The German parties, as he viewed +them, represented, not the State, not the nation, but an infinite +variety of private and class interests--the interests of landholders, +traders, manufacturers, laborers, politicians, priests, and so on; +each particular set of interests desiring the particular consideration +of the public treasury, and refusing the same amount of consideration +to every other. It seemed highly desirable to him, as it did to Hegel, +that all these interests should be heard; that they should be +represented in a Parliament based upon as wide and liberal a suffrage +as possible. But to intrust any one of these interests with the +functions of government would, in his opinion, have been treason to +the State; it would have been class tyranny of the worst kind. + +The logical outcome of all this was his conviction of the absolute +necessity, for Germany, of a strong non-partisan government: a +government which should hold all the conflicting class interests in +check and force them into continual compromises with one another; a +government which should be unrestricted by any class prejudices, +pledges, or theories, and have no other guiding star than the welfare +of the whole nation. And the only basis for such a government he found +in the Prussian monarchy, with its glorious tradition of military +discipline, of benevolent paternalism, and of self-sacrificing +devotion to national greatness; with its patriotic gentry, its +incorruptible courts, its religious freedom, its enlightened +educational system, its efficient and highly trained civil service. To +bow before such a monarchy, to serve such a State, was indeed +something different from submitting to the chance vote of a +parliamentary majority; in this bondage even a Bismarck could find his +highest freedom. + +For nearly forty years he bore this bondage; for twenty-eight he stood +in the place nearest to the monarch himself; and not even his enemies +dared to assert that his political conduct was guided by other motives +than the consideration of public welfare. Indeed, if there is any +phrase for which he, the apparent cynic, the sworn despiser of +phrases, seems to have had a certain weakness, it is the word _salus +publica_. To it he sacrificed his days and his nights; for it he more +than once risked his life; for it he incurred more hatred and slander +than perhaps any man of his time; for it he alienated his best +friends; for it he turned not once or twice, but one might almost say +habitually, against his own cherished prejudices and convictions. The +career of few men shows so many apparent inconsistencies and +contrasts. One of his earliest speeches in the Prussian Landtag was a +fervent protest against the introduction of civil marriage; yet the +civil marriage clause in the German constitution is his work. He was +by birth and tradition a believer in the divine right of kings; yet +the King of Hanover could tell something of the manner in which +Bismarck dealt with the divine right of kings if it stood in the way +of German unity. He took pride in belonging to the most feudal +aristocracy of western Europe, the Prussian Junkerdom; yet he did more +to uproot feudal privileges than any other German statesman since +1848. He gloried in defying public opinion, and was wont to say that +he felt doubtful about himself whenever he met with popular applause; +yet he is the founder of the German Parliament, and he founded it on +direct and universal suffrage. He was the sworn enemy of the Socialist +party--he attempted to destroy it, root and branch; yet through the +nationalization of railways and the obligatory insurance of workmen he +infused more Socialism into German legislation than any other +statesman before him. + +Truly, a man who could thus sacrifice his own wishes and instincts to +the common good; who could so completely sink his own personality in +the cause of the nation; who with such matchless courage defended this +cause against attacks from whatever quarter--against court intrigue no +less than against demagogues--such a man had a right to stand above +parties; and he spoke the truth when, some years before leaving +office, in a moment of gloom and disappointment he wrote under his +portrait, _Patrice inserviendo consumor_. + +III + +There is a strange, but after all perfectly natural, antithesis in +German national character. The same people that instinctively believes +in political paternalism, that willingly submits to restrictions of +personal liberty in matters of State such as no Englishman would ever +tolerate, is more jealous of its independence than perhaps any other +nation in matters pertaining to the intellectual, social, and +religious life of the individual. It seems as if the very pressure +from without had helped to strengthen and enrich the life within. + +Not only all the great men of German thought, from Luther down to the +Grimms and the Humboldts, have been conspicuous for their freedom from +artificial conventions and for the originality and homeliness of their +human intercourse; but even the average German official--wedded as he +may be to his rank or his title, anxious as he may be to preserve an +outward decorum in exact keeping with the precise shade of his public +status--is often the most delightfully unconventional, good-natured, +unsophisticated, and even erratic being in the world, as soon as he +has left the cares of his office behind him. Germany is the classic +land of queer people. It is the land of Quintus Fixlein, Onkel Braesig, +Leberecht Huehnchen, and the host of _Fliegende Blatter_ worthies; it +is the land of the beer-garden and the Kaffeekranzchen, of the +Christmas-tree and the Whitsuntide merry-making; it is the land of +country inns and of student pranks. What more need be said to bring +before one's mind the wealth of hearty joyfulness, jolly +good-fellowship, boisterous frolic, sturdy humor, simple directness, +and genuinely democratic feeling that characterizes social life in +Germany. + +And still less reason is there for dwelling on the intellectual and +religious independence of German character. Absence of constraint in +scientific inquiry and religious conduct is indeed the very palladium +of German freedom. Nowhere is higher education so entirely removed +from class distinction as in the country where the imperial princes +are sent to the same school with the sons of tradesmen and artisans. +Nowhere is there so little religious formalism, coupled with such deep +religious feeling, as in the country where sermons are preached to +empty benches, while _Tannhauser_ and _Lohengrin, Wallenstein_ and +_Faust_, are listened to with the hush of awe and bated breath by +thousands upon thousands. + +In all these respects--socially, intellectually, religiously--Bismarck +was the very incarnation of German character. Although an aristocrat +by birth and bearing, and although, especially during the years of +early manhood, passionately given over to the aristocratic habits of +dueling, hunting, swaggering and carousing, he was essentially a man +of the people. Nothing was so utterly foreign to him as any form of +libertinism; even his eccentricities were of the hardy, homespun sort. +He was absolutely free from social vanity; he detested court +festivities; he set no store by orders or decorations; the only two +among the innumerable ones conferred upon him which he is said to have +highly valued were the Prussian order of the Iron Cross, bestowed for +personal bravery on the battlefield, and the medal for "rescuing from +danger" which he earned in 1842 for having saved his groom from +drowning by plunging into the water after him. + +All his instincts were bound up with the soil from which he had +sprung. He passionately loved the North German plain, with its gloomy +moorlands, its purple heather, its endless wheatfields, its kingly +forests, its gentle lakes, and its superb sweep of sky and clouds. +Writing to his friends when abroad--he traveled very little abroad--he +was in the habit of describing foreign scenery by comparing it to +familiar views and places on his own estates. During sleepless nights +in the Chancellery at Berlin there would often rise before him a +sudden vision of Varzin, his Pomeranian country-seat, "perfectly +distinct in the minutest particulars, like a great picture with all +its colors fresh--the green trees, the sunshine on the stems, the blue +sky above. I saw every individual tree." Never was he more happy than +when alone with nature. "Saturday," he writes to his wife from +Frankfort, "I drove to Ruedesheim. There I took a boat, rowed out on +the Rhine, and swam in the moonlight, with nothing but nose and eyes +out of water, as far as the Maeuseturm near Bingen, where the bad +bishop came to his end. It gives one a peculiar dreamy sensation to +float thus on a quiet warm night in the water, gently carried down by +the current, looking above on the heavens studded with moon and stars, +and on each side the banks and wooded hilltops and the battlements of +the old castles bathed in the moonlight, whilst nothing falls on one's +ear but the gentle splashing of one's movements. I should like to swim +like this every evening." And what poet has more deeply felt than he +that vague musical longing which seizes one when far away from human +sounds, by the brook-side or the hill-slope? "I feel as if I were +looking out on the mellowing foliage of a fine September day," he +writes again to his wife, "health and spirits good, but with a soft +touch of melancholy, a little homesickness, a longing for deep woods +and lakes, for a desert, for yourself and the children, and all this +mixed up with a sunset and Beethoven." + +His domestic affections were by no means limited to those united to +him by ties of blood; he cherished strong patriarchal feelings for +every member of his household, past or present. He possessed in a high +degree the German tenderness for little things. He never forgot a +service rendered to him, however small. In the midst of the most +engrossing public activity he kept himself informed about the minutest +details of the management of his estates, so that his wife could once +laughingly say that a turnip from his own fields interested him vastly +more than all the problems of international politics. + +His humor, also, was entirely of the German stamp. It was boisterous, +rollicking, aggressive, unsparing--of himself as little as of +others--cynic, immoderate, but never without a touch of good-nature. +His satire was often crushing, never venomous. His wit was racy and +exuberant never equivocal. Whether he describes his _vis-a-vis_ at a +hotel table, his Excellency So-and-So, as "one of those figures which +appear to one when he has the nightmare--a fat frog without legs, who +opens his mouth as wide as his shoulders, like a carpet-bag, for each +bit, so that I am obliged to hold tight on by the table from +giddiness"; whether he characterizes his colleagues at the Frankfort +Bundestag as "mere caricatures of periwig diplomatists, who at once +put on their official visage if I merely beg of them a light to my +cigar, and who study their words and looks with Regensburg care when +they ask for the key of the lavatory"; whether he sums up his +impression of the excited, emotional manner in which Jules Favre +pleaded with him for the peace terms in the words, "He evidently took +me for a public meeting"; whether he declined to look at the statue +erected to him at Cologne, because he "didn't care to see himself +fossilized"; whether he spoke of the unprecedented popular ovations +given to him at his final departure from Berlin as a "first-class +funeral"--there are always the same childlike directness, the same +naive impulsiveness, the same bantering earnestness, the same sublime +contempt for sham and hypocrisy. + +And what man has been more truthful in intellectual and religious +matters? He, the man of iron will, of ferocious temper, was at the +same time the coolest reasoner, the most unbiased thinker. He +willingly submitted to the judgment of experts, he cheerfully +acknowledged intellectual talent in others, he took a pride in having +remained a learner all his life, but he hated arrogant amateurishness. +He was not a church-goer; he declined to be drawn into the circle of +religious schemers and reactionary fanatics; he would occasionally +speak in contemptuous terms of "the creed of court chaplains"; but, +writing to his wife of that historic meeting with Napoleon in the +lonely cottage near the battlefield of Sedan, he said: "A powerful +contrast with our last meeting in the Tuileries in '67. Our +conversation was a difficult thing, if I wanted to avoid touching on +topics which could not but affect painfully the man whom God's mighty +hand had cast down." And more than once has he given vent to +reflections like these: "For him who does not believe--as I do from +the bottom of my heart--that death is a transition from one existence +to another, and that we are justified in holding out to the worst of +criminals in his dying hour the comforting assurance, _mors janua +vitae_--I say that for him who does not share that conviction the joys +of this life must possess so high a value that I could almost envy him +the sensations they must procure him." Or these: "Twenty years hence, +or at most thirty, we shall be past the troubles of this life, whilst +our children will have reached our present standpoint, and will +discover with astonishment that their existence, but now so brightly +begun, has turned the corner and is going down hill. Were that to be +the end of it all, life would not be worth the trouble of dressing and +undressing every day." + +IV + +We have considered a few traits of Bismarck's mental and moral make-up +which seem to be closely allied with German national character and +traditions. But, after all, the personality of a man like Bismarck is +not exhausted by the qualities which he has in common with his people, +however sublimated these qualities may be in him. His innermost life +belongs to himself alone, or is shared, at most, by the few men of the +world's history who, like him, tower in splendid solitude above the +waste of the ages. In the Middle High German _Alexanderlied_ there is +an episode which most impressively brings out the impelling motive of +such titanic lives. On one of his expeditions Alexander penetrates +into the land of Scythian barbarians. These child-like people are so +contented with their simple, primitive existence that they beseech +Alexander to give them immortality. He answers that this is not in his +power. Surprised, they ask why, then, if he is only a mortal, he is +making such a stir in the world. Thereupon he answers: "The Supreme +Power has ordained us to carry out what is in us. The sea is given +over to the whirlwind to plough it up. As long as life lasts and I am +master of my senses, I must bring forth what is in me. What would life +be if all men in the world were like you?" These words might have been +spoken by Bismarck. Every word, every act of his public career, gives +us the impression of a man irresistibly driven on by some +overwhelming, mysterious power. He was not an ambitious schemer, like +Beaconsfield or Napoleon; he was not a moral enthusiast like Gladstone +or Cavour. If he had consulted his private tastes and inclinations, he +would never have wielded the destinies of an empire. Indeed, he often +rebelled against his task; again and again he tried to shake it off; +and the only thing which again and again brought him back to it was +the feeling, "I must; I cannot do otherwise." If ever there was a man +in whom Fate revealed its moral sovereignty, that man was Bismarck. + +Whither has he gone now? Has he joined his compeers? Is he conversing +in ethereal regions with Alexander, Caesar, Frederick? Is he sweeping +over land and sea in the whirlwind and the thunder-cloud? Or may we +hope that he is still working out the task which, in spite of all the +imperiousness of his nature, was the essence of his earthly life--the +task of making the Germans a nation of true freemen? + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 1: From _Glimpses of Modern German Culture_. Permission +Dodd, Mead & Company, New York.] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE LOVE LETTERS OF BISMARCK[2] TRANSLATED UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF +CHARLTON T. LEWIS + + +Hotel de Prusse, Stettin, (Not dated: Written about the end of +December, 1846.) + +TO HERR VON PUTTKAMER: + +_Most Honored Sir_.--I begin this communication by indicating its +content in the first sentence--it is a request for the highest thing +you can dispose of in this world, the hand of your daughter. I do not +conceal from myself the fact that I appear presumptuous when I, whom +you have come to know only recently and through a few meetings, claim +the strongest proof of confidence which you can give to any man. I +know, however, that even irrespective of all obstacles in space and +time which can increase your difficulty in forming an opinion of me, +through my own efforts I can never be in a position to give you such +guaranties for the future that they would, from your point of view, +justify intrusting me with an object so precious, unless you +supplement by trust in God that which trust in human beings cannot +supply. All that I can do is to give you information about myself with +absolute candor, so far as I have come to understand myself. It will +be easy for you to get reports from others in regard to my public +conduct; I content myself, therefore, with an account of what underlay +that--my inner life, and especially my relations to Christianity. To +do that I must take a start far back. + +In earliest childhood I was estranged from my parents' house, and at +no time became entirely at home there again; and my education from the +beginning was conducted on the assumption that everything is +subordinate to the cultivation of the intelligence and the early +acquisition of positive sciences. + +After a course of religious teaching, irregularly attended and not +comprehended, I had at the time of my confirmation by Schleiermacher, +on my sixteenth birthday no belief other than a bare deism, which was +not long free from pantheistic elements. It was at about this time +that I, not through indifference, but after mature consideration, +ceased to pray every evening, as I had been in the habit of doing +since childhood; because prayer seemed inconsistent with my view of +God's nature; saying to myself: either God himself, being omnipresent, +is the cause of everything--even of every thought and volition of +mine--and so in a sense offers prayers to himself through me, or, if +my will is independent of God's will, it implies arrogance and a doubt +as to the inflexibility as well as the perfection of the divine +determination to believe that it can be influenced by human appeals. +When not quite seventeen years old I went to Goettingen University. +During the next eight years I seldom saw the home of my parents; my +father indulgently refrained from interference; my mother censured me +from far away when I neglected my studies and professional work, +probably in the conviction that she must leave the rest to guidance +from above: with this exception I was literally cut off from the +counsel and instruction of others. In this period, when studies which +ambition at times led me to prosecute zealously--or emptiness and +satiety, the inevitable companions of my way of living--brought me +nearer to the real meaning of life and eternity, it was in old-world +philosophies, uncomprehended writings of Hegel, and particularly in +Spinoza's seeming mathematical clearness, that I sought for peace of +mind in that which the human understanding cannot comprehend. But it +was loneliness that first led me to reflect on these things +persistently, when I went to Kniephof, after my mother's death, five +or six years ago. Though at first my views did not materially change +at Kniephof, yet conscience began to be more audible in the solitude, +and to represent that many a thing was wrong which I had before +regarded as permissible. Yet my struggle for insight was still +confined to the circle of the understanding, and led me, while reading +such writings as those of Strauss, Feuerbach, and Bruno Bauer, only +deeper into the blind alley of doubt. + +I was firmly convinced that God has denied to man the possibility of +true knowledge; that it is presumption to claim to understand the will +and plans of the Lord of the World; that the individual must await in +submission the judgment that his Creator will pass upon him in death, +and that the will of God becomes known to us on earth solely through +conscience, which He has given us as a special organ for feeling our +way through the gloom of the world. That I found no peace in these +views I need not say. Many an hour have I spent in disconsolate +depression, thinking that my existence and that of others is +purposeless and unprofitable--perchance only a casual product of +creation, coming and going like dust from rolling wheels. + +About four years ago I came into close companionship, for the first +time since my school-days, with Moritz Blankenburg, and found in him, +what I had never had till then in my life, a friend; but the warm zeal +of his love strove in vain to give me by persuasion and discussion +what I lacked--faith. But through Moritz I made acquaintance with the +Triglaf family and the social circle around it, and found in it people +who made me ashamed that, with the scanty light of my understanding, I +had undertaken to investigate things which such superior intellects +accepted as true and holy with childlike trust. I saw that the members +of this circle were, in their outward life, almost perfect models of +what I wished to be. That confidence and peace dwelt in them did not +surprise me, for I had never doubted that these were companions of +belief; but belief cannot be had for the asking, and I thought I must +wait submissively to see whether it would come to me. I soon felt at +home in that circle, and was conscious of a satisfaction that I had +not before experienced--a family life that included me, almost a home. + +I was meanwhile brought into contact with certain events in which I +was not an active participant, and which, as other people's secrets, I +cannot communicate to you, but which stirred me deeply. Their +practical result was that the consciousness of the shallowness and +worthlessness of my aim in life became more vivid than ever. Through +the advice of others, and through my own impulse, I was brought to the +point of reading the Scriptures more consecutively and with resolute +restraint, sometimes, of my own judgment. That which stirred within me +came to life when the news of the fatal illness of our late friend in +Cardemin tore the first ardent prayer from my heart, without subtle +questionings as to its reasonableness. God did not grant my prayer on +that occasion; neither did He utterly reject it, for I have never +again lost the capacity to bring my requests to Him, and I feel within +me, if not peace, at least confidence and courage such as I never knew +before. + +I do not know what value you will attach to this emotion, which my +heart has felt for only two months; I only hope that it may not be +lost, whatever your decision in regard to me may be--a hope of which I +could give you no better assurance than by undeviating frankness and +loyalty in that which I have now disclosed to you, and to no one else +hitherto, with the conviction that God favors the sincere. + +I refrain from any assurance of my feelings and purposes with +reference to your daughter, for the step I am taking speaks of them +louder and more eloquently than words can. So, too, no promises for +the future would be of service to you, since you know the +untrustworthiness of the human heart better than I, and the only +security I offer for the welfare of your daughter lies in my prayer +for God's blessing. As a matter of history I would only observe that, +after I had seen fraeulein Johanna repeatedly in Cardemin, after the +trip we made together this summer, I have only been in doubt as to +whether the attainment of my desires would be reconcilable with the +happiness and peace of your daughter, and whether my self-confidence +was not greater than my ability when I believed that she could find in +me what she would have a right to look for in her husband. Very +recently, however, together with my reliance on God's grace, the +resolution which I now carry out has also become fixed in me, and I +kept silent when I saw you in Zimmerhausen only because I had more to +say than I could express in conversation. In view of the importance of +the matter and the great sacrifice which it will involve for you and +your wife in separation from your daughter, I can scarcely hope that +you will give a favorable decision at once, and only beg that you will +not refuse me an opportunity for explanation upon any considerations +which might dispose you to reject my suit, before you utter a positive +refusal. + +There is doubtless a great deal that I have not said, or not said +fully enough, in this letter, and I am, of course, ready to give you +exact and faithful information as to everything you may desire to +know; I think I have told what is most important. + +I beg you to convey to your wife my respectful compliments, and to +accept kindly the assurance of my love and esteem. + +BISMARCK. + + +Schoenhausen, February 1, '47. + +I had only waited for daylight to write you, my dear heart, and with +the light came your little green spirit-lamp to make my lukewarm water +seethe--though this time it found it ready to boil over. Your pity for +my restless nights at present is premature, but I shall give you +credit for it. The Elbe still lies turbid and growling in her +ice-bonds: the spring's summons to burst them is not yet loud enough +for her. I say to the weather: "If you would only be cold or warm! But +you stay continually at freezing-point, and at this rate the matter +may long drag on." For the present my activity is limited to sending +out, far and wide, from the warm seat at the writing-table, diverse +conjurations, whose magic starts quantities of fascines, boards, +wheelbarrows, etc., from inland towards the Elbe, perchance to serve +as a prosaic dam in restraint of the poetical foaming of the flood. +After I had spent the morning in this useful rather than agreeable +correspondence, my resolve was to chat away comfortably through the +evening with you, beloved one, as though we were sitting on the sofa +in the red drawing-room; and with sympathetic attention to my desire +the mail kept for my enjoyment precisely at this gossiping hour your +letter, which I should have received by good rights day before +yesterday. You know, if you were able to decipher my inexcusably +scrawled note [3] from Schlawe, how I struck a half-drunken crowd of +hussar officers there, who disturbed me in my writing. In the train +I had, with my usual bad luck, a lady _vis-a-vis,_ and beside me two +very stout, heavily fur-clad passengers, the nearer of whom was a +direct descendant of Abraham into the bargain, and put me in a bitter +humor against all his race by a disagreeable movement of his left +elbow. + +I found my brother in his dressing-gown, and he employed the five +minutes of our interview very completely, according to his habit, in +emptying a woolsack full of vexatious news about Kniephof before me: +disorderly inspectors, a lot of damaged sheep, distillers drunk every +day, thoroughbred colts (the prettiest, of course) come to grief, and +rotten potatoes, fell in a rolling torrent from his obligingly opened +mouth upon my somewhat travel-worn self. On my brother's account I +must affect and utter some exclamations of terror and complaint, for +my indifferent manner on receiving news of misfortune vexes him, and +as long as I do not express surprise he has ever new and still worse +news in stock. This time he attained his object, at least in my inner +man, and when I took my seat next to the Jewish elbow in green fur I +was in a right bad humor; especially the colt distressed me--an animal +as pretty as a picture and three years old. + +Not before getting out of doors did I become conscious of the +ingratitude of my heart, and the thought of the unmerited happiness +that had become mine a fortnight earlier again won the mastery in me. +In Stettin I found drinking, gambling friends. William Ramin took +occasion to say, _apropos_ of a remark about reading the Bible, "Tut! +In Reinfeld I'd speak like that, too, if I were in your place, but to +believe you can impose on your oldest acquaintances is amusing." I +found my sister very well and full of joy about you and me. She wrote +to you, I think, before she received your letter. Arnim is full of +anxiety lest I become "pious." He kept looking at me all the time +earnestly and thoughtfully, with sympathetic concern, as one looks at +a dear friend whom one would like to save and yet almost gives up for +lost. I have seldom seen him so tender. Very clever people have a +curious manner of viewing the world. In the evening (I hope you did +not write so late) I drank your health in the foaming grape-juice of +Sillery, in company with half a dozen Silesian counts, Schaffgotsch +and others, at the Hotel de Rome, and convinced myself Friday morning +that the ice on the Elbe was still strong enough to bear my horse's +weight, and that, so far as the freshet was concerned, I might today +be still at your blue or black side[4] if other current official +engagements had not also claimed my presence. Snow has fallen very +industriously all day long, and the country is white once more, +without severe cold. When I arrived it was all free from snow on this +side of Brandenburg; the air was warm and the people were ploughing; +it was as though I had traveled out of winter into opening spring, and +yet within me the short springtime had changed to winter, for the +nearer I came to Schoenhausen the more oppressive I found the thought +of entering upon the old loneliness once more, for who knows how long. +Pictures of a wasted past arose in me as though they would banish me +from you. I was on the verge of tears, as when, after a school +vacation, I caught sight of Berlin's towers from the train. + +The comparison of my situation with that in which I was on the 10th, +when I traveled the same line in the opposite direction; the +conviction that my solitude was, strictly speaking, voluntary, and +that I could at any time, albeit through a resolve smacking of +insubordination and a forty hours' journey, put an end to it, made me +see once more that my heart is ungrateful, dismayed, and resentful; +for soon I said to myself, in the comfortable fashion of the accepted +lover, that even here I am no longer lonely, and I was happy in the +consciousness of being loved by you, my angel, and, in return for the +gift of your love, of belonging to you, not merely in vassalage, but +with my inmost heart. On reaching the village I felt more distinctly +than ever before what a beautiful thing it is to have a home--a home +with which one is identified by birth, memory, and love. The sun shone +bright on the stately houses of the villagers, and their portly +inmates in long coats and the gayly dressed women in short skirts gave +me a much more friendly greeting than usual; on every face there +seemed to be a wish for my happiness, which I invariably converted +into thanks to you. Gray-haired Bellin's[5] fat face wore a broad +smile, and the trusty old soul shed tears as he patted me paternally +on the back and expressed his satisfaction; his wife, of course, wept +most violently; even Odin was more demonstrative than usual, and his +paw on my coat-collar proved incontestably that it was muddy weather. +Half an hour later Miss Breeze was galloping with me on the Elbe, +manifestly proud to carry your affianced, for never before did she so +scornfully smite the earth with her hoof. Fortunately you cannot +judge, my heart, in what a mood of dreary dulness I used to reenter my +house after a journey; what depression overmastered me when the door +of my room yawned at me and the mute furniture in the silent +apartments confronted me, bored like myself. The emptiness of my +existence was never clearer to me than in such moments, until I seized +a book--though none of them was sad enough for me--or mechanically +engaged in any routine work. + +My preference was to come home at night, so that I could go to sleep +immediately.[6] Ach, Gott!--and now? What a different view I take of +everything--not merely that which concerns you as well, and because it +concerns you, or will concern you also (although I have been bothering +myself for two days with the question where your writing-desk will +stand), but my whole view of life is a new one, and I am cheerful and +interested even in my work on the dike and police matters. This +change, this new life, I owe, next to God, to you, _ma tres chere, mon +adoree Jeanneton_--to you who do not heat me occasionally, like an +alcohol flame, but work in my heart like warming fire. Some one is +knocking. + +Visit from the co-director, who complains of the people who will not +pay their school taxes. The man asks me whether my _fiancee_ is tall. + +"Oh yes; rather." + +"Well, an acquaintance of mine saw you last summer with several ladies +in the Harz Mountains, and you preferred to converse with the tallest, +that must have been your _fiancee_." + +The tallest woman in your party was, I fancy, Frau von Mittelstaedt. +* * * The Harz! The Harz! + +After a thorough consultation with Frau Bellin, I have decided to make +no special changes here for the present, but to wait until we can hear +the wishes of the lady of the house in the matter, so that we may have +nothing to be sorry for. In six months I hope we shall know what we +have to do. + +It is impossible as yet to say anything definite about our next meeting. +Just now it is raining; if that continues the Elbe may be played out in +a week or two, and then. * * * Still no news whatever about the Landtag. +Most cordial greetings and assurances of my love to your parents, and +the former--the latter, too, if you like--to all your cousins, women +friends, etc. What have you done with Aennchen?[7] My forgetting the +Versin letters disturbs me; I did not mean to make such a bad job of it. +Have they been found Farewell, my treasure, my heart, consolation of my +eyes. + +Your faithful BISMARCK. + + +Another picture, a description of a storm in the Alps, which catches +my eye as I turn over the pages of the book, and pleases me much: + + "The sky is changed, and such a change! O night, + And storm, and darkness, ye are wondrous strong, + Yet lovely in your strength, as is the light + Of a dark eye in woman! Far along + From peak to peak, the rattling crags among, + Leaps the live thunder; not from one lone cloud, + But every mountain now has found a tongue, + And Jura answers through her misty shroud-- + Back to the joyous Alps, who call to her aloud. + + And this is in the night:--most glorious night! + Thou wert not sent for slumber! let me be + A sharer in thy fierce and fair delight-- + A portion of the tempest and of thee! + How the lit lake shines, a phosphoric sea, + And the big rain comes dancing to the earth! + And now again 'tis black, and now the glee + Of the loud hills shakes with its mountain-mirth, + As if they did rejoice o'er a young earthquake's birth." + +On such a night the suggestion comes uncommonly near to me that I wish +to be _a sharer in the delight, a portion of tempest, of night_;[8] +mounted on a runaway horse, to dash down the cliffs into the falls of +the Rhine, or something similar. A pleasure of that kind, +unfortunately, one can enjoy but once in this life. There is something +intoxicating in nocturnal storms. Your nights, dearest, I hope you +regard, however, as _sent for slumber, not for writing_.[9] I see with +regret that I write English still more illegibly than German. Once +more, farewell, my heart. Tomorrow noon I am invited to be the guest +of Frau Brauchitsch, presumably so that I may be duly and thoroughly +questioned about you and yours. I'll tell them as much as I please. +_Je t'embrasse mille fois._ + +Your own + +B. + + +Schoenhausen, February 7, '47. + +_My Heart_,--Just returned through a wild, drifting snow-storm from an +appointment (which unfortunately was occasioned by the burning out of a +poor family). I have warmed myself at your dear letter; in the twilight, +even, I recognized your "Right honorable." All my limbs are twitching +with eagerness to be off to Berlin again today, and to characterize the +dikes and floods in terms of the unutterable Poberow[10] dialect. The +inexorable thermometer stands at 2 below freezing-point, accompanied +with howling wind and large flakes, as though it would soon rain. What +is duty! Compare Falstaff's expressions touching honor. At any rate, I +shall write you straightway, even if I ruin myself in postage, and no +sensible thoughts find their way through the debris of the fire that +still has possession of my imagination. After reading your last remark I +have just lit my cigar and stirred the ink. First, like a business-man, +to answer your letter. I begin with a request smacking of the official +desk--namely, that when you write you will, if you please, expressly +state what letters you have received from me, giving their dates; +otherwise one is uncertain as to the regular forwarding of them, as I am +in doubt whether you have received my first letter, which I wrote the +day of my arrival here, while on a business trip, in Jerichow, if I +mistake not, on very bad paper, Friday, the 29th of January. I am very +thankful that you do not write in the evening, my love, even if I am +myself to suffer thereby. Every future glance into your gray-blue-black +eye with its large pupil will compensate me for possibly delayed or +shortened letters. + +If I could only dream of you when you do of me! But recently I do not +dream at all--shockingly healthy and prosaic; or does my soul fly to +Reinfeld in the night and associate with yours? In that case it can +certainly not dream here; but it ought to tell about its journey in +the morning, whereas the wayward thing is as silent about its +nocturnal employments as though it, too, slept like a badger. + +Your reminder of the bore, Fritz, with the letter-pouch transports me +to Reinfeld and makes me long still more eagerly for the time when I +can once again hug my black Jeannette for my good-morning at the desk. +About the letter with the strange address, _evidently_ in a woman's +hand, I should like to tell you a romantic story, but I must destroy +every illusion with the explanation that it comes from a man who used +to be a friend of mine, who, if I do not mistake, once in Kniephof +took a copy of an Italian address that I received. Again a curtain +behind which one fancies there is all the poetry in the world, and +finds the flattest prose. (I once saw in Aix-la-Chapelle, while +strolling about the stage, the Princess of Eboli, after I had just +spent my sympathy upon her as she lay overwhelmed and fainting at the +queen's feet in one of the scenes, eating bread and butter and +cracking bad jokes behind the scenes.) That cousin Woedtke is fond of +me, and that the Versin sausage and letter affair is all right, I am +glad to learn. + +I need not assure you that I have the most heartfelt sympathy for the +sufferings of your good mother; I hope rest and summer will affect her +health favorably, and that she will recover after a while, with the +joy of seeing her children happy. When she is here she shall not have +any steps to go up to reach you, and shall live directly next to you. + +Why do you wear mournful black in dress and heart, my angel? +Cultivate the green of hope that today made right joyous revelry in me +at sight of its external image, when the gardener placed the first +messengers of spring, hyacinths and crocus, on my window-ledge. _Et +dis-moi donc, pourquoi es-tu paresseuse? Pourquoi ne fais-tu pas de +musique?_ I fancied you playing _c-dur_ when the hollow, melting wind +howls through the dry twigs of the lindens, and _d-moll_ when the +snow-flakes chase in fantastic whirls around the corners of the old +tower, and, after their desperation is spent, cover the graves with +their winding-sheet. Oh, were I but Keudell, I'd play now all day +long, and the tones would bear me over the Oder, Rega, Persante, +Wipper--I know not whither. _A propos de paresse_, I am going to +permit myself to make one more request of you, but with a preface. +When I ask you for anything I add (do not take it for blasphemy or +mockery) thy will be done--_your_ will, I mean; and I do not love you +less, nor am I vexed with you for a second if you do not fulfil my +request. I love you as you are, and as you choose to be. After I have, +by way of preface, said so much with inmost, unadorned truth, without +hypocrisy or flattery, I beg you to pay some attention to French--not +much, but somewhat--by reading French things that interest you, and, +what is not clear to you, make it clear with the dictionary. If it +bores you, stop it; but, lest it bore you, try it with books that +interest you, whatever they may be--romances or anything else. I do +not know your mother's views on such reading, but in my opinion there +is nothing that you cannot read to yourself. I do not ask this for my +own sake, for we will understand each other in our mother tongue, but +in your intercourse with the world you will not seldom find occasions +when it will be disagreeable or even mortifying if you are unfamiliar +with French. I do not know, indeed, to what degree this is true of +you, but reading is in any case a way to keep what you have and to +acquire more. If it pleases you, we shall find a way for you to become +more fluent in talking, than, as you say, you are now. If you do not +like it, rely with entire confidence on the preface to my request. + +I wrote to poor Moritz yesterday, and, after reading your description +of his sadness, my letter lies like a stone on my conscience, for, +like a heartless egotist, I mocked his pain by describing my +happiness, and in five pages did not refer to his mourning by even a +syllable, speaking of myself again and again, and using him as +father-confessor. He is an awkward comforter who does not himself feel +pain sympathetically, or not vividly enough. My first grief was the +passionate, selfish one at the loss I had sustained; for Marie,[11] so +far as she is concerned, I do not feel it, because I know that she is +well provided for, but that my sympathy with the suffering of my +warmest friend, to whom I owe eternal thanks, is not strong enough to +produce a word of comfort, of strong consolation from overflowing +feeling, that burdens me sorely. Weep not, my angel; let your sympathy +be strong and full of confidence in God; give him real consolation +with encouragement, not with tears, and, if you can, doubly, for +yourself and for your thankless friend whose heart is just now filled +with you and has room for nothing else. Are you a withered leaf, a +faded garment? I will see whether my love can foster the verdure once +more, can brighten up the colors. You must put forth fresh leaves, and +the old ones I shall lay between the pages of the book of my heart so +that we may find them when we read there, as tokens of fond +recollection. You have fanned to life again the coal that under ashes +and debris still glowed in me; it shall envelop you in life-giving +flames. + +_Le souper est servi_, the evening is gone, and I have done nothing +but chat with you and smoke: is that not becoming employment for the +dike-captain? Why not? + +A mysterious letter from ---- lies before me. He writes in a tone new +for him; admits that he perceives that he did many a wrong to his first +wife; did not always rightly guide and bear with her weakness; was no +prop to the "child," and believes himself absolved by this severe +castigation. _Qu'est-ce qu'il me chante_? Has the letter undergone +transformation in the Christian climate of Reinfeld, or did it leave the +hand of this once shallow buffoon in its present form? He asserts, +moreover, that he lives in a never dreamed of happiness with his present +wife, whose acquaintance he made a week before the engagement, and whom +he married six weeks after the same event: a happiness which his first +marriage has taught him rightly to prize. Do you know the story of the +French tiler who falls from the roof, and, in passing the second story, +cries out, "_Ca va bien, pourvu que ca dure_?" Think, only, if we had +been betrothed on the 12th of October '44, and, on November 23d, had +married: What anxiety for mamma! + +The English poems of mortal misery trouble me no more now; that was of +old, when I looked out into nothing--cold and stiff, snow-drifts in my +heart. Now a black cat plays with it in the sunshine, as though with a +rolling skein, and I like to see its rolling. I will give you, at the +end of this letter, a few more verses belonging to that period, of +which fragmentary copies are still preserved, as I see, in my +portfolio. You may allow me to read them still; they harm me no more. +_Thine eyes have still (and will always have) a charm for me_.[12] +Please write me in your next letter about the uncertain +marriage-plans. I believe, _by Jove!_[12] that the matter is becoming +serious. Until the day is fixed, it still seems to me as though we had +been dreaming; or have I really passed a fortnight in Reinfeld, and +held you in these arms of mine? Has Finette been found again? Do you +remember our conversation when we went out with her in leash--when +you, little rogue, said you would have "given me the mitten" had not +God taken pity on me and permitted me at least a peep through the +keyhole of His door of mercy! That came into my mind when I was +reading I Cor. vii. 13 and 14 yesterday. + +[Illustration: PRINCE BISMARCK FRANZ VON LENBACH] + +A commentator says of the passage that, in all relations of life, +Christ regards the kingdom of God as the more powerful, victorious, +finally overcoming all opposition, and the kingdom of darkness as +powerless, falling in ruins ever more and more. Yet, how do most +of you have so little confidence in your faith, and wrap it carefully +in the cotton of isolation, lest it take cold from any draught of +the world; while others are vexed with you, and proclaim that you +are people who esteem yourselves too holy to come into contact +with publicans, etc. If every one should think so who believes he +has found truth--and many serious, upright, humble seekers do believe +they find it elsewhere, or in another form--what a Pennsylvania +solitary-confinement prison would God's beautiful earth become, +divided up into thousands and thousands of exclusive coteries by +insuperable partitions! Compare, also, Rom. xiv. 22 and xv. 2; also, +particularly, I Cor. iv. 5; viii. 2; ix. 20; also xii. 4 and the +following; further, xiii. 2; all in the First Ep. to the Cor., which +seems to me to apply to the subject. We talked, during that walk, or +another one, a great deal about "the sanctity of doing good works." I +will not inundate you with Scripture passages in this connection, but +only tell you how splendid I find the Epistle of James. (Matt. xxv. 34 +and following; Rom. ii. 6; II Cor. v. 10; Rom. ii. 13; I Epistle of +John iii. 7, and countless others.) It is, indeed, unprofitable to +base arguments upon separate passages of Scripture apart from their +connection; but there are many who are honestly striving, and who +attach more importance to passages like James ii. 14 than to Mark xvi. +16, and for the latter passage offer expositions, holding them to be +correct, which do not literally agree with yours. To what +interpretation does the word "faith" not lend itself, both when taken +alone and in connection with that which the Scriptures command us "to +believe," in every single instance where they employ the word! Against +my will, I fall into spiritual discussion and controversies. Among +Catholics the Bible is read not at all, or with great precaution, by +the laity; it is expounded only by the priests, who have concerned +themselves all their lives with the study of the original sources. In +the end, all depends upon the interpretation. Concert in Buetow amuses +me: the idea of Buetow is, to my mind, the opposite of all music. + +I have been quite garrulous, have I not? Now I must disturb some +document-dust, and sharpen my pen afresh to the police-official style, +for the president of the provincial court and the government. Could I +but enclose myself herewith, or go along in a salmon-basket as +mail-matter! Till we meet again, _dearest black one_.[13] I love you, +_c'est tout dire_. + +BISMARCK. + +(I am forgetting the English verses): + + "Sad dreams, as when the spirit of our youth + Returns in sleep, sparkling with all the truth + And innocence, once ours, and leads us back + In mournful mockery over the shining track + Of our young life, and points out every ray + Of hope and peace we've lost upon the way!" + +By Moore, I think; perhaps Byron. + + "Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow + Creeps in this petty pace from day to day, + To the last syllable of recorded time; + And all our yesterdays have lighted fools + The way to dusty death. Out, out, brief candle! + Life's but a walking shadow, a poor player + That struts and frets his hour upon the stage, + And then is heard no more: it is a tale + Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, + Signifying nothing." + +Cordial remembrances to your parents and the Reddentin folk. + + +Schoenhausen, February 23, '47. + +_My Angel!_--I shall not send this letter on its way tomorrow, it's +true, but I do want to make use of the few unoccupied minutes left me +to satisfy the need I am conscious of every hour, to communicate with +you, and forthwith to compose a "Sunday letter" to you once more. +Today I have been "on the move" all day long. "The Moorish king rode +up and down," unfortunately not "through Granada's royal town," but +between Havelberg and Jerichow, on foot, in a carriage, and on +horseback, and got mighty cold doing so--because, after the warm +weather of the last few days, I had not made the slightest preparation +to encounter five degrees below freezing, with a cutting north wind, +and was too much in haste or too lazy to mount the stairs again when I +noticed the fresh air. During the night it had been quite endurable +and superb moonlight. A beautiful spectacle it was, too, when the +great fields of ice first set themselves massively in motion, with +explosions like cannon-shots, shattering themselves against one +another; they rear, shoving over and under each other; they pile up +house-high, and sometimes build dams obliquely across the Elbe, in +front of which the pent stream rises until it breaks through them with +rage. Now are they all broken to pieces in the battle--the giants--and +the water very thickly covered with ice-cakes, the largest of which +measure several square rods, which it bears out to the free sea like +shattered chains, with grumbling, clashing noises. This will go on so +for about three days more, until the ice that comes from Bohemia, +which passed the bridge at Dresden several days ago, has gone by. (The +danger is that the ice-cakes by jamming together may make a dam, and +the stream rise in front of this--often ten to fifteen feet in a few +hours.) Then comes the freshet from the mountains which floods the bed +of the Elbe, often a mile in width, and is dangerous in itself, owing +to its volume. How long that is to last we cannot tell beforehand. The +prevailing cold weather, combined with the contrary sea wind, will +certainly retard it. It may easily last so long that it will not be +worth while to go to Reinfeld before the 20th. If only eight days +should be left me, would you have me undertake it, nevertheless?--or +will you wait to have me without interruption after the 20th, or +perhaps 18th? It is true that _fiance_ and dike-captain are almost +incompatible; but were I not the latter, I have not the slightest idea +who would be. The revenues of the office are small, and the duties +sometimes laborious; the gentlemen of the neighborhood, however, are +deeply concerned, and yet without public spirit. And even if one +should be discovered who would undertake it for the sake of the title, +which is, strange to say, much desired in these parts, yet there is no +one here (may God forgive me the offence) who would not be either +unfit for the business or faint-hearted. A fine opinion, you will +think, I have of myself, that I only am none of this; but I assert +with all of my native modesty that I have all these faults in less +degree than the others in this part of the country--which is, in fact, +not saying much. + +I have not yet been able to write to Moritz, and yet I must send +something to which he can reply, inasmuch as my former letter has not +as yet brought a sign of life. Or have you crowded me out of his +heart, and do you fill it alone? The little pale-faced child is not in +danger, I hope. That is a possibility in view of which I am terrified +whenever I think of it--that as a crowning misfortune of our most +afflicted friend, this thread of connection with Marie might be +severed. But she will soon be a year and a half old, you know; she has +passed the most dangerous period for children. Will you mope and talk +of warm hands and cold love if I pay a visit to Moritz on my next +journey, instead of flying to Reinfeld without a pause as is required +of a loving youth? + +That you are getting pale, my heart, distresses me. Do you feel well +otherwise, physically, and of good courage? Give me a bulletin of your +condition, your appetite, your sleep. I am surprised also that Hedwig +Dewitz has written to you--such a heterogeneous nature, that can have +so little in common with you. She was educated with my sister for +several years in Kniephof, although she was four or five years the +elder of the two. Either she loves you--which I should find quite easy +to explain--or has other prosaic intentions. I fancy that she, as is +quite natural, does not feel at home in her father's house; she has, +therefore, always made her home with others for long periods and with +satisfaction. + +In your letter which lies before me I come upon "self-control" again. +That is a fine acquisition for one who may profit by it, but surely to +be distinguished from compulsion. It is praiseworthy and amiable to +wean one's self from tasteless or provoking outbursts of feeling, or +to give to them a more ingratiating form; but I call it +self-constraint--which makes one sick at heart--when one stifles his +own feelings in himself. In social intercourse one may practise it, +but not we two between ourselves. If there be tares in the field of +our heart, we will mutually exert ourselves so to dispose of them that +their seed cannot spring up; but, if it does, we will openly pull it +up, but not cover it artificially with straw and hide it--that harms +the wheat and does not injure the tares. Your thought was, I take it, +to pull them up unaided, without paining me by the sight of them; but +let us be in this also one heart and one flesh, even if your little +thistles sometimes prick my fingers. Do not turn your back on them nor +conceal them from me. You will not always take pleasure in my big +thorns, either--so big that I cannot hide them; and we must pull at +them both together, even though our hands bleed. Moreover, thorns +sometimes bear very lovely flowers, and if yours bear roses we may +perhaps let them alone sometimes. "The best is foe to the good"--in +general, a very true saying; so do not have too many misgivings about +all your tares, which I have not yet discovered, and leave at least a +sample of them for me. With this exhortation, so full of unction, I +will go to sleep, although it has just struck ten, for last night +there was little of it; the unaccustomed physical exercise has used me +up a bit, and tomorrow I am to be in the saddle again before daylight. +Very, very tired am I, like a child. + + +Schoenhausen, March 14, 1847. + +_Jeanne la Mechante!_--What is the meaning of this? A whole week has +passed since I heard a syllable from you, and today I seized the +confused mass of letters with genuine impatience--seven official +communications, a bill, two invitations, one of which is for a theatre +and ball at Greifenberg, but not a trace of Zuckers (the Reinfeld +post-office) and "Hochwohlgeboren." [14] I could not believe my eyes, and +had to look through the letters twice; then I set my hat quite on my +right ear and took a two hours' walk on the highway in the rain, without +a cigar, assailed by the most conflicting sentiments--"a prey to violent +emotions," as we are accustomed to say in romances. I have got used to +receiving my two letters from you regularly every week, and when once we +have acquired the habit of a thing we look upon that as our well-won +right, an injury to which enrages us. If I only knew against whom I +should direct my wrath--against Boege, against the post-office, or +against you, _la chatte la plus noire_, inside and out. And why don't +you write? Are you so exhausted with the effort you made in sending two +letters at a time on Friday of last week? Ten days have gone by since +then--time enough to rest yourself. Or do you want to let me writhe, +while you feast your eyes on my anxiety, tigress! after speaking to me +in your last letters about scarlet and nervous fevers, and after I had +laid such stress on my maxim of never believing in anything bad before +it forces itself upon me as incontestable? We adhere firmly to our +maxims only so long as they are not put to the test; when that happens +we throw them away, as the peasant did his slippers, and run off on the +legs that nature gave us. If you have the disposition to try the virtue +of my maxims, then I shall never again give utterance to any of them, +lest I be caught lying; for the fact is that I do really feel somewhat +anxious. With fevers in Reddis, to let ten days pass without writing is +very horrible of you, if you are well. Or can it be that you did not +receive on Thursday, as usual, my letter that I mailed on Tuesday in +Magdeburg, and, in your indignation at this, resolved not to write to me +for another week? If _that_ is the state of affairs, I can't yet make up +my mind whether to scold or laugh at you. The worst of it now is that, +unless some lucky chance brings a letter from you directly to Stolp, I +shall not have any before Thursday, for, as I remember it, there is no +mail leaving you Saturday and Sunday, and I should have received +Friday's today. If you have not sworn off writing altogether and wish to +reply to this letter, address me at Naugard. * * * + +Had another visitor, and he stayed to supper and well into the +night--my neighbor, the town-counsellor Gaertner. People think they +must call on each other Sunday evening, and can have nothing else to +do. Now that all is quiet in the night, I am really quite disturbed +about you and your silence, and my imagination, or, if not that, then +the being whom you do not like to have me name, shows me with scornful +zeal pictures of everything that _could_ happen. Johanna, if you were +to fall sick now, it would be terrible beyond description. At the +thought of it, I fully realize how deeply I love you, and how deeply +the bond that unites us has grown into me. I understand what you call +loving much. When I think of the possibility of separation--and +possible it is still--I should never have been so lonely in all my +dreary, lonely life. + +What would Moritz's situation be, compared with that?--for he has a +child, a father, a sister, dear and intimate friends in the +neighborhood. I have no one within forty miles with whom I should be +tempted to talk more than that which politeness demands; only a +sister--but a happily married one with children is really one no +longer, at least for a brother who is single. For the first time I am +looking the possibility straight in the eyes that you might be taken +away from me, that I might be condemned to inhabit these empty rooms +without a prospect of your sharing them with me, with not a soul in +all the surrounding region who would not be as indifferent to me as +though I had never seen him. I should, indeed, not be so devoid to +comfort in myself as of old, but I should also have lost something +that I used not to know--a loving and beloved heart, and at the same +time be separated from all that which used to make life easy in +Pomerania through habit and friendship. A very egotistical line of +thought and way of looking at things this discloses, you will say. +Certainly, but Pain and Fear are egotists, and, in cases like that +referred to, I never think the deceased, but only the survivors, are +to be pitied. But who speaks of dying? All this because you have not +written for a week; and then I have the assurance to lecture you for +gloomy forebodings, etc.! If you had only not spoken of the deadly +fevers in your last letter. In the evening I am always excited, in the +loneliness, when I am not tired. Tomorrow, in bright daylight, in the +railway carriage, I shall perhaps grasp your possible situation with +greater confidence. + +Be rejoicing in hope, patient in tribulation, continuing instant in +prayer. All the angels will guard you, my beloved heart, so that we +shall soon meet again with joy. Farewell, and salute your parents. I +wrote your father this morning. Your faithful BISMARCK. + + +Berlin, Friday, May 15, '47. + +_Dear Heart_,--Your father gave me your letter this morning at the +session, and in consequence I hardly know what subject was discussed, +or, at least, lacked energy to form a clear, conscious conception of +it. My thoughts were in Reinfeld and my heart full to overflowing of +care. I am submissive in all that may happen, but I cannot say that I +should be submissive with gladness. The chords of my soul become +relaxed and toneless when I think of all possibilities. I am not, +indeed, of that self-afflicting sort that carefully and artfully +destroys its own hope and constructs fear, and I do not believe that +it is God's will to separate us now--for every reason I cannot believe +it; but I know that you are suffering, and I am not with you, and yet +if I were there, I could perhaps contribute something to your +tranquillity, to your serenity, were it only that I should ride with +you--for you have no one else for that. It is so contrary to all my +views of gallantry, not to speak of my sentiments for you, that any +power whatever should keep me here when I know that you are suffering +and I could help and relieve you; and I am still at war with myself to +determine what my duty is before God and man. If I am not sooner +there, then it is fairly certain that I shall arrive in Reinfeld with +your father at Whitsuntide, probably a week from tomorrow. The cause +of your illness may lie deeper, or perhaps it is only that the odious +Spanish flies have affected you too powerfully. Who is this second +doctor you have called in? The frequent changing of doctors, and, on +one's own authority, using between-times all sorts of household +remedies, or remedies prescribed for others, I consider very bad and +wrong. Choose one of the local doctors in whom you have the most +confidence, but keep to him, too; do what he prescribes and nothing +else, nothing arbitrary; and, if you have not confidence in any of the +local men, we will both try to carry through the plan of bringing you +here, so that you may have thorough treatment under the direction of +Breiers, or some one else. The conduct of your parents in regard to +medical assistance, the obstinate refusal of your father, and, allied +to that, your mother's arbitrary changing and fixed prejudices, in +matters which neither of them understand, seem to me, between +ourselves, indefensible. He to whom God has intrusted a child, and an +only child at that, must employ for her preservation all the means +that God has made available, and not become careless of them through +fatalism or self-sufficiency. If writing tires you, ask your mother to +send us news. Moreover, it would seem to me very desirable if one of +your friends could be prevailed upon to go to you until you are +better. Whether a doctor can help you or not--forgive me, but you +cannot judge of that by your feelings. God's help is certainly +decisive, but it is just He who has given us medicine and physician +that, through them, His aid may reach us; and to decline it in this +form is to tempt Him, as though the sailor at sea should deprive +himself of a helmsman, with the idea that God alone can and will give +aid. If He does _not_ help us through the means He has placed within +our reach, then there is nothing left to do but to bow in silence +under His hand. If you should be able to come to Zimmerhausen after +Whitsuntide, please write to that effect beforehand if possible. If +your illness should become more serious, I shall certainly leave the +Landtag, and even if you are confined to your bed I shall be with you. +At such a moment I shall not let myself be restrained by such +questions of etiquette--that is my fixed resolve. You may be sure of +this, that I have long been helping you pray that the Lord may free +you from useless despondency and bestow upon you a heart cheerful and +submissive to God--and upon me, also; and I have the firm confidence +that He will grant our requests and guide us both in the paths that +lead to Him. Even though yours may often go to the left around the +mountain, and mine to the right, yet they will meet beyond. + +The salt water has already gone from here. If you are too weak for +riding, then take a drive every day. When you are writing to me, and +begin to feel badly in the least, stop immediately; give me only a +short bulletin of your health, even if it is but three lines, for, +thank Heaven, words can be dispensed with between us--they cannot add +or take away anything, since our hearts look into each other, eye to +eye, to the very bottom, and though here and there, behind a fold, +some new thing is discovered, a strange thing it is not. Dear heart, +what stuff you talk (excuse my rudeness) when you say I must not come +if I would rather stop in Zimmerhausen or Angermuende at Whitsuntide! +How can I take pleasure anywhere while I know that you are suffering, +and moreover, am uncertain in what degree? With us two it is a +question, not of amusing and entertaining, but only of loving and +being together, spiritually, and, if possible, corporeally; and if you +should lie speechless for four weeks--sleep, or something else--I +would be nowhere else, provided nothing but my wish were to decide. If +I could only "come to your door," I would still rather be there than +with my dear sister; and the sadder and sicker you are, so much the +more. But the door will not separate me from you, however ill you may +be. That is a situation in which the slave mutinies against his +mistress. * * * + +Your faithful B. + + + +Berlin, Tuesday Morning, May 18, '47. + +_Dearest_,--The last letters from Reinfeld permit me to hope that your +illness is not so threatening at the moment as I feared from the first +news, although I am continually beset by all possible fears about you, +and thus am in a condition of rather complicated restlessness. * * * +My letter in which I told you of my election you have understood +somewhat, and your dear mother altogether, from a point of view +differing from that which was intended. I only wanted to make my +position exactly clear to you, and the apologies which to you seemed +perhaps forced, as I infer from your mother's letter, you may regard +as an entirely natural outflow of politeness. That I did not stand in +need of justification with you I very well know; but also that it must +affect us both painfully to see our fine plans cancelled. It was my +ardent wish to be a member of the Landtag; but that the Landtag and +you are fifty miles apart distressed me in spite of the fulfilment of +my wish. You women are, and always will be, unaccountable, and it is +better to deal with you by word of mouth than by writing. * * * I have +ventured once or twice on the speaker's platform with a few words, and +yesterday raised an unheard-of storm of displeasure, in that, by a +remark which was not explained clearly enough touching the character +of the popular uprising of 1813, I wounded the mistaken vanity of many +of my own party, and naturally had all the halloo of the opposition +against me. The resentment was great, perhaps for the very reason that +I told the truth in applying to 1813 the sentence that any one (the +Prussian people) who has been thrashed by another (the French) until +he defends himself can make no claim of service towards a third person +(our King) for so doing. I was reproached with my youth and all sorts +of other things. Now I must go over before today's session to see +whether, in printing my words, they have not turned them into +nonsense. * * * + +Yours forever, B. + + +Berlin, Friday, May 21, '47. + +_Tres chere Jeanneton_,--When you receive this letter you will know +that I am not to visit you in the holidays. I shall not offer +"apologies," but reasons why it is not to be. I should miss certainly +four, and probably five, meetings of the estates, and, according to +the announcement we have received, the most important proceedings are +to be expected at the coming meetings. There it may depend upon one +vote, and it would be a bad thing if that were the vote of an +absentee; moreover, I have succeeded in acquiring some influence with +a great number, or, at least, with some delegates of the so-called +court party and the other ultra-conservatives from several provinces, +which I employ in restraining them so far as possible from bolting and +awkward shying, which I can do in the most unsuspected fashion when +once I have plainly expressed my inclination. Then, too, I have some +money affairs to arrange, for which I must make use of one of the +holidays. The Landtag will either be brought to a close on the 7th of +June--and in that case I should stay here until that date--or it will +continue in session until all the matters have been arranged, in which +event I should stay till after the decision of the important political +questions which are now imminent and shall be less conscientious about +all the insignificant petitions that follow after, and await their +discussion in Reinfeld. It will, besides, be pleasanter for you and +the mother not to have us both--the father and me--there at one time, +but relieving each other, so that you may be lonely for a shorter +time. * * * Your father will tell you how I stirred up the +hornet's-nest of the volunteers here lately, and the angry hornets +came buzzing to attack me; on the other hand, I had as compensation +that many of the older and more intelligent people drew near to +me--people I did not know at all--and assured me that I had said +nothing but the truth, and that was the very thing that had so +incensed the people. But I must take the field now; it is ten o'clock. +Please ask your father to write immediately about your health. I +should so much like to hear the opinion of another person besides your +mother. I am all right--only much excited. Farewell, and God guard +you. + +Yours altogether and forever, B. + + +Berlin, May 26, '47. + +_Dearest_,-- * * * If I were only through with the Landtag and the +delivery of Kniephof, could embrace you in health, and retire with you +to a hunting-lodge in the heart of green forest and the mountains, +where I should see no human face but yours! That is my hourly dream; +the rattling wheel-work of political life is more obnoxious to my ears +every day.--Whether it is your absence, sickness, or my laziness, I +want to be alone with you in contemplative enthusiasm for nature. It +may be the spirit of contradiction, which always makes me long for +what I have not. And yet, I have you, you know, though not quite at +hand; and still I long for you. I proposed to your father that I +should go with him; we would immediately have our banns published and +be married, and both come here. An apartment for married people is +empty in this house, and here you could have had sensible physicians +and every mortal help. It seemed to him too unbecoming. To you, too? +It seems to me still the most sensible thing of all, if you are only +strong enough for the trip. If the Landtag should continue longer than +to the 6th of June--which I still hope it will not--let us look at the +plan more carefully. * * * + +Your faithful B. + + +Schoenhausen, Friday, May 28, '47. + +_My Poor Sick Kitten_,-- * * * In regard to your illness, your father's +letter has calmed my anxiety somewhat as to the danger, but yours was +so gloomy and depressed that it affected me decidedly. My dear heart, +such sadness as finds expression there is almost more than submission +to God's will: the latter cannot, in my opinion, be the cause of your +giving up the hope, I might say the wish, that you may be better, +physically, and experience God's blessing here on earth as long as may +be in accordance with His dispensation. You do not really mean it, +either--do you, now?--when, in a fit of melancholy, you say that +nothing whatever interests you genuinely, and you neither grieve nor +rejoice. That smacks of Byron, rather than of Christianity. You have +been sick so often in your life, and have recovered--have experienced +glad and sad hours afterwards; and the old God still lives who helped +you then. Your letter stirred in me more actively than ever the +longing to be at your side, to fondle you and talk with you. * * * + +I do not agree with you in your opinion about July, and I would urge +you strongly, too, on this point to side with me against your parents. +When a wife, you are as likely to be sick as when a _fiancee_--and +will be often enough, later; so why not at the beginning, likewise? I +shall be with you as often as I am free from pressing engagements, so +whether we are together here or in Reinfeld makes no difference in the +matter. We do not mean to marry for bright days only: your ill-health +seems to me an utterly frivolous impediment. The provisional situation +we are now in is the worst possible for me. I scarcely know any longer +whether I am living in Schoenhausen, in Reinfeld, in Berlin, or on the +train. If you fall sick, I shall be a sluggard in Reinfeld all the +autumn, or however long our marriage would be postponed, and cannot +even associate with you quite unconstrainedly before the ceremony. +This matter of a betrothed couple seventy miles apart is not +defensible; and, especially when I know you are ailing, I shall take +the journey to see you, of course, as often as my public and private +affairs permit. It seems to me quite necessary to have the ceremony at +the time already appointed; otherwise I should be much distressed, and +I see no reason for it. Don't sell Brunette just now; you will ride +her again soon. I must be in Berlin at noon for a consultation about +plans for tomorrow. Farewell. God strengthen you for joy and hope. + +Your most faithful B. + +_Tomorrow I'll send you a hat_.[15] + + +Berlin, Sunday, May 30, '47. + +_Tres Chere Jeanneton_,--Your letter of day before yesterday, which I +have just received, has given me profound pleasure and poured into me a +refreshing and more joyous essence: your happier love of life is shared +by me immediately. I shall begin by reassuring you about your gloomy +forebodings of Thursday evening. At the very time when you were +afflicted by them I was rejoicing in the happiness I had long missed, of +living once more in a comfortable Schoenhaus bed, after I had suffered +for weeks from the furnished-apartments couch in Berlin. I slept very +soundly, although with bad dreams--nightmares--which I ascribed to a +late and heavy dinner, inasmuch as the peaceful occupations of the +previous day--consisting in viewing many promising crops and well-fed +sheep, together with catching up with all sorts of police arrangements +relating to dike, fire, and roads--could not have occasioned them. You +see how little you can depend upon the maternal inheritance of +forebodings. Also in regard to the injurious effects of the Landtag +excitement upon my health, I can completely reassure you. I have +discovered what I needed--physical exercise--to offset mental +excitement and irregular diet. Yesterday I spent in Potsdam, to be +present at the water carnival--a lively picture. The great blue basins +of the Havel, with the splendid surroundings of castles, bridges, +churches, enlivened with several hundred gayly decorated boats, whose +occupants, elegantly dressed gentlemen and ladies, bombard one another +lavishly with bouquets when they can reach each other in passing or +drawing up alongside. The royal pair, the whole court, Potsdam's +fashionable people, and half of Berlin whirled in the skein of boats +merrily, pell-mell; royalists and liberals all threw dry or wet flowers +at the neighbor within reach. Three steamboats at anchor, with musical +choruses, constituted the centre of the ever-changing groups. I had the +opportunity to salute, hurriedly and with surprise, and throw flowers +at, many acquaintances whom I had not seen for a long time. My friend +Schaffgotsch is passionately fond of walking, and he was responsible for +our returning to the railway station on foot--a distance of almost three +miles--at such a pace as I had not kept up in a long while. After that I +slept splendidly until nine, and am in a state of physical equilibrium +today such as I have not enjoyed for some time. As the rather dusty +promenades in the Thiergarten do not give me enough of a shaking-up in +the time that I have available for that purpose, Mousquetaire will +arrive here tomorrow, so that he, with his lively gallop, may play the +counterpart to the tune that politics is dancing in my head. My plan +about Berlin and the wedding immediately, etc., was certainly somewhat +adventurous when you look at it in cold blood, but I hope there will be +no change from July. If I am to be tormented, as you say, with an +"unendurable, dispirited, nervous being," it is all the same in the end +whether this torment will be imposed upon me by my _fiancee_ or--forgive +the expression--by my wife. In either case I shall try to bear the +misfortune with philosophical steadfastness; for it is to be hoped that +it will not be so bad that I must dig deeper and seek Christian +consolation for it. + +Your very faithful B. + + +Berlin, July 4, '47. + +_Juaninina_,--Happily, I have left Schoenhausen behind me, and do not +expect to enter it again without you, _mon ange._ Only some business +matters detain me here, which I cannot attend to today because it is +Sunday; but I confidently anticipate starting for Angermuende tomorrow +at four, and accordingly, unless the very improbable event occurs that +I am detained outrageously in Kniephof, shall arrive in Schlawe on +Thursday. * * * Farewell, my heart. This is probably the last +post-marked paper that you will receive from your _Braeutigam_[16] (I +hate the expression). Our banns were cried today for the first time in +Schoenhausen. Does that not seem strange to you But I had learned your +given names so badly that I could mention only Johanna Eleonore: the +other six you must teach me better. Farewell, my heart. Many +salutations to the parents. + +Your very faithful B. + +_My Dear_,--I believe I can now reassure you most completely as to the +safety of the members of the Landtag. The Landtag was opened today, +_minus_ King and _minus_ cheers, with quite calm discussion. In a +few words I uttered my protest against the thanks and exultation that +were voted to the King, without hostilities becoming overt. Ten +thousand men of the city militia were posted for our protection, but +not even a slight disturbance occurred at the palace. I could be with +you tomorrow, as there is no session, if I had ordered a carriage +to meet me at Genthin this evening. But as the whole affair apparently +will come to an end this week, perhaps as early as Thursday, I was +too stingy to hire a carriage. Brauchitsch was taken violently ill +again last evening. * * * Give cordial remembrances to your mother, and +be of good courage. I am much calmer than I was: with Vincke one heart +and one soul. + +Your faithful B. + +April 2, '48, Sunday Evening. + +I fear, my dear heart, the letter I wrote you last evening reached the +post-office so late, through an oversight, that you will not receive +it today, and not before tomorrow with this; and it pains me to think +that you were disappointed in your hope when the mail was delivered, +and now (9 o'clock in the evening) are perhaps troubled with +disquietude of all sorts about me. I have spent a tiresome day, +tramping the pavement, smoking and intriguing. Do not judge of the few +words I spoke yesterday from the report in the Berlin _Times_. I shall +manage to bring you a copy of the speech, which has no significance +except as showing that I did not wish to be included in the category +of certain venal bureaucrats who turned their coat with contemptible +shamelessness to suit the wind. The impression it made was piteous, +while even my most zealous opponents shook my hand with greater warmth +after my declaration. I have just come from a great citizens' meeting, +of perhaps a thousand people, in the Milenz Hall, where the Polish +question was debated very decorously, very good speeches were made, +and on the whole the sentiment seemed to turn against the Poles, +especially after a disconsolate Jew had arrived, straight from Samter, +who told terrible stories about the lawless excesses of the Poles +against the Germans; he himself had been soundly beaten. * * * + +Just for my sake do not alarm yourself if each mail does not bring you +a letter from me. There is not the slightest probability that a hair +of our heads will be touched, and my friends of all kinds overrun +me, to share their political wisdom with me, so that I began a letter +of one-quarter sheet to Malle this morning at 9, and could not finish +before 3. I am living in comfort and economy with Werdeck, only rather +far away, in consequence of which I already feel the pavement through +my soles. Cordial remembrances to the mother and the Bellins. I am +writing on the _table d'hote_ table of the Hotel des Princes, and a +small salad has just been brought for my supper. + +Your very faithful B. April 3, '48. + + +Schoenhausen, August 21, '48. 8.30 P.M. + +To HERR VON PUTTKAMER, AT REINFELD, NEAR ZUCKERS, POMERANIA. + +_Dear Father_,--You have just become, with God's gracious help, the +grandfather of a healthy, well-formed girl that Johanna has presented +me with after hard but short pains. At the moment mother and child are +doing as well as one could wish. Johanna lies still and tired, yet +cheerful and composed, behind the curtain; the little creature, in the +meantime, under coverlets on the sofa, and squalls off and on. I am +quite glad that the first is a daughter, but if it had been a cat I +should have thanked God on my knees the moment Johanna was rid of it: +it is really a desperately hard business. I came from Berlin last +night, and this morning we had no premonition of what was to come. At +ten in the morning Johanna was seized with severe pains after eating a +grape, and the accompanying symptoms led me to put her at once to bed, +and to send in haste to Tangermuende, whence, in spite of the Elbe, Dr. +Fricke arrived soon after 12. At 8 my daughter was audible, with +sonorous voice. This afternoon I sent Hildebrand off to fetch nurse +Boldt from Berlin in a great hurry. I hope you will not postpone your +journey now; but earnestly beg dear mother not to make the trip in an +exhausting manner. I know, of course, that she has little regard for +her own health, but just for Johanna's sake you must take care of +yourself, dear mother, so that she may not be anxious on your account. +Fricke pleases us very much--experienced and careful. I do not admit +visits: Bellin's wife, the doctor, and I attend to everything. Fricke +estimates the little one at about nine pounds in weight. Up to the +present time, then, everything has gone according to rule, and for +that praise and thanks be to the Lord. If you could bring Aennchen +with you that would make Johanna very happy. + +22. _Morning_.--It is all going very well, only the cradle is still +lacking, and the little miss must camp meanwhile on a forage-crib. May +God have you and us in his keeping, dear parents. + +Until we meet again, presently. B. + +Have the kindness to attend to the announcements, save in Berlin and +Reddentin, in your neighborhood: Seehof, Satz, and so forth. Johanna +sends cordial greetings. She laments her daughter's large nose. I +think it no larger than it has a right to be. + +Berlin, Saturday, 11 p. m. September 23, '48. + + +To FRAU VON BISMARCK, SCHOeNHAUSEN, NEAR JERICHOW. + +_My Pet!_--Today at last I have news of your condition, and am very +grateful to mother for the letter. * * * I am beginning to be really +homesick for you, my heart, and mother's letter today threw me into a +mood utterly sad and crippling: a husband's heart, and a father's--at +any rate, mine in the present circumstances--does not fit in with the +whirl of politics and intrigue. On Monday, probably, the die will be +cast here. Either the ministry will be shown to be weak, like its +predecessors, and sink out--and against this I shall still +struggle--or it will do its duty, and then I do not for a moment doubt +that blood will flow on Monday evening or on Tuesday. I should not +have believed that the democrats would be confident enough to take up +the gage of battle, but all their behavior indicates that they are +bent on it. Poles, Frankfort men, loafers, volunteers--all sorts of +riffraff are again at hand. They count on the defection of the troops, +apparently misled by the talk of individual discontented gabblers +among the soldiers; but I think they will make a great mistake. I +personally have no occasion to await the thing here, and so to tempt +God by asking him to protect me in perils that I have no call to seek. +Accordingly, I shall betake my person to a place of safety not later +than tomorrow. If nothing important occurs on Monday, on Tuesday I +shall reach you; but, if the trouble begins, I should still like to +stay near the King. But there you may (in an aside I say +"unfortunately") assume with confidence that there will be no danger. +You received no letter from me today, because I sent a report about +the society to Gaertner, and you will learn from him that I am all +right. You will receive this tomorrow, and I shall write again on +Monday. Send horses for me on Tuesday. God bless and guard you, my +sweetheart. + +Your faithful B. + + +(Postmark, Berlin, November 9, '48.) + +_My Dearest_,--Although I am confident that I shall be with you in +person a few hours after this letter, I want to inform you immediately +that everything is quiet till now. I go to Potsdam at nine, but must +post the letter here now, as otherwise it will not reach you today. +Our friends have been steadfast till now, but I cannot take courage +yet to believe in anything energetic. I still fear, fear, and the +weather is unfavorable, too. Above all, you must not be afraid of +anything, if I should stay away today by any chance. The K. may send +for me, or some one else in Potsdam earnestly wish that I should stay +there to advise upon further measures, the trains may be delayed +because the carriages are required for soldiers, and other things of +the sort. Then, courage and patience, my heart, in any event. The God +who makes worlds go round can also cover me with his wings. And in P. +there is no danger anyhow. So expect me in the evening; if I happen +not to come, I shall be all right nevertheless. Cordial remembrances +to our cross little mother. + +Your most faithful B. + + +Potsdam, November 10, '48. + +_My Angel_,--Please, please do not scold me for not coming today +either; I must try to put through some more matters in relation to the +immediate future. At two this afternoon all Wrangel's troops will +reach Berlin, disarm the flying corps, maybe, take the disaffected +deputies from the _Concertsaal,_ and make the city again a royal +Prussian one. It is doubtful whether they will come to blows in the +process. Contrary to our expectations, everything remained quiet +yesterday; the democrats seem to be much discouraged. * * * + +Your v.B. + + +Potsdam, November 14, '48. + +_My Dear Pet_,--Long sleep can certainly become a vice. Senfft has +just waked me at nine o'clock, and I cannot yet get the sand out of my +eyes. It is quiet here. Yesterday it was said to be the intention to +serenade the Queen (on her birthday) with mock music; one company +posted there sufficed to make the audacious people withdraw in +silence. Berlin is in a state of siege, but as yet not a shot fired. +The disarming of the city militia goes on forcibly and very gradually. +The meeting in the Schuetzenhaus was dispersed by soldiers yesterday; +six men who were unwilling to go were thrown out. Martial law will be +proclaimed over there today. My friend Schramm has been arrested. That +Rob. Blum, Froebel, Messenhauser, have been shot in Vienna, you already +know from the newspapers. Good-by, you angel; I must close. Many +remembrances to all. The peasants of the neighborhood have declared to +the King that if he has need of them he should just call them: that +they would come with weapons and supplies to aid his troops, from the +Zauch-Belzig-Teltow, the Havelland, and other districts. Mention that +in Schoenhausen, please, so that it may go the rounds. + +Your v.B. + + +Potsdam, Thursday Morning, November 16, '48. + +_Dear Nanne!_--I did not get your very dear, nice letter of Tuesday +morning until yesterday afternoon, but none the less did I right +fervently rejoice and take comfort in it, because you are well, at +least in your way, and are fond of me. There is no news from here +except that Potsdam and Berlin are as quiet as under the former King, +and the surrender of arms in B. continues without interruption, with +searching of houses, etc. It is possible that there may be scenes of +violence incidentally--the troops secretly long for them--but on the +whole the "passive resistance" of the democrats seems to me only a +seasonable expression for what is usually called fear. Yesterday I +dined with the King. The Queen was amiable in the English fashion. The +enclosed twig of erica I picked from her sewing-table, and send it to +keep you from being jealous. * * * + +If a letter from the Stettin bank has arrived, send it to me +immediately, please, marked, "To be delivered promptly." If I do not +receive it before day after tomorrow, I shall return home, but must +then go to Stettin at the beginning of next week. So let horses be +sent for me on Saturday afternoon; this evening I unfortunately cannot +go to Genthin, because I expect Manteuffel here. * * * + +The democrats are working all their schemes in order to represent the +opinion of the "people" as hostile to the King; hundreds of feigned +signatures. Please ask the town-councillor whether there are not some +sensible people in Magdeburg, who care more for their neck, with quiet +and good order, than for this outcry of street politicians, and who +will send the King a counter-address from Magdeburg. I must close. +Give my best regards to mamma, and kiss the little one for me on the +left eye. Day after tomorrow, then, if I do not get the Stettin letter +sooner. Good-by, my sweet angel. Yours forever, v.B. Schoenhausen, +July 18, '49. + +_My Pet_,-- * * * I wanted to write you in the evening, but the air was +so heavenly that I sat for two hours or so on the bench in front of +the garden-house, smoked and looked at the bats flying, just as with +you two years ago, my darling, before we started on our trip. The +trees stood so still and high near me, the air fragrant with linden +blossoms; in the garden a quail whistled and partridges allured, and +over beyond Arneburg lay the last pink border of the sunset. I was +truly filled with gratitude to God, and there arose before my soul the +quiet happiness of a family life filled with love, a peaceful haven, +into which a gust of wind perchance forces its way from the storms of +the world-ocean and ruffles the surface, but its warm depths remain +clear and still so long as the cross of the Lord is reflected in them. +Though the reflected image be often faint and distorted, God knows his +sign still. Do you give thanks to Him, too, my angel; think of the +many blessings He has conferred upon us, and the many dangers against +which He has protected us, and, with firm reliance on His strong hand, +confront the evil spirits with that when they try to affright your +sick fancy with all sorts of images of fear. * * * + +Your most faithful +v.B. + + +Brandenburg, July 23, '49. + +_My Beloved Nanne!_--I have just received your short letter of Friday, +which reassures me somewhat, as I infer from it that our little one +has not the croup, but the whooping-cough, which is, indeed, bad, but +not so dangerous as the other. You, poor dear, must have worried +yourself sick. It is very fortunate that you have such good assistance +from our people and the preacher, yet are you all somewhat lacking in +confidence, and increase each other's anxiety instead of comforting +one another. Barschall has just told me that all of his children have +had this croupy cough--that it was endemic in Posen in his time; his +own and other children were attacked by it repeatedly in the course of +a few days; that every family had an emetic of a certain kind on hand +in the house, and by that means overcame the enemy easily every time, +and without permanent consequences for the child. Be comforted, then, +and trust in the Lord God; He does, indeed, show us the rod that He +has ready for us, but I have the firm belief that He will put it back +behind the mirror. As a child I, too, suffered from whooping-cough to +the extent of inflammation of the lungs, and yet entirely outgrew it. +I have the greatest longing to be with you, my angel, and think day +and night about you and your distress, and about the little creature, +during all the wild turmoil of the elections. * * * + +Here in Brandenburg the party of the centre is decidedly stronger than +ours; in the country districts I hope it is the other way, yet the +fact cannot be overlooked. It is incredible what cock-and-bull stories +the democrats tell the peasants about me; in fact, one from the +Schoenhausen district, three miles from us, confided to me yesterday +that, when my name is mentioned among them, a regular shudder goes +through them from head to foot, as though they should get a couple of +"old-Prussian broadsword strokes" laid across their shoulders. As an +opponent said recently, at a meeting, "Do you mean to elect Bismarck +Schoenhausen, the man 'who, in the countryman's evening prayer, stands +hard by the devil'?" (From Grillparzer's _Ahnfrau_.) And yet I am the +most soft-hearted person in the world towards the common people. On +the whole, my election here in these circumstances seems very doubtful +to me; and as I do not believe I shall be elected in the other place +either, when I am not there personally, we may live together quietly +the rest of the summer, if it be God's will, and I will pet you into +recovery from your fright about the child, my darling. Have no anxiety +whatever about my personal safety; one hears nothing of the cholera +here except in a letter from Reinfeld. The first rule to observe, if +it should come nearer to you, is to speak of it as little as possible; +by speaking, one always augments the fear of others, and fear of it +is the easiest bridge on which it can enter the human body. * * * + +God guard you and your child, and all our house. + +Your most faithful + +v.B. + +It is better not to leave the doors all open constantly, for the child +often gets shock from the draught, when one is opened, before you can +prevent it. + + +(Postmark, Berlin, August 8, '49.) + +_My Love_,--I sent you a letter this morning, and have just received +yours, in reply to which I will add a few more words touching the +wet-nurse. If any one besides you and father and mother already knows +about the matter, in the house or outside, then tell her the truth +unhesitatingly, for in that case it will not stay hidden. If the +matter is still known to yourselves alone, let it continue so, but +then keep watch on the mail-bag, lest she learn of it unexpectedly. +The wet-nurse's sister here is unwilling to have it told to her. I +shall look her up today and speak with her. But if you do not wish to +keep it secret any longer, when once the child is rid of her cough, +you should at any rate look about you for a wet-nurse or woman who, in +case of necessity, can take Friederike's place immediately, if the +effect is such that the child cannot stay with her. I shall get the +sister to give me a letter to her, in which the story will be told +exactly and soothingly; this I shall send to you, so that you may make +use of it in case of need; that, I think, is the best way she can +learn of it. To tell her first that her child is sick, and so forth, I +do not consider a good plan, for anxiety has a worse effect than the +truth. God will graciously bring us out of this trouble. He holds us +with a short rein lest we should become self-confident, but He will +not let us fall. Good-by, my best-of-all; pray and keep your head up. + +Your very faithful + +v.B. + + +Berlin, August 11, '49. + +_Mon Ange_,--I went to see the wet-nurse's kinsfolk, and there learned +that the _fiance_ had written to her last Wednesday and revealed all +to her; so the matter will go as God directs. If you chanced to +intercept the letter, and on receipt of this have not yet delivered +it, please delay it until my next arrives. I could not find the +_fiance_ himself, and directed him to come to me this evening, and +shall write you what I learn from him. If Friederike knows everything +already, my wishes will reach you too late; otherwise I should like, +if in accordance with medical opinion, not to have the wet-nurse sent +away altogether, but only relieved from service for a few hours or +days; if, however, there are scruples on that point, it can't be done, +of course. From my many doubts, you will see that I cannot decide the +matter very well at this distance. Act quite in accordance with the +advice of your mother and the other experienced friends. I give my +views, merely, not commands. * * * Be content with these lines for +today; be courageous and submissive to God's will, my darling; all +will surely go well. Cordial remembrances to the parents. + +Your most faithful + +v.B. + + +Berlin, Friday. (Postmark, August 17, '49.) + +_Dearest Nanne_,-- * * * Your last letter, in which you inform me of +the happy solution of the wet-nurse difficulty, took a real load off +my heart; I thanked God for His mercy, and could almost have got drunk +from pure gayety. May His protection extend henceforward, too, over +you and the little darling. I am living with Hans here at the corner +of Taubenstrasse, three rooms and one alcove, quite elegant, but +narrow little holes; Hans' bed full of bugs, but mine not as yet--I +seem not to be to their taste. We pay twenty-five rix-dollars a month, +together. If there were one additional small room, and not two flights +of stairs, I could live with you here, and Hans could get another +apartment below in this house. But, as it is, it would be too cramped +for us. I have talked with the _fiance_ of the wet-nurse, a +modest-looking person. He spoke of her with love, and declared in +reply to my question that he certainly is willing to marry her. What +he wrote about the "white pestilence" is nonsense; no such sickness +exists, least of all in Berlin. The cholera is fast disappearing. I +have not heard a word more about it since I came here; one sees it +only in newspaper reports. Isn't our mammy jealous because, according +to the paper, I have been in company with "strikingly handsome" +Englishwomen? Lady Jersey was really something uncommon, such as is +usually seen only in _keepsakes_. I would have paid a rix-dollar +admission if she had been exhibited for money. She is now in Vienna. +For the rest, I have not had a letter from you this long time; my last +news comes from Bernhard, who left you a week ago today. God has +upheld you meantime, I trust, my angel. It is possible that a letter +from you is here. The delivery is always rather irregular: sometimes +the letter-carrier brings them, sometimes they are delivered at the +Chamber postal station. I will go immediately and inquire if anything +is there; then I will take a bath, and return at least ten calls that +have been paid me. It is a misery that now the people always receive +one--one loses a terrible amount of time at it.... Hans is still +inclined to treat me tyrannically, but I resist, and have been so far +successful that I sleep as long as I please, whereat the coffee grows +cold, however, as he is obstinately bent on not breakfasting alone. +So, too, he will not go to bed if I do not go at the same time, but +sleeps, just like my little Nanne, on the sofa.... Now, good-by my +much-beloved heart. I am very anxious on your account, and often am +quite tearful about it. Best regards to the parents. + +Your most faithful v.B. + + +Berlin, Monday. (Postmark, August 28, '49.) + +_My Darling_,--I sit here in my corner room, two flights up, and +survey the sky, full of nothing but little sunset-tinted lambs, as it +appears, along the Taubenstrasse and over the tree-tops of Prinz +Carl's garden, while along Friedrichstrasse it is all golden and +cloudless; the air damp and mild, too. I thought of you and of Venice, +and this only I wanted to write to you. News has come today that +Venice has surrendered at discretion; so we can go there again, and +again see the tall white grenadiers. * * * I dined with Manteuffel +today, yesterday with Prince Albert, of course, day before yesterday +with Arnim, and then I took a ride with him of fourteen miles at a +gallop--which suited me well, save for some muscular pains. In the +Chamber we keep on doing nothing whatever; in the Upper House the +German question, happily, has been brought forward again in very good +speeches by Gerlach, Bethmann, and Stahl, and yet today the Camphausen +proposition was adopted with all the votes against nineteen. With us, +too, it is beginning to excite men's tempers. The proposition is bad +in its tendency, but its result insignificant even if it goes through +with us, as is to be expected. _Tant de bruit pour une omelette_. The +real decision will not be reached in our Chambers, but in diplomacy +and on the battlefield, and all that we prate and resolve about it has +no more value than the moonshine observations of a sentimental youth +who builds air-castles and thinks that some unexpected event will make +him a great man. _Je m'en moque!_--and the farce often bores me nearly +to death, because I see no sensible object in this straw-threshing. +Mother's little letter gave me great pleasure, because, in the first +place, I see that you are well, and then because she has her old joke +with me, which is much pleasanter at a distance, as it does not lead +to strife; and yet how I should like to quarrel with mammy once more! +I am genuinely homesick to be quietly with you all in Schoenhausen. +Have you received the ribbon for Aennchen? + +_Tuesday_.--Hans is just breakfasting, and eating up, from sheer +stinginess, a quarter pound of butter that he bought three days ago, +because it begins to get old. Now he screams that my tea is there, +too. I close for today, as I have something to do afterwards. My love +to FatherMotherAnnaAdelheidMarie and all the rest. God's blessing be +with you and keep you well and merry. + +Your most faithful v.B. + + +Berlin, September 11, '49. (Postmarked September 10.) + +I wrote yesterday, my Nannie, but as it costs me nothing, not even for +paper, for this is the Chamber's, I do want to improve a wearisome +moment, during which I must listen to the reading of a confused report +on normal prices, to send you another little greeting; but again +without the ribbon, for I am going to buy that later on. This morning +I attended the cavalry manoeuvres, on a very pleasant horse of +Fritz's; rode sharply, swallowed much dust, but, nevertheless, had a +good time; it is really pretty, these brilliant, rapidly moving masses +interspersed with the clanking of iron and the bugle signals. The +Queen, my old flame, greeted me so cordially. Having driven past +without noticing me, she rose and turned backward over the bar of the +carriage, to nod to me thrice; that lady appreciates a Prussian heart. +Tomorrow I shall take a look at the grand parade, in which the +infantry also participates. I believe I have written you that the King +and Leopold Gerlach visited the Emperor of Austria at Teplitz, where +there was also a Russian plenipotentiary. The proletariats of the +Chamber are now gradually coming to see that on that occasion +something may have been concocted which will cast mildew on their +German hot-house flowers, and the fact that his Majesty has conversed +with the ruler of all the Croatians frightens them somewhat. _Qui +vivra verra_. These Frankfort cabbage-heads are incorrigible; they +and their phrases are like the old liars who in the end honestly +believe their own stories; and the impression produced on our Chamber +by such ridiculous things as they say, without any regard for the +matter in hand, or for common-sense, will be sure at last to convince +people generally that peasants and provincials are not fit to make +laws and conduct European politics. Now I must listen. Farewell, my +much-beloved heart. Love to my daughter and your parents. + +Your most faithful v.B. + + +Berlin, Friday. + +(Postmarked September 21, '49.) + +I am well, my darling Nan, but I am cold, for in the morning the rooms +are already so chilly that I long very much for the Schoenhausen +fireplaces, and matters in the Chamber are so tedious that I often +have serious thoughts of resigning my commission. In the ministry +there is again a shameful measure preparing; they now want to submit a +real property tax bill, according to which those estates which are not +manors are to be indemnified, while manors must suffer, as the number +of nobles is not dangerous. Only if encumbered for more than +two-thirds of their value, they are to be assisted by loans. What good +will a loan do a bankrupt, who has it to repay! It is a mixture of +cowardice and shameless injustice such as I could not have expected. +Yesterday we had soft, warm autumn weather, and I took a long walk in +the Thiergarten, by the same solitary paths which we used to traverse +together; I sat, too, on our bench near the swan-pond; the young swans +which were then still in their eggs on the little island were now +swimming vivaciously about, fat, gray, and _blase_, among the dirty +ducks, and the old ones sleepily laid their heads on their backs. The +handsome large maple standing near the bridge has already leaves of a +dark-red color; I wished to send you one of them, but in my pocket it +has become so hard that it crumbles away; the gold-fish pond is +almost dried up; the lindens, the black alders, and other delicate +things bestrew the paths with their yellow, rustling foliage, and the +round chestnut-burrs exhibit a medley of all shades of sombre and +attractive fall coloring. The promenade, with its morning fogs among +the trees, reminded me vividly of Kniephof, the woodcock-hunt, the +line of springes, and how everything was so green and fresh when I +used to walk there with you, my darling. * * * On the 1st of October I +shall probably have to attend the celebration of the nine-hundredth +anniversary of the founding of the cathedral there, to which the King +is coming. For the 2d and the following days I have been invited to go +on a royal hunt to the Falkenstein. I should be very glad to shoot a +deer in those woods which we and Mary saw illuminated by the moon on +that evening; but even if matters in the Chamber should not prevent, I +am at a loss how to reconcile that with our journey, and I feel as +though I should steal my days from you by going. * * * I am now going +out to buy a waist, to call on Rauch, and then again to the +Thiergarten. All love to father and mother, and may God preserve you +in the future as hitherto, my dearest. + +Your most faithful v.B. + + +Berlin, Friday. + +(Postmarked September 28, '49.) + +_My Dear,--_I have taken the apartment in the Behrenstrasse; that on +the Thiergarten is too uncomfortable for you in going in and out in +wet winter weather. * * * It is better that I should procure and +arrange everything for you in advance; then you need only alight here +and sink into my open arms and on a ready sofa; that would be so +pretty; only come soon, my beloved angel; today the weather is already +bitter cold, and write me exactly when I can come for you to Z. Do not +be offended, either, at my note of yesterday, and do not think that +you have offended me, but please come quickly. I am not going to the +Harz. Much love. In great haste. + +Your most faithful v.B. + + Over the blue mountain, + Over the white sea-foam, + Come, thou beloved one, + Come to thy lonely home. + + --_Old Song_. + + +Schoenhausen, October 2, '49. + +_My Beloved Nan,--I am sitting in our quiet old Schoenhausen, where I +am quite comfortable, after the Berlin hubbub, and I should like to +stay here a week, if the old Chamber allowed. This morning Odin +awakened me, and then retreated as usual between the beds; then the +Bellins groaned very much about the bad qualities of the tenant, with +whom they lead a cat-and-dog life, and I discussed with her, pro and +con, all that is to be sent to Berlin. The garden is still quite green +for the fall season, but the paths are overgrown with grass, and our +little island is so dwarfed and wet that I could not get on to it; it +rains without let-up. The little alderman, of course, sat with me all +the afternoon, otherwise I should have written you sooner and more at +length. I want to leave again tomorrow morning, and I have still +several business letters to write. Yesterday, with the King, I +celebrated the nine-hundredth anniversary of the Brandenburg +Cathedral, after it had been thoroughly exorcised and the bad national +spirits driven out. The entire royal family was there, except the +Princess of Babelsberg, who is at Weimar; also Brandenburg, +Manteuffel, Wrangel, Voss, and many high dignitaries, among them +myself, quite courageously at the front in church, next to the +princesses. At dinner his Majesty said many pretty things about his +electoral and capital city of Brandenburg, and was also very friendly +to me. I introduced to the Queen a number of village mayors, who had +been of particular service in my election; they were so much moved by +it that afterwards they embraced me with tears in their eyes. Finally, +the King became very angry at Patow, who had made his appearance as +President-in-chief, and to whom he had not spoken till then. "Sir," +said he, in a very loud and angry voice, "if you belong to the Right, +then vote with the Right; if you belong to the Left, vote, in the---- +name with the Left; but I require of my servants that they stand by +me, do you understand?" Breathless silence, and P---- looked like a +duck in a thunder-storm. * * * It is right good that I did not take +the apartment on the Thiergarten; aside from the wet feet which my +angel would get in dirty and damp weather, the house has been broken +into seven times during the couple of years of its existence, a fact +of which sympathizing souls would surely have informed you; and, if on +some long winter evening I were not at home, you and the two girls and +baby would have shuddered mightily over it. The little old clock is +just clearing its throat to strike seven; I must to my work. Farewell, +dearest; and, above all things, come-mmmm quickly--in a hurry, +swiftly, instantly--to your dear little husbandkin. Most hearty +greetings to our parents. + +Your most faithful v.B. + + +Erfurt, April 19, '50. + +_My Beloved Nan_,--It is bad to live in such a small town, with three +hundred acquaintances. One is never sure of his life a single moment, +for calls. An hour ago I got rid of the last bores; then, during +supper, I walked up and down in my room, and annihilated almost the +whole fat sausage, which is very delicious, drank a stone mug of beer +from the Erfurt "Felsenkeller," and now, while writing, I am eating +the second little box of Marchpane, which was, perhaps, intended for +Hans, who has not got any of the sausage even; in its place I will +leave him the little ham. During the last few days we have been +valiantly quarrelling in Parliament; but neither at the beginning nor +later could I obtain the floor for my principal speech; but I relieved +myself of some gall in minor skirmishes. * * * I am sick and tired of +life here; attending the sitting early in the morning, thence directly +to a screaming and chattering _table d'hote,_ then for coffee to the +Steiger, a most charming little mountain, a mile from the city, where +one can walk about through the pleasantest hours of the day with a +pretty view of Erfurt and the Thuringian woods; under magnificent +oaks, among the little light-green leaves of prickles and horn-beam; +from there to the abominable party caucus, which has never yet made me +any the wiser, so that one does not get home all day. If I do not +attend the caucus meetings, they all rail at me, for each one grudges +the others any escape from the tedium. * * * Good-by, my heart. May +God's hand be over you, and the children, and protect you from +sickness and worry, but particularly you, the apple of my eye, whom +Roeder envies me daily in the promenade, when the sunset makes him +sentimental, and he wishes he had such a "good, dear, devout wife." +For the rest, my allowance suffices for my needs here, and I shall +still bring treasures home. Good-night, my darling. Many thanks for +your faithful letter, and write me again at once; I am always anxious +for news. Hans has just come in, and sends you sleepy greetings, after +sitting on the lounge for hardly ten seconds. Once more, good-night, +my Nan. + +Your most faithful v.B. + + +Erfurt, April 23, '50. + +_My Darling_,-- * * * We shall probably be released a week from today, +and then we have before us a quiet Schoenhausen summer, as the cry of +war is also dying. It is really going to be summer again, and on a +very long walk, from which I am returning home dead tired, I took much +pleasure in the small green leaves of the hazel and white beech, and +heard the cuckoo, who told me that we shall live together for eleven +years more; let us hope longer still. My hunt was extraordinary; +charming wild pine-woods on the ride out, sky-high, as in the +Erzgebirge; then, on the other side, steep valleys, like the Selke, +only the hills were much higher, with beeches and oaks. The night +before starting I had slept but four hours; then went to bed at nine +o'clock in Schleusingen on the south side of the Thuringian wood; +arose at midnight; that evening I had eaten freely of the trout and +had drunk weak beer with them; at one o'clock we rode to a forge in +the mountains, where ghostlike people poked the fire; then we climbed, +without stopping, until three o 'clock, in pouring rain, I wearing a +heavy overcoat; so steep that I had to help myself with my hands; so +dark in the fir thickets that I could touch the huntsman ahead of me +with my hand, but could not see him. Then, too, we were told there is +a precipice on the right, and the torrent sent up its roar from the +purple depths below; or that there is a pool on the left, and the path +was slippery. I had to halt three times; repeatedly I almost fainted +from weakness, lay down on the dripping heath, and let the rain pour +on me. But I was firmly resolved to see the grouse; and I did see +several, but could not shoot them, for reasons which one must be a +huntsman to understand. My companion shot one, and, if I had been +well, I might have shot two; I was too exhausted. After three it +cleared and became wonderfully fine, the horn-owl gave place to the +thrush, and at sunrise the bird-chorus became deafening; the +wood-pigeons singing bass, withal. At five I was down again, and, as +it began to pour once more, I abandoned further attempts, returned +hither, ate very heartily, after a twenty-four hours' fast, and drank +two glasses of champagne, then slept for fourteen hours, until +yesterday at one o'clock, noon, and now I am feeling much better than +before the excursion, and am glad of the good constitution which God +has given me, to get through it all. * * * I send you lots of love, my +heart, and will piously celebrate fast-day tomorrow at the Wermel +church. God preserve you. Love to mother and Melissa. Excuse my haste. +I had really left myself an hour of leisure, but that little old Mass +has his fourteenth child, just born. The only son of our poor +Eglofstein, of Arklitten, twenty-three-year-old lieutenant of +cuirassiers, has shot himself in hypochondria; I pity the father +extremely, a devout, honorable man. + +Your most faithful + +v.B. + + +Schoenhausen, Sunday Evening. + +(Postmarked Jerichow, September 30, '50.) + +_My Beloved Nan_,-- * * * I regained possession of my things in Berlin +at some cost, after twenty-four hours had elapsed; when I left, the +unfortunate Jew had not yet claimed his. Partly on my account and +partly on Hans', we had to stay in Berlin two days, but this time the +bill was more reasonable. * * * May the devil take politics! Here I +found everything as we left it, only the leaves show the rosiness of +autumn; flowers are almost more plentiful than in summer; Kahle has a +particular fondness for them, and on the terrace fabulous pumpkins are +suspended by their vines from the trees. The pretty plums are gone; +only a few blue ones still remain; of the vine, only the common green +variety is ripe; next week I shall send you some grapes. I have +devoured so many figs today that I was obliged to drink rum, but they +were the last. I am sorry you cannot see the Indian corn; it stands +closely packed, three feet higher than I can reach with my hand; the +colts' pasture looks from a distance like a fifteen-year-old pine +preserve. I am sitting here at your desk, a crackling fire behind me, +and Odin, rolled into a knot, by my side. * * * Mamsell received me in +pink, with a black dancing-jacket; the children in the village +ridicule her swaggering about her noble and rich relations. She has +cooked well again today, but, as to the feeding of the cattle, Bellin +laments bitterly that she understands nothing about it, and pays no +attention to it, and she is also said to be uncleanly; the Bellin +woman does not eat a mouthful prepared by her. Her father is a common +cottager and laborer; I can easily understand that she is out of place +there, with her grand airs and pink dresses. Up to this time the +garden, outside of Kahle's keep, has cost one hundred and three +rix-dollars this year, and between now and Christmas forty to fifty +will probably be added for digging and harvesting, besides the fuel. +The contents of the greenhouse I shall try to have care of in the +neighborhood; that is really the most difficult point, and still one +cannot continue keeping the place for the sake of the few oranges. I +am giving out that you will spend the winter in Berlin, that in the +summer-time we intend going to a watering-place again, and that, +therefore, we are giving up housekeeping for a year. * * * Hearty love +to our parents. I shall celebrate father's birthday with you, like a +Conservative, in the old style. May the merciful God, for His Son's +sake, preserve you and the children. Farewell, my dear Nan. + +Your v.B. + +Since leaving Reinfeld I no longer have heartburn; perhaps it is in my +heart, and my heart has remained with Nan. + + +Schoenhausen, October 1, '50. + +_My Angel_,--I am so anxious that I can hardly endure being here; I +have the most decided inclination to inform the government at once of +my resignation, let the dike go, and proceed to Reinfeld. I expected +to have a letter from you today, but nothing except stupid police +matters. Do write very, very often, even if it takes one hundred +rix-dollars postage. I am always afraid that you are sick, and today I +am in such a mood that I should like to foot it to Pomerania. I long +for the children, for mammy and dad, and, most of all, for you, my +darling, so that I have no peace at all. Without you here, what is +Schoenhausen to me? The dreary bedroom, the empty cradles with the +little beds in them, all the absolute silence, like an autumn fog, +interrupted only by the ticking of the clock and the periodic falling +of the chestnuts--it is as though you all were dead. I always imagine +your next letter will bring bad news, and if I knew it was in Genthin +by this time I would send Hildebrand there in the night. Berlin is +endurable when one is alone; there one is busy, and can chatter all +day; but here it is enough to drive one mad; I must formerly have been +an entirely different mortal, to bear it as I did. * * * The girl +received the notice to leave very lightly and good-naturedly, as +quite a matter of course; Kahle, on the other hand, was beside +himself, and almost cried; said he could not find a place at +Christmas-time, and would go to the dogs, as he expressed it. I +consoled him by promising to pay his wages for another quarter if he +failed to find a place by New Year's. The girl is quite useless except +in cooking, of which more orally. I cannot enumerate all the little +trifles, and certainly Kahle does not belong to the better half of +gardeners. * * * I feel so vividly as if I were with you while writing +this that I am becoming quite gay, until I again recollect the three +hundred and fifty miles, including one hundred and seventy-five +without a railroad. Pomerania is terribly long, after all. Have you my +Kuelz letter, too? Bernhard has probably kept it in his pocket. Do not +prepay your letters, or they will be stolen. Innumerable books have +arrived from the binder; he claims one section of Scott's _Pirate_ is +missing; I know nothing about it. The tailor says that he has been +able to make only five pair of drawers from the stuff; presumably he +is wearing the sixth himself. Farewell, my sweetheart. Write as often +as you can, and give love and kisses to every one from me, large and +small. May God's mercy be with you. + +Your most faithful v.B. + + +Schoenhausen, October 10, '50. + +_My Darling_,--In a sullen rage I swoop down upon my inkstand after +just lighting the Town Councillor downstairs with the kindliest +countenance in the world. He sat here for two and a half hours by the +clock, moaning and groaning, without the least regard for my wry face; +I was just about to read the paper when he came. From ten to two I +crawled about the Elbe's banks, in a boat and on foot, with many +stupid people, attending to breakwaters, protective banks, and all +sorts of nonsense. This is, in general, a day of vexations; this +morning I dreamed so charmingly that I stood with you on the seashore; +it was just like the new strand, only the mud was rocks, the beeches +were thick-foliaged laurel, the sea was as green as the Lake of Traun, +and opposite us lay Genoa, which we shall probably never see, and it +was delightfully warm; then I was awakened by Hildebrand, accompanied +by a summoner, who brought me an order to serve as a juror at +Magdeburg from October 20th to November 16th, under penalty of from +one hundred to two hundred rix-dollars for each day of absence. I am +going there by the first train tomorrow, and hope to extricate myself; +for God so to punish my deep and restless longing for what is dearest +to me in this world, so that we shall not have the fleeting pleasure +of a couple of weeks together, would, indeed, be incredibly severe. I +am all excitement; that is our share in the newly achieved +liberty--that I am to be forced to spend my few days of freedom +sitting in judgment over thievish tramps of Jews, like a prisoner in a +fortress. I hope Gerlach can free me; otherwise I shall never speak to +him again. Tomorrow I shall at once drop you a line from Magdeburg, to +tell you how I succeed. * * * The people have abandoned the +dike-captain conspiracy against me; the Town Councillor says he will +not press it at all. He chattered to me for hours about his land-tax +commission, in which his anxiety drove him to rage against his own +flesh, and also, unfortunately, against ours. Our chief misfortune is +the cowardly servility towards those above and the chasing after +popularity below, which characterize our provincial councillor; +consequently public business, the chase, land-tax, etc., are all +deleteriously affected. It is due principally to the fact that he is +grossly ignorant and bungling in affairs, and is, therefore, for +better, for worse, in the hands of his democratic circuit secretary, +to whom he never dares to show his teeth; and, despite all that, the +fellow wears trousers, has been a soldier, and is a nobleman. La-Croix +is district-attorney at Madgeburg, withal, and he, too, must help me +to sneak out of it. It is still impossible for me to acquiesce in the +notion that we are to be separated all winter, and I am sick at heart +whenever I think of it; only now do I truly feel how very, very much +you and the _babies_ are part of myself, and how you fill my being. +That probably explains why it is that I appear cold to all except you, +even to mother; if God should impose on me the terrible affliction of +losing you, I feel, so far as my feelings can at this moment grasp and +realize such a wilderness of desolation, that I would then cling so to +your parents that mother would have to complain of being persecuted +with love. But away with all imaginary misery; there is enough in +reality. Let us now earnestly thank the Lord that we are all together, +even though separated by three hundred and fifty miles, and let us +experience the sweetness of knowing that we love each other very much, +and can tell each other so. To me it is always like ingratitude to God +that we choose to live apart so long, and are not together while He +makes it possible for us; but He will show us His will; all may turn +out differently; the Chambers may be dissolved, possibly very quickly, +as the majority is probably opposed to the Ministry. Manteuffel was +resolved upon it in that event, and it seems that Radowitz, since he +is Minister, has approached him, and, in general, wants to change his +politics again. Best love to all. Farewell. God keep you. + +Your most faithful v.B. + + +Berlin, April 28, '51. + +_My Dear Sweetheart_,--Mother's premonition that I would remain long +away has, unfortunately, proved correct this time. * * * The King was +the first to propose my nomination, and that at once, as a real +delegate to the Diet; his plan has, of course, encountered much +opposition, and has finally been so modified that Rochow will, it is +true, remain Minister at Petersburg, whither he is to return in two +months, but meanwhile, provisionally, he is commissioned to Frankfort, +and I am to accompany him, with the assurance that, on his leaving for +Petersburg, I shall be his successor. But this last is between +ourselves. + +Now I want to go, first of all, to Frankfort, and take a +look at the situation, and hear how I shall stand pecuniarily pending +my definite appointment, of which I know nothing at all as yet. Then I +shall see whether I can leave again shortly after the start, and +whether I am to count on staying any longer; for, although I have, +indeed, accepted, still I am not yet sufficiently familiar with the +ground to be able to say definitely whether I shall stay there or +shortly get out again. As soon as that is decided, we shall probably, +after all, have to consider for you, too, the prospect of exchanging +your quiet Reinfeld existence for the noise of the Diet's diplomacy. +You folks have often complained that nothing was made of me by those +above me; now this is, beyond my expectations and wishes, a sudden +appointment to what is at this moment the most important post in our +diplomatic service; I have not sought it; I must assume that the Lord +wished it, and I cannot withdraw, although I foresee that it will be +an unfruitful and a thorny office, in which, with the best intentions, +I shall forfeit the good opinion of many people. But it would be +cowardly to decline. I cannot give you today further particulars as to +our plans, how we shall meet, what will be done about your going to +the seashore; only I shall try to make leisure, if possible, to see +you before. I feel almost like crying when I think of this sudden +upsetting of our innocent plans, as well as of the uncertainty when I +shall see you again, my beloved heart, and the babies; and I earnestly +pray God to arrange it all without detriment to our earthly welfare +and without harm to my soul. God be with you, my dear, and bring us +together again soon. With heartfelt love. + +Your most faithful v.B. + + +Frankfort, May 14, '51. + +_My Little Dear,_--* * * It seems to be getting constantly more +certain that I shall take Rochow's position in the summer. In that +event, if the rating remains as it was, I shall have a salary of +twenty-one thousand rix-dollars, but I shall have to keep a large +train and household establishment and you, my poor child, must sit +stiff and sedate in the drawing-room, be called Excellency, and be +clever and wise with Excellencies. * * * The city is not so bad as you +suppose; there are a great many charming villas before the gates, +similar to those in the Thiergarten, only more sunny. As Councillor of +Legation, it will be difficult for us to live there, owing to distance +and expense; but as Ambassador, quite as charming as is possible in a +foreign land. By letters of introduction I have quickly become +acquainted with the charming world hereabouts. Yesterday I dined with +the English Ambassador, Lord Cowley, nephew of the Duke of Wellington; +very kind, agreeable people; she is an elegant woman of about forty, +very worldly, but benevolent and easy to get acquainted with; I have +immediately put myself on a friendly footing with her, so that when +you step into the cold bath of diplomatic society she may be a +powerful support for you. Previously I called on a Frau von Stallupin +(pronounce Stolipine), a young woman without children, kindly, like +all Russian women, but terribly rich, and settled in a little +castle-like villa, so that one hardly dares to take a step or to sit +down; a Scharteuck interior is a rude barn compared with it. Day +before yesterday evening I called on Frau von Vrintz, a sister of +Meyendorf's wife; the diplomatic folks assemble every evening in her +drawing-room. Countess Thun was there, a very handsome young woman, in +the style of Malvinia; also the Marquis de Tallenay, French +Ambassador, a polite fifty-year-old; Count Szechenyi, a gay young +Magyar, full of pranks, and divers other foreign personages. They +gamble there every evening, the lady of the house, too, and not for +very low stakes; I was scolded for declaring it boresome, and told +them it would be my role to laugh at those who lost. Society probably +does not appeal to you very strongly, my beloved heart, and it seems +to me as though I were harming you by bringing you into it, but how +shall I avoid that? I have one favor to ask of you, but keep it to +yourself, and do not let mother suspect that I have written you one +word about it, otherwise she will worry needlessly over it: occupy +yourself with French as much as you can in the meantime, but let it be +thought that you yourself have discovered that it is useful. Read +French, but, if you love me, do not do so by artificial light, or if +your eyes pain you; in that case you had better ask mother to read to +you, for it is almost harder to understand than to speak. If you know +of any agreeable piece of baggage you can get in a hurry to chatter +French to you, then engage one; I will gladly pay the bill. You will +enter here an atmosphere of French spirit and talk, anyway; so you +cannot avoid familiarizing yourself with it as far as possible. If you +know of no person whom you like and who is available, let it go; and, +at any rate, I beg you sincerely not to consider this advice as a +hardship, or otherwise than if I asked you to buy yourself a green or +a blue dress; it is not a matter of life and death; you are _my_ wife, +and not the diplomats', and they can just as well learn German as you +can learn French. Only if you have leisure, or wish to read anyway, +take a French novel; but if you have no desire to do so, consider this +as not written, for I married you in order to love you in God and +according to the need of my heart, and in order to have in the midst +of the strange world a place for my heart, which all the world's bleak +winds cannot chill, and where I may find the warmth of the home-fire, +to which I eagerly betake myself when it is stormy and cold without; +but not to have a society woman for others, and I shall cherish and +nurse your little fireplace, put wood on it and blow, and protect it +against all that is evil and strange, for, next to God's mercy, there +is nothing which is dearer and more necessary to me than your love, +and the homelike hearth which stands between us everywhere, even in a +strange land, when we are together. Do not be too much depressed and +sad over the change of our life; my heart is not attached, or, at +least, not strongly attached, to earthly honor; I shall easily +dispense with it if it should ever endanger our peace with God or our +contentment. * * * Farewell, my dearly beloved heart. Kiss the +children for me, and give your parents my love. + +Your most faithful v.B. + + +Frankfort, May 16, '51. + +_Dear Mother_,--* * * So far as I am at present acquainted with the +_highest_ circles of society, there is only one house which seems to +me to promise company for Johanna--that of the English Ambassador. As +this letter will probably be opened by the Austrian (Frankfort) +post-office authorities, I shall refrain from explaining on this +occasion the reasons therefor. Even those letters which, like my last +ones, I took occasion to send by a courier, are not secure from +indiscretions at _Berlin_; those to me as well as those from me; but +those which go by the regular mail are always opened, except when +there is no time for it, as the gentleman who will read this could +probably testify. But all that, for better, for worse, forms part of +the petty ills of my new position. + +In my thoughts I must always ask you and our dad to forgive me for +depriving you of the pleasure and the happiness of your old days, +inasmuch as I transplant to such a distance the bright child-life, +with all its dear cares, and take Johanna away a second time from her +father's house; but I see no other way out of it, which would not be +unnatural, or even wrong, and the strong arm which separated us when +we hoped to be united can also unite us when we least expect it. You +shall at least have the conviction, so far as human purpose can give +it, that I shall wander, together with Johanna, with the strong staff +of the Word of God, trough this dead and wicked activity of the world, +whose nakedness will become more apparent to us in our new position +than before, and that to the end of our joint pilgrimage my hand shall +strive, in faithful love, to smooth Johanna's paths, and to be a warm +covering to her against the breath of the great world. + +Your faithful son, v.B. + + +Frankfort, May 18, '51. + +_My Darling_,--Frankfort is terribly tiresome; I am so spoiled by so +much affection and so much business that I am only just beginning to +suspect how ungrateful I always was to some people in Berlin, to say +nothing of you and yours; but even the cooler measure of fellowship +and party affiliation which came to me in Berlin may be called an +intimate relationship compared with intercourse here, which is, in +fact, nothing more than mutual mistrust and espionage, if there only +were anything to spy out or to conceal! The people toil and fret over +nothing but mere trifles, and these diplomats, with their +consequential hair-splitting, already seem to me more ridiculous than +the Member of the Second Chamber in the consciousness of his dignity. +If foreign events do not take place, and those we over-smart Diet +people can neither direct nor prognosticate, I know quite definitely +now what we shall have accomplished in one, two, or five years, and am +willing to effect it in twenty-four hours if the others will but be +truthful and sensible for a single day. I have never doubted that they +all use water for cooking; but such an insipid, silly water-broth, in +which not a single bubble of mutton-suet is visible, surprises me. +Send me Filoehr, the village-mayor, Stephen Lotke, and Herr von +Dombrowsky, of the turnpike-house, as soon as they are washed and +combed, and I shall cut a dash with them in diplomatic circles. I am +making headlong progress in the art of saying nothing by using, many +words; I write reports of many pages, which read nice and smooth as +editorials; and if Manteuffel, after he has read them, can tell what +they contain, he can do more than I. Each of us makes believe that he +thinks the other is full of ideas and plans, if he would but speak +out, and yet we none of us know a jot better than the man in the moon +does what is to become of Germany. No mortal, not even the most +malevolently skeptical Democrat, will believe what a vast amount of +charlatanism and consequential pomposity there is in this diplomacy. +But now I have done enough scolding, and want to tell you that I am +well, and that I was very glad and gave thanks to the Lord that, +according to your last letter, all was well with you, and that I love +you very much, and look at every pretty villa, thinking that perhaps +our _babies_ will be running about in it in summer. Do see that you +get the girls to come along, or if they absolutely refuse, bring +others from there with whom we are already somewhat acquainted. I +don't care to have a Frankfort snip in the room, or with the children; +or we must take a Hessian girl, with short petticoats and ridiculous +head-gear; they are half-way rural and honest. For the present I shall +rent a furnished room for myself in the city; the inn here is too +expensive. Lodgings, 5 guilders per day; two cups of tea, without +anything else, 36 kreutzers (35 are 10 silbergroschen), and, served as +the style is here, it is insulting. Day before yesterday I was at +Mayence; it is a charming region, indeed. The rye is already standing +in full ears, although the weather is infamously cold every night and +morning. The excursions by rail are the best things here. To +Heidelberg, Baden-Baden, Odenwald, Hamburg, Soden, Wiesbaden, Bingen, +Ruedesheim, Niederwald, is a leisurely day's journey; one can stay +there for five or six hours and be here again in the evening; hitherto +I have not yet availed myself of it, but shall do so, so that I may +escort you when you are here. Rochow left for Warsaw at nine o'clock +last night; he will arrive there day after tomorrow at noon, and will +most likely be here again a week from today. About politics and +individuals cannot write you much, because most letters are opened, +When once they are familiar with your address on my letters and with +your handwriting on yours, they will probably get over it, because +they have no time to read family letters. Do not be afraid of the +local aristocracy; as to money, Rothschild is the most aristocratic, +but deprive them _all_ of their money and salaries, and it would be +seen how little each one is aristocratic in himself; money doesn't do +it, and otherwise--may the Lord keep me in humility, but here the +temptation is strong to be content with one's self. + +Countess Pueckler, sister of the Countess Stolberg, resides at +Weistritz, near Schweidnitz. Now, farewell; I must go out. God's +blessing be with you. Give F. and M. much love. Your most faithful v. +B. + + +Frankfort, May 27, '51. + +_My Darling_,--* * * On Friday there was a ball at Lady Cowley's, +which lasted until five in the morning; they all dance here as if +possessed; the oldest delegates of fifty, with white hair, danced to +the end of the cotillion, in the sweat of their brows. At midnight +"God Save the Queen" was solemnly played, because her birthday was +dawning, and it was all a transparency of English coats-of-arms and +colors from top to bottom, and very many odd, stiff ladies, who "lisp +English when they lie," as I read once upon a time the translation of +that passage in _Faust_; that is to say, they all have a passion for +talking bad French, and I am altogether forgetting my English, as I +have discovered to my dismay. * * * Oftentimes I feel terribly +homesick, and that is to me an agreeable sadness, for otherwise I seem +to myself so aged, so dryly resigned and documentary, as if I were +only pasted on a piece of card-board. * * * Give your dear parents my +heartfelt love, and kiss Annie's pretty hand for me, because she stays +with you so sweetly-Now, I shall not write another word until I have a +letter from you in hand. Yesterday I attended the Lutheran church +here; a not very gifted, but devout, minister; the audience consisted, +apart from myself, of just twenty two women, and my appearance was +visibly an event. God bless and keep you and the children. + +Your most faithful v.B. + +[Illustration: PRINCESS BISMARCK] + + +Frankfort, Ascension Day--Evening. + +(Postmarked Berlin, June 1, '51.) + +_My Heart_,--How good it is of you all that, directly after I had +mailed my complaint of lack of news, there arrives such a shower of +letters. A thousand thanks to your dear parents, and I shall answer +dad tomorrow, when I am less hurried than today, for on this dear +holiday, after a big dinner, I must still write some long despatches. +I was at the French church today, where at least there was more +congregation and devotion, and the minister was passable, too, but I +cannot talk French with my dear, faithful Lord and Saviour; it seems +to me ungrateful. For the rest, they sang pretty hymns, these insipid +Calvinists, almost in the sweet Catholic tune which you always +play. * * * + +Your most faithful v.B. + +Your letter had been opened again. + + +Frankfort, June 4, '51. + +_My Darling_,--Were you not going to write to me any more? I was +resolved even yesterday not to put pen to paper until I should have a +letter from you, but, anyway, I will be good, and tell you that I am +well and love you, even if you let your little inkstand dry up. I long +exceedingly for you and the children, and for quiet, comfortable +domesticity at Schoenhausen or Reinfeld. As soon as I have finished my +hitherto rather unimportant occupations, my empty lodgings, and the +whole dreary world behind, face me, and I know not where to set my +foot, for there is nothing which particularly attracts me. Day before +yesterday I ate at Biberich, with the Duke of Nassau, the first fresh +herrings and the first strawberries and raspberries of the season. It +is certainly a delightful piece of earth along the Rhine, and I looked +pensively from the castle windows over to the red cathedral of +Mayence, which, almost four years ago, we both went to see very early +in the morning, in times for which we were not then sufficiently +grateful to God; I remembered how, on board the steamer, the blue +hills before us, we passed by the Duke's handsome castle, without +dreaming how and why I should stand there at the window this year, an +old wig of a Minister before me, who unravelled his views on national +polities, while I was thinking, with an occasional absent-minded +"Quite so," of our trip of '47, and sought with my eyes the spot on +the Mayence bridge whence you, in your little Geneva coat, embarked on +the steamer; and then I thought of Geneva. * * * Countess Thun +unfortunately left on Sunday for Tetschen, to spend three months with +her father-in-law. She is a kindly lady, womanly and devout (Catholic, +very), attributes which do not grace the women here in general; her +husband gambles and flirts, I believe, more so than is agreeable to +her. I hardly believe that you will like her, but she is one of the +better specimens of women of the great world, even though that just +proves to me that a woman of that world would not have been suitable +for me; I like her to associate with, but not to marry. Perhaps, by +comparing her with the others of her sort, you will learn to +appreciate her. The gentlemen are unendurable. The moment I accost one +he assumes a diplomatic countenance, and thinks of what he can answer +without saying too much, and what he can write home concerning my +utterances. Those who are not so I find still less congenial; they +talk equivocally to the ladies, and the latter encourage them +shamefully. It makes a less morbid impression on me if a woman falls +thoroughly for once, but preserves a sense of shame at heart, than if +she takes pleasure in such chatter; and I value the Countess Thun, +because, despite the general fashion prevailing here, she knows how to +keep decidedly clear of all that sort of thing. * * * Your most +faithful v.B. + + +Frankfort, June 26, '51. + +_My Darling_,--Today I have been suffering all day long from +homesickness. I received your letter of Sunday early, and then I sat +in the window and smelled the summer fragrance of roses and all sorts +of shrubs in the little garden, and while so doing I heard one of your +dear Beethoven pieces, played by an unknown hand on the piano, wafted +over from some window opposite, distantly and in snatches, and to me +it sounded prettier than any concert. I kept wondering why I must, +after all, be so far away, for a long time, from you and the children, +while so many people who do not love each other at all see one another +from morning till night. It is now seven months since I received at +Reinfeld the order to join the regiment; since then we have twice paid +each other a hasty visit, and it will be eight or nine months before +we shall be again united. It must, indeed, be the Lord's will, for I +have not sought it, and when I am sorrowful it is a consolation to me +that I did not speak a syllable in order to come here, and that +ambition for outward pomp was not what led me to this separation. We +are not in this world to be happy and to enjoy, but to do our duty; +and the less my condition is a self-made one, the more do I realize +that I am to perform the duties of the office in which I am placed. +And I certainly do not wish to be ungrateful, for I am, nevertheless, +happy in the knowledge of possessing so much that is dear, even if far +away from here, and in the hope of a happy reunion. On the arrival of +every letter from Reinfeld my first feeling is one of hearty gratitude +for the unmerited happiness that I still have you in this world, and +with every death of wife or child which I see in the newspaper the +consciousness of what I have to lose comes forcibly home to me, and of +what the merciful God has granted and thus far preserved to me. Would +that gratitude therefor might so dispose my obstinate and worldly +heart to receive the mercy of the Lord that it shall not be necessary +for Him to chastise me in what I love, for I have greater fear of that +than of any other evil. * * * In a few weeks it must be decided +whether I shall be made Envoy here or stay at Reinfeld. The Austrians +at Berlin are agitating against my appointment, because my +black-and-white is not sufficiently yellow for them; but I hardly +believe they will succeed, and you, my poor dear, will probably have +to jump into the cold water of diplomacy; and the boy, unlucky wight +that he is, will have a South-German accent added to his Berlin +nativity. * * * As far as can now be foreseen, I shall not be able to +get away from this galley for two or three weeks, for, including +Silesia, that amount of time would probably be necessary for it. But +much water will flow down the Main before then, and I am not worrying +before the time comes. How I should like to turn suddenly around the +bushy corner of the lawn and surprise all of you in the hall! I see +you so plainly, attending to the children, covering up Midget, with +sensible speeches, and father sitting at his desk smoking, the mayor +beside him, and mammy bolt-upright on her sofa, by wretched light, one +hand lying on the arm-rest, or holding _Musee Francais_ close before +her eyes. God grant that at this moment everything at Reinfeld is +going as smoothly as this. I have at last received a letter from Hans, +one that is very charming, and, contrary to his custom, mysterious, in +view of the post-office spies. You may imagine how Senfft writes to me +under these circumstances. I received an unsigned letter from him the +other day, out of which the most quick-witted letter-bandit would have +been at a loss to decipher what he was driving at. If you occasionally +come across some unintelligible notices at the tail end of the +_Observer_, they will thus seem to you more puzzling still, and to the +blockhead who breaks open this letter they will remain unintelligible, +even if I tell you that they are a part of my correspondence. Only +give me frequent tidings, my beloved heart, even if short ones, so +that I may have the assurance that you are alive and well. A have +picked the enclosed leaves for you in the garden of old Amschel +Rothschild, whom I like, because he is simply a haggling Jew, and does +not pretend to be anything else, and, at the same time, a strictly +orthodox Jew, who touches nothing at his dinners, and eats only +"undefiled" food. "Johann dage vid you some bread for de deers," he +said his servant as he came out to show me his garden, in which there +were some tame fallow deer. "Baron, dat blant costs me two thousand +guilders, honor bride, two thousand guilders gash; I vill let you have +it for one thousand or, if you vant it for nuddings, he shall bring id +to your house. God knows I abbrejiate you highly, Baron; you are a +nize man, a brave man." With that he is a little, thin gray imp of a +man, the patriarch of his tribe, but a poor man in his palace, +childless, a widower, cheated by his servants, and ill-treated by +aristocratically Frenchified and Anglicized nephews and nieces who +will inherit his treasures without gratitude and without love. +Good-night, my angel. The clock is striking twelve; I want to go to +bed and read chap. ii. of the Second Epistle of St. Peter. I am now +doing that in a systematic way, and, when I have finished St. Peter, +at your recommendation I shall read the He-brews, which I do not know +at all as yet. May God's protection and blessing be with you all. + +Your most faithful v.B. + + +Frankfort, July 3, 1851. + +_My Pet_,--Day before yesterday I very thankfully received your letter +and the tidings that you are all well. But do not forget when you +write to me that the letters are opened not by me alone, but by all +sorts of postal spies, and don't berate particular persons so much in +them, for all that is immediately reported and debited to my account; +besides, you do people injustice. Concerning my appointment or +non-appointment I know nothing as yet, except what was told me when I +left; everything else is possibilities and surmises. The only +crookedness about the matter us far has been the government's silence +towards me, for it would have been only fair to let me know by this, +and officially at that, whether during next month I to live here or in +Pomerania with wife and child. Be careful in your remarks to every one +there, without exception, not to Massow alone; particularly in your +criticisms of individuals, for you have no idea what one experiences +in this respect after once becoming an object of surveillance; be +prepared to see warmed up with sauce, here or at Sans Souci, what you +may perhaps whisper to Charlotte[17] or Annie in the boscages or the +bathing-house. Forgive me for being so admonitory, but after your last +letter I have to take the diplomatic pruning-knife in hand a bit. Do +not write me anything that the police may not read and communicate to +King, ministers, or Rochow. If the Austrians and many other folks can +succeed in sowing distrust in our camp, they will thereby attain one +of the principal objects of their letter-pilfering. Day before +yesterday I took dinner at Wiesbaden, with Dewitz, and, with a mixture +of sadness and knowing wisdom, I inspected the scenes of past +foolishness. Would that it might please God to fill with His clear and +strong wine this vessel, in which at that time the champagne of +twenty-two-year-old youth sparkled uselessly away, leaving stale dregs +behind. Where and how may Isabella Loraine and Miss Russel be living +now? How many of those with whom I then flirted, tippled, and played +dice are now dead and buried! How many transformations has my view of +the world undergone in the fourteen years which have since elapsed, +while I always considered the existing one as alone correct! and how +much is now small to me which then appeared great, how much now +deserving of respect which I then ridiculed! How many a green bud +within us may still come to mature blossom and wither worthlessly away +before another period of fourteen years is over, in 1865, if we are +then still alive! I cannot realize how a person who is thoughtful and, +nevertheless, knows nothing or wishes to know nothing of God, can +endure giving a despised and tedious life, a life which is fleeting as +a stream, as a sleep, even as a blade of grass that soon withers; we +spend our years as in a babble of talk. + +I do not know how I endured it in the past; if I should live now as I +did then, without God, without you, without children, I should, in +fact, be at a loss to know why I should not cast off this life like a +soiled shirt; and yet most of my acquaintances are thus, and they +live. If in the case of some one individual I ask myself what reason +he can have, in his own mind, for continuing to live, to toil, to +fret, to intrigue, and to spy--verily I do not know. Do not conclude +from this scribbling that I happen to be in a particularly black mood; +on the contrary, I feel as when, on a beautiful September day, one +contemplates the yellowing foliage; healthy and gay, but a little +sadness, a little homesickness, a longing for woods, lake, meadow, you +and the children, all mingled with the sunset and a Beethoven +symphony. Instead of that I must now call upon tiresome serene +Highnesses and read endless figures about German sloops of war and +cannon-yawls which are rotting at Bremerhaven and devouring +cash. * * * Farewell, my beloved heart. Much love to our parents, and +God keep you all. + +Your most faithful v.B. + + +Frankfort, July 8, 1851. + +_My Darling_,--Yesterday and today I wished very much to write to you, +but owing to a hurly burly of business I have not been able to do so +till now, late in the evening, after returning from a walk during +which, in the charming summer-night's air, with moonlight and the +rustling of poplar-leaves, I have brushed off the dust of the day's +documents. On Saturday, in the afternoon, I went with Rochow and Lynar +to Ruedesheim, hired a boat there, rowed out on the Rhine, and swam in +the moonlight, nothing but nose and eyes over the tepid water, as far +as the Mouse Tower near Bingen, where the wicked bishop met his death. +There is something strangely dreamlike in thus lying in the water on a +quiet, warm night, carried gently along by the tide, seeing only the +sky with moon and stars, and, alongside, the wooded hill-tops and the +castle battlements in the moonlight, hearing nothing but the gentle +purling of one's own motion. I should like to swim thus every evening. +Then I drank some very nice wine, and sat for a long time smoking, +with Lynar, on the balcony, the Rhine beneath us. My little Testament +and the starry firmament caused our conversation to turn on Christian +topics, and I hammered for a long time at the Rousseau-like chastity +of his soul, with no other effect than to cause him to remain silent. +He was ill-treated while a child by nurses and private tutors, without +having really learned to know his parents, and by reason of a similar +bringing-up he has retained from his youthful days opinions similar to +my own, but has always been more satisfied with them than I ever was. +Next morning we went by steamer to Coblentz, breakfasted there for an +hour, and returned by the same route to Frankfort, where we arrived in +the evening. I really undertook the expedition with the object of +visiting old Metternich at Johannisberg; he had invited me, but the +Rhine pleased me so much that I preferred to take a pleasure ride to +Coblentz, and postponed the call. You and I saw him that time on our +trip directly after the Alps, and in bad weather; on this summer +morning, and after the dusty tedium of Frankfort, he again rose high +in my esteem. I promise myself much relish from spending a few days +with you at Ruedesheim, the place is so quiet and country-like, good +people and low-priced, and then we shall hire a little rowboat, ride +leisurely down, climb the Niederwald, and this and that castle, and +return by the steamer. One can leave here early in the morning, remain +for eight hours at Ruedesheim, Bingen, Rheinstein, etc., and be here +again at night. My appointment at this place does not appear to be +certain, and Hans is going to Coblentz as Lord-Lieutenant; will live +there in a stately palace, with the finest view in all Prussia. By +leaving here early, one reaches Coblentz by half past ten, and is back +in the evening; that is easier than from Reinfeld to Reddentin, and a +prettier road. You see we are not forsaken here; but who would have +thought, when we went to the wedding in Kiekow, that both of us should +be removed from our innocent Pomeranian solitude and hurled to the +summits of life, speaking in worldly fashion, to political outposts on +the Rhine? The ways of the Lord are passing strange. May He likewise +take our souls out of their darkness and lift them to the bright +summits of His grace. _That_ position would be more secure. But He has +certainly taken us visibly into His hand, and will not let me fall, +even though I sometimes make myself a heavy weight. The interview with +Lynar the other day has truly enabled me to cast a grateful (but not +pharisaical) glance over the distance which lies between me and my +previous unbelief; may it increase continually, until it has attained +the proper measure. * * * I am already beginning to look about here +for a house, preferably outside of the city, with a garden; there my +darling will have to play a very stiff, self-contained part, see much +tedious society, give dinners and balls, and assume terribly +aristocratic airs. What do you say to having dancing at your house +until far into the night? Probably it cannot be avoided, my beloved +heart--that is part of the "service." I can see mother's blue eyes +grow big with wonder at the thought. I am going to bed, to read +Corinthians i., 3, and pray God to preserve you all to me, and grant +you a quiet night and health and peace. Dearest love to your parents. + +Your most faithful + +v.B. + + +Frankfort, April 4, '52. + +_Dear Mother_,--I wished to write you today at length, but I do not +know how far I shall progress in it after having given myself up for +so long to enjoyment of Sunday leisure, by taking a long, loitering +walk in the woods, that hardly an hour remains before the closing of +the mail. I found such pretty, solitary paths, quite narrow, between +the greening hazel and thorn-bushes, where only the thrush and the +glede-kite were heard, and quite far off the bell of the church to +which I was playing truant, that I could not find my way home again. +Johanna is somewhat exhausted, in connection with her condition, or I +should have had her in the woods, too, and perhaps we should still be +there. * * * She has presented me with an exquisite anchor watch, of +which I was much in need, because I always wore her small one. In the +Vincke matter I cannot, with you, sufficiently praise God's mercy that +no misfortune has occurred from any side. I believe that for me it was +inwardly very salutary to have felt myself so near unto death, and +prepared myself for it; I know that you do not share my conception of +such matters, but I have never felt so firm in believing trust, and so +resigned to God's will, as I did in the moment when the matter was in +progress. We can discuss it orally some time; now I only want to tell +you how it happened. I had repeatedly been disgusted by V.'s rudeness +to the government and ourselves, and was prepared resolutely to oppose +him at the next opportunity that offered. He accused me of want of +diplomatic discretion, and said that hitherto the "burning cigar" was +my only known achievement. He alluded to an occurrence at the Palace +of the Diet, of which I had previously told him confidentially, at his +particular request, as of something quite unimportant, but comical. I +then retorted from the platform that his remark overstepped not only +the bounds of diplomatic but also of ordinary discretion, which one +had a right to demand from every man of education. Next day he +challenged me, through Herr von Sauken-Julienfelde, for four +pistol-shots; I accepted it after Oscar Arnim's proposal, that we +should fight with swords, had been declined by Sauken. Vincke wished +to defer the matter for forty-eight hours, which I granted. On the +25th, at 8 A.M., we rode to Tegel; to a charming spot in the woods by +the seashore; it was beautiful weather, and the birds sang so gayly in +the sunshine that, as soon as we entered the wood, all sad thoughts +left me; only the thought of Johanna I had to drive from me by force, +so as not to be affected by it. With me as witnesses were Arnim and +Eberhard Stolberg, and my brother as very dejected spectator. With V. +were Sauken, and Major Vincke of the First Chamber, as well as a +Bodelschwingh (nephew of the Minister and of Vincke), as impartial +witness. The latter declared before the matter began that the +challenge seemed to him to be, under the circumstances, too stringent, +and proposed that it should be modified to one shot apiece. Sauken, in +V.'s name, was agreeable to this, and had word brought to me that the +whole thing should be called off if I declared I was sorry for my +remark. As I could not truthfully do this, we took our positions, +fired at Bodelschwingh's command, and both missed. God forgive the +grave sin that I did not at once recognize His mercy, but I cannot +deny it: when I looked through the smoke and saw my adversary standing +erect, a feeling of disappointment prevented me from participating in +the general rejoicing, which caused Bodelschwingh to shed tears; the +modification of the challenge annoyed me, and I would gladly have +continued the combat. But, as I was not the insulted party, I could +say nothing; it was over, and all shook hands. We rode home and I ate +with my sister alone. All the world was dissatisfied with the outcome, +but the Lord must know what He still intends to make of V. In cool +blood, I am certainly very grateful that it happened so. What probably +contributed much to it was the fact that a couple of very good +pistols, which were originally intended to be used, were so loaded +that for the moment they were quite useless, and we had to take those +intended for the seconds, with which it was difficult to hit. An +official disturbance has interrupted me, and now I must close--time is +up. Only I still want to say that I had consulted beforehand, about +the duel, with old Stolberg, General Gerlach, Minister Uhden and Hans; +they were all of opinion that it must be; Buechsel, too, saw no +alternative, although he admonished me to desist. I spent an hour in +prayer, with him and Stolberg, the evening before. I never doubted +that I should have to appear, but I did doubt whether I should shoot +at V. I did it without anger, and missed. Now farewell, my dearly +beloved mother. Give love to father and every one from + +Your faithful son, v.B. + + +Vienna, June 14, '52. + +_My Beloved Heart_,--At this hour I ought to sit down and write +a long report to his Majesty concerning a lengthy and fruitless +negotiation which I had today with Count Buol, and concerning an +audience with the Archduchess Empress-Dowager. But I have just taken +a promenade on the high ramparts all round the inner city, and from +them seen a charming sunset behind the Leopoldsberg, and now I am much +more inclined to think of you than of business. I stood for a long +time on the red Thor Tower, which commands a view of the Jaegerzeil +and of our old-time domicile, the Lamb, with the cafe before it; at +the Archduchess' I was in a room which opens on the homelike little +garden into which we once secretly and thoughtlessly found our way; +yesterday I heard _Lucia_--Italian, very good; all this so stirs +my longing for you that I am quite sad and incapable. For it is terrible +to be thus alone in the world, when one is no longer accustomed to it; I +am in quite a Lynaric mood. Nothing but calls, and coming to know +strangers, with whom I am always having the same talk. Every one knows +that I have not yet been here very long, but whether I was ever here +before; that is the great question which I have answered two hundred +times in these days, and happy that that topic still remains. For folk +bent on pleasure this may be a very pretty place, for it offers whatever +is capable of affording outward diversion to people. But I am longing +for Frankfort as if it were Kniephof, and do not wish to come here by +any means. F. must lie just where the sun went down, over the +Mannhartsberg yonder; and, while it was sinking here, it still continued +shining with you for over half an hour. It is terribly far. How +different it was with you here my heart, and with Salzburg and Meran in +prospect; I have grown terribly old since then. * * * It is very cruel +that we must spend such a long period of our brief life apart; that time +is lost, then, and cannot be brought back. God alone knows why He allows +others to remain together who are quite at their ease when apart; like +an aged friend of mine, who travelled with me as far as Dresden had to +sit in the same compartment with his wife all the time, and could not +smoke; and we must always correspond at a great distance. We shall make +up for it all, and love each other a great deal more when we are again +together; if only we keep well! Then I shall not murmur. Today I had the +great pleasure of receiving, _via_ Berlin, your letter of last Thursday; +that is the second one since I left Frankfort; surely none is lost? I +was very happy and thankful that all of you are well. * * * As soon as I +find myself once more on the old, tiresome Thuringian railroad I shall +be out of myself, and still more so when I catch a glimpse of our light +from Bockenheim; I must travel about nine hundred miles thither, not +including two hundred and fifty miles from Pesth back to this place. How +gladly I shall undertake them, once I am seated in the train! I shall +probably abandon my trip by way of Munich; from this place to M. is a +post-trip of fifty hours; by water still longer; and I shall have to +render a verbal report in Berlin, anyway. About politics I can, +fortunately, write nothing; for, even if the English courier who takes +this to Berlin is a safeguard against our post-office, the Taxis +scoundrels will, nevertheless, get hold of it. + +Be sure to write me detailed information as to your personal +condition. Greet mother, our relations, if they are still there, +Leontine, the children, Stolberg, Wentzel, and all the rest. Farewell +my angel. God preserve you. + +Your most faithful v.B. + + +Ofen, June 23, '52. + +_My Darling_,--I have just left the steamer, and do not know how +better to utilize the moment at my disposal until Hildebrand follows +with my things than by sending you a love-token from this far-easterly +but pretty spot. The Emperor has graciously assigned me quarters in +his palace, and I am sitting here in a large vaulted chamber at the +open window, into which the evening bells of Pesth are pealing. The +view outward is charming. The castle stands high; immediately below me +the Danube, spanned by the suspension-bridge; behind it Pesth, which +would remind you of Dantzig, and farther away the endless plain +extending far beyond Pesth, disappearing in the bluish-red dusk of +evening. To the left of Pesth I look up the Danube, far, very far, +away; to my left, _i.e._, on the right-hand shore, it is fringed first +by the city of Ofen, behind it hills like the Berici near Venetia blue +and bluer, then bluish-red in the evening sky, which glows behind. In +the midst of both cities is the large sheet of water as at Linz, +intersected by the suspension-bridge and a wooded island. It is really +splendid; only you, my angel, are lacking for me to enjoy this +prospect _with you_; then it would be _quite_ nice. Then, too, the +road hither, at least from Gran to Pesth, would have pleased you. +Imagine Odenwald and Taunus moved close together, the waters of the +Danube filling the interval; and occasionally, particularly near +Wisserad, a little Duerrenstein-Agstein. The shady side of the trip was +the sunny side; it burned as if they wanted tokay to grow on the +steamer, and the crowd of travelers was large; but, just imagine, not +one Englishman; it must be that they have not yet discovered Hungary. +For the rest, there were queer fellows enough, dirty and washed, of +all Oriental and Occidental nations. * * * By this time I am becoming +impatient as to Hildebrand's whereabouts; I am lying in the window, +half musing in the moonlight, half waiting for him as for a mistress, +for I long for a clean shirt. * * * If you were here for only a +moment, and could contemplate now the dull, silvery Danube, the dark +hills on a pale-red background, and the lights which are shining up +from Pesth below, Vienna would lose much in your estimation compared +to Buda-Pescht, as the Hungarian calls it. You see I am not only a +lover, but also an enthusiast, for nature. Now I shall soothe my +excited blood with a cup of tea, after Hildebrand has actually put in +an appearance, and shall then go to bed and dream of you, my love. +Last night I had only four hours of sleep, and the court here is +terribly matutinal; the young gentleman himself rises as early as five +o 'clock, so that I should be a bad courtier if I were to sleep much +longer. Therefore I bid you good-night from afar, with a side-glance +at a gigantic teapot and an enticing plate of cold jellied cuts, +tongue, as I see, among the rest. Where did I get that song that +occurs to me continually today--"_Over the blue mountain, over the +white sea-foam, come, thou beloved one, come to thy lonely home_"? I +don't know who must have sung that to me, some time in _auld lang +syne_. May God's angels keep you today as hitherto. + +Your most faithful v.B. + + +The 24th. + +After having slept very well, although on a wedge-shaped pillow, I bid +you good-morning, my heart. The whole panorama before me is bathed in +such a bright, burning sun that I cannot look out at all without being +blinded. Until I begin my calls I am sitting here breakfasting and +smoking all alone in a very spacious apartment--four rooms, all +thickly vaulted, two something like our dining-room in size, thick +walls as at Schoenhausen, gigantic nut-wood closets, blue silk +furnishings, a profusion of large spots on the floor, an ell in size, +which a more excited fancy than mine might take for blood, but which I +decidedly declare to be ink; an unconscionably awkward scribe must +have lodged here, or another Luther repeatedly hurled big inkstands +at his opponents. * * * Exceedingly strange figures, brown, with broad +hats and wide trousers, are floating about on long wooden rafts in the +Danube below. I regret I am not an artist; I should like to let you +see these wild faces, mustached, long-haired with excited black eyes, +and the ragged, picturesque drapery which hangs about them, as they +appeared to me all day yesterday. * * * Farewell, my heart. God bless +you and our present and future children. + +Your most faithful v.B. + + +Evening. + +I have not yet found an opportunity to send this. Again the lights are +shining up from Pesth, lightning appears on the horizon in the +direction of the Theiss, and there is starlight above us. I have been +in uniform most of the day, handed my credentials to the young ruler +of this country at a solemn audience, and received a very pleasing +impression of him--twenty-year-old vivacity, coupled with studied +composure. He _can_ be very winning, I have seen that; whether he +always will, I do not know, and he need not, for that matter. At any +rate, he is for this country exactly what it needs, and more than that +for the peace of its neighbors, if God does not give him a +peace-loving heart. After dinner all the court went on an excursion +into the mountains, to a romantic spot called the Pretty Shepherdess, +who has long been dead, King Matthias Corvinus having loved her many +hundred years ago. Thence the view is over woody hills, like those on +the Neckar banks to Ofen, its castle, and the plain. A popular +festival had brought thousands up to it, and the Emperor, who mingled +with them, was surrounded with noisy cheers; Czardas danced, waltzed, +sang, played, climbed into the trees, and crowded the court-yard. On a +grassy slope was a supper-table of about twenty persons, sitting along +one side only, leaving the other free for a view of wood, hill, city, +and country, high beeches over us, with Hungarians climbing among the +branches; behind us a densely crowded and crowding mass of people near +by, and, beyond, alternate horn-music and singing, wild gipsy +melodies. Illumination, moonlight, and evening glow, interspersed with +torches through the wood; the whole might have been served, unaltered, +as a great scenic effect in a romantic opera. Beside me sat the +whitebearded Archbishop of Gran, primate of Hungary, in a black silk +talar, with a red cape; on the other side a very amiable and elegant +general of cavalry, Prince Liechtenstein. You see, the painting was +rich in contrasts. Then we rode home by moonlight, escorted by +torches; and while I smoke my evening cigar I am writing to my +darling, and leaving the documents until tomorrow. * * * I have +listened today to the story of how this castle was stormed by the +insurgents three years ago, when the brave General Hentzi and the +entire garrison were cut down after a wonderfully heroic defence. The +black spots on my floor are in part burns, and where I am now writing +to you the shells then danced about, and the combat finally raged on +top of smoking _debris_. It was only put in order again a few weeks +ago, against the Emperor's arrival. Now it is very quiet and cozy up +here; I hear only the ticking of a clock and distant rolling of wheels +from below. For the second time from this place I bid you good-night +in the distance. May angels watch over you--a grenadier with a +bear-skin cap does that for me here; I see his bayonet two arm-lengths +away from me, projecting six inches above the windowsill, and +reflecting my light. He is standing on the terrace over the Danube, +and is, perhaps, thinking of his Nan, too. + + +Tomsjoenaes, August 16, '57. + +_My Dearest,_--I make use again of the Sunday quiet to give you a sign +of life, though I do not know what day there will be a chance to send +it out of this wilderness to the mail. I rode about seventy miles +without break, through the desolate forest, in order to reach here, +and before me lie more than a hundred miles more before one gets to +provinces of arable land. Not a city, not a village, far and wide; +only single settlers in wide huts, with a little barley and potatoes, +who find rods of land to till, here and there between dead trees, +pieces of rock, and bushes. Picture to yourself about five hundred +square miles of such desolate country as that around Viartlum, high +heather, alternating with short grass and bog, and with birches, +junipers pines, beeches, oaks, alders, here impenetrably thick, there +thin and barren of foliage, the whole strewn with innumerable stones +of all sizes up to that of a house, smelling of wild rosemary and +rosin, at intervals wonderfully shaped lakes surrounded by woods and +hills of the heath, then you have the land of Smaa, where I am just +now. Really, the land of my dreams, inaccessible to despatches, +colleagues, and Reitzenstein, but unfortunately, to you as well. I +should like ever so much to have a hunting-castle on one of these +quiet lakes and inhabit it for some months with all the dear ones whom +I think of now as assembled in Reinfeld. In winter, to be sure, it +would not be endurable here, especially in the mud that all the rain +would make. Yesterday we turned out at about five, hunted, in burning +heat, up-hill and down, through bush and fen, until eleven, and found +absolutely nothing; walking in bogs and impenetrable juniper thickets, +on large stones and timbers, is very fatiguing. Then we slept in a +hay-shed until two o'clock, drank lots of milk, and hunted again until +sunset, bringing down twenty-five grouse and two mountain-hens. I shot +four of the former; Engel, to his great delight, one of the latter. +Then we dined in the hunting-lodge, a remarkable wooden building on a +peninsula in the lake. My sleeping-room and its three chairs, two +tables, and bedstead are of no other color than that of the natural +pine-boards, like the whole house, whose walls are made of these. A +sofa does not exist; bed very hard; but after such hardships as ours +one does not need to be rocked to sleep. From my window I see a +blooming hill rise from the heath, on it birches rocking in the wind, +and between them I see, in the lake mirror, pine-woods on the other +side. Near the house a camp has been put up for hunters, drivers, +servants, and peasants, then the barricade of wagons, a little city of +dogs, eighteen or twenty huts on both sides of a lane which they form; +from each a throng looks out tired from yesterday's hunt. * * * + + +Petersburg, April 4, '59. + +_My Dear Heart_,--Now that the rush of today noon is past, I sit down +in the evening to write you a few more lines in peace. When I closed +my letter today I did it with the intention of writing to you next a +birthday letter, and thought I had plenty of time for it; it is only +the 23d of March here. I have thought it over, and find that a letter +must go out today exactly to reach Frankfort on the 11th; it is hard +to get used to the seven days' interval which the post needs. So I +hurry my congratulations. May God grant you His rich blessing in soul +and body, for all your love and truth, and give you resignation and +contentment in regard to the various new conditions of life, contrary +to your inclinations, which you will meet here. We cannot get rid of +the sixtieth degree of latitude, and we have not chosen our own lot. +Many live happily here, although the ice is still solid as rock, and +more snow fell in the night, and there are no garden and no Taunus +here. + +I could get along very well indeed here if I only knew the same of +you, and, above all, if I had you with me. All official matters--and +in them rests really the calling which in this world has fallen to my +lot, and which you, through your significant "Yes" in the Kolziglow +church, are bound to help bear in joy and sorrow--all official matters +are, in comparison with Frankfort, changed from thorns to roses; +whether they will ever blossom is, indeed, uncertain. The aggravations +of the Diet and the palace venom look from here like childishness. If +we do not wantonly make ourselves disagreeable, we are welcome here. +Whenever the carriages are called here, and "_Prusku passlanika"_ +("Prussian carriage") is cried out among those waiting, then all the +Russians look about with pleasant smiles, as though they had just +popped down a ninety-degree glass of schnapps. There is some social +affair every evening, and the people are different from those in +Frankfort. Your aversion to court life will weaken. You cannot fail to +like the Czar; you have seen him already--have you not! He is +extremely gracious to me, as well as the Czarina--the young Czarina, I +mean. And it is easy to get along with the mother, in spite of her +imposing presence. I dined with her today with the Meiendorfs and +Loen,[18] and it was just like that dinner at our house with Prince +Carl and the Princess Anna, when we enjoyed ourselves so much. In +short, only take courage, and things will come out all right. So far I +have only agreeable impressions; the only thing that provokes me is +that smoking is not allowed on the street. One can have no idea in +what disfavor the Austrians are over here; a mangy dog will not take a +piece of meat from them. I am sorry for poor Szechenyi; I do not +dislike him. They will either drive things to a war from here, or let +it come, and then they will stick the bayonet into the Austrians' +backs; however peacefully people talk, and however I try to soften +things down, as my duty demands, the hatred is unlimited, and goes +beyond all my expectations. Since coming here I begin to believe in +war. There seems to be no room in Russian politics for any other +thought than how to strike at Austria. Even the quiet, mild Czar falls +into rage and fire whenever he talks about it, as does the Czarina, +although a Darmstadt Princess; and it is touching when the Dowager +Czarina talks of her husband's broken heart, and of Francis Joseph, +whom he loved as a son, really without anger, but as if speaking of +one who is exposed to God's vengeance. Now I have still much to write +for the carrier tomorrow, and this you will not receive, I suppose, +until two days after your dear birthday, just when I am celebrating +mine by the calendar here. Farewell, my dear, and give each child a +sweet orange from me. Love to all. + +Your most faithful v.B. + + +Petersburg, June 4, '59. + +_My Dear Heart_,--At last, day before yesterday, came the +long-yearned-for news from you, with the reassuring post-mark, Stolp. +I could not go to sleep at all in the evening, because of anxious +pictures of my imagination, whose scenes were all the stopping-places +between Berlin and Reinfeld. * * * Yesterday I dined at the Czarina's, +in Zarske, where I found the Grand Princess Marie, who could tell me +at least that she had seen you in Berlin, and that you were all right. +On the way back the Czar met me at the station, and took me into his +coupe--very conspicuous here for a civilian with such an old hat as I +generally wear. In the evening I was, of course, on the islands, on a +lively dark-brown horse, and drank tea there with a nice, old, +white-haired Countess Stroganoff. The lilac, I must tell you, has +flowered here as beautifully as in Frankfort, and the laburnum, too; +and the nightingales warble so happily that it is hard to find a spot +on the islands where one does not hear them. In the city, during these +days, we had such unremitting heat as we almost never have at home. +The captain of the _Eagle_ told me that the temperature in southern +Pomerania was actually refreshing in comparison; with such short +nights, too, the morning brings no real coolness, and I could ride or +drive about for hours in the mysterious gloaming which hovers at +midnight over the surface of the water, if the increasing brightness +did not give warning that another day is waiting with its work and +care, and that sleep demands its rights beforehand. Since I have had +the drosky, in which there is too little room for an interpreter, I am +making, to the smirking delight of Dmitri, the coachman, progress in +Russian, since there is nothing left for me to do but to speak it +_tant bien que mal_. I am sorry that you have not been able to watch +with me the sudden awakening of spring here; as if it had suddenly +occurred to her that she had overslept her time, she is putting on, in +twenty-four hours, her entire green dress, from head to foot. * * * +This whole preparation for war is somewhat premature, and is causing +us unnecessary expense. I hope we shall come to our senses finally +before setting all Europe on fire, for the sake of obliging some +little princes, and, at our own cost, helping Austria in glory out of +her embarrassment. We cannot allow Austria either to be annihilated +or, through brilliant victory, to be strengthened in her feeling of +self-confidence and to make us the footstool of her greatness. But +there is plenty of time for either case before we take the plunge, and +many a piece of Lombard water can be dyed red, for things will not go +forward so easily as hitherto when the Austrians have once placed +themselves in their line of forts, as they should have done at the +first. * * * + +It is a misfortune that I always write to you in a steaming hurry; now +the foxy face of the chancery servant, who is in the police pay, +besides, is before me again already, and is hurrying me up, and +everything I wanted to say is shrivelling before the fellow, who is +useful, however. I was just thinking of much more that I wanted to +write, and now I do not know anything except that I should like to +beat him. * * * In the greatest love, + +Your most faithful v.B. + + +Moscow, June 6, '59. + +A sign of life, at least, I want to send you from here, my dear, while +I am waiting for the samovar, and a young Russian in a red shirt is +struggling, with vain attempts, to light a fire; he blows and sighs, +but it will not burn. After complaining so much before about the +scorching heat I waked up today between Twer and here, and thought I +was dreaming when I saw the land and its fresh green covered far and +wide with snow. Nothing surprises me any more so when I could no +longer be in doubt about the fact I turned quietly on my other side to +continue sleeping and rolling on, although the play of the +green-and-white colors in the morning red was not without charm. I do +not know whether the snow still lies about Twer; here it is all +melted, and a cool, gray rain is drizzling down on the sheet of roofs. +Russia certainly has a perfect right to claim green as her color. Of +the four hundred and fifty miles hither I slept away one hundred and +eighty, but of the other two hundred and seventy every hand's-breadth +was green, of all shades. Cities and villages, especially houses, with +the exception of the stations, I did not notice; bushy forests, +chiefly birches, cover swamps and hills, fine growth of grass under +them, long meadows between. So it goes for fifty, one hundred, one +hundred and fifty miles. I don't remember to have noticed any fields, +or any heather or sand; lonely grazing cows or horses waken in one now +and then the conjecture that there are people, too, in the +neighborhood. Moscow looks from above like a corn-field, the soldiers +green, the furniture green, and I have no doubt that the eggs lying +before me were laid by green hens. You will want to know how I happen +to be here; I have asked myself the same question, and presently +received the answer that variety is the spice of life. The truth of +this profound observation is especially obvious when one has been +living for ten weeks in a sunny hotel-room, looking out upon stone +pavements. Besides, one's senses become somewhat blunted to the joys +of moving, if repeated often in a short time, so I determined to +forego these same pleasures, handed over all papers to Klueber, gave +Engel my keys, explained that I should take up my lodgings in the +Stenbock house in a week, and rode to the Moscow station. That was +yesterday, twelve noon, and today early, at eight, I alighted here at +the Hotel de France. * * * It lies in the nature of this people to +harness slowly and drive fast. I ordered my carriage two hours ago, +and to all inquiries which I have been making about every ten minutes +during the last hour and a half they say (Russian), "_Ssitschass_," +("immediately"), with unshaken and amiable calm, but there the matter +ends. You know my exemplary patience in waiting, but everything has +its limits; hunting comes later, and horses and carriages are broken +in the bad roads, so that one finally takes to walking. While writing +I have drunk three glasses of tea and made way with a number of eggs; +the attempts at heating up have also been so entirely successful that +I feel the need of getting some fresh air. I should shave myself for +very impatience if I had a mirror, in default of which, however, I +shall send a greeting to my dear Tata, with yesterday's stubble beard. +It is very virtuous really that my first thought is always of you +whenever I have a moment free, and you should make an example of that +fact. Very rambling is this city, and especially foreign-looking, with +its churches and green roofs and countless cupolas, quite different +from Amsterdam, but the two are the most original cities that I know. +Not a single German conductor has any idea of the luggage that can be +slipped into one of these coupes; not a Russian without two real, +covered head-cushions, children in baskets, and masses of provisions +of every sort, although they eat five big meals at the stations on the +way, breakfast at two, dinner five, tea seven, supper ten; it's only +four, to be sure, but enough for the short time. I was complimented by +an invitation into a sleeping-coupe, where I was worse off than in my +easy-chair; it is a wonder to me that so much fuss is made over one +night. + + +Moscow, June 8th. + +This city is really, for a city, the most beautiful and original that +there is; the environs are pleasant, not pretty, not unsightly; but +the view from above out of the Kremlin, over this circle of houses +with green roofs, gardens, churches, towers of the most extraordinary +shape and color, most of them green or red or light blue, generally +crowned on top by a colossal golden bulb, usually five or more on +one church, and surely one thousand towers! Anything more strangely +beautiful than all this, lighted by slanting sunset rays, cannot be +seen. + +[Illustration: CORONATION OF KING WILLIAM I AT KOeNIGSBERG. From the +Painting by Adolph von Menzel.] + +The weather is clear again, and I should stay here some days longer if +rumors of a big battle in Italy were not going about, which may result +in lots of diplomatic work, so that I must get back to my post. The +house in which I am writing is wonderful enough, really; one of the +few that have outlived 1812--old, thick walls, as in Schoenhausen, +Oriental architecture, Moorish, large rooms, almost entirely occupied +by the chancery officers, who administer, or maladminister, Jussupow's +estates. He, his wife, and I have the one livable wing in the midst of +them. Lots of love. + +Your most faithful v.B. + + +Petersburg, July 2, '59. + +_My Dear Heart_,--I received your letter of the 25th yesterday, and +you will probably get tomorrow the one that I sent to Stettin on +Wednesday with the Dowager Czarina. My homesick heart follows its +course with yearning thoughts; it was such charming clear weather and +fresh winds when we escorted her Highness on board in Peterhof that I +should have liked to leap on the ship, in uniform and without baggage, +and go along with her. Since then the heat has grown worse, about the +temperature of a freely watered palm-house, and my lack of summer +materials is making itself decidedly felt. I go about in the rooms in +my shirt alone, as the dear blue dressing-gown is too narrow, even now +at six o'clock in the morning. A courier wakened me half an hour ago, +with his war and peace, and I cannot sleep any more now, although I +did not get to bed until towards two. Our politics are drifting more +and more into the Austrian wake, and as soon as we have fired a shot +on the Rhine then it's all over with the war between Italy and +Austria, and, instead of that, a war between France and Prussia will +take the stage, in which Austria, after we have taken the burden from +her shoulders, will stand by us or will not stand by us, just as her +own interests dictate. She will certainly not suffer us to play a +gloriously victorious role. It is quite remarkable that in such crises +Catholic ministers always hold the reins of our destiny--Radowitz once +before, now Hohenzollern, who just now has the predominant influence, +and is in favor of war. I look very darkly into the future; our troops +are not better than the Austrian, because they only serve half as +long; and the German troops, on whose support we reckon, are for the +most part quite wretched, and, if things go ill with us, their leaders +will fall away from us like dry leaves in the wind. But God, who can +hold up and throw down Prussia, and the world, knows why these things +must be, and we will not embitter ourselves against the land in which +we were born, and against the authorities for whose enlightenment we +pray. After thirty years, perhaps much sooner, it will be a small +matter to us how things stand with Prussia and Austria, if only the +mercy of God and the deserving of Christ remain to our souls. I opened +the Scriptures last evening, at random, so as to rid my anxious heart +of politics, and my eye lighted immediately on the 5th verse of the +110th Psalm. As God wills--it is all, to be sure, only a question of +time, nations and people, folly and wisdom, war and peace; they come +and go like waves of water, and the sea remains. What are our states +and their power and honor before God, except as ant-hills and +bee-hives which the hoof of an ox tramples down, or fate, in the form +of a honey-farmer, overtakes? * * * Farewell, my sweetheart, and learn +to experience life's folly in sadness; there is nothing in this world +but hypocrisy and jugglery, and whether fever or grape-shot shall bear +away this mass of flesh, fall it must, sooner or later, and then such +a resemblance will appear between a Prussian and an Austrian, if they +are of the same size, like Schrech and Rechberg, for example, that it +will be difficult to distinguish between them; the stupid and the +clever, too, properly reduced to the skeleton state, look a good deal +like each other. Patriotism for a particular country is destroyed by +this reflection, but we should have to despair in any case, even now, +were it linked with our salvation. Farewell once more, with love to +parents and children. How impatient I am to see them! As soon as +_Vriendschap_--so our vessel is called--is in sight, I shall +telegraph. With love, as always, + +Your most faithful VON B. + + +Paris, May 31, '62. + +_My Dear Heart_,--Only a few lines in the press of business to tell +you I am well, but very lonely, with a view out over the green, in +this dull, rainy weather, while the bumble-bees hum and the sparrows +twitter. Grand audience tomorrow. It's vexatious that I have to buy +linen, towels, table-cloths, and sheets. * * * Farewell. Hearty love, +and write! Your most faithful v.B. + + +Paris, June 1, '62. + +_My Dear Heart_,--The Emperor received me today, and I handed over my +credentials; he received me kindly, is looking well, has grown +somewhat stouter, but by no means fat and aged, as he generally is in +caricatures. The Empress is still one of the most beautiful women I +know, in spite of Petersburg; she has, if anything, grown more +beautiful in the past five years. The whole affair was official, +ceremonial; I was taken back in court-carriage with master of +ceremonies, etc. Next time I shall probably have a private audience. I +long for business, for I don't know what to do with myself. Today I +dined alone, the young gentlemen were out; the entire evening rain; +and at home alone. To whom should I go? In the midst of big Paris I am +lonelier than you are at Reinfeld, and sit here like a rat in a +deserted house. The only pleasure I have had was sending the cook away +because of overcharges. You know my indulgence in this matter, but +Rembours was a child in comparison. I am dining for the present in a +cafe. How long that will last, God knows. I shall probably receive a +summons, by telegram, to Berlin, in eight or ten days, and then +good-by to this song-and-dance. If my opponents only knew what a boon +their victory would be to me, and how heartily I desire it! Then +Rechberg would, perhaps, out of malice, do his best to have me called +to Berlin. You can't have any more aversion to Wilhelmstrasse than +myself, and if I am not persuaded that it must be, then I will not go. +I consider it cowardice and disloyalty to leave the King in the lurch, +under pretence of illness. If it is not to be, then God will permit +those who search to find another _princillon_ who will offer himself +as cover for the pot. If it is to be, then "_s'Bogom"_ ("with God"), +as our Russian drivers used to say, when they took up the reins. * * * + +Your v.B. + + +Bordeaux, July 27, '62. + +_My Dear Heart_,--You cannot refuse to testify that I am a good +correspondent; I wrote this morning from Chenonceaux to your +birthday-child, and now this evening, from the city of red wine, to +you. But these lines will arrive a day later than those, as the mail +does not leave until tomorrow afternoon. I left Paris only day before +yesterday noon, but it seems to me a week. I have seen very beautiful +castles--Chambord, of which the enclosure (torn out of a book) gives +only an imperfect idea, corresponds, in its desolation, to the fate of +its owner (I hope you know it belongs to the Duke of Bordeaux). In the +wide halls and magnificent rooms, where so many kings kept their +court, with their mistresses and their hunting, the Duke's only +furniture consists now of the children's toys. My guide took me for a +French Legitimist, and squeezed out a tear as she showed me the little +cannon. I paid for the tear-drop, tariff-wise, with an extra franc, +although it is not my vocation to subsidize Carlism. The castle +court-yards lay in the sun as quiet as deserted churches; there is a +distant view round about from the towers, but on all sides silent +woods and heather to the farthest horizon; not a city, not a village, +not a farm-house, either near the castle or in the region round it. +The enclosed sprigs, specimens of heather, will no longer show you how +purple this plant I love so much blooms here, the only flower in the +royal garden, and swallows the only living creatures in the castle; it +is too solitary for sparrows. The situation of the old castle of +Amboise is glorious; from the top you can look up and down the Loire +for about thirty miles. Coming from there to this place one passes +gradually into the south; wheat disappears, giving way to maize; +between, twining vines and chestnut woods, castles and country-seats, +with many towers, chimneys, and gables, all white, with high-pointed +slate roofs. It was boiling hot, and I was very glad to have a +half-coupe to myself. In the evening glorious lightning in the whole +eastern sky, and now an agreeable coolness, which I should find sultry +at home. The sun set at 7.35; in Petersburg one can see now, without a +light, at eleven o'clock. As yet there is no letter for me here; +perhaps I shall find one in Bayonne. I shall stay here probably two +days, to see where our wines grow. Now, good-night, my angel. Dearest +love. Your most faithful v.B. + + +San Sebastian, August 1, '62. + +_My Dear Heart_,--I could not have believed last year that I should +celebrate Bill's birthday this time in Spain. I shall not fail to +drink his health in dark red wine, and pray God earnestly to take and +keep all of you under His protection; it is now half past three, and I +imagine you have just got up from table and are sitting in the front +hall at your coffee, if the sun permits. The sun is probably not so +scalding there as it is here, but it doesn't do me any harm, and I am +feeling splendidly well. The route from Bayonne here is glorious; on +the left the Pyrenees, something like the Dent du Midi and Moleson, +which, however, are here called "Pie" and "Port," in shifting +Alpine panorama, on the right the shores of the sea, like those at +Genoa. The change in entering Spain is surprising; at Behobie, the +last place in France, one could easily believe one's self still on the +Loire; in Fuentarabia a steep street twelve feet wide, every window +with balcony and curtain, every balcony with black eyes and mantillas, +beauty and dirt; at the market-place drums and fifes, and some +hundreds of women, old and young, dancing a fandango, while the men in +their drapery looked on, smoking. Thus far the country is +exceptionally beautiful--green valleys and wooded slopes, with +fantastic lines of fortifications above them, row after row; inlets of +the sea, with very narrow entrances, which cut deep into the land, +like Salzburg lakes in mountain basins. I look down on such a one from +my window, separated from the sea by an island of rocks, set in a +steep frame of mountains with woods and houses, below to the left city +and harbor. My old friend Galen, who is taking the baths here, with +wife and son, received me most warmly; I bathed with him at ten, and +after breakfast we walked, or, rather, crawled, through the heat up to +the citadel, and sat for a long time on a bench there, the sea a +hundred feet below us, near us a heavy fortress-battery, with a +singing sentry. This hill or rock would be an island did not a low +tongue of land connect it with the mainland. This tongue of land +separates two inlets from each other, so you get towards the north a +distant view of the sea from the citadel, towards the east and west a +view of both inlets, like two Swiss lakes, and towards the south of +the tongue of land, with the town on it, and behind it, landward, +mountains as high as the heavens. I wish I could paint you a picture +of it, and if we both were fifteen years younger then we would take a +trip here together. Tomorrow, or day after, I go back to Bayonne. * * * I +am very much sunburned, and should have liked best to float on the +ocean for an hour today; the water bears me up like a piece of wood. +It is still just cool enough to be pleasant. By the time one gets to +the dressing-room one is almost dry, and I put on my hat, only, and +take a walk in my peignoir. The ladies bathe fifty paces away--custom +of the country. * * * I do not like the Spaniards so well as I like +their country; they are not polite, talk too loud, and the conditions +are in many ways behind those in Russia. Custom-houses and passport +annoyances without end, an incredible number of turnpike tolls, four +francs for one hour's drive, or else I should stay here still longer, +instead of bathing in Biarritz, where a bathing-suit is necessary. +Love to our dear parents and children. Farewell, my angel. + +Your v.B. + + +Biarritz, August 4, '62. + +* * * I am sitting in a corner room of the Hotel de l'Europe, with a +charming lookout over the blue sea, which drives its white foam +between wonderful cliffs and against the light-house. I have a bad +conscience, seeing so many beautiful things without you. If one could +only bring you hither through the air, I would go right back again to +San Sebastian. Imagine the Siebengebirge with the Drachenfels placed +by the sea; next to it Ehrenbreitstein, and between the two an arm of +the sea, somewhat wider than the Rhine, forcing its way into the land, +and forming a round bay behind the mountains. In this you bathe in +water transparently clear, and so heavy and salty that you can lie +easily right on top of it and can look through the wide gate of rocks +to the sea, or landward, where the mountain chains tower up one after +another ever higher and ever bluer. The women of the middle and lower +classes are strikingly pretty, sometimes beautiful; the men surly and +impolite, and the comforts of life to which we are accustomed in +civilized lands are entirely lacking. In this respect I find Russia +pleasanter to travel in than Spain. What actually drove me out of the +country was the swinishness in certain indispensable arrangements, and +then the cheating in the hotels, and the tolls. The heat there is no +worse than here, and doesn't bother me; on the contrary, I am very +well, thank Heaven. Day before yesterday there was a storm whose like +I have never seen. I had to make three attempts before I succeeded in +climbing the flight of four steps at the head of the pier. Pieces of +stone and of trees flew through the air; so I unfortunately gave up my +place in a sailing-vessel for Bayonne, as I didn't believe it possible +that all would be quiet and cheerful again in four hours' time; so I +missed a charming sail along the coast, stayed one day longer in San +Sebastian, and left yesterday by the diligence, rather uncomfortably +packed in between attractive little Spanish women, to whom I could not +speak a single word. Still, they understood Italian enough for me to +make clear to them my satisfaction with their exterior. Gr. Gallen and +wife were very kind to me. As I was looking for a fan, they presented +me with theirs for you; it is simple, but painted in style +characteristic of the country. You would like the wife very much; he, +too, is a good fellow, but she amounts to more intellectually. I got +Bernhard's long-expected letter today. He looks very black over +politics, is expecting another child, and is building barns and +stables. I long for news from you and the children. * * * Dearest love +to all. + +Your most faithful v.B. + + +Biarritz, August 10, '62. + +_My Beloved Heart,-- * * * I am living about as at Stolpemuende, only +without champagne; I drank some with Orloff today, for the first time +since I left Paris. In the afternoon I wander about among the cliffs, +heaths, and fields, see orchards with aloe, figs, almonds, and borders +of tamarinds, then I do some target-shooting, take my bath, sit on the +rocks smoking, gazing at the sea, and thinking of you all. Politics I +have entirely forgotten; don't read any papers. The 15th has some +claims upon me; for propriety's sake I ought to go to Paris, too, +since I am in France, so as to congratulate the Emperor, hear his +speech, and attend the dinner. But I shall hardly bring myself to the +point of traveling over five hundred miles and interrupting the +air-and-water cure, which is doing me so much good that I actually +hate the thought of the dusty, close air of the royal residence. The +Emperor is too reasonable a gentleman to take my absence amiss, and +from Berlin I have an honest leave of absence. * * * Farewell, my +angel, with dearest love. + +Your most faithful v.B. + + +Hohenmauth, Monday, September 7, '66. + +Do you remember, sweetheart, how we passed through here nineteen years +ago, on the way from Prague to Vienna? No mirror showed the future +then, nor in 1852, when I went over this railway with good Lynar. How +strangely romantic are God's ways! We are doing well, in spite of +Napoleon; if we are not unmeasured in our claims and do not imagine we +have conquered the world, we shall achieve a peace that is worth the +trouble. But we are as easily intoxicated as disheartened, and it is +my thankless part to pour water into the foaming wine, and to insist +that we do not live alone in Europe, but with three other powers which +hate and envy us. The Austrians hold position in Moravia, and we are +bold enough to announce our headquarters for tomorrow at the point +where they are now. Prisoners still keep passing in, and cannon, one +hundred and eighty from the 3d to today. If they bring up their +southern army, we shall, with God's gracious help, defeat it too; +confidence is universal. Our people are ready to embrace one another, +every man so deadly in earnest, calm, obedient, orderly, with empty +stomach, soaked clothes, wet camp, little sleep, shoe-soles dropping +off, kindly to all, no sacking or burning, paying what they can and +eating mouldy bread. There must surely be a solid basis of fear of God +in the common soldier of our army, or all this could not be. News of +our friends is hard to get; we lie miles apart from one another, none +knowing where the other is, and nobody to send--that is, men might be +had, but no horses. For four days I have had search made for +Philip,[19] who was slightly wounded by a lance-thrust in the head, as +Gerhard[20] wrote me, but I can't find out where he is, and we have now +come thirty-seven miles farther. The King exposed himself greatly on +the 3d and it was well I was present, for all the warnings of others +had no effect, and no one would have dared to talk so sharply to him +as I allowed myself to do on the last occasion, which gave support to +my words, when a knot of ten cuirassiers and fifteen horses of the +Sixth Cuirassier Regiment rushed confusedly by us, all in blood, and +the shells whizzed around most disagreeably close to the King. He +cannot yet forgive me for having blocked for him the pleasure of being +hit. "At the spot where I was forced by order of the supreme authority +to run away," were his words only yesterday, pointing his finger +angrily at me. But I like it better so than if he were excessively +cautious. He was full of enthusiasm over his troops, and justly so +rapt that he seemed to take no notice of the din and fighting close to +him, calm and composed as at the Kreuzberg, and constantly meeting +battalions that he must thank with "Good-evening, grenadiers," till we +were actually by this trifling brought under fire again. But he has +had to hear so much of this that he will stop it for the future, and +you may feel quite easy; indeed, I hardly believe there will be +another real battle. + +When you have of anybody _no_ word whatever, you may assume with +confidence that he is alive and well; for if acquaintances are wounded +it is always known at latest in twenty-four hours. We have not come +across Herwarth and Steinmetz at all, nor has the King. Schreck, too, +I have not seen, but I know they are well. Gerhard keeps quietly at +the head of his squadron, with his arm in a sling. Farewell--I must to +business. + +Your faithfullest v.B. + + + Zwittau, Moravia, July 11, '66. + +_Dear Heart_,--I have no inkstand, all of them being in use; but for +the rest I get on well, after a good sleep on camp bed with air +mattress; roused at eight by a letter from you. I went to bed at +eleven. At Koeniggraetz I rode the big sandy thirteen hours in the +saddle without feeding him He bore it very well, did not shy at shots +nor at corpses, cropped standing grain and plum-leaves with zest at +the most trying moments, and kept up an easy gait to the last, when I +was more tired than the horse. My first bivouac for the night was on +the street pavement of Horic, with no straw, but helped by a carriage +cushion. It was full of wounded; the Grand Duke of Mecklenburg found +me and shared his chamber with me, Reuss, and two adjutants, and the +rain made this very welcome to me. About the King and the shells I +have written you already. All the generals had a superstition that +they, as soldiers, must not speak to the King of danger, and always +sent me off to him, though I am a major, too. They did not venture to +speak to his reckless Majesty in the serious tone which at last was +effectual. Now at last he is grateful to me for it, and his sharp +words, "How you drove me off the first time," etc., are an +acknowledgment that I was right. Nobody knew the region, the King had +no guide, but rode right on at random, till I obtruded myself to show +the way. * * * Farewell, my heart. I must go to the King. + +Your most faithful v.B. + + +Vendresse, September 3, 1870. + +To MRS. VON BISMARCK: + +_My Dear Heart_,--Day before yesterday I left my quarters here before +dawn, but came back today, and have meanwhile been through the great +battle of Sedan on the 1st, in which we took some thirty thousand +prisoners, and shut the remainder of the French army, which we had +chased ever since Bar-le-Duc, into the fortress, where they had to +surrender, with the Emperor, as prisoners of war. At five yesterday +morning, after I had discussed the terms of capitulation with Moltke +and the French generals till one o'clock, General Reille, whom I know, +called me up to say that Napoleon wished to speak with me. Without +washing or breakfast, I rode towards Sedan, found the Emperor in an +open carriage with three adjutants, and three more at hand in the +saddle, on the main road before Sedan. I dismounted, saluted him as +politely as in the Tuileries, and asked his commands. He desired to +see the King. I told him, as was true, that his Majesty's quarters +were fourteen miles away, at the place where I am writing now. Upon +his question, whither he should betake himself, I offered him, since I +was unfamiliar with the region, my quarters in Donchery, a village on +the Maas close to Sedan; he accepted them, and drove, escorted by his +six Frenchmen, by me; and by Carl, who meanwhile had ridden after me, +through the lovely morning, towards our lines. He was distressed +before reaching the place because of the possible crowds, and asked me +if he might not stop at a lonely workman's house on the road. I had it +examined by Carl, who reported that it was wretched and dirty. +"_N'importe,_" said Napoleon, and I mounted with him a narrow, rickety +stairway. In a room ten feet square, with a fig-wood table and two +rush-bottomed chairs, we sat an hour, the others staying below. A +mighty contrast to our last interview, in '67, at the Tuileries. Our +conversation was difficult, if I would avoid touching on things which +must be painful to those whom God's mighty hand had overthrown. +Through Carl, I had officers brought from the city, and Moltke +requested to come. We then sent out one of the first to reconnoitre, +and discovered, a couple of miles off, at Fresnoi's, a little chateau +with a park. Thither I conducted him, with an escort of the Cuirassier +body-guards, which was meanwhile brought up, and there we concluded +the capitulation with Wimpfen, the French general-in-chief. By its +terms, from forty to sixty thousand French--I do not yet know the +number more exactly--became our prisoners, with everything they +have. The two receding days cost France one hundred thousand men and +an emperor. He started early this morning, with all his court, horses, +and wagons, for Wilhelmshoehe, at Cassel. + +It is an event in universal history, a triumph for which we will thank +God the Lord in humility, and which is decisive of the war, even +though we must continue to prosecute it against headless France. + +I must close. With heartfelt joy I have learned today, from your +letter and Marie's, of Herbert's reaching you. I met Bill yesterday, +as I telegraphed you, and took him to my arms from his horse before +the King's face, while he stood with his limbs rigid. He is entirely +well and in high spirits. Hans and Fritz Carl and both the Billows I +saw with the Second Dragoon guards, well and cheerful. + +Farewell, my heart. Kiss the children. + +Your v.B. + + +Gastein, August 30, '71. + +Happy the man to whom God has given a virtuous wife, who writes him +every day. I am delighted that you are well, and that you have come to +be three, to whom I hope to add myself as fourth on the 7th or +8th. * * * You see I have enough mental leisure here to devote myself to +the unaccustomed work of making plans; but all on the presupposition +that the excited Gauls do not worry my little friend Thiers to death, for +then I should have to stay with his Majesty and watch which way the +hare runs. I do not think that likely, but with such a stupid nation +as they are anything is possible. Hearty love to both fat children. + +Your most faithful v.B. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 2: From _The Love Letters of Bismarck_. Permission Harper & +Brothers, New York.] + +[Footnote 3: This note has been lost.] + +[Footnote 4: In subsequent letters he speaks of her "blue gray-black +eyes."] + +[Footnote 5: Inspector at Schoenhausen.] + +[Footnote 6: Compare the enclosure, in which I used often to find the +expression of my inmost thought. Now, never any more. (Enclosed was a +copy of Byron's poem, "To Inez.")] + +[Footnote 7: Frauelein von Blumenthal, afterwards Frau von Boehn.] + +[Footnote 8: English in the original.] + +[Footnote 9: English in the original.] + +[Footnote 10: Von Puttkamer Poberow.] + +[Footnote 11: Frau von Blanckenburg] + +[Footnote 12: English in the original.] + +[Footnote 13: English in the original.] + +[Footnote 14: "Right honorable," a common form of address on letters. +B. refers more than once to her distinctive way of writing this +title.] + +[Footnote 15: English in the original.] + +[Footnote 16: _Fiance_.] + +[Footnote 17: Frau von Zanthier, born von Puttkamer.] + +[Footnote 18: Military _charge_.] + +[Footnote 19: Von Bismarck, the oldest nephew.] + +[Footnote 20: Von Thadden, commanding a squadron in the First Dragoon +Guards.] + + * * * * * + + + + +CORRESPONDENCE OF WILLIAM I. AND BISMARCK [21] + +TRANSLATED BY J.A. FORD + + +BISMARCK TO KING WILLIAM + + +Berlin, December 8, '63. + +YOUR MAJESTY:-- + +I have the honor most respectfully to submit a Police report, the +printed compilation of the documents relating to the London treaty as +commanded, and the telegrams received up to the present. In my most +humble opinion it seems expedient to maintain our attitude toward +Irminger[22] also outwardly in conformity with that of Austria. It is +awkward that Sydow is charged with the report of the committee in the +Bundestag, for we shall thus always have to make our declaration +first, and before Austria; if your Majesty does not command otherwise +I will leave him without instructions on this point, and await +tomorrow's committee issues, as the next measure, the letter to +Copenhagen, will not be thereby delayed. + +The final sentence of the Vienna telegram, that Christian IX. rules also +in Copenhagen only by virtue of the London treaty, is not quite right; +he rules there because the legitimate heir, Prince Friedrich of Hesse, +has resigned in his favor. This legal title, which is in itself +sufficient, has only been _confirmed_ by the London treaty, and then +extended to the Duchies. + +v. BISMARCK. + +Marginal note by the King: + +Prince Friedrich resigned merely in order that the London treaty in +favor of Christian IX. might be effectuated. + +W. + + * * * * * + +KING WILLIAM I. TO BISMARCK + +Berlin, February 12, '67. + +When looking back to the decisive turning point reached by the +destinies of Prussia through the glorious fights of the past year, the +most distant generations will never forget that the elevation of the +Fatherland to new power, and to imperishable honors, that the opening +up of an epoch of a rich and, with God's help, a blessing-bringing +development are essentially due to your penetration, your energy, and +the skilful manner in which you conducted the affairs entrusted to +you. + +I have decided to show a renewed appreciation of these your most +distinguished merits, by the bestowal of a gift of four hundred +thousand Thalers.[23] The Minister for Finance has been directed to +place this sum at your disposal. + +It would be in accordance with my wishes if you devoted this gift, the +bestowal of which is to manifest my and the Fatherland's thanks, to +the purchase of landed property, and entailed the same, so that with +the glory of your name it also may remain permanently in your family. + +Your grateful and faithfully devoted King, + +WILHELM. + + * * * * * + +BISMARCK TO KING WILLIAM I. + +Donchery, September 2, '70. + +After I came here yesterday evening, by your Royal Majesty's command, to +take part in the negotiations on the capitulation, these were +interrupted until 1 o'clock in the night, by time for consideration, +which General Wimpffen solicited, being granted, after General von +Moltke had definitely stated that no other terms will be granted than +the laying down of arms, and that the bombardment would recommence at 9 +o'clock in the morning if the capitulation were not concluded by that +time. At about 6 o'clock this morning General Reille was announced, who +informed me that the Emperor wished to see me, and was already on his +way here from Sedan. The General returned at once to report to his +Majesty that I was following, and shortly afterwards I met the Emperor +near Fresnois, about half way between this place and Sedan. His Majesty +was driving in an open carriage with three officers of high rank, and +was escorted by three others on horseback. Of these officers I knew +personally Generals Castelnau, Reille, Moskowa, who seemed to be wounded +in the foot, and Vaubert. As soon as I reached the carriage I +dismounted, walked to the Emperor's side at the carriage door, and asked +for his Majesty's orders. The Emperor at first expressed the wish to see +your Imperial Majesty, evidently in the belief that your Majesty was +also at Donchery. When I replied that at present your Majesty's +headquarters were at Vendresse, thirteen miles away, the Emperor +enquired whether your Majesty had decided where he should go, and what +my opinion on the subject was. I replied that, as it was quite dark when +I arrived here, I knew nothing of the district, and offered to place at +his disposal at once the house in which I was staying at Donchery. The +Emperor accepted this offer, and drove off at a walking pace in the +direction of Donchery; about a hundred yards from the Maas bridge, which +leads into the town, he stopped in front of a lonely, workman's cottage, +and asked me if he could not stay there. I had the house examined by +Councillor of Legation Count Bismarck-Bohlen, who in the meantime had +followed me; when it was reported that the interior arrangements were +very poor and inadequate, but that there were no wounded men in the +house, the Emperor alighted and invited me to accompany him inside. +Here, in a very small room containing a table and two chairs, I had +about an hour's conversation with the Emperor. His Majesty emphasized +especially the wish to obtain more favorable conditions of capitulation +for the army. I declined from the outset to treat this question with his +Majesty, as this was a purely military question, to be settled between +General von Moltke and General von Wimpffen. On the other hand, I asked +if his Majesty were inclined to peace negotiations. The Emperor replied +that, as a prisoner, he was not now in a position to do so, and to my +further enquiry by whom, in his opinion, the executive power was at +present represented in France, his Majesty referred me to the Government +in Paris. When this point, which was indistinct in the Emperor's letter +to your Majesty yesterday, was cleared up, I recognized, and did not +conceal the fact from the Emperor, that the situation today, as +yesterday, was still a purely military one, and emphasized the necessity +arising from it for us to obtain by the capitulation of Sedan above all +things a material pledge for the security of the military results we had +attained. I had already weighed from all sides with General von Moltke +yesterday evening, the question whether it would be possible, without +detriment to the German interests, to offer to the military feelings of +honor of an army which had fought well more favorable terms than those +already laid down. After due and careful consideration we both came to +the conclusion that this could not be done. When, therefore, General von +Moltke, who in the meantime had arrived from the town, went to your +Majesty to submit the Emperor's wishes, he did not do so, as your +Majesty is well aware, with the intention of advocating them. + +The Emperor then went out into the open air, and invited me to sit +beside him just outside the door of the cottage. His Majesty asked +whether it would not be practicable to allow the French army to cross +into Belgium, to be disarmed and detained there. I had discussed also +this eventuality with General v. Moltke on the previous evening and +adduced the motive already given for not entering into the question of +this course of procedure. With respect to the political situation, I +myself took no initiative, and the Emperor went no further than to +deplore the ill-fortune of the war, stating that he himself had not +wished the war, but was driven into it by the pressure of public +opinion in France. I did not regard it as my office to point out at +that moment that what the Emperor characterized as public opinion was +only the artificial product of certain ambitious coteries of the +French press, with a very narrow political horizon. I merely replied +that nobody in Germany wished for the war, especially not your +Majesty, and that no German Government would have considered the +Spanish question of so much interest as to be worth a war. I continued +that your Majesty's attitude toward the Spanish succession question +was finally determined by the misgiving whether it was right, for +personal and dynastic considerations, to mar the endeavor of the +Spanish nation to reestablish, by this selection of a King, their +internal organization on a permanent basis; that your Majesty, in view +of the good relations existing for so many years between the Princes +of the Hohenzollern House and the Emperor, had never entertained any +doubt but that the Hereditary Prince would succeed in arriving at a +satisfactory understanding with his Majesty the Emperor respecting the +acceptance of the Spanish election, that, however, your Majesty had +regarded this, not as a German or a Prussian, but as a Spanish affair. + +In the meantime, between 9 and 10 o'clock, enquiries in the town, and +especially reconnaissances on the part of the officers of the general +staff, had revealed the fact that the castle of Bellevue, near +Fresnois, was suited for the accommodation of the Emperor, and was not +yet occupied by the wounded. I reported this to his Majesty by +designating Fresnois as the place I should propose to your +Majesty for the meeting, and therefore referred it to the Emperor +whether his Majesty would proceed there at once, as a longer stay in +the little workman's cottage would be uncomfortable, and the Emperor +would perhaps need some rest. His Majesty readily assented, and I +accompanied the Emperor, who was preceded by an escort of honor from +your Majesty's Own Cuirassier Regiment, to the Castle of Bellevue, +where in the meantime the rest of the Emperor's suite and his +carriages, whose coming had, it appears, been considered doubtful, had +arrived from Sedan. General Wimpffen had also arrived, and with him, +in anticipation of the return of General von Moltke, the discussion of +the capitulation negotiations, which were broken off yesterday, was +resumed by General v. Podbielski in the presence of Lieut. Col. von +Verdy and the chief of General v. Wimpffen's staff, these two officers +acting as secretaries. I took part only in the commencement of the +same by setting forth the political and judicial situation in +accordance with the information furnished me by the Emperor himself, +as it was thereupon reported to me by Major Count von Nostitz, by +direction of General von Moltke, that your Majesty wished to see the +Emperor only after the capitulation of the army had been concluded--on +the receipt of which announcement the hope cherished by the opposite +party of securing other terms than those decided on was given up. I +then rode off in the direction of Chehery with the intention of +reporting the situation to your Majesty, met General v. Moltke on the +way, bringing the text of the capitulation approved by your Majesty, +and this, when we arrived with it at Fresnois, was accepted and signed +without opposition. The demeanor of General v. Wimpffen, as also that +of the other French generals, during the previous night was very +dignified, and this brave officer could not forbear expressing to me +how deeply he was pained that he should have been called upon, +forty-eight hours after his arrival from Africa, and half a day after +he had assumed command, to set his name to a capitulation so fatal to +the French arms, that, however, lack of provisions and ammunition, and +the absolute impossibility of any further defence imposed upon him, as +a general the duty of suppressing his personal feelings, as further +bloodshed could in no way alter the situation. The permission for the +officers to be released on parole was received with great +thankfulness, as an expression of your Majesty's intention not to hurt +the feelings of an army, which had fought bravely, beyond the point +demanded by the necessity of our political interests. General v. +Wimpffen also subsequently gave expression to this feeling in a letter +in which he thanks General v. Moltke for the consideration he showed +in conducting the negotiations. + +v. BISMARCK. + + * * * * * + +EMPEROR WILLIAM I. TO BISMARCK + +Berlin, March 21, '71. + +With today's opening of the first German Reichstag after the +reestablishment of a German Empire, the first public activity of the +same begins. Prussia's history and destiny have for a long time +pointed to an event which is now accomplished by its being summoned to +the head of the newly founded Empire. Prussia owes this less to her +extent of territory and her power, though both have equally increased, +than to her intellectual development and the organization of her army. +The brilliant position now occupied by my country has been attained +through an unexpectedly rapid sequence of great events during the past +six years. The work to which I called you ten years ago falls within +this time. How you have justified the confidence with which I then +summoned you lies open to the world. It is to your counsel, your +circumspection, your unwearying activity that Prussia and Germany owe +the world-historical occurrence which is embodied in my capital today. + +Although the reward for such deeds is felt within you, I am +nevertheless urged and bound to express to you publicly and +permanently the thanks of the Fatherland and mine. I elevate you, +therefore, to the rank of a Prussian Prince (Fuerst), which is to be +inherited always by the eldest male member of your family. + +May you see in this distinction the undying gratitude of Your Emperor +and King + +WILHELM. + + * * * * * + +EMPEROR WILLIAM I. TO BISMARCK + +Coblenz, July 26, '72. + +You will celebrate, on the 28th, a delightful family festival[24] +which the Almighty in His mercy has accorded you. I, therefore, may +and can not remain behind with my sympathy on this occasion, so will +you, and the Princess, your wife, accept my most cordial and warmest +congratulations on this great occasion. That both of you always gave +the first place, among the blessings showered on you by Providence, to +domestic happiness is something for which your prayers of thanksgiving +should ascend to heaven. Our and my prayers of thanksgiving, however, +go further, as they include thanks to God for having placed you at my +side at a decisive moment, and thus opened up a career for my +Government far exceeding thought and comprehension. You also will send +up your feelings of thankfulness that God graciously permitted you to +accomplish such great things. Both in and after all your labors you +always found comfort and peace in your home, and that gives you +strength in your difficult vocation. To preserve and strengthen you +for this is my constant solicitude, and I am glad to learn from your +letter through Count Lehndorff and also from the latter himself that +you will now think more of yourself than of the documents. + +In remembrance of your silver wedding a vase will be handed you which +represents a grateful Borussia and which, fragile though the material +of which it is composed may be, shall one day express even in every +fragment what Prussia owes to you in its elevation to the height on +which it now stands. + +Your truly devoted grateful King + +WILHELM. + + * * * * * + +BISMARCK TO EMPEROR WILLIAM I. + +Varzin, August I, '72. + +Your Majesty greatly gladdened my wife and me by graciously evincing +sympathy in our family festival, and will, we trust, be graciously +pleased to accept our respectful thanks. + +Your Majesty justly emphasizes happiness in the home as being among +the chief blessings for which I have to thank God, but part of the +happiness in my house, for my wife as well as for myself, comes from +the consciousness of your Majesty's satisfaction, and the exceedingly +gracious and kindly words of appreciation which your Majesty's letter +contains are more beneficial to afflicted nerves than is all medical +assistance. In looking back over my life I have such inexhaustible +cause to thank God for His unmerited mercy, that I often fear +everything will not go so well with me until the end. I recognize it +as an especially happy dispensation that God has called me on earth to +the service of a master whom I serve joyfully and with love, as the +innate fidelity of the subject never has to fear, under your Majesty's +leadership, coming into conflict with a warm feeling for the honor and +the welfare of the Fatherland. May God further give me strength to +carry out the will so to serve your Majesty that I obtain the +sovereign satisfaction, of which such a gracious testimony lies before +me today in the form of the autograph letter of the 26th. The vase, +which arrived in good time, is a truly monumental expression of Royal +favor, and at the same time so substantial that I may hope not the +"fragments" but the whole will be evidence to my descendants of the +gracious sympathy evinced by your majesty on the occasion of our +silver wedding. + +The officers of the fifty-fourth regiment showed a kindly spirit of +comradeship by sending their band from Colberg. Otherwise, as is +usually the case in the country, we were confined to our family +circle; only Motley, the former American Ambassador in London, a +friend of my early youth, happened to be here on a visit. Besides her +Majesty the Queen, his Majesty the King of Bavaria, and their Royal +Highnesses Prince Carl and Friedrich Carl, and his Imperial Highness +the Crown Prince, honored me with telegraphic congratulations. + +In health I am becoming slowly better; I have, it is true, done no +work whatever; but I hope to be able to report myself on duty in time +for the Imperial visits. + +v. BISMARCK. + + * * * * * + +EMPEROR WILLIAM I. TO BISMARCK + +Berlin, December 18, '81. + +I must tell you of an extraordinary dream I had last night, which was +as clear as I now relate it. + +The Reichstag met for the first time after the present recess. On +Count Eulenburg's entrance the discussion abruptly ceased; after a +long interval the President called on the last speaker to continue the +debate. Silence! The President thereupon declared the sitting +adjourned. This was the signal for great tumult and clamor. No order, +it was urged, should be bestowed on any member during the session of +the Reichstag; the Monarch may not be mentioned during the session. +The House adjourns till tomorrow. Eulenburg's appearance in the +Chamber is again greeted with hisses and commotion--and then I awoke +in such a state of nervous excitement that it was long before I +recovered, and I could not sleep from half-past four to half-past +six. All this happened in the House in my presence, as clearly as I +have written it down. + +I will not hope that the dream will be realized, but it is certainly +peculiar. I dreamt it after six hours of quiet sleep, so it could not +have been directly produced by our conversation. + +_Enfin_, I could not but tell you of this curious occurrence. + +Your + +WILHELM. + + * * * * * + +BISMARCK TO EMPEROR WILLIAM I. + +Berlin, December 18, '81. + +I thank your Majesty most respectfully for the gracious letter. I +quite believe that the dream owed its origin, not exactly to my +report, but to the general impression obtained during the last few +days from Puttkamer's[25] oral report, the newspaper articles, and my +report. The pictures we have in our minds when awake do not reappear +in the mirror of our dreams until our mental faculties have been well +rested by sleep. Your Majesty's communication encourages me to relate +a dream I had in the troublous days of the spring of 1863. I dreamt, +and I told my dream at once to my wife and to others the next morning, +that I was riding along a narrow Alpine path, to the right an abyss, +and to the left rocks; the path became narrower and narrower, until at +last my horse refused to take another step, and there was no room +either to turn or to dismount. I then struck the smooth rocky wall +with my riding whip in my left hand, and invoked God; the whip became +interminably long, and the wall of rock collapsed like a scene in the +theatre, opening up a wide pathway, with a view over hills and forests +such as one sees in Bohemia. I also caught sight of Prussian troops, +with their banners, and, still in my dreams, wondered how I could best +report this Quickly to your Majesty. This dream was realized, and I +awoke from it glad and strengthened. + +[Illustration: FRANZ VON LENBACH EMPEROR WILLIAM I] + +The bad dream from which your Majesty awoke nervous and agitated can +be realized only in so far that we shall still have many stormy and +noisy parliamentary debates, which must unfortunately undermine the +prestige of the Parliaments and seriously interfere with State +business. Your Majesty's presence at these debates is an +impossibility; and I regard such scenes as we have lately witnessed in +the Reichstag regrettable enough as a standard of our morals and our +political education, perhaps also our political qualifications, but +not as a misfortune in themselves: _l'exces du mal en devient le +remede_. + +Will your Majesty pardon, with your accustomed graciousness, these +holiday reflections, which were suggested by your Majesty's letter; +for from yesterday till January 9th we have holidays and rest. +BISMARCK. + + * * * * * + +EMPEROR WILLIAM I. TO BISMARCK + +Berlin, September 23, '87. + +You celebrate on September 23, my dear Prince, the day on which, +twenty-five years ago, I called you into my Ministry of State, and +shortly afterwards gave the Premiership into your hands. The +distinguished services you had previously rendered to the Fatherland +in the most varied and important positions justified me in conferring +on you this highest post. The history of the last quarter of a century +proves that I did not err in my choice! + +A shining example of true patriotism, of untiring activity often to +the utter disregard of your health, you have been indefatigable in +keeping a close watch on what were frequently overwhelming +difficulties in peace and war, and have used them to lead Prussia in +honor and glory to a Position in the world's history which had never +been dreamed of! Such achievements have been performed that the +twenty-fifth anniversary of September 23 must be celebrated with +thanks to God for placing you at my side in order to execute His will +on earth! + +And I now once more impress these thanks on you, as I have so +frequently expressed and manifested them hitherto! + +From a heart filled with thankfulness I congratulate you on the +celebration of such a day, and hope from my heart that your strength +may long be preserved unimpaired, to be a blessing to the Crown and to +the Fatherland! Your eternally grateful King and friend + +WILHELM. + +P.S.--In memory of the past twenty-five years I am sending you a view +of the building in which we have discussed and taken such weighty +resolutions which it is to be hoped will redound to the honor and +welfare of Prussia and of Germany. + + * * * * * + +BISMARCK. TO EMPEROR WILLIAM I. + +Friedrichsruh, September 26, '87. + +I thank your Majesty in deep respect for the gracious letter of the +23d inst., and for the gracious present of the picture of the palace +in which for so many years I have had the honor to make my reports to +your Majesty, and to take your Majesty's orders. The day received +especial consecration for me through the greeting in your Majesty's +name with which their royal Highnesses Prince William and Prince Henry +honored me. Even without this fresh proof of favor, the feeling with +which I greeted the twenty-fifth anniversary of my appointment as a +Minister was one of most cordial and respectful gratitude to your +Majesty. Every sovereign appoints ministers, but it is a rare +occurrence in modern times for a monarch to retain a Prime Minister +and to uphold him for twenty-five years, in troublous times when +everything does not succeed, against all animosity and intrigues. +During this period I have seen many a former friend become an +opponent, but your Majesty's favor and confidence have remained +unwaveringly with me. The thought of this is a rich reward to me for +all my work, and a consolation in illness and solitude. I love my +Fatherland, the German as well as the Prussian, but I should not have +served it with gladness if it had not been granted to me to serve to +the satisfaction of my King. The high position which I owe to your +Majesty's favor is based on, and has as its indestructible core, your +Majesty's Brandenburg liegeman and Prussian officer, and therefore I +am rendered happy by your Majesty's satisfaction, without which every +popularity would be valueless to me. * * * Besides many telegrams and +addresses from home and abroad, I received very gracious greetings and +congratulations on the twenty-third from their Majesties of Saxony and +Wurtemburg, from his Royal Highness the Regent of Bavaria, the +Grand-Dukes of Weimar, Baden, and Mecklenburg, and other rulers, and +from his Majesty the King of Italy and Minister Crispi. The two latter +touched politics, and were difficult to answer; as the text of their +letters may perhaps interest your Majesty, I have instructed the +Foreign Office to forward them. + +I pray God that He may still longer grant me the pleasure of serving +your Majesty to your Majesty's satisfaction. + +VOL. X-9 V. BISMARCK. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 21: Permission: Frederick A. Stokes Company, New York.] + +[Footnote 22: Admiral Irminger was charged with the task of notifying +in Berlin and Vienna Christian IX.'s accession to the throne; he was +granted no audience in Berlin, and left that city on the 5th for +Vienna as, in Bismarck's opinion, the Emperor would more easily +receive him than the King of Prussia could.] + +[Footnote 23: About L60,000.] + +[Footnote 24: Silver wedding.] + +[Footnote 25: Minister for the Interior, and Vice President of the +Ministry of State.] + + * * * * * + + + + +FROM "THOUGHTS AND RECOLLECTIONS" [26] + +TRANSLATED UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF A.J. BUTLER + +Late Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge + +I + +TO THE FIRST UNITED DIET + +Left school at Easter, 1832, a normal product of our state system of +education; a Pantheist, and, if not a Republican, at least with the +persuasion that the Republic was the most rational form of government; +reflecting too upon the causes which could decide millions of men +permanently to obey _one man_, when all the while I was hearing from +grown up people much bitter or contemptuous criticism of their rulers. +Moreover, I had brought away with me "German-National" impressions +from Plamann's preparatory school, conducted on Jahn's drill-system, +in which I lived from my sixth to my twelfth year. These impressions +remained in the stage of theoretical reflections, and were not strong +enough to extirpate my innate Prussian monarchical sentiments. My +historical sympathies remained on the side of authority. To my +childish ideas of justice Harmodius and Aristogeiton, as well as +Brutus, were criminals, and Tell a rebel and murderer. Every German +prince who resisted the Emperor before the Thirty Years' war roused my +ire; but from the Great Elector onwards I was partisan enough to take +an anti-imperial view, and to find it natural that things should have +been in readiness for the Seven Years' war. Yet the German-National +feeling remained so strong in me that, at the beginning of my +university life, I at once entered into relations with the +_Burschenschaft_, or group of students which made the promotion of a +national sentiment its aim. But, after personal intimacy with its +members, I disliked their refusal to "give satisfaction," as well as +their want of breeding in externals and of acquaintance with the forms +and manners of good society; and a still closer acquaintance bred an +aversion to the extravagance of their political views, based upon a +lack of either culture or knowledge of the conditions of life which +historical causes had brought into existence, and which I, with my +seventeen years, had had more opportunities of observing than most of +these students, for the most part older than myself. Their ideas gave +me the impression of an association between Utopian theories and +defective breeding. Nevertheless, I retained my own private National +sentiments, and my belief that in the near future events would lead to +German unity; in fact, I made a bet with my American friend Coffin +that this aim would be attained in twenty years. + +In my first half-year at Goettingen occurred the Hambach festival[27] +(May 27, 1832), the "festal ode" of which still remains in my memory; in +my third the Frankfort outbreak[28](April 3, 1833). These manifestations +revolted me. Mob interference with political authority conflicted with +my Prussian schooling, and I returned to Berlin with less liberal +opinions than when I quitted it; but this reaction was again somewhat +mitigated when I was brought into immediate connection with the workings +of the political machine. Upon foreign politics, with which the public +at that time occupied itself but little, my views, as regards the War of +Liberation, were taken from the standpoint of a Prussian officer. On +looking at the map, the Possession of Strasburg by France exasperated +me, and a visit to Heidelberg, Spires, and the Palatinate made me feel +revengeful and militant. In the period before 1848 succeed in laying a +coat of European varnish over the specifically Prussian bureaucrat. How +these observations acted in practice is clearly shown when we go through +the list of our diplomatists of those days: one is astonished to find so +few native Prussians among them. The fact of being the son of a foreign +ambassador accredited to Berlin was of itself ground for preference. The +diplomatists who had grown up in small courts and had been taken into +the Prussian service had not infrequently the advantage over natives of +greater assurance in Court circles and a greater absence of shyness. An +especial example of this tendency was Herr von Schleinitz. In the list +we find also members of noble houses in whom descent supplied the place +of talent. I scarcely remember from the period when I was appointed to +Frankfort anyone of Prussian descent being appointed chief of an +important mission, except myself, Baron Carl von Werther, Canitz, and +Count Max Hatzfeldt (who had a French wife). Foreign names were at a +premium: Brassier, Perponcher, Savigny, Oriola. It was presumed that +they had greater fluency in French, and they were more out of the +common. Another feature was the disinclination to accept personal +responsibility when not covered by unmistakable instructions, just as +was the case in the military service in 1806 in the old school of the +Frederickian period. Even in those days we were breeding stuff for +officers, even as high as the rank of regimental commander, to a pitch +of perfection attained by no other state; but beyond that rank the +native Prussian blood was no longer fertile in talents, as in the time +of Frederick the Great. Our most successful commanders, Bluecher, +Gneisenau, Moltke, Goeben, were not original Prussian products, any more +than Stein, Hardenberg, Motz, and Grolmann in the Civil Service. It is +as though our statesmen, like the trees in nurseries, needed +transplanting in order that their roots might find full development. + +Ancillon advised me first of all to pass my examination as +_Regierungs-Assessor,_ and then, by the circuitous route of +employment in the Zollverein to seek admittance into the _German_ +diplomacy of Prussia; he did not, it would seem, anticipate in a scion +of the native squirearchy a vocation for European diplomacy. I took +his hint to heart, and resolved first of all to go up for my +examination as _Regierungs-Assessor_. + +The persons and institutions of our judicial system with which I was +in the first instance concerned gave my youthful conceptions more +material for criticism than for respect. The practical education of +the _Auscultator_ began with keeping the minutes of the Criminal +Courts, and to this post I was promoted out of my proper turn by the +_Rath_, Herr von Brauchitsch, under whom I worked, because in those +days I wrote a more than usually quick and legible hand. On the +examinations, as criminal proceedings in the inquisitorial method of +that day were called, the one that has made the most lasting +impression upon me related to a widely ramifying association in Berlin +for the purpose of unnatural vice. The club arrangements of the +accomplices, the agenda books, the levelling effect through all +classes of a common pursuit of the forbidden--all this, even in 1835, +pointed to a demoralization in no whit less than that evidenced by the +proceedings against the Heinzes, husband and wife, in October, 1891. +The ramifications of this society extended even into the highest +circles. It was ascribed to the influence of Prince Wittgenstein that +the reports of the case were demanded from the Ministry of Justice, +and were never returned--at least, during the time I served on the +tribunal. + +After I had been keeping the records for four months, I was +transferred to the City Court, before which civil causes are tried, +and was suddenly promoted from the mechanical occupation of writing +from dictation to an independent post, which, having regard to my +inexperience and my sentiments, made my position difficult. The +first stage in which the legal novice was called to a more independent +sphere of activity was in connection with divorce proceedings. +Obviously regarded as the least important, they were entrusted to +the most incapable _Rath_, Praetorius by name, and under him were +left to the tender mercies of unfledged _Auscultators_, who had to +make upon this _corpus vile_ their first experiments in the +part of judges--of course, under the nominal responsibility of Herr +Praetorius, who nevertheless took no part in their proceedings. By way +of indicating this gentleman's character, it was told to us young +people that when, in the course of a sitting, he was roused from a +light slumber to give his vote, he used to say, "I vote with my colleague +Tempelhof"--whereupon it was sometimes necessary to point out to him +that Herr Tempelhof was not present. + +On one occasion I represented to him my embarrassment at having, +though only a few months more than twenty years old, to undertake the +attempt at a reconciliation between an agitated couple: a matter +crowned, according to my view, with a certain ecclesiastical and moral +"nimbus," with which in my state of mind I did not feel able to cope. +I found Praetorius in the irritable mood of an old man awakened at an +untimely moment, who had besides all the aversion of an old bureaucrat +to a young man of birth. He said, with a contemptuous smile, "It is +very annoying, Herr _Referendarius_, when a man can do nothing for +himself; I will show you how to do it." I returned with him into the +judge's room. The case was one in which the husband wanted a divorce +and the wife not. The husband accused her of adultery; the wife, +tearful and declamatory, asserted her innocence; and, despite all +manner of ill-treatment from the man, wanted to remain with him. +Praetorius, with his peculiar clicking lisp, thus addressed the woman: +"But, my good woman, don't be so stupid. What good will it do you? +When you get home, your husband will give you a jacketing until you +can stand no more. Come now, simply say 'yes,' and then you will be +quit of the sot." To which the wife, crying hysterically, replied: "I +am an honest woman! I will not have that indignity put upon me! I +don't want to be divorced!" After manifold retorts and rejoinders in +this tone, Praetorius turned to me with the words: "As she will not +listen to reason, write as follows, Herr _Referendarius_," and +dictated to me some words which, owing to the deep impression they +made upon me, I remember to this day. "Inasmuch as the attempt at +reconciliation has been made, and arguments drawn from the sphere of +religion and morality have proved fruitless, further proceedings were +taken as follows." My chief then rose and said, "Now, you see how it +is done, and in future leave me in peace about such things." I +accompanied him to the door, and went on with the case. The Divorce +Court stage of my career lasted, so far as I can remember, from four +to six weeks; a reconciliation case never came before me again. There +was a certain necessity for the ordinance respecting proceedings in +divorce cases, to which Frederick William IV. was obliged to confine +himself after his attempts to introduce a _law_ for the substantial +alteration of the Marriage Law had foundered upon the opposition of +the Council of State. With regard to this matter it may be mentioned +that, as a result of this ordinance, the Attorney-General was first +introduced into those provinces in which the old Prussian common law +prevailed as _defensor matrimonii_, and to prevent collusion between +the parties. + +More inviting was the subsequent stage of petty cases, where the +untrained young jurist at least acquired practice in listening to +pleadings and examining witnesses, but where more use was made of him +as a drudge than was met by the resulting benefit to his instruction. +The locality and the procedure partook somewhat of the restless bustle +of a railway manager's work. The space in which the leading _Rath_ and +the three or four _Auscultators_ sat with their backs to the public +was surrounded by a wooden screen, and round about the four-cornered +recess formed thereby surged an ever-changing and more or less noisy +mob of parties to the suits. + +My impression of institutions and persons was not essentially modified +when I had been transferred to the Administration. In order to +abbreviate the detour to diplomacy, I applied to a Rhenish government, +that of Aachen, where the course could be gone through in two years, +whereas in the "old" provinces at least three years were required.[29] + +I can well imagine that in making the appointments to the Rhenish +Governing Board in 1816 the same procedure was adopted as at the +organization of Elsass-Lothringen in 1871. The authorities who had to +contribute a portion of their staff would not be likely to respond to +the call of state requirements by putting their best foot foremost to +accomplish the difficult task of assimilating a newly acquired +population, but would have chosen those members of their offices whose +departure was desired by their superiors or wished by themselves; in +the board were to be found former secretaries of prefectures and other +relics of the French administration. The _personnel_ did not all +correspond to the ideal which floated unwarrantably enough before my +eyes at twenty-one, and still less was this the case with the details +of the current business. I recollect that, what with the many +differences of opinion between officials and governed, or with +internal differences of opinion among each of these two categories, +whose polemics for many years considerably swelled the bulk of the +records, my habitual impression was, "Well, yes, that is _one_ way of +doing it"; and that questions, the decision of which one way or the +other was not worth the paper wasted upon them, created a mass of +business which a single prefect could have disposed of with the fourth +part of the energy bestowed upon them. Nevertheless, except for the +subordinate officials, the day's work was slight; as regards heads of +departments especially, a mere sinecure. + +I quitted Aachen with a very poor opinion of our bureaucracy, in +detail and collectively, with the exception of the gifted President, +Count Arnim-Boitzenburg. My opinion of the detail became more +favorable owing to my next subsequent experience in the government at +Potsdam, to which I got transferred in the year 1837; because there, +unlike the arrangement in other provinces, the indirect taxes were at +the disposal of the government, and it was just these that were +important to me if I wanted to make customs-policy the basis of my +future. + +The members of the board made a better impression upon me than those +at Aachen; but yet, taking them as a whole, it was an impression of +pigtail and periwig, in which category my youthful presumption also +placed the paternal dignified President-in-Chief, von Bassewitz; while +the President of the Aachen Government, Count Arnim, wore the generic +wig of the state service, it is true, but no intellectual pigtail. +When therefore I quitted the service of the State for a country life, +I imported into the relations which as a landed proprietor I had with +the officials an opinion, which I now see to have been too mean, of +the value of our bureaucracy, and perhaps too great an inclination to +criticize them. I remember that as substitute provincial president I +had to give my verdict on a plan for abolishing the election of those +officials; I expressed myself to the effect that the bureaucracy, as +it ascended from the provincial president, sank in the general esteem; +it had preserved it only in the person of the provincial president, +who wore a Janus head, one face turned towards the bureaucracy, the +other towards the country. + +The tendency to interference in the most various relations of life +was, under the paternal government of those days, perhaps greater than +now; but the instruments of such interference were less numerous, and, +as regards culture and breeding, stood much higher than do some of +those of today. The officials of the right worshipful royal Prussian +government were honest, well-read and well-bred officials; but their +benevolent activity did not always meet with recognition, because from +want of local experience they went to pieces on matters of detail, in +regard to which the views of the learned citizen at the green table +were not always superior to the healthy common-sense criticism of the +peasant intelligence. The members of the Governing Boards had in those +days _multa_, not _multum_, to do; and the lack of higher duties +resulted in their not finding a sufficient quantity of important +business, and led them in their zeal for duty to go beyond the needs +of the governed, into a tendency to over-regulation--in a word, into +what the Swiss calls _Befehlerle_.[30] To glance at a comparison with +present conditions, it had been hoped that the state authorities would +have been relieved of business and of officials by the introduction of +the local self-government of today; but, on the contrary, the number +of the officials and their load of business have been very +considerably increased by correspondence, and friction with the +machinery of self-government, from the provincial councillor down to +the rural parish administration. Sooner or later the flaw must be +reached, and we shall be crushed by the burden of clerkdom, especially +in the subordinate bureaucracy. + +Moreover, bureaucratic pressure upon private life is intensified by the +mode in which self-government works in practice and encroaches more +sharply than before on the rural parishes. Formerly the provincial +president, who stood in as close relations with the people as with the +State, formed the lowest step in the State bureaucracy. Below him were +local authorities, who were no doubt subject to control, but not in the +same measure as nowadays to the disciplinary powers of the district, or +the ministerial, bureaucracy. The rural population enjoys today, by +virtue of the measure of self-government conceded to it, an autonomy, +not perhaps similar to that which the towns had long ago; but it has +received, in the shape of the official commissioner, a chief who is kept +in disciplinary check by superior instructions proceeding from the +provincial resident, under the threat of penalties, and compelled to +burden his fellow-citizens in his district with lists, notifications, +and inquisitions as the political hierarchy thinks good. The governed +_contribuens plebs_ no longer possess, in the court of the provincial +president, that guarantee against blundering encroachment which, at an +earlier period was to be found in the circumstance that people resident +in the district who became provincial presidents as a rule resolved to +remain so in their own districts all their life long, and sympathized +with the joys and sorrows of the district. Today the post of provincial +president is the lowest step in the ladder of the higher administration, +sought after by young "assessors" who have a justifiable ambition to +make a career. To obtain it they have more need of ministerial favor +than of the goodwill of the local population, and they attempt to win +this favor by conspicuous zeal, and by "taking it out of" the official +commissioners of the so-called local administration, or by carrying out +valueless bureaucratic experiments. Therein lies for the most part the +inducement to overburden their subordinates in the local self-government +system. Thus self-government means the aggravation of bureaucracy, +increase in the number of officials, and of their powers and interference +in private life. + +It is only human nature to be more keenly sensitive to the thorns than +to the roses of every institution, and that the thorns should irritate +one against the existing state of things. The old government +officials, when they came into direct contact with the governed +population, showed themselves to be pedantic, and estranged from the +practical working of life by their occupation at the green table; but +they left behind them the impression of toiling honesty and +conscientiously for justice. The same thing cannot be assumed in all +their degrees of the wheels in the machine of the self-government of +today in those country districts where the parties stand in acute +opposition to each other; goodwill towards political friends, frame +of mind as regards opponents, readily become a hindrance to the +impartial maintenance of institutions. According to my experiences in +earlier and more recent times, I should, for the rest, not like to +allow impartiality, when comparing judicial and administrative +decisions, to the former alone, not at least in every instance. On the +contrary, I have preserved an impression that judges of small local +courts succumb more easily to strong party influences than do +administrative officials; nor need we invent any psychological reason +for the fact that, given equal culture, the latter should _a priori_ +be considered less just and conscientious in their official decisions +than the former. But I certainly do assume that official decisions do +not gain in honesty and moderation by being arrived at collectively; +for apart from the fact that, in the case of voting by majority, +arithmetic and chance take the place of logical reasoning, that +feeling of personal responsibility, in which lies the essential +guarantee for the conscientiousness of the decision, is lost directly +it comes about by means of anonymous majorities. + +The course of business in the two boards of Potsdam and Aachen was not +very encouraging for my ambition. I found the business assigned to +me petty and tedious, and my labors in the department of suits +arising from the grist tax and from the compulsory contribution to +the building of the embankment at Rotzis, near Wusterhausen, have +left behind in me no sentimental regrets for my sphere of work in +those days. Renouncing the ambition for an official career, I +readily complied with the wishes of my parents by taking up the +humdrum management of our Pomeranian estates. I had made up my +mind to live and die in the country, after attaining successes in +agriculture--perhaps in war also, if war should come. So far as my +country life left me any ambition at all, it was that of a lieutenant +in the Landwehr. + +The impressions that I had received in my childhood were little +adapted to make a squire of me. In Plamann's educational +establishment, conducted on the systems of Pestalozzi and Jahn, the +"von" before my name was a disadvantage, so far as my childish comfort +was concerned, in my intercourse with my fellow-pupils and my +teachers. Even at the high school at the Grey Friars I had to suffer, +as regards individual teachers, from that hatred of nobility which had +clung to the greater part of the educated _bourgeoisie_ as a +reminiscence of the days before 1806. But even the aggressive tendency +which occasionally appeared in _bourgeois_ circles never gave me any +inducement to advance in the opposite direction. My father was free +from aristocratic prejudices, and his inward sense of equality had +been modified, if at all, by his youthful impressions as an officer, +but in no way by any over-estimate of inherited rank. My mother was +the daughter of Mencken, Privy Councillor to Frederick the Great, +Frederick William II., and Frederick William III., who sprang from a +family of Leipzig professors, and was accounted in those days a +Liberal. The later generations of the Menckens--those immediately +preceding me--had found their way to Prussia in the Foreign Office and +about the Court. Baron von Stein has quoted my grandfather Mencken as +an honest, strongly Liberal official. Under these circumstances, the +views which I imbibed with my mother's milk were Liberal rather than +reactionary; and, if my mother had lived to see my ministerial +activity, she would scarcely have been in accord with its direction, +even though she would have experienced great joy in the external +results of my official career. She had grown up in bureaucratic and +court circles; Frederick William IV. spoke of her as "Mienchen," in +memory of childish games. I can therefore declare it an unjust +estimate of my views in my younger years, when "the prejudices of my +rank" are thrown in my teeth and it is maintained that a recollection +of the privileges of the nobility has been the starting-point of my +domestic policy. + +Moreover, the unlimited authority of the old Prussian monarchy was +not, and is not, the final word of my convictions. As to that, to be +sure, this authority of the monarch constitutionally existed in the +first United Diet, but accompanied by the wish and anticipation that +the unlimited power of the King, without being overturned, might fix +the measure of its own limitation. Absolutism primarily demands +impartiality, honesty, devotion to duty, energy, and inward humility +in the ruler. These may be present, and yet male and female favorites +(in the best case the lawful wife), the monarch's own vanity and +susceptibility to flattery, will nevertheless diminish the fruits of +his good intentions, inasmuch as the monarch is not omniscient and +cannot have an equal understanding of all branches of his office. As +early as 1847 I was in favor of an effort to secure the possibility of +public criticism of the government in parliament and in the press, in +order to shelter the monarch from the danger of having blinkers put on +him by women, courtiers, sycophants, and visionaries, hindering him +from taking a broad view of his duties as monarch, or from avoiding +and correcting his mistakes. This conviction of mine became all the +more deeply impressed upon me in proportion as I became better +acquainted with Court circles, and had to defend the interest of the +State from their influences and also from the opposition of a +departmental patriotism. The interests of the State alone have guided +me, and it has been a calumny when publicists, even well-meaning, have +accused me of having ever advocated an aristocratic system. I have +never regarded birth as a substitute for want of ability; whenever I +have come forward on behalf of landed property, it has not been in the +interests of proprietors of my own class, but because I see in the +decline of agriculture one of the greatest dangers to our permanence +as a State. The ideal that has always floated before me has been a +monarchy which should be so far controlled by an independent national +representation--according to my notion, representing classes or +callings--that monarch or parliament would not be able to alter +the existing statutory position before the law _separately_ but only +_communi consensus_ with publicity, and public criticism, by press and +Diet, of all political proceedings. + +Whoever has the conviction that uncontrolled Absolutism, as it was +first brought upon the stage by Louis XIV., was the most fitting form +of government for German subjects, must lose it after making a special +study in the history of Courts, and such critical observations as I +was enabled to institute at the court of Frederick William IV. (whom +personally I loved and revered) in Manteuffel's days. The King was a +religious absolutist with a divine vocation, and the ministers after +Brandenburg were content as a rule if they were covered by the royal +signature even when they could not have personally answered for the +contents of what was signed. I remember that on one occasion a high +Court official of absolutist opinions, on hearing of the news of the +royalist rising at Neuchatel, observed, with some confusion, in the +presence of myself and several of his colleagues: "That is a royalism +of which nowadays one has to go very far from Court to get +experience." Yet, as a rule, sarcasm was not a habit of this old +gentleman. + +Observations which I made in the country as to the venality and +chicanery of the "district sergeants" and other subordinate officials, +and petty conflicts which I had with the government in Stettin as +deputy of the "Circle" and deputy for the provincial president, +increased my aversion to the rule of the bureaucracy. I may mention +one of these conflicts. While I was representing the President, then +on leave, I received an order from the government to compel the patron +of Kuelz, that was myself, to undertake certain burdens. I put the +order aside, meaning to give it to the president on his return, was +repeatedly worried about it, and fined a thaler, to be forwarded +through the post. I now drew up a statement, in which I figured as +having appeared, first of all as representative of the _Landrath_, +and secondly as patron of Kuelz. The party cited made the prescribed +representations to himself in his capacity as No. 1, and then +proceeded in his capacity of No. 2 to set forth the ground on which he +had to decline the application; after which the statement was approved +and subscribed by him in his double capacity. The government +understood a joke, and ordered the fine to be refunded. In other +cases, things resulted in less pleasant heckling. I had a critical +disposition, and was consequently liberal, in the sense in which the +word was then used among landed proprietors to imply discontent with +the bureaucracy, the majority of whom on their side were men more +liberal than myself, though in another sense. + +I again slipped off the rails of my parliamentary liberal tendencies, +with regard to which I found little understanding or sympathy +in Pomerania, but which in Schoenhausen met with the acquiescence +of men in my own district, like Count Wartensleben of Karow, +Schierstaedt-Dahlen, and others (the same men of whom some were among +the party of Church patrons in the New Era subsequently condemned). +This was the result of the style, to me unsympathetic, in which the +opposition was conducted in the first United Diet, to which I was +summoned, only for the last six weeks of the session, as substitute +for Deputy von Brauchitsch, who was laid up with illness. The speeches +of the East Prussians, Saucken-Tarputschen and Alfred Auerswald, the +sentimentality of Beckerath, the Gallo-Rhenish liberalism of Heydt and +Mevissen, and the boisterous violence of Vincke's speeches, disgusted +me; and even at this date when I read the proceedings they give me the +impression of imported phrases made to pattern. I felt that the King +was on the right track, and could claim to be allowed time, and not be +hurried in his development. + +I came into conflict with the Opposition the first time I made a +longer speech than usual, on May 17, 1847, when I combatted the legend +that the Prussians had gone to war in 1813 to get a constitution, and +gave free expression to my natural indignation at the idea that +foreign domination was in itself no adequate reason for fighting.[31] +It appeared to me undignified that the nation, as a set-off to its +having freed itself, should hand in to the King an account payable in +the paragraphs of a constitution. My performance produced a storm. I +remained in the tribune turning over the leaves of a newspaper which +lay there, and then, when the commotion had subsided, I finished my +speech. + +At the Court festivities, which took place during the session of the +United Diet, I was avoided in a marked manner both by the King and the +Princess of Prussia, though for different reasons: by the latter +because I was neither Liberal nor popular; by the former for a reason +which only became clear to me later. When, on the reception of the +deputies, he avoided speaking to me--when, in the Court circle, after +speaking to every one in turn, he broke off immediately he came to me, +turned his back, or strolled away across the room--I considered myself +justified in supposing that my attitude as a Royalist Hotspur had +exceeded the limits which the King had fixed for himself. Only some +months later, when I reached Venice on my honeymoon, did I discover +that this explanation was incorrect. The King, who had recognized me +in the theatre, commanded me on the following day to an audience and +to dinner; and so unexpected was this to me that my light travelling +luggage and the incapacity of the local tailor did not admit of my +appearing in correct costume. My reception was so kindly, and the +conversation, even on political subjects, of such a nature as to +enable me to infer that my attitude in the Diet met with his +encouraging approval. The King commanded me to call upon him in the +course of the winter, and I did so. Both on this occasion at smaller +dinners at the palace I became persuaded that I stood high in the +favor of both the King and the Queen, and that the former, in avoiding +speaking to me in public, at the time of the session of the Diet, did +not mean to criticize my political conduct, but at the time did not want +to let others see his approval of me. + + * * * * * + + +II + +VISIT TO PARIS + + +In the summer of 1855 Count Hatzfeldt, our ambassador in Paris, +invited me to visit the Industrial Exhibition;[32] he still shared the +belief then existent in diplomatic circles that I was very soon to be +Manteuffel's successor at the Foreign Office. Although the King had +entertained such an idea on and off, it was already then known in the +innermost Court circles that a change had taken place. Count William +Redern, whom I met in Paris, told me that the ambassadors continued to +believe I was destined to be made a minister and that he himself had +also believed this; but that the King had changed his mind--of further +details he was ignorant. Doubtless since Ruegen. + +August 15, Napoleon's day, was celebrated among other ways by a +procession of Russian prisoners through the streets. On the 19th the +Queen of England made her entry, and on August 25 a State ball was +given in her honor at Versailles at which I was presented to her and +to Prince Albert. + +The Prince, handsome and cool in his black uniform, conversed with +me courteously, but in his manner there was a kind of malevolent +curiosity from which I concluded that my anti-occidental influence +upon the King was not unknown to him. In accordance with the mode +of thought peculiar to him, he sought for the motives of my conduct not +where they really lay, that is, in the anxiety to keep my country +independent of foreign influences--influences which found a fertile soil +in our narrow-minded reverence for England and fear of France--and in +the desire to hold ourselves aloof from a war which we should not have +carried on in our own interests but in dependence upon Austrian and +English policy. + +In the eyes of the Prince--though I of course did not gather this from +the momentary impression made during my presentation, but from +ulterior acquaintance with facts and documents--I was a reactionary +party man who took up sides for Russia in order to further an +Absolutist and "Junker" policy. It was not to be wondered at that this +view of the Prince's and of the then partisans of the Duke of Coburg +had descended to the Prince's daughter, who shortly after became our +Crown Princess. + +Even soon after her arrival in Germany, in February, 1858, I became +convinced, through members of the royal house and from my own +observations, that the Princess was prejudiced against me personally. +The fact itself did not surprise me so much as the form in which her +prejudice against me had been expressed in the narrow family +circle--"she did not trust me." I was prepared for antipathy on +account of my alleged anti-English feelings and by reason of my +refusal to obey English influences; but from a conversation which I +had with the Princess after the war of 1866 while sitting next to her +at table I was obliged to conclude that she had subsequently allowed +herself to be influenced in her judgment of my character by +further-reaching calumnies. I was ambitious, she said, in a +half-jesting tone, to be a king or at least president of a republic. I +replied in the same semi-jocular tone that I was personally spoilt for +a republican; that I had grown up in the royalist traditions of the +family and had need of a monarchical institution for my earthly +well-being: I thanked God, however, I was not destined to live like a +king, constantly on show, but to be until death the king's faithful +subject. I added that no guarantee could, however, be given that this +conviction of mine would be universally inherited, and this not +because royalists would give out, but because perhaps kings might. +_Pour faire un civet, il faut un lievre, et pour faire une monarchie +il faut un roi_. I could not answer for it that for want of such the +next generation might not be republican. I further remarked that in +thus expressing myself I was not free from anxiety at the idea of a +change in the occupancy of the throne without a transference of the +monarchical traditions to the successor. But the Princess avoided +every serious turn and kept up the jocular tone as amiable and +entertaining as ever; she rather gave me the impression that she +wished to tease a political opponent. + +During the first years of my ministry I frequently remarked in the +course of similar conversation that the Princess took pleasure in +provoking my patriotic susceptibility by playful criticism of persons +and matters. + +At that ball at Versailles Queen Victoria spoke to me in German. She +gave me the impression of beholding in me a noteworthy but +unsympathetic personality, but still her tone of voice was without +that touch of ironical superiority that I thought I detected in Prince +Albert's. She continued to be amiable and courteous like one unwilling +to treat an eccentric fellow in an unfriendly way. + +In comparison with Berlin it seemed a curious arrangement to me that +at supper the company ate in three classes, with gradations in the +menu, and that such guests as were to sup at all were assured of this +by having a ticket bearing a number handed to them as they entered. +The tickets of the first class also bore the name of the lady +presiding at the table to which they referred. These tables were +arranged to accommodate fifteen or twenty. On entering I received one +of these tickets for Countess Walewska's table and later on in the +ball-room two more from two other lady patronesses of diplomacy and of +the Court. No exact plan for placing the guests had therefore been +made out. I chose the table of Countess Walewska, to whose department +I belonged as a foreign diplomatist. On the way to the room in +question I came across a Prussian officer in the uniform of an +infantry regiment of the guard, accompanied by a French lady; he was +engaged in an animated dispute with one of the imperial household +stewards who would not allow either of them to pass, not being +provided with tickets. After the officer, in answer to my inquiries, +had explained the matter and indicated the lady as a duchess bearing +an Italian title of the First Empire, I told the court official that I +had the gentleman's ticket, and gave him one of mine. Now, however, +the official would not allow the lady to pass and I therefore gave the +officer my second ticket for his duchess. The official then said +significantly to me: "_Mais vous ne passerez pas sans carte_." On my +showing him the third, he made a face of astonishment and allowed all +three of us to pass. I recommended my two _proteges_ not to sit down +at the tables indicated on the tickets, but to try and find seats +elsewhere; nor did any complaints concerning my distribution of +tickets ever come to my ears. The want of organization was so great +that our table was not fully occupied, a fact due to the absence of +any understanding among the _dames patronesses_. Old Prince Pueckler +had either received no ticket or had been unable to find his table; +after he had turned to me, whom he knew by sight, he was invited by +Countess Walewska to take one of the seats that had remained empty. +The supper, in spite of the triple division, was neither materially +nor as regards its preparation upon a level with what is done in +Berlin at similar crowded festivities; the waiting only was efficient +and prompt. + +What struck me most was the difference in the regulations for the free +circulation of the throng. In this respect the palace of Versailles +offers much greater facilities than that of Berlin on account of the +larger number and, if we except the White Hall, the greater +spaciousness of the apartments. Here those who had supped in class 1 +were ordered to make their exit by the same way as the hungry ones of +class 2 entered, their impetuous charge betraying certainly less +acquaintance with the customs of Court society. Personal collisions +occurred among the belaced and beribboned gentlemen and superelegant +ladies, giving rise to scuffles and abusive language, such as would +be impossible in our palace. I retired with the satisfactory +impression that in spite of all the splendor of the imperial Court the +Court service, the breeding and manners of Court society were on a +higher level with us, as well as in St. Petersburg and Vienna, than in +Paris, and that the times were past when one could go to France and to +the Court of Paris to receive a schooling in courtesy and good +manners. Even the etiquette of small German Courts, antiquated as it +was, especially in comparison with St. Petersburg, was more dignified +than the practice of the imperial Court. It is true that I had already +received this impression in Louis Philippe's time, during whose reign +it became quite the fashion in France to distinguish oneself in the +direction of excessively free and easy manners, and of abstention from +courtesy, especially towards ladies. Although it had become better in +this respect during the Second Empire, the tone in official and Court +society and the demeanor of the Court itself still remained below the +standard of the three great eastern Courts. Only in the Legitimist +circles aloof from the official world were things different both in +the time of Louis Philippe and in that of Louis Napoleon; there the +tone was faultless, courteous, and hospitable, with occasional +exceptions of the younger gentlemen spoilt by their contact with +Paris, who borrowed their habits not from the family but from the +club. + +The Emperor, whom I saw for the first time during this visit to Paris, +gave me to understand in several interviews, but at that time only in +general phrases, his desire and intentions respecting a +Franco-Prussian alliance. His words were to the effect that these two +neighboring States, which by reason of their culture and their +institutions stood at the head of civilization, were naturally thrown +upon each other's assistance. Any inclination to express before me +such grievance as might arise from our refusal to join the Western +Powers was kept out of the foreground. I had the feeling that the +pressure which England and Austria exercised in Berlin and Frankfort +to compel us to render assistance in the western camp was much +stronger, one might say more passionate and rude, than the desires and +promises expressed to me in an amicable form, with which the Emperor +supported his plea for our understanding with France in particular. He +was much more indulgent than England and Austria respecting our sins +against occidental policy. He never spoke German to me, either then or +later. + +That my visit to Paris had caused displeasure at the court at home, +and had intensified, especially in the case of Queen Elizabeth, the +ill-feelings already entertained towards me, I was able to perceive at +the end of September of the same year. While the King was proceeding +down the Rhine to Cologne to attend the cathedral building festival, I +reported myself at Coblentz and was, with my wife, invited by his +Majesty to perform the journey to Cologne on the steamer; my wife, +however, was ignored by the Queen on board and at Remagen.[33] The +Prince of Prussia, who had observed this, gave my wife his arm and led +her to table. At the conclusion of the meal I begged for permission to +return to Frankfort, which was granted me. + +It was not until the following winter, during which the King had again +approached me, that he asked me once at dinner, straight across the +table, my opinion concerning Louis Napoleon; his tone was ironical. I +replied: "It is my impression that the Emperor Napoleon is a discreet +and amiable man, but that he is not so clever as the world esteems +him. The world places to his account everything that happens, and if +it rains in eastern Asia at an unseasonable moment chooses to +attribute it to some malevolent machination of the Emperor. Here +especially we have become accustomed to regard him as a kind of _genie +du mal_ who is forever only meditating how to do mischief in the +world.[34] I believe he is happy when he is able to enjoy anything +good at his ease; his understanding is overrated at the expense of his +heart; he is at bottom good-natured and has an unusual measure of +gratitude for every service rendered him." + +The King laughed at this in a manner that vexed me and led me to ask +whether I might be permitted to guess his Majesty's present thoughts. +The King consented, and I said: "General von Canitz used to lecture to +the young officers in the military school on the campaigns of +Napoleon. An assiduous listener asked him how Napoleon could have +omitted to make this or that movement. Canitz replied: 'Well, you see +just what this Napoleon was--a real goodhearted fellow, but so +stupid!' which naturally excited great mirth among the military +scholars. I fear that your Majesty is thinking of me much as General +von Canitz thought of his pupils." + +The King laughed and said: "You may be right; but I am not +sufficiently acquainted with the present Napoleon to be able to impugn +your impression that his heart is better than his head." That the +Queen was dissatisfied with my view I was enabled to gather from the +external trifles by which impressions are made known at court. + +The displeasure felt at my intercourse with Napoleon sprang from the +idea of "Legitimacy," or, more strictly speaking, from the word +itself, which was stamped with its modern sense by Talleyrand, and +used in 1814 and 1815 with great success and to the advantage of the +Bourbons as a deluding spell. + + * * * * * + + +III + +THE EMS TELEGRAM + + +On July 2, 1870, the Spanish ministry decided in favor of the accession +to that throne of Leopold, Hereditary Prince of Hohenzollern. This gave +the first stimulus in the field of international law to the subsequent +military question, but still only in the form of a specifically Spanish +matter. It was hard to find in the law of nations a pretext for France +to interfere with the freedom of Spain to choose a King; after people in +Paris had made up their minds to war with Prussia, this was sought for +artificially in the name Hohenzollern, which in itself had nothing more +menacing to France than any other German name. On the contrary, it might +have been assumed, in Spain as well as in Germany, that Prince +Hohenzollern, on account of his personal and family connections in +Paris, would be a _persona grata_ beyond many another German Prince. I +remember that on the night after the battle of Sedan I was riding along +the road to Donchery in thick darkness, with a number of our officers, +following the King in his journey round Sedan. In reply to a question +from some one in the company I talked about the preliminaries to the +war, and mentioned at the same time that I had thought Prince Leopold +would be no unwelcome neighbor in Spain to the Emperor Napoleon, and +would travel to Madrid _via_ Paris, in order to get into touch with the +imperial French policy, forming as it did a part of the conditions under +which he would have had to govern Spain. I said: "We should have been +much more justified in dreading a close understanding between the +Spanish and French crowns than in hoping for the restoration of a +Spanish-German anti-French constellation after the analogy of Charles +V.; a king of Spain can only carry out Spanish policy, and the Prince by +assuming the crown of the country would become a Spaniard." To my +surprise there came from the darkness behind me a vigorous rejoinder +from the Prince of Hohenzollern, of whose presence I had not the least +idea; he protested strongly against the possibility of presuming any +French sympathies in him. This protest in the midst of the battlefield +of Sedan was natural for a German officer and a Hohenzollern Prince, and +I could only answer that the Prince, as King of Spain, could have +allowed himself to be guided by Spanish interests only, and prominent +among these, in view of strengthening his new kingdom, would have been a +soothing treatment of his powerful neighbor on the Pyrenees. I made my +apology to the Prince for the expression I had uttered while unaware of +his presence. + +This episode, introduced before its time, affords evidence as to the +conception I had formed of the whole question. I regarded it as a +Spanish and not as a German one, even though I was delighted at seeing +the German name of Hohenzollern active in representing monarchy in +Spain, and did not fail to calculate all the possible consequences +from the point of view of our interests--a duty which is incumbent on +a foreign minister when anything of similar importance occurs in +another State. My immediate thought was more of the economic than of +the political relations in which a Spanish King of German extraction +could be serviceable. For Spain I anticipated from the personal +character of the Prince, and from his family relations, tranquillizing +and consolidating results, which I had no reason to grudge the +Spaniards. Spain is among the few countries which, by their +geographical position and political necessities, have no reason to +pursue an anti-German policy; besides which, she is well adapted, by +the economic relations of supply and demand, for an extensive trade +with Germany. An element friendly to us in the Spanish government +would have been an advantage which in the course of German policy +there appeared no reason to reject _a limine_, unless the apprehension +that France might be dissatisfied was to be allowed to rank as one. If +Spain had developed again more vigorously than hitherto has been the +case, the fact that Spanish diplomacy was friendly toward us might +have been useful to us in time of peace; but it did not seem to me +probable that the King of Spain, on the outbreak of the war between +Germany and France, which was evidently coming sooner or later, would, +with the best will in the world, be in a position to prove his +sympathy with Germany by an attack on France or a demonstration +against her; and the conduct of Spain after the outbreak of the war +which we had drawn upon us by the complaisance of German princes +showed the accuracy of my doubt. + +[Illustration: ADOLPH VON MENZEL KING WILLIAM'S DEPARTURE FOR THE +FRONT AT THE BEGINNING OF THE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR.] + +The chivalrous Cid would have called France to account for +interference in Spain's free choice of a king, and not have left the +vindication of Spanish independence to foreigners. The nation, +formerly so powerful by land and sea, cannot at the present day hold +the cognate population of Cuba in check; and how could one expect her +to attack a Power like France from affection towards us? No Spanish +government, and least of all an alien king, would possess power enough +in the country to send even a regiment to the Pyrenees out of +affection toward Germany. Politically I was tolerably indifferent to +the entire question. Prince Anthony was more inclined than myself to +carry it peacefully to the desired goal. The memoirs of his Majesty +the King of Roumania are not accurately informed as regards details of +the ministerial cooeperation in the question. The ministerial council +in the palace which he mentions did not take place. Prince Anthony was +living as the King's guest in the palace, and had invited him and some +of the ministers to dinner. I scarcely think that the Spanish question +was discussed at table. If the Duke of Gramont[35] labors to adduce +proof that I did not stand aloof from and averse to the Spanish +proposal, I find no reason to contradict him. I can no longer recall +the text of my letter to Marshal Prim, which the Duke has heard +mentioned; if I drew it up myself, about which I am equally uncertain, +I should hardly have called the Hohenzollern candidature "_une +excellente chose_": the expression is not natural to me. That I +regarded it as "opportune," not "_a un moment donne_," but in +principle and in time of peace is correct. I had not the slightest +doubt in the matter that the grandson of the Murats, a favorite at +the French Court, would secure the goodwill of France towards his +country. + +The intervention of France at its beginning concerned Spanish and not +Prussian affairs; the garbling of the matter in the Napoleonic policy, +by virtue of which the question was to become a Prussian one, was +internationally unjustifiable and exasperating, and proved to me that +the moment had arrived when France sought a quarrel against us and was +ready to seize any pretext that seemed available. I regarded the +French intervention in the first instance as an injury, and +consequently as an insult to Spain, and expected that the Spanish +sense of honor would resist this encroachment. Later on, when the turn +of affairs showed that, by her encroachment on Spanish independence, +France intended to threaten us with war, I waited for some days +expecting that the Spanish declaration of war against France would +follow that of the French against us. I was not prepared to see a +self-assertive nation like Spain stand quiet behind the Pyrenees with +ordered arms, while the Germans were engaged in a deadly struggle +against France on behalf of Spain's independence and freedom to choose +her king. The Spanish sense of honor which proved so sensitive in the +Carlist question simply left us in the lurch in 1870. Probably in both +cases the sympathies and international ties of the Republican parties +were decisive. + +The first demands of France respecting the candidature for the Spanish +throne, and they were unjustifiable, had been presented on July 4, and +answered by our Foreign Office evasively, though in accordance with +truth, that the _ministry_ knew nothing about the matter. This was +correct so far, that the question of Prince Leopold's acceptance of +his election had been treated by his Majesty simply as a family +matter, which in no way concerned either Prussia or the North German +Confederation, and which affected solely the personal relations +between the Commander-in-Chief and a German officer, and those between +the head of the family and, not the royal family of Prussia, +but the entire family of Hohenzollern, or all the bearers of that +name. + +In France, however, a _casus belli_ was being sought against Prussia +which should be as free as possible from German national coloring; and +it was thought one had been discovered in the dynastic sphere by the +accession to the Spanish throne of a candidate bearing the name of +Hohenzollern. In this the overrating of the military superiority of +France and the underrating of the national feeling in Germany was +clearly the chief reason why the tenability of this pretext was not +examined either with honesty or judgment. The German national outburst +which followed the French declaration, and resembled a stream bursting +its sluices, was a surprise to French politicians. They lived, +calculated, and acted on recollections of the Confederation of the +Rhine, supported by the attitude of certain West German ministers; +also by Ultramontane influences, in the hope that the conquests of +France, "_gesta Dei per Francos_," would make it easier in Germany to +draw further consequences from the Vatican council, with the support +of an alliance with Catholic Austria. The Ultramontane tendencies of +French policy were favorable to it in Germany and disadvantageous in +Italy; the alliance with the latter being finally wrecked by the +refusal of France to evacuate Rome. In the belief that the French army +was superior the pretext for war was lugged out, as one may say, by +the hair; and, instead of making Spain responsible for its reputed +anti-French election of a king, they attacked the German Prince who +had not refused to relieve the need of the Spaniards, in the way they +themselves wished, by the appointment of a useful king, and one who +would presumably be regarded as _persona grata_ in Paris; and the King +of Prussia, whom nothing beyond his family name and his position as a +German fellow-countryman had brought into connection with this Spanish +affair. In the very fact that the French cabinet ventured to call +Prussian policy to account respecting the acceptance of the election, +and to do so in a form which, in the interpretation put upon it by the +French papers, became a public threat, lay a piece of international +impudence which, in my opinion, rendered it impossible for us to draw +back one single inch. The insulting character of the French demand was +enhanced, not only by the threatening challenges of the French press, +but also by the discussions in parliament and the attitude taken by the +ministry of Gramont and Ollivier upon these manifestations. The utterance +of Gramont in the session of the "Corps Legislatif" of July 6: + +"We do not believe that respect for the rights of a neighboring +people binds us to suffer a foreign Power to set one of its Princes +on the throne of Charles V. * * * This event will not come to pass, +of that we are quite certain. * * * Should it prove otherwise we +shall know how to fulfil our duty without shrinking and without +weakness"--this utterance was itself an official international threat, +with the hand on the sword hilt. The phrase, _La Prusse cane_ (Prussia +climbs down), served in the press to illustrate the range of the +parliamentary proceedings of July 6 and 7; which, in my feeling, +rendered all compliance incompatible with our sense of national honor. + +On July 12 I decided to hurry off from Varzin to Ems to discuss with +his Majesty about summoning the Reichstag for the purpose of the +mobilization. As I passed through Wussow my friend Mulert, the old +clergyman, stood before the parsonage door and warmly greeted me; my +answer from the open carriage was a thrust in carte and tierce in the +air, and he clearly understood that I believed I was going to war. As +I entered the courtyard of my house at Berlin, and before leaving the +carriage, I received telegrams from which it appeared that the King +was continuing to treat with Benedetti, even after the French threats +and outrages in parliament and in the press, and not referring him +with calm reserve to his ministers. During dinner, at which Moltke and +Roon were present, the announcement arrived from the embassy in Paris +that the Prince of Hohenzollern had renounced his candidature in order +to prevent the war with which France threatened us. My first idea was +to retire from the service, because, after all the insolent challenges +which had gone before, I perceived in this extorted submission a +humiliation of Germany for which I did not desire to be responsible. +This impression of a wound to our sense of national honor by the +compulsory withdrawal so dominated me that I had already decided to +announce my retirement at Ems. I considered this humiliation before +France and her swaggering demonstrations as worse than that of Olmuetz, +for which the previous history on both sides, and our want of +preparation for war at the time, will always be a valid excuse. I took +it for granted that France would lay the Prince's renunciation to her +account as a satisfactory success, with the feeling that a threat of +war, even though it had taken the form of international insult and +mockery, and though the pretext for war against Prussia had been +dragged in by the head and shoulders, was enough to compel her to draw +back, even in a just cause; and that even the North German +Confederation did not feel strong enough to protect the national honor +and independence against French arrogance. I was very much depressed, +for I saw no means of repairing the corroding injury I dreaded to our +national position from a timorous policy, unless by picking quarrels +clumsily and seeking them artificially. I saw by that time that war +was a necessity, which we could no longer avoid with honor. I +telegraphed to my people at Varzin not to pack up or start, for I +should be back again in a few days. I now believed in peace; but, as I +would not represent the attitude by which this peace had been +purchased, I gave up the journey to Ems and asked Count Eulenburg to +go thither and represent my opinion to his Majesty. In the same sense +I conversed with the Minister of War, von Roon: we had got our slap in +the face from France, and had been reduced, by our complaisance, to +look like seekers of a quarrel if we entered upon war, the only way in +which we could wipe away the stain. My position was now untenable, +solely because, during his course at the baths, the King, under +pressure of threats, had given audience to the French ambassador for +four consecutive days, and had exposed his royal person to insolent +treatment from this foreign agent without ministerial assistance. +Through this inclination to take state business upon himself in person +and alone, the King had been forced into a position which I could not +defend; in my judgment his Majesty while at Ems ought to have refused +every business communication from the French negotiator, who was not +on the same footing with him, and to have referred him to the +department in Berlin. The department would then have had to obtain his +Majesty's decision by a representation at Ems, or, if dilatory +treatment were considered useful, by a report in writing. But his +Majesty, however careful in his usual respect for departmental +relations, was too fond not indeed of deciding important questions +personally, but, at all events, of discussing them, to make a proper +use of the shelter with which the Sovereign is purposely surrounded +against importunities and inconvenient questionings and demands. That +the King, considering the consciousness of his supreme dignity which +he possessed in so high a degree, did not withdraw at the very +beginning from Benedetti's importunity was to be attributed for the +most part to the influence exercised upon him by the Queen, who was at +Coblenz close by. He was seventy-three years old, a lover of peace, +and disinclined to risk the laurels of 1866 in a fresh struggle; but +when he was free from the feminine influence, the sense of honor of +the heir of Frederick the Great and of a Prussian officer always +remained paramount. Against the opposition of his consort, due to her +natural feminine timidity and lack of national feeling, the King's +power of resistance was weakened by his knightly regard for the lady +and his kingly consideration for a Queen, and especially for his own +Queen. I have been told that Queen Augusta implored her husband with +tears, before his departure from Ems to Berlin, to bear in mind Jena +and Tilsit and avert war. I consider the statement authentic, even to +the tears. + +Having decided to resign, in spite of the remonstrances which Roon +made against it, I invited him and Moltke to dine with me alone on the +13th, and communicated to them at table my views and projects for +doing so. Both were greatly depressed, and reproached me indirectly +with selfishly availing myself of my greater facility for withdrawing +from service. I maintained the position that I could not offer up my +sense of honor to politics, that both of them, being professional +soldiers and consequently without freedom of choice, need not take the +same point of view as a responsible Foreign Minister. During our +conversation I was informed that a telegram from Ems, in cipher, if I +recollect rightly, of about 200 "groups," was being deciphered. When +the copy was handed to me it showed that Abeken had drawn up and +signed the telegram at his Majesty's command, and I read it out to my +guests,[36] whose dejection was so great that they turned away from +food and drink. On a repeated examination of the document I lingered +upon the authorization of his Majesty, which included a command, +immediately to communicate Benedetti's fresh demand and its rejection +both to our ambassadors and to the press. I put a few questions to +Moltke as to the extent of his confidence in the state of our +preparations, especially as to the time they would still require in +order to meet this sudden risk of war. He answered that if there was +to be war he expected no advantage to us by deferring its outbreak; +and even if we should not be strong enough at first to protect all the +territories on the left bank of the Rhine against French invasion, our +preparations would nevertheless soon overtake those of the French, +while at a later period this advantage would be diminished; he +regarded a rapid outbreak as, on the whole, more favorable to us than +delay. + +In view of the attitude of France, our national sense of honor +compelled us, in my opinion, to go to war; and if we did not act +according to the demands of this feeling, we should lose, when on the +way to its completion, the entire impetus towards our national +development won in 1866 while the German national feeling south of the +Main, aroused by our military successes in 1866, and shown by the +readiness of the southern states to enter the alliances, would have to +grow cold again. The German feeling, which in the southern states +lived long with the individual and dynastic state feeling, had, up to +1866, silenced its political conscience to a certain degree with the +fiction of a collective Germany under the leadership of Austria, +partly from South German preference for the old imperial State, partly +in the belief of her military superiority to Prussia. After events had +shown the incorrectness of that calculation, the very helplessness in +which the South German states had been left by Austria at the +conclusion of peace was a motive for the political Damascus that lay +between Varnbueler's "_Vae victis_" and the willing conclusion of the +offensive and defensive alliance with Prussia. It was confidence in +the Germanic power developed by means of Prussia, and the attraction +which is inherent in a brave and resolute policy if it is successful, +and then proceeds within reasonable and honorable limits. This nimbus +had been won by Prussia; it would have been lost irrevocably, or at +all events for a long time, if in a question of national honor the +opinion gained ground among the people that the French insult, _La +Prusse cane_, had a foundation in fact. + +In the same psychological train of thought in which during the Danish +war in 1864 I desired, for political reasons, that precedence should +be given not to the old Prussian, but to the Westphalian battalions, +who so far had had no opportunity of proving their courage under +Prussian leadership, and regretted that Prince Frederick Charles had +acted contrary to my wish, did I feel convinced that the gulf, which +diverse dynastic and family influences and different habits of life +had in the course of history created between the south and north of +the Fatherland, could not be more effectually bridged over than by a +joint national war against the neighbor who had been aggressive for +many centuries. I remembered that even in the short period from 1813 +to 1815, from Leipzig and Hanau to Belle-Alliance, the joint +victorious struggle against France had rendered it possible to put an +end to the opposition between a yielding Rhine-Confederation policy +and the German national impetus of the days between the Vienna +congress and the Mainz commission of inquiry, days marked by the names +of Stein, Goerres, Jahn, Wartburg, up to the crime of Sand. The blood +shed in common from the day when the Saxons came over at Leipzig down +to their participation at Belle-Alliance under English command had +fostered a consciousness before which the recollections of the +Rhine-Confederation were blotted out. The historical development in +this direction was interrupted by the anxiety aroused by the +over-haste of the national craving for the stability of state +institutions. + +This retrospect strengthened me in my conviction, and the political +considerations in respect to the South German states proved applicable +likewise, _mutatis mutandis_, to our relations with the populations of +Hanover, Hesse, and Schleswig-Holstein. That this view was correct is +shown by the satisfaction with which, at the present day, after a +lapse of twenty years, not only the Holsteiners, but likewise the +people of the Hanse towns, remember the heroic deeds of their sons in +1870. All these considerations, conscious and unconscious, +strengthened my opinion that war could be avoided only at the cost of +the honor of Prussia and of the national confidence in it. Under this +conviction I made use of the royal authorization communicated to me +through Abeken, to publish the contents of the telegram; and in the +presence of my two guests I reduced the telegram by striking out +words, but without adding or altering, to the following form: "After +the news of the renunciation of the hereditary Prince of Hohenzollern +had been officially communicated to the imperial government of France +by the royal government of Spain, the French ambassador at Ems further +demanded of his Majesty the King that he would authorize him to +telegraph to Paris that his Majesty the King bound himself for all +future time never again to give his consent if the Hohenzollerns +should renew their candidature. His Majesty the King thereupon decided +not to receive the French ambassador again, and sent to tell him +through the aide-de-camp on duty that his Majesty had nothing further +to communicate to the ambassador." The difference in the effect of the +abbreviated text of the Ems telegram as compared with that produced by +the original was not the result of stronger words but of the form, +which made this announcement appear decisive, while Abeken's version +would only have been regarded as a fragment of a negotiation still +pending, and to be continued at Berlin. + +After I had read out the concentrated edition to my two guests, Moltke +remarked: "Now it has a different ring; it sounded before like a +parley; now it is like a flourish in answer to a challenge." I went on +to explain: "If in execution of his Majesty's order I at once +communicate this text, which contains no alteration in or addition to +the telegram, not only to the newspapers, but also by telegraph to all +our embassies, it will be known in Paris before midnight, and not only +on account of its contents, but also on account of the manner of its +distribution, will have the effect of a red rag upon the Gallic bull. +Fight we must if we do not want to act the part of the vanquished +without a battle. Success, however, essentially depends upon the +impression which the origination of the war makes upon us and others; +it is important that we should be the party attacked, and this Gallic +overweening and touchiness will make us if we announce in the face of +Europe, so far as we can without the speaking-tube of the Reichstag, +that we fearlessly meet the public threats of France." + +This explanation brought about in the two generals a revulsion to a +more joyous mood, the liveliness of which surprised me. They had +suddenly recovered their pleasure in eating and drinking and spoke in +a more cheerful vein. Roon said: "Our God of old lives still and will +not let us perish in disgrace." Moltke so far relinquished his passive +equanimity that, glancing up joyously towards the ceiling and +abandoning his usual punctiliousness of speech, he smote his hand upon +his breast and said: "If I may but live to lead our armies in such a +war, then the devil may come directly afterwards and fetch away the +'old carcass.'" He was less robust at that time than afterwards, and +doubted whether he would survive the hardships of the campaign. + +How keenly he wanted to put in practice his military and strategic +tastes and ability I observed not only on this occasion, but also in the +days before the outbreak of the Bohemian war. In both cases I found my +military colleague in the King's service changed from his usual dry and +silent habit; he became cheerful, lively, even merry. In the June night +of 1866, when I had invited him for the purpose of ascertaining whether +the march of the army could not be begun twenty-four hours sooner, he +answered in the affirmative and was pleasantly excited by the hastening +of the struggle. As he left my wife's drawing-room with elastic step, he +turned round at the door and asked me in a serious tone: "Do you know +that the Saxons have _blown up_[37] the bridge at Dresden?" Upon my +expression of amazement and regret he replied: "Yes, with water, for the +dust." An inclination to innocent jokes very seldom, in official +relations like ours, broke through his reserve. In both cases his love +of combat and delight in battles were a great support to me in carrying +out the policy I regarded as necessary, in opposition to the +intelligible and justifiable aversion in a most influential quarter. It +proved inconvenient to me in 1867, in the Luxemburg question, and in +1875 and afterwards on the question whether it was desirable, as regards +a war which we should probably have to face sooner or later, to bring it +on _antici-pando_ before the adversary could improve his preparations. I +have always opposed the theory which says "Yes"; not only at the +Luxemburg period, but likewise subsequently for twenty years, in the +conviction that even victorious wars cannot be justified unless they are +forced upon one, and that one cannot see the cards of Providence far +enough ahead to anticipate historical development according to one's own +calculation. It is natural that in the staff of the army not only +younger officers, but likewise experienced strategists, should feel the +need of turning to account the efficiency of the troops led by them, and +their own capacity to lead, and of making them prominent in history. It +would be a matter of regret if this effect of the military spirit did +not exist in the army; the task of keeping its results within such +limits as the nations' need of peace can justly claim is the duty of the +political, not the military, heads of the State. That at the time of the +Luxemburg question, during the crisis of 1875, invented by Gortchakoff +and France, and even down to the most recent times, the staff and its +leaders have allowed themselves to be led astray and to endanger peace, +lies in the very spirit of the institution, which I would not forego. It +only becomes dangerous under a monarch whose policy lacks sense of +proportion and power to resist one-sided and constitutionally +unjustifiable influences. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 26: From _Bismarck: The Man and the Statesman._ Permission +Harper & Brothers, New York.] + +[Footnote 27: a gathering of, it is said, 30,000 at the Castle of +Hambach in the Palatinate; where speeches were made in favor of +Germany, unity, and the Republic.] + +[Footnote 28: An attempt made by a handful of students and peasants to +blow up the Federal Diet in revenge for some Press regulations passed +by it. They stormed the guard house, but were suppressed.] + +[Footnote 29: See the "Proceedings during my stay at Aachen" in +_Bismarck-Jahrbuch III.,_ and the "Samples of Examination for the +Referendariat" in _Bismarck-Jahrbuch II._] + +[Footnote 30: Say "red tape."] + +[Footnote 31: _Polstiche Reden_ (Cotta's edition), i. 9.] + +[Footnote 32: See _Bismarck-Jahrbuch_, iii. 86.] + +[Footnote 33: Cf. Bismarck's letter to Gerlach of October 7, 1855.] + +[Footnote 34: Cf. Bismarck's utterance in the Imperial Diet on January +8, 1885. _Politische Reden_, x. 373.] + +[Footnote 35: Gramont, _La France et la Prusse avant la guerre_. +Paris, 1872, p. 21.] + +[Footnote 36: The telegram handed in at Ems on July 13, 1870, at 3.50 +p. m. and received in Berlin at 6.9, ran as deciphered: + +"His Majesty writes to me: "Count Benedetti spoke to me on the +promenade, in order to demand from me, finally in a very importunate +manner, that I should authorize him to telegraph at once that I bound +myself for all future time never again to give my consent if the +Hohenzollerns should renew their candidature. I refused at last +somewhat sternly, as it is neither right nor possible to undertake +engagements of this kind _a tout jamais_. Naturally I told him that I +had as yet received no news, and as he was earlier informed about +Paris and Madrid than myself, he could clearly see that my government +once more had no hand in the matter." His Majesty has since received a +letter from the Prince. His Majesty, having told Count Benedetti that +he was awaiting news from the Prince, has decided, with reference to +the above demand, upon the representation of Count Eulenburg and +myself, not to receive Count Benedetti again, but only to let him be +informed through an aide-de-camp: That his Majesty had now received +from the Prince confirmation of the news which Benedetti had already +received from Paris, and had nothing further to say to the ambassador. +His Majesty leaves it to your Excellency whether Benedetti's fresh +demand and its rejection should not be at once communicated both to +our ambassadors and to the press."] + +[Footnote 37: Play on the word _gesprengt_.] + + * * * * * + + + + +BISMARCK AS AN ORATOR + +By EDMUND VON MACH, PH.D. + + +Bismarck was not an orator in the ordinary sense of the word, nor did +he wish to be one. On the contrary, he looked with mistrust on +silver-tongued orators. "You know," he said in the Diet on February 3, +1866, "I am not an orator.... I cannot appeal to your emotions with a +clever play of words intended to obscure the subject-matter. My speech +is simple and clear." And a few years later he said: "Eloquence has +spoiled many things in the world's parliaments. Too much time is +wasted, because everybody who thinks he knows anything wishes to +speak, even if he has nothing new to say. More breath is wasted on the +air than thought is bestowed on the questions under discussion. +Everything has been settled in party caucuses, and in the House the +representatives talk for no other purpose than to show the people how +clever they are, or to please the newspapers, which are expected to be +lavish with their praise in return. If things go on like this, the +time will come when eloquence will be considered a common nuisance, +and a man will be punished if he has spoken too long." + +Bismarck's most famous words against mere eloquence were uttered in +the Reichstag on April 29, 1881: "You must be something of a poet if +you wish to be a good orator, and you must possess the gift of +improvisation. When I was younger there were public entertainments in +which music alternated with oratorical improvisations. The +improvisator was given a theme of which he knew nothing, and on which +he discoursed, often brilliantly. It even happened that he was +altogether convincing until we remembered where we were. I am +merely saying this to show that we should not entrust the direction of +big affairs to the mere masters of eloquence any more than to the +improvisators. Least of all should these people be placed in charge of +bureaus, or be given a minister's portfolio. I only wish to prove that +eloquence is a gift which exerts today an influence out of proportion +to its worth. It is overestimated. A good orator must be something of +a poet, which means that he cannot be a stickler for truth and +mathematical accuracy. He must be inspiring, quick, and excitable, +able himself to kindle the enthusiasm of others. But a good orator I +fear will rarely play a good game of whist or of chess, and will be +even less satisfactory as a statesman. The emotional element and not +cool reason must predominate in his make-up. Physiologically, I +believe, the same man cannot be a good orator and a calm judge. I am +reminded of the list of qualities enumerated by Mephisto in Goethe's +_Faust_: 'The lion's strength, the deer's celerity.' Such things are +never found united in one human body. And thus we often find eloquence +overtopping and dangerously controlling reason, to the complete +satisfaction of thoughtless multitudes. But a man of discretion, cool +and accurate in his deliberations, to whom we are glad to entrust the +direction of big and weighty matters, can scarcely ever be a perfect +orator." + +In this last sentence Bismarck apparently wished to draw a line of +distinction between himself and some of his parliamentary opponents +whom he admired as fluent orators, but whose leadership he deemed to +be unsafe. If he considered himself a poor public speaker he was +greatly mistaken. His contemporaries held different views, and several +of them fortunately were so deeply impressed by his power that they +analyzed the means with which he won his great parliamentary +victories. His bitter political opponent, Ludwig Bamberger, for +instance, said: + +"Bismarck controls his audience by the noticeable force and the +exhaustiveness of his mental labor. He has improved with +practice, and the description of him given in 1866 is no longer quite +fair--'No charm of voice, no sonorous phrases, nothing to captivate an +audience. His voice while clear and distinct, is dry and +unsympathetic. He speaks monotonously, with many pauses, at times he +almost stutters, as if an obstinate tongue refused to obey orders, and +as if he had to wrestle for the adequate expression of his thoughts. +He rocks to and fro, somewhat restlessly, and in no relation to what +he is saying. But the longer he speaks the more he overcomes all +difficulties, he succeeds in adapting his words, without the least +waste, to his thoughts, and generally reaches a powerfully effective +end.' It is still true that his words advance at first slowly, then +with a rush, and again haltingly. But for all those who do not +consider the even and melodious flow of an address to be its greatest +perfection Bismarck's way of speaking is not without some charm. It +enables the hearer to follow the mental exertions of the speaker, and +thus rivets attention better than many a smooth and sonorous diction +which glides along nicely because it has no inner difficulties to +overcome. Often Bismarck succeeds in taking hold of his subject with +trenchant wit, and in illustrating it with arguments which he boldly +takes from every day life.... We must confess that his speeches, if +art-less, are yet full of imagery. His cool and clear mind does not +despise the charm of warm color, just as his robust constitution is +not void of nervous irritability. His ingenuous appearance, with which +he is apt to surprise an audience, should not win our ready +confidence, for all who have had to do with him know that his +astonishingly intimate remarks are calculated to mislead by their +excessive frankness, or their excessive lack of it. If he dissembles, +he often misses his mark by exaggeration, and one can truly say that +he has deceived his opponents more frequently by speaking the truth +than by making false pretenses. Behind his blustering behavior you can +often spy the merry wag. To his opponents he can be provoking, +malicious, even spiteful, but he is never false! He does not belong +to that class of public men who believe that the world can be governed +with sentimental phrases, or that evil conditions are alleviated when +the discussion is interspersed with pompous generalities. On the +contrary, he loves to turn his phrases so that everything will appear +in a strong and glaring light." + +Another observer, quoted by Hans Kraemer in his "Speeches of Prince +Bismarck," sums up his impressions as follows: + +"Bismarck has before him a narrow strip of paper on which, in +preparation, he has jotted down a few words with his inspired +quill-pen. Occasionally he looks at his notes, while he is speaking, +rocking himself very slowly to and fro, and twisting his thumbs. He +often hesitates, almost stutters, and sometimes even makes a slip of +the tongue. He seems to be wrestling with his thoughts, while his +words seem to ascend against their wish, for he makes a very brief +pause after every two or three words.... He speaks without gestures, +pathos or intonation, and without emphasizing any of his words. Is +this the man who as early as 1847 was the leader of the nobility in +the old Diet and their quickest man at repartee; who, in 1849 and 1850 +as a member of the Second House and the United Parliament of Erfurt, +whipped the liberal majority to a frenzy of fury with his bitter and +poignant speeches; who as the President of the Ministry since 1862 has +faced, almost alone, the solid phalanx of the Liberals, replying to +their ebullitions of pride and confidence in their own strain, and +answering on the spot and with brilliant presence of mind their +sarcastic and malicious attacks, yes even challenging them with witty +impromptus, and hurting his opponents to the core? Yes, he is the same +man, and occasionally he can be as witty and bitter as he used to be. +But since his great victories he has shown the more serious demeanor +of a statesman. He is calmly objective and conciliatory, as befits his +greatness, which is today universally recognized. The longer he +speaks the more the peculiar attractions of his way of speaking become +manifest. His expression is original and fresh, pithy and robust, +honest and straightforward." + +Bismarck did not write out his speeches, and the published accounts of +what he said are copied from the official stenographic reports. +Logically Bismarck never left a sentence incomplete, but grammatically +he often did so when the wealth of ideas qualifying his main thought +had grown to greater proportions than he had anticipated. His diction +was at all times precise, which led to a multiplicity of +qualifications--adjectives, appositions, adverbs, parentheses, and the +like. Desirous of convincing his hearers, he often felt the need of +repeating the same thought in various ways until he at last hammered +it in, as it were, with one big blow--with one phrase easily +remembered and readily quoted. It is these phrases which have given +the names to many of his speeches, namely: "The Honest Broker," +"Practical Christianity," or "We shall never go to Canossa." + +He himself readily quoted from the sayings and writings of other great +men; and was in this respect wholly admirable both for the catholicity +of his taste and the singular appropriateness of his citations. He was +apparently as familiar with the great authors of antiquity as with the +modern German, French and English writers. Nor was he afraid of using +a foreign tongue when no German phrase occurred to him to match the +exact meaning of his thought. + +The reader will realize, even more than the hearer, that it was not +the form of Bismarck's speeches which swept his audiences off their +feet, and often changed a hostile Reichstag or Diet into an assembly +of men eager to do his bidding, but that it was his firm grasp on the +realities of life and his supreme command of everything which makes +for true statesmanship. His policies were not based on snap judgments, +they were the result of serious thought. All this showed in his +speeches, and made him one of the most powerfully effective speakers +of all times. + + * * * * * + + + +_SPEECHES OF PRINCE BISMARCK_ + + * * * * * + +PROFESSORIAL POLITICS + +December 21, 1863 + +TRANSLATED BY EDMUND VON HACK, PH.D. + + +[In the Prussian Diet the representative, Johann Ludwig Tellkampf, +professor of economics and political science in the University of +Breslau, had attacked the policy of Bismarck in regard to +Schleswig-Holstein. Bismarck replied as follows:] + +The conception which the previous speaker has of the politics of +Europe reminds me of a man from the plains who is on his first journey +to the mountains. When he sees a huge elevation loom up before him, +nothing seems easier than to climb it. He does not even think that he +will need a guide, for the mountain is in plain sight, and the road to +it apparently without obstacles. But when he starts, he soon comes +upon ravines and crevasses which not even the best of speeches will +help him to cross. The gentleman comforted us concerning similar +obstacles in the path of politics by saying things like these: "It is +well known that Russia can do nothing at present; it does not appear +that Austria will take a contrary step; England knows very well that +her interests are counselling peace; and finally, France will not act +against her national principles." If we should believe these +assurances, and think more highly of the estimate which the gentleman +has made of the politics of Europe than of our own official judgment, +and should thereby drive Prussia to an isolated and humiliating +position, could we then excuse ourselves by saying, "We could see the +danger coming, but we trusted the speaker, thinking he knew probably +more than we?" If this is impossible how can we attach to the remarks +of the speaker the weight which he wishes us to attach to them! + +For all official positions, those of the judges for instance and even +those of the subalterns in the army, we require examinations and a +practical knowledge--difficult examinations. But high politics--oh, +any one can practise them who feels himself called upon to do so. +Nothing is easier than to make endless assertions in this field of +conjectures and to cast caution to the winds. You know that one must +write a whole book to controvert one erroneous thought, and he who +voiced the error remains unconvinced. It is a dangerous and far-spread +mistake which assumes that a naive intuition will reveal to the +political dilettante what remains hidden from the wisdom of the +expert. + +[Professor Tellkampf replied, in great excitement: "My whole life as a +professor of political science has been devoted to the study of +politics, and I should like to ask the president of the ministry, +whether he knew more of political science, when he began his political +career as a dike-master, than a professor of this science knows?" To +which Bismarck replied:] + +I do not at all deny the familiarity of the previous speaker with +political theories. But he has wandered from the field of theory into +that of practice. He has announced with complete assurance to me and +to this assembly what each European cabinet will probably do in this +concrete case. These are the very things which, I believe, I must know +better than he. This belief I have expressed. The previous speaker has +referred to his activity in theoretical politics as a professor +through many years. If the gentleman had served even one year in +practical politics, possibly as a bureau chief in the ministry of +foreign affairs, he would not have said what he said today from the +speaker's desk. And his advice, after this one year of practical +training, would be of greater value to me than if he had been active, +even more years than he says, as a professor on the lecture platform. + + * * * * * + + + + +SPEECH FROM THE THRONE + +Written by Bismarck and delivered by William I., July 19, 1870 + +TRANSLATED BY EDMUND VON MACH, PH.D. + +[Disturbed by the increasing bonds of union between the northern and +the southern German states, in which France saw a lessening of her own +prestige across the Rhine, the ministers of Napoleon III. had decided +on war against Prussia. They found a pretext in the candidacy of a +Hohenzollern prince for the throne of Spain. Contrary to diplomatic +usage, they requested the King of Prussia to force the withdrawal of +the prince, and even when the father of the prince announced the +withdrawal of his son, they were not satisfied, but instructed +Benedetti, the French ambassador, to secure from the King of Prussia a +humiliating promise for the future. The King indignantly refused, and +Bismarck published the occurrence in the famous "Despatch of Ems," +July 13, 1870. Thereupon the French cabinet declared war, on July 15, +1870. The formal notice was served on Bismarck, July 19, and on the +same day the King of Prussia opened a special session of the Reichstag +with the following address, which had been prepared by Bismarck.] + + + + +GENTLEMEN OF THE REICHSTAG OF THE NORTH GERMAN FEDERATION: + +When I welcomed you here at your last assembly, it was with joy and +gratitude because God had crowned my efforts with success. I could +announce to you that every disturbance of peace had been avoided, in +response to the wishes of the people and the demands of civilization. + +If now the allied governments have been compelled by treats of war and +its danger to summon you to a special session, you will feel not less +convinced than we that it was the wish of the North German Federation +to develop the forces of the German people as a support of universal +peace, and not as a possible source of danger to it. If we call upon +these forces today for the protection of our independence, we are +doing nothing but what honor and duty demand. + +The candidacy of a German prince for the Spanish throne, with which +the allied governments had nothing to do--neither when it was pressed +nor when it was withdrawn--and which interested the North German +Federation only in so far as the government of a friendly nation +seemed to expect of it the assurance of a peaceful and orderly +government for its much harassed land--this candidacy offered to the +emperor of France the pretense of seeing in it a cause for war, +contrary to the long established custom of diplomacy. When the +pretense no longer existed, he kept to his views in utter disregard of +the rights which our people have to the blessings of peace--views +which find their analogy in the history of former rulers of France. + +When in earlier centuries Germany suffered in silence such attacks on +her rights and her honor, she did so because she was divided and did +not know her strength. Today when the bonds of the spiritual and +political union, which began with the War of Liberation, are knitting +the German races more closely together as time advances, and when our +armor no longer offers an opening to the enemy, Germany carries in her +bosom the will and the strength to defend herself against renewed +French violence. + +It is not presumption which dictates these words. The allied +governments and I myself--we are fully conscious of the fact that +victory and defeat rest with the Lord of battles. We have measured +with clear vision the responsibility which attaches, before God and +men, to him who drives two peace-loving peoples in the heart of Europe +to war. The German and the French people, enjoying in equal measure +the blessings of Christian morals and o growing prosperity, are meant +for a more wholesome contest than the bloody contest of war. + +[Illustration: PRINCE BISMARCK FRANZ VON LENBACH] + +The rulers of France, however, have known how to exploit by calculated +deception, the just, although excitable, pride of the great French +nation in furtherance of their own interests and for the gratification +of their own passions. + +The more conscious the allied governments are of having done +everything permitted by their honor and their dignity to preserve for +Europe the blessings of peace, and the more apparent it is to +everybody that the sword has been forced upon us, the greater is the +confidence with which we rely on the unanimous decision of the German +governments of the South as well as of the North, and appeal to the +patriotism and self-sacrifice of the German people, calling them to +the defense of their honor and their independence. + +We shall fight, as our fathers did, against the violence of foreign +conquerors, and for our freedom and our right. And in this fight, in +which we have no other aim than that of securing for Europe lasting +peace, God will be with us as He was with our fathers. + + + + +ALSACE-LORRAINE A GLACIS AGAINST FRANCE + +May 2,1871 + +TRANSLATED BY EDMUND VON MACH, PH.D. + + +[After the war France had been obliged to return to Germany the two +provinces, Alsace and Lorraine, which she had attached to herself in +the times of Germany's weakness. It might have been better to unite +these provinces with one of the German states, but it was feared that +so valuable an increase in territory of one of the twenty-five states +that had just been federated in the empire, might lead to renewed +dissension. The suggestion, therefore, was made to administer the two +provinces, for the present, as common property, and to leave the final +arrangements to the future. A bill concerning the immediate +disposition of Alsace and Lorraine was submitted to the Reichstag on +May 2, 1871; when Prince Bismarck opened the discussion with the +following speech.] + +In introducing the pending bill I shall have to say only a few words, +for the debate will offer me the opportunity of elucidating the +various details. The underlying principles are, I believe, not subject +to a difference of opinion; I mean the question whether Alsace and +Lorraine should be incorporated in the German empire. The form in +which this should be done, and especially what steps should first be +taken, will be the subject of your deliberations. You will, moreover, +find the allied governments ready to weigh carefully all suggestions +different from our own which may be made in this connection. + +I believe that there will be no difference of opinion concerning the +principle itself, because there was none a year ago, nor has any +appeared during this year of the war. If we imagine ourselves back one +year--or more accurately ten months--we can say to ourselves that all +Germany was agreed in her love of peace. There was not a German who +did not wish to be at peace with France, as long as this was honorably +possible. Those morbid exceptions which possibly desired war in the +hope of seeing their own country defeated--they are not worthy of +their name, I do not count them among the Germans! + +I insist, the Germans were unanimous in their desire for peace. But +when war was forced upon them, and they were compelled to take to +arms, then the Germans were fully as unanimous in their determination +to look for assurances against the likelihood of another similar war, +provided God were to give them the victory in this one which they were +resolved to wage manfully. If, however, another such war should occur +in the future, they intended to see to it now, that our defence then +would be easier. Everyone remembered that there probably had not been +a generation of our fathers, for three hundred years, which had not +been forced to draw the sword against France, and everybody knew the +reason why Germany had previously missed the opportunity of securing +for herself a better protection against an attack from the west, even +at those times when she had happened to be among the conquerors of +France. It was because the victories had been won in company with +allies whose interests were not ours. Everybody therefore was +determined that if we should conquer this time, independently and +solely by our own might and right, we should strive to make the future +more secure for our children. + +In the course of centuries the wars against France had resulted almost +always to our disadvantage, because Germany had been divided. This had +created a geographical and strategic frontier which was full of +temptations for France and of menace for Germany. I cannot describe +our condition before the last war, and especially that of South +Germany, more strikingly than with the words of a thoughtful South +German sovereign. When Germany was urged to take the part of the +western powers in the oriental war, although her governments were not +convinced that this was in their interest, this sovereign--there is +no reason why I should not name him, it was the late King William of +Wuertemberg--said to me: "I share your view, that we have no call to +mix in this war, and that no German interests are at stake of +sufficient worth to spill a drop of German blood for them. But what +will happen if we should quarrel with the western powers on this +account? You may count on my vote in the Bundestag until war is at +hand. Then conditions will be altered. I am as ready as the next man +to fulfil my obligations. But take care lest you judge people +differently from what they are. Give us Strassburg, and we shall be +with you at all hazards. As long as Strassburg is a sally-port for an +ever armed force, I must fear that my country will be inundated by +foreign troops before the North German Alliance can come to my +assistance. Personally I shall not hesitate a moment to eat the hard +bread of exile in your camp, but my people, weighed down by +contributions, will write to me urging a change of policy upon me. I +do not know what I shall do, nor whether all will remain sufficiently +firm. The crux of the situation is Strassburg, for as long as it is +not German, it will prevent South Germany from giving herself +unreservedly to German unity and to a national German policy. As long +as Strassburg is a sally-port for an ever ready army of from 100,000 +to 150,000 men, Germany will find herself unable to appear on the +upper Rhine with an equally large army on time--the French will always +be here first." + +I believe this instance taken from an actual occurrence says +everything. I need not add one word. + +The wedge which Alsace pushed into Germany near Weissenburg separated +South Germany from North Germany more effectively than the political +line of the Main. It needed a high degree of determination, national +enthusiasm, and devotion for our South German allies not to hesitate +one moment but to identify the danger of North Germany with their own +and to advance boldly in our company, in spite of that other danger in +their own immediate proximity to which a clever conduct of the war on +the part of France would have exposed them. That France in her +superior position had been ready to yield to the temptation, which +this advanced outpost of Strassburg offered her against Germany, +whenever her internal affairs made an excursion into foreign lands +desirable, we had seen for many decades. It is well known that the +French ambassador entered my office as late as August 6, 1866, with +the briefly worded ultimatum: "Either cede to France the city of +Mayence, or expect an immediate declaration of war." I was, of course, +not one moment in doubt about my reply. I said to him: "Well, then, it +is war." He proceeded with this reply to Paris. There they changed +their mind after a few days, and I was given to understand that this +instruction had been wrung from Emperor Napoleon during an attack of +illness. The further attempts on Luxembourg and the consequent issues +are known to you. I will not revert to them, nor do I believe that it +is necessary to prove that France did not always show a sufficiently +strong character to resist the temptations which the possession of +Alsace brought with it. + +The question was, how to secure a guarantee against this. It had to be +of a territorial nature, because the guarantees of foreign powers were +not of much use to us, such guarantees having at times been subject to +supplementary and attenuating declarations. One might have thought +that all Europe would have felt the need of preventing the ever +recurring wars of two great and civilized peoples in the heart of +Europe, and that it would have been natural to assume that the +simplest way to do this was to strengthen the defences of that one of +the two participants who doubtless was the more pacific. I cannot, +however, say that at first this idea appeared convincing everywhere. +Other expedients were looked for, and the suggestion was often made +that we should be satisfied with an indemnity and the razing of the +French fortresses in Alsace and Lorraine. This I always opposed, +because I considered it an impracticable means of maintaining peace. +The establishment of an easement on foreign territory is very +oppressive and disagreeable to the sense of sovereignty and +independence of those who are affected by it. The cession of a +fortress is felt scarcely more bitterly than the injunction by +foreigners not to build on the territory which is under one's own +sovereignty. French passions have probably been excited more +frequently and more successfully by a reference to the razing of that +unimportant place of Hueningen than by the loss of any conquered +territory which France had to suffer in 1815. I placed, therefore, no +confidence in this means, especially since the geographical +configuration of this advanced outpost--as I took the liberty of +calling it--would have put the starting place for the French troops +just as near to Stuttgart and Munich as it had always been. It was +important to put it farther back. + +Metz, moreover, is a place of such a topographical configuration, that +very little art is needed to transform it into a strong fortress. If +anyone should destroy these additions to nature--which would be a very +expensive undertaking--they could be quickly restored. Consequently I +looked also upon this suggestion as insufficient. + +There might have been one other means--and one which the inhabitants +of Alsace and Lorraine favored--of founding there a neutral territory +similar to Belgium and Switzerland. There would then have been a chain +of neutral states from the North Sea to the Swiss Alps, which would +have made it impossible for us to attack France by land, because we +are accustomed to respect treaties and neutrality, and because we +should have been separated from France by this strip of land between +us. France would have received a protecting armor against us, but +nothing would have prevented her from occasionally sending her fleet +with troops to our coast--a plan she had under consideration during +the last war, although she did not execute it--or from landing her +armies with her allies, and entering Germany from there. France would +have received a protecting armor against us, but we should have been +without protection by sea, as long as our navy did not equal the +French. This was one objection, although one of only secondary +importance. The chief reason was that neutrality can only be +maintained when the inhabitants are determined to preserve an +independent and neutral position, and to defend it by force of arms, +if need be. That is what both Belgium and Switzerland have done. As +far as we were concerned in the last war no action on their part would +have been necessary, but it is a fact that both these countries +maintained their neutrality. Both are determined to remain neutral +commonwealths. This supposition would not have been true, in the +immediate future, for the neutrality newly to be established in Alsace +and Lorraine. On the contrary, it is to be expected that the strong +French elements, which are going to survive in the country for a long +while, and whose interests, sympathies, and memories are connected +with France, would have induced the people to unite with France in the +case of another Franco-German war, no matter who their sovereign might +be. The neutrality of Alsace-Lorraine, therefore, would have been +merely a sham, harmful to us and helpful to France. Nothing was left, +therefore, but to bring both these countries with their strong +fortresses completely under German control. It was our purpose to +establish them as a powerful glacis in Germany's defence against +France, and to move the starting point of a possible French attack +several days' marches farther back, if France, having regained her +strength or won allies, should again throw down the gauntlet to us. + +The chief obstacle to the realization of this idea, which was to +satisfy the incontestable demands of our safety, was found in the +opposition of the inhabitants themselves, who did not wish to be +separated from France. It is not my duty here to inquire into the +causes which made it possible for a thoroughly German community to +become so deeply attached to a country speaking a different tongue and +possessing a government which was not always kind and considerate. To +a great extent this may have been due to the fact that all those +qualities which distinguish the Germans from the French are found to +such a high degree in Alsace-Lorraine, that the inhabitants of this +country formed--I may say it without fear of seeming presumption--an +aristocracy in France as regards proficiency and exactness. They were +better qualified for service, and more reliable in office. The +substitutes in the army, the gendarmes, and the civil officers were +from Alsace-Lorraine in numbers entirely out of proportion to the +population of these provinces. There were one and one half million +Germans who knew how to make use of these virtues among a people who +have other virtues but who are lacking in these particular ones. +Thanks to their excellence they enjoyed a favored position, which made +them unmindful of many legal iniquities. It is, moreover, +characteristic of the Germans that every tribe lays claim to some kind +of superiority, especially over its immediate neighbors. As long as +the people of Alsace and Lorraine were French, Paris with its splendor +and the grandeur of a united France stood behind them; they could meet +their fellow Germans with the consciousness that Paris was theirs, and +thus find a reason for their sense of exclusive superiority. I do not +wish to discuss further the reasons why everyone attaches himself more +readily to a big political system which gives scope to his abilities, +than to a divided, albeit related, nation, such as existed formerly on +this side of the Rhine, in so far as the Alsatians were concerned. The +fact is that such disinclination existed, and that it is our duty to +overcome it by patience. We have, it seems to me, many means at our +disposal. We Germans are accustomed to govern more benevolently, +sometimes more awkwardly--but in the long tun really more benevolently +and humanely, than the French statesmen. This is a merit of the German +character which will soon appeal to the Alsatian heart and become +manifest. We are, moreover, able to grant the inhabitants a far +greater degree of communal and individual freedom than the French +institutions and traditions ever permitted. + +If we watch the present movement in Paris (the Commune), we shall +find, what is true of every movement possessing the least endurance, +that it contains at bottom a grain of sense in spite of all the +unreasonable motives which attach to it, influencing its individual +partisans. Without this no movement can attain even that degree of +force which the Commune exercises at present. This grain of sense--I +do not know how many people believe in it, but surely the most +intelligent and best who at present are fighting against their +countrymen do believe in it--is, to put it briefly, the German +municipal government. If the Commune possessed this, then the better +element of its supporters--I do not say all--would be satisfied. We +must differentiate according to the facts. The militia of the usurpers +consists largely of people who have nothing to lose. There are in a +city of two million inhabitants many so-called "_repris de justice_," +or as we should say "people under police supervision," who are +spending in Paris the interval between two terms in prison. They are +congregating in the city in considerable numbers and are ready to +serve disorder and pillage wherever it may be. It is these people who +gave to the movement, before we had scrutinized its theoretical aims, +the occasionally prominent character which seemed to threaten +civilization, and which, in the interest of humanity, I now hope has +been overcome. It is, of course, quite possible that it may recur. + +In addition to this flotsam, which is found in large masses in every +big city, the militia which I mentioned consists of many adherents of +an international European republic. I have been told the figures with +which the foreign nations are there represented, but I remember only +that almost eight thousand Englishmen are said to be in Paris for the +sake of seeing the realization of their plans. I assume that these +so-called Englishmen are largely Irish Fenians. And then there are +many Belgians, Poles, adherents of Garibaldi, and Italians. They +are people who really do not care much for the "Commune" and French +liberty. They expect something else, and they were, of course, not +meant, when I said that there is a grain of sense in every movement. + +The needs and wishes of the large French communities are thoroughly +justified, considering not only their own political past, which grants +them a very moderate amount of freedom, but also the tradition of the +French statesmen who are offering to the cities their very best +possible compromise with municipal freedom. The inhabitants of Alsace +and Lorraine have felt these needs most forcefully owing to their +German character, which is stronger than the French character in its +demands for individual and municipal independence. Personally I am +convinced that we can grant the people of Alsace and Lorraine, at the +very start, a freer scope in self government without endangering the +empire as a whole. Gradually this will be broadened until it +approaches the ideal, when every individual and every community +possesses as much freedom as is at all compatible with the order of +the State as a whole. I consider it the duty of reasonable +statesmanship to try to reach this goal or to come as near to it as +possible. And this is much easier, with our present German +institutions, than it will ever be in France with the French character +and the French centralized system of government. I believe, therefore, +that, with German patience and benevolence, we shall succeed in +winning the men of Alsace and Lorraine--perhaps in a briefer space of +time than people today expect. + +But there will always be some residuary elements, rooted with every +personal memory in France and too old to be transplanted, or +necessarily connected with France by material interests. For them +there will be no compensation for the broken French bonds, or at least +none for some time to come. We must, therefore, not permit ourselves +to believe that the goal is in sight, and that Alsace will soon be as +intensely German in feeling as Thuringia. On the other hand, we need +not give up the hope of living to see the realization of our plans +provided we fulfill the time generally allotted to man. + +The problem of how to approach this task, gentlemen, will now +primarily concern you. What should be the form of our immediate +procedure? for it should surely not bind us irrevocably for all the +future. I would ask you not to deliberate as if you were to create +something that will hold good for eternity. Do not endeavor to form a +definite idea of the future as you may think it should be after the +lapse of several decades. No man's foresight, I hold, can reach as far +as that. The conditions are abnormal; they had to be so--our entire +task was so--not only as regards the mode of taking possession of +Alsace, but also as regards the present owners. An alliance of +sovereign princes and free cities making a conquest which it is +compelled to keep for its own protection, and which is, therefore, +held in joint possession, is very rare in history. It is in fact, I +believe, unique, if we disregard a few ventures by some Swiss cantons, +which after all did not intend to assimilate the countries which they +had jointly conquered, but rather to manage them as common provinces +in the interest of the conquerors. Considering, therefore, the +abnormal conditions and our abnormal task, we are most especially +called upon to guard against overestimating the perspicacity in human +affairs of even the most far sighted politicians. I for one do not +feel capable of foretelling with certainty what the conditions in +Alsace-Lorraine will be three years hence. To do this one would need +an eye capable of piercing the future. Everything depends on factors +whose development, conduct, and good will are beyond our power of +regulation. What we are proposing to you is merely an attempt to find +the right beginning of a road, the end of which we shall know only +when we have been taught the necessary lessons by actual experience +with the conditions of the future. Let me ask you, therefore, to +follow at first the same empirical road which the governments have +followed, and to take conditions as they are, and not as we may wish +they should be. If one has nothing better to put in the place of +something that one does not entirely like, one had better, I believe, +let matters take their own course, and rest satisfied at first with +conditions as they are. As a matter of fact the allied governments +have jointly taken these countries, while their common possession and +common administration, although constituting an established premise, +may be modified in future by our own necessities and the needs of the +people of Alsace and Lorraine. As regards the definite form which the +proposition may take some day, I sincerely urge you to follow the lead +of the governments and to defer your judgment. If you are bolder than +we are in prejudging what will happen, we shall gladly meet your +wishes, since we must work together. The caution with which I have +announced to you the convictions of the allied governments, and with +which these governments have formed their convictions, is an +indication to you of our willingness to be set right, if you should +offer us a better plan, especially if experience--even a short +experience--should have proved it to be a better plan. + +When I announce to you our willingness to work hand in hand with you, +you are, I am sure, equally ready to join us in exercising German +patience and German love toward all, and especially toward our new +countrymen, and in endeavoring to discover, and finally to reach, the +right goal. + + + + +WE SHALL NEVER GO TO CANOSSA! + +May 14, 1872 + +TRANSLATED BY EDMUND VON MACH, PH.D. + + +[Early in 1872 the German government tried to bring about a peaceful +understanding with the ultramontane (i. e., Catholic) party by +courteous advances made to the pope. The cardinal prince +Hohenlohe-Schillings-fuerst was designated as ambassador to His +Holiness the Pope who was asked whether the prince would be +acceptable. The pope replied in the negative, and thereby deeply hurt +the emperor. When the expenses of this post in the budget were under +discussion in the Reichstag, Mr. von Bennigsen expressed the hope that +they would be struck from the budget in future, to which Bismarck +replied as follows:] + +I can readily understand how the idea may arise that the expenses for +this embassy have become unnecessary, because there is no longer a +question here of protecting German subjects in those parts. I am, +nevertheless, glad that no motion has been made to abolish this +position, for it would have been unwelcome to the government. + +The duties of an embassy are in part, it is true, the protection of +its countrymen, but in part also the mediation of the political +relations which the government of the empire happens to maintain with +the court where the ambassador is accredited. There is no foreign +sovereign authorized by the present state of our legislation to +exercise as extensive rights within the German empire as the pope. +While these rights are almost those of a sovereign, they are not +guarded by any constitutional responsibility. Considerable importance, +therefore, attaches to the kind of diplomatic relations which the +German empire is able to maintain with the head of the Roman Church, +who exerts such a remarkably strong and, for a foreign sovereign, +unusual influence among us. Considering the prevailing tendencies of +the Catholic Church at the present time, I scarcely believe that any +ambassador of the German empire would succeed in inducing His Holiness +the Pope, by the most skilful diplomacy and by persuasion, to modify +the position which he has taken, on principle, in all secular affairs. +There can, of course, be no question here of forceful actions, such as +may occur between two secular powers. In view of the recently +promulgated doctrines of the Catholic Church, I deem it impossible for +any secular power to reach a concordat without effacing itself to a +degree and in a way which, to the German empire at least, is +unacceptable. You need not be afraid, we shall never go to Canossa, +either actually or in spirit. + +Nevertheless, I cannot deny that the position of the empire as regards +its religious peace is somewhat shaken. It is not my duty here to +investigate motives, or to ask which one of the two parties is at +fault, but to defend an item of the budget. The united governments of +the German empire are searching eagerly and, in justice to their +Catholic and their Evangelical subjects, diligently for means which +will secure a more agreeable state of affairs than the present, and +which will do so as peacefully as possible, and without unnecessarily +disturbing the religious relations of the empire. I doubt whether this +can be done except by legislation--I mean general and national +legislation, for which the governments will have to ask for the +assistance of the Reichstag. + +But you will agree with me that this legislation should proceed with +great moderation and delicacy, and with due regard for every one's +freedom of conscience. The governments must be careful to avoid +anything which will render their task more difficult, such as errors +of information or ignorance of the proper forms, and must strive to +readjust their internal peace with tender regard for religious +sensibilities, even those which are not shared by all. In this +connection it is, of course, necessary that the Holy See should be at +all times well informed of the intentions of the German governments, +certainly more so than has been the case heretofore. One of the chief +causes of the present disturbance in religious matters is, I believe, +the misinformation which has reached His Holiness the Pope concerning +the conditions in Germany and the intentions of the German +governments, and which has been due either to excitement or to the +wrong color given it by evil motives. + +I had hoped that the choice of an ambassador, who possessed the full +confidence of both parties, would be welcome in Rome, of a man who +loves truth and deserves confidence, and whose character and bearing +are conciliatory; in short, of a man like the well known prince of the +Church whom His Majesty the Emperor had appointed to this post. I had +hoped that this choice would be regarded as a pledge of our peaceful +attitude and willingness to make advances, and would serve as a bridge +to a mutual understanding. I had hoped that it would give the +assurance that we should never ask anything of His Holiness the Pope +but what a prince of the Church, allied to him by the most intimate +ties, could present and convey to him, and that the forms would always +be in keeping with those which characterize the intercourse of one +prince of the Church with another. This would have avoided all +unnecessary friction in a case which is difficult enough. + +Many fears were expressed both by the Protestants and the liberals +concerning this appointment, based, I believe, on an erroneous +interpretation of the position of an envoy or an ambassador. An +ambassador really is a vessel which reaches its full value only when +it is filled with the instructions of its master. In such delicate +matters as these, however, it is desirable that the vessel should be +agreeable and acceptable, and that it should be incapable of +containing poisons or potions without immediately revealing them, as +people used to say of ancient crystals. Unfortunately, and for +reasons which have not yet been given, these intentions of the +Imperial Government could not be carried out because they met with a +curt refusal on the part of the Holy See. I can truly say that such a +case does not often happen. When a sovereign has made his choice of an +ambassador, it is customary for him to inquire, from courtesy, whether +the ambassador will be _persona grata_ with the sovereign to whom he +will be accredited, but the receipt of a negative reply is most +unusual, for it necessitates the repeal of an appointment already +made. What the emperor can do toward the appointment he does before +asking the question. In other words he has made the appointment before +he asks the question. The negative reply, therefore, is a demand that +a step once taken shall be repealed, a declaration which says: "You +have made a wrong choice!" + +I have been foreign minister for about ten years, and have been +engaged in questions of higher diplomacy for twenty-one years, and I +am not mistaken, I believe, when I say that this is the first and only +case in my experience where such a question has been answered in the +negative. I have known more than once of doubts expressed concerning +ambassadors who had served for some time, and of courts confidentially +conveying their wish that a change be made in the person accredited to +them. In every case, however, the court had had the experience of +diplomatic relations with the particular person through several years, +and was convinced that he was not qualified to safeguard the good +relations which it wished to maintain with us. It explained, +therefore, in a most confidential and delicate way, generally by means +of an autograph letter from one sovereign to the other, why it had +taken this step. Such requests are rarely, if ever, made +unconditionally. In recent times, as you know, a few cases have +occurred, one of which at least was a very flagrant one, when the +recall of an ambassador was demanded; but as I have said, I do not +remember another instance where an ambassador was refused when he was +to be newly appointed. My regrets at this refusal are exceedingly +keen, but I am not justified in translating these regrets into a +feeling of vexation, for in justice to our Catholic fellow-citizens +the Government should not relax its exertions in trying to find ways +and means of regulating the dividing line between the spiritual and +the secular powers. Such a division is absolutely necessary in the +interest of our internal peace, and it should be brought about in the +most delicate manner, and in a way which will give least offence to +either confession. I shall, therefore, not be discouraged by what has +happened, but shall continue to use my influence with his Majesty the +Emperor to the end that a representative of the empire may be found +for Rome who enjoys the confidence of both powers, if not in equal +measure, at least in measure sufficient for his duties. I cannot, of +course, deny that our task has been rendered decidedly more difficult +by what has happened. + + * * * * * + + + + +BISMARCK AS THE "HONEST BROKER" + +February 19, 1878 + +TRANSLATED BY EDMUND VON MACH, PH.D. + + +[The complete victory which Russia had won in the Turkish war had +greatly disturbed the European powers, and in Germany much +apprehension was felt for the safety of Austria. England, too, was +much concerned, for she had been displeased at Bismarck's refusal to +intervene in the war. German public opinion was aroused, and the +representative von Bennigsen joined with four colleagues in the +following interpellation, which they made in the Reichstag on February +8: "Is the Chancellor willing to inform the Reichstag of the political +situation in the Orient, and of the position which the German empire +has taken or intends to take in regard to it?" The interpellation was +put on the calendar of February 19, and while Bismarck regarded it as +ill timed he was ready to reply, lest his silence be misunderstood.] + +I first ask the indulgence of the Reichstag if I should not be able to +stand while I say everything I have to say. I am not so well as I +look. + +With regard to the question, I cannot deny that I was in doubt, when I +first saw the interpellation, not whether I would answer it--for its +form gives me the right to answer it with a "No"--but whether I should +not have to say "No." Do not assume, gentlemen, as one generally does +in such cases, that the reason was because I had to suppress a good +deal which would compromise our policy or restrict it in an +undesirable manner. On the contrary, I have hardly enough to say in +addition to what is already generally known to induce me, of my own +initiative, to make a statement to the representatives of the empire. + +The discussions in the English parliament have almost exhaustively +answered one part of the question "What is the political +situation in the Orient at the present time?" If, in spite of the +paucity of the information with which I am addressing you, I do not +say "No" it is because I fear the inference that I have much to +suppress, and because such an inference is always disquieting, +especially when it is coupled with the desire to make capital out of +my silence. I am the more pleased to address you with complete +frankness, because the interpellation and the way it was introduced +have given me the impression that if the German policy wishes to +correspond to the majority opinion of the Reichstag--in so far as I +may consider the recent comments an expression of this opinion--it has +only to continue along the path which it has thus far followed. + +Regarding the present situation, I suspect that you already know +everything I can say about it. You know from the press and the English +parliamentary debates that at present one can say in the Orient, "The +arms are idle, and the storms of war are hushed"--God grant, for a +long while! The armistice which has been concluded grants the Russian +army an unbroken position from the Danube to the sea of Marmora, with +a base which it lacked formerly. I mean the fortresses near the +Danube. This fact, which is nowhere denied, seems to me to be the most +important of the whole armistice. There is excluded from the Russian +occupation, if I begin in the north, a quadrangular piece, with Varna +and Shumla, extending along the shore of the Black Sea to Battshila in +the north, and not quite to the Bay of Burgas in the south, thence +inland to about Rasgrad--a pretty exact quadrangle. Constantinople and +the peninsula of Gallipoli are also excluded, the very two points on +whose independence of Russia several interested powers are laying much +stress. + +Certain peace preliminaries preceded the armistice, which at the risk +of telling you things you already know I shall nevertheless review +because they will answer the question whether German interests are at +stake in any one of them. There is, in the first place, the +establishment of Bulgaria "within the limits determined by the +majority of the Bulgarian population, and not smaller than indicated +by the conference of Constantinople." + +The difference between these two designations is not of sufficient +importance, I believe, to constitute a reasonable danger to the peace +of Europe. The ethnographical information which we possess is, it is +true, not authentic nor without gaps, and the best we know has been +supplied by Germans in the maps by Kiepert. According to this the +national frontier--the frontier of the Bulgarian nationality--runs +down in the west just beyond Salonica, along a line where the races +are rather unmixed, and in the east with an increased admixture of +Turkish elements in the direction of the Black Sea. The frontier of +the conference, on the other hand, so far as it is possible to trace +it, runs--beginning at the sea--considerably farther north than the +national frontier, and two separate Bulgarian provinces are +contemplated. In the west it reaches somewhat farther than the +national frontier into the districts which have an admixture of +Albanian races. The constitution of Bulgaria according to the +preliminaries would be similar to that of Servia before the evacuation +of Belgrade and other strongholds; for this first paragraph of the +preliminaries closes with these words, "The Ottoman army will not +remain there," and, in parenthesis, "barring a few places subject to +mutual agreement." + +It will, therefore, devolve upon the powers who signed the Paris +treaty of 1856 to discuss and define those sentences which were left +open and indefinite there, and to come to an agreement with Russia, if +this is possible, as I hope it may be. + +Then there follow "The Independence of Montenegro * * * also of +Roumania and Servia;" and directions concerning Bosnia and +Herzegovina, whose reforms "should be analogous." + +None of these things, I am convinced, touches the interests of Germany +to such an extent that we should be justified in jeopardizing for +its sake our relations with our neighbors--our friends. We may accept +one or the other definition without loss in our spheres of interest. + +Then there follows, under paragraph five, a stipulation concerning the +indemnity of war, which leaves the question open, whether "it should +be pecuniary or territorial." This is a matter which concerns the +belligerents in so far as it may be pecuniary, and the signers of the +Paris treaty of peace in so far as it may be territorial, and will +have to be settled by their consent. + +Then there follows the provision concerning the Dardanelles. This, I +believe, has given cause for much more anxiety in the world than is +justified by the actual possibilities of any probable outcome. "His +Majesty the Sultan declares his willingness to come to an agreement +with His Majesty the Emperor of Russia with a view of safeguarding the +rights and interests of Russia in the straits of the Bosphorus and the +Dardanelles." + +The question of the Dardanelles is freighted with importance when it +means placing the control there--the key of the Bosphorus--in other +hands than heretofore, and deciding whether Russia shall be able to +close and to open the Dardanelles at will. All other stipulations can +have reference only to times of peace, for in the more important times +of war the question will always hinge on whether the possessor of the +key to the Dardanelles is in alliance with or dependent on those +living outside or inside the Dardanelles, on Russia or on the +opponents of Russia. In case of war, I believe no stipulation which +may be made will have the importance which people fear, provided the +Dardanelles are in times of peace in the possession of people who are +fully independent of Russia. It may be of interest for the people on +the shores of the Mediterranean to know whether the Russian Black Sea +fleet shall be permitted in times of peace to sail through the +Dardanelles and to show itself on their shores. If, however, it shows +itself there, I should infer Peace, like good weather from the +barometer; when it withdraws and carefully secludes itself, then it +is time to suspect that clouds are gathering. The question, therefore, +whether men-of-war shall be permitted to pass the Dardanelles in times +of peace, although by no means unimportant, is to my way of thinking +not sufficiently important to inflame Europe. + +The question whether the possession of the Dardanelles shall be +shifted to other owners is entirely different. It constitutes, +however, a conjectural eventuality which the present situation does +not contemplate, I believe, and on which I shall, therefore, express +no opinion. My only concern at present is to give an approximate +definition, as best I can, of those weighty interests which may lead +to another war after the Russian-Turkish war has been actually +concluded. For this reason I deem it important to affirm that the +stipulations of peace concerning the Dardanelles mean less for the +men-of-war than for the merchant marine. The preeminent German +interest in the Orient demands that the waterways, the straits as well +as the Danube from the Black Sea upward, shall continue as free and +open to us as they have been until now. I rather infer that we shall +surely obtain this, for as a matter of fact it has never even been +questioned. An official communication on this point which I have +received from St. Petersburg simply refers to the existing +stipulations of the treaty of Paris. Nothing is jeopardized; our +position can be no worse and no better than it has been. + +The interest which we have in a better government of a Christian +nation and in the safeguards against those acts of violence which have +occurred at times, under Turkish rule, is taken care of by the +agreements mentioned above. And this is the second interest which +Germany has in this whole affair. It is less direct, but is dictated +by humanity. + +The rest of the preliminary stipulations consists--I will not say of +phrases, for it is an official paper--but it has no bearing on our +present discussion. + +With these explanations I have answered to the best of my ability the +first part of the interpellation concerning the present state of +affairs in the Orient, and I fear, gentlemen, that I have said nothing +new to any one of you. + +The other parts of the question refer to the position which Germany +has taken or intends to take in view of the now existing conditions +and innovations. + +As to the position which we have already taken I cannot now give you +any information, for officially we have been in possession of the +papers to which I have referred only a very short while, I may say +literally only since this very morning. What we knew beforehand was in +general agreement with these papers, but not of a nature to make +official steps possible. It consisted of private communications for +which we were indebted to the courtesy of other governments. + +Official steps, therefore, have not yet been taken, and would be +premature in view of the conference, which I hope is at hand. All this +information will then be available and we shall be in a position to +exchange opinions concerning these matters. Any alterations, +therefore, of the stipulations of 1856 will have to be sanctioned. If +they should not be, the result would not necessarily be another war, +but a condition of affairs which all the powers of Europe, I think, +have good cause to avoid. I am almost tempted to call it making a +morass of matters. Let us assume that no agreement about what has to +be done can be reached in the conference, and that the powers who have +a chief interest in opposing the Russian stipulations should say: "At +the present moment it does not suit us to go to war about these +questions, but we are not in accord with your agreements, and we +reserve our decision"--would not that establish a condition of affairs +which cannot be agreeable even to Russia? The Russian policy rightly +says, "We are not desirous of exposing ourselves to the necessity of a +Turkish campaign every ten or twenty years, for it is exhausting, +strenuous, and expensive." But the Russian policy, on the other +hand, cannot wish to substitute for this Turkish danger an +English-Austrian entanglement recurring every ten or twenty years. It +is, therefore, my opinion that Russia is equally interested with the +other powers in reaching an agreement now, and in not deferring it to +some future and perhaps less convenient time. + +That Russia could possibly wish to force the other powers by war to +sanction the changes which she deems necessary I consider to be beyond +the realm of probability. If she could not obtain the sanction of the +other signers of the clauses of 1856, she would, I suppose, be +satisfied with the thought "_Beati possidentes_" (happy are the +possessors). Then the question would arise whether those who are +dissatisfied with the Russian agreements and have real and material +interests at stake, would be ready to wage war in order to force +Russia to diminish her demands or to give up some of them. If they +should be successful in forcing Russia to give up more than she could +bear, they would do so at the risk of leaving in Russia, when the +troops come home, a feeling similar to that in Prussia after the +treaties of 1815, a lingering feeling that matters really are not +settled, and that another attempt will have to be made. + +If this could be achieved by a war, one would have to regard, as the +aim of this war, the expulsion of Russia from the Bulgarian +strongholds which she is at present occupying, and from her position +which no doubt is threatening Constantinople--although she has given +no indication of a wish to occupy this city. Those who would have +accomplished this by a victorious war, would then have to shoulder the +responsibility of deciding what should be done with these countries of +European Turkey. That they should be willing simply to reinstate the +Turkish rule in its entirety after everything said and determined in +the conference, is, I believe, very improbable. They would, therefore, +be obliged to make some kind of a disposition, which could not differ +very much in principle from what is being proposed now. It might +differ in geographical extent and in the degree of independence, but I +do not believe that Austria-Hungary, for instance, the nearest +neighbor, would be ready to accept the entire heritage of the present +Russian conquest, and be responsible for the future of these Slavic +countries, either by incorporating them in the state of Hungary or +establishing them as dependencies. I do not believe that this is an +end which Austria can much desire in view of her own Slavic subjects. +She cannot wish to be the editor of the future in the Balkan +peninsula, as she would have to be if she won a victory. + +I mention all these eventualities, in which I place no faith, for the +sake of proving how slight the reasonable probability of a European +war appears to be. It is not reasonably probable that the greater or +lesser extent of a tributary State--unless conditions were altogether +unbearable--should induce two neighboring and friendly powers to start +a destructive European war in cold blood! The blood will be cooler, I +assure you, when we have at last come together in a conference. + +It was to meet these eventualities that the idea of a conference was +first proposed by the government of Austria-Hungary. We were from the +start ready to accept it, and we were almost the first to do so. +Concerning the selection of a place where the conference should be +held, difficulties arose which I consider out of proportion to the +significance of the whole matter. But even in this direction we have +raised no objections and declared ourselves satisfied with the places +which have been mentioned. They were Vienna, Brussels, Baden-Baden, +Wiesbaden, Wildbad, a place in Switzerland--I should, however, say +Wildbad was mentioned by no one but itself. Stuttgart was also +mentioned. Any of these places would have been agreeable to us. It now +seems--if I am correctly informed, and the decision must be made in a +few days--that the choice will fall on Baden-Baden. Our interest, +which is shared by those powers with whom we have corresponded, is the +despatch of the conference irrespective of the choice of a place, +which is for us of little consequence. As regards places in Germany I +have expressed no opinion beyond this, that on German soil the +presidency would have to be German. This view has nowhere been +opposed. After the general acceptance of this principle it will depend +on the men sent to attend this conference whether for reasons of +expediency it must be adhered to. Personally I believe the conference +is assured, and I expect that it will take place in the first half of +next March. It would be desirable that the conference should take +place sooner--and the uncertainty concerning it be ended. But before +the powers join in a conference, they naturally desire an exchange of +opinion the one with the other; and the connections with the seat of +war are really very slow. The delay of the communications which +reached us was, and still is, explained by the delay with which news +comes from the seat of war. The suspicion which has for some time been +felt in the press that this delay was intentional becomes unfounded +when one realizes that the advance of the Russian army following +January 30 was in consequence of the stipulations of the armistice, +and did not constitute an advantage taken of an opportune moment. The +boundaries within which the Russian army is stationed today are the +lines of demarcation expressly mentioned in the armistice. I do not +believe in any intentional delay from anywhere; on the contrary, I +have confidence in the good intentions everywhere to send +representatives to the conference speedily. We certainly shall do our +part to the best of our ability. + +I now come to the most difficult part--excuse me if I continue for the +present seated--I come to the most difficult part of the task set me, +an explanation, so far as this is possible, of the position which +Germany is to take in the conference. In this connection you will not +expect from me anything but general indications of our policy. Its +programme Mr. von Bennigsen has developed before you clearly and +comprehensively, almost more so than nay strength at the present +moment permits me to do. + +When from many quarters the demand has been made upon us--to be sure +from no government, but only from voices in the press and other well +meaning advisers--that e should define our policy from the start and +force it on the other governments in some form, I must say that this +seems to me to be newspaper diplomacy rather than the diplomacy of a +statesman. + +Let me explain to you at once the difficulty and impossibility of such +a course. If we did express a definite programme, which we should be +obliged to follow when we had announced it officially and openly not +only before you, but also before the whole of Europe, should we not +then place a premium on the contentiousness of all those who +considered our programme to be not favorable to themselves! + +We should also render the part of mediation in the conference, which I +deem very important, almost impossible for ourselves, because +everybody with the _menu_ of the German policy in his hand could say +to us: "German mediation can go just so far; it can do this, and this +it cannot do." It is quite possible that the free hand which Germany +has preserved, and the uncertainty of Germany's decisions have not +been without influence on the preservation of peace thus far. If you +play the German card, laying it on the table, everybody knows how to +adapt himself to it or how to avoid it. Such a course is impracticable +if you wish to preserve peace. The adjustment of peace does not, I +believe, consist in our playing the arbiter, saying: "It must be thus, +and the weight of the German empire stands behind it." Peace is +brought about, I think, more modestly. Without straining the simile +which I am quoting from our everyday life, it partakes more of the +behavior of the honest broker, who really wishes to bring about a +bargain. + +As long as we follow this policy we are in the position to save a +power which has secret wishes from the embarrassment of meeting with a +refusal or an unpleasant reply from its--let me say, congressional +opponent. If we are equally friendly with both, we can first sound one +and then say to the other: "Do not do that, try to arrange matters in +this way." These are helps in business which should be highly +esteemed. I have an experience of many years in such matters, and it +has been brought home to me often, that when two are alone the thread +drops more frequently and is not picked up because of false shame. The +moment when it could be picked up passes, people separate in silence, +and are annoyed. If, however, a third person is present, he can pick +up the thread without much ado, and bring the two together again when +they have parted. This is the function of which I am thinking and +which corresponds to the amicable relations in which we are living +with our friendly neighbors along our extensive borders. It is +moreover in keeping with the union among the three imperial courts +which has existed for five years, and the intimacy which we enjoy with +England, another one of the powers chiefly concerned in this matter. +As regards England we are in the fortunate position of not having any +conflicting interests, except perhaps some trade rivalries or passing +annoyances. These latter cannot be avoided, but there is absolutely +nothing which could drive two industrious and peace-loving nations to +war. I happily believe, therefore, that we may be the mediator between +England and Russia, just as I know we are between Austria and Russia, +if they should not be able to agree of their own accord. + +The three-emperor-pact, if one wishes to call it such, while it is +generally called a treaty, is not based on any written obligations, +and no one of the three emperors can be voted down by the other two. +It is based on the personal sympathy among the three rulers, on the +personal confidence which they have in one another, and on the +personal relations which for many years have existed among the leading +ministers of all three empires. + +We have always avoided forming a majority of two against one when +there was a difference of opinion between Austria and Russia, and we +have never definitely taken the part of one of them, even if our own +desires drew us more strongly in that direction. We have refrained +from this for fear that the tie might not be sufficiently strong +after all. It surely cannot be so strong that it could induce one of +these great powers to disregard its own incontestably national +interests for the sake of being obliging. That is a sacrifice which no +great power makes _pour les beaux yeux_ of another. Such a sacrifice +it makes only when arguments are replaced by hints of strength. Then +it may happen that the great power will say: "I hate to make this +concession, but I hate even worse to go to war with so strong a power +as Germany. Still I will remember this and make a note of it." That is +about the way in which such things are received. And this leads me to +the necessity of vigorously opposing all exaggerated demands made on +Germany's mediation. Let me declare that they are out of the question +so long as I have the honor of being the adviser of His Majesty. + +I know that in saying this I am disappointing a great many +expectations raised in connection with today's disclosures, but I am +not of the opinion that we should go the road of Napoleon and try to +be, if not the arbiter, at least the schoolmaster of Europe. + +I have here a clipping given me today from the _Allgemeine Zeitung,_ +which contains a noteworthy article entitled "The Policy of Germany in +the Decisive Hour." This article demands as necessary the admission of +a third power to the alliance of England and Austria. That means, we +shall take part with England and Austria and deprive Russia of the +credit of voluntarily making the concessions which she may be willing +to grant in the interest of European peace. I do not doubt that Russia +will sacrifice for the sake of peace in Europe whatever her sense of +nationality and her own interests and those of eighty million Russians +permit. It is really superfluous to say this. And now please assume +that we took the advice of the gentlemen who think that we should play +the part of an arbiter--I have here another article from a Berlin +paper, called "Germany's Part as Arbiter"--and that we declared to +Russia in some polite and amicable way: "We have been friends, it is +true, for hundreds of years, Russia has ever been true-blue to us when +we were in difficulties, but now things are different. In the +interest of Europe, as the policemen of Europe, as a kind of a justice +of the peace, we must do as we are requested, we can no longer resist +the demands of Europe ...," what would be the result? + +There are considerable numbers of Russians who do not love Germany, +and who fortunately are not at the helm now, but who would not be +unhappy if they were called there. What would they say to their +compatriots, they and perhaps other statesmen who at present are not +yet avowedly hostile to us? They would say: "With what sacrifices of +blood and men and money have we not won the position which for +centuries has been the ideal of Russian ambition! We could have +maintained it against those opponents who may have a real interest in +combating it. It was not Austria, with whom we have lived on +moderately intimate terms for some time, it was not England, who +possesses openly acknowledged counter-interests to ours--no, it was +our intimate friend Germany who drew, behind our back, not her sword +but a dagger, although we might have expected from her services in +return for services rendered, and although she has _no_ interests in +the Orient." + +Those approximately would be the phrases, and this the theme which we +should hear in Russia. This picture which I have drawn in exaggerated +lines--but the Russian orators also exaggerate--corresponds with the +truth. We, however, shall never assume the responsibility of +sacrificing the certain friendship of a great nation, tested through +generations, to the momentary temptation of playing the judge in +Europe. + +To jeopardize the friendship which fortunately binds us to most +European states and at the present moment to all,--for the parties to +whom it is an eyesore are not in power,--to jeopardize, I say, this +friendship with one friend in order to oblige another, when we as +Germans have no direct interests, and to buy the peace of others at +the cost of our own, or, to speak with college boys, to substitute at +a duel--such things one may do when one risks only one's own life, but +I cannot do them when I have to counsel His Majesty the Emperor as +regards the policy of a great State of forty million people in the +heart of Europe. From this tribune I therefore take the liberty of +saying a very definite "No" to all such imputations and suggestions. I +shall under no condition do anything of the kind; and no government, +none of those primarily interested, has made any such demands. +Germany, as the last speaker remarked, has grown to new +responsibilities as it has grown stronger. But even if we are able to +throw a large armed force into the scales of European policies, I do +not consider anybody justified in advising the emperor and the princes +(who would have to discuss the matter in the Bundesrat if we wished to +wage an offensive war) to make an appeal to the proven readiness of +the nation to offer blood and money for a war. The only war which I am +ready to counsel to the emperor is one to protect our independence +abroad and our union at home, or to defend those of our interests +which are so clear that we are supported, if we insist on them, not +only by the unanimous vote of the Bundesrat, which is necessary, but +also by the undivided enthusiasm of the whole German nation. + + + + +SALUS PUBLICA--BISMARCK'S ONLY LODE-STAR + +February 24, 1881 + +TRANSLATED BY EDMUND VON MACH, PH.D. + + +[On February 24, 1881, the budget of the empire for the ensuing year +was under discussion. The representative, Mr. Richter, made use of +this opportunity to attack the home-politics of the chancellor in +their entirety. He felt great concern about the growing power of the +chancellor, and called upon his liberal colleagues to stem the tide, +and to curb the power of the chancellor. "Only if this is done will +the great gifts which distinguish the chancellor continue to be +fruitful for Germany. If this is not possible, and if we go on as we +have been going, the chancellor will ruin himself, and he will ruin +the country." Prince Bismarck replied:] + +The remarks of the previous speaker have hardly touched on the subject +under discussion, the budget, since I have been here. Consequently I +am excused, I suppose, from adding anything to what the secretary of +the treasury has said. The previous speaker has mainly concerned +himself with a critique of my personality. The number of times the +word "chancellor" appears in his speech in proportion to the total +number of words sufficiently justifies my assertion. Well, I do not +know what is the use of this critique, if not to instruct me and to +educate me. But I am in my sixty-sixth year and in the twentieth of my +tenure of office--there will not be much in me to improve. You will +have to use me up as I am or push me aside. I, on my part, have never +made the attempt to educate the Honorable Mr. Richter--I do not think +I am called upon to do it; nor have I endeavored to force him from his +sphere of activity--I should not have the means of doing this, nor do +I wish it. But I believe he in his turn will lack the means of forcing +me from my position. Whether he will be able to compress me and +circumscribe me, as toward the end of his speech he said was +desirable, I do not know. I am, however, truly grateful to him for the +concern he expressed about my health. Unfortunately, if I wish to do +my duty, I cannot take such care of myself as Mr. Richter deems +desirable--I shall have to risk my health. + +When he said that every evil troubling us, even the rate of interest +and I know not what else, was based on the uncertainty of our +conditions, and when he quoted the word of a colleague of a "hopeless +confusion"--well, gentlemen, then I must repeat what I have said +elsewhere and in the hearing of the Honorable Mr. Richter: Make a +comparison and look about you in other countries! If our conditions +with their ordered activities and their assured future at home and +abroad constitute a "hopeless confusion," how shall we characterize +the conditions of many another country? I can see in no European +country a condition of safety and an assured outlook into the future +similar to that prevailing in the German empire. I have already said +on the former occasion that my position as minister of foreign affairs +made it impossible for me to be specific. But everyone who will follow +my remarks with a map in his hand, and a knowledge of history during +the past twenty years, will have to say that I am right. I do not know +what is the use of these exaggerations of a "hopeless confusion" and +"a lack of assurance and uncertainty of the future." Nobody in the +country believes it; and isn't that the chief thing? The people in the +country know perfectly well how they are off, and all who do not fare +as they wish are pleased to blame the government for it. When a +candidate comes up for election, and says to them: "The government--or +to quote the previous speaker--the chancellor is to blame for all +this," he may find many credulous people, but in the majority he will +find people who will say: "The chancellor surely has his faults and +drawbacks"--but most people will not be convinced that I am to blame +for everything. I am faring in this respect like Emperor Napoleon +twelve years and more ago, who was accused, not in his own country +but in Europe, as the cause of all evils, from Tartary to Spain, and +he was not nearly so bad a creature as he was said to be--may I not +also claim the benefit of this doubt with Mr. Richter? I, too, am not +so bad as I am painted. His attack upon me, moreover, if he will stop +to reflect, is largely directed not against me personally, or against +that part of my activities in which I possess freedom of action, +no--it is directed primarily against the constitution of the German +empire. The constitution of the German empire knows no other +responsible officer but the chancellor. I might assert that my +constitutional responsibility does not go nearly so far as the one +actually placed upon me; and I might take things a little easier and +say: "I have nothing to do with the home policies of the empire, for I +am only the emperor's executive officer." But I will not do this. From +the beginning I have assumed the responsibility, and also the +obligation, of defending the decisions of the Bundesrat, provided I +can reconcile them with my responsibility, even if I find myself there +in the minority. This responsibility I will take as public opinion +understands it. Nobody, however, can be held responsible for acts and +resolves not his own. No responsibility can be foisted on anybody--nor +did the imperial constitution intend to do this--for acts which do not +depend on his own free will, and into which he can be forced. The +responsible person, therefore, must enjoy complete independence and +freedom within the sphere of his responsibility. If he does not, all +responsibility ceases; and _I_ do not know on whose shoulders it will +rest--so far as the empire is concerned it has disappeared completely. + +As long, therefore, as Mr. Richter does not change the constitution, +you yourselves must insist on having a chancellor who is absolutely +free and independent in his decisions, for no man can hold him +responsible for those things which he is unable to decide for himself, +freely and independently. Mr. Richter has expressed the wish of +limiting in several directions this constitutional independence of the +chancellor. In the first place, in one direction where it is already +limited and where he wishes to have it disappear entirely. This +concerns his responsibility for those acts in our political life which +the constitution assigns to the emperor in connection with the +decisions of the Bundesrat and the Reichstag. There can be no doubt +that these acts include also those which have to be performed, as the +constitution says, in the name of the emperor; the submission, for +instance, to the Reichstag of a resolve of the Bundesrat. Mr. Richter +has correctly quoted an incident, mentioned in the _North German +Gazette_, concerning the resolves on some collected cases of +accidents, which I considered it incompatible with my responsibility +to submit to you in the name of the emperor. I, therefore, did not do +it. One may well ask: What has the constitutional law to say on this +point? Was I justified in not acting? Was the emperor justified in not +acting! Or was His Majesty the Emperor bound by the constitution to +submit to you the resolve of the Bundesrat? + +At the time when the constitution was being drawn I once discussed +this point with an astute jurist, who had long been and still is with +us in an important position--Mr. Pape. He said to me: "The emperor has +no veto." I replied, "Constitutionally he has not, but suppose a +measure is expected of him which he thinks he should not take, and +against which his then chancellor warns him, saying: I cannot advocate +it, and I shall not countersign it. Well, in this case is the emperor +obliged to look for another chancellor, and to dismiss him who opposes +the measure? Is he obliged to accept anyone as chancellor, suggested +perhaps by the other party? Will he look for a second or third +chancellor, both of whom may say: We cannot assume the responsibility +for this bill by submitting it to the Reichstag?" Hereupon Mr. Pape +replied: "You are right, the emperor possesses an indirect but actual +veto." + +I do not even go so far, for none of these cases are pressed to their +logical conclusion. Let us, however, take a concrete case, which will +make these matters perfectly clear. Suppose the majority of the +Bundesrat had passed a bill with the approval of Prussia, but Prussia +had made the mistake of not calling upon the Prussian minister +designated to instruct the Prussian delegation in the Bundesrat; or +even--Prussia had consented and the minister had been present, and had +been in the minority also in the Prussian cabinet, and the emperor had +directed him to submit the resolves of the Bundesrat to the Reichstag, +to which the chancellor had replied: "I do not believe that I can +answer for this, or that my responsibility permits me to do it." Then +there results the possibility of the emperor's saying: "If that is so, +I must look for another chancellor." This did not happen; another +thing happened, namely--the resolve was not submitted. The ensuing +situation is this, that the persons entitled to complain--if there are +any--constitute the majority of the governments who passed this +resolve in the Bundesrat. + +This points the proper way, and I believe in weighty questions it +would be taken to the end. In the present case if one were to make a +test of what is really right, the majority of the Bundesrat would have +to represent to His Majesty as follows: "We have passed a resolve, and +our constitutional right demands that the emperor submit it to the +Reichstag. We demand that this be done." The emperor might reply: "I +will not investigate the law of the case to see whether I am obliged +to act. I will assume that I am, and I do not refuse to act, but for +the present I have no chancellor willing to countersign the order." In +such a case can the chancellor be ordered to sign, because he shall +and must do so? Can he be threatened with imprisonment as is done with +recalcitrant witnesses? What would then become of his responsibility! +If the chancellor continues to refuse, the majority of the Bundesrat +may say to the emperor: "You must dismiss this chancellor and get +another. We insist that our resolve be laid before the Reichstag. If +this is not done, the constitution will be broken." Well, gentlemen, +why not wait and see whether this will happen, and whether those +entitled to complain will take this course, and if they do, whether +His Majesty the Emperor will not be ready to say after all: "All +right, I shall try to find a chancellor who is willing to submit the +resolve." + +I shall, of course, not enter here upon a discussion of the reasons +which determined me in this concrete case. They were reasons not found +in shut-in offices, but in God's open country, and they induced me to +deem the enactment of this law undesirable. I did not possess the +certainty that a majority of this house would have seen the +impossibility of carrying out the law, but I did not wish to expose +the country to the danger--it was a danger according to my way of +thinking--of getting this law. The only moment when I could guard +against this danger was when the law was to be submitted in the name +of the emperor. The constitutional remedy against such a use of an +opportunity is a change of chancellors. I can see no other remedy. + +Mentioning the Reichstag brings me to my cooeperation with it. Mr. +Richter's ideal is, it seems to me, a bashful, cautious chancellor who +throws out careful feelers whether he may offend here, if he does +this, or offend there--one who does not wait for a final vote of the +Reichstag, but rushes home excitedly, as I have often seen my +colleagues do, exclaiming: "Oh God, the law is lost, this man and that +man are opposed to it"--and three weeks later the law has Passed in +spite of them. I cannot enter upon such a policy of conjecture and +proof by inference of what may be determined in the Reichstag when the +tendency of those who talk the loudest, but who are not always the +most influential, happens to be against a bill; and if Mr. Richter +should succeed in procuring such a timid chancellor anxiously listening +for every hint, my advice to you, gentlemen, is to tolerate him in +this position as briefly as possible. For if a leading minister--and +such he is in the empire--has no opinion his own, and must hear from +others what he should believe and do, then you do not need him at +all. What Mr. Richter proposes is the government of the State by the +Reichstag, the government of the State by itself, as it has been +called in France, by its own chosen representatives. A chancellor, a +minister who does not dare to submit a bill of the ultimate success of +which he is not absolutely sure is no minister. He might as well move +among you with the white sign (of a page) inquiring whether you will +permit him to submit this or that. For such a part I am not made! + +To what extent I am ready to submit to the Bundesrat I have already +tried to explain, and I have closed with these words "_sub judice lis +est_" (the case is still in court). I need not say now whether my +constitutional conviction would make me yield to the majority of the +Bundesrat, if they should demand it. This question has not yet arisen; +the majority has not demanded it. Whether I shall maintain my +opposition, if the demand is pressed, to this question I reply: _non +liquet_ (it is a moot-point); we shall see what happens. Such things +are eventually decided by the old law which the Romans were astonished +to find with the Germans, and of which they said, "They call it +usage." Such a usage has not yet developed in connection with the +interpretation of our constitution. + +Finally, Mr. Richter has found in me too much independence in a third +direction. He has been pleased to believe--if I understood him +correctly--that the law concerning ministerial deputies would give me +the welcome opportunity of withdrawing to a more ornamental position, +to use his own expression, and to leave the duties and activities to +those who are deputed to represent me, establishing thus also in the +imperial government the famous arcanum of decisions by majorities. But +here, too, I must say that Mr. Richter will have to change the +constitution before I shall be able to subordinate myself to the +highest officials of the empire. How can I appear before you saying: +"Well, gentlemen, I am very doubtful whether I can advocate this +measure, but the secretary in whose bureau it was worked out thinks +so, and following Mr. Richter's advice I have yielded to his +authority. If you do not adopt this measure you will gratify me, but +not the secretary?" This, too, would be an altogether impossible +position, although Mr. Richter is expecting it of me. + +The chiefs of the bureaus are not responsible for me, except in so far +as the law of deputies substitutes them for me but I am responsible +for their actions. I have to guarantee that they are statesmen in +general accord with the policy of the empire which I am willing to +advocate. If I miss this accord in one of them, not once but +continually and on principle, then it is my duty to tell him: "We +cannot remain in office, both of us." This, too, is a task which I +have never shirked when it has presented itself. It is simply my duty. +I have never had need of such artful machinations and pyrotechnics as +people claimed I instituted very wilfully last week. You need not +think that ministers stick to their posts like many other high +officials, whom not even the broadest hints can convince that their +time has come. I have not yet found a minister in these days who had +not to be persuaded every now and then to continue a little longer in +office, and not to be discouraged by his hard and exhausting labor, +due to the simultaneous friction with three parliamentary bodies--a +House of Representatives, a House of Lords, and a Reichstag--where one +relieves another, or two, without waiting to be relieved, are in +session at the same time. And when the fight is over and the +representatives have returned home well satisfied, then a bureau chief +comes to the minister on the day after, saying: "It is time now to get +the recommendations for the next session into shape." + +The whole business, moreover, while very honorable, is scarcely +pleasurable. Is any one obliged to submit to such public, sharp and +impolite criticisms as a German minister? Is it true of anyone but him +that the behavior customary among people of culture does not prevail +when he addressed? Without the least scruple one says things to him +publicly which one would be ashamed to say to him privately, if one +were to meet him in a drawing-room, for instance. I should not say +this here if the Reichstag did not hold an exceptional position in +Germany in these matters as well as in everything else. Here I have +never had to hear, so far as I remember, as sharp remarks as in other +assemblies. At any rate I have a conciliatory memory. But on the whole +you will agree with me that the tone of our public debates is less +elevated than that of our social gatherings, especially when our +ministers are addressed, but at times even among fellow members, +although of this I am no competent critic. I do not even criticize the +behavior toward the ministers, for I am hardened by an experience of +many years and can stand it. I am merely describing the reasons why no +minister clings to his post, and why you do me an injustice if you +believe that it takes an artful effort to make a minister yield his +place. Not many of them have been accustomed to see a totally ignorant +correspondent tear an experienced minister to pieces in the press as +if he were a stupid schoolboy. We see this in every newspaper every +day, but we can stand it. We do not complain. But can anyone say that +the members of the government--the bureau chiefs frequently fare even +worse--meet in the parliamentary debates with that urbaneness of +demeanor which characterizes our best society? I do not say "no," +leaving it to you to answer this question. I only say that the +business of being a minister is very arduous and cheerless, subject to +vexations and decidedly exhausting. This brings it about that the +ministers are habitually in a mood which makes them readily give up +their places as soon as they have found another excuse than the +simple: I have had enough, I do not care for more, I am tired of it. + +The changes of ministers, however, have not been so many nor so quick +with us as they are in other countries, and this I may mention to Mr. +Richter as a proof of my amiability as a colleague. Count, if you +will, the number of ministers who have crossed the public stage since +I entered office in 1862, and sum up the resignations due to other +than parliamentary reasons, and you will find a result exceedingly +favorable to the accommodating spirit of the German minister when it +is compared with that of any other country. I consider, therefore, the +insinuating references to my quarrelsome disposition and fickleness +distinctly wide of the mark. + +In this connection I shall take the liberty of referring with one more +word to the reproaches, often occurring in the press and also in the +Reichstag, that I had frequently and abruptly changed my views. Well, +I am not one of those who at any time of their life have believed, or +believe today, that they can learn no more. If a man says to me: +"Twenty years ago you held the same opinion as I; I still hold it, but +you have changed your views," I reply: "You see, I was as clever +twenty years ago as you are today. Today I know more, I have learned +things in these twenty years." But, gentlemen, I will not even rely on +the justice of the remark that the man who does not learn also fails +to progress and cannot keep abreast of his time. People are falling +behind when they remain rooted in the position they occupied years +ago. However, I do not at all intend to excuse myself with such +observations, for _I have always had one compass only, one lode-star +by which I have steered: Salus Publica, the welfare of the State_. +Possibly I have often acted rashly and hastily since I first began my +career, but whenever I had time to think I have always acted according +to the question, "What is useful, advantageous, and right for my +fatherland, and--as long as this was only Prussia--for my dynasty, and +today--for the German nation?" I have never been a theorist. The +systems which bin and separate parties are for me of secondary +importance. The nation comes first, its position in the world and its +independence, and above all our organization along lines inch will +make it possible for us to draw the free breath of a great nation. + +Everything else, a liberal, reactionary, or conservative +constitution--gentlemen, I freely confess, all this I consider in +second place. It is the luxury of furnishing the house, when the house +is firmly established. In the interest of the country I can parley now +with one person, now with another in purely party questions. Theories +I barter away cheaply. First let us build a structure secure on the +outside and firmly knit on the inside, and protected by the ties of a +national union. After that, when you ask my advice about furnishing +the house with more or less liberal constitutional fittings, you may +perhaps hear me say, "Ah well, I have no preconceived ideas. Make your +suggestions, and, when the sovereign whom I serve agrees, you will +find no objections on principle on my part." It can be done thus, and +again thus. There are many roads leading to Rome. There are times +when one should govern liberally, and times when one should govern +autocratically. Everything changes. Nothing is eternal in these +matters. But of the structure of the German empire and the union of +the German nation I demand that they be free and unassailable, with +not only a passing field fortification on one side. I have given to +its creation and growth my entire strength from the very beginning. +And if you point to a single moment when I have not steered by this +direction of the compass-needle, you may perhaps prove that I have +erred, but you cannot prove that I have for one moment lost sight of +the national goal. + +[Illustration: PRINCE BISMARCK FRANZ VON LENBACH] + + * * * * * + + + +PRACTICAL CHRISTIANITY + +April 2, 1881 + +TRANSLATED BY EDMUND VON MACH, PH.D. + + +[Prince Bismarck was trying to fight the revolutionary parties, not +only with such restrictive laws as had been passed against the +Socialists, but also with constructive measures like the one which had +been submitted to the Reichstag on March 8, 1881. It proposed the +insurance of the workingman against accidents, and the founding of a +governmental insurance company. The bill was severely criticized, +notably by Eugen Richter, who did not miss the opportunity of +attacking also the chancellor personally. Prince Bismarck's reply made +a deep impression in the country at large. The bill itself, however, +was so badly amended in the Reichstag, that Bismarck urged the +Bundesrat to reject it, which it did. Several changes, thereupon, were +made in the bill, and, after having been delayed in committee, it was +again brought up for discussion in 1884, when another exhaustive +speech by the chancellor, on March 15, brought about its acceptance.] + +Before turning to the subject in hand, I wish to reply to some remarks +of the previous speaker, lest I forget them--they are of so little +weight. He finished by saying that my prestige was waning. If he were +right, I should feel like saying "Thank God," for prestige is a very +burdensome affair. One suffers under its weight, and quickly gets +tired of it. I do not care a farthing for it. When I was very much +younger, about as old as the previous speaker is now, and when I was +possibly still more ambitious than he, I lived for years without +prestige, and was actually disliked, if not hated, by the majority of +my fellow-citizens. At that time I felt better and more contented, and +was healthier than during the years when I was most popular. + +Such things do not mean much to me. I am doing my duty, let come what +may. + +As proof of his assertion the previous speaker claimed that the +workingmen are refusing the help which the Imperial Government is +trying to offer them. This he cannot possibly know. He has no idea of +what the great mass of the workingmen are thinking. Probably he has +some accurate information of what the eloquent place-hunters are +thinking of the bill, people who are at the head of the labor +movements, and the professional publicists, who need a following of +workingmen--dissatisfied workingmen. But as to the workingman in +general, we had better wait and see what he is thinking. I do not know +whether the full meaning of this question has even yet sufficiently +penetrated into his circles to make it a subject of discussion, except +in the learned clubs of laborers, and among the leading place-hunters +and speakers. In the next election we shall be able to tell whether +the workingmen have formed their opinion of the bill by then, not to +speak of now. + +The legislation on which we are entering with this bill has to do with +a question which will probably stay on your calendar for a long while. +The previous speaker has correctly said that "it opens up a very deep +perspective," and it is not at all impossible that it may also make +the moderate Socialists judge more kindly of the government. We have +been talking of a social question for fifty years; and, since the +passage of the law against the Socialists, I have been constantly +reminded, officially, from high quarters, and by the people, that we +gave a promise at that time. Something positive should be done to +remove the causes for Socialism, in so far as they are legitimate. _I_ +have received such reminders daily. Nor do I believe that this social +question, which has been before us for fifty years now, will be +definitely settled even by our children and children's children. No +political question ever reaches so complete a mathematical solution +that the books can be balanced. Such questions arise, abide a while +and finally give way to other historical problems. This is the way of +organic developments. + +I deem it my duty to take up this question quietly and without party +vehemence, because I do not know who else could do this successfully +if not the Imperial Government. It is a pity that party questions +should be mixed up in it. The previous speaker has referred to a +supposedly active exchange of telegrams between "certain parties" and +"an high official," which in this case, I must believe, means me. I am +mentioning this, in passing, because he said the same thing a few days +ago in another speech. Gentlemen, this is a very simple matter. I +receive thousands of telegrams; and, being a polite man, I should +probably reply also to a telegram from Mr. Richter, if he were to +honor me with a friendly despatch. When I am cordially addressed in a +message, I have to reply in cordial terms. I cannot possibly have the +police ascertain to what party the senders belong. Nor am I so +diffident in my views that I should wish to catechize the senders as +to their political affiliations. If anybody takes pleasure in making +me appear to be a member of anti-semitic societies, let him do so. I +have kept away from all undesirable movements, as my position demands, +and I could wish that also you gentlemen would refrain more than +heretofore from inciting the classes against each other, and from +oratorical phrases which fan class-hatred. This refers especially to +those gentlemen who have bestowed their kind attention upon the +Government and upon me personally. When we heard the representative, +Mr. Lasker, say the other day that the policy of the government was +aristocratic, this term was bound to render the whole aristocracy and +what belongs to it suspected of selfishness in the eyes of the poor +men, at whose expense the aristocracy seemingly exists. When such +expressions fall on anti-semitic ground, how is it possible to avoid +reprisals? The anti-semites will coin their own word with which to +designate--as they think appropriately--the policies opposed to ours. +The resulting epithet I do not care to mention; every one will think +of it himself. When afterwards a newspaper like the _Tribune_, which +is said to be owned by Mr. Bamberger, makes itself the mouthpiece of +Mr. Lasker's expression, claiming it to be correct, and hailing the +invention of this word as a discovery worthy of Columbus, and when the +_Tribune_ finally asserts that "care for the poor" and "aristocracy" +cannot exist in the same train of thought, can you not imagine what +will happen when all this is turned around, and altered by an +anti-semite? Are you in doubt what he will substitute for +"aristocracy," and do you not know that he will repeat every twist and +turn of speech with which Mr. Bamberger's sheet imputes selfish +injustice to the aristocracy? + +The representative Mr. Richter has called attention to the +responsibility of the State for everything it does in the field on +which it is entering today. Well, gentlemen, I feel that the State may +become responsible also for the things it does _not_ do. I do not +believe that the "_laissez faire, laissez aller_, theory," and the +unadulterated political theories of Manchester, such as "let each one +do what he chooses, and fare as he will," or "who is not strong enough +to stand, let him be crushed," or "he who has will receive more, and +he who has not from him let us take," can be practised in any State, +least of all in a monarchical State, governed by the father of his +country. On the contrary, I believe that those who shudder at the +State exerting its influence for the protection of the weaker +brethren, themselves intend to capitalize their strength--be it +financial, rhetorical, or what not--that they may gain a following, or +oppress the rest, or smooth their own way to party control. They +become angry, of course, as soon as their plans are spoiled by the +rising influence of the State. + +The representative Mr. Richter says this legislation does not go far +enough. If he will have patience, we may perhaps be able to satisfy +him a little later--one should not be hasty or try to do everything at +once! Such laws are not made arbitrarily out of theories and as the +result of asking "what kind of law would it be wise to make now?" +They are the gradual outgrowth of earlier events. The reason why we +come to you today only with an accident-insurance law is because this +branch of the care of the poor and the weak was especially vigorous +even before I seriously concerned myself with such matters. Bequests, +suggestions, and notes for such a bill were on file when I assumed +office. According to the records this bill was needed more than any +other. When I began to study it, I must confess that it did not seem +to me to go far enough in theory, and that I was tempted to change the +words which occur, I believe in the first paragraph, "every workingman +who" and "shall be reimbursed in such and such a way," to read, "every +German." There is something ideal in this change. If one thinks of it +more seriously, however, and especially if one plans to include also +the independent workmen, who meet with an accident at no one's behest +but their own, the question of insurance is even more difficult. No +two hours' speech of any representative can give us so much concern as +this problem has given us: "How far is it possible to extend this law +without creating at the very start an unfavorable condition, or +reaching out too far and thus overreaching ourselves?" As a farmer I +was tempted to ask, whether it would be possible to extend the +insurance, for instance, also to the farmhands, who constitute the +majority of the workingmen in our eastern provinces. I shall not give +up hope that this may be possible, but there are difficulties, which +for the time being have prevented us from doing this; and concerning +these I wish to say a few words. + +The farming industry, in so far as it has to do with machinery and +elemental forces, is, of course, not excluded from the law. But the +remaining great majority of the country population also comes in +frequent contact with machines, although these are set in motion not +by elemental forces, but by horses or fellow-laborers. Such +occupations are often dangerous and unwholesome, but it is +exceedingly difficult to gather statistics and percentages, and to +define the necessary amount of contributions to an insurance fund. +The representative Mr. Richter knows, apparently from experience, the +proper percentage in every branch of human occupation, for he has +quoted his figures with much assurance. I should be grateful to him if +he would mention also the source of his valuable information. We have +done the best we could. The preliminary drafts of the bill were based +on carefully selected facts--notice please, selected facts, and not +arbitrary statistics based on conjecture. If we had discovered those +figures, which the quicker eye of the honorable Mr. Richter seems to +have detected at a glance, and if we had believed them to be accurate, +we should have gone further in this bill. + +When I say that I do not give up hope that the farming industry may +yet be included, I am thinking of an organization which cannot be +created at one session of the Reichstag. Like the child which must be +small if it is to be born at all, and which gradually assumes its +proper proportions by growth, so also this organization will have to +develop gradually. Eventually the various branches of industry which +have insured their laborers should be formed into incorporated +associations, and each association should raise among its own members +the premiums needed for the proper insurance of its laborers. It +should at the same time exercise supervision over its members to the +extent that the dues should be as low as possible. Or, to put it +differently, the personal interest of the contributing members should +see to it that adequate means for the prevention of accidents are +adopted. If this can be accomplished by a gradual advance based on +experience, we may also hope to find, by experience, the proper +percentage as regards that branch of farming which does not employ +elemental forces. + +Our lack of experience in these matters has also induced us to be very +careful about the assessment of the necessary contributions. I +certainly should not have the courage to press this bill if the +expenses which it entails were to be borne exclusively by the various +industries. If the assistance which the State would render--either by +provincial or county associations, or directly--were to be entirely +omitted, I should not dare to answer to our industries for the +consequences of this law. Perhaps this can be done, and after a few +years of experience we may be able to judge whether it is possible. +The State contribution, therefore, may be limited at first to three +years, or to whatever period you wish. But without any actual +experience, without any practical test of what we are to expect, I do +not dare to burden our industries with all the expenses of this +government-institution, and to add to their taxes. I do not dare to +place upon them the whole burden of caring for the injured factory or +mill hands. The county associations used to do this, and in the future +it will be done more fully and in a more dignified way by the insurers +and the State. + +No entirely new charges are here contemplated; the charges are merely +transferred from the county associations to the State. I do not deny +that the tax of him who pays and the advantages which accrue to the +laborer will be increased. The increase, however, does not equal the +full third which the State is to bear, but only the difference between +what at present the county associations are obliged to do for the +injured workingmen, and what these men will receive in future. You +see, it is purely a question of improving the lot of the laboring man. +This difference, therefore, is the only new charge on the State, with +which you have to reckon. And you will have to ask yourselves: "Is the +advantage gained worth this difference,--when we aim to procure for +the laborer who has been injured a better and more adequate support, +and relieve him of the necessity of having to fight for his right in +court, and when he will receive without delay the moderate stipend +which the State decrees?" I feel like answering the question with a +strong affirmative. + +Our present poor laws keep the injured laboring man from starvation. +According to law, at least, nobody need starve. Whether in reality +this never happens I do not know. But this is not enough in order to +let the men look contentedly into the future and to their own old age. +The present bill intends to keep the sense of human dignity alive +which even the poorest German should enjoy, if I have my way. He +should feel that he is no mere eleemosynary, but that he possesses a +fund which is his very own. No one shall have the right to dispose of +it, or to take it from him, however poor he may be. This fund will +open for him many a door, which otherwise will remain closed to him +and it will secure for him better treatment in the house where he has +been received, because when he leaves he can take away with him +whatever contributions he has been making to the household expenses. + +If you have ever personally investigated the conditions of the poor in +our large cities, or of the village paupers in the country, you have +been able to observe the wretched treatment which the poor +occasionally receive even in the best managed communities, especially +if they are physically weak or crippled. This happens in the houses of +their stepmothers, or relatives of any kind, yes also in those of +their nearest of kin. Knowing this, are you not obliged to confess +that every healthy laboring man, who sees such things, must say to +himself: "Is it not terrible that a man is thus degraded in the house +which he used to inhabit as master and that his neighbor's dog is not +worse off than he?" Such things do happen. What protection is there +for a poor cripple, who is pushed into a corner, and is not given +enough to eat? There is none. But if he has as little as 100 or 200 +marks of his own, the people will think twice before they oppress him. +We have been in a position to observe this in the case of the military +invalids. Although only five or six dollars are paid every month, this +actual cash amounts to something in the household where the poor are +boarded, and the thrifty housewife is careful not to offend or to lose +the boarder who pays cash. + +I, therefore, assure you that we felt the need of insisting by this +law on a treatment of the poor which should be worthy of humanity. +Next year I shall be able fully to satisfy Mr. Richter in regard to +the amount and the extent of attention which the State will give to a +better and more adequate care of all the unemployed. This will come as +a natural consequence, whether or no the present bill is passed. Today +this bill is a test, as it were. We are sounding to see how deep the +waters are, financially, into which we are asking the State and the +country to enter. You cannot guard yourselves against such problems by +delivering elegant and sonorous speeches, in which you recommend the +improvement of our laws of liability, without in the least indicating +how this can be done. In this way you cannot settle these questions, +for you are acting like the ostrich, who hides his head lest he see +his danger. The Government has seen its duty and is facing, calmly and +without fear, the dangers which we heard described here a few days ago +most eloquently and of which we were given convincing proofs. + +We should, however, also remove, as much as possible, the causes which +are used to excite the people, and which alone render them susceptible +to criminal doctrines. It is immaterial to me whether or no you will +call this Socialism. If you call it Socialism, you must have the +remarkable wish of placing the Imperial Government, in so far as this +bill of the allied governments is concerned, in the range of the very +critique which Mr. von Puttkamer passed here on the endeavors of the +Socialists. It would then almost seem that with this bill only a very +small distance separated us from the murderous band of Hasselmann, the +incendiary writings of Most, and the revolutionary conspiracies of the +Congress of Wyden; and that even this distance would soon disappear. +Well, gentlemen, this is, of course, the very opposite of true. Those +who fight with such oratorical and meaningless niceties are counting +on the many meanings of the word "socialism." As a result of the kind +of programs which the Socialists have issued, this term is, in our +public opinion today, almost synonymous with "criminal." If the +government endeavors to treat the injured workingmen better in the +future, and especially more becomingly, and not to offer to their as +yet vigorous brethren the spectacle, as it were, of an old man on the +dump heap slowly starving to death, this cannot be called socialistic +in the sense in which that murderous band was painted to us the other +day. People are playing a cheap game with the shadow on the wall when +they call our endeavors socialistic. + +If the representative Mr. Bamberger, who took no offense at the word +"Christian," wishes to give a name to our endeavors which I could +cheerfully accept, let it be: "Practical Christianity," but _sans +phrase_, for we shall not pay the people with words and speeches, but +with actual improvements. Yet, death alone is had for the asking. If +you refuse to reach into your pocketbook, or that of the State, you +will not accomplish anything. If you should place the whole burden on +the industries, I do not know whether they could bear it. Some might +be able to do it, but not all. Those who could do it are the +industries where the wages are but a small fraction of the total cost +of production. Among such I mention the chemical factories, and the +mills which with twenty mill hands can do an annual business of +several million marks. The great mass of laborers, however, does not +work in such establishments, which I am tempted to call +aristocratic--without wishing to excite any class-hatred. They are in +industries where the wages amount to 80 or 90 per cent, of the cost of +production. Whether the latter can bear the additional burden I do not +know. + +It is, moreover, perfectly immaterial whether the assessment is made +on the employer or on the employee. In either case the industry will +have to bear it, for the contribution of the laborer will +eventually, and of necessity, be added to the expenses of the +industry. There is a general complaint that the average wages of the +laborers make the saving of a surplus impossible. If you wish, +therefore, to add a burden to the laborers whose present wages are no +more than sufficient, the employers will have to increase the wages, +or the laborers will leave them for other occupations. + +The previous speaker called the bill defective, because the principle +of relieving the laborer from all contributions had not been +consistently followed; and he spoke as if this principle had not been +at all followed. Laborers, receiving more than 750 marks in three +hundred working days, are, it is true, not affected by it; and this is +due to the origin of the bill. The first draft read that one-third of +the contributions should be made by those county associations which +would have to support the injured man in conformity with the poor-laws +of the State. We did not wish merely to make a gift to these +associations, which at present are responsible for 80 per cent. of all +injured working-men, that is for those who do not come under the law +of liability. We, therefore, accepted as just the proposition that +these associations should pay one-third toward the insurance of those +men who formerly would have become their charges. Laborers, however, +whose pay is large enough to keep them from becoming public charges, +when they meet with an accident, hold an exceptional position. I am, +nevertheless, perfectly willing to drop this exception in the bill, as +I have said repeatedly. But since the Reichstag in its entirety has +thus far placed itself on record as opposed to any contribution from +the State, I should not gain thereby any votes for the bill. I wish to +declare, however, that this limit of 750 marks is of no consequence +compared with the theory on which the bill is based. It arose from a +sense of justice toward the county associations, which were not to be +burdened with higher taxes than would equal their savings under this +bill. Later it was discovered from many actual examples that the +insurance according to the existing county associations was +impossible, because the State, which really is responsible for the +care of the poor, had distributed it in an arbitrary and unjust way on +the various county associations. Small and weak country communities +are often overburdened with the care of poor people, while large and +wealthy communities may have practically no charges, since the +geographical position alone has determined the membership in the +various county associations. The result, therefore, of levying the +necessary contributions on these associations would have been a very +uneven distribution of the assessments. Being convinced of this, I +suggested the substitution of "provincial association" for "county +association"; and thus the bill read for several weeks, until we +yielded to the wishes of the allied states and of the Economic +Council, and left to each state the question whether it wished to take +the place of these various associations or preferred to call upon them +in any way it chose. These are the steps by which we reached the 750 +mark exemption, and the unconditional share which is to be paid by the +State. This share is nothing but a hint to the legislature how to +distribute the care of the poor to the various county--and other +associations. Whatever is done, you will agree with me that we need a +revision of our poor-laws. Just how this will eventually be +accomplished is immaterial to me. + +I am not astonished that the most divergent views are held on this new +subject, which touches our lives very intimately, and which no +experience has as yet illuminated. Because of this divergence of +opinion I am also aware that we may be unable to pass an acceptable +law at this session. My own interest in this entire work would be very +much lessened if I were to notice that the principle of a State +contribution were to be definitely rejected, and that the legislative +assembly of the country were to vote against State-contributions. This +would transfer the whole matter to the sphere of open commerce, if I +may say so, and in that case it might be better to leave the +insurance to private enterprise rather than to establish a +State-institution without any compulsion. I should certainly not have +the courage to exercise compulsion, if the State did not at the same +time make a contribution. + +If compulsion is exercised, it is necessary for the law to establish a +department of insurance. This is cheaper and safer than any company. +You cannot expose the savings of the poor to possible insolvency, nor +can you allow any part of the contributions to be used for the payment +of dividends or interest on stocks and bonds. The representative Mr. +Bamberger based his opposition to the bill--you remember his strong +words--largely on his sorrow at the impending ruin of the insurance +companies. He said they would be crushed and annihilated, and he +added, that they were soliciting the gratitude of their +fellow-citizens. I always thought they were soliciting the money of +their fellow-citizens. If in addition they can get their gratitude, +they are turning a very clever trick. That they should be willing, +like good souls, to sacrifice themselves in the interest of the +workingmen, and establish their institutions of insurance without +issuing any shares, I have never believed, and it would be difficult +to convince me of it. According to my feeling of right and wrong, we +cannot force anybody to join private insurance companies which may +become bankrupt even under good management, owing to fluctuations in +the market, or to panics, and which have to arrange their premiums so +that dividends are realized for those who are investing their capital, +or at least interest on the invested money and the hope of dividends. +To this I cannot lend my assistance. If the State is going to exercise +compulsion, it must, I believe, undertake the insurance itself. It may +be the empire for all, or the individual State--but, without this, no +compulsion! + +Nor have I the courage, as I have already said, to exercise any +compulsion if I cannot offer something in return. This contribution of +a third is, as I said before, much smaller than it looks, because +the associations will be greatly relieved of the old burdens which the +State had imposed on them. If this is communism, as the last speaker +called it, and not socialism, I do not care one iota. I shall call it +again and again "practical Christianity legally demonstrated." If, +however, it is communism, then communism has been extensively +practised in the districts for a long while, and actually under State +compulsion. + +The previous speaker said that by our method the lower classes would +be oppressed with indirect taxes in order to collect the funds for the +care of the poor. But I ask you, gentlemen, what is being done in the +large cities, in Berlin for instance, which the speaker thinks is +splendidly governed by the liberal ring? Here the poor man is taken +care of with the proceeds of the tax on rents, which is exacted of his +slightly less poor brother; and to-morrow he may have this brother as +his companion in misery, when a warrant is executed against the latter +for the non-payment of this tax. That is more cruel than if the +payment were made from the tax on tobacco or on alcohol. + +The previous speaker said that I had spoken against the tax on +alcohol. I really do not remember this, and I should be grateful if he +would prove this by quoting one word. I have always mentioned tobacco +and alcohol as commodities on which larger taxes should be levied, but +I have expressed a doubt whether it is right to tax the alcohol in +factories while it is being made. Many States, as for instance France, +do not levy any tax on alcohol, or assess it at a different time. The +representative, therefore, has made a mistake--no doubt +unintentionally. When, however, this mistake will be printed, without +refutation, in many papers, which are under his influence, it will, I +am sure, make no mean impression. + +I will not dilate on the defects of the law of liability, which will +be discussed by experienced men, who have had more to do with it than +I. These defects, however, added their weight to the promise we made +when the law against the Socialists was promulgated--you undoubtedly +remember it and I have been reminded of it often enough--and were my +chief reasons for submitting to you the present bill. Our present law +of liability has shown surprisingly bad results. I have convinced +myself, by actual occurrences, that the suits arising under this law +often terminate unexpectedly and unfairly, if they are successful. And +if they are unsuccessful, they are frequently equally unfair. I have +been assured by many creditable people that this law does not improve +the relations between the employer and the employees. On the contrary, +the bitter feeling between them is increased, wherever there are many +such suits, especially where there are shyster-lawyers who like to sow +discord with an eye to the elections. This is in strong contrast to +the good intentions of the law. The workingmen, however, consider +themselves injured by it, because not even a decree of the court will +convince them that they are wrong, especially if they have lawyers who +tell them they are right, and that they should appeal their cases to +four or five higher courts, if there were as many. + +These observations made me wish to introduce a system which would work +smoothly, and in which there would be no question of suits-at-law, or +investigations into anyone's culpability. The latter is quite +immaterial for him who has been injured. He remains unfortunate, +crippled, and unable to earn a living, if this has been his lot, or, +if he has been killed, his family is left without its bread-winner, +whether the accident was due to criminal neglect, carelessness, or +unavoidable circumstances. These are not questions of corrective or +distributive justice, but of protection. Without a proper law a great +part of our population is helpless before the hardships of life, or +the consequences of an accident. Without any capital of their own +these people have no redress against the cruelties which are the lot +of the pauper who has become a public charge. + +I will not reply at length to the reproach that this is communism, but +I should like to ask you not to discuss everything from the point +of view of party-strategy, or faction-strategy, or from the feeling +"away with Bismarck." We have to do here with matters where not one of +us can see his way clearly, and where we must search for the right +road with sticks and sounding-rods. I should like to see another man +in my place as speedily as possible, if he would continue my work. I +should gladly say to him, "Son, take up your father's spear," even if +he were not my own son. This undesirable way of discussing matters +showed itself the other day, when the gentlemen fought for "the poor +man," as if they had to do with the body of Patroclus. Mr. Lasker took +hold of him at one end, and I tried to snatch him away from Mr. Lasker +as best I could. But where do imputed motives, and class-hatred, and +the excitement of misery and suffering lead us? Such behavior comes +too near being socialism in the sense in which Mr. von Puttkamer +exposed it the other day. + +Alms constitute the first step of Christian charity, such as must +exist in France, for instance, to a great extent. There are no +poor-laws in France, and every poor man has the right to starve to +death if charitable people do not prevent him from doing so. Charity +is the first duty, and the second is, the assistance given by +districts and according to law. A State, however, which is composed +very largely of Christians--even if you are horrified at hearing it +called a Christian State,--should let itself be permeated with the +principles which it confesses, and especially with those which have to +do with the help of our neighbors, and the sympathy one feels for the +lot which threatens the old and the sick. + +The extensive discussions, which I have partly heard, and partly read +in the Parliamentary extracts of yesterday, compel me to make some +further observations. The representative Mr. Richter has said that the +whole bill amounted to a subsidy of the big industries. Well, here +again, you have an instance of class-hatred, which would receive new +fuel if his words were true. I do not know why you assume that the +Government cherishes a blind and special love for the big industries. +The big manufacturers are, it is true, children of fortune, and this +creates no good will toward them among the rest of the people. But to +weaken or to confine their existence would be a very foolish +experiment. If we dropped our big industries, making it impossible for +them to compete with those of other countries, and if we placed +burdens on them which they have not yet been proved able to bear, we +might meet with the approval of all who are vexed at seeing anybody +richer than other people, most especially than themselves. But, if we +ruin the big industries, what shall we do with the laborers? In such a +case we should be facing the problem, to which the representative Mr. +Richter referred with much concern, of the organization of labor. If a +business, employing twenty thousand laborers and more, goes to pieces, +and if the big industries go to pieces, because they have been +denounced to public opinion and to the legislature as dangerous and +liable to heavier taxes, we could not let twenty thousand, and +hundreds of thousands of laborers starve to death. In such a case we +should have to organize a genuine State-socialism, and find work for +these laborers, similar to what we have been doing during every panic. + +If the objections of the representative Mr. Richter, who claimed that +we must guard ourselves against State-socialism as against some +disease, were well taken, how does it happen that we are providing +work whenever a calamity has afflicted one or another of the +provinces? Such work would not be provided, if the workingmen could +find other remunerative occupations. In such cases we build railways +of doubtful productivity, and make improvements, which under ordinary +circumstances are left to the individual citizens to make. If this is +communism, I am by no means opposed to it. But the use of such +catch-words does not advance the solution of any problem. + +I have already commented on Mr. Bamberger's defence of the private +insurance companies. I am, however, convinced that we are not +called upon to espouse their cause of all others when we are +confronted by tremendous economic needs. He has also referred to the +"four weeks" which have to elapse before the insurance takes effect. +This was done in the hope that the unions and societies would wish to +do something themselves. We are always told that the laborers deem +insurance to be contrary to their honor, unless they contribute +something toward it. For this reason we have left the first four weeks +uninsured. I am not certain on this point, but if another solution +seems better, I believe that the law should cover also this hiatus. +There is no fundamental objection to this. + +One single fact will throw much light on the considerable burdens of +which the county communities will be relieved when the care of their +poor will pass, according to this bill, to the community of the State. +I have been unable to ascertain the number of persons to whom +assistance is given in the empire or in the kingdom of Prussia, and +even less to discover the amount of money spent for this purpose. In +the country, and elsewhere, private charity and public help are so +intermingled that it is impossible to separate them, or to keep +accurate accounts. The one hundred and seventy cities, however, which +have more than ten thousand inhabitants expend on the average four +marks per capita for the care of their poor. This item varies between +0.63 mark and 12.84 marks--a great variation as you see. The most +remarkable results are found where the majority of laborers are banded +together in unions or similar associations. It would be natural to +think that places like Oberneunkirchen and Duttweiler with large +factory populations would have a very large budget for the poor; and +that Berlin, which is only in part an industrial centre, would be an +average locality, for our purposes, if its finances were well managed. +As a matter of fact it pays far more than the average for the care of +its poor without doing this exceptionally well. Anyone who is +interested in private charities, and cares to visit the poor of +Berlin, will be convinced of their pitiful condition. + +Nevertheless, the Berlin budget for the poor amounts to 5,000,000 +marks--these are the latest figures--and for the care of the sick poor +to 1,900,000 marks. Why these two items should be separated I do not +know. Together, therefore, they amount to about 7,000,000 marks, or 7 +marks per capita, while the average of the large cities is 4 marks. If +such a poor-tax of 7 marks per capita were extended to the whole +empire, it would yield 300,000,000 marks; and if the direct taxes of +Berlin, amounting to 23 marks per capita, were levied on the empire, +we should receive more than one milliard marks in direct taxes, +including those on rents and incomes. Fortunately not all the people +of the empire are living under a liberal ring, and least of all the +inhabitants of cities where the majority of the workingmen have joined +unions or similar associations. We have discovered the remarkable fact +that Oberneunkirchen with its large factory population pays only 0.58 +mark, and Duttweiler 0.72 mark per capita for the care of their poor. + +These are instances which throw light on the relief of the communities +if a system similar to that of the unions would be introduced. I do +not at all intend to make so expensive a proposition to you, and I +have already said that we shall have to work on this legislation for +at least a generation. But look at the glaring examples of Duttweiler +and Oberneunkirchen. Without their unions their budgets for the poor +would perhaps not rise to the Berlin figure, but they would easily +amount to 5 marks per capita. Actually, however, they are less than 1 +mark, and almost as low as 1/2 mark. What a tremendous burden will be +taken from the charity departments of a city of ten thousand +inhabitants by a law like the one under discussion! Why, then, should +they not be asked to make some kind of a contribution to the insurance +fund? But the contributions should not be made by the districts, but +by larger units, and, since the State is the largest, I insist that +the contributions should be made by the State. If you do not yield in +this point to the allied governments, I shall look placidly, and +without being offended, toward further discussions and another session +of the Reichstag. This I consider to be the all-important part of the +law, and without it the bill would no longer appear to me to be as +valuable as I have thought it was, and would seem to lack the chief +characteristic which induced me to become its sponsor. + +The previous speaker and the Honorable Mr. Bamberger have looked +askance at the Economic Council. This, gentlemen, was perfectly +natural, for competition in eloquence is as much disliked as in +business; and there are in this Council not only men of exceptionally +great practical knowledge, but also some very good speakers. When the +Council has been more firmly established these men will perhaps +deliver as long and expert speeches as those representatives are doing +who pass themselves off as the expert spokesmen of labor. I really do +not consider it to be polite, or politically advantageous, to refer to +the councillors who have come here, at the call of their king, to +voice their honest opinions with as much contempt as the +representatives whom I have mentioned have done. Most woods return the +echo of what we call into them; and why should the representative Mr. +Richter unnecessarily make for himself even more enemies than he has? +He is like me, in that the number of his opponents is growing, and is +no longer small. His ear, however, is not so keen as mine to detect +the existence of an opponent, and I am satisfied to wait and see which +one of us in the long run will appear to have been right. Possibly, +this may not be decided in our lifetime. That also will be agreeable +to me. + +The representative Mr. Bamberger has expressed his astonishment, in +discussing matters with the Council, that the delegates of the +sea-coast cities had been granted the right to decide about questions +relating to gunpowder and playing-cards. Well, gentlemen, the +delegates from the inland districts are far more numerous than those +from the seacoast, and we have not made this division arbitrarily. +Since we look upon the free-trade theory as an epidemic, which is +afflicting us like the Colorado Beetle, or similar evils, you cannot +possibly expect that we should ask the free traders to represent the +whole country in matters where we happen to have the choice. Generally +speaking, the free traders represent the interests of maritime +commerce, of merchants, and of a very few other people. Opposed to +them is the much greater weight of all the inland districts. The more, +therefore, the Economic Council will be perfected, the more the +propriety and reasonableness of the present arrangement will be +appreciated. The Council has, to my great delight, excellent chances +of extending its usefulness over the whole empire. These remarks will +scarcely win me, I believe, the good graces of Messrs. Richter and +Bamberger. If they did, it would be for me an _argumentum e +contrario_. I am always of the opinion that the very opposite of their +views is serviceable for the State and the interests of the +fatherland, as I understand them. + +I have already replied to the reproach of home-socialism. One of the +previous speakers, however, goes so far as to identify me with +foreigners, because I am glad to assume the responsibility for this +law and its intellectual origin. These foreigners are, no doubt, +excellent men, but they have nothing to do with our affairs. They are +men like Nadaud, Clemenceau, Spuller, Lockroy, and others. I believe +this was intended to be a complicated reproach of both socialism and +communism. You see, it is always the same tune. Then he mentioned the +"intrepidity," which I translate for myself to mean the "frivolous +levity," of the government in suggesting such matters. The considerate +politeness of the speaker induced him to call it "intrepidity." +Gentlemen, our intrepidity springs from our good conscience. We are +convinced that what we are proposing is the result of dutiful and +careful consideration, and is not in the least tinged with +party-politics. In this we are superior to our opponents, who will +never be able to free themselves from the soil of party-warfare which +clings to their boots. + +The previous speaker compared us also with the Romans. You see he made +his historical excursions not only into France, but also into the +past. The difference between Mr. Bamberger's and our point of +view--which Mr. Lasker may call aristocratic, if he chooses--appears +in his very choice of words. Mr. Bamberger spoke of theatres which we +were erecting for the "sweet rabble." Whether there is anything sweet +in the rabble for Mr. Bamberger I do not know. But we are filled with +satisfaction at the thought that we may be able to do something in the +legislature for the less fortunate classes--whom he designates as +rabble--and to wrest them, if you will grant the money, from the evil +influences of place-hunters whose eloquence is too much for their +intelligence. + +The expression "rabble" did not fall from our lips, and if the +representative spoke of the "rabble" first, and afterwards of "those +who cut off coupons," I deny having used also this word. "To cut off +coupons" is linguistically not familiar to me. I believe I said "those +who cut coupons." The meaning, of course, remains the same. But let me +remark that I consider this class of people to be highly estimable, +and from a minister's point of view exceedingly desirable, because +they combine wealth with that degree of diffidence which keeps them +from all tainted or dangerous enterprises. The man who pays a large +tax and loves peace is from the ministerial point of view the most +agreeable of citizens. He must, of course, not try to escape the +burdens which his easily collected income should bear in comparison +with others. And you will see that he really does not do it. He is an +honest man, and when we shall at last have outgrown the +finance-ministerial mistrust of olden times--which my present +colleagues no longer share--we shall see that not everybody is willing +to lie for his own financial benefit, and that even the man who cuts +coupons will declare his wealth honestly, and pay his taxes +accordingly. The Honorable Mr. Bamberger also asked: "Where will you +find the necessary money?" This law really implies few new expenses, +as I have already said, because all the government asks is to be +permitted to substitute the State for the communities, which at +present are taking care of the poor, and to make a very modest +allowance to those who cannot earn their living. This allowance should +be entirely at the disposal of the recipient and be inalienable from +him. It will thus secure for him independence even when he is an +invalid. The increase over the present cost of caring for the poor is +slight. I do not know whether it should be estimated at half of +one-third--one sixth--or even at less. + +I am, therefore, of the opinion that a State which is at war with the +infernal elements recently described to you here in detail, and which +possesses among its citizens an overwhelming majority of sincere +adherents of the Christian religion, should do for the poor, the weak, +and the old much more than this bill demands--as much as I hope to be +able to ask of you next year. And such a State, especially when it +wishes to demonstrate its practical Christianity, should not refuse +our demands, for its own sake and for the sake of the poor! + + * * * * * + + + +WE GERMANS FEAR GOD, AND NOUGHT ELSE IN THE WORLD + +February 6, 1888 + +TRANSLATED BY EDMUND VON MACH, PH.D. + +[In view of the constantly increasing armaments in France, the +government had secured from the Reichstag of 1887 an increase also of +the German army. Danger, however, was threatening from Russia as well +as from France, and it became necessary to arrange matters in a way +which would place the full strength of the German people at the +disposal of the government. A bill to this effect was introduced in +the Reichstag on December 9, 1887, and another bill, which was to +procure the money for this increase in armaments, was introduced on +January 31, 1888. Both bills were on the calendar of February 6. +Prince Bismarck opened the discussion with the following speech, the +effect of which was electric, and resulted in the Reichstag passing +both bills by a unanimous vote.] + +In addressing you today I do not intend to recommend to you the +acceptance of the bill which your president has just mentioned. I have +no fear concerning its acceptance, nor do I believe that I can do +anything to increase the majority with which it will be passed, +although this is, of course, of great importance both at home and +abroad. The representatives of the various parties have, no doubt, +decided how they will vote, and I am confident that the German +Reichstag will grant us again an increase in our armed force and thus +reestablish the standard which we gradually gave up between 1867 and +1882, and will do so, not on account of the position in which we +happen to find ourselves, nor of any fears which may be swaying the +stock exchange and public opinion, but because of an anticipatory +estimate of the general conditions of Europe. In addressing you, +therefore, I shall have to say more about these conditions than about +the bill. + +I do not like to do this, for in these matters one unskilful word can +do great harm, and many words can do small good beyond making people +understand the situation at home and abroad, which they will do in due +time anyhow. I do not like to speak, but if I should keep silence the +nervous excitement of public opinion at home and abroad will be +increased rather than decreased, I fear, in view of the expectations +which have been based on today's debate. People would believe the +situation to be so difficult and critical that a minister of foreign +affairs did not even dare to touch upon it. For these reasons I am +addressing you, but I must say that I am doing it reluctantly. + +I might be satisfied with a reference to what I said here just about a +year ago, for matters are but slightly changed. A newspaper clipping +has been handed to me containing a summary in the _Liberal News_, an +organ which has closer relations, I believe, with my political friend, +the Honorable Mr. Richter, than with myself. This clipping might offer +me a starting point from which to develop the situation as a whole, +but I can refer to it, and the chief points made there, only with the +general declaration that the situation has been improved rather than +otherwise, if it has been changed at all. + +A year ago we were largely concerned with the possible cause of war +emanating from France. Since then a peace-loving president has dropped +the reins of government, and another peace-loving president has +succeeded him. It is a favorable sign that the French government did +not dip into Pandora's box in calling to office another chief +magistrate, and that we may be assured of the continuance under +President Carnot of the peaceful policy which President Grevy was +known to represent. Changes in the French cabinet are even more +reassuring than the change in the presidency, where a great many +different reasons had to be considered. The ministers who might have +been ready to subordinate the peace of their own country and of +Europe to their personal plans have resigned, and others have taken +their places of whom we need not fear this. I believe, therefore that +I may state that our outlook toward France is more peaceful and less +explosive today than it was a year ago and I am glad to do this, +because I wish to quiet, not to excite, public opinion. + +The fears which have sprung up during the last twelve months have had +to do more with Russia than with France, or I may say with the +exchange of mutual excitement, threats, insults, and challenges in the +French and Russian papers during the past summer. + +Nevertheless, I believe that our relations with Russia have not +changed from what they were last year. The _Liberal News_ has stated, +in especially heavy type, that I said a year ago: "Our friendship with +Russia has suffered no interruption during our wars, and is today +beyond a doubt. We expect of Russia neither an attack nor a hostile +policy." The reason why this was printed in heavy type may have been +either to give me an easy starting point, or because the writer hoped +that I had changed my mind since I said these things, and was at +present convinced that I had erred in my confidence in the Russian +policy a year ago. This is not the case. The only events which could +have occasioned a change of opinion are the attitude of the Russian +press and the allocation of the Russian troops. + +As regards the press, I cannot assign any importance to it _per se_. +People say that it is of greater consequence in Russia than in France. +I believe the very opposite to be true. In France the press is a power +influencing the decisions of the government. In Russia it is not, nor +can it be. In both cases, however, the press is, so far as I am +concerned, mere printer's ink on paper, against which we do not wage +war. It cannot contain a challenge for us. Back of each article in the +press there stands after all only the single man who guided the pen +which launched this particular article into the world. Even in a +Russian sheet--suppose it to be an independent Russian sheet, +one which maintains relations with the French secret funds, it is of +no consequence. The pen which there indites an anti-German article is +backed by no one but him who is guiding it, the solitary man who is +concocting the sad stuff in his office, and the protector which every +Russian sheet is accustomed to have. He is some kind of a higher +official, run wild in party politics, who happens to bestow his +protection on this particular paper. Both weigh like feathers in the +scale against the authority of His Majesty the Emperor of Russia. + +In Russia the press has not the same influence on public opinion as in +France. At best its declarations are the barometer by which to gauge +how much can be printed according to the Russian press-laws, but they +do not obligate the Russian government or His Majesty the Emperor of +Russia in any way. In contrast with the voices of the Russian press I +have the immediate testimony of Emperor Alexander himself, when a few +months ago I had again the honor of being received by him in audience +after the lapse of several years. I was then able to convince myself +afresh that the emperor of Russia harbors no hostile feelings against +us and does not intend to attack us, or to wage any aggressive wars at +all. What the Russian press says, I do not believe, what Emperor +Alexander says, I believe; I have absolute confidence in it. When both +are in the scales, the testimony of the Russian press, with its hatred +of Germany, rises light as a feather, and the personal testimony of +Emperor Alexander has the only effective weight, so far as I am +concerned. I repeat, therefore, the press does not induce me to +consider our relations with Russia to be worse today than they were a +year ago. + +I now come to the other point, the allocation of the troops. It used +to take place on a big scale, but only since 1879, when the Turkish +war was concluded, has it assumed the proportions which today seem +threatening. It may easily appear as if this accumulation of Russian +troops near the German and Austrian frontiers--where their support +is more difficult and more expensive than farther inland--could only +be dictated by the intention of surprising and attacking one of the +neighbors unprepared, _sans dire gare!_ (I cannot for the moment think +of the German expression.) Well, I do not believe this. In the first +place, it would be contrary to the character of the sovereign and his +own words, and secondly its object could not easily be understood. +Russia cannot intend to conquer any Prussian provinces, nor, I +believe, any Austrian provinces. Russia has, I believe, as many Polish +subjects as it cares to have, and has no desire to increase their +numbers. To annex anything but Polish districts from Austria would be +even more difficult. No reason exists, no pretense which could induce +a European monarch suddenly to assail his neighbors. I even go so far +in my confidence as to be convinced that a Russian war would not ensue +if we should become involved in a French war because of some explosive +happenings in France, which no one can foresee and which surely are +not intended by the present French government. A French war, on the +other hand, would be an absolute certainty if we should be involved in +a Russian war, for no French government would be so strong that it +could prevent it, even if it was inclined to do so. But as regards +Russia I still declare that I am not looking for an attack; and I take +back nothing from what I said last year. + +You will ask: "If that is so, what is the use of this expensive +allocation of the Russian troops?" That is one of the questions for +which one hardly can expect an answer from a ministry of foreign +affairs, itself vitally interested. If we should begin to ask for +explanations, we might receive forced replies, and our surrejoinders +would also have to be forced. That is a dangerous path which I do not +like to tread. Allocations of troops are things for which one does not +take the other country to task, asking for categorical explanations, +but against which one takes counter precautions with equal reserve and +circumspection. I cannot, therefore, give an authentic declaration +concerning the motives of this Russian allocation, but, having been +familiar through a generation with foreign politics and the policy of +Russia, I can form my own ideas concerning them. These ideas lead me +to assume that the Russian cabinet is convinced, probably with good +reason, that the weight of the Russian voice in the diplomatic +Areopagos of Europe will be the weightier in the next European crisis, +the stronger Russia is on the European frontier and the farther west +the Russian armies stand. Russia is the more quickly at hand, either +as an ally or as a foe, the nearer her main army, or at least a large +army, is to her western frontier. + +This policy has directed the Russian allocation of troops for a long +while. You will remember that the army assembled in the Polish kingdom +during the Crimean War was so large that this war might have ended +differently if the army had started on time. If you think farther +back, you will see that the events of 1830 found Russia unprepared and +not ready to take a hand, because she had an insufficient number of +troops in the western part of her empire. I need not, therefore, draw +the conclusion from the accumulation of Russian troops in the western +provinces (_sapadnii Gubernii_, as the Russians say), that our +neighbors mean to attack us. I assume they are waiting, possibly for +another Oriental crisis, intending then to be in the position of +pressing home the Russian wishes by means of an army situated not +exactly in Kasan, but farther west. + +When may such an Oriental crisis take place, you ask. Forsooth, we +have no certainty. During this century we have had, I think, four +crises, if I do not include the smaller ones and those which did not +culminate. One was in 1809 and ended with the treaty which gave Russia +the Pruth-frontier, and another in 1828. Then there was the Crimean +War of 1854, and the war of 1877. They have happened, therefore, at +intervals of about twenty years and over. Why, then, should the next +crisis take place sooner than after a similar interval, or at about +1899, twenty years after the last one? I for one should like to +reckon with the possibility of its being postponed and not occurring +immediately. + +Then there are other European events which are wont to take place at +even intervals, the Polish uprisings, for instance. Formerly we had to +expect one every eighteen or twenty years. Possibly this is one reason +why Russia wishes to be so strong in Poland that she may prevent them. +Then there are the changes of government in France which also used to +happen every eighteen or twenty years; and no one can deny that a +change of government in France may bring about such a crisis that +every interested nation may wish to be able to intervene with her full +might--I mean only diplomatically, but with a diplomacy which is +backed by an efficient army close at hand. + +I assume on the strength of my purely technical-diplomatic judgment, +which is based on my experience, that these are the intentions of +Russia and that she has no wish to comply with the somewhat uncouth +threats and boastings of the newspapers. And, if this is so, then +there is surely no reason why we should look more gloomily into the +future now than we have done at any time during the past forty years. +The Oriental crisis is undoubtedly the most likely to occur, and in +this our interests are only secondary. When it happens, we are in a +position to watch whether the powers, who are primarily interested in +the Mediterranean and the Levante, will make their decisions and come +to terms, if they choose, or go to war with Russia about them. We are +not immediately called upon to do either. Every great power which is +trying to influence or to restrain the policies of other countries in +matters which are beyond the sphere of its interests is playing +politics beyond the bounds which God has assigned to it. Its policy is +one of force and not of vital interests. It is working for prestige. +We shall not do this. If Oriental crises happen, we shall wait before +taking our position until the powers who have greater interests at +stake than we have declared themselves. There is, therefore, no +reason, gentlemen, why you should look upon our present situation with +unusual gravity, assuming this to be the cause of our asking for the +mighty increase of our armaments which the military bill contemplates. +I should like to separate the question of reestablishing the +_Landwehr_ of the second grade, in short the big military bill and the +financial bill, from the question of our present situation. It has to +do, not with a temporary and transient arrangement, but with the +permanent invigoration of the German empire. + +That no temporary arrangement is contemplated will be perfectly clear, +I believe, when I ask you to survey with me the dangers of war which +we have met in the past forty years without having become nervously +excited at any one time. + +In the year 1848, when many dikes and flood gates were broken, which +until then had directed the peaceful flow of countless waters, we had +to dispose of two questions freighted with the danger of war. They +concerned Poland and Schleswig-Holstein. The first shouts after the +Martial days were: war with Russia for the rehabilitation of Poland! +Soon thereafter the danger was perilously near of being involved in a +great European war on account of Schleswig-Holstein. I need not +emphasize how the agreement of Olmuetz, in 1850, prevented a great +conflagration--a war on a gigantic scale. Then there followed two +years of greater quiet out of general ill feeling, at the time when I +first was ambassador in Frankfort. In 1853 the earliest symptoms of +the Crimean War made themselves felt. This war lasted from 1853 to +1856, and during this whole time we were near the edge of the cliff, I +will not say the abyss, whence it was intended to draw us into the +war. I remember that I was obliged at that time, from 1853 to 1855 to +alternate like a pendulum, so to speak, between Frankfort and Berlin +because the late king, thanks to the confidence he had in me, used me +as the real advocate of his independent policy whenever the +insistence of the western powers that we too should declare war on +Russia grew too strong, and the opposition of his cabinet too flabby +for his liking. Then the play was staged--I do not know how +often--when I was called back here and ordered to write for His +Majesty a more pro-Russian dispatch, and Mr. von Manteuffel resigned, +and I requested to be instructed by His Majesty to follow Mr. von +Manteuffel, after the dispatch was gone, into the country or anywhere +else, and to induce him to resume his office. Yet each time Prussia, +as it was then constituted, was hovering on the brink of a great war. +It was exposed to the hostility of the whole of Europe, except Russia, +if it refused to join in the policies of the west European powers, +and, if it did, it was forced to break with Russia, possibly for a +very long while, because the defection of Prussia would probably have +been felt very painfully in Russia. + +During the Crimean War, therefore, we were in constant danger of war. +The war lasted till 1856, when it was at last concluded by the treaty +of Paris, and we found, in the Congress of Paris a sort of Canossa +prepared for us, for which I should not have assumed the +responsibility, and against which I vainly counseled at the time. We +were not at all obliged to play the part of a greater power than we +were, and to sign the treaties made there. But we were dancing +attendance with the view of being permitted to sign the treaty. This +will not again happen to us. + +That was in 1856, and as early as in 1857 the problem of Neuchatel was +again threatening us with war. This did not become generally known. In +the spring of that year I was sent to Paris by the late king to +negotiate with Emperor Napoleon concerning the passage of Prussian +troops in an attack upon Switzerland. Everyone who hears this from me +will know what this would have meant in case of an understanding, and +that it could have become a far-reaching danger of war, and might have +involved us with France as well as with other powers. Emperor Napoleon + was not unwilling to agree. My negotiations in Paris, however, were +terminated because his majesty the king in the meanwhile had come to +an amicable understanding in the matter with Austria and Switzerland. +But the danger of war, we must agree, was present also during that +year. + +While I was on this mission in Paris, the Italian War hung in the air. +It broke out a little more than a year later and came very near +drawing us into a big general war of Europe. We went so far as to +mobilize, and we should undoubtedly have taken the field, if the peace +of Villafranca had not been concluded, somewhat prematurely for +Austria, but just in time for ourselves, for we should have been +obliged to wage this war under unfavorable circumstances. We should +have turned this war, which was an Italian affair, into a +Franco-Prussian war, and its cessation, outcome, and treaty of peace +would no longer have depended on us, but on the friends and enemies +who stood behind us. + +Thus we came into the sixties without the clouds of war having cleared +from the horizon for even one single year. + +Already in 1863 another war threatened hardly less ominously, of which +the people at large knew little, and which will only be appreciated +when the secret archives of the cabinets will be made public. You may +remember the Polish uprising of 1863, and I shall never forget the +morning calls which I used to receive at that time from Sir Andrew +Buchanan, the English ambassador, and Talleyrand, the French +representative, who tried to frighten me out of my wits by attacking +the Prussian policy for its inexcusable adherence to Russia, and who +used rather a threatening language with me. At noon of the same days I +then used to have the pleasure of listening in the Prussian diet to +somewhat the same arguments and attacks which the foreign ambassadors +had made upon me in the morning. I suffered it quietly, but Emperor +Alexander lost his patience, and wished to draw his sword against the +plotting of the western powers. You will remember that the +French forces were then engaged with American projects and in Mexico, +which prevented France from taking a vigorous stand. The Emperor of +Russia was no longer willing to stand the Polish intrigues of the +other powers, and was ready to face events in our company and to go to +war. You will remember that Prussia was struggling at that time with +difficult interior problems, and that in Germany the leaven had begun +to work in the minds of the people, and the council of the princes in +Frankfort was under contemplation. It may be readily granted, +therefore, that the temptation for my gracious master was very strong +to cut, and thus to heal, his difficult position at home by agreeing +to a military undertaking on a colossal scale. + +At that time war of Prussia and Russia together against those who were +protecting the Polish insurrection against us would undoubtedly have +taken place if his majesty had not recoiled from the thought of +solving home difficulties, Prussian as well as German, with foreign +help. We declined in silence, and without revealing to the other +German powers who had hostile projects against us the reasons which +had determined our course. The subsequent death of the King of Denmark +changed the trend of thought of everybody interested. But all that was +needed to bring about the great coalition war in 1863 was a "Yes" +instead of a "No" from His Majesty the King in Gastein. Anybody but a +German minister would perhaps have counseled affirmatively, from +reasons of utility and opportunism in order to solve thereby our home +difficulties. You see neither our own people nor foreigners really +have a proper appreciation of the amount of national loyalty and high +principles which guides both the sovereign and his ministers in the +government of German states. + +The year 1864--we just spoke of 1863--brought a new pressing danger of +war. From the moment when our troops crossed the Eider, I was ready +every week to see the European Council of Elders interfere in this +Danish affair, and you will agree with me that this was highly +probable. But in those days we could observe that it is not so very +easy for Europe to attack Austria and Prussia when they are united; +and remember that the German federation which supported these two +states at that time had not nearly the same military importance which +the identical countries possess today. The difficulty of an attack on +Austria and Prussia showed itself even then, but the danger of a war +remained the same. + +In 1865 it faced about, and the preparations for the war of 1866 were +beginning. I only remember a meeting of the Prussian cabinet which +took place in Regensburg in 1865 with a view to procuring the +necessary money, but which was rendered futile by the agreement of +Gastein. In 1866, however, the war broke out in full force, as you +know. A circumspect use of events alone enabled us to ward off the +existing danger of turning this duel between Prussia and Austria into +a fierce European war of coalition, when our very existence, our life +and all we had, would have been at stake. + +This was in 1866, and in 1867 the Luxembourg problem arose, when only +a somewhat firmer reply was needed to bring about the great French war +in that year,--and we might have given it, if we had been so strong +that we could have counted on sure success. From then on, during 1868, +1869, and up to 1870 we were living in constant apprehension of war, +and of the agreements which in the time of Mr. von Beust were being +made in Salzburg and other places between France, Italy, and Austria, +and which, we feared, were directed against us. The apprehension of +war was so great at that time that I received calls--I was the +President of the cabinet--from merchants and manufacturers, who said: +"The uncertainty is unbearable. Why don't you strike the first blow? +War is preferable to this continued damper on all business!" We waited +quietly until we were struck, and I believe we did well to arrange +matters so that we were the nation which was assailed and were not +ourselves the assailants. + +Now, since the great war of 1870 was waged, has there been a year, I +ask you, without the danger of war? In the first years of the +seventies--the very moment we came home, the question arose: "When +will be the next war? When will revenge be given? Within five years at +the latest, no doubt?" We were told: "The question whether we shall +have to fight and with what success surely rests with Russia +now-a-days. Russia alone holds the hilt." It was a representative of +the Catholic party who thus remonstrated with me in the Reichstag. I +may possibly revert to this subject later. In the meanwhile I wish to +complete the picture of the forty years by saying that in 1876 the +clouds of war again began to gather in the south. In 1877 the Balkan +War was waged, which would have led to a conflagration of the whole of +Europe, if this had not been prevented by the Congress gathered in +Berlin. After the Congress an entirely new eastern picture presented +itself to us, for Russia was offended by our attitude in the Congress. +I may revert to this later, if my strength permits. + +Then there followed a period when we felt the results of the intimate +relations of the three emperors, which for some time permitted us to +face the future with greater placidity. But at the first symptoms of +any instability in the relations of the three emperors or of the +termination of the agreements which they had made with one another, +public opinion was possessed by the same nervous and, I believe, +exaggerated excitement with which we have had to contend these last +years, and which I consider especially uncalled for today. + +From my belief that this excitement is uncalled for I am far from +drawing the conclusion that we do not need an increase in our +armaments. The very opposite is my view, and this may explain the +tableau of forty years which I have just exhibited before you, +possibly not for your enjoyment, and I ask your pardon. +[Illustration: THE BISMARCK MONUMENT AT HAMBURG LEDERER] + +But if I had omitted even one of those years, which you yourselves +have lived through with trembling, you would not have received the +impression that the state of apprehension of great wars is permanent +with us. Great complications and all kinds of coalitions, which no one +can foresee, are constantly possible and we must be prepared for them. +We must be so strong, irrespective of momentary conditions, that we +can face any coalition with the assurance of a great nation which is +strong enough under circumstances to take her fate into her own hands. +We must be able to face our fate placidly with that self reliance and +confidence in God which are ours when we are strong and our cause is +just. And the Government will see to it that the German cause will be +just always. + +We must, to put it briefly, be as strong in these times as we possibly +can be, and we can be stronger than any other nation of equal numbers +in the world. I shall revert to this later--but it would be criminal +if we were not to make use of our opportunity. If we do not need our +full armed strength, we need not summon it. The only problem is the +not very weighty one of money--not very weighty I say in passing, +because I have no wish to enter upon a discussion of the financial and +military figures, and of the fact that France has spent three +milliards for the improvement of her armaments these last years, while +we have spent scarcely one and one half milliards, including what we +are asking of you at this time. But I leave the elucidation of this to +the minister of war and the representatives of the treasury +department. + +When I say that it is our duty to endeavor to be ready at all times +and for all emergencies, I imply that we must make greater exertions +than other people for the same purpose, because of our geographical +position. We are situated in the heart of Europe, and have at least +three fronts open to an attack. France has only her eastern, and +Russia only her western frontier where they may be attacked. We are +also more exposed to the dangers of a coalition than any other nation, +as is proved by the whole development of history, by our geographical +position, and the lesser degree of cohesiveness, which until now has +characterized the German nation in comparison with others. God has +placed us where we are prevented, thanks to our neighbors from growing +lazy and dull. He has placed by our side the most warlike and restless +of all nations, the French, and He has permitted warlike inclinations +to grow strong in Russia, where formerly they existed to a lesser +degree. Thus we are given the spur, so to speak, from both sides, and +are compelled to exertions which we should perhaps not be making +otherwise. The pikes in the European carp-pond are keeping us from +being carps by making us feel their teeth on both sides. They also are +forcing us to an exertion which without them we might not make, and to +a union among us Germans, which is abhorrent to us at heart. By nature +we are rather tending away, the one from the other. But the +Franco-Russian press within which we are squeezed compels us to hold +together, and by pressure our cohesive force is greatly increased. +This will bring us to that state of being inseparable which all other +nations possess, while we do not yet enjoy it. But we must respond to +the intentions of Providence by making ourselves so strong that the +pikes can do nothing but encourage us. + +Formerly in the years of the Holy Alliance--I am just thinking of an +American song which I learned of my late friend Motley: "In good old +colonial times, when we lived under a King"--well those were the good +old patriarchal times when we had many posts to guide us, and many +dikes to protect us from the wild floods of Europe. There were the +German Union, and the real support and consummation of the German +Union, the Holy Alliance. We had support in Russia and in Austria, +and, above all, the guaranty of our diffidence that we should never +express an opinion before the others had spoken. + +All this we have lost; we must help ourselves. The Holy Alliance was +wrecked in the Crimean War--not through our fault. The German Union +has been destroyed by us, because the existence which we were granted +within it was unbearable in the long run for ourselves and the German +people as well. After the dissolution of the German Union and the war +of 1866, Prussia, as it was then, or North Germany, would have become +isolated, if we had been obliged to count with the fact that nobody +would be willing to pardon our new successes--the great successes +which we had won. No great power looks with favor on the successes of +its neighbors. + +Our relations with Russia, however, were not disturbed by the +experience of 1866. In that year the memory of Count Buol's policy and +of the policy of Austria during the Crimean War was too fresh in +Russia to permit the rise of the thought that Russia could assist the +Austrian monarchy against the Prussian attack, or could renew the +campaign, which Emperor Nicholas had fought for Austria in 1849--ask +your pardon, if I sit down for a moment. I cannot stand so long. + +Our most natural support, therefore, still remained with Russia, due +very properly to the policy of Emperor Alexander I. in this +century--not to speak of the last century at all. In 1813 he might +well have turned back at the Polish frontier, and have made peace, and +later he might have dropped Prussia. We certainly owed our +reestablishment on the old basis at that time to the benevolence of +Emperor Alexander I.--or, if you wish to be sceptical, you may say to +the Russian policy, which was such as Prussia needed. Gratitude for +this dominated the reign of Frederick William III. The credit, +however, which Russia had in the Prussian accounts was used up by the +friendship, I may even say servility, of Prussia during the entire +reign of Emperor Nicholas, and was, I own, wiped out at Olmuetz. There +Emperor Nicholas did not take the part of Prussia, nor did he keep us +from evil experiences or certain humiliations, for Emperor Nicholas +really preferred Austria to Prussia. The idea that we owed +Russia any thanks during his reign is a historical myth. + +We did, nevertheless, not break our traditional relations with Russia +while he lived; and in the Crimean War we remained true, as I said +before, to our Russian duty, in spite of many threats and great +dangers. His Majesty, the late King, had no desire to play a decisive +part in the war by a great levy of troops, as I believe we could have +done. We had made certain treaties requiring us to put in the field +100,000 men after the lapse of a stated time; and I proposed to His +Majesty to levy not 100,000 but 200,000 men, and mounted at that, whom +we could use as well toward the right as toward the left, in which +case, I said, Your Majesty will be the arbiter of the Crimean War. But +the late King did not cherish warlike enterprises, and the people +ought to be grateful to him. I was younger then, and less experienced +than I am today. At any rate we harbored no resentment for Olmuetz +during the Crimean War. We came out of this war as the friends of +Russia, and I was enabled to enjoy the fruit of this friendship, when +as ambassador I was most kindly received in St. Petersburg, both at +court and in society at large. Even our espousing the cause of Austria +in the Italian War, while not to the liking of the Russian cabinet, +showed no harmful effects. Our war of 1866 was regarded in Russia with +a certain amount of satisfaction, for the Russians were glad to see +Austria suffer. In our French war of 1870 we were fortunate enough to +be able to serve the Russian interests in the Black Sea at the same +time that we were successful in defending and guarding our own. The +contracting parties probably would not have removed their restrictions +from the Black Sea, if the victorious German troops had not been +standing near Paris. If we had been beaten, the London agreement in +the interest of Russia would not have been made so easily, I believe. +Thus also the war of 1870 carried in its train no disagreement between +us and Russia. I mention these matters in order to explain to you +the origin of our treaty with Austria, which was published a few days +ago, and to defend the policy of His Majesty against the reproach of +having enlarged the possibilities of war for the German empire, by +adding to them the chances which may befall Austria without any fault +of her own. I am, therefore, going to describe to you how it happened +that our traditional relations with Russia, which I had always and +very gladly fostered, became so altered that we were induced to +conclude the treaty published day before yesterday. + +The first years after the French war passed in the best of friendship. +In 1875 there suddenly appeared the inclination of my Russian +colleague, Prince Gortschakoff, to work for popularity with France +rather than with us, and to make the world believe, by means of +certain artificially created events and an interpolated telegram, that +we had harbored the idea, however remote, of invading France, and that +his intercession alone had saved France from this danger. This +occasioned the first estrangement between us, and led to a serious +discussion between me and my former friend and later colleague. All +this time and subsequently we were still clinging to the task of +maintaining peace among the three emperors, and of continuing the +relationship begun by the visits of the emperors of Russia and Austria +here in Berlin in 1872, and the subsequent return visits. We were +succeeding in this, when in 1876, before the Turkish War, pressure was +brought to bear upon us to choose between Russia and Austria. This we +refused to do. I do not deem it advantageous to discuss the details. +They will be known some time. The result of our refusal was that +Russia turned to Vienna directly, and entered into an agreement with +Austria--I believe it was in January, 1877--concerning the +possibilities of an Oriental crisis, granting her, if The crisis +should take place, the occupation of Bosnia, etc. Then the war took +place, and we were very glad that the storm raged further south than +it had threatened at first. The war was definitely concluded here in +Berlin by the Congress, after the preliminaries had been settled by +the peace of San Stefano. The peace of San Stefano, I am convinced, +was not more risky for the anti-Russian powers nor much more favorable +for Russia than the subsequent congressional treaty. The stipulations +of San Stefano were realized, one may say, of their own accord later +on, when the little state of East Rumelia, with only 800,000 souls I +believe, joined Bulgaria and thereby reestablished on its own +responsibility the old San Stefano frontier, although not quite +exactly. The damage, therefore, which the Congress inflicted on the +agreements of San Stefano was not very considerable. Whether these +agreements were masterpieces of diplomacy I leave undecided. We had +then very little desire to mix in Oriental affairs, just as we have +today. + +I was seriously ill in Friedrichsruh when I was officially notified of +the Russian wish to call a Congress of the great powers in Berlin for +the definite settlement of the war. I was at first not favorably +inclined, because I was physically incapacitated, and because I did +not wish to involve ourselves in these matters to the extent which the +presidency of a Congress necessitates. My final compliance was partly +due to the German sense of duty, which does anything in the interest +of peace, and partly to the grateful memory of the favors of Alexander +I., which I have always remembered, and which induced me to grant also +this request. I declared my willingness, provided we could secure the +acceptance of England and Austria. Russia undertook to secure the +consent of England, and I agreed to recommend the plan in Vienna. We +were successful, and the Congress took place. + +During the Congress, I may well say, I played my part--without hurting +the interests of my country or of our friends--just as if I had been +the fourth Russian plenipotentiary--I may almost say the third, for I +can hardly accept Prince Gortschakoff as a representative of the +then Russian policy, which was more truly represented by Count +Schuwaloff. + +During the whole course of the congressional deliberations I heard of +no Russian wish which I did not recommend and push through. Thanks to +the confidence which Lord Beaconsfield--unfortunately dead +now--reposed in me, I called at his sickbed in the middle of the night +during the most difficult and critical moments of the Congress, when +disruption seemed near, and obtained his consent. In short my behavior +in the Congress was such that I said to myself when it was over: "If +the highest Russian decoration set in diamonds had not been bestowed +upon me long ago, I should surely receive it now." I had the feeling +of having done something for a foreign power which is rarely +vouchsafed to a foreign minister to do. + +What, then, were my surprise and natural disappointment, when +gradually a sort of newspaper campaign began in St. Petersburg, +attacking the German policy, and casting suspicion on my personal +intentions. These attacks increased in the following year to the +strong request, in 1879, for pressure to be exerted by us on Austria +in matters where we could not attack the Austrian rights as such. I +could not consent, for, if we should have been estranged from Austria, +we should necessarily have fallen into a dependence on Russia, unless +we were satisfied with standing entirely alone in Europe. Would such a +dependence have been bearable? Formerly I had believed it might be, +when I had said to myself: "We have no conflicting interests at all. +There is no reason why Russia should ever cancel our friendship." At +least I had never contradicted my Russian colleagues when they +expounded such theories to me. The Russian behavior concerning the +Congress disappointed me and told me that we were not protected from +being drawn into a conflict with Russia against our wishes, even if we +placed our policy (for a time) completely at her disposal. The +disagreement concerning instructions which we had given or had not +given to our representatives in the south grew, until threats +resulted, threats of war from the most authoritative quarter. + +This is the origin of our Austrian Treaty. By these threats we were +compelled to choose between our two former friends, a decision which I +had avoided through several decades. At that time I negotiated in +Gastein and in Vienna the treaty which was published day before +yesterday and which is in force between us today. + +The publication has been partly misunderstood in the newspapers, as I +read yesterday and the day before. People have wanted to see in it an +ultimatum, a warning, and a threat. A threat could not possibly be +contained in it, since the text of the treaty has been known to Russia +for a long while, and not only since November of last year. We +considered it due to the sincerity of so loyal a monarch as the +Emperor of Russia not to leave a doubt concerning the actual state of +affairs. + +Personally I see no chance for us _not_ to have concluded this treaty. +If we had not done it, we should have to do it _now_. It possesses the +finest quality of an international treaty, in that it is the +expression of the lasting interests of both parties, Austria as well +as ourselves. No great power can for any length of time cling to the +wording of a treaty against the interests of its own people; it will +at last be forced to declare openly: "Times have changed; we can no +longer do this;" and will have to defend its action as best it can +before its own people and the other contracting party. But no power +will approve a course which leads its own people to destruction, for +the sake of the letter of a treaty signed under different conditions. +Nothing of this kind, however, is contained in these treaties. The +treaty concluded with Austria, as well as other similar ones existing +between us and other powers, notably some agreements into which we +have entered with Italy, are the expression of common interests in +mutual aspirations and dangers. Italy, like ourselves, has been +obliged to fight against Austria for her right to establish her +national union. At present both of us are living in peace with +Austria, sharing with her the wish to ward off the dangers which are +threatening all alike. Together we wish to preserve the peace, which +is as dear to the one as to the other, and to protect our +home--developments to which all of us are determined to devote +ourselves. It is these aims and the mutual confidence that the +treaties will be kept, and that no one will grow more dependent by +them than their own interests permit, which make these treaties firm, +durable and permanent! + +The extent to which our treaty with Austria is the expression of our +mutual interests was shown at Nikolsburg, and in 1870. Already during +the negotiations of Nikolsburg we were of the opinion that we could +not do for any length of time without Austria in Europe--a strong and +vigorous Austria. In 1870, when the war between ourselves and France +broke out, many sensitive Austrians whom we had hurt were naturally +tempted to make use of this opportunity and to take revenge for 1866. +The thoughtful and far seeing diplomats, however, of the Austrian +cabinet had to ask themselves: "What will be the result? What will be +our position, if today we assist the French, and help them to beat +Prussia, or even Germany?" What would have been the result if France +with the help of Austria had been victorious over us? If Austria had +followed such a policy, she could have had no other aim than to resume +her former position in Germany: for this was really the only thing she +had given up in 1866. There had been no other important conditions, +and the pecuniary ones had been insignificant. Well then, what would +have been the position of Austria as the presiding power in the German +Union, if she had to confess that in alliance with France she had +taken from Germany the left bank of the Rhine, that she had reduced +the south German states to a renewed dependence on France in the shape +of a Rhenish Federation, and had condemned Prussia to an irrevocable +dependence on Russia, subject in future to Russian policies? +Such a position was unacceptable to all Austrian statesmen not +completely blinded by wrath and vengeance. The same is also true with +us in Germany. Imagine Austria struck from the map of Europe. Then we +and Italy would be isolated on the continent, hemmed in between Russia +and France, the two strongest military powers next to Germany, either +continually one against two--and this would be most probable--or +alternately dependent on one or the other. But this will not be the +case. It is impossible to imagine Austria away, for a State like +Austria does not disappear. It is estranged if it is jilted, as was +proposed in the Villafranca negotiations, and will be inclined to +offer the hand to him who, on his part, has been the opponent of an +unreliable friend. + +In short, if we wish to avoid being isolated, which is especially +dangerous for Germany in our assailable position, we must have a +reliable friend. Thanks to the similarities of our interests, and this +treaty before you, we have two such friends. It is not love which +makes them reliable, for nations may make war one upon the other +because they hate, but it has never yet happened that one nation has +sacrificed itself for the other for mere love. Nor do they always +fight when they hate each other, for, if this were the case, France +would have to be fighting incessantly, not only with us, but also with +England and Italy. She hates all her neighbors. I also believe that +the Russian hatred of us, which has been artificially fanned, will not +last. We are united with our allies in love of peace, not only by +inclination and friendship, but also by the most cogent interests of a +European equilibrium and of our own future. + +For these reasons I believe you will approve the Emperor's policy that +has concluded the published treaty, although it increases the +possibility of war. + +There can be no doubt that the passage of the pending bill will add +much weight to the alliance which we have joined, and that the member +which is represented by the German empire will be immeasurably +strengthened. The bill gives us an increase of trained troops, a +possible increase of troops, which we need not summon, if we do not +need them. We can leave the men at home. But, having them in reserve, +we shall also have the arms for them, and this is the all-important +thing. I remember the old blunderbuses furnished in 1813 for our +_Landwehr_ by England, with which I was drilled in the _chasseurs_. +They were no weapons for war--such we cannot furnish at a moment's +notice. But, when once we have the proper weapons, this new bill means +an increase of the guarantees of peace, and as strong an increase of +the league of peace as if a fourth great power had joined it with +700,000 men, which as you know used to be the maximum figure of a +national army. This tremendous increase will also have a quieting +effect, I believe, on our own people, and will somewhat alleviate the +nervousness of our public opinion and of our bankers and editors. I +hope you will be relieved when you realize that after this increase, +and from the very moment this bill is signed and published, the men +will be ready. A scanty supply of arms for them might even now be at +hand, but we must secure better ones, for if we form an army of +triarians, of the best human material which we have among our people, +men over thirty years of age and fathers of families, then we must +have for them also the best arms that can be secured. We should not +send them into battle with arms which we do not deem good enough for +our regular troops. These staunch men, fathers of families, and +gigantic figures, as we remember them from the time when they held the +bridge of Versailles, should carry on their shoulders the best of +guns, and have the most complete armor and necessary clothing to ward +off the hardships of the weather and other ills. In such matters we +must not be saving. + +After listening to the survey of forty years which I have just given +it is natural that our fellow-citizens should realize the ever-present +danger of a coalition against us and the possibility of a double +attack, in which I, to be sure, do not believe. The thought, +however, that in such a case we can have one million good soldiers for +our defense on either frontier will be most reassuring to them. In +addition, we can keep at home reserves of half a million and more, or +even a million, sending them to the front as they may be needed. I +have been told: "The result will be that the others will also increase +their strength." This they cannot do, for they long ago reached their +highest figure. We decreased our figures in 1867, because we believed +that we could take things easy, with the North German Alliance at our +disposal, and could release from service all men over thirty-two years +of age. Our neighbors subsequently adopted a longer period of service, +many one as long as twenty years. The minister of war will be able to +explain this to you more in detail, if he will address you. In figures +the others are as strong as we, but in quality they cannot equal us. +Courage is the same with all civilized nations, the Russian or the +Frenchman fights as bravely as the German; but our people, our 700,000 +men, are experienced, _rompus au metier,_ trained soldiers who have +not forgotten anything. + +In addition, no nation in the world can equal us in our material of +officers and subalterns to direct such a huge army. This means the +remarkable degree to which popular education has spread in Germany, +and which appears in no other country. The degree of education which +is needed to qualify an officer and a subaltern to command according +to what the soldiers expect of them, is found with us far more +extensively than elsewhere. We have more of the material out of which +officers, and more out of which subalterns are made, than any other +country, and we have a body of officers which no country in the world +can equal. + +This, and the excellence of our subalterns, who are the pupils of our +officers, constitute our superiority. The other nations cannot equal +us in the amount of education which qualifies an officer to fulfil the +severe requirements of his station, and of good comradeship to bear +all the necessary privations, and at the same time to satisfy the +exceedingly difficult social demands which must be met, if the +feeling of good fellowship between officers and men, which thank God +exists in our army to a high and often stirring degree, is to be +established without detracting from the authority of the officers. The +relations existing, especially in war time, between our officers and +men are inimitable,--with few evil exceptions which only prove the +rule, for on the whole we may say: No German officer forsakes his men +under fire; he saves them at the risk of his life, and they do the +same; no German soldier forsakes his officer--we have experienced +this. + +If other nations are obliged to furnish with officers and subalterns +equally large troops as we are intending to create by this bill, they +may be forced by circumstances to appoint officers who will not +succeed in guiding a company through a narrow gate, and even less in +meeting the heavy obligations of the officer who is to retain the +esteem and love of his men. The amount of education which is needed +for this, and the amount of _camaraderie_ and sense of honor which we +find among our officers, can be elicited from no other body of +officers anywhere in the world, either by rules or injunctions. In +this we are superior to everybody, and that is why they cannot imitate +us. I am, therefore, not at all afraid of it. + +Then there is another advantage if this bill is passed. The very +strength at which we are aiming necessarily renders us pacific. This +sounds like a paradox, but it is not. + +With the powerful engine into which we are transforming the German +army one does not make an attack. If I were to come before you today, +on the assumption that conditions were different from what I believe +they are, and said, "We are considerably menaced by France and Russia; +it is to be expected that we shall be attacked, and as a diplomat, +believing my military information in these matters to be correct, I am +convinced that it is better for us to have our defense consist of a +bold attack, and to strike the first blow now;" and if I added: "We +can more easily wage an aggressive war, and I, therefore, am asking +the Reichstag for an appropriation of a milliard, or half a milliard, +marks to engage in a war against our two neighbors,"--then I do not +know, gentlemen, whether you would have enough confidence in me to +grant my request, but I hope you would not have it. + +But, if you had, it would not satisfy me. If we Germans wish to wage a +war with the full effect of our national strength, it must be a war +which satisfies all who take part in it, all who sacrifice anything +for it, in short the whole nation. It must be a national war, a war +carried on with the enthusiasm of 1870, when we were foully attacked. +I still remember the ear splitting, joyful shouts in the station at +Koeln. It was the same all the way from Berlin to Koeln, in Berlin +itself. The waves of popular approval bore us into the war, whether or +no we wished it. That is the way it must be, if a popular force like +ours is to show what it can do. It will, however, be very difficult to +prove to the provinces and the imperial states and their inhabitants +that the war is unavoidable, and has to be. People will ask: "Are you +so sure? Who can tell?" In short, when we make an attack, the whole +weight of all imponderables, which weigh far heavier than material +weights, will be on the side of our opponents whom we have attacked. +France will be bristling with arms way down to the Pyrenees. The same +will take place everywhere. A war into which we are not borne by the +will of the people will be waged, to be sure, if it has been declared +by the constituted authorities who deemed it necessary; it will even +be waged pluckily, and possibly victoriously, after we have once +smelled fire and tasted blood, but it will lack from the beginning the +nerve and enthusiasm of a war in which we are attacked. In such a one +the whole of Germany from Memel to the Alpine Lakes will flare up like +a powder mine; it will be bristling with guns, and no enemy will dare +to engage this _furor teutonicus_ which develops when we are attacked. + +[Illustration: ANTON VON WERNER WILLIAM I ON HIS DEATHBED] + +We cannot afford to lose this factor of preeminence even if many +military men--not only ours but others as well--believe that today we +are superior to our future opponents. Our own officers believe this to +a man, naturally. Every soldier believes this. He would almost cease +to be a useful soldier if he did not wish for war, and did not believe +that we would be victorious in it. If our opponents by any chance are +thinking that we are pacific because we are afraid of how the war may +end, they are mightily mistaken. We believe as firmly in our victory +in a just cause as any foreign lieutenant in his garrison, after his +third glass of champagne, can believe in his, and we probably do so +with greater certainty. It is not fear, therefore, which makes us +pacific, but the consciousness of our strength. We are strong enough +to protect ourselves, even if we should be attacked at a less +favorable moment, and we are in a position to let divine providence +determine whether a war in the meanwhile may not become unnecessary +after all. + +I am, therefore, not in favor of any kind of an aggressive war, and if +war could result only from our attack--somebody must kindle a fire, we +shall not kindle it. Neither the consciousness of our strength, which +I have described, nor our confidence in our treaties, will prevent us +from continuing our former endeavors to preserve peace. In this we do +not permit ourselves to be influenced by annoyances or dislikes. The +threats and insults, and the challenges, which have been made have, no +doubt, excited also with us a feeling of irritation, which does not +easily happen with Germans, for they are less prone to national hatred +than any other nation. We are, however, trying to calm our countrymen, +and we shall work for peace with our neighbors, especially with +Russia, in the future as well as in the past. When I say especially +with Russia, I express the opinion that France is offering us no +assurances of success in our endeavors. I will, however, not say that +these endeavors are of no use. We shall never pick a quarrel, nor ever +attack France; and in the many little incidents which the liking of +our neighbors for spying and bribing has occasioned we have always +brought about a very courteous and amicable settlement. I should +consider it criminal if we were to enflame a great national war for +such bagatelles. These are instances when one should say: "The +cleverer of the two will yield." + +I am referring, therefore, especially to Russia, and here I have the +same confidence of success which I expressed a year ago, and which +this liberal sheet printed in such large type, without any "running +after," or as a German paper very vulgarly called it, "Kow-towing" to +Russia. That time has passed. We no longer sue for love, either in +France or in Russia! The Russian press and the Russian public opinion +have shown the door to an old powerful and reliable friend, which we +were. We do not force ourselves on anybody. We have tried to +reestablish the old intimate relations, but we are running after +nobody. This does not prevent us, however, from observing the +treaty-rights which Russia has with us; on the contrary, it is an +incentive to us to do so. + +These treaty rights comprise some which not all our friends recognize +as such. I mean the rights concerning Bulgaria which we won for Russia +in the Congress of Berlin, and which were not contested until 1885. +There is no question for me, who was instrumental in preparing the +congressional decisions, and who joined in signing them, that all of +us were of the opinion at that time that Russia should have a +predominating influence in Bulgaria, after the latter had renounced +East Roumelia, and she herself had given the modest satisfaction of +reducing by 800,000 souls the extent of the territory under her +influence until it included only about three million people. + +Following this interpretation of the Congress, Russia until 1885 +appointed the prince, a close relative of the imperial house, of whom +at that time nobody believed, or could believe, that he would wish to +be anything but a faithful adherent of the Russian policy. Russia +nominated the minister of war and a great many officers; in short it +was governing in Bulgaria. There was no doubt of this. The Bulgarians, +or some of them, or the prince--I do not know which--were not +satisfied with it. A _coup d'etat_ took place--a defection from +Russia. Thus an actual condition has ensued which we are not called +upon to remedy by a recourse to arms, but which cannot in theory alter +the rights which Russia took home from the Congress of Berlin. Whether +there will be difficulties, if Russia should wish to procure her +rights by force, I do not know. We shall neither support nor counsel +violent means, nor do I believe that they are being contemplated--I am +quite sure they are not. If, however, Russia should try her luck along +diplomatic lines, possibly by suggesting the intercession of the +Sultan, the suzerain of Bulgaria, I deem it the duty of a loyal German +policy to cling to the decisions of the Congress of Berlin, and to +interpret them as all of us, without an exception, interpreted them at +that time. The public feeling of the Bulgarians can alter nothing in +this, so far as I am concerned. Bulgaria, the tiny little country +between the Danube and the Balkans is not an object of sufficient +size, I assure you, to attach to it any importance, or to push Europe +for its sake into a war, from Moscow to the Pyrenees, from the North +Sea to Palermo, when no one can foresee its end. After the war we +would conceivably not even know for what we had been fighting. + +I may, therefore, declare that the hostility against us shown in the +Russian public opinion, and especially in the Russian press, will not +deter us from supporting, at Russia's request, any diplomatic steps +she may take to regain her influence in Bulgaria. I intentionally say, +at her request. Formerly we have, at times, endeavored to fulfil her +wishes when they had been only confidentially suggested, but we have +seen that some Russian papers immediately tried to prove that these +very steps of the German diplomacy had been the most inimical to +Russia. They actually attacked us for having fulfilled the wishes of +Russia even before they had been expressed. We did this also in +the Congress of Berlin; but it will not happen again. If Russia will +officially request us to support with the Sultan, as suzerain of +Bulgaria, the steps which she may take in her desire to reestablish in +Bulgaria conditions according to the decisions of the Congress, I +shall not hesitate to advise His Majesty the Emperor to do so. Our +sense of loyalty to our neighbor demands this, for we should cherish +neighborly relations with him, let the present feelings be what they +may. Together we should protect the monarchical institutions which are +common to both of us, and set our faces, in the interest of order, +against all the opponents of it in Europe. Russia's monarch, moreover, +fully understands that these are the duties of the allied monarchs. If +the Emperor of Russia should find that the interests of his great +empire of one hundred million people demand war, he will wage it, I do +not doubt. But I do not believe that these interests can possibly +demand a war against us, nor do I believe that these interests demand +war at the present time at all. + +To sum up: I do not believe in an immediate interruption of peace, and +I ask you to discuss this bill independently of such a thought or +apprehension, looking upon it as a means of making the great strength +which God has placed in the German nation fully available. If we do +not need all the troops, it is not necessary to summon them. We are +trying to avoid the contingency when we shall need them. + +This attempt is as yet made rather difficult for us by the threatening +newspaper articles in the foreign press, and I should like to admonish +these foreign editors to discontinue such threats. They do not lead +anywhere. The threats which we see made--not by the governments, but +by the press--are really incredibly stupid, when we stop to reflect +that the people making them imagine they could frighten the proud and +powerful German empire by certain intimidating figures made by +printer's ink and shallow words. People should not do this. It would +then be easier for us to be more obliging to our two neighbors. Every +country after all is sooner or later responsible for the windows which +its press has smashed. The bill will be rendered some day, and will +consist of the ill-feeling of the other country. We are easily +influenced--perhaps too easily--by love and kindness, but quite surely +never by threats! We Germans fear God, and naught else in the world! +It is this fear of God which makes us love and cherish peace. If in +spite of this anybody breaks the peace, he will discover that the +ardent patriotism of 1813, which called to the standards the entire +population of Prussia--weak, small, and drained to the marrow as it +then was--has today become the common property of the whole German +nation. Attack the German nation anywhere, and you will find it armed +to a man, and every man with the firm belief in his heart: God will be +with us. + + +MOUNT THE GUARDS AT THE WARTHE AND THE VISTULA! + +September 16, 1894 + +TRANSLATED BY EDMUND VON MACH, PH.D. + + +[On September 16, 1894, when Bismarck was no longer chancellor, 2,200 +Germans from the province of Posen appeared in Varzin to thank him for +his devoted work in the service of the national idea, and to gather +courage from him in their fight against the Polish propaganda which +had gained strength under the new regime at court. The aged +farm-manager, Mr. Kennemann, was the leader and spokesman of the +visitors.] + +Gentleman! First I must ask your indulgence, since for two days I have +been upset by an unpolitical enemy called lumbago, an old acquaintance +of mine for sixty years. I hope to get the better of him soon, and +then to be able to stand again fully erect. At present, I must +confess, I am hampered by him. + +I begin by replying to the words of the previous speaker with thanks +for the honor done me, addressing myself first of all to him, but then +also to you. The previous speaker is as old as I. We were both born in +1815, and different walks of life have brought us together again here +in Varzin after almost eighty years. The meeting gives me great +pleasure, although I have not run my course as safe and sound as Mr. +Kennemann. When I claim to be an invalid of hard work, he may perhaps +claim the same. But his work was possibly healthier than mine, this +being the difference between the farmer and the diplomat. The mode of +life of the latter is less healthy and more nerve-racking. To begin +with, then, I am grateful to you, gentlemen, and I should be even +more grateful, if we were all to put on our hats. I have lost in the +course of years nature's own protection, but I cannot well cover my +head if you do not do the same. + +I thank you that you have spared no exertion to show your national +sentiments in this way. The exertion was considerable, a night in the +train, a second night on the way back, insufficient meals, and +inconveniently crowded cars. The fact that you have stood all this and +were not deterred by it attests the strength of your national feeling, +which impelled you to bear witness to it here. That you did it here +greatly honors me, and I recognize in it your appreciation of my part +in the work of establishing the conditions which we are enjoying in +Germany today, after years of disunion. These conditions may be +imperfect, but "the best is the enemy of the good." At the time when +we shaped these conditions we never asked: "What may we wish?" but +"What must we have!" This moderation in our demands for union was one +of the most important preliminaries of success. By following this path +we have reached the results which have strengthened the pledge that +your home will remain united with the German empire and the kingdom of +Prussia. The proportion, in the meanwhile, of Germans in the +foundation of our structure to the less reliable--I will not say +loose--Polish element has become decidedly more favorable for the +Germans. Our national figures are forty-eight million Germans and two +million Poles; and in such a community the wishes of the two million +cannot be decisive for the forty-eight million, as must be apparent, +especially in an age when political decisions are dependent on a +majority vote as a last resort. The forces which guarantee the union +of these territories are strong enough both in the parliament and in +the army to assure it, and no one can doubt that the proper +authorities are ready to use these forces at the right time. No one +mistakes the meaning, when the announcement is made from the highest +quarters: "Ere we shall yield again Alsace, our army will have to be +annihilated" (and words to this effect have been spoken). The same +thing is true, to an even stronger degree, of our eastern frontier. We +can spare neither, Posen even less than Alsace, and we shall fight, as +the Emperor has said, to the last man, before we renounce Alsace, this +protection of our Southern states. Yet Munich and Stuttgart are not +more endangered by a hostile position in Strassburg and Alsace than +Berlin would be endangered by a hostile position near the Oder. It +may, therefore, be readily assumed that we shall remain firm in our +determination and sacrifice, if it should become necessary, our last +man and the last coin in our pockets for the defense of the German +eastern frontier as it has existed for eighty years. And this +determination will suffice to render the union between your province +and the empire as positively assured as things can be in this world. + +We confined our demands to what was necessary for our existence and +what enabled the big European nation which we are to draw a free +breath. We did not include territories where German used to be spoken, +when this had been largely due to a propaganda of the German courts. +More German used to be spoken in the East, North-east, and elsewhere +than today. Remember our ally, Austria, and how familiar German was +there in the days of Joseph II. and of the Empress Maria Theresa, when +German was a greater force in parts of Hungary than it is or can be +today. But, for everything we gave up in the shape of a linguistic and +outward union, we have found rich compensation in the intensity of a +closer union. If the older gentlemen will think back to the time +before Emperor William I., they will realize that the lack of love +among the various German tribes was much greater at that time than it +is today. We have made notable progress in this direction, and, when +we compare the unequivocal expressions of opinion from Bavaria and +Saxony today with the familiar sentiments of earlier times, we must +say that Germany, which for the past one hundred years had lagged +behind the other people of Europe in national development, has rapidly +caught up with them. Forty years ago we were far behind all other +nations in national feeling and love of one another. Today we are no +longer behind them. + +Our fellow-countrymen from the Rhine, from the Alpine lake and the +Saxon Elbe are attached to one another in affectionate sympathy, not +only when they meet abroad, but also at home. A united people has been +created in a remarkably short time. This proves that the medical cure +which we employed, although it was of blood and iron, lanced only a +sore, which had come to a head long ago, and that it gave us speedy +comfort and good health. God grant that the cure will be lasting and +subject to no change. How far reaching it is has been proved by the +testimonials which I have received since I gave up my office. They +have come from all people,--from Baden, Bavaria, Saxony, Suabia, +Hessen, and from all the districts of Prussia outside the provinces of +Frederick the Great. These entirely voluntary manifestations, which +were arranged by no one, and which not infrequently came to me at +rather inconvenient and inopportune times, have impressed me with the +existence of national harmony. Every one of them has given pleasure to +my patriotic heart, and has borne witness to a common feeling existing +in all German races--this much I wished to say concerning the +stability of the political and national union of your province today. + +We often sing "Firm is the stand of the faithful guards on the Rhine," +but they are standing equally firm at the Warthe and the Vistula. We +cannot spare an acre of land in either direction, for the sake of +principle if for nothing else. The previous speaker referred to the +attempts which had been made, as a result of the movement of 1848, to +shake loose the union in which we were then living in Prussia and +Germany, and to disregard our boundary lines. These attempts of +satisfying the wishes of our Polish neighbors ended with the action +of the Prussian general von Colomb, who closed the gates of Posen +to the Polish troops which, in response to promises made in Berlin, +had been raised under the Prussian General von Willisen. We were +obliged to conquer with Prussian troops, and in a bloody war, the +army of the insurgents who fought bravely and honorably. I wish to +add that even that war was not fought with the Polish people as such, +but with the Polish nobility and their following. I remember speaking +to some Polish soldiers of the 19th regiment, I believe, in Erfurt +at that time, that is in 1850, who called the opponents only +"_Komorniks"_--the Polish word for "contract-laborers." We should, +then, not deceive ourselves into believing that even today the number +of those who are opposed to the two races in Posen and in West Prussia +living together peacefully is as large as statistics may claim. + +This brings me to the second point touched upon by the previous +speaker, the two races living together peacefully. I believe that many +of you have in your employ laborers and servants who speak Polish, and +that you are of the opinion that no danger comes from this lower +social stratum of the population. Living together with them is +possible, and no disturbance of the peace starts with them. They do +not promote any movements hostile to us. I do not even mention the +fact that they are possibly of another race than the nobility, whose +immigration into the Slavic districts is lost in the obscure past. The +statistical numbers, therefore, of those opposed to a peaceful +communion of both races must be lessened by the large number of +laborers and farmers. The lower classes are, in the bulk, satisfied +with the Prussian government, which may not be perfect always, but +which treats them with greater justice than they were accustomed to in +the times of the Polish republic of nobles. They are satisfied with +this. It was not part of my programme that the commission on +colonization should pay special attention to small holdings of +German-speaking settlers. The Polish peasants are not dangerous, nor +does it make any difference whether the laborers are Polish or +German. The chief thing was to create crown-lands among the big +estates, and to rent them to men whom the State could permanently +influence. The desire for quick sales and colonization emanated from +other competent quarters than myself. It was impossible for me to +supervise these measures after I had instigated them. + +The difficulties which I met in the forty years of my Polish diplomacy +did not start with the masses of Polish laborers and peasants, but +were, I believe, occasioned largely, if not exclusively, by the Polish +nobility with the assistance of the Polish clergy. Perhaps this latter +term is too narrow, for I know of instances when German priests +assisted in the Polish propaganda for the sake of peace. This is a +peculiarity of our race--and I do not exactly wish to condemn it--that +we often place our religion above our nationality. The very opposite +is true of our opponents, the Poles and the French people, who regard +their nationality more highly than their religion. We are suffering +from this habit. We possess, however, a certain material +counter-weight, provided the State government unreservedly supports +the German element. The religious element has great weight in the +family circle and among women, especially the Polish women, whom I +have always greatly admired. The minister has a freer access to them +than the local governor or the judge. There will, however, always be a +powerful weight in the scales, when the Prussian government exercises +its influence with firm determination and so clearly that doubts for +the future are impossible. _Vestigia terrent!_ we may say, when with +1848, no--not 1848, I mean 1831-32--the attention paid to the Polish +nation became almost more pronounced in Germany than that given to the +German element. Since then we have surely been able to register +progress in our politics. Now I must ask your indulgence for a moment +on account of my lumbago. (Voices: Sit down, Your Highness.) Sitting +down does not help me. I know this visitor from years of experience. I +was speaking of the possibility of having the two races living +peacefully side by side. This is not impossible, for in Switzerland we +see three different nationalities--the German, Italian, and French +Swiss--deliberate quietly and without bitterness on matters of joint +interest. In Belgium we see the Germanic Flemish form a united State +with the Gallic Walloons, and we perceive that it is possible under +circumstances to live peacefully together even with the Poles, when we +remember East Prussia, where the Polish Masures, the Lithuanians, and +the Germans work together harmoniously. Because nobody has incited the +people there, no national ill feeling has appeared among them. It is +true, to be sure, that the Catholic priest, with his peculiar +interests, is unknown there. But look at your neighbors in Upper +Silesia. Have the two races not lived there in peaceful communion for +centuries, although the religious differences exist there also? What +is it, then, that Silesia has not, and that has made it possible for +us to live there, through centuries, in religious harmony? I am sorry +to have to say it, it is the Polish nobility and the clergy of the +Polish propaganda. The Polish nobles are, no doubt, very +influential--more so with the Poles than the Germans--but the +statistical figures are much larger than the actual number of our +aggressive Polish opponents with whom we have to count. + +The nobles are thinking of the time when they were all-powerful, and +they cannot give up the memory of conditions when they ruled the king +as well as the peasants. The Polish nobles, however, are surely too +highly educated to believe that the conditions of the old Polish +republic of nobles could ever return, and I should be astonished if +the Polish peasants knew the history of Poland so badly that they did +not recoil from the possibility of a return to the old state of +affairs. The peasants must say to themselves that a "wet year," as the +farmers put it, would be their lot if the nobles regained their power. +Among the national-Polish representatives that are elected, you +generally meet only noblemen. At least I cannot remember having seen +a Polish farmer as a representative in the Reichstag or in the diet. +Compare this with the election results in German districts. I do not +even know whether there are Polish burghers in our sense of the word. +The middle classes in the Polish cities are poorly developed. +Consequently, when we reduce our opponents to their proper size, we +grow more courageous in our own determination; and I should be very +glad if I could encourage those who on their part are adding to the +encouragement of the Polish nobles. I feel, gentlemen, that I am of +one mind with you, who have traveled the hard road hither. I have no +influence with other elements, but we shall not give up hope in spite +of all vicissitudes. + +The address of the previous speaker also referred to vicissitudes and +changes. These changes have characterized our entire Polish policy, +from 1815 till today. They took place whenever high Polish families +gained influence at court. You all know the Radziwill family and its +influence at the court of Frederick William IV. If we could make a +mental test of the popular feeling of 1831 and of today, we should +find that the conviction has greatly increased that we have German +fellow-countrymen in the Grand duchy of Posen. The former and, I am +tempted to say, childish cult of the Poles as I knew it in my +childhood is no longer possible. Then we were taught Polish songs in +our music lessons together with the Marseillaise, to be sure. The +Polish nobleman, therefore, than whom God never created anything more +reactionary, was here thrown into one pot with the French revolution, +and liberalism was coupled with the cause of the Poles, because we +were lacking in political perspicacity. Such feelings were ingrained +in our citizens at that time. I am thinking especially of the citizens +of Berlin. If today you ask the opinion of your forty-eight million +fellow-countrymen, and compare their views and those of the bulk of +the German army with the bugbear which had found lodging in German +hearts at the time of Platen's Polish songs, you surely cannot +despair of further development. We may, you must agree, register +progress, although it is slow and there are lapses. It is like +climbing a sandy hill or walking in the lava of Mount Vesuvius. One +often glides back, but on the whole one is advancing. Your position +will grow the stronger the more vigorously developed our sense of +nationality will become. I ask of you, do not despair if there are +clouds in the sky, especially in this rainy year which has saddened +the farmers. They will disappear, and the union of the Warthe and the +Vistula with Germany is irrefragable. + +For centuries we have existed without Alsace-Lorraine, but no one yet +has dared to think of what our existence would be if today a new +kingdom of _Poland_ were founded. Formerly it was a passive power. +Today it would be an active enemy supported by the rest of Europe. As +long as it would not have gained possession of Danzig, Thorn, and West +Prussia, and I know not what else the excitable Polish mind might +crave, it would always be the ally of our enemies. It indicates, +therefore, insufficient political skill or political ignorance if we +rely in any way on the Polish nobles for the safety of our eastern +frontier, or if we think that we can win them to fight anywhere for +German possessions, sword in hand. This is an Utopian idea. The only +thing which we and you, gentlemen, can do under present conditions, +and which we can learn from the Poles, is to cling to one another. The +Poles, too, have parties, and used to show this even more +unfortunately than we, but all their parties disappear as soon as a +national question is broached. I wish the same would come to be true +of us, and that in national questions we would belong primarily, not +to a party, but to the nation. Let us be of as divergent opinions as +we choose, but when in our eastern provinces the question arises: +"German or Polish," then let the party feuds be laid aside until, as +the Berliners say, "After nine o'clock." Now is the time to fight and +to stand together. This is just as it is in military matters--and I +am glad to see among you many who have experience in such things. +Before joining an attack in war we do not ask: Shall we follow our +progressive or our reactionary neighbor? We advance when the drum +beats the signal, and so we should in national affairs forget all +party differences, and form a solid phalanx hurling all our spears, +reactionary, progressive, and despotic alike, against the enemy. + +If we agree on this--and the dangers of the future are compelling us +to do so--we shall win our women and children for the same strict +sense of nationality. And if our women are with us, and our youths, we +are saved for all time. This is one of our present tasks, to give a +national education to our children. I am confident that the German +women possess all the necessary qualifications for this task. I shall +ask you, therefore, to join me in a toast: The German Women in the +Grandduchy of Posen! And may the German idea take an ever firmer hold +in your country! + + +LONG LIVE THE EMPEROR AND THE EMPIRE! + +April 1,1895 + +TRANSLATED BY EDMUND VON MACH, PH.D. + + +[The eightieth birthday of Prince Bismarck was celebrated as a +national holiday everywhere in Germany. Not less than 5,250 youths +from the universities and academies visited Friedrichsruh on April 1 +to bear witness, before the "old man" of Germany, to their love for +the emperor and the empire. After receiving a delegation from the +faculties of all the universities, Bismarck addressed the students as +follows:] + +Gentlemen! I have just heard from the lips of your teachers, the +leaders of higher education, an appreciation of my past, which means +much to me. From your greeting, I infer a promise for the future, and +this means even more for a man of my years than his love of +approbation. You will be able, at least many of you, to live according +to the sentiments which your presence here today reveals, and to do so +to the middle of the next century, while I have long been condemned to +inactivity and belong to the days that are past. I find consolation in +this observation, for the German is not so constituted that he could +entirely dismiss in his old age what in his youth inspired him. Forty +and sixty years hence you will not hold exactly the same views as +today, but the seed planted in your young hearts by the reign of +Emperor William I. will bear fruit, and, even when you grow old, your +attitude will ever be German-national because it is so today--whatever +form our institutions may have taken in the meanwhile. We do not +wilfully dismiss from our hearts the love of national sentiments; we +do not lose them when we emigrate. I know instances of hundreds of +thousands of Germans from America, South Africa, and Australia who are +today bound to the fatherland with the same enthusiasm which carried +many of them to the war. + +We had to win our national independence in difficult wars. The +preparation, the prologue, was the Holstein war. We had to fight with +Austria for a settlement; no court of law could have given us a decree +of separation; we had to fight. That we were facing a French war after +our victory at Sadowa could not remain in doubt for anyone who knew +the conditions of Europe. It was, however, desirable not to wage this +war too soon nor before we had garnered to some extent the fruits of +our North-German union. After the war had been waged everybody here +was saying that within five years we should have to wage the next war. +This was to be feared, it is true, but I have ever since considered it +to be my duty to prevent it. We Germans had no longer any reason for +war. We had what we needed. To fight for more, from a lust of conquest +and for the annexation of countries which were not necessary for us, +always appeared to me like an atrocity; I am tempted to say like a +Bonapartistic and foreign atrocity, alien to the Germanic sense of +justice. + +Consequently since we rebuilt and enlarged our house according to our +needs, I have always been a man of peace, nor have I shrunk from small +sacrifices. The strong man can afford to yield at times. Neither the +Caroline Islands nor Samoa were worth a war, however much stress I +have always laid on our colonial development. We did not stand in need +of glory won in battles, nor of prestige. This indeed is the +superiority of the German character over all others, that it is +satisfied when it can acknowledge its own worth, and has no need of +recognition, authority, or privilege. It is self-sufficient. This is +the course I have steered, and in politics it is much easier to say +what one should avoid than to say what one should do. Certain +principles of honesty and courage forbid one to do certain things, +just as the access to certain fields is interdicted in the army +maneuvers. But the decision as to what has to be done is a very +different matter, and no one can be sure of it beforehand, for +politics are a task which can be compared only to the navigation of +unknown waters. One does not know what the weather will be or how the +currents will flow, nor what storms will be raging. There is in +politics this additional factor of uncertainty that one is largely +dependent on the decisions of others on whom one has counted and who +have failed. One never can act with complete independence. And, when +our friends whose assistance we need, although we cannot guarantee it, +change their minds, our whole plan has failed. Positive enterprises +are, therefore, very difficult in politics, and when they succeed you +should be grateful to God who has given His blessing, and not find +fault with details which one or the other may regret, but accept the +situation as God has made it. For man cannot create or direct the +stream of time. He can sail on it and steer his craft with more or +less skill, be stranded and shipwrecked, or make a favorable port. + +Since we now have made a favorable port, as I conclude from the +predominant although not unanimous opinion of my countrymen, whose +approval is all we have worked for, let us be satisfied, and let us +keep and cherish what we have won in an Emperor and an empire as it +is, and not as some individuals may wish it should be, with other +institutions, and a little bit more of this or that religious or +social detail that they may have at heart. Let us be careful to keep +what we have, lest we lose it because we do not know how to appreciate +it. Germany once was a powerful empire under the Carolingians, the +Saxons, and the Hohenstaufens, and when she lost her place, five, yes +six hundred years passed before she regained the use of her legs--if I +may say so. Political and geological developments are equally slow. +Layers are deposited one on the other, forming new banks and new +mountains. But I should like to ask especially the young gentlemen: +Do not yield too much to the German love of criticism! Accept what God +has given us, and what we have toiled to garner, while the rest of +Europe--I cannot say attacked us, but ominously stood at attention. It +was not easy. If we had been cited before the European Council of +Elders before our French affairs were settled, we should not have +fared nearly so well; and it was my task to avoid this if I possibly +could. It is natural that not everything which everybody wished could +be obtained under these conditions, and I mention this only to claim +the indulgence of those who are perfectly justified in expecting more, +and possibly in striving for more. But, above everything, do not be +premature, and do not act in haste. Let us cling for the present to +what we have. + +The men who made the biggest sacrifices that the empire might be born +were undoubtedly the German princes, not excluding the King of +Prussia. My old master hesitated long before he voluntarily yielded +his independence to the empire. Let us then be thankful to the +reigning houses who made sacrifices for the empire which after the +full thousand years of German history must have been hard for them to +make; and let us be thankful to science, and those who cultivate her, +for having kept alive on their hearths the fire of German unity to the +time when new fuel was added and it flamed up and provided us with +satisfying light and warmth. + +I would then--and you will say I am an old, conservative man--compress +what I have to say into these words: Let us keep above everything the +things we have, before we look for new things, nor be afraid of those +people who begrudge them to us. In Germany struggles have existed +always, and the party schisms of today are naught but the echoes of +the old German struggle between the noble families and the trade +unions in the cities, and between those who had and those who had not +in the peasant wars, in the religious wars, and in the thirty years' +war. None of these far reaching fissures, which I am tempted to call +geological, can disappear at once. And should we not be indulgent with +our opponents, if we ourselves do not desist from fighting? Life is a +struggle everywhere in nature, and without inner struggles we end by +being like the Chinese, and become petrified. No struggle, no life! +Only, in every fight where the national question arises, there must be +a rallying point. For us this is the empire, not as it may seem to be +desirable, but as it is, the empire and the Emperor, who represents +it. That is why I ask you to join me in wishing well to the Emperor +and the empire. I hope that in 1950 all of you who are still living +will again respond with contented hearts to the toast + +LONG LIVE THE EMPEROR AND THE EMPIRE! + + + + +THE LIFE OF MOLTKE + +BY KARL DETLEV JESSEN, PH.D. + +Professor of German Literature, Bryn Mawr College + + +To relate, in detail, the story of the life of General-Fieldmarshal +Graf Helmuth von Moltke--or, as we shall briefly call him, +Moltke--means to give an account of that memorable phase of modern +history, perhaps, so far as Europe is concerned, the most important of +the nineteenth century. This was the ascendency of Prussia, of her +king and of her people, culminating in the unification and the +consolidation of most of the German states into one great empire, with +all its realization of military and political power, of social, +economic, and, in a wide sense, of cultural eminence and efficiency. +The barest outlines, however, must suffice for the present purpose. + +Moltke was born at the threshold of the century the history of which +he so prominently helped to shape, on October 26, 1800, at Parchim in +the duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. On his father's side he descended +from a family of the North German gentry which had come to various +degrees of prominence in some German as well as Scandinavian states. +No doubt he inherited the military instinct from this race of +warriors, statesmen, and landholders; a race the characteristic traits +of which indicated the line along which he was bound to develop, the +field in which he was to manifest his greatest achievements. But there +is just as little doubt that all the elements of character which +exalted his military gifts and instincts into an almost antique +nobility, simplicity, and grandeur--his dignity, purity, dutifulness, +his profound religious devotion, and sense of humor--came to him from +his mother, who was descended from an ancient patrician family of the +little republican commonwealth, the once famous Hansatown of +Luebeck. How far the Huguenot strain may have influenced him, through +his paternal grandmother, is hard to tell, since we know but little of +Charlotte d'Olivet. + +After the family had moved to Holstein, where his father failed to +make a success of an agricultural undertaking for which he seems to +have lacked fitness, young Moltke entered the Royal Danish Military +Academy as a cadet, and there passed his lieutenant's examination with +distinction; but he sought and found a commission under the Prussian +eagle. He entered the eighth grenadiers at Frankfort-on-the-Oder. A +year later, in 1823, he was sent to what is now called the War Academy +in Berlin. Only by the closest economy and by some outside work, +partly literary, as we shall see, he managed to get along with his +exceedingly small officer's pay. He distinguished himself however so +much that he became, successively, a teacher at the Division School +and an active military geological surveyor, and finally was taken into +the General Staff of the Army. Becoming a first lieutenant in 1832, a +captain in 1835, ahead of many of his comrades, he served exclusively +in strategical positions. During the four years, 1835-39, he, with +some comrades, was in the Turkish dominions for the purpose of +organizing and drilling the Turkish Army. He witnessed, as an active +participant, the Turkish defeat by the insurgent Egyptians at Nisib on +the Euphrates, which was brought about by the indolent obstinacy of +the Turkish commander-in-chief. Like Xenophon, Moltke retreated toward +and reached the Black Sea. At Constantinople he obtained honorable +dismissal from the Sultan. After his return to Prussia he became chief +of the General Staff of the Fourth Army Corps. In 1841 he married Mary +Burt, a young relative who was partly of English extraction. The union +developed into an unusually happy married life, in spite of, or partly +because of, their great difference in age. + +[Illustration: MOLTKE ANTON VON WERNER] + +His wife, by whom he had no issue, lived to see the beginning of his +great achievements and fame, but died in 1868, before his proudest +triumph. Various commands led him to Italy, Spain, England, and Russia +as adjutant of Prussian princes. In 1858 he was appointed chief of the +General Staff of the Prussian Army--the institution which he shaped +into that great strategical instrument through which were made +possible, from a military point of view, the glorious successes of the +three wars--1864, 1866, 1870-71--and which has become the model of all +similar organizations the world over. + +Side by side with the overtowering political achievement of Bismarck +and the more congenial life work of Roon, the minister of war, +Moltke's service to his country and his king stands unchallenged in +historical significance. He has indelibly inscribed his name on the +tablets of history as one of the world's greatest strategists. But he +did not lay down his work until extreme old age; in 1888, as he so +simply put it in his request for relief from duty, he resigned his +office, because he "could no more mount a horse." He, however, still +remained president of the Commission of National Defense and his last +speech in the German Reichstag, of which he had been a continuous +member since its establishment, he delivered on May 14, 1890. He died +on April 24, 1891. The nation felt that one of its great heroes had +passed away. + +In two congratulatory documents on the occasion of Moltke's ninetieth +birthday, Theodor Mommsen, the historian, has summed up the results of +the great soldier's life-work--in the address presented by the Royal +Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin, and in the honorary tablet of +the German cities. These inscriptions may be found in Mommsen's _Reden +und Aufsaetze_. Shortly after Moltke's death, in a commemorative +address at the same Academy, the historian and Hellenist Ernst Curtius +reviewed Moltke's relations to historical science and his achievements +in military science and in history. The Academy had appointed the +Fieldmarshal an honorary member in 1860 for his great achievements in +the military, geographical, and historical sciences. Professor +Curtius in the address draws the outlines of Moltke's character as a +student, and explains how he is indebted to the teachings of Karl +Ritter, the founder of scientific geography, how he clearly develops +under the influence of Niebuhr, Alexander von Humboldt, Leopold von +Buch, and Erman, the physicist. He points out how Moltke, as historian +and as an expert cartographer, introduces scientific spirit and work +into his great creation, the German General Staff. As a strategist, +however, it remains to be said that he follows in the footsteps, puts +into practice and develops the methods of General von Clausewitz, the +first mind who put war on an empirical and scientific basis. Moltke +was intimately acquainted with Gibbon through a nearly completed +rendering into German of _The History of the Decline and Fall of the +Roman Empire_, a translation which, unfortunately, never was printed +and seems to be lost even in manuscript. As his favorite books and +writers Moltke mentions, among others, Littrow's _Astronomy,_ Liebig's +_Agricultural Chemistry_, Clausewitz's _On War,_ Ranke, Treitschke, +Carlyle. It appears, then, that his scientific equipment was of the +most solid sort, enabling him to make the most valuable contributions +to knowledge. + +It is impossible to imagine to oneself Moltke breaking into tears, +either of wrath or of despair, in great crises of his life, such as we +know to have been the case with Bismarck. There is a contrast between +these two men in their very makeup. There is tragedy in Bismarck's +soul, in its volcanic eruptiveness and its conflicts. He is nervously +high-strung in the extreme, the very embodiment, in Karl Lamprecht's +terminology, of the type of "Reizsamkeit." He likes to listen to +Beethoven's music and his sense of nature reveals him to be +impressionable, sensitive. His gamut of emotions and feelings, and +their expression, is extraordinary. Moltke, on the other hand, appears +to be always in harmony with himself, he is far less impulsive than +his great contemporary and friend. His feeling, always awake for +nature, has no element of morbid and pathetic sentiment; in the +earlier stages of its manifestation we see it slightly tinged by +Romanticism. But he is at peace with nature, his great comforting +mother. There is no sudden and surprising break in his mental or +spiritual development. The ideal of the strategist, as antiquity saw +it, appears to be consummated in his person. William James, himself an +ardent pacificist, well observed that in the modern soldier there is a +matter-of-factness far removed from the bluff and make-believe of +modern life in general. He might have chosen Moltke as the best type +of this sort of warrior. But there was much more than this scientific +and dutiful soldier; there was at bottom of Moltke's nature a fine +sense of proportion, an artistic vein, and, not the least element, a +Christian philosophy of life just as far removed from mere perfunctory +indifferentism as from cocksure dogmatic bigotry and self-sufficiency. +We have striking evidence of this in the _Trostgedanken_, the +_Consolatory Thoughts on the Earthly Life and a Future Existence_, +which he laid down as the last literary utterance of his full and +eventful career. But this is not all; for most astonishing of all in +the richness of this well-rounded harmony of over ninety years of life +is a lively source of humor, due more to endowment and inheritance +from his mother than to her influence, as his letters to her bear +witness. When war is declared in 1870 he remarks that a new vitality +has entered his carcass, and, on the very eve of his demise, when in +the morning he had attended a session of the Upper House of the +Prussian Diet, loyal to his work and task to the very last moment, he +closed the last and winning game of whist he played with the quotation +of that grim bit of humor characteristic of Frederick the Great and +his soldiery: "_Wat seggt hei nu to sine ollen Suepers_?" + +In Moltke, if in any one, the character of the man reveals the +character and style of his writing. Mommsen, in his address mentioned +above, characterizes him as "the man who knew how to describe, as well +as how to win, battles, the master of style in his rare speeches, the +clever and sympathetic investigator of and writer on manifold ethnic +life, the scientific explorer of the regions on the rivers Tigris and +Euphrates." It is obvious, though, that this mastery of style, this +superb union of form and content, was not attained miraculously and +from the start. Still, his first production, published in 1827, a tale +(_Novelle_) in the style of Tieck and his followers, shows distinctive +talent, and a tendency toward brevity as well as adequacy of +expression, not to mention a sustained sense of harmony and +proportion. The young lieutenant also published, anonymously, some +poetry, and showed a clever hand in translating from foreign poets. It +is a pity that most of these attempts are buried in inaccessible +periodicals and have never been republished. But he left the field of +poetry and fiction, so far as we know, forever with his next work, the +first published under his name and in pamphlet form, a work which, +though of genuine political interest and love, was at the same time +intended to increase his income to the level of a living wage: +_Holland and Belgium in their mutual relations; from their separation +under Philip II., till their re-union under William I_. He read more +than five thousand pages of sources for the preparation of this small +pamphlet. It was published in 1831, and followed within a year by +another one: _An account of the internal state of affairs and of the +social condition of Poland_. Both writings, as in fact everything else +from his pen since about 1830, had a more or less direct bearing on +his military vocation; since war, according to Clausewitz, is nothing +but the continuation of politics by other than diplomatic means. + +But the height of his literary mastery is reached in 1841 by the +publication of the _Letters on the condition and events in Turkey from +the years_ 1835 _till_ 1839, the matured fruit of those eventful and +adventurous but, at the same time, constructive years in the Orient. +They have been likened to Goethe's _Italian Journey_. The comparison +is justified by striking resemblances. Both works have resulted from +diaries and letters actually kept, Moltke's work, however, more +faithfully retaining and professing its formal nature. But the +resemblance is much closer, arising, in the so-called inner form, from +a similarity of attitude, the same wide extent of interests which may +be briefly called "kulturgeschichtlich," and, above all, the +scientific concern in the country and its inhabitants, to which both +brought the most solid and methodical qualifications. It is true, the +wealth of Italy, both of antiquity and of the Renaissance, in matters +literary and artistic, so exuberantly mirrored in Goethe's book of +travel, is not to be found in Moltke's work. But this lack is +counterbalanced by those portions dealing with historical events which +Moltke actually experienced and even influenced; events, though then +unsuccessful, as far as his intentions were concerned, yet important +and significant for our own time, as the recent developments on the +Balkan peninsula bear ample evidence. Both, Goethe as well as Moltke, +are clever and artistic in handling pencil and brush as well as their +descriptive pen. + +And now the style, in the narrower sense. It is natural, limpid, free +from all rhetorical flourishes and wordiness, placing the right word +in the right place. Xenophon, Caesar, Goethe, come to mind in reading +Moltke's descriptions, historical expositions, reflections. Bookish +terms and unvisual metaphors, which occur in the preceding pamphlets, +though rarely enough, are entirely absent. The tendency toward +military brevity and precision is everywhere obvious. The omission of +the cumbersome auxiliary, wherever permissible, already +characteristically employed in his tale, is conspicuous, as in all his +writings and letters. The words are arranged in rhythmical groups +without falling into a monotonous sing song. Participial +constructions, tending toward brevity, are more in evidence than in +ordinary German prose. Sparingly, but with good reason and excellent +handling, periodic structure is employed. Still another point is +significant, showing the writer to be of born artistic instinct. In a +letter to his brother Ludwig, who was to take from Moltke's +overburdened shoulders part of his laborious task of translating +Gibbon, he cleverly remarks on the exuberant use of adjectives by the +historian as being sometimes more obscuring than elucidating, and he +simply advises the omitting of some. It is a pity that the translation +seems to be lost, and with it an insight into Moltke's elaboration of +his style, which a translation would reveal better than original +composition. In one respect these letters about Turkey were never +equalled by Moltke. Henceforth, he turned absolutely matter-of-fact, a +military writer _par excellence_. Even in his letters those nice bits +of humor and incidental manifestations of a subtle and fine nature +sense grow scarcer and scarcer. There are two essays--_The Western +Boundary_, and _Considerations in the Choice of Railway Routes_--both +published in the _Deutsche Vierteljahrsschrift_, in 1841, and 1843 +respectively, that demonstrate this tendency toward specialization. +The bulk of his writings from then on falls into that technical series +reserved for, and interesting chiefly to, the military man. Even his +speeches in the Reichstag, few and far between, considering the extent +of years over which they are spread, with all their excellent +"Sachlichkeit," their directness and clearness, concern matters and +problems that affect, more or less directly, his comprehensive duties +as chief intellect of the military organization of his country. So, +quite naturally, we see him very reluctantly yield to a gentle but +persistent pressure to use his great literary talent for setting down +some reminiscences from his life. He declined to publish personal +memoirs, however, saying: "All that I have written about actual and +real things ('Sachliches') which is worth preserving is kept in the +archives of the General Staff. My personal reminiscences are better +buried with me." He had turned objective in the highest possible +degree, leaving behind all vanities and petty subjective points of +view. But after his retirement he wrote, in 1887, on the basis of the +great work on that subject by the General Staff and partly managed by +himself, that short _History of the Franco-German War of_ 1870-71, +which his nation cherishes as a precious inheritance. It is "sachlich" +throughout. Starting with a brief reflection on the origin of modern +wars he relates the events from the point of view of the directing +chief of staff of the army, closing the whole by one impressive +sentence: "Strassburg and Metz, estranged from our country in times of +weakness, had been regained, and the German Empire had come to a +renewed existence." The work is a consummation, in literary form, of +his motto "Erst waegen, dann wagen!" From the very threshold of his +death we possess as the sum total of his philosophy of life those +already mentioned _Consolatory Thoughts on the Earthly Life and a +Future Existence_. From the point of composition and style these are +highly interesting because of the fact that, beside the final version, +three extant parallel versions show the gradual working out of form +and thought. + +Something remains to be said about Moltke the correspondent. The +letters preserved or published fully justify his being ranked among +the best letter writers in German literature. Here, more than +elsewhere, the subtle and finer characteristics of the man, the son, +the brother, the friend, the gentle and always kindly responsive +nature of a thoroughly human and Christian soul are revealed. Above +all, however, and side by side with Bismarck's noble letters to his +fiancee and wife, stand Moltke's charming and devoted letters to Mary +Burt von Moltke. I shall not venture to describe their wealth of +sentiment, of charm, of love, of interest in matters big and small. +One of the long series, however, stands conspicuous among them; it is +addressed to his fiancee, dated Berlin, February 13, 1842. Charming in +its combination of a protective, paternal, and instructive attitude +with that of the lover and prospective husband, it is unique also +because of the advice given about the gentle art of writing letters, +an art in which the great modern strategist excelled. + + + +_LETTERS AND HISTORICAL WRITINGS OF MOLTKE_ + + * * * * * + +THE POLITICAL AND MILITARY CONDITIONS OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE IN 1836 + +TRANSLATED BY EDMUND VON MACH, PH.D. + + +[Moltke spent four years, from 1836 to 1839, in Turkey, and, as was +his habit, sent detailed accounts of his experiences to his family. +After his return to Prussia, he collected his material, revised it, +omitted all intimate family references, and published it under the +title _Letters Concerning Conditions and Events in Turkey_. The book +contained sixty-seven letters. The following is the tenth letter, +dated from Pera, April 7, 1836.] + +For a long time it was the task of the armies of western Europe to set +bounds to the Turkish sway. Today the powers of Europe seem anxious to +keep the Turkish state in existence. Not so very long ago serious +concern was felt lest Islam gain the upper hand in a great part of the +West, as it had done in the Orient. The adherents of the prophet had +conquered countries where Christianity had been rooted for centuries. +The classic soil of the apostles, Corinth and Ephesus, Nicea (the city +of synods and churches), also Antioch, Nicomedia, and Alexandria had +yielded to their strength. Even the cradle of Christianity and the +grave of the Saviour, Palestine and Jerusalem, did homage to the +Infidels, who held their possessions against the united armies of the +western knights. + +It was left to the Infidels to put an end to the long existence of the +Roman Empire, and to dedicate St. Sophia, where Christ and the saints +had been worshipped for almost one thousand years, to Allah and +his prophet. At the very time when people were wrangling about +religious dogmas in Constance, when the reconciliation between the +Greek and the Catholic churches had failed, and the defection of forty +million people from the rule of the Pope was threatening, the Moslems +advanced victoriously to Steiermark and Salzburg. The noblest prince +of Europe at that time, the Roman King, fled from his capital before +them; and St. Stephen in Vienna came near being turned into a mosque, +like St. Sophia in Byzantium. + +At that time the countries from the African desert to the Caspian Sea, +and from the Indian Ocean to the Atlantic, obeyed the orders of the +Padisha. Venice and the German Emperors were registered among the +tributaries of the Porte. From it three quarters of the coastlands of +the Mediterranean took their orders. The Nile, the Euphrates, and +almost the Danube had become Turkish rivers, as the archipelago and +the Black Sea were Turkish inland waters. And after barely two hundred +years this same mighty empire reveals to us a picture of dissolution +which promises an early end. + +In the two old capitals of the world, Rome and Constantinople, the +same means have been employed to the same ends, the unity of the dogma +to obtain unrestricted power. The vicar of St. Peter and the heir of +the calif have fallen thereby into identical impotency. + +Since Greece has declared her independence, and the principalities of +Moldavia, Wallachia, and Servia are offering only a formal recognition +to the Porte, the Turks are as if banished from these, their own +provinces. Egypt is a hostile power rather than a subject country; +Syria with her wealth, Adana (the province of Cilicia), and Crete, +conquered at the cost of fifty-five attacks and the lives of seventy +thousand Mussulmans, have been lost without one sword-thrust, the +booty of a rebellious pasha. The control in Tripolis, hardly +recovered, is in danger of being lost again. The other African states +of the Mediterranean have today no real connection with the Porte; +and France in her hesitation whether she should keep the most +beautiful of them as her own is looking to the cabinet of St. James +rather than to the Divan at Constantinople. In Arabia finally, and in +the holy cities themselves, the Sultan has had no actual authority for +a long time. + +Even in those countries which are left to the Porte the supreme power +of the Sultan is often restricted. The people on the banks of the +Euphrates and the Tigris show little fidelity; the _Agas_ on the Black +Sea and in Bosnia obey the dictates of their personal interests rather +than the orders of the Padisha; and the larger cities at a distance +from Constantinople are enjoying oligarchical municipal institutions, +which render them almost independent. + +The Ottoman monarchy, therefore, consists today of an aggregation of +kingdoms, principalities, and republics which are kept together only +by habit and the communion of the Koran. And if a despot is a ruler +whose words are law, then the Sultan in Constantinople is very far +from being a despot. + +The diplomacy of Europe has long engaged the Porte in wars which are +not in its interest, or has forced it to make treaties of peace in +which it has lost some of its provinces. During all this time, +however, the Ottoman Empire had to deal with an enemy at home who +seemed more terrible than all the foreign armies and navies. Selim +III. was not the first Sultan to lose his throne and his life in his +struggle against the Janizaries, and his successor preferred the +dangers of a reformation to the necessity of trusting himself to this +society. Through streams of blood he reached his end. The Turkish +Sultan gloried in the destruction of the Turkish army, but he had to +crave the help of an all-too-powerful vassal in order to suppress the +insurrection on the Greek peninsula. At this juncture three Christian +powers forgot their ancient feuds. France and England sacrificed their +ships and men to destroy the Sultan's fleet, and thus laid open to +Russia the way to the heart of Turkey, and brought about what they +had most wished to avoid. + +The country had not yet recovered from these many wounds, when the +Pasha of Egypt advanced through Syria, threatening destruction to the +last descendant of Osman. A newly levied army was sent against the +insurgents, but the generals fresh from the harem led it to +destruction. The Porte applied to England and France, who were calling +themselves its oldest and most natural allies, but received from them +only promises. At this juncture Sultan Mahommed invoked the help of +Russia, and his enemy sent him ships, money, and an army. + +Then the world saw the remarkable spectacle of fifteen thousand +Russians encamped on the Asiatic hills overlooking Constantinople, +ready to protect the Sultan in his seraglio against the Egyptians. +Among the Turks dissatisfaction was rampant. The Ulemas saw their +influence wane; the innovations had hurt countless interests, and the +new taxes incommoded all classes. Thousands of Janizaries, who were no +longer permitted to call themselves such, and the relatives and +friends of thousands of others who had been throttled, drowned, or +shot down, were scattered through the country and the capital. The +Armenians could not forget the persecution which they had recently +suffered, and the Greek Christians, who constituted half of the +populace of the original Turkish empire, looked upon their rulers as +their enemies, and upon the Russians as fellow-believers in the same +religion. Turkey at that time could not raise another army. + +And just then France was laboring with her great event, England was +carrying a load in her public debts, while Prussia and Austria had +attached themselves more intimately than ever before to Russia, +compelled to do so by the conditions of Western Europe. + +Foreign armies had brought the empire to the brink of destruction; a +foreign army had saved it. For this reason the Turks wished above +everything else to possess an army of their own of seventy thousand +regular troops. The inadequacy of this force for the protection of the +extensive possessions of the Porte is apparent after one glance at the +map. The very dimensions preclude the concentration of the troops, +scattered through so many places, when one particular spot is in +danger. The soldiers in Bagdad are 1,600 miles distant from those at +Ushkodra in Albania. + +This shows the great importance of establishing in the Ottoman Empire +a well arranged system of militia. It presupposes, of course, that the +interests of those who rule and those who are ruled are not at +variance. + +The present Turkish army is a new structure on an old and battered +foundation. At present the Porte would have to look for its safety to +its treaties rather than to its army; and the battles which will +decide the survival of this State may as well be fought in the +Ardennes or in the Waldai Mountains as in the Balkans. + +The Ottoman monarchy needs above everything else a well ordered +administration, for under present conditions it will scarcely be able +to support even this weak army of seventy thousand men. + +The impoverished condition of the country shows only too clearly in +the lessened income of the State. In vain a number of indirect taxes +have been introduced. A kind of tax on meat and meal is levied in a +very primitive way on the street corners of the capital. The fishermen +pay 20 per cent, of the catch in their nets. Weights and measures must +be stamped anew every year; and all products of industry, from +silverware and shawls to shoes and shirts, are stamped with the +imperial seal. But the proceeds from these taxes are enriching only +those who collect them. The riches melt before the avaricious eye of +the administration, and the ruler of the most beautiful lands in three +continents is drawing water with the leaky pots of the daughters of +Danaus. + +For the payment of its necessities the government must rely on the +confiscation of property, as it passes to new heirs or outright, on +the sale of offices, and finally on presents and the miserable means +of adulterating the currency. + +In regard to the confiscation of money inherited by State officials, +the present Sultan has declared that he will do without it. This +edict, however, instead of abolishing the practice, acknowledges the +correctness of the principle. Formerly the edicts of confiscation were +accompanied by the death warrants of those who were to be robbed. +Today there are gentler means in use for relieving people of the +surplus of their wealth. + +The sale of offices continues to be the chief source of income of the +State. The candidates borrow the money at a high rate of interest from +some Armenian business house, while the government permits these +"lease-holders" to recoup themselves by the exploitation of their +provinces to whatever extent they wish. Withal, they must fear either +a higher bidder, who leaves them no time to get rich, or the State, if +they happen to have grown rich. The provinces know beforehand that the +new pasha has come to rob them. They, therefore, prepare themselves. +Interviews are held, and if no agreement is reached, war is waged, or +if an agreement is broken a revolution takes place. As soon as the +pasha has settled with the _Agas_, he stands in fear of the Porte. He, +therefore, combines with other pashas for mutual protection, and the +Sultan must negotiate with the future neighbors of a new pasha before +he can appoint him. In a very few _pashaliks_, to be sure, the +beginning of a better order of things has been made, the +administrative and military powers have been separated, and the +taxpayers themselves have agreed to higher taxes, provided they are +permitted to pay them directly into the State treasury. + +Presents are as customary here as everywhere in the Orient. Without a +present the man of lower station is not permitted to approach his +superior. If you ask justice of a judge you must take him a gift. +Officials and officers in the army are given tips, but the man who +receives most presents is the Sultan himself. The expedient of +adulterating the currency has been used to the point of exhaustion. +Twelve years ago the Spanish dollar was worth seven piasters; today it +is bought for twenty-one. The man who then possessed one hundred +thousand dollars has discovered that today he has only thirty-three +thousand. This calamity has hit Turkey worse than it would have +affected any other country, because very little money is here invested +in land, and most fortunes consist of cash capital. In the civilized +countries of Europe a fortune is the result of having created +something of real worth. The man who wins his wealth in this way is +increasing at the same time the wealth of his State. His money merely +represents the abundance of goods at his disposal. In Turkey the coin +itself is the thing of value, and wealth is nothing but the accidental +accumulation of money within the possession of an individual. The very +high rate of interest, which is here legally 20 per cent, is far from +indicating any great activity of capital. It only indicates the great +danger of letting money out of one's immediate possession. The +criterion of wealth is the ease of its removal. The _Rajah_ will +probably buy jewelry for one hundred thousand piasters in preference +to investing his money in a factory, a mill, or a farm. Nowhere is +jewelry better liked than here, and the jewels which, in rich +families, even children of tender years are wearing are a glaring +proof of the poverty of the country. + +If it is one of the first duties of every government to create +confidence, the Turkish administration leaves this task entirely +unperformed. Its treatment of the Greeks, its unjust and cruel +persecution of the Armenians, those faithful and rich subjects of the +Porte, and other violent measures, are so fresh in everyone's memory +that no one is willing to invest his money where it will pay interest +only after many years. In a country where industry is without the +element on which it thrives, commerce also must largely consist of the +exchange of foreign merchandise for raw home products. The Turk +actually gives ten _occas_ of his raw silk for one _occa_ of +fabricated silk, the material for which is produced on his own soil. + +Agriculture is even in a worse state. One often hears the complaint +that the cost of all the necessities of life has increased in +Constantinople fourfold since the annihilation of the Janizaries, as +if heaven had decreed this punishment on those who exterminated the +"soldiers of Islam." The fact, while true, should probably be +explained differently, for, since the events referred to, the great +granaries of the capital, Moldavia, Wallachia, and Egypt, which +formerly had to send half of their harvests to the Bosphorus, have +been closed. In the interior nobody will undertake the growing of +grain on a large scale, because the government makes its purchases +according to prices of its own choosing. The forced purchases by the +government are a greater evil for Turkey than her losses by fire and +the plague combined. They not only undermine prosperity, but they also +cause its springs to dry up. As a result the government must buy its +grain in Odessa, while endless stretches of fertile land, under a most +benignant sky and at only an hour's distance from a city of eight +hundred thousand people, lie untilled. + +The outer members of this once powerful political body have died, and +the heart alone has life. A riot in the streets of the capital may be +the funeral procession of the Ottoman Empire. The future will show +whether it is possible for a State to pause in the middle of its fall +and to reorganize itself, or whether fate has decreed that the +Mohammedan-Byzantine Empire shall die, like the Christian-Byzantine +Empire, of its fiscal administration. The peace of Europe, however, is +apparently less menaced by the danger of a foreign conquest of Turkey +than by the extreme weakness of this empire, and its threatened +collapse within itself. + + + + +A TRIP TO BRUSSA + +TRANSLATED BY EDMUND VON MACH, PH.D. + + +[This is the fourteenth of the Letters Concerning Conditions and +Events in Turkey. It is dated from Pera, June 16, 1836.] + +Yesterday I returned from a short excursion to Asia, which I really +should describe for you in poetry, because I ascended Mount Olympus. +But since I did not reach the summit, and did not climb farther than +the foot, or more properly speaking the toe, of the giant you will get +off with prose. + +I embarked on the eleventh, in the afternoon, in a small Turkish +vessel, and a fresh north wind carried us in four hours to the rocky +promontory of Posidonium (today Bosburun, the point of ice), a +distance of eight miles. Here the sea was running very high, and our +_reis_, or helmsman, who was squatting on the high and delicately +carved stern of the ship, was beginning to chant his _Allah +ekber_--God is merciful--when the wind died down so completely toward +dusk that we did not reach Mudania before eight o'clock next morning. + +The horses were soon ready, and up to Brussa I passed through a +country that was doubly charming after the lonesomeness of Roumelia, +which had been all I had seen for six months. Everything is under +cultivation, planted less with corn than with vines and mulberry +trees. The latter, which serve as food for the silkworms, are trimmed +low like bushes, with the crowns cut off, as we do with willows. Their +large bright green leaves cover the fields far and wide. The olive +trees grow here in groves of no mean size, but they have to be +planted. The whole richly cultivated country reminds one of Lombardy, +especially of the hilly landscape near Verona The distant view is as +magnificent as the foreground is lovely. On one side you see the Sea +of Marmora and the Princess Islands, and on the other the glorious +Mount Olympus, whose snow-clad peak rises above a broad girdle of +clouds. The flowering vineyards filled the air with rich scent, +assisted by caprifolium blossoms in luxuriant growth, and a yellow +flower the name of which I do not know. + +When we had crossed a ridge of low hills, we saw Brussa stretched out +before us in a green plain at the foot of Mt. Olympus. It is indeed +difficult to decide which one of the two capitals of the Ottoman +rulers is more beautifully situated, the oldest or the newest, Brussa +or Constantinople. Here the sea and there the land bewitches you. One +landscape is executed in blue, the other in green. Relieved against +the steep and wooded slopes of Mt. Olympus, you see more than one +hundred white minarets and vaulted domes. + +The mountain rises to the regions of almost perpetual snow, and +supplies the inhabitants of Brussa with wood to warm themselves in +winter and with ice for their sherbet in summer. A river, called +Lotos, winds its course through rich meadows and fields of mulberry +trees, where giant nut trees with dark foliage and light green planes, +white minarets and dark cypress trees rise to the sky. Vines climb up +the mighty trunks and attach themselves to the branches, whence they +droop again to earth, while Caprifolium plants and thriving creepers +superimpose themselves on the vines. Nowhere have I seen such a wide +and thoroughly green landscape, except from the tower of Luebbenau, +overlooking the woods along the Spree. But here you have in addition +the richer vegetation and the glorious mountains which surround the +plain. The abundance of water is surprising; everywhere brooks are +rushing along and springs are gushing from the rocks, ice cold and +boiling hot, side by side. In every part of the city, even in the +mosques, water is bubbling from countless fountains. + +As is the case with all Turkish cities, the beautiful picture vanishes +the moment you enter Brussa. The smallest German town surpasses +Constantinople, Adrianople, or Brussa in the charm of its buildings +and still more in comfort. Only the mosques and the _Hanns_, or +caravansaries, the fountains and public baths are magnificent. In the +earlier times of the Ottoman monarchy no ruler was permitted to build +a mosque before he had won a battle against the infidels. The mosques +in Brussa are smaller and less beautiful than those which were built +later, but they possess the added interest of historical memories. +There you find such names as Orchan, Suliman, Murad, in short, all the +heroes of the victorious period of Islam. + +The mosque of Bajasid attracted me most because of its excellent +architecture. Bajasid is the man whom the Turks call Ilderim, or the +Lightning. The monument of the mighty conqueror, who himself was +conquered and died in a cage according to the legend, stands alone in +the shadow of mighty cypress trees. The largest of the mosques used to +be a Christian cathedral. It is lighted from above, the middle vault +having been left open. The beautiful Asiatic starry sky itself has +become its vault. The opening is covered with a wire screen, and below +it in a wide basin a fountain is playing. + +I will not say that even the largest mosques, the Sultan Selim, for +instance, in Adrianople, or Sulamanich in Constantinople, make the +same impression or inspire the same reverence as St. Stephan's in +Vienna, or the cathedrals of Freiburg and Strassburg. But every +mosque, even the smallest, is beautiful. There is nothing more +picturesque than the semi-circular, lead-covered domes and the +slender, white minarets rising above the mighty planes and cypresses. +When the Ottomans conquered the provinces of the Eastern Roman Empire +they preserved the Greek Church architecture, but they added the +minarets, which are of Arabian origin. + +[Illustration: COUNT MOLTKE] + +The _Hanns_ are the only stone dwelling-houses to be found. They are +built in the shape of rectangles with an open court. Here, at least in +the larger ones, you will find a mosque, a fountain, a small kiosk for +noble travelers, and a few mulberry trees or plane trees. All about +the court there is a colonnade with pointed arches; and, beyond that, +rows of cells, each one with its individual vault. A mattress of straw +is the only furniture for the traveler, who finds neither service nor +food in these _Hanns_. + +We dined in thoroughly Turkish fashion at the _Kiebabtshi_. After our +hands had been washed we sat down, not at but on the table, where my +legs were terribly in the way. Then the _Kiebab_, or small piece of +mutton, broiled on the spit and rolled in dough, was served on a +wooden platter. It is very good and tasty. It was followed by salted +olives, which are wonderful, by the _helva_, i. e., the favorite sweet +dish, and by a bowl of sherbet. This consists of water poured over +grapes and thoroughly iced. The whole dinner for two hearty eaters +cost one hundred and twenty paras, or five shillings. + +The comforts of the Turkish baths I have described to you in an +earlier letter. The baths of Brussa are distinguished, because they +are not artificially but naturally heated, and so much so that you +would not think it possible, at first, to enter the great basin of +clear water without being parboiled before you could leave it again. +From the terrace of our bath we had a beautiful view, and it was so +comfortable there that we hated to leave. + +On the thirteenth we rode to Kemlik, at the end of the Bay of Mudania, +where there is a dockyard. This is the most beautiful spot I have +seen. The clear surface of the sea is lost here between the high and +steep mountains, which leave just enough space for the little town and +the olive woods. Twilight is very brief in this country, and night had +come when we reached the town gate, but what a night! Although the +moon happened to be new, objects were distinguishable at a +considerable distance, while the evening star shines here so brightly +that shadows are cast by its light. + +At three o'clock in the morning we were again in the saddle, riding +toward the East through a valley and between high mountains, along the +same road which Walther von Habenichts once followed with his twelve +thousand crusaders. The hills were covered with olive trees and +flowering bushes filled with nightingales. At sunset we reached the +extensive lake of Isnik. The gigantic walls and towers on the opposite +shore used to protect a powerful city, for which the crusaders often +fought. Today they surround the few miserable huts and rubbish heaps +which centuries ago were Nicea. It was here that an assembly of one +hundred learned bishops expounded the mystery of the Trinity, and +decided to burn all who held a different view. What would these proud +prelates have said if a man had prophesied to them that the time would +come when their rich and mighty city would be a rubbish heap, and +their cathedral the ruins of a Turkish mosque; when the empire of the +Greek emperors would be destroyed, and their own exegesis, yes, even +their entire religion, would have disappeared from these parts, and +when for hundreds of miles and through hundreds of years the name of +the camel-driver of Medina would be the only one in the mouths of the +people. + +The Moslems, who abhor all pictures, have covered with whitewash the +paintings in the Greek churches. In the Cathedral of Nicea, where the +famous council was held, there glistens even today through the white +coating of the wall, where the high altar used to be, the proud +promise, I.H.S. (_in hoc signo_, i. e., under this sign, the cross, +you will win). But directly over it is written the first dogma of +Islam, "There is no God but God." There is a lesson of tolerance in +these faded inscriptions, and it seems as if Heaven itself wished to +listen as well to the _Credo_ as to the _Allah il allah_. One of the +chief pursuits of the honest Turks is what they call _Kief etmek_, +literally "creating a mood." It consists of drinking coffee in a +comfortable place and smoking. Such a place _par excellence_ I found +in the village where we made a stop. Imagine a plane which extends its +colossal branches horizontally for almost one hundred feet, burying in +its deep shadow the nearest houses. The trunk of the tree is +surrounded by a small terrace of stone, below which water is gushing +from twenty-seven pipes in streams as thick as your arm, and rushing +off as a lively brook. Here, with their legs crossed, the Turks sit, +practising--silence. + + + + +A JOURNEY TO MOSSUL + +TRANSLATED BY EDMUND VON MACH, PH.D. + + +[This is the forty-third letter of Moltke's Letters from Turkey, and +is dated from Dshesireh on the Tigris, May 1, 1838.] + +I told you in my last letter that we should be going on an expedition +against the Arabs. This did not materialize. Nevertheless, I had the +opportunity of making the acquaintance of a very interesting part of +the country. On April 15, von Muehlbach, I, and two fully armed _agas_ +of the pasha, together with our servants and dragomans, embarked on a +vessel built in a style well known even in the times of Cyrus, a raft +supported by inflated sheep-skins. The Turks look upon hunting as a +sin, they despise venison and beef, but eat an enormous quantity of +sheep and goats. The skins of these animals are cut in front as little +as possible and removed from the carcass with great care. Then they +are sewed up and the extremities tied up. When the skin is inflated +(which is done quickly and without touching the skin to the mouth) it +is exceedingly buoyant and can hardly be made to sink. From forty to +sixty such bags are tied together in four or five rows under a light +framework of branches. There generally are eight skins in front and +eighteen in the back. The whole is covered with a litter of leaves +over which rugs and carpets are spread. Taking your seat on these you +glide downstream with utmost comfort. Because the current is swift, +oars are not needed for progress, but only for steering the raft, +keeping it in the middle of the course, and avoiding the dangerous +rapids. On account of these rapids we had to tie up every night +until the moon was up, but in spite of this we covered the distance, +which by land would have taken us eighty-eight hours, in three and +one-half days. The river, therefore, must flow with an average +velocity of almost four miles per hour. In places it is much swifter, +and in others decidedly slower. + +The Tigris leaves the mountains near Argana-Maaden, and flows past the +walls of Diarbekir, where it is apt to cause slight inundations in +summer time. It then receives the Battman river flowing in a southerly +direction from the high Karsann-Mountains and carrying more water into +the Tigris than this river contained before. Immediately after the +union of these two rivers the Tigris enters another mountainous +territory formed of sandstone. The gentle curves of the broad and +shallow river are transformed into the sharp criss-cross angles of a +ravine. The banks are abrupt, often vertical on both sides; and on top +of some steep, rocky slopes your eye may discover groves of dark-green +palms, and in their shadows the settlements of tribes of Kurds, who in +this region are mostly cave-dwellers. + +The town of Hassn-Kejfa (Hossu-Keifa), situated on a high rock whence +a narrow staircase descends to the river, offers a most unusual +aspect. The old city below has been destroyed, and only a few minarets +still pointing to the sky indicate that mosques and houses once stood +here. The inhabitants were obliged to retreat to the top of the cliff, +where they built a wall of defence on the only accessible side. In the +narrow ravine I discovered huge blocks which had rolled down from +above. People have hollowed them and are using them as dwelling +places. These "huts" today make up a small, very irregular town, +which, however, possesses even a bazaar. By far the most noteworthy +remains are the ruins of a bridge which used to cross the Tigris. +There was one gigantic arch with a span of between eighty and one +hundred feet. I do not know whether the credit for such a daring +structure should be given to the Armenian kings or the Greek +emperors, or perhaps even to the califs. + +It is impossible to travel more comfortably than we did. Stretched out +on downy pillows, and provided with victuals wine, tea, and a charcoal +basin, we moved down the stream with the rapidity of an express coach +and without the least exertion. But the element which propelled us +persecuted us in another form. Rain poured from the sky incessantly +after our departure from Diarbekir. Our umbrellas no longer protected +us, and our cloaks, garments and carpets were soaked. On Easter day, +just as we were leaving Dshesireh, the sun broke through the clouds, +warming our stiffened limbs. About two miles below the city the ruins +of another bridge across the Tigris are still in existence, and one of +its piers creates a fierce whirlpool whenever the water is high. The +exertions of the men at the oars were of no avail, and irresistibly +our small ark was attracted by this charybdis. With the speed of an +arrow we were sucked down below the surface, and a big comber broke +over our heads. The water was icy cold, and when in the next moment +our raft, which had not capsized, continued its way downstream as +innocently as if nothing had happened we could not help laughing at +one another, for we were a sad looking sight, everyone of us. The +charcoal basins had gone overboard, a boot swam alongside, while each +one of us hastened to fish out some little object. We made a landing +on a small island, and since our bags were as thoroughly soaked as we +were ourselves, we had to disrobe and spread our entire toilet in the +sun to dry as well as possible. At some distance a flock of pelicans +were taking their rest on a sandbank and sunning their white plumage +as if in derision of our plight. Suddenly we saw that our raft had got +loose and was floating off. One of the _agas_ immediately jumped after +it and fortunately reached it. If he had failed we should have been +left on a desert island in nothing but nature's own garb. + +When we were tolerably dry we continued our journey, but renewed +downpours spoiled the moderate results of our previous efforts. The +night was so dark that we had to tie up, for fear of being drawn into +other whirlpools. In spite of the biting cold, and although we were +wet to the skin, we did not dare to light a fire which might have +attracted the Arabs. We silently pulled our raft into the shelter of a +willow tree and waited longingly for the sun to appear from behind the +Persian frontier mountains and to give us warmth. + +Not far from Dshesireh the Tigris enters another plain and leaves +behind the high and magnificent Dshudid mountains on whose bright and +snow-clad peaks Noah and his mixed company are said to have +disembarked. From here on the scenery is very monotonous; you rarely +see a village, and most of those you see are uninhabited and in ruins. +It is apparent that you have entered the country of the Arabs. There +are no trees, and where a small bush has survived it is a _siareth_ or +sanctuary, and is covered with countless small rags. The sick people +here, you must know, believe they will recover when they sacrifice to +the saint a small part of their garments. + +On the top of an isolated mountain of considerable height we could see +at a great distance the ruins of an old city. When we approached it we +actually passed along three sides of this mountain, on the north, east +and south. The city was, I suppose, the ancient Bezabde of which the +records say that it was situated in the desert and surrounded on three +sides by the Tigris. Sapor laid siege to it after he had taken Amida +and, when he had captured its three legions, gave it a Persian +garrison. + +Gliding past the ruins of the so-called old Mossul we discovered +toward evening the minarets of Mossul. This is the most easterly point +which I have visited, and my Turkish companions had to face west when +they offered their evening prayer, while in Constantinople the moslems +are looking for the _Kibla_ in the southeast. + +Mossul is the important half-way station for the caravans from Bagdad +to Aleppo. Being situated in an oasis of the desert the city must at +all times be on the lookout against the Arabs. The walls which +completely surround the city are weak but high, and offer sufficient +protection against the irregular bands of mounted Bedouins. The +Bab-el-amadi gate, mentioned in the time of the crusaders, is still +standing, although it has been walled up. Most of the dwellings are +built of sun-dried bricks and a kind of mortar which hardens within a +few seconds. Following an Oriental custom great weight is attached to +beautiful and large entrance doors (_Bab_). You can see arched portals +of marble (which is quarried immediately outside the city gates) in +front of houses and mudhuts the roofs of which scarcely reach to the +points of the arches. The roofs are flat, made of stamped earth +(_Dam_), and are surrounded by low walls and parapets. In most of the +larger houses you can see traces of their having been hit by bullets, +and the fortress-like aspect of these dwellings reminds you of the +palaces of Florence, except that here everything is smaller, humbler +and less perfect. + +The inhabitants of Mossul are a remarkable mixture of the original +Chaldean populace and the Arabs, Kurds, Persians and Turks who +successively have ruled over them. The common speech is Arabic. + +Indshe-Bairaktar, the governor, received us with great courtesy and +had us quartered with the Armenian Patriarch. The Nestorian and +Jacobite Christians of Mossul have the most beautiful churches I have +seen in Turkey, but they are living in discord and hatred. One of +these churches happened to belong, I do not know why, to two +congregations, and since everything which the one did in these sacred +halls was an abomination in the eyes of the other, the beautiful vault +had been divided by a brick wall directly in the centre. + +Our Jacobite Patriarch was greatly troubled about having to house +heretics, but he much preferred us to Nestorians or Greeks. Since no +Christians, moreover, had ever been received with so much honor by +the Pasha, and the most important Mussulmans came to pay us their +respects, he treated us well, and even sold me a Bible in Arabic and +Syrian (Chaldean). + +In the northwesterly corner of the city the plateau falls off abruptly +toward the river. Here the water of the Tigris is raised by a +contrivance, which makes use of a high kind of derrick, leathern hose, +and a rope which is pulled by a horse. The long nozzle of the hose +empties into huge brick basins whence the water is distributed over +fields and gardens. But only the empty areas within the walls and the +fields adjacent to the city are cultivated. If only a fraction of all +the water rushing past Mossul could be used for irrigation purposes +this whole country would be one of the most fertile of the world. This +idea undoubtedly induced the people ages ago to build the powerful +stone dikes which hem in the course of the river a few hours above the +city. Surely, it would not be difficult to irrigate all the fields +from there, but the Arabs hovering about the city make the harvesting +of the crops too uncertain. + +There is a bazaar especially for the Arabs immediately outside the +walls of Mossul, built there for the purpose of keeping these +suspicious characters from entering the city proper. Over the +confusion of many small mud-huts some slender palm trees rise to +majestic heights, the last ones of the desert. These palms are like +reeds grown to the proportions of trees. They are typical of the +south, and give confidence to the Arabs who seem to feel that they are +way up north and yet still in the land of the myrrh and the incense. +Here the children of the desert congregate and, pushing their +bamboo-spears into the sand--point down, squat on the ground to admire +the glory of a city--even though it be a city which affects the +European with the very opposite of glory, but which for hundreds of +miles has no equal. + +Perhaps no people have preserved their character, customs, morals, and +speech as unchanged through centuries as the Arabs, and have done so +in spite of the most manifold changes in the world at large. They were +nomads, shepherds and hunters roving over little-known deserts, while +Egypt and Assyria, Greece and Persia, Rome and Byzantium rose and +fell. And then, inspired by one idea, these same nomads suddenly rose +in their turn and for a long time became the masters of the most +beautiful valley of the old world, and were the bearers of the then +civilization and science. One hundred years after the death of the +Prophet, his first followers, the Sarazenes, ruled from the Himalayas +to the Pyrenees, and from the Indies to the Atlantic Ocean. But +Christianity and its higher spiritual and material perfection, yes +even its intolerance, which its high morality should have made +impossible, drove the Arabs back again from Europe. The rude force of +the Turks undermined their rule in the Orient, and for the second time +the children of Ishmael saw themselves driven out into the desert. + +Those Arabs who had reached a higher state of culture, and had settled +down to the pursuit of agriculture, commerce, or industry, had to sink +the lower before the oppression of a rule of iron. The artificial +dealings of a government trying to imitate European methods, and the +assistance of the Franks, the introduction of the census and of taxes, +of duties and monopolies, standing armies and conscriptions, the +barter of offices and the leasing of custom houses, slavery and the +vices of the east, together with the energy, indomitable will and +marvelous luck of Mehmet Ali, all combined in one grand achievement--I +mean the monumental tyranny, never yet equalled, under which the +fellahs today are groaning in Egypt and the Arabs in Syria, and under +which a whole country has been transformed into a private domain, and +a whole people into personal slaves. + +By far the greater part of the Arabic nation, however, had remained +true to its old customs, and no despotism could get hold of them. The +extent of the Asiatic and African deserts, their fiery sky and parched +soil, and the poverty of the inhabitants have ever been the +protection of the Arabs. The rule of the Persians, the Romans, and the +Greeks was never more than partial, and often existed only in name. +The Bedouin today, like his fathers of old, is still living the life +of want, care, and independence, roving through the same steppes as +they, and watering his herds from the same wells as they did in the +time of Moses or of Mahomet. + +The oldest descriptions of the Arabs fit the Bedouins of our day. +Unquenchable feuds are still dividing the several tribes, the +possession of a pasturing place or of a well still determines the +welfare of many families, and blood-feuds and hospitality still are +the vices and virtues of this people of nature. Wherever along their +frontiers the Arabs come in contact with foreign nations war is the +result. The children of Abraham divided among themselves the rich and +fertile countries, while Ishmael and his tribe were cast out into the +desert. Shut off from all the other people the Arabs consider +foreigners and foes to be identical and, unable to procure for +themselves the products of industry, they believe they are justified +in appropriating them wherever they find them. + +The pashas of the frontier provinces repay these constant depredations +with repressive measures on a big scale and are not concerned about +the individuals who are made to suffer. When they saunter forth with a +few regiments of regular cavalry and a field gun they are sure to +scatter even the biggest _ashiret_ or encampment. The Arab does not +like to stand his ground against gun-fire and never resists an +artillery-attack which he cannot of course return. He does not fear so +much for his own life, as for that of his horse, for a full blooded +mare often makes up the whole wealth of three or four families. Woe to +the horse which with us is owned by three or four masters. With the +Arabs it has as many friends to take care of it. + +When the Turks succeed in surprising an _ashiret_ they take away the +herds of sheep and goats, a few camels, and possibly some hostages +whom they keep in miserable bondage. In a small hut or stable of the +serail of Orfa I found nine old men. A heavy chain attached to rings +around their necks fastened the one to the other, and twice daily they +were driven to the watering trough just like cattle. The Turks had +demanded of their tribe the exorbitant ransom of 150,000 piasters, of +which one third had actually been offered. When I saw the old men, +there was little chance of their ever being ransomed at all. The +pasha, however, promised me that he would set them free. I do not know +whether he kept his word. + +Such examples do not deter the Arabs, and, as far as their horses are +able to go, no settlement can endure. The entire southern slope of the +Taurus, the ancient Oszoene, is dotted with indications of their +devastation. Here wonderful brooks are flowing from the mountains, and +a superabundant supply of water, a hot and ever bright sky, and a most +fertile soil have combined in creating a paradise, if only men would +not always destroy it. Snow is unknown here, and olive-trees, vines, +mulberry trees, palms and pomegranate trees spring up wherever you +guide a stream of water, however small, while the yield of grain, +rice, and cotton is phenomenal. But of Karrat, now Harran, the seat of +Abraham, only a mound of earth and a few crumbled walls remain. Dara, +the magnificent creation of Justinian, lies in ruins, and on the site +of Nisibin, which had been completely destroyed, Hafiss-Pasha has +built only recently some new cavalry barracks, under whose protection +the city and the surrounding villages have taken a new lease of life. +Orfa and Mossul finally, the only large cities, appear like outposts +of Mesopotamia. + +In their robber-expeditions the Arabs have the hope of booty before +them and behind them the assurance of a safe retreat. They alone know +the pasturing grounds and the hidden wells of the desert, they alone +can live in these regions, and do so by the help of the camel. This +animal, which can carry a load of from five hundred to six hundred +pounds, takes all their property, their wives, children, and old men, +their tents, provisions and water from one place to another. It can +make six, eight, even ten days' marches without drinking, and a fifth +stomach keeps a final draft in reserve in case of greatest need. Its +hair is made into garments and cloth for the tents; its urine yields +salt, its droppings are used for fuel and, in caves, are transformed +into saltpeter from which the Arabs make their own gunpowder. The milk +of the camel serves as food not only for the children, but also for +the colts, which grow thin but strong like our horses when they are in +training. Camel meat is tasty and wholesome, and even the skin and the +bones of a camel are good for something. The most wretched feed, dry +grass, thistles and brambles, satisfies this patient, strong, helpless +and most useful of all animals. Next to the camels, which even the +poorest Arab owns in almost incredible numbers, the horses represent +the chief wealth of these children of the desert. It is well known +that these animals grow up in the tents together with the children of +the family with whom they share food, deprivations and hardships, and +that the birth of a colt of fine lineage marks a day of joy in the +whole _ashiret_. + +In Europe the Arabian horses are classified according to an erroneous +and incomplete system. I am thinking especially of their division into +_Kohilans_ and _Nedshdis_. This latter name designates the numerous +tribe of Arabs inhabiting the high plateau of the interior of Arabia, +and breeding, it is true, excellent horses. But just as little as +every Arabian horse is full blooded, just as little every _Nedshdi_ is +a _Kohilan_. This is the whole matter: _Kohilan_ was the favorite +horse of Hasaret-Suleiman-Peigamber (His Highness Solomon the +Prophet). It is, moreover, true and no legend that the better horses +receive at birth their family-tree, in which their parents, and often +their grandfathers, are mentioned, and which they carry through life, +generally in a triangular capsule, by a string around their neck. In +the course of centuries several of Kohilan's descendants have so +greatly distinguished themselves that they have become sires of note +in their own name. Among the most notable descendants of Kohilan I +heard mentioned the colts of Meneghi, and next of Terafi, Djelevi, +Sakali, and many more. Mahomet himself rode a Kohilan of the family of +Meneghi on his flight from Medina. You understand, therefore, that not +every Nedshdi has to be full-blooded, and that a Kohilan may be as +well an Aenesi or Shamarly as a Nedshdi. + +The Arabs of the race of Shamarr who camp in the country between +the two rivers, and who can muster ten thousand mounted men, had +recently been guilty of many robberies, and had refused to +recognize the new sheikh whom the Porte had appointed over them. +Hafiss-Pasha, therefore, decided to give them a most thorough +chastisement. The pashas of Orfa and of Mardin were to march +against them, and he wanted to have the pasha of Mossul, who is +not under his jurisdiction, do the same. If this had been done, +the Arabs would have been forced back against the Euphrates, +beyond which the Aenesi Arabs live who are hostile to them. But +Indshe-Bairaktar did not fancy an expedition which was expensive +and promised little booty. When finally definite orders came from +the Bagdad-Valesi, the other pashas had already scared away the +enemy, who had disappeared into unknown regions. + +After a brief and interesting sojourn, therefore, we decided to return +through the desert with a caravan which was on the point of starting. +Since the Arabs had been greatly incensed by the recent attacks, the +expedition was increased by forty horsemen. We joined it toward +evening in its encampment, about two hours from Mossul, near the +Tigris where everybody wished to have one more last good fill of +water. The _Kyerwan-Bashi,_ or leader of the caravan, whom the pasha +had notified of our arrival, at once made his appearance and had his +tent made ready for us. He also presented us with a goat for supper. + +For five days we traversed the _Tsull,_ or desert of northern +Mesopotamia, without seeing any human habitations. You must not think +of this desert as a sea of sand, but as an interminable green plain +with only occasional, very slight undulations. The Arabs call it +_Bahr,_ the sea, and the caravans proceed in an absolutely straight +line, taking their direction from artificial mounts which rise above +the plain like prehistoric graves. They indicate that once upon a time +a village existed here, and that, therefore, a well or a spring must +be nearby. But the mounts often are six, ten or even twelve hours +distant the one from the other. The villages have disappeared, the +wells have gone dry, and the rivulets are bitterly salt. A few weeks +later this green plain which now is nourished by copious daily dews +will be a wild waste parched by the sun. The luxuriant growth of grass +which today reaches to our stirrups will be withered and every +water-course run dry. Then it will be necessary to follow the Tigris +in a wide detour, and none but the ships of the desert, the camels, +will be able to traverse this plain, and they only by night. + +Our caravan consists of six hundred camels and four hundred mules. The +big bags carried by the former contain almost exclusively palm-nuts +for the dye houses of Aleppo, and cotton. The more valuable part of +the freight, silk from Bagdad and shawls from Persia, pearls from +Bassora, and good silver money which in Constantinople will be +recoined into bad piasters, is small in proportion to the bulk +carried. + +The camels go in strings of from ten to twenty, one behind the other. +The owner rides ahead on a small donkey, and although his stirrups are +short his feet almost touch the ground. He is continually shoving his +pointed slippers into the flanks of his poor beast and placidly +smoking his pipe. His servants are on foot. Unless the donkey leads, +the camels refuse to stir. With long thoughtful strides they move +along, reaching the while with their thin restless necks for thistles +or thorns by the roadside. The mules are walking at a brisk pace. +They are decorated with little bells and beautiful halters gaily set +with shells. + +When the caravan has come to the place where the night is to be spent, +the _Kjerwan-Bashi_ canters ahead and designates the exact spot for +the camp. The beasts of burden are unloaded as they arrive, and the +huge bags are placed together as a kind of fortification in the shape +of a quadrangle, within which each one prepares himself a place of +rest. Our tent, which was the only one in the caravan, stood outside +and was given a special guard of _Bashi-Bazouks_. The camels and mules +were turned loose in the high grass where they were expected to look +also for all the water they needed. + +As soon as it grows dark the camels, which have roved often at half an +hour's distance, are collected. The leaders call to them, and since +each one knows his master's poah! poah! they obediently come home. +They are arranged in rows within the quadrangle. The smallest boy can +control these big, strong, yet harmless and helpless animals. He +calls: Krr! krr! and the huge beasts patiently sink to their knees. +Then they fold their hind legs, and after a series of strange, +undulating movements all are lying in regular rows, moving their long +necks in every direction and looking about. I have always noticed the +resemblance of a camel's neck with that of an ostrich, and the Turks +call these birds _deve-kush_, the camel-birds. A thin cord is then +tied around one bent knee of each camel. If it should rise it would +have to stand on three legs, and would be unable to move. + +On this evening we were visited by several friendly Arabs, short and +thin, but strong and sinewy people. Their complexion was +yellowish-brown, their eyes were small and vivacious. An assumed +dignity barely disguised their native vivacity, and their guttural +speech reminded us very strongly of the Jews. Their dress consisted of +a rough cotton shirt, a white woolen cloak and a red and yellow +kerchief, half-silk, which each man had fastened about his head +with a string, just as you see it on the Egyptian statues. + +[Illustration: MOLTKE AT SEDAN ANTON VON WERNER] + +Hunting-in the _Tshull_ is highly successful. There are countless +gazelles, pheasants and partridges hiding in the tall grass. On the +third day we were just on the point of following some bustards, which +clumsily rise on their wings and after some time descend again to the +ground, when a general alarm arose in the caravan. "The Arabs are +coming!" was shouted everywhere. A throng had been noticed in the +distance approaching very rapidly. The head of our column stopped, but +since our whole caravan was stretched out to the length of +approximately four miles, there was little hope of protecting it with +a guard of some sixty armed men. The horsemen galloped ahead to an +artificial mount, where the Arabs were pointed out to me. There were +indeed numerous black spots moving rapidly through the plain, but +since I had a small telescope with me I could quickly convince my +companions that what we saw before us was nothing but a huge herd of +wild boars bearing down upon us. Soon the beasts could be recognized +with the naked eye. + +Tonight the _Kjerwan-Bashi_ told me a characteristic story of an Arab +which I had heard before in Orfa. + +A Turkish general of cavalry, Dano-Pasha at Mardin, had been +negotiating for some time with an Arab tribe concerning the purchase +of a full-blooded mare of the Meneghi breed. Finally a price of sixty +bags or almost fifteen hundred dollars was agreed upon. At the +appointed hour the sheikh of the tribe arrives with his mare in the +courtyard of the pasha. The latter is still trying to bargain, when +the sheikh proudly replies that he will not take one _para_ less. The +Turk sulkily throws him the money saying that thirty thousand piasters +are an unheard of price for a horse. The Arab looks at him in silence, +and ties the money very complacently in his cloak. Then he descends to +the courtyard to take leave of his mare. He mutters some Arabic words +in her ear, strokes her eyes and forehead, examines her hoofs, and +walks all around her, carefully studying the attentive horse. Suddenly +he jumps on her bare back, and, in the same instant, off she shoots +like a dart out of the courtyard. + +In this country the horses generally stand ready with their _palans_ +or felt saddles on, day and night. Every distinguished man has at +least one or two horses in his stable ready to be mounted as soon as +they have been bridled. The Arabs, however, ride without bridles. The +halter serves to check the horse, and a gentle tap with the open hand +on the neck makes it go to the right or the left. Not more than a few +seconds, therefore, elapsed before the _agas_ of the pasha were +mounted and in hot pursuit of the fugitive. + +The unshod hoofs of the Arabian mare had never yet trodden cobble +stones, and very carefully she picked her way while she hastened down +the steep, uneven road leading from the castle. The Turks, on the +other hand, galloped over the steep descent with its loose pebbles +just as we often gallop up a sandy slope. Thin, circular shoes, forged +cold, kept all harm from the feet of their horses, which were +accustomed to such trips and made no false steps. + +Where the village ends the _agas_ have almost caught up with the +sheikh, but now they are in the plain, the Arabian mare is in her +element, off she darts, straight ahead, for here there are neither +ditches nor fences, neither rivers nor mountains to delay her course. +Like a clever jockey who leads a race, the Arab wishes to ride as +slowly and not as quickly as possible. Constantly looking back at his +pursuers, he keeps out of gunshot. When they approach he pushes on; +when they fall behind, he slows the pace of his horse; when they stop, +he walks his mare. Thus the chase continues till the fiery orb of the +sun verges toward the horizon. Then for the first time the Arab +demands of his horse every ounce of her strength. Crouching over her +neck he drives his heels into her flanks, and with a loud "Jellah!" is +gone. The sod resounds under powerful hoof-beats, and soon only a +cloud of dust indicates to his pursuers the course he has taken. + +Here where the sun descends to the horizon almost in a vertical line +the twilight is exceedingly brief and soon dark night had swallowed up +every trace of the fugitive. The Turks, without provision for +themselves or water for their horses, realized that they were some +twelve or fifteen hours away from home and in an unknown locality. +What could they do but return and bring to their irate master the +unwelcome news that both the horse and the rider with the money were +gone? Not until the third evening did they reach Mardin, half dead of +exhaustion and with horses hardly able to put one foot ahead of the +other. Their only consolation was that here there was another instance +of Arabian perfidy for them to revile. The traitor's horse, to be +sure, they were obliged to praise, and they had to confess that such +an animal could hardly be paid for too dearly. + +Next day, just when the _Imam_ is calling to morning prayer, the pasha +hears hoofbeats under his window, and into the courtyard the sheikh is +riding entirely unabashed. "Sidi," he calls up, "Sir, do you want your +money or my horse?" + +Somewhat less quickly than the Arab had ridden we reached on the fifth +day the foot of the mountain and near a clear rivulet the large +village of Tillaja (Tshilaga), doubtless the ancient Tilsaphata, where +the starving army of Jovian on its retreat from Persia to Nisibin +found its first provisions. There I learned that on that very morning +Mehmet-Pasha had started with an army on an expedition against the +Kurds in the north. I at once decided to join him and, leaving the +caravan, arrived at his camp that same evening. There I was told that +Hafiss-Pasha had sent a guard of fifty horsemen to meet us, whom we +had missed, because they had looked for us in the direction of +Sindjar. + + + +A BULLFIGHT IN SPAIN + +TRANSLATED BY EDMUND VON MACH, PH.D. + + +[From a letter written by Moltke to his brother Fritz and dated +October 28, 1846.] + +My most interesting experience was a bullfight. At three in the +afternoon my Frenchman and I betook ourselves to the circular arena +where twelve thousand people were assembled to watch the _Corrida de +Toros_. There are about twenty stone steps on which the people take +their places, just as in the ancient amphitheatres, and on top there +are two tiers of boxes, of which the one in the centre is reserved for +the queen. The arena proper where the fight is to take place is +perfectly empty, and is separated from the spectators by a barrier of +beams and planks seven feet in height. A small platform makes it +possible for those who fight on foot to vault safely from the arena +when they can avoid the bull in no other way. + +After some delay the gates opened and the _alguazil_, some kind of a +higher official clad in old-fashioned garb, rode in and announced that +the game was about to begin. He was everywhere greeted with hoots, +ridicule and disrespectful whistling; I do not know why. But he seemed +to know what to expect, for he apparently did not mind his reception +in the least. The Romans in the circus made sport of their consuls and +emperors, and the Spaniards at a bullfight are permitted an equal +latitude of behavior. + +Then the _chulos_ entered--on foot, with gay hangings draped over +their right arms. They were followed by six _picadores_ on horseback, +dressed in leather jerkins and breeches, protected on the right side +with bands of iron. They wore Spanish hats and carried each a heavy +spear on which there was an iron point only half an inch long. Their +saddles were of the high cowboy type, and they sat their horses well. +Under the accompaniment of deafening applause the _matador_ +(literally, the murderer) took his place at their head. His name was +Cuchiera, and he was a famous and celebrated hero of the arena. Thus +this phalanx advanced toward the royal box, where Queen Christine, +wife of Munoz, Duke of Rianzares, was seated, and dropped to their +knees to offer her the royal salute; whereupon twelve thousand people +hissed. + +At last the chief actor entered, a powerful black bull with sharp +horns and fiercely glistening eyes. He had been in a room with holes +in the ceiling through which he had been poked with pointed sticks. He +was, therefore, tolerably ill-humored before he entered the arena. As +soon as the doors of his prison were opened he shot forward to the +centre of the field, looked fiercely about him, greatly astonished, +pawed the sand with his feet, and then hurled himself upon the nearest +_picador_. This man held his ground, and permitted the maddened bull +to rush against his pointed spear. The horse had his right eye +bandaged lest he see the bull and bolt. The attack, however, was so +fierce, and the rider so firmly seated in his saddle, that both he and +his horse were lifted up and thrown over backwards. At the same moment +the sharp horns of the bull were fastened in the horse's belly. A +stream of blood, thick as your finger, spurted out directly from the +horse's heart. The _picador_ was lying under his charger, and was +prevented by his costume from freeing himself. His certain end was at +hand if the _chulos_ had not come to his assistance with their gay +draperies. The bull immediately let go his prey and hurled himself +upon the men on foot, or rather upon their gaudy cloaks. He chased one +the entire length of the arena and, when his foe had escaped him by +jumping the barrier, he made the stout fence tremble under his +hammering horns. At the disappearance of his enemy the bull stood +stock still, as if dumfounded, until a second _picador_ met his +glance. This horseman had the same experience as his predecessor, but +before the _chulos_ could bring help the bull buried his horns a +second time in the belly of the convulsed horse and carried it high up +in the air through half the length of the arena. The third horse was +ripped open in a trice. The wretched animal actually caught his feet +in his own entrails and dragged them from his body bit by bit. In this +condition he was beaten and given the spurs and was forced to await a +second attack by the infuriated bull. + +Since the bull each time had received a terrific thrust on his left +shoulder from the spear, he finally refused to charge another one of +the _picadores_. Their places, therefore, had to be taken by the +_banderilleros_. These gay-looking people are men on foot with arrows +two feet long, each with a hooked point. On the other end these arrows +are decorated with little flags, brass foil, tinsel, and even bird +cages whence gaily decked birds are permitted to escape. With these +arrows the _banderilleros_ walk right up to the bull, and, when he is +ready to charge, jump to one side and thrust their weapons deep into +his neck, halfway between his ears and his horns. Then the beast grows +altogether mad and furious, and often chases a whole band of _chulos_ +in wild flight over the barrier, which calls for noisy shouts of +ridicule from the crowd. Once the bull straddled the fence, and there +have been times when he has succeeded in scaling it. One of the +_chulos_ was so bold as to put his gaudy cloak over his shoulders, so +that the bull charged straight at him. But as the beast lowered his +head and threw himself forward with closed eyes, the man jumped over +him and stood by his side. + +When finally the rage of the bull is at its height, but his strength +is waning, the _matador_ faces him, all alone. At once a hush falls +over the spectators, who sit in rapt attention, for the _matador's_ +work is by far the most dangerous. + +He is a fine-looking man, in shoes and white stockings. His silk coat +and breeches are sky blue; his hair is tied in a net, in his left hand +he carries a small scarlet cloak, and in his right a diamond-shaped +blade of sharp Toledo steel, four feet in length. It is necessary to +drive this into the neck of the bull at a very definite point, for if +it hits him elsewhere he can shake it off and break it into splinters. +In order to hit the right spot the man must let the bull pass him at a +distance of only two or at best three inches. Everything is based on +the assumption that the bull will attack the red cloth rather than the +man, and will continue his course in an absolutely straight line. +There are exceptions, and then the _matador_ is lost. + +Very deliberately the _caballero_ walked up to his black antagonist +and shook his red cloth at him. Twice he let him pass under his arm. +At the third attempt he thrust his blade up to the hilt into the neck +of the beast. For another minute perhaps the bull rages, then he +begins to bleed from his mouth, he totters and then collapses. +Immediately a kind of hangman's assistant sneaks up from behind and +plunges a dagger into the neck of the bull, who expires on the spot. + +At this juncture five mules decorated with ribbons and tinkling bells +came trotting into the arena; they were hitched up to the horses and +then to the bull, and at a fast clip carried the corpses away. Some +sand was then sprinkled on the puddles of blood, and a new bull +brought out. In this way eight bulls were driven to death. Twenty +horses fell dead, while several more were led away mortally wounded. A +single bull killed eight horses. No men were seriously hurt. + +The horses, it is true, are of such a quality that, if they are not +killed today, they will be taken to the horse-butcher tomorrow. Good +horses would not only be too expensive, but they would also refuse to +await the attack of the bull without shying or offering resistance, +even if their right eyes were bandaged. The more horses the bull has +killed and the more dangerous to the men he has become, the louder is +the applause. One bull persistently refused to attack the _picadores_. +He ran up and down the arena, trembling with fear, while the crowd +shrieked curses and imprecations. At last they yelled: _Los perros_! +(the dogs!) When the dogs arrived in the arena they could hardly be +restrained. Madly they rushed upon the bull, who at once gored one of +them and tossed him high in the air. The others, however, fastened on +him, one of them seizing his tongue so firmly that he was swung high +up in the air and down again. You could have torn him to pieces before +he would have let go. Finally four dogs had the bull in a position +where he could not free himself, and the matador struck him down. + +While this butchery was at its height, the young queen with the +Infanta entered, accompanied by Don Francesco, her husband, and the +Duke of Montpensier. Aumale had arrived earlier. The queen looked very +happy and is by no means so ugly as the papers say. She is blonde, +rather stout, and not at all plain. The Infanta is small, extremely +dark and thin. The queen was greeted by the _matador_ just as her +mother had been, but by the spectators with much enthusiasm. When the +eighth bull was killed, it began to grow dark, but all the people +yelled "_un otro toro_," and the ninth bull was hunted down almost in +darkness--which is very dangerous for the _matador_. + +This, then, is the spectacle which the Spaniards love better than +anything else, which is watched by the tenderest of women, and which +brought a smile to the face of the Infanta, a recent bride. So far as +I am concerned, one bullfight was quite enough for me, and its +description, I fancy, will be enough for you. + + + + +DESCRIPTION OF MOSCOW[38] (1856) + +TRANSLATED BY GRACE BIGELOW + + +Thursday, August 28th + +The City of Moscow takes it for granted that the Emperor has not yet +arrived. A few assert that he has been since yesterday at the Castle +Petrofskoy, an hour's ride from here, where he is holding court and +reviewing a hundred thousand Guards; but that is his incognito; +officially, he is not yet here. + +The Holy City is preparing for the reception that is to take place +tomorrow. They are hammering and pounding in all the streets and on +all the squares. Most of the houses here stand alone, in the centre of +a garden or court. Large tribunes for spectators have been erected in +these spaces. In several of these I counted three thousand numbered +seats. Before the houses themselves, moreover, small platforms with +chairs have been erected, protected by linen awnings, decorated with +tapestries, carpets and flowers. There must be at least several +hundred thousand seats, so that there can be no crowd. Only those who +cannot pay the few kopecks,[39] the Tschornoi Narod, or "the black +brood of the people," will form the movable mass, and the police will +have to restrain them. + +All palaces and churches have laths nailed on their architectonic +lines, upon which the lamps for the festive illuminations are to be +fastened. The Giant Ivan, which will speak from the mouths of +twenty-five large bells, bears upon its golden dome a crown formed of +lamps, surmounted by the great glittering cross, which the French +pulled down with immense toil and danger, and which the Russians +victoriously reinstated. As an atonement for the offense, they laid +one thousand guns of the godless enemy at the feet of Ivan, where +Count Morny can see them to this day. + +Half of the population of the city are in the streets, looking about, +and they are allowed to go everywhere, even in the Kremlin. + +Every day six-and eight-horse teams, mostly dark gray and black, which +are going to convey the state coaches of the Empress and the +Grand-Duchesses, are going to and fro from the Kremlin to Petrofskoy. +Strangely enough, the outriders sit on the right front horses. An +equerry of the Guards walks by each horse and leads it by the bridle. +Yesterday their Excellencies carried a fearfully heavy canopy, +supported by thick gold posts, through the salons and over the stairs +of the palace. The aides-de-camp walk by the side of it, and balance +it by golden cords. + +The state coaches, most wonderful products of former centuries, have +been drawn out of their semi-obscurity in the Arsenal, where they have +rested twenty-eight years. The oldest are entirely without springs, +are suspended by leather straps six feet long over a tongue twenty +feet long and correspondingly thick, which is so bent that the coach +almost reaches the ground. Those of the Empresses are ornamented with +diamonds and jewels. It will hardly be possible to use the oldest. +There is, further, a kind of house on wheels, made of gold, velvet, +and crystal, which Peter the Great received as a present from England, +and compared to which a thirty-six pounder is but a child's toy. In +short, everything is life and activity here, in expectation of the +volleys of cannon which will announce tomorrow from the old gate +towers of the Kremlin the solemn entrance of the Czar. + +Yesterday the Emperor wished to ride through the camp of the Guards, +whom he has not seen since he ascended the throne, because, in +consequence of the war, they had been removed to Lithuania and Poland, +and are now encamped at an hour's distance on a vast plain. A solemn +mass, at which the Empress was also present, preceded this. We drove +out in complete gala dress through thick clouds of dust. The Emperor +rode with his suite. He looked very well on horseback. At this moment +it began to rain, and poured uninterruptedly. Fortunately we found +shelter under the open tent in which the altar was, and in which the +mass was said, or, rather, sung. All further inspection was +countermanded, and we returned home. + +In the evening I drove to Petrofskoy. It lies in the midst of a wood, +and has a very odd appearance. The castle proper is a three-storied +quadrangle with a green cupola. The entrances are supported by the +most singular bottle-shaped bulging columns, and the whole is +surrounded by a turreted wall, with battlements and loopholes. This +red-and white-painted fortress, the light of which radiates from the +high windows through the dark forest, recalls a fable of the _Arabian +Nights_. All monasteries and castles here are fortified. They were the +only points capable of holding out when the Golden Tribe rushed upon +them with twenty or thirty thousand horses, and devastated all that +flat country. Long after their yoke was broken, the Khans of Tartary +in the Crimea were formidable enemies. The watchmen from the highest +battlements of the Kremlin were continually observing the wide expanse +toward the south; and when the dust-clouds rose thence, and the great +bell (kolokol) of Ivan Welicki rang the alarm, every one fled behind +the walls of the Czar's palace or to the monasteries, upon whose walls +the infuriated horsemen struck and dashed in vain. The Christianity, +science, and culture of the Russian nation sought shelter in the +cloisters, and from them started afterward Russia's deliverance from +the domination of the Mongolians and Poles. + +Today there was again mass in the open air, and five battalions +received new flags, which in addition were blessed by the priests; +then the Metropolitan Archbishop walked the length of the front and +sprinkled the troops thoroughly with holy water; some of the men were +practically soaked to the skin. The Emperor and both Empresses not +only kissed the cross, but the archbishop's hand. Then the Emperor +passed the front of every battalion, and, with a true military +attitude, spoke a few words to the men, which were received with +endless applause. He was an excellent rider, and rode a well-trained +horse. Then he inspected the front of the whole camp--one and a half +German miles. There were seventy-four battalions, with eight hundred +men apiece--about sixty thousand men in all. They stood unarmed and in +caps, all of them old, bearded, and dark-faced. + +I care nothing for the deafening hurrahs that lasted two hours; but +these old, mustached men show how glad they are to see their Czar. + +The Emperor spoke to some of them. They answered their Batuschka +(little father) without embarrassment. In Russia the family is the +microcosm of the State. All power rests with the father. All theories +of representative government in Russia are pure nonsense. "How can +human statutes circumscribe the divine right of a father?" asks the +Russian. So that the unlimited power in the hands of the Emperor is +necessary and beneficial in a land where nothing is done that is not +ordered from above. + +Whoever should gaze, as I have done, on a warm, sunny day, upon the +city of Moscow for the first time from the height of the Kremlin would +certainly not think that he was in the same latitude in which the +reindeer graze in Siberia, and the dogs drag the sleighs over the ice +in Kamtchatka. Moscow reminds one of the South, but of something +strange never seen before. One seems to be transported to Ispahan, +Bagdad, or some other place--to the scene of the story of the +Sultaness Scheherezade. + +Although Moscow does not count more than three hundred thousand +inhabitants, it covers two square miles with its houses, gardens, +churches, and monasteries. In this flat region one can hardly see +beyond the extreme suburbs, and houses and trees extend to the +horizon. + +No city in the world, with the exception of Rome, has so many +churches as the holy Stolitza of Russia. It is affirmed that Moscow +boasts of forty times forty churches. Each one has at least five, and +several even sixteen, cupolas that are brilliantly painted, and +covered with colored glazed bricks, or richly silvered and gilded, +glittering in the blue atmosphere like the sun when it is half above +the horizon. Even the graceful towers, rising sometimes to +considerable heights from the immense mass of houses and gardens, are +similarly ornamented, and neither do the larger ones among the palaces +lack the addition of a cupola. + +The dwelling houses are almost always in gardens, and are distinctly +outlined against the dark background of trees by their white walls and +flat iron roofs painted light green or red. The oldest part alone, +close to the Kremlin--the Kitai-Gorod, or the Chinese quarter--forms a +city according to our notions, where the houses touch each other, and +are carefully enclosed by a beautiful turreted wall, here, of course, +painted white. All the rest seems to be a large collection of country +houses, between which the Moskwa winds its way. + +The Kremlin contains (besides the palaces of the Czars and the +Patriarchs) the Arsenal and the treasures of the church. Here are +concentrated the highest civil and religious powers. The cloisters, +mostly at the extremities of the city, are fortresses in themselves. + +It was in the Kitai-Gorod that the commercial guild established +itself, needing for its wares, imported from China, Bucharia, +Byzantium, and Novgorod, the protection of walls. The rest, and by far +the larger part of Moscow, was built by the nobility for themselves; +and long after the first Emperor had raised a new capital upon the +enemy's ground it was looked upon with contempt by the grandees of the +Empire, still faithfully clinging to the customs of their fathers. + +The venerable city of Moscow, with its ancient, sacred relics and +historical reminiscences, still remains an object of veneration and +love to every Russian; and, often coming from a distance of hundreds +of miles, when getting a glimpse of the golden cross on the Church of +Ivan Welicki, he falls on his knees in reverence and patriotic +fervor. St. Petersburg is his pride, but Moscow is nearer to his +heart. And, in truth, Moscow has no resemblance to St. Petersburg. +There is no Neva here, no sea, no steamers; nowhere a straight street, +a large square, or a wooded island. But Moscow has as little +resemblance to any other city. The cupolas, the flat roofs and the +trees remind one of the East; but there the cupolas are more curved, +covered with gray lead, and surmounted by delicate minarets; the +houses show no windows toward the street; and the gardens are enclosed +by high, dead, monotonous walls. Moscow has a character of its own; +and if one wishes to compare it with anything, it must be called +Byzantine-Moresque. Russia received her Christianity and first +civilization from Byzantium. Until of late years she remained +completely shut off from the East, and what culture she once adopted +became rapidly nationalized. The heavy scourge of the Mongolian and +Tartar domination, which burdened this country for nearly three +centuries, prevented for a long time any further progress. All culture +was confined to the monasteries, and to these they afterward owed +their deliverance. The Khans of Tartary never required their +submission to Islam; they satisfied themselves with the tribute. In +order to raise this, they had recourse to native authority. They +supported the power of the Grand Dukes and of the priesthood; and the +despotism of the Golden Tribe, much as it circumscribed further +improvement, strengthened the oppressed in their faith in their +religion, fidelity to their rulers, and love to their mutual +fatherland. + +These are still the characteristics of the people; and when +one reflects that the embryo of this nation, the Great +Russians--thirty-six million people of one root, one faith, and one +language--forms the greatest homogeneous mass of people in the world, +no one will doubt that Russia has a great future before her. + +It has been said that with an increase of population this boundless +empire must fall to pieces. But no part of it can exist without the +other--the woody North without the fertile South, the industrial +centre without both, the interior without the coast, nor without the +common joint stream, navigable for four hundred miles--the Volga. But, +more than all this, the national spirit unites the most distant +portions. + +Moscow is now the national centre not only of the European Empire, but +of the ancient and holy kingdom of the Czars, from which the +historical reminiscences of the people spring, which, perhaps, is big +with the destinies of the future empire in spite of a deviation of two +centuries. + +The foreign civilization which was forced upon them has never +penetrated the mass of the people. The national peculiarity has +remained complete in language, manners, and customs, in a highly +remarkable municipal constitution, the freest and most independent +existing anywhere; and, finally, in their architecture. The last can, +of course, only be applied to the churches. In Russia nearly +everything is new. What is older than a hundred years is looked upon +as an antiquity. The Russian dwelling-house is of wood, and therefore +never reaches that age, unless, like the one of Peter the Great, it be +encased by a stone one. Even the palaces of the Emperor are new, and +only here in Moscow can be found a ruin of the old Dworez of the +Czars. There are churches in existence of the fourteenth and fifteenth +centuries (a great age for Russia), and the strictly conservative +spirit of the priesthood has been instrumental in retaining the same +style of architecture in the later buildings. + +The St. Sophia, in Constantinople, is the model upon which all Russian +churches are built. It was imitated everywhere, but never equalled, +not even by St. Mark's in Venice. There was lack both of material and +skill to build an arch with a span of one hundred and twenty-six feet. +What could not be accomplished in width was attempted in height. The +domes became narrow and tall, like towers. The rough stone, handled +without art, rendered clumsy pillars and thick walls necessary, in +which the windows, like embrasures, are cut narrow and deep. The +brightest light falls through the windows in the thinner wall which +supports the cupolas. Nearly all churches are higher than they are +long and wide. The clumsy tetragonal pillars contract the already +narrow space. One has nowhere a free view, and a mystic twilight +reigns everywhere. The most famous Russian churches can only +accommodate as many hundreds as a Gothic cathedral can thousands. It +is true most of them were built by Italian masters; but the latter +were obliged to conform to the rules and forms already in use. + +Since the architectonic conditions were unfavorable to the creation of +a magnificent whole, an attempt was made to ornament the individual +parts with brilliancy and magnificence. Not contented to gild the +churches inside and out, the floors were paved with half-precious +stones, and the pictures (of no artistic value) were covered with +jewels, diamonds, and pearls. Only the faces and hands are painted; +the garments, crown, and all else are plated with silver, gold, and +jewels. + +Sculpture is entirely prohibited, as far as representing the human +form is concerned; but they do not hesitate to represent God himself +on canvas. The gilt background is of itself disadvantageous for the +carnation of the pictures, and added to this are the long-drawn +outlines of the Byzantine and old German schools, without the genuine +feeling of the latter. Gigantic scarecrows gaze down from the cupolas, +meant to represent the Virgin Mary, Christ, St. John, or God the +Father. A Russian buys no holy picture that is not quite black or +faded out. A lovely Madonna of Raphael, or a fine Sebastian of +Correggio, does not seem to him expressive. His creed needs the +obscurity of his church--the clouds of incense which at every mass +veil the mysterious movements of the priests. + +The Byzantine element in the Russian architecture is then historically +easy to explain. The Moresque originated with the necessity of +decorating the individual parts, and relates only to these. + +The railings of the Ikonostase are interlaced with vines, garlands, +and animal forms. The flat walls, principally where they are not gilt, +are decorated with leafwork, rosettes, and twining vines. Where +this could not be cut in stone it was painted, and the deficiency in +drawing was supplied by a variety of the most glaring colors. Of +course, they remained far behind the tasteful, artistic arabesques of +the Alhambra and the Alcazar. + +The craziest thing in the way of architecture is the Church of Ivan +Blajennoj, on the Red Square before the Kremlin. It cannot be +described. This building stands on uneven ground, although the fine +level Place is before it. It crouches on the edge of the hill, and +leaves one leg hanging down. There is no trace of any symmetry. It has +no central point, and no one part is like another. One cupola looks +like an onion, another like a pineapple, an artichoke, a melon, or a +Turkish turban. It contains nine different churches, each having its +own altar, Ikonostase, and sanctuary. You enter several of these on +the ground floor. To reach others, you ascend a few steps. Between +these is a labyrinth of passages so narrow that two people can with +difficulty pass each other. Of course, all these churches are very +narrow. The one in the main tower can scarcely contain more than +twenty or thirty persons, and yet its vaulted roof reaches into the +tower at a height of over a hundred feet. This church is painted with +all the colors of the rainbow, inside and out, and plated with silver +and gold. The cupolas shine with red, green, and blue glazed bricks, +and even the masonry has been colored by the artist. + +This monstrosity emanated from the brain of Ivan Hrosnoj, "the +Terrible John." When he saw the architect's work complete he was +delighted, loaded him with praise, embraced him, and then ordered his +eyes to be put out, that no such second masterpiece should be +attributed to him. + +But, with all its singularity, this church does not produce a +disagreeable impression. It cannot be denied that it is at least +original. + +Everything, on the contrary, left from the old Dworez (palace) is +really beautiful. There is a strange four-story building narrowing +toward the top. There is a balcony formed by each receding story, +from which there is a fine view. The second story contains, besides +the rich but small chapel, a banquet-hall, like the Kanter's,[40] in +Marienburg, only that there the entire vaulted roof is borne by a +slender column, and here by a thick pillar. The entrance is in one +corner; the throne stands diagonally opposite in the other. At +present, the walls are covered with splendid tapestries, and the great +throne draped with _drap d'or,_ lined with real ermine. This drapery +cost forty thousand rubles. The small but exquisite rooms in the third +story are charming. The fourth story is only one large room. It was +the Terima, or dwelling of the women--the room in which Peter I. grew +up. + +At the parole delivery all the regiments were represented, the cavalry +mounted. It was beautiful to see specimens of all these dazzling +uniforms: the Cuirassiers, with the Byzantine double eagle upon their +helmets, something like our Garde du Corps, but with lances; the +Uhlans, almost exactly like ours; the Hussars, in white dolmans with +golden cords; the line Cossacks, with fur caps and red caftans; the +Tschernamorskish Cossacks, in dark blue coats with red jackets over +them; and the Ural ones with light blue--all with lances, on little +horses and high saddles. The Tartars are nearly all heathen or Moslem. +The Circassians appeared in scaly coats of mail and helmets. They +showed off their equestrian accomplishments, fired from the horse with +their long guns, shielded themselves from their pursuers by their +kantschu,[41] concealed themselves by throwing their bodies on one +side so that they touched the ground with their hands; others stood +upright in the saddle--all done at full gallop and amidst fearful +noise. + +A regiment of Drushins,[42] an Imperial militia levied on the +Imperial apanage estates, pleased me well. They wore a cap with +the cross of St. Andrew, bare neck; the native caftan, only +shorter and without a button; very wide trousers, the shirt over +them (as with all common Russians), and the end of their trousers +tucked into their high boots. Such is the uniformed Mujik +(peasant). This dress is national, becoming and useful. The men +can wear their furs (which are here indispensable) underneath; +and I will venture to say that the entire Russian infantry will +adopt a similar costume. "_Les proverbes sont l'esprit des +peuples_," and the national dress is the result of the experience +of centuries in regard to what is becoming and appropriate. + +The Austrian uniform is white in Moravia and brown in the Banat, +because the sheep there are of that color. The Spaniard wears the +tabarra, as he receives the material from the goat. The Arabian is +white from head to foot, because the heat of his climate requires it; +and the Mujik does not wear his caftan from caprice, but because it +suits him best. + +The Emperor's cortege is truly imposing--about five hundred horses. + +If I only had a better memory for persons and names! I have made the +acquaintance of a number of interesting men; that is, I have been +presented to them: Prince Gortschakoff, Lueders, Berg, and +Osten-Sacken, who commanded in the last war; Orloff, Mentschikoff, +Alderberg, Liewen, the Governor of Siberia, and the commandant of the +Caucasus; then a lot of aides-de-camp, the foreign princes, and their +suites. + +One can be truly thankful if one rides a strange horse without causing +or experiencing some disaster. A bad rider comes up from behind; a +horse sets himself in your way; here a mare kicks up behind; there a +stallion kicks up in front. It is but a small affair to ride alone, +but in the confusion of such a train, in a short trot on a lively +beast, one must keep one's eyes open. Suddenly the Emperor stops, and +there is a general halt; or he turns to one side, and then there is +great confusion; he gallops forward, and all plunge after him, while +the head of the column has again taken a short movement. With all +this the flags are flying, the trumpets are blowing, the drums are +beating, and there are endless hurrahs. But one must also see +something. I rode a little black horse that I would like to possess; +he goes like an East Prussian, but is very spirited, and I constantly +found myself in the front among the grand dukes. But I shall get on +well with him when we know each other better. He needs a quiet rider +with a firm seat, and a light hand on the reins. + +This evening at sunset, I again ascended the Kremlin. _"Diem perdidi"_ +I should say of the day of my sojourn there in which I did not visit +this wonderful structure. + +I descended to the Moskwa, and, from under the fine quay, examined the +massive white walls, the towers and the gate forts which surround the +Czar's palace, and a whole town of churches of the strangest +structure. Tonight the city gives a grand entertainment, from which I +shall absent myself to write. One receives so many impressions that it +is impossible to digest them all and collect one's thoughts. + +I am trying to understand this architecture. In Culm, in West Prussia, +I saw last year in the marketplace such a curious City Hall that I +could not reconcile it in my mind; now I understand that it is +Moscovite architecture. The Knights of the Sword of Liefland were in +intimate connection with the German Knights in Prussia, and one of +their architects may have repeated on the Vistula what he had seen on +the Moskwa. + +The fountains here remind one of the East; little, round covered +houses on the principal squares, which are constantly surrounded by +men and beasts supplying themselves with water. At first they seem +rude and awkward when compared with the fine style, the rich +sculpture, the golden railings, and the perforated marble walls of the +Tschesmas of Constantinople. There are here, as in the mosques, swarms +of doves that are so bold that they scarcely leave room for carriages +and foot-passengers. They are often chased out of the shops like a +brood of chickens, and they go everywhere for food. No one does them +any harm, and the Russians think it a sin to eat them. The Gostinoy +Dwor (the merchants' court) is especially a repetition of the Oriental +Tschurchi. One booth is next to the other, and the narrow passages +that separate them are covered; therefore the same dim light and the +same smell of leather and spices exist as at the Missir, or Egyptian +market, in Constantinople. The wares here, however, are mostly +European, and cheaper at home, so that we are not much tempted to buy. + +If I had my choice, I would rather live in Moscow than in St. +Petersburg. + +Peter the Great found an island without any seacoast. He could look +upon the Black Sea or the Baltic as a communication with the civilized +world; but one or the other must first be conquered. The hot-headed +King of Sweden pressed him to a Northern war, and, besides, the +Southern Sea was inhabited by barbarians. His original intention, it +is said, was to build his new capital on the Pontus, and that he even +had selected the spot. The one coast, indeed, is not much farther from +the centre of the empire than the other. + +How would it have been had he built his St. Petersburg on the +beautiful harbor of Sebastopol, close to the paradisiac heights of the +Tschadyr Dagh, where the grape grows wild and everything flourishes in +the open air that is forced through a greenhouse on the Neva; where no +floods threaten destruction; where the navy is not frozen fast during +seven months of the year; and where steam power makes an easier +communication with the most beautiful countries of Europe than the +Gulf of Finland does? + +What a city would St. Petersburg have been, did her wide streets +extend to Balaklava and did the Winter Palace face the deep blue +mirror of the Black Sea; if the Isaac Church stood at the height of +Malakoff; if Aluschta and Orianda were the Peterhof and Gatschina[43] +of the Imperial family! + + + + +THE PEACE MOVEMENT + +TRANSLATED BY EDMUND VON MACH, PH.D. + + +[Professor Bluntschli had sent the manual of the Institute of +International Law to Count Moltke, and expressed the hope, in a letter +dated November 19, 1880, that it would meet with his approval. Count +Moltke replied as follows:] + +My dear Professor: + +You have been good enough to send me the manual published by the +Institute of International Law, and you ask for my approval. In the +first place, I fully recognize your humane endeavors to lessen the +sufferings which war brings in its train. + +Eternal peace, however, is a dream, and not even a beautiful dream, +for war is part of God's scheme of the world. In war the noblest +virtues of man develop courage and renunciation, the sense of duty and +abnegation, and all at the risk of his life. Without war the world +would be swallowed up in the morass of materialism. + +With the principle stated in the preface, that the gradual advance of +civilization should be reflected in the conduct of war, I fully agree; +but I go further, and believe that civilization alone, and no codified +laws of warfare, can have the desired result. + +Every law necessitates an authority to watch over it and to direct its +execution, but there is no power which can enforce obedience to +international agreements. Which third state will take up arms because +one--or both--of two powers at war with each other have broken the +_loi de la guerre?_ The human judge is lacking. In these matters we +can hope for success only from the religious and moral education of +the individuals, and the honor and sense of right of the leaders, who +make their own laws and act according to them, at least to the extent +to which the abnormal conditions of war permit it. + +Nobody, I think, can deny that the general softening of men's manners +has been followed by a more humane way of waging war. + +Compare, if you will, the coarseness of the Thirty Years' War with the +battles of recent dates. + +The introduction in our generation of universal service in the army +has marked a long step in the direction of the desired aim, for it has +brought also the educated classes into the army. Some rough and +violent elements have survived, it is true, but the army no longer +consists of them exclusively. + +The governments, moreover, have two means at hand to prevent the worst +excesses. A strong discipline, practiced and perfected in times of +peace, and a commissariat equipped to provide for the troops in the +field. + +Without careful provision, discipline itself can be only moderately +well enforced. The soldier who suffers pain and hunger, fatigue and +danger, cannot take merely _en proportion avec les ressources du +pays,_ but he must take whatever he needs. You must not ask of him +superhuman things. + +The greatest blessing in war is its speedy termination, and to this +end all means must be permitted which are not downright criminal. I +cannot at all give my approval to the _Declaration de St. +Petersbourg_, that "the weakening of the hostile army" is the only +justifiable procedure in war. On the contrary, all resources of the +hostile government must be attacked--its finances, railways, +provisions, and even its prestige. + +The last war against France was waged in this way, and yet with +greater moderation than any earlier war. The campaign was decided +after two months; and fierceness became characteristic of the fighting +only when a revolutionary government continued the war through four +more months, to the detriment of the country. + +I am glad to acknowledge that your manual, with its clear and short +sentences, does greater justice than former attempts to what is needed +in war. But even the acceptance of your regulations by the governments +would not ensure their observance. It has long been a universally +accepted rule of warfare that no messenger of peace should be shot at. +But in the last campaign we frequently saw this done. + +No paragraph learned by heart will convince the soldier that the +unorganized natives who _spontanement_ (that is, of their own free +will) take up arms and threaten his life every moment of the day and +night should be recognized as lawful opponents. + +Certain requests of the manual, I fear, cannot be put in force. The +identification, for instance, of the dead after a big battle. Others +are subject to doubt, unless you insert _"lorsque les circonstances le +permettent, s'il se peut, si possible, s'il-y-a necessite,"_ or the +like. This will give them that elasticity without which the bitter +severity of actual warfare will break through all restrictions. + +In war, where everything must be treated individually, only those +regulations will work well which are primarily addressed to the +leaders. This includes everything that your manual has to say +concerning the wounded and the sick, the physicians and their +medicines. The general recognition of these principles, and also of +those which have to do with the prisoners of war, would mark a notable +step in advance and bring us nearer the end which the Institute of +International Law is pursuing with such admirable perseverance. + +Very respectfully, + +COUNT MOLTKE. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 38: From _Count Moltke's Letters from Russia_, permission +Harper & Brothers, New York.] + +[Footnote 39: Kopecks are equal to about one cent each.] + +[Footnote 40: A part of the castle in Marienburg, Prussia, containing +the hall where the knights of the German order, "Deutsche Ritter," +held their conclaves; also the hall itself, one of the showplaces of +Eastern Prussia.--TRANSLATOR.] + +[Footnote 41: A whip with short handle and long thong.--TRANSLATOR.] + +[Footnote 42: Militia of the Emperor, but differently constituted from +the American militia or Prussian Landwehr.--TRANSLATOR.] + +[Footnote 43: One of the summer palaces of the Emperor.] + + + + +FIGHTING ON THE FRONTIER[44] + +TRANSLATED BY CLARA BELL AND HENRY W. FISCHER + + +PREPARATIONS FOR WAR + + +The days are gone by when, for dynastical ends, small armies of +professional soldiers went to war to conquer a city, or a province, +and then sought winter quarters or made peace. The wars of the present +day call whole nations to arms, there is scarcely a family that does +not suffer by them. The entire financial resources of the State are +appropriated to the purpose, and the different seasons of the year +have no bearing on the unceasing progress of hostilities. As long as +nations continue independent of each other there will be disagreements +that can only be settled by force of arms; but, in the interest of +humanity, it is to be hoped that wars will become less frequent, as +they have become more terrible. + +Generally speaking, it is no longer the ambition of monarchs which +endangers peace; the passions of the people, its dissatisfaction with +interior conditions and affairs, the strife of parties, and the +intrigues of their leaders are the causes. A declaration of war, so +serious in its consequences, is more easily carried by a large +assembly, of which none of the members bears the sole responsibility, +than by a single man, however high his position; and a peace-loving +sovereign is less rare than a parliament composed of wise men. The +great wars of the present day have been declared against the wish and will +of the reigning powers. Now-a-days the Bourse has assumed such influence +that it has the power to call armies into the field merely to protect its +interests. Mexico and Egypt have been swamped with European armies simply +to satisfy the demands of the _haute finance_. Today the question, "Is a +nation strong enough to make war?" is of less importance than that, "Is +its Government powerful enough to prevent war?" Thus, united Germany has, +up to now, used her strength only to maintain European peace; a weak +Government at the head of our neighboring State must, on the other +hand, be regarded in the light of a standing menace to peace. + +The war of 1870-71 arose from just such relations. A Napoleon on the +throne of France was bound to establish his rights by political and +military success. Only for a time did the victories won by French arms +in distant countries give general satisfaction; the triumphs of the +Prussian armies excited jealousy, they were regarded as arrogant, as a +challenge; and the French demanded revenge for Sadowa. The liberal +spirit of the epoch was opposed to the autocratic Government of the +Emperor; he was forced to make concessions, his civil authority was +weakened, and one fine day the nation was informed by its +representatives that it desired war with Germany. + + +PREPARATIONS FOR THE WAR + +The wars carried on by France on the other side of the ocean, simply +for financial ends, had consumed immense sums and had undermined the +discipline of the army. The French were by no means _archiprets_ for a +great war, but the Spanish succession to the throne, nevertheless, had +to serve as a pretext to declare it. The French Reserves were called +to arms July 15th, and only four days later the French declaration of +war was handed in at Berlin, as though this were an opportunity not to +be lost. + +[Illustration: KING WILLIAM AT THE MAUSOLEUM OF HIS PARENTS ON THE DAY +OF THE FRENCH DECLARATION OF WAR ANTON VON WERNER] + +One Division was ordered to the Spanish frontier as a corps of +observation; only such troops as were absolutely necessary were left +in Algiers and in Civita Vecchia; Paris and Lyons were sufficiently +garrisoned. The entire remainder of the army: 332 battalions, 220 +squadrons, 924 cannon, in all about 300,000 men, formed the army of +the Rhine. This was divided into eight Corps, which, at any rate in +the first instance, were to be directed by one central head, without +any kind of intervention. The _Imperator_ himself was the only person +to assume this difficult task; Marshal Bazaine was to command the army +as it assembled, until the Emperor's arrival. + +It is very probable that the French were counting on the old +dissensions of the German races. True, they dared not look upon the +South Germans as allies, but they hoped to reduce them to inactivity +by an early victory, or even to win them over to their side. Prussia +was a powerful antagonist even when isolated, and her army more +numerous than that of the French, but this advantage might be +counterbalanced by rapidity of action. + +The French plan of campaign was indeed based on the delivery of +unforeseen attacks. The strong fleets of war and transport ships were +to be utilized to land a considerable force in Northern Prussia, and +there engage a part of the Prussian troops, while the main body of the +army, it was supposed, would await the French attack behind the +fortresses on the Rhine. The French intended to cross the Rhine at +once, at and below Strassburg, thus avoiding the great fortresses; and +also, at the start, preventing the South-German army, which was +destined to defend the Black Forest, from uniting with the +North-Germans. To execute this plan it would have been imperative to +assemble the main forces of the French army in Alsace. Railway +accommodation, however, was so inadequate that in the first instance +it was only possible to carry 100,000 men to Strassburg; 150,000 had +to leave the railways near Metz, and remain there till they could be +moved up. Fifty thousand men were encamped at Chalons as reserves, +115 battalions were ready to march as soon as the National Guard had +taken their places in the interior. The various corps were distributed +as follows: + +Imperial Guard, General Bourbaki--Nancy. + +Ist Corps, Marshal MacMahon--Strassburg. + +IId Corps, General Frossard--St. Avold. + +IIId Corps, Marshal Bazaine--Metz. + +IVth Corps, General Ladmirault--Diedenhofen. + +Vth Corps, General Failly--Bitsch. + +VIth Corps, Marshal Canrobert--Chalons. + +VIIth Corps, General Felix Douay--Belfort. + +Thus there were only two Corps in Alsace, and five on the Moselle; +and, on the day of the declaration of war, one of these, the IId +Corps, was pushed forward close to the German frontier, near St. Avold +and Forbach. This IId Corps, however, received instructions not to +engage in any serious conflict. + +The regiments had marched out of quarters incomplete as to numbers, +and insufficiently equipped. Meanwhile the reserves called out to fill +their place had choked the railway traffic; they crowded the depots, +and filled the railway stations. + +The progress to their destination was delayed, for it was often +unknown at the railway stations where the regiments to which the +reserves were to be sent were at the time encamped. When they at last +joined they were without the most necessary articles of equipment. The +Corps and Divisions had no artillery or baggage, no ambulances, and +only a very insufficient number of officers. No magazines had been +established beforehand, and the troops were to depend on the +fortresses. These were but ill-supplied, for in the assured +expectation that the armies would be almost immediately sent on into +the enemy's country they had been neglected. + +In the same way the Staff-officers had been provided with maps of +Germany, but not of their own provinces. The Ministry of War in Paris +was inundated with claims, protestations, and expostulations, and +finally it was left to the troops to help themselves as best they +could. _On se debrouillera_ was the hope of the authorities. + +When the Emperor arrived at Metz, a week after the declaration of war, +the regiments were not yet complete, and it was not even exactly known +where whole Divisions were at that time encamped. The Emperor ordered +the troops to advance, but his Marshals declared that the condition of +the troops made this impossible for the time being. + +It was gradually dawning upon them that, instead of attacking the +enemy in his country, they would have to defend their own. Rumor had +it, that a strong army of the enemy had assembled between Mayence and +Coblentz; instead of sending reinforcements from Metz to Strassburg, +they were ordered to proceed from the Rhine to the Saar. The +determination to invade South Germany was already abandoned; the fleet +had sailed round, but without any troops to land. + +Germany had been surprised by the declaration of war, but she was not +unprepared. The possibility of such an event had been foreseen. + +When Austria had separated her interests from those of the other +German states, Prussia undertook the sole leadership, and paved the +way to more intimate relations with the South-German states. The idea +of national unification had been revived, and found an echo in the +patriotic sentiments of the entire people. + +The means of mobilizing the North-German army had been reviewed year +by year, in view of any changes in the military or political +situation, by the Staff, in conjunction with the Ministry of War. +Every branch of the administration throughout the country had been +kept informed of all it ought to know of these matters. The Berlin +authorities had likewise come to a confidential understanding with the +army chiefs of the South-German states on all important points. It +had been conceded that Prussia was not to be reckoned on for the +defence of any particular point, as the Black Forest, for instance; +and it was decided that the best way of protecting South Germany would +be by an incursion into Alsace across the central part of the Rhine; +which could be backed up by the main force assembled at that point. + +The fact that the Governments of Bavaria, Wuertemberg, Baden, and +Hesse, denuding their own countries as it were, were ready to place +their contingents under the command of King William proves their +entire confidence in the Prussian generals. + +As soon as this understanding was arrived at the other preparations +could be made. The orders for marching, and traveling by rail or boat, +were worked out for each division of the army, together with the most +minute directions as to their different starting points, the day and +hour of departure, the duration of the journey, the refreshment +stations, and place of destination. At the meeting-point cantonments +were assigned to each Corps and Division, stores and magazines were +established; and thus, when war was declared, it needed only the Royal +signature to set the entire apparatus in motion with undisturbed +precision. There was nothing to be changed in the directions +originally given; it sufficed to carry out the plans prearranged and +prepared. + +The mobilized forces were divided into three independent armies on a +basis worked out by the general of the Prussian staff. + +The First Army, under the command of General von Steinmetz, consisted +of the VIIth and VIIIth Corps, and one division of cavalry; 60,000 men +all told. It was ordered to encamp at Wittlich and form the right +wing. + +The Second Army, under the command of Prince Frederick Charles, was +131,000 strong, and constituted the central army. It consisted of the +IIId, IVth, and Xth Corps of Guards, and two divisions of cavalry. Its +meeting-point was in the vicinity of Homburg and Neunkirchen. The +Third Army, under the command of the Crown Prince of Prussia, was to +form the left wing, near Landau and Rastat, a strength of about +130,000 men. It consisted of the Vth and XIth Prussian, and the Ist +and IId Bavarian Corps, the Wuertemberg and the Baden Field Divisions, +and one division of cavalry. + +The IXth Corps, consisting of the 18th and the Hesse divisions, was +united with the XIIth Royal Saxon Corps to form a reserve of 60,000 +men, and was encamped before Mayence, to reinforce the Second Army, +which was thus brought up to the strength of 194,000 men. + +The three armies combined numbered 384,000 men. + +There were still the Ist, IId, and IVth Corps, 100,000 men; but they +were not at first included, as the means of railway transport were +engaged for twenty-one days. + +The 17th Division and the Landwehr troops were told off to defend the +coast. During the night of July 16th the Royal order for the +mobilization of the army was issued, and when His Majesty arrived in +Mayence, a fortnight later, he found 300,000 men assembled on and in +front of the Rhine. + +In his plan of war, submitted by the Chief of the General Staff, and +accepted by the King, that officer had his eye fixed, from the first, +upon the capture of the enemy's capital, the possession of which is of +more importance in France than in other countries. On the way thither +the hostile forces were to be driven as persistently as possible back +from the fertile southern states into the narrower tract on the north. + +But above all the plan of war was based on the resolve to attack the +enemy at once, wherever found, and keep the German forces so compact +that a superior force could always be brought into the field. By +whatever special means these plans were to be accomplished was left to +the decision of the hour; the advance to the frontiers alone was +preordained in every detail. + +It is a delusion to believe that a plan of war may be laid for a +prolonged period and carried out in every point. The first collision +with the enemy changes the situation entirely, according to the +result. Some things decided upon will be impracticable; others, which +originally seemed impossible, become feasible. All that the leader of +an army can do is to get a clear view of the circumstances, to decide +for the best for an unknown period, and carry out his purpose +unflinchingly. + +The departure of the French troops to the frontier, before they were +thoroughly prepared for service in the field, which is a very serious +step to take, was evidently ordered for the purpose of surprising the +German army, with the forces immediately at command, and thus +interfering with the formation of their advance. But, in spite of +this, the German commanders did not deviate from their purpose of +massing their armies on the Rhine and crossing that river. The railway +transport of the troops of the IId and IIId Corps, however, was to end +at the Rhine; thence they were to march on foot into the cantonments +prepared on the left bank of the river. They moved in echelon, +advancing only so many at a time as would make room for the Division +behind them, as far as the line marked by the towns of Bingen, +Duerkheim, and Landau. + +The final advance towards the frontier was not to be undertaken until +the Divisions and Corps were all collected, and provided with the +all-necessary baggage train; and then proceed in a state of readiness +to confront the enemy at any moment. + +The assembling of the First Army appeared to be less threatened, as +its route lay through neutral territory, and was protected by the +garrisons of Treves, Saarlouis, and Saarbruecken, the German outposts +on the Saar. + +The First Army, 50,000 strong, was concentrated at Wadern, in the +first days of August. The Second Army, which meanwhile had been +increased to a strength of 194,000 men, had pushed forward its +cantonments to Alsenz-Guennstadt, at the termination of the Haardt +Mountains, a position which had been thoroughly reconnoitered by an +officer of the Staff, and where the troops might boldly await an +attack. + +The 5th and 6th Cavalry Divisions were reconnoitering the country in +front. The regiments and squadrons of the Third Army were still +gathering on both banks of the Rhine. + +The French so far had made no serious attempt at Saarbruecken; +Lieutenant-Colonel Pestel was able to successfully withstand their +petty attacks with one battalion and three squadrons of cavalry. + +It had meanwhile been observed that the French were moving further to +the right, toward Forbach and Bitsch, which seemed to indicate that +the two French Corps, known to be drawn up at Belfort and Strassburg, +might purpose crossing the Rhine and marching on the Black Forest. It +was therefore of very great importance to set the Third Army moving at +the earliest opportunity, first to protect the right bank of the Upper +Rhine by an advance on the left; secondly to cover the progress of the +Second Army towards that point. + +A telegraphic order to that effect was dispatched on the evening of +July 30th, but the General in command of the Third Army Corps desired +to wait for the arrival of the Fourth and its baggage train. In spite +of this hesitancy the Second Army was ordered to proceed towards the +Saar, where the French were showing much uneasiness. + +The time had gone by when they might have taken advantage of their +over-hasty mobilization; the condition of the men had prohibited any +action. France was waiting for news of a victory; something had to be +done to appease public impatience, so, in order to do something, the +enemy resolved (as is usual under such circumstances) on a hostile +reconnoissance, and, it may be added, with the usual result. + +On August 2d three entire Divisions were sent forward against three +battalions, four squadrons, and one battery in Saarbruecken. The +Emperor himself and the Prince Imperial watched the operations. The +IIId Corps advanced on Voelklingen, the Vth on Saargemuend, the IId on +Saarbruecken. + +The Germans evacuated Saarbruecken after a gallant defence and repeated +sorties, but the French did not cross the Saar. They may have +convinced themselves that they had wasted their strength by hitting in +the air, and had gained no information as to the resources and +position of the enemy. + +After this the French generals hesitated for a long while between +contrary resolutions. Orders were given and recalled on the strength +of mere rumors. The left wing was reinforced on account of a current +story that 40,000 Prussians had marched through Treves, the Guards +received contradictory orders, and, when a small German force showed +itself at Loerrach in the Black Forest, it was at once decreed that the +VIIth Corps must remain in Alsace. Thus the French forces were spread +over the wide area between the Nied and the Upper Rhine, while the +Germans were advancing in compact masses on the Saar. + +This scattered state of the army finally induced the French leaders to +divide their forces into two distinct armies. Marshal MacMahon took +provisional command of the Ist, VIIth, and Vth Corps, the latter being +withdrawn from Bitsch. The other Divisions were placed under Marshal +Bazaine, with the exception of the Guards, the command of which the +Emperor reserved to himself. + +It had now become a pressing necessity to protect the left wing of the +advancing Second German Army against the French forces in Alsace; the +Third Army was therefore ordered to cross the frontier on August 4th, +without waiting any longer for the batteries to come up. The First +Army, forming the right wing, was already encamped near Wadern and +Losheim, three or four days' march nearer to the Saar than the Second +Army in the centre. They were ordered to concentrate in the +neighborhood of Tholey and there await further orders. In the first +place this, the weakest of the two Divisions, was not to be exposed +single-handed to an attack of the enemy's main force; and, secondly, +it was to be used for a flank-movement in case the Second Army should +meet the enemy on emerging from the forests of the Palatinate. + +To execute this order, the First Army had to extend its cantonments in +a southerly direction as far as the line of march of the Second Army, +and evacuate its quarters near Ottweiler. This was a difficult matter +to accomplish, as all the towns and villages to the north were +billeted, and quarters had also to be found for the Ist Corps, now +advancing by the Birkenfeld route. General von Steinmetz therefore +decided to march his entire forces in the direction of Saarlouis and +Saarbruecken. The Second Army had assembled, and was ready for action +on August 4th, and received orders to take the field on the farther +side of the wooded zone of Kaiserslautern. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 44: From _The Franco-German War of 1870-71._ Permission +Harper & Brothers, New York and London.] + + + + +BATTLE OF GRAVELOTTE--ST. PRIVAT[45] + +August 18th + +TRANSLATED BY CLARA BELL AND HENRY W. FISCHER + + +Marshal Bazaine had not thought it advisable to proceed to Verdun now +that the Germans were so close on the flank of such a movement. He +preferred to assemble his forces at Metz, in a position which he +rightly supposed to be almost impregnable. + +Such a position was afforded by the range of hills, bordering on the +west of the valley of Chatel. That side facing the enemy sloped away +like a _glacis_, while the short and steep decline behind offered +protection for the reserves. The IId, IIId, IVth and VIth Corps were +placed on the ridge of the hills between Roncourt and Rozereuilles, a +distance of one mile and a half (German); thus there were eight or ten +men to every yard of ground. + +A brigade of the Vth Corps stood at Ste.-Ruffine in the valley of the +Moselle, the cavalry in the rear of the two wings. + +The positions of the IId and IIId Corps were hastily entrenched, +batteries and covered ways were established, and the farmhouses in +front prepared for defense. To approach this left wing from the west +it was necessary to cross the deep valley of the Mance. The VIth Corps +on the other hand had no engineering tools; and it is indicative of +the general ill-equipment of the French that, merely to convey the +wounded to the rear, in spite of the enormous baggage-train, provision +wagons had to be unloaded and their contents burnt. This Corps was +therefore unable to construct such defenses on the side overlooking +the forest of Jaumont as were necessary to strengthen the right wing. +This would undoubtedly have been the place for the Guards, but in his +fear of an attack from the south, Marshal Bazaine kept them in reserve +at Plappeville. + +The King again arrived at Flavigny at six o'clock on the morning of +the 18th. All officers in command were ordered to report directly to +headquarters, and Staff-officers of Army Headquarters were despatched +in all directions to watch the progress of the engagement. + +The VIIth army Corps, forming the pivot upon which the intended wheel +to the right was to be effected, occupied the Bois de Vaux and Bois +des Ognons; the 8th, under the personal command of the King, halted at +Rezonville, ready to proceed to the north or east, as might be +required. The IXth Corps, on its left, advanced toward the Marcel, +while the IIId and Xth formed the second line. The Guards and XIIth +Corps moved in a northerly direction. + +A serious delay occurred when the XIIth Corps of the Second Army, +which was stationed on the right, was commanded to form the left wing, +by the crossing of the two on the march. The Saxon troops did not get +through Mars-la-Tour until nine o'clock, and till then the Guards +could not follow. + +The advanced guard of the XIIth Corps had meanwhile reached Jarny, and +proceeded as far as Briey without encountering the enemy. + +Before this could be known, the authorities at headquarters had been +convinced that at least the main forces of the enemy were still at +Metz; misapprehension, however, prevailed as to the extension of their +lines, and it was thought the French front did not reach beyond +Montigny. The general in command of the Second Army was therefore +instructed not to proceed further northward, but to join the IXth +Corps in attacking the enemy's right wing, and move in the direction +of Batilly with the Guards and the XIIth Corps. The First Army was +not to attack in the front until the Second was ready to strike. + +In obedience to this, Prince Frederick Charles ordered the IXth Corps +to march on to Verneville, and, in case the French right wing should +be found there, to open battle by bringing a large force of artillery +into action. The Guards were to continue their advance _via_ Doncourt +to reinforce the IXth as soon as possible. The XIIth was to remain at +Jarny for the present. + +A little later fresh reports came in which indicated that the IXth +Corps, if proceeding in the manner ordered, would come upon the French +centre, instead of their right wing. The Prince therefore determined +that the Corps should postpone the attack till the Guards had done so +at Amanvillers. At the same time the XIIth Corps was pushed on to +Ste.-Marie-aux-Chenes. + +But, while these orders were being given, the first heavy firing was +heard at Verneville. This was at twelve o 'clock. + +The two Corps on the left had, of their own accord, taken an easterly +direction without waiting for orders, and the IId Corps moved up +behind the IXth at the farm of Caulre. + +General von Manstein, in command of the IXth, had observed from near +Verneville a French encampment at Amanvillers, apparently in a state +of quietude. From that point of view the great masses of troops on +their immediate left at St.-Privat were not visible. Mistaking this +camp for the right wing, he determined to act on his first orders and +take the foe by surprise. Eight of his batteries at once opened fire. + +But it did not take the French troops long to move into the position +assigned to them. The independent action of a single Corps naturally +exposed it not only to the fire of the troops opposite, but to an +attack in flank. + +To obtain some shelter on the field, the Prussian batteries had taken +up a position on the shoulder of the hill below Amanvillers facing the +southeast, where they were exposed from the north, on the flank, and +even in the rear to the fire of French artillery, as well as to the +concentrated fire of their infantry. + +To meet this, the battalions nearest at hand were ordered forward. +They took possession of the eastern point of the Bois de la Cusse on +the left, and on the right seized the farmhouses of L'Envie and +Chantrenne, forcing their way into the Bois des Genivaux. Thus the +line of battle of the 18th Division gained a front of 4,000 paces. + +Its losses were very great, for the French with their long-range +Chassepot rifles could afford to keep out of range of the needle-gun; +the artillery especially suffered severely. One of the batteries had +already lost forty-five gunners when it was attacked by French +sharpshooters. There was no infantry at hand to retaliate, and two +guns were lost. By two o'clock all the batteries were almost +_hors-de-combat_, and no relief arrived till the Hessian Division +reached Habonville, and brought up five batteries on either side of +the railway, thus diverting on themselves the concentrated fire of the +enemy. The batteries of the 18th Division, which had suffered most, +could now be withdrawn in succession, but even in their retreat they +had to defend themselves against their pursuers by grapeshot. + +The artillery of the IIId Corps and the Guards were likewise sent to +the assistance of the IXth, and those of the damaged guns which were +still fit for service were at once brought into line. Thus a front of +130 guns was drawn up before Verneville as far as St.-Ail, and its +fire soon told upon the enemy. Now, when the IIId Corps was +approaching Verneville and the 3d Brigade of Guards had reached +Habonville, there was no fear that the French would break through the +line. + +The main force of the Guards had arrived at St.-Ail as early as two +o'clock. General von Pape at once saw that by wheeling to the east he +would not encounter the right wing of the French, which was to be +out-flanked, but would expose his own left wing to the forces +occupying Ste.-Marie-aux-Chenes. The first thing to be done was to +gain possession of this village--almost a town. It was strongly +occupied and well flanked by the main position of the French army; +but, in obedience to superior orders, he must await the arrival of a +cooeperative Saxon contingent. + +The advance guard of this Corps had already reached the vicinity of +Batilly, but was yet half a mile distant from Ste.-Marie, so its +batteries could not be placed in position west of the town until three +o'clock. But, as the Guards had sent most of their own artillery to +the support of the IXth Corps, this was substantial aid. + +Ten batteries now opened fire upon Ste.-Marie, and by the time it was +beginning to tell the 47th Brigade of the XIIth Corps came up. At +half-past three the Prussian and Saxon battalions stormed the town +from the south and west and north, amid vociferous cheers, and without +further returning the fire of the enemy. The French were driven from +the place, and a few hundred were taken prisoners. + +The Saxons tried to follow them up, and a lively infantry engagement +ensued, north of Ste.-Marie, which masked the artillery. As soon as +the brigade had been ordered to retire, the batteries reopened fire, +and the repeated efforts of the French to regain the lost position +were frustrated. + +Soon afterwards the IXth Corps succeeded in taking and holding the +farm of Champenois, but all further attempts, by isolated battalions +or companies, to force their way on against the broad and compact +centre of the French were, on the face of it, futile. Thus, by about +five o'clock, the infantry ceased fire, and the artillery only fired +an occasional shot. Fatigue on both sides caused an almost total +suspension of hostilities in this part of the field. + +The Commander-in-Chief decided that the First Army should not engage +in serious assault until the Second stood close to the enemy; but when +the day was half-spent and brisk firing was heard about noon from +Vionville, it was to be supposed that the time for action had arrived; +still, for the present permission was only given to send forward the +artillery in preparation for the fight. Sixteen batteries of the +VIIth and VIIIth Corps accordingly drew up to right and left of the +highway running through Gravelotte. Their fire was ineffective, as +they were too far from the enemy; besides they were suffering from the +fire of the French tirailleurs, who had established themselves in the +opposite woods. It became necessary to drive them out, so here again +there was a sharp skirmish. The French had to abandon the eastern +portion of the Mance valley, and the artillery, now increased to +twenty batteries, was able to advance to the western ridge and direct +its fire against the main position of the enemy. + +The battalions of the 29th Brigade followed up this advantage. They +pressed forward into the southern part of the Bois des Genivaux on the +left, but were unable to effect a connection with the IXth Corps, +occupying the north of the forest, as the French could not be driven +from the intervening ground. On the right, various detachments took +possession of the quarries and gravel-pits near St.-Hubert. + +The artillery meanwhile had got the better of the French guns; several +of their batteries were silenced, others prevented from getting into +position. The French fire was in part directed on the farm of +St.-Hubert, on which the 30th Brigade were gradually encroaching. This +well-defended structure was stormed at three o'clock, close under the +face of the enemy's main position, and in spite of a tremendous fire. +The 31st Brigade had also got across the valley, but an attempt to +reach the farms of Moscow and Leipzig, over the open plain enclosed by +the enemy on three sides, proved a failure and resulted in great loss. +The 26th Brigade had taken possession of Jussy, on the extreme right, +thus maintaining the connection with Metz, but found it impossible to +cross the deep valley of Rozerieulles. + +The advanced detachments of the French had been repulsed on all sides, +the farms in their front were burning, their artillery appeared to be +silenced, and, viewing the situation from Gravelotte, there remained +nothing but pursuit. General von Steinmetz, therefore, at four +o'clock, ordered fresh forces to the front for a renewed attack. + +While the VIIth Corps occupied the border of the wood, four batteries, +backed by the 1st Cavalry Division, made their way through the narrow +ravine extending for about 1,500 paces east of Gravelotte. But as soon +as the advanced guard of the long column came in sight, the French +redoubled their rifle and artillery fire, which had till now been kept +under. One battery had soon lost the men serving four of its guns, and +was hardly able to return into the wood; a second never even got into +position. The batteries under Hesse and Gnuegge, on the other hand, +held their own at St.-Hubert in spite of the loss of seventy-five +horses and of the firing from the quarries in their rear. + +The foremost regiment of cavalry wheeled to the right after leaving +the hollow way, and galloped toward Point-du-Jour, but the enemy, +being completely under cover, offered no opportunity for an attack. +Evidently this was no field for utilizing the cavalry, so the +regiments retired through the Mance valley under a heavy fire from all +sides. + +This ill-success of the Germans encouraged the French to advance from +Point-du-Jour with swarms of tirailleurs, who succeeded in driving the +Prussians back from the open ground as far as the skirts of the wood. +The bullets of the Chassepots even reached the hill where the +Commander-in-Chief was watching the battle, and Prince Adalbert's +horse was shot under him. + +Fresh forces were now at hand and drove the enemy back to his main +position. St.-Hubert had remained in the hands of the Germans; and +though the survivors there were only sufficient to serve one gun, +still every attempt to cross the exposed plateau proved a failure. +Thus hostilities ceased at this point also, at about five o'clock in +the afternoon, allowing the weary troops on both sides to take breath +and reorganize. + +King William and his staff rode over to the hill on the south of +Malmaison at about the same hour, but could see nothing of the +situation of the left wing, which was more than a mile away. The +French artillery had ceased firing along the centre, from La Folie to +Point-du-Jour; but to the northward the thunder of artillery was +louder than ever. It was six o'clock, the day was nearly at an end, +and decided action must at once be taken. The King therefore ordered +the First Army to advance once more, and for that purpose placed the +IId Corps, just arrived after a long march, under the command of +General von Steinmetz. + +Those battalions of VII Corps which could still do good service, +except five, which were kept in reserve, were again sent up the Mance +valley, and the battalions from the Bois de Vaux came to their support +toward Point-du-Jour and the quarries. The IId Corps of the French +Army thus attacked was now reinforced by Guard Voltigeur Division. All +the reserves were brought to the front. The artillery was more rapidly +served, and a destructive musketry fire was directed on the advancing +enemy. Then the French on their side made an attack. A strong body of +riflemen dispersed the smaller parties which were lying in the open, +destitute of commanders, and drove them back to the wood. There, +however, their advance was checked, and there was still another Army +Corps ready for action. + +The IId Corps, the last to come up by rail to the seat of war, had up +to this time followed in the wake of the army by forced marches, but +had not yet fought in any engagement. It had started from +Point-a-Mousson at 2 p.m. and, taking the road by Buxieres and +Rezonville, arrived south of Gravelotte in the evening. The +Pomeranians were eager to get at the enemy without delay. + +It would have been better if the Chief of the Staff, who was +personally on the field at the time, had not allowed this movement at +so late an hour. A body of troops, still completely intact, might have +been of great value the next day; it was not likely this evening to +affect the issue. + +Rushing out of Gravelotte, the foremost battalions of the IId Corps +pushed forward to the quarries, and up to within a few hundred paces +of Point-du-Jour; but those following were soon entangled in the +turmoil of the troops under fire south of St.-Hubert, and any further +advance toward Moscow was arrested. Darkness was falling, and friend +became indistinguishable from foe. So the firing was stopped; but not +until ten o'clock did it entirely cease. + +The advance of the IId Corps resulted in some good, however, for these +fresh troops could occupy the fighting-line for the night, while the +mixed companies of the VIIth and VIIIth Corps were enabled to re-form +in their rear. + +The whole course of the engagement had conclusively proved that the +position of the French left wing, made almost impregnable by nature +and art, could not be shaken even by the most devoted bravery and the +greatest sacrifices. Both parties were now facing each other in +threatening proximity, and both fully able to reopen battle next +morning. The success of the day must depend on events at the other end +of the French line. + +The Prince of Wurtemburg, standing at Ail, believed that the hour had +come for an attack on the French right at about a quarter-past five; +but that wing extended much further north than the line of his Guards, +further, indeed, than the French Commander-in-Chief himself was aware +of. Though the Saxons had participated in the capture of +Ste.-Marie-aux-Chenes, the Crown Prince deemed it necessary to +assemble his Corps at the Bois d'Auboue, to attack the enemy in flank. +One of the brigades had to come from Jarny, and one from Ste.-Marie; +so, as the Corps was late in getting away from Mars-la-Tour, it was +not expected to be on the field for some hours yet. + +The 4th Brigade of Foot Guards, in obedience to orders, proceeded in +the direction of Jerusalem, immediately south of St.-Privat. As soon +as General von Manstein, in command of the IXth Corps, observed this, +he ordered the 3d Brigade of Guards, which had been placed at his +orders, to advance from Habonville toward Amanvillers. + +Between these two brigades marched the Hessians, but it was not till +half an hour later that the First Division of Guards joined from +Ste.-Marie, marching on St.-Privat, on the left of the Second. This +attack was directed against the broad front of the French IVth and +VIth Corps. Their fortified positions at St.-Privat and Amanvillers +had as yet hardly felt the fire of the German batteries, which had +found sufficient employment in replying to the enemy's artillery +outside the villages. + +Several ranks of riflemen, one above the other, were placed in front +of the French main position, on the hedges and fences in a slope up +the ridge. At their back towered St.-Privat, castle-like, with its +massive buildings, which were crowded by soldiers to the very roof. +The open plain in front was thus exposed to an overwhelming shower of +projectiles. + +The losses of the attacking Guards were, in fact, enormous. In the +course of half an hour five battalions lost all, the others the +greater part of their officers, especially those of the higher grades. +Thousands of dead and wounded marked the track of the troops, who, in +spite of their losses, pressed forward. The ranks, as fast as they +were thinned, closed up again, and their compact formation was not +broken even under the leadership of young lieutenants and ensigns. As +they got nearer to the enemy the needle-gun did good service. The +French were driven from all their foremost positions, where, for the +most part, they did not await the final struggle. By a quarter-past +six the battalions had advanced to within 600 to 800 paces of +Amanvillers and St.-Privat. The troops, weary from long combat, halted +under the steeper slopes offering some, though small, protection, and +in the trenches just abandoned by the enemy. Only four battalions now +remained in reserve at Ste.-Marie, behind the German line, which now +extended to a length of 4,000 paces. Every charge of the French +cavalry and of Cissy's Division had been persistently repelled with +the aid of twelve batteries of the Guards which had now put in an +appearance; but the German troops, reduced, as they were, by untold +losses, had to face two French Corps for thirty minutes longer before +reinforcements came to their aid. + +It was nearly seven o'clock when, to the left of the Guards, two +brigades of the Saxon infantry arrived on the field; the other two +were still assembling in the forest of Auboue; their artillery, +however, had for some time kept up a lively fire on Roncourt. + +When Bazaine, at three o'clock, received word that the Germans were +extending the line to enclose his right wing, he ordered Picard's +Division of the Grenadier Guards, posted at Plappeville, to advance to +the scene of action. Though the distance was no more than a mile +through the wooded valley on the right of the highway, his +all-important reinforcement had not yet arrived at seven o'clock, and +Marshal Canrobert, who was hardly able, by the most strenuous efforts, +to check the advance of the Prussians, decided to rally his troops +closer to the fortified town of St.-Privat. The retreat from Roncourt +was to be covered by a small rearguard, as the border of the Bois de +Jaumont was to be held. + +Thus it happened that the Saxons found less resistance at Roncourt +than they expected, and entered the town after a short struggle, +together with the companies of the extreme left of the Guards; part of +them had previously been diverted from the road to Roncourt to assist +the Guards, and marched direct on St.-Privat. There terrible havoc was +worked by the twenty-four batteries of the two German Corps. Many +houses were in flames, or falling in ruins under the shower of shell. +But the French were determined to defend this point, where the fate of +the day was to be decided, to the last. The batteries belonging to +their right wing were placed between St.-Privat and the Bois de +Jaumont, that is, on the flank of the advancing Saxons. Others faced +the Prussians from the south, and as the German columns came on side +by side they were received by a shower of bullets from the French +rifles. + +[Illustration: THE CAPITULATION OF SEDAN ANTON VON WERNER] + +All these obstacles were defied in the onward rush, though again under +heavy losses, some stopping here and there to fire a volley, others +again never firing a shot. By sundown they stood within 300 paces of +St.-Privat. Some detachments of the Xth Corps, who were on the road to +St.-Ail, now joined them, and the final onset was made from every side +at once. The French still defended the burning houses and the church +with great obstinacy, till, finding themselves completely surrounded, +they surrendered at about eight o'clock. More than 2,000 men were +taken prisoners, and the wounded were rescued from the burning houses. + +The defeated remnant of the IVth French Corps retired towards the +valley of the Moselle, their retreat being covered by the brigade +occupying the Bois de Jaumont and by the cavalry. + +Only at that period did the Grenadier Guards put in an appearance, +drawing up the artillery reserves east of Amanvillers. The German +batteries at once took up the fight, which lasted till late in the +night, and Amanvillers also was left burning. + +Here the retirement of the IVth French Corps had already commenced, +screened by repeated severe onslaughts; the right wing of the Guards +and the left of the IXth Corps had a lively hand-to-hand encounter +with the enemy. Still the town remained in the hands of the French for +the night. Their IIId Corps maintained their position at Moscow until +three o'clock, and the IId until five o'clock in the morning, though +engaged in constant frays with the outposts of the Pomeranian +Division, who eventually took possession of the plateaus of Moscow and +Point-du-Jour. + +This success of the 18th of August had only been made possible by the +preceding battles of the 14th and 16th. + +The French estimate their losses at 13,000 men. In October, 173,000 +were still in Metz, which proves that more than 180,000 French engaged +in the battle of the 18th. The seven German Corps facing them were +exactly 178,818 strong. Thus the French had been driven out of a +position of almost unrivalled natural advantages by a numerically +inferior force. It is self-evident that the loss of the aggressors +must have been much greater than that of the defence; it amounted to +20,584 men, among them 899 officers. + +Though the war-establishment provides one officer to every forty men, +in this battle one officer had been killed to every twenty-three; a +splendid testimony to the example set by the officers to their brave +men, but a loss which could not be made good during the course of the +war. During the first fortnight of August, in six battles the Germans +had lost 50,000 men. It was impossible at once to find substitutes, +but new companies were formed of time-expired soldiers. + +The first thing to be done that same evening was to move on the +foremost baggage train, and the ambulance corps from the right bank of +the Moselle; ammunition was also served out all round. In Rezonville, +which was crowded with the wounded, a little garret for the King and +quarters for the Staff had with much difficulty been secured. The +officers were engaged throughout the night in studying the +requirements which the new situation created by the victory +peremptorily demanded. All these orders were placed before His Majesty +for approval by the morning of the 19th. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 45: From _The Franco-German War of 1870-71_. Permission +Harper & Brothers, New York and London.] + + + + + +CONSOLATORY THOUGHTS ON THE EARTHLY LIFE AND A FUTURE EXISTENCE +(1890)[46] + +TRANSLATED BY MARY HERMS + +PREFACE + + +The last noteworthy use to which the aged Fieldmarshal put his pen was +to commit to paper certain reflections and chains of reasoning, for +which he drew upon the rich experience of his strenuous and eventful +life, and in which he hoped to find consolation in his last days, and +a vantage ground from which he might cast a glance over the unknown +future and confirm his faith in an everlasting life. + +The aim of the Fieldmarshal, in writing these pages, was to attain to +clearness of vision concerning his earthly lot, to bring the forces +which were at work in his soul into harmony with those which govern +the universe, to reconcile faith and knowledge, and to satisfy himself +that life on this earth can only be regarded as a preparation for +eternal life, and must be regulated accordingly. So lofty is this aim +that it alone entitles these confessions to a serious and respectful +consideration. But how much must our admiration and our sense of the +value of this work be increased when we perceive with what earnestness +of effort, and with what depth of feeling, the Fieldmarshal had +revolved these thoughts in his mind till he brought them to maturity. +And more than that. It was his wish to bequeath these consolatory +thoughts to his family, as a sincere confession of his private +convictions. This is the light in which he wished posterity to regard +this manuscript, which he wrote out in the last year of his life, in +wonderfully firm characters, which attest the worth of the matter +contained in it. + +He wrote down these thoughts at Creisau, and left the copy on his +desk. Whenever he visited his country-seat he revised and corrected +what he had written. No less than four drafts of the introduction to +this work have been preserved. + +The succession of thoughts is the same in all four versions, but on +the one hand renewed and deepened meditations enabled him to express +his ideas with greater force and precision, and on the other sometimes +developed them further, so as to present them more exhaustively and +convincingly. + +These pages contain the last efforts of a noble life. In them Moltke +appears as he was when we knew him and took him for our pattern, +reconciled with the anomalies and the contradictions of life, with a +pious grasp of principles which he had thought out for himself, and in +the assurance of which he found peace. We learn here how it was +possible for him to rise superior to the world, and preserve a +contented mind in all the vicissitudes of life. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 46: From _Moltke: His Life and Character_. Permission Harper +& Brothers, New York and London.] + + + + +DR. TORCHE-MITTLER. + + +Man feels that he is a complete being, different from other creatures, +and outwardly distinguished from them by his body, which here on earth +is the habitation of the soul. + +Yet in this complete whole I believe I can distinguish different +functions, which, though closely connected with the soul, and ruled by +it, have an independent existence. + +In the mysterious beginnings of life physical development takes the +first place. Nature is busily at work in the child's body as it grows, +and is already preparing it to be the dwelling-place of higher +functions. The body reaches the acme of its perfection before its +career is half over, and out of the surplus of its energy calls new +life into being. Thenceforward its lot is decay and painful struggling +to preserve its own existence. + +During something like a third of our existence, that is, while we are +asleep, the body receives no commands from its ruler, and yet the +heart beats without interruption, the tissues are wasted and repaired, +and the process of respiration is continued, all independently of our +will. + +The servant may even rebel against the master, as when our muscles are +painfully contracted by cramp. But pain is the summons for help which +is sent by the living organism when it has lost control over the dead +matter, which loss we feel as the illness of our vassal. + +On the whole we must regard our body as a real part of our being, +which is still, in a sense, external to our inmost selves. + +Is, then, the soul at least the true ego, a single and indivisible +whole? + +The intellect advances, by slow development, to greater and greater +perfection till old age is reached, if the body does not leave it in +the lurch. The critical faculty grows as experience accumulates, but +memory, reason's handmaid, disappears at an earlier stage, or at least +loses the power of receiving new impressions. Wonderful enough is this +faculty which enables us to store up all the valuable lessons and +experiences of earliest youth in a thousand drawers, which open in a +moment in answer to the requirements of the mind. + +It is not to be disputed that the old often appear dull-witted, but I +cannot believe in a real darkening of the reason, which is a bright +spark of the Divine, and even in madness the negation of reason is +only external and apparent. A deaf man playing on an instrument out of +tune may strike the right notes, and be inwardly persuaded that his +execution is faultless, while all around him hear nothing but the +wildest discords. + +The sovereignty of reason is absolute; she recognizes no superior +authority. No power, not even that of our own wills, can compel her to +regard as false what she has already recognized as true. + +_E pur si muove_! + +Thought ranges through the infinite realms of starry space, and +fathoms the inscrutable depths of the minutest life, finding nowhere +any _limit_, but everywhere _law_, which is the immediate expression +of the divine thought. + +The stone falls on Sirius by the same law of gravitation as on the +earth; the distances of the planets, the combinations of chemical +elements are based on arithmetical ratios, and everywhere the same +causes produce the same effects. Nowhere in nature is there anything +arbitrary, but everywhere law. True, reason cannot comprehend the +origin of things, but neither is she anywhere in conflict with the +laws that govern all things. Reason and the universe are in harmony; +they must therefore have the same origin. + +Even when, through the imperfection of all created things, reason +enters on paths which lead to error, truth is still the one object of +her search. + +Reason may thus be brought into conflict with many an honored +tradition. She rejects miracle, "faith's dearest child," and refuses +to admit that Omnipotence can ever find it necessary for the +attainment of its purposes to suspend, in isolated cases, the +operation of those laws by which the universe is eternally governed. +But these doubts are not directed against religion, but against the +form in which religion is presented to us. + +Christianity has raised the world from barbarism to civilization. Its +influence has, in the course of centuries, abolished slavery, ennobled +work, emancipated women, and revealed eternity. But was it dogma that +brought these blessings? It is possible to avoid misunderstandings +with regard to all subjects except those which transcend human +conception, and these are the very subjects over which men have fought +and desolated the world for the last eighteen hundred years, from the +extermination of the Arians, on through the Thirty Years' War, to the +scaffold of the Inquisition, and what is the result of all this +fighting? The same differences of opinion as ever. + +We may accept the doctrines of religion, as we accept the assurance of +a trusty friend, without examination, but the kernel of all religions +is the morality they teach, of which the Christian is the purest and +most far-reaching. + +And yet men speak slightingly of a barren morality, and place the form +in which religion is presented before everything else. I fear it is +the pulpit zealot, who tries to persuade where he cannot convince, +that empties the church with his sermons. + +After all, why should not every pious prayer, whether addressed to +Buddha, to Allah, or to Jehovah, be heard by the same God, beside whom +there is none other? Does not the mother hear her child's petition in +whatever language it lisps her name? + +Reason is nowhere in conflict with morality, for the good is always +finally identical with the rational; but whether our actions shall or +shall not correspond with the good, reason cannot decide. Here the +ruling part of the soul is supreme, the soul which feels, acts, and +wills. To her alone, not to her two vassals, has God entrusted the +two-edged sword of freewill, that gift which, as Scripture tells us, +may be our salvation or our perdition. + +But, more than this, a trusty councillor has been assigned us, who is +independent of our wills, and bears credentials from God Himself. +Conscience is an incorruptible and infallible judge, whom, if we will, +we may hear pronounce sentence every moment, and whose voice at last +reaches even those who most obstinately refuse to listen. + +The laws which human society has imposed upon itself can take account +of actions only in their tribunals, and not of thoughts and feelings. +Even the various religions make different demands among the different +peoples. Here they require the Sunday to be kept holy, here the +Saturday or Friday. One allows pleasures which another forbids. Even +apart from these differences there is always a wide neutral ground +between what is allowed and what is forbidden; and it is here that +conscience, with her subtler discrimination, raises her voice. She +tells us that _every_ day should be kept sacred to the Lord, that even +permitted interest becomes unjust when exacted from the needy; in a +word, she preaches morality in the bosom of Christian and Jew, of +heathen and savage. For even among uncivilized races which have not +the light of Christianity there is an agreement as to the fundamental +conceptions of good and evil. They, too, recognize the breaking of +promises, lying, treachery, and ingratitude as evil; they, too, hold +as sacred the bond between parents, children, and kinsmen. It is +hard to believe in the universal corruption of mankind, for, however +obscured by savagery and superstition, there lies dormant in every +human breast that feeling for the noble and the beautiful which is the +seed of virtue, and a conscience which points out the right path. Can +there be a more convincing proof of God's existence than this +universal sense of right and wrong, this unanimous recognition of one +law, alike in the physical and in the moral world, except that nature +obeys this law with a full and absolute obedience, while man, who is +free, has the power of violating it? + +The body and the reason serve the ruling part of the soul, but they +put forward claims of their own, they have their own share of power, +and thus man's life is a perpetual conflict with self. If in this +conflict the soul, hard-pressed from within and without, does not +always end by obeying the voice of conscience, let us hope that He who +created us imperfect will not require perfection from us. + +For consider to what violent storms man is exposed in the voyage of +life, what variety there is in his natural endowments, what +incongruity between education and position in life. It is easy for the +favorite of fortune to keep in the right path; temptation, at any rate +to crime, hardly reaches him; how hard, on the other hand, is it for +the hungry, the uneducated, the passionate man to refrain from evil. +To all this due weight will be given in the last judgment, when guilt +and innocence are put in the balance, and thus mercy will become +justice, two conceptions which generally exclude one another. + +It is harder to think of nothing than of something; when the something +is once given, harder to imagine cessation than continuance. This +earthly life cannot possibly be an end in itself. We did not ask for +it; it was given to us, imposed upon us. We must be destined to +something higher than a perpetual repetition of the sad experiences of +this life. Shall those enigmas which surround us on all sides, and for +a solution of which the best of mankind have sought their whole life +long, never be made plain? What purpose is served by the thousand ties +of love and friendship which bind past and present together, if there +is no future, if death ends all? + +But what can we take with us into the future? + +The functions of our earthly garment, the body, have ceased; the +matter composing it, which even during life was ever being changed, +has entered into new chemical combinations, and the earth enters into +possession of all that is her due. Not an atom is lost. Scripture +promises us the resurrection of a glorified body, and indeed a +separate existence without limitation in space is unthinkable; yet it +may be that this promise implies nothing more than the continued +existence of the individual, as opposed to pantheism. + +We may be allowed to hope that our reason, and with it all the +knowledge that we have painfully acquired, will pass with us into +eternity; perhaps, too, the remembrance of our earthly life. Whether +that is really to be wished is another question. How if our whole life +all our thoughts and actions should some day be spread out before us +and we became our own judges, incorruptible and pitiless? + +But, above all, the emotions must be retained by the soul, if it is to +be immortal. Friendship does indeed rest on reciprocity, and is partly +an affair of the reason; but love can exist though unreturned. Love is +the purest, the most divine spark of our being. + +Scripture bids us before all things love God, an invisible, +incomprehensible Being, who sends us joy and happiness, but also +privation and pain. How else can we love Him than by obeying His +commandments, and loving our fellow-men, whom we see and understand? + +When, as the Apostle Paul writes, faith is lost in knowledge, and hope +in sight, and only love remains, then we hope, not without reason, to +be assured of the love of our merciful Judge. COUNT MOLTKE. + +Creisau, October, 1890. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE LIFE AND WORK OF FERDINAND LASSALLE + +By ARTHUR N. HOLCOMBE, Ph.D. + +Assistant Professor of Government, Harvard University + + +Ferdinand Lassalle was born on April 11, 1825, at Breslau, of Jewish +parents. The father, Hyman Lassal, was a prosperous business man, +ambitious for his son, able to give him the best education the times +afforded, and willing to let him choose his own career. The life of +the Lassal family seems to have been like that of any well-to-do +Jewish family in the kingdom of Prussia during the early nineteenth +century. Of a quiet and peaceable behavior, they were devoted mainly +to money-making and their domestic affairs. + +The young Lassalle gave early indications of his unusual character. +While still a boy in the local grammar school, his proud and +independent disposition won him the displeasure of his teachers. +Especially the oppression of his own race filled his soul with wrath. +"O could I only give myself up to my boyish day-dreams," he wrote in +his note-book at this time, "how I would put myself at the head of the +Jews, weapons in hand, and make them independent!" Eventually he +abandoned in disgust the attempt to gain a classical education in the +schools of his native city and entered the commercial high school in +Leipzig. Here again his fiery temperament could not brook the +restraints imposed upon him and he presently returned to his father's +house. + +The problem of a career was not easy to solve. The father's success +enabled the son to choose his course in life without regard to +financial considerations. Business and mere money-making were in fact +distasteful to him. + +[Illustration: FERDINAND LASSALLE] + +The learned professions were more to his liking. The father +recommended medicine or the law, but the son aspired to some less +hackneyed career. Jews were not then admitted to the service of the +state in Prussia and the absence of popular institutions of government +rendered an independent political career for the time being out of the +question. The son chose, therefore, to make his mark as a man of +learning. He would be a great philosopher or scientist. Doubtless he +kept in mind the possibility of engaging in journalism, should the +times change, and becoming a tribune of the people. Such bold ideas +are the birthright of all boys of spirit. + +Ferdinand Lassale finished his education with his destiny consciously +before him. He studied philology and philosophy at the universities of +Breslau and Berlin and in the winter of 1845-46 made his first visit +to Paris as a traveling scholar. Here he first adorned his family name +with the final _le_, and here, also, he met the chief of the heroes of +his youth, Heinrich Heine. Heine has given us a vivid pen-picture of +Lassalle, as he saw him in those student days. "My friend, Mr. +Lassalle ... is a most highly gifted young man, uniting the widest +knowledge with the greatest astuteness. I have been astounded at his +energy of will, vigor of intellect, and promptness of action.... +Lassalle is a true child of modern times, wishing to know nothing of +the humility and renunciation which have characterized our own lives. +This new race means to enjoy, to assert itself.... We were, however, +perhaps happier in our idealism than these stern gladiators who go +forth so proudly to mortal combats." + +Returning to Berlin in the spring of 1846, Lassalle signalized the +attainment of his majority by espousing the cause of the Countess von +Hatzfeld, then in the midst of her suits for divorce and for an +accounting of her property. It was a characteristic act. The Countess' +troubles arose through no fault of his. He had little to gain by +engaging in the affair and much to lose--not only time and money, +but friends, reputation, and his very career. Yet he plunged into the +thick of the fray and made the cause of the unhappy lady his own. For +eight long years he fought her enemies from law-court to law-court, +through thirty-six of them in all, to final victory. From it all he +gained a good working knowledge of the law, a splendid training in +forensic address, and a taste of the joys of combat against bitter +odds. These things were later to stand him in good stead. But he had +touched smut and was himself besmirched. + +Meanwhile the famous year, 1848, had come and gone. Men like Lassalle +are made for just such years. His friends all played their parts, each +in his own way, in the struggle for German liberty and union. Lassalle +alone was absent from the field. He was defending himself against a +charge of criminal conspiracy to commit larceny, an incident in the +case of the Countess von Hatzfeld. He disposed of this charge in +season to join the editors of the _Neue Rheinische Zeitung_, and in +the spring of 1849 he completed his apprenticeship as a revolutionist +with a term in jail. At the expiration of his sentence he returned to +the cause of the Countess, but he was required by the Prussian +government to keep away from Berlin. Not until 1857, through the +intervention of A. von Humboldt, did he receive permission to resume +his residence in the capital. Then, with his friend, the Countess, he +settled down once more to the realization of his youthful dreams, and +the long-deferred career was taken up in earnest. + +Lassalle's career as a scholar and man of learning was short, but +productive. It was opened in 1857 with the publication of his work, +the _Philosophy of Heraclitus,_ projected more than ten years before, +and it was concluded in 1861, as the event proved, by the publication +of his _System of the Acquired Rights_. Midway between the two +appeared a dramatic composition, _Franz von Sickingen,_ which served +both as an intellectual diversion from the more serious studies in +philosophy and law and as a personal confession of faith on the part +of the author. None of these works can be pronounced an unqualified +success. The philosophy of Heraclitus was too obscure to exert any +great influence upon contemporary thought, even when expounded by a +Lassalle, and the philosophy of Lassalle himself was too closely +modeled upon that of his master, Hegel, to obtain much notice on its +own account. The treatise on the acquired rights of man was too +technical to attract popular attention and too unorthodox to receive +the general approval of professional students of the law. The _Franz +von Sickingen_ was too deficient in dramatic action to be presented on +the stage and too artificial in literary form to be read in the +library. The three productions secured for Lassalle a position among +scholars but brought him no general recognition. + +The three productions, however, pour a flood of light upon +Lassalle's own powerful personality. In the _Philosophy of +Heraclitus_ he grappled with the most formidable philosophical +problems and showed himself a master of the Hegelian dialectic. +In the _System of the Acquired Rights_ he attacked the very foundations +of the current theories of law and justice with the same concentration +of energy and purpose as had been displayed in the more practical +problems of law and justice involved in the case of the Countess +von Hatzfeld. But it is in _Franz von Sickingen_ that Lassalle +expressed his own nature most clearly and most completely. +Here indeed he speaks directly for himself through the lips of +Ulrich von Hutten. Passage after passage springs from the soul of +the living Lassalle, the same Lassalle that in his boyhood dreams +would emancipate the Jews by force of arms, that in his early manhood +so deeply impressed Heine, and that so shortly afterwards +was ready to defy all the powers of the kingdom in defence +of a friendless woman. The following speech of the legendary +von Hutten is characteristic of the real Lassalle: + + "O worthy Sir! Think better of the sword! + A sword, when swung in freedom's sacred cause, + Becomes the Holy Word, of which you preach, + The God, incarnate in reality. + * * * * * + And all great things, which e'er will come to pass + Will owe their final being to the sword." + +In short, Lassalle was not by nature a man of the study. He was a man +of the battlefield. + +The hour for battle was fast approaching. In 1859 the alliance of +Napoleon the Third and Cavour against the Austrians was consummated +and the war for the liberation and unification of Italy began. The +hopes of all true Germans for the unification of the Fatherland took +new life. Especially the survivors of '48 felt their pulses quicken. +In 1859 Lassalle revealed his own interest in contemporary politics by +the publication of his pamphlet on _The Italian War and the Duty of +Prussia_, and in the following year by his address on _Fichte's +Political Legacy and Our Own Times_. He also planned to establish a +popular newspaper in Berlin, but the scheme was abandoned in 1861, on +account of the refusal of the Prussian government to sanction the +naturalization of the man whom Lassalle desired for his associate in +the enterprise, Karl Marx. With the Prince of Prussia's accession to +the throne and the brilliant successes of the Progressive party in the +Prussian elections, men instinctively felt that the times were big +with portentous events. + +Lassalle's political ideas were already well developed. He was born a +democrat. In early nineteenth-century England the young Disraeli could +hopefully plan a different course, but Lassalle in Prussia could look +for no public career as an aristocrat. Under the circumstances to be a +democrat meant also to be a republican, and, if need be, a +revolutionist. As a youth he drank deep from the idealistic springs +that inspired the republican party throughout Germany. He admired +Schiller and Fichte and, above all, Heine and Boerne. Lassalle indeed +had drunk deeper than most of the revolutionists of '48. He was not +only a democrat and a republican; he was also a socialist. Even before +his first visit to Paris he had become acquainted with the writings of +St. Simon, Fourier, and the utopian socialists in general. His mind +was ripe for the doctrines of the _Communist Manifesto_, when that +epoch-making document appeared, but he does not seem to have become +personally acquainted with Marx until his connection with the _Neue +Rheinische Zeitung_ in the fall of 1848. From that time on till the +foundation of the _Allgemeiner Deutscher Arbeiterverein_ Lassalle +stood closer to Marx than to any other one man. + +Lassalle's opportunity to turn definitely from scholarship to politics +came in 1862 with the outbreak of the struggle over the Prussian +constitution. In a series of vigorous addresses (April, 1862, to +February, 1863) he first criticised, then condemned, the Progressive +party for its--as it seemed to him--pusillanimous policy. But Lassalle +was not content merely to criticise and condemn. His restless energy +found no adequate expression short of the creation of a new party of +his own. His repudiation of the Progressives, however, was not +dictated by differences over tactics alone. He rejected the +fundamental principles of the liberal movement in German politics. He +saw around him the evidences of deep and widespread poverty. The great +problem of the day to his mind was not the political problem of a +proper constitution of government, but the social problem of a proper +distribution of wealth. The need, as he saw it, was not for +parchment-guarantees of individual liberty. It was for practical +promotion of social welfare. Hence, at the same time that he opened +fire upon the tactics of the Progressives, he unfolded his plans for +the constructive treatment of the social, as distinct from the +political, problem. + +The nature of Lassalle's social ideal and the character of the means +by which he sought to justify it are for the first time +systematically set forth in his address (April 12, 1862) "upon the +special connection between modern times and the idea of a laboring +class," subsequently published under the title, _The Workingmen's +Programme_. This address was the point of departure for the socialist +movement in Germany, as the _Communist Manifesto_ of Marx and Engels +was that of international socialism. It was indeed largely inspired by +the spirit of that revolutionary document. During the two and a half +years which followed the publication of this address, Lassalle often +set forth his fundamental social philosophy with extraordinary +clearness and force, but he never surpassed his opening salutation to +the workingmen of Germany. It has been read by hundreds of thousands. +It was his masterpiece. + +_The Workingmen's Programme_ attracted the immediate attention of the +Prussian government. The police took offence at the tone of the +address and brought against its author a charge of criminal incitement +of the poor to hatred and contempt of the rich. On January 16, 1863, +Lassalle appeared in court and defended himself against this charge in +an almost equally celebrated address, published under the title, +_Science and the Workingmen_. Here Lassalle speaks in a different but +no less brilliant vein. From that time forth Lassalle's appearances +before audiences of workingmen quite generally led to corresponding +appearances before audiences of judges. If one court set him free, he +was liable to be haled before another court for defamation of the +prosecuting attorney in the court of first resort. But the prisoner's +dock served as well as the orator's platform for the purposes of his +agitation. + +_The Workingmen's Programme_ attracted less immediate attention from +the workingmen themselves. But among the few whose attention was +attracted was a group of Leipzig labor leaders who invited Lassalle to +advise them more fully concerning his plans for the formation of an +independent labor party. Lassalle's reply to this invitation was the +_Open Letter to the Committee for the Calling_ _of a General +Convention of German Workingmen at Leipzig_, dated March 1, 1863. This +letter sets forth the platform upon which Lassalle proposed to make +his appeal for the support of the working classes. The two main planks +of the platform were the demands for manhood suffrage and for the +establishment of cooeperative factories and workshops with the aid of +subventions from the State. Through manhood suffrage Lassalle expected +that the working classes would immediately become the dominant power +in the State, and through State-aided producers' associations he +expected that the cooeperative commonwealth would eventually come into +being. Manhood suffrage was thus the fundamental political condition +of Social Democracy. State-aided producers' associations were but a +temporary economic expedient. Upon this basis, May 23, 1863, the +General Association of German Workingmen (_Allgemeiner Deutscher +Arbeiterverein_) was founded. + +The immediate results of the foundation of the General Association of +German Workingmen were much less than Lassalle had anticipated. He had +hoped that it would quickly surpass the Liberal National Association, +founded by the leaders of the Progressive party in 1859, which at this +time counted about 25,000 members. In fact, during Lassalle's life the +Workingmen's Association never reached one-fifth of that number. The +workingmen generally were slow to recognize either the character of +Lassalle's purposes or the character of the man himself. Despite the +power and brilliancy of the speech-making campaign upon which Lassalle +promptly entered he made little headway. The progress of the movement +among the rank and file, however, was more satisfactory than in any +other quarter. Marx had been lost to the movement before it was +inaugurated and the rigid Marxians among the German socialists +continued to hold aloof. Lassalle's close personal friend, Lothar +Bucher, could see no prospect of early success and withdrew while +there was still time. The independent socialist, Rodbertus, to whom +Lassalle next turned for assistance, had little faith in manhood +suffrage and none at all in State-aided producers' associations. To +confirm his unbelief in manhood suffrage he pointed to the ease with +which a popular plebiscite could be manipulated by a Louis Napoleon. +State-aided producers' associations, he declared to be incompatible +with scientific socialism, a dangerous compromise between the national +workshops advocated by the utopian socialist, Louis Blanc, and the +cooeperative corporations, advocated by the anarchist, Prudhomme. So +Lassalle found himself alone at the head of his new independent labor +party. + +It was not the workingmen but the middle-class Progressive party that +was most aroused by Lassalle's _Open Letter._ He was regarded as a +traitor to the cause of the constitution and a practical ally of the +forces of reaction--in short, as either a fool or a knave. Lassalle +saw clearly enough that he could not succeed without making clear to +his prospective followers the irreconcilability of liberalism and +socialism, and directed his most powerful efforts against the position +of the Progressive party. His _Workingmen's Reader_ (May, 1863) and +_Bastiat-Schulze von Delitzsch_ (January, 1864) are conspicuous +memorials of his campaign against liberalism. The liberal position was +substantially that the workingmen, though without effective +voting-power, were honorary members of the Progressive party, and +hence needed no independent party of their own, and that, for the +rest, they could best promote their special economic interests by +"self-help," that is, through voluntary and unassisted cooeperation. +Liberal leaders, especially Schulze-Delitzsch, labored strenuously to +improve the well-being of the working-classes along these lines, and +their efforts were not in vain. The Progressive watchword, "right +makes might," sophistical as it seemed to Lassalle, appealed to the +idealism of the German people, and the party was in the heyday of its +success. More and more Lassalle found himself forced by the +necessities of his struggle with the Progressives into compromising +relations with the government of Bismarck. His last great speech +delivered at Ronsdorf on the first anniversary of the foundation of +the Workingmen's Association betrays the dilemma into which he had +fallen. Under the conditions of the time there was not enough room +between the contending forces of progress and reaction for the great +independent labor party which Lassalle had hoped to create. There was +room for a humble beginning, but that was all. + +It is not necessary to dwell on the details of Lassalle's last twelve +months and tragic end. The story is brief: a year of exhausting toil +and small result, then a short vacation, an unfortunate love-affair, a +foolish challenge to a duel, a single pistol-shot, and three days +later, August 31, 1864, the end. Thus he died, and on his tomb in +Breslau was written: "Here lies what was mortal of Ferdinand Lassalle, +the Thinker and Fighter." + +The name of Lassalle is most frequently connected with that of Marx. +Certainly the two had much in common. They worked together in 1848 and +would have done so again in 1862 if Lassalle had had his way. For +fourteen years they were personal friends. Though they ultimately +drifted apart, they never became enemies. Lassalle was seven years +younger than Marx and was unquestionably strongly influenced by the +ideas of the founder of scientific socialism. At the same time he was +a man who did his own thinking, and his speeches and writings, even +those dealing most particularly with the philosophy of socialism, are +by no means mere paraphrases of Marx. His ideas betray resemblances to +those of various contemporary writers on socialism and the socialist +movement, notably Lorenz von Stein, the author of the _History of the +Social Movements in France from 1789_. The economic interpretation of +history, set forth in the _Workingmen's Programme_, however, is in +many respects but an amplification of the economic interpretation of +history originally and more briefly set forth in the _Communist +Manifesto_. The theory of economics in general and of wages in +particular, contained in the _Bastiat-Schulze von Delitzsch_, is +substantially the same as that contained in Marx's _Critique of +Political Economy,_ published in 1859. Regarded solely as a +theoretical socialist, Lassalle is rightly classed among the Marxians. + +Yet Lassalle's position with regard to some important theoretical +questions was distasteful to Marx. In philosophy, for example, +Lassalle was a pure Hegelian and never abandoned the idealistic +standpoint of his master. Marx, as is well known, was a materialistic +Hegelian. The differences between them in this regard were revealed +most clearly in the _System of the Acquired Rights_. Lassalle traced +the development of the German laws of inheritance from the Roman +concept of the immortality of the legal personality. Marx would have +derived them from the conditions of life among the Germans themselves. +In Franz von Sickingen and his cause Lassalle thought he saw a glimpse +of the revolutionary spirit of modern times. Marx saw only a belated +and futile struggle on the part of a member of the decadent medieval +order of petty barons against the rising order of territorial princes. +Had Lassalle linked up the cause of the petty barons with the revolt +of the peasants, Marx would have thought better of his performance, +but this Lassalle had neglected to do. In the _Philosophy of +Heraclitus_ Marx took little interest. + +The most important differences between Marx and Lassalle arose with +respect to the exigencies of practical politics. Marx, like Lassalle, +was a democrat. Lassalle, however, consistently placed the demand for +manhood suffrage in the forefront of his immediate political demands, +whilst Marx believed that manhood suffrage under the then-existing +conditions on the Continent of Europe would prove more useful to those +who controlled the electoral machinery than to the workingmen +themselves. Marx, like Lassalle, believed in the republican form of +government. Lassalle, however, could recognize the temporary value of +monarchical institutions in the struggle against the capitalistic +system, whilst Marx would have had the workingmen depend upon +themselves alone. Marx, like Lassalle, believed in the inevitableness +of the fall of capitalism. Lassalle, however, could appreciate the +desirability of realizing some portion of the promised future in the +immediate present, whilst Marx preferred not to risk the prolongation +of the life of the capitalistic system by attempting to discount the +day when the wage-earning classes should come wholly into their own. +Marx, like Lassalle, was a revolutionist. Lassalle, however, was +interested primarily in bringing about the social revolution on German +soil, whilst Marx was an internationalist, a veritable man without a +country. + +The two were bound to clash as soon as Lassalle began the development +of his practical political programme. Marx was not only sceptical of +the wisdom of Lassalle's campaign for manhood suffrage, but he was +even strongly opposed to the campaign for the establishment of +producers' associations with the aid of subventions from the Prussian +monarchy. That programme represented all that was odious to Marx: +organization of the wage-earners on purely national instead of +international lines, conversion of private ownership of capital into +corporate instead of public ownership, establishment of a social +monarchy instead of a cooeperative commonwealth. Obviously Marx could +not endorse Lassalle's proposals to make the socialist movement a +factor in contemporary German politics, nor did Lassalle endorse the +Marxian policy presently embodied in the "International." + +In the matter of programme and tactics neither Marx nor Lassalle has +been altogether justified by the verdict of history. In the beginning +the followers of Lassalle and the followers of Marx pursued their +common ends by independent roads. Brought together by the logic of +events, they composed their differences, taking what seemed best to +serve their purpose from the ideas of each. It is known that Marx was +harshly critical of the programme adopted at Gotha in 1875. It may be +guessed that Lassalle, had he lived, would not altogether have +approved of the tactics pursued by those in charge of the united +party's affairs. Today, the Social Democratic party, having grown +strong and great, can recognize its obligations to both Marx and +Lassalle. + +Lassalle and Marx had entirely different functions to perform in the +socialist movement. Marx's part was to be the prophet of socialism, +not a prophet in the vulgar sense of a mere prognosticator, but in the +old Hebrew sense of an inspired voice crying in a wilderness of +unbelief. Lassalle was no prophet. His function was to reduce +principles to action, to engage the forces of the times in the spirit +of the times, and by combat with such weapons as lay to hand to urge +the cause forward. The word "agitator" might have been invented for +him. He was the first great warrior of socialism. It is no reflection +upon Marx to indicate that the present need of the Social Democracy is +for warriors rather than for prophets. + +Lassalle was one of the great figures of modern German history. +Bismarck's judgment of men was of the keenest and his opinion of +Lassalle, expressed in a speech before the Reichstag (September 16, +1878) is well known: "In private life Lassalle possessed an +extraordinary attraction for me, being one of the most brilliant and +most agreeable men I have ever met, and ambitious in the biggest sense +of the term." The eminent classical historian, Boeckh, who knew +Lassalle well, compared him to Alcibiades. Heine, in a letter +introducing Lassalle to a friend, wrote: "I present to you a new +Mirabeau." There is much that is striking in either of these +parallels. + +Thoughts of what might have been, had Lassalle's career in politics +not been brought to so melancholy an end, are likely to be idle. Helen +von Racowitza, the pathetic instrument of his fate, not unnaturally +indulged her fancy in such thoughts. Writing in her old age she +queries: "Would he, ... with his incomparable ambition and will, ever +have been able to adapt himself to the compact edifice of the German +empire? Assuredly it must always have seemed to him like a prison!" To +a woman wracked by remorse it may have been comforting to believe that +when the catastrophe occurred the work of the man she once had loved +was really completed. Doubtless indeed Lassalle himself had begun to +realize, short as was the period from the foundation of the +Workingmen's Association to the fatal duel with the Rumanian Yanko, +that he could not bring his enterprise to a head as quickly as he had +hoped. Doubtless he already saw that the establishment of an +independent labor party was not a matter of a single hard-fought +campaign, to be waged and won by the genius of any one great leader, +but a task requiring long and patient toil and the indefinite +postponement of the sweet joys of victory. Certainly in his last +months Lassalle showed an unwise readiness seriously to compromise his +position for the sake of more immediate success. Had he lived, he +would soon have discovered that he must retrace those latest steps, or +Bismarck, and not he, would have been the actual leader of the first +German independent labor party. There was nothing in Lassalle's life +to warrant the assumption that he would deliberately sell his party +for a mess of pottage. Lassalle had put his hand to the plow and it +was not in his nature to leave the furrow unturned. + +Yet Lassalle's title to greatness must lie less in what he himself +achieved than in the achievements of others in his name. He founded a +political party; others have made that party great. But the most +signal service is the service of the founder, for to found a party is +to generate a living organism which will, in the fullness of time, +express the purposes and unite the energies of millions. So it has +been with the party of Lassalle. Like the husbandman who casts his +seed on good ground, he implanted the germs of the Social-Democracy in +the hearts of his country's workingmen when the time was ripe for the +sowing. It is enough to secure his fame that he had the vision to see +that the time was ripe and the strength to break the ground. + + * * * * * + + + + +_FERDINAND LASSALLE_ + + + +THE WORKINGMEN'S PROGRAMME (1862) + +TRANSLATED BY E.H. BABBITT, A.B. + +Assistant Professor of German, Tufts College + + +Gentlemen: Requested to deliver an address before you, I have thought +it best to choose, and to treat in a strictly scientific way, a +subject, which, from its nature, must be particularly interesting to +you, namely, the special relation of the character of the historical +period in which we are living to the idea of a working class. + +I have said that my treatment of the subject will be purely +scientific. + +A true scientific attitude, however, is nothing more than perfect +clearness, and therefore the complete separation of our thinking from +any preconceived notion. For the sake of this complete absence of +preconceived notions with which we must approach the subject, it will +even be necessary, in the course of the discussion, to form a clear +conception of what we really mean by the term "workingmen" or "working +class." For even on this point we must not admit any preconceived +notion, as if these terms were something perfectly well +understood--which is by no means the case. The language of common life +very frequently attaches at different times different conceptions to +the words "workingman" or "working class," and we must therefore, in +due time, get a clear conception as to what meaning we will attach to +these designations. + +With this problem, however, we are not concerned at the present +moment. We must rather begin this presentation with a different +question: The working class is only one class among several which +together form the body politic, and there have been workingmen at +every historical period. How, then, is it possible, and what does the +statement mean, that a particular connection exists between the idea +of this special definite class and the principle of the particular +historical period in which we are living? + +To understand this it is desirable to take a glance into history--into +the past, which properly interpreted, here, as everywhere, gives us +the key to the present and points out to us an outline of the future. +In this retrospect we must be as brief as possible, or we shall be in +danger (in the short time which is before us) of not reaching at all +the essential subject of the discussion. But even at this risk we +shall at least be obliged to cast such a glance into the past, even if +it is limited to the most general considerations, in order to +understand the import of our question and of our subject. + +If, then, we go back to the Middle Ages, we shall find, in general, +that the same classes and divisions of the population which today +compose the body politic were already in existence, although by no +means so fully developed; but we find, furthermore, that at that time +one class, one element, is predominate--the landholding element. It is +land proprietorship which in the Middle Ages is the controlling +influence in every particular, which has put its own special stamp +upon all the institutions and upon the whole life of the time: it must +be pronounced the ruling principle of that period. + +The reason why land ownership is the ruling principle of that time is +a very simple one. It lies--at least this reason is quite sufficient +for our present purposes--in the economic conditions of the Middle +Ages and in the state of development of production. Commerce was then +very slightly developed, manufactures still less. The chief wealth of +every community consisted, in greatest measure, in the products of +agriculture. + +Personal property at that time, in comparison with the ownership of +real estate, came only slightly into consideration; how far this was +the case is shown very plainly by property law, which always gives a +very clear criterion for the economic relations of the period in which +it arises. Medieval property law, for instance, with the object of +holding the property of families from generation to generation and +protecting it from dissipation, declared family property or "estate" +inalienable without the consent of the heirs; but by this family +property or "estate" was expressly understood only real estate. +Personal or portable property, on the other hand, could be disposed of +without the consent of the heirs; and in general all personal property +was treated by the old German law not as an independent +self-perpetuating basis of property (capital), but always as the fruit +of the soil--in the same way, for instance, as the annual crop from +the soil--and was subject to the same legal conditions as the latter. +Nothing but real estate was then regularly treated as an independent +self-perpetuating basis of property. It is therefore entirely in +keeping with this condition of things, and a simple consequence of it, +that landed property and those who had it in their hands almost +exclusively--the nobility and clergy--formed the ruling factor, from +every point of view, in the society of that period. + +Whatever institution of the Middle Ages you may consider, you meet +this phenomenon at every point. It will suffice us to glance at a few +of the most essential of these institutions in which landholding +appears as a ruling principle. + +First: The organization of the public power given by it, or the Feudal +System. The essential point of this was that kings, princes and lords +ceded to other lords and knights land for their use, in return for +which the recipient had to promise military vassalage--that is, he had +to support the feudal lord in his wards or feuds, both in person and +with retainers. + +Second: The organization of public law, or the constitution of +the empire. In the German parliaments the princes and the large +landholdings of the counts, the empire, and of the clergy were +represented. The cities had the right to a seat or a vote only if they +had succeeded in acquiring the privileges of an imperial free city. + +Third: The exemption from taxation of the large landholdings. It is a +characteristic and constantly recurring phenomenon that every ruling +privileged class tries constantly to throw the burden of the +maintenance of the State, in open or disguised manner, in direct or +indirect form, on the propertyless classes. When Richelieu, in 1641, +demanded six million francs from the clergy as an extraordinary +revenue, the latter gave, through the archbishop of Sens, the +characteristic answer: "L'usage ancien de l'eglise pendant sa vigeur +etait que le peuple contribuait ses biens, la noblesse son sang, le +clerge ses prieres aux necessites de l'Etat." (The ancient custom of +the church in her prosperity was that the people contributed to the +needs of the State their property, the nobility their blood, the +clergy their prayers.) + +Fourth: The social stigma that rested upon all work other than +occupation of the soil. To conduct manufacturing enterprises, to +acquire money by commerce and manual trades, was considered +disgraceful and dishonorable for the two privileged ruling classes, +the nobility and the clergy, for whom it was regarded as honorable to +obtain their revenue from landownership only. + +These four great and determining motives which established the basic +character of the period are entirely sufficient, for our purpose, to +show how it was that landed property put its stamp upon that epoch and +formed its ruling principle. + +This was so far the case that even the movement of the Peasant War, +which apparently was completely revolutionary--the one which broke out +in Germany in 1524 and involved all Swabia, Franconia, Alsace, +Westphalia, and other parts of Germany--depended absolutely upon +this same principle, and was therefore in fact a reactionary movement +in spite of its revolutionary attitude. The peasants at that time +burned down the castles of the nobles, killed the nobles themselves, +and made them run the gauntlet according to the custom of the times; +but, nevertheless, in spite of this externally revolutionary +appearance, the movement was essentially thoroughly reactionary. For +the new birth of State relations--the German freedom which the +peasants desired to establish--was to consist, according to their +ideas, in the abolition of the special and intermediary position which +the princes occupied between the emperor and the empire, and, in its +stead, the representation in the German parliament of nothing but free +and independent landed property, including that of the peasants and +knights (these two classes up to this time not having been +represented), as well as the individual independent estates of the +nobles of every degree--knights, counts, and princes, without regard +to former differences; and, on the other hand, of the landed property +of the nobles as well as of the peasants. + +It is clear at once, then, that this plan, in the last instance, +results in nothing more than still more logical, clear, and equitable +carrying-out of the principle which had formed the basis of the +historical period which was even then approaching its end; that is, +landownership was to be the ruling element and the only condition +which entitled anybody to participation in the government of the +State: that anybody should demand such participation just because he +was a man, because he was a reasonable being, even without owning any +land--this did not occur to the peasants in the remotest degree! For +this the conditions of the time were not sufficiently developed, the +method of thought of the time was not revolutionary enough. + +So then this peasant uprising, which came forward externally with such +revolutionary determination, was in its essence completely +reactionary; that is to say, instead of standing upon a new +revolutionary principle, it stood unconsciously on the old, +existing principle of the period which was then just closing; and just +because it was reactionary, while it thought itself revolutionary, did +the peasant uprising fail. + +Accordingly, in comparison with the uprising of the peasants as well +as that of the nobles under Franz von Sickingen--both of which had the +principle in common of basing participation in the government, more +definitely than had before been the case, upon landholding--the rising +monarchical idea was relatively a justifiable and revolutionary +factor, since it was based upon the idea of a state sovereignty +independent of landholding, representing the national idea independent +of private property relations; and it was just this which gave it the +power for a victorious development and for the suppression of the +uprising of the peasants and the nobles. + +I have gone into this point somewhat explicitly, in the first place to +show the reasonableness and the progress of liberty in the development +of history, even by an example in which this is not at all evident on +superficial observation; in the second place, because historians are +still far from recognizing this reactionary character of the peasant +uprising and the reason for its failure, which lay chiefly in this +aspect; but, rather deceived by external appearances, they have +considered the Peasant War a truly revolutionary movement. + +Finally, in the third place, because at all ages this phenomenon is +frequently repeated--that men who do not think clearly (among whom are +often found those apparently most highly educated, even professors) +have fallen into the tremendous mistake of taking for a new +revolutionary principle what is only a more logical and clear +expression of the thought of a period and of institutions which are +just passing away. + +Gentlemen, let me warn you against such men, who are revolutionists +only in their own imaginations, and such tendencies, because we shall +have them in the future as we have had them in the past. We can also +derive consolation from the fact that the numerous movements which, +after momentary success, have immediately, or in a short time, come to +naught again, which we find in history and which may cloud the +superficial vision of many a patriot with gloomy forebodings, have +never been revolutionary movements except in imagination. A true +revolutionary movement, one which rests upon a really new idea, as the +more thoughtful man can prove from history to his consolation, has +never yet failed, at least not permanently. + +I return to my main subject. If the Peasant Wars are revolutionary +only in imagination, what was really and truly revolutionary at that +time was the advance in manufacturing--the production of the middle +class, the constantly developing division of labor, and the resulting +wealth in capital, which accumulated exclusively in the hands of the +middle class because it was just this class that devoted itself to +production and reaped its profits. + +It is usual to date the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of +modern history from the Reformation--accordingly, from the year 1517. +This is correct in the sense that, in the two centuries immediately +following the Reformation, a slow, gradual, and unnoticed change took +place, which completely transformed the aspect of society and +accomplished within it a revolution that later, in 1789, was merely +proclaimed, not actually produced, by the French Revolution. + +Do you ask in what this transformation consisted? + +In the legal position of the nobility there had been no change. +Legally the nobility and the clergy had remained the two ruling +classes, and the middle class the class universally kept down and +oppressed. But although there had legally been no change, yet actually +the reversal of conditions had been all the more tremendous. + +By the production and accumulation of capital and of personal +property, in contrast to real estate, in the hands of the +middle class, the nobility had dwindled into complete +insignificance--even into actual dependence upon the enriched middle +class. If the nobles wished to maintain their place beside the middle +class, they must renounce all class traditions and begin to adopt the +same methods of industrial acquisition to which the middle class owed +their wealth and in consequence their _de facto_ power. The comedies +of Moliere, who lived at the time of Louis XIV., show us, as an +extremely interesting phenomenon, the nobles of the times despising +the rich middle class and at the same time playing the parasite at its +tables. Louis XIV. himself, this proudest of monarchs, takes off his +hat in his palace at Versailles and humbles himself before the Jew, +Samuel Bernard, the Rothschild of the times, in order to influence him +in favor of a loan. + +When Law, the famous Scotch financier, at the beginning of the +eighteenth century, formed in France his trading companies--a stock +corporation which was formed for the exploitation of the Mississippi +region, the East Indies, etc., the Regent of France himself was on its +directorate--a member of a merchant company! The Regent found himself +in fact compelled in August, 1717, to issue edicts in virtue of which +the nobles might, without loss of dignity, enter into the naval and +military service of these trading companies! To that point, then, the +warlike and proud feudal aristocracy of France had fallen--to be the +armed employees of the industrial and commercial enterprises of the +middle class, whose relations extended through all continents. + +Corresponding to this radical change, there had already developed a +materialism and an eager, grasping struggle for money and property +which could overcome all moral ideas and (what I regret to say was +generally still more significant for the privileged classes) even all +privileges of rank. Under this same Regent of France, Count Horn, one +of the highest of the aristocracy and connected with the first +families of France, even with the Regent himself, was broken on the +wheel as a common robber and murderer; and the Duchess of Orleans, a +German princess, writes in a letter of November 29, 1719, that six +ladies of the highest rank waylaid in the court of a building the +above-mentioned Law, who was at that time the most courted and the +busiest man in France and therefore very hard to interview, in order +to induce him to dispose of some of the shares founded by him, for +which at that time all France was competing and which brought on the +Exchange six and eight times the nominal price at which Law had issued +them. + +If you ask me again what the causes were which made possible this +development of manufacturing and the consequent wealth of the middle +class, I should have to exceed, if I tried to give them thorough +treatment, the time at my disposal. I can only enumerate for you the +most essential ones: The discovery of America and its tremendous +influence on production; the route to the East Indies around the Cape +of Good Hope, taking the place of the former land route by way of Suez +for all trade with the East Indies; the discovery of the magnetic +needle and the invention of the mariner's compass, and in consequence +greater safety and speed and lower insurance rates for all ocean +traffic; the waterways established in the interior of the countries, +the canals, also the good roads which made possible for the first time +a more remote market through the lessening of the transportation costs +of various commodities which formerly could not carry the raise in +price thus caused; greater security of property; well-established +courts of law; the invention of powder, and, in consequence of this +invention, the breaking down by the monarchy of the feudal military +power of the nobility; the dismissal of the mercenaries and mounted +retainers of the nobles on account of the destruction of their castles +and of their independent military power. For these retainers there was +now nothing left but to find work in the medieval workshops. All these +events gave impetus to the triumphal chariot of the middle class. All +these events, and many more which might be enumerated, combined to +produce this one effect. By the opening of wider markets and the +accompanying reduction of the costs of production and transportation, +there comes production for the world-market, and consequently the +necessity for cheap production which, in its turn, can be met only by +a constantly extending division of labor, i.e., by the more perfectly +developed division of the work into its simplest mechanical processes; +this in turn brings about a constantly increasing output. + +We are on the ground here of action and reaction. Each of these +circumstances is a cause for the other, and the latter then reacts +upon the former, and extends it and increases its scope. + +It must be clear that the production of an article in enormous +quantities--its production for the world-market--is, in general, +possible only if the costs of production of the article are low and if +also its transportation is cheap enough not to raise its price +essentially. Production in enormous quantities demands a wholesale +market, and a wholesale market for any commodity can be obtained only +by its low price, which makes it available for a very large number of +consumers; thus the low cost of production and transportation of any +commodity brings about its production on a huge scale in enormous +quantities. It must also be clear, on the other hand, that the +production of a commodity in enormous quantities causes and increases +its cheapness. A manufacturer, for instance, who turns out 200,000 +pieces of cotton goods in a year, is able, because he procures his raw +material more cheaply on a large scale and because the profit on his +capital and the interest on his plant is distributed over so large a +number of pieces, to market each piece, within certain limits, at a +far lower price than the manufacturer who produces yearly only 5,000 +such pieces. Greater cheapness of production leads accordingly to +production on a large scale. This results, in turn, in greater +cheapness; this in its own turn brings about production in still +greater quantities, and this still greater cheapness, and so on. + +The relations are also quite similar in the matter of division of +labor, which is another necessary condition for production in large +quantities and for cheapness, for without it neither cheapness of +production nor large quantities would be possible. + +The division of labor which splits up the production of an article +into a great number of very simple and often purely mechanical +operations requiring no thought on the part of the operative, and sets +at each one of these single operations a single workman, would be +entirely impossible without extensive production of this article. It +is therefore established and extended only through such production. On +the other hand, this division of the work into simple operations leads +(1), to a constantly increasing cheapness; (2), to production in +enormous and constantly increasing quantities--a production calculated +not only for this or that neighboring market, but for the entire +world-market; and (3), through this and through new divisions which +can for this reason be applied to single operations, to still farther +advances in the division of labor itself. + +By this series of actions and reactions there had accordingly appeared +a complete transformation in the manufacturing institutions of the +community and hence in all its relations of life. The best way to +state this briefly is to reduce it to the following contrast: + +In the early Middle Ages, since only a small number of very valuable +products could stand the expense of transportation, production was +calculated for the need of the immediate locality and a very limited +neighboring market whose demand was, just for this reason, a +well-known, steady, and unchanging one. The need or the demand +preceded production and formed a well-known criterion for it; in other +words, the production of the community had been chiefly artisan +production. Now, in distinction from factory or wholesale production, +the character of small or artisan production is this: Either the need +is awaited before production--as, for example, a tailor waits for my +order before he makes me a coat, a locksmith before he makes me a +lock; or even if some goods are manufactured to be sold ready-made, on +the whole this ready-made business is limited to a minimum of what is +definitely known from experience to be the needs of the immediate +locality and its nearest neighborhood--as, for instance, a tinsmith +makes up a certain number of lamps, knowing that the local demand will +soon dispose of them. + +The characteristics of a community producing chiefly in this manner +are poverty, or at least only a moderate prosperity, but, to offset +this, a certain definiteness and steadiness of all relations. + +Now, on the other hand, through the incessant and complete action and +reaction which I have been describing to you, there had appeared in +the community a totally different kind of work, and therefore of all +relations of life. There had already appeared the germ of the same +characteristic which today marks, in a differently developed but +enormously extended manner, the production of the community. In the +tremendous development which it has today this characteristic, in +contrast to that previously described, can be indicated as follows: +Whereas, formerly, need preceded production, made it a consequence of +itself, determined it, and formed a criterion and well-known standard +for it--production and supply now go in advance of the demand and try +to develop it. Production is no longer for the locality, no longer for +the well-known need of neighboring markets, but for the world-market. +Production goes on for remote regions and for a general market, for +all continents, for an actually unknown and not definitely calculated +need; and in order that the product may arouse need a weapon is +supplied it--cheapness. Cheapness is the weapon of a product, with +which, on the one hand, it obtains customers, and, on the other, +drives from the field other goods of the same nature, which are likewise +urged upon the consumers; so that under the system of free +competition any producer may hope, no matter what enormous quantities +he may produce, to find a market for them all if he only succeeds, by +making his goods exceedingly cheap, in keeping out of the market the +goods of his competitors. The predominant character of such a society +is vast and boundless wealth, but, on the other hand, a great +instability of all relations, an almost continual, anxious insecurity +in the position of each individual, together with a very unequal +sharing of the returns of production among those taking part in it. + +Thus great had been the changes brought about, unnoticed in the heart +of society, by the revolutionary and all-pervading activity of +industrialism, even before the end of the eighteenth century. + +Though the men of the Peasant Wars had not ventured any other +conception than that of founding the State upon land ownership, though +they had not, even in thought, been able to free themselves from the +view that land ownership is necessarily the element which holds +sovereignty over the State and that participation in that ownership is +the condition for participation in that sovereignty, yet the quiet, +imperceptible, revolutionary progress of industrialism had brought +about the condition that, long before the end of the eighteenth +century, land ownership had become an element stripped entirely of its +former importance, and had fallen to a subordinate position, in the +face of the development of new methods of production, of the wealth +which this development bore in its bosom and increased from day to +day, and of the influence which it clearly had on all the people and +their affairs--even upon the largely impoverished nobility. + +The revolution was therefore an accomplished fact in the actual +relations of society long before it broke out in France; and it was +only necessary to bring this reversal of conditions to outward +recognition to give it legal sanction. This is always the case in +all revolutions. You can never make a revolution. You can only give +external legal recognition and logical embodiment in practice to a +revolution which has already become an actuality in the essential +relations of society. Trying to make a revolution is the folly of +immature men who have no conception of the laws of history. + +Precisely for this reason it is just as immature and childish to +suppress a revolution already fully formed in the womb of society and +to oppose its legal recognition, or to reproach those who assist at +its birth with being revolutionary. If the revolution is at hand in +the actual conditions of society, nothing can prevent its appearing +and passing into legislation. + +How these things were related, and how far they had already gone in +this direction in the period of which I speak, you will best see from +another matter which I will mention. + +I have already spoken about the division of labor, the development of +which consists of separating all production into a series of entirely +simple mechanical operations requiring no thought on the part of the +operator. As this separation progresses farther and farther, the +discovery is finally made that these single operations, because they +are quite simple and call for no thought, can be accomplished just as +well, and even better, by unthinking agents; and so in 1775, fourteen +years before the French Revolution, Arkwright invented the first +machine, his famous spinning-jenny. + +We can see that the machine in itself was not the cause of the +revolution. Too little time intervened between this invention, which +furthermore was not immediately introduced into France, and the +revolution; but it embodied in itself the actually incipient and fully +ripe revolution. This machine, however innocent it seemed, was in fact +the revolution personified. The reasons for this are simple. You, of +course, have heard of the guild system, by which production in the +Middle Ages was directed. The guild system of the Middle Ages was +inseparably connected with other institutions. The guilds lasted +through the whole medieval period up to the French Revolution; but as +early as 1672 the matter of their abolition was considered in the +German parliament, though without result. Even in 1614, in the French +_Etats Generaux_, the abolition of the guilds was demanded by the +middle class, whose production the guilds everywhere restricted; but +also without result. Indeed thirteen years before the Revolution, in +1776, a minister of the Reformed party in France, the famous Turgot, +abolished the guilds, but the privileged world of medieval feudalism +considered itself, and with perfect justice, in mortal danger if its +vital principle of privilege did not extend to all classes of society; +and so, six months after the abolition of the guilds, the king was +empowered to revoke this edict and to reestablish the guilds. Nothing +but the Revolution could overthrow (and it did overthrow in one day, +by the capture of the Bastille) that which in Germany had been vainly +assailed since 1672 and in France since 1614--for almost two +centuries--by legal means. + +You see from this, Gentlemen, that however great the advantages of +reformation by legal means are, such means have nevertheless in all +the more important points one great disadvantage--that of being +absolutely powerless for whole centuries; and, furthermore, that the +revolutionary means, undeniable as its disadvantages are, has as a +compensation the advantage of attaining quickly and effectively a +practical result. + +If you will now keep in mind that the guilds were connected in an +inseparable manner with the whole social arrangement of the Middle +Ages, you will see at once how the first machine, Arkwright's +spinning-jenny, embodied a complete revolution in those social +conditions. + +For how could machine production be possible under the guild system, +in which the number of journeymen and apprentices a master workman +could employ was determined by law in each locality; or how, under +the guild system, in which the different trades were distinguished by +law from one another in the most exact manner, and each master could +carry on only one of them--so that, for instance, the tailors and the +nail-makers of Paris for centuries had lawsuits with the menders of +clothes and the locksmiths, in order to draw lines between their +respective trades--how, under such a guild system, could production be +possible with a system of machines which requires the union of the +most varied departments of work under the control of one and the same +management? + +It had come to the point, then, that production itself had called into +being, by its constant and gradual development, instruments of +production which must necessarily destroy the existing condition of +things--instruments and methods of production which, under the guild +system, could no longer find place and opportunity for development. + +Thus considered, I call the first machine in itself a revolution; for +it bore in its wheels and cogs, little as this could be seen on +external observation, the germ of the new condition of things, based +upon free competition, which must necessarily develop from this germ +with the power and irresistibility of life itself. + +And so, if I am not greatly mistaken, it may be true today that there +exist various phenomena which imply a new condition that must +inevitably develop from them--phenomena which, at this time also, +cannot be understood from external conditions; so that the authorities +themselves, while persecuting insignificant agitators, not only +overlook these phenomena, but even let them stand as necessary +accompaniments of our civilization, hail them as the climax of +prosperity, and, on occasion, make appreciative and approving speeches +in their honor. + +After all these discussions you will now understand the true meaning +of the famous pamphlet published by Abbe Sieyes in 1788--and so before +the French Revolution--which was summed up in these words: _"Qu'est-ce +que c'est que le tiers etat? rien! qu' est qu'il doit etre? Tout!" +Tiers etat_, or third class, is what the middle class in France was +called, because they formed, in contrast to the two privileged +classes, the nobility and the clergy, a third class, which meant all +the people without privilege. This pamphlet brings together the two +questions raised by Sieyes, and their answers: "What is the third +class? Nothing! What ought it to be? Everything." This is how Sieyes +formulates these two questions and answers. But from all that has been +said, the true meaning of these questions and answers would be more +clearly and correctly expressed as follows: "What is the third class +_de facto_--in reality? Everything! But what is it _de jure_--legally? +Nothing!" + +What was to be done, then, was to bring the legal position of the +third class into harmony with its actual meaning; to clothe its +importance, already existing in fact, with legal sanction and +recognition; and just this is the achievement and significance of the +victorious revolution which broke out in France in 1789 and exerted +its transforming influence on the other countries of Europe. + +This question arises here: What was this third class, or +_bourgeoisie_, that through the French Revolution obtained victory +over the privileged classes and gained control of the State? Since +this third class stood in contrast to the privileged classes of +society with legal vested rights, it considered itself at that time as +equivalent to the whole people, and its cause as the cause of all +humanity. This explains the exalting and mighty enthusiasm which was +general in that period. The rights of man were proclaimed; and it +seemed as if, with the liberation and sovereignty of this third class, +all legal privileges in society were ended, and as if every legally +privileged distinction had been replaced by its principle of the +universal liberty of man. + +At that time, however, in the very beginning of the movement, in +April, 1789, on the occasion of the elections to a parliament which +was summoned by the king under the condition that the third class +should this time send as many representatives as the nobility and +clergy together, a newspaper of a character anything but revolutionary +writes as follows: "Who can tell us whether a despotism of the +bourgeoisie will not follow the so-called aristocracy of the nobles?" + +But such cries at that time were drowned in the general enthusiasm. + +Nevertheless we must come back to that question, we must put the +question definitely: Was the cause of the third class really the cause +of all humanity; or did this third class, the _bourgeoisie_, bear +within it a fourth class, from which it wished to distinguish itself +clearly, and subject it to its sovereignty? + +I must now, if I do not wish to run the risk of subjecting my +presentation to great misunderstandings, explain my own conception of +the word _bourgeoisie_, or upper _bourgeoisie_, as a term for a +political party. The word _bourgeoisie_ may be translated into German +by _Buergertum_ (body of citizens). In my opinion this is not what it +means. We are all _Buerger_ (citizens)--the working man, the +_Kleinbuerger_ (lower middle class), _Grossbuerger_ (upper middle +class), etc. But in the course of history the word _bourgeoisie_ has +acquired the significance of a definite political tendency, which I +will now explain.[47] + +The whole class of commoners outside the nobility was divided, when the +French Revolution began, and is still divided in general, into two +subordinate classes--first, those who get their living chiefly or +entirely from their labor, and are supported in this by very little +capital, or none at all, which might give them the possibility of +actively engaging in production for the support of themselves and their +families; to this class, accordingly, belong the laborers, the lower +middle class, the artisans, and, in general, the peasants; second, those +who control a large amount of property and capital, and on that basis +engage in production or receive an income from it. These can be called +the capitalists; but no capitalist is a _bourgeois_ merely because of +his wealth. + +No commoner has any objection to a nobleman's rejoicing privately over +his ancestry and his landed estates. But if the nobleman tries to make +these ancestors or these landed estates the condition of special +influence and privilege in the government, of control over public +policy, then the anger of the commoner rises against the nobleman and +he calls him a feudalist. + +Conditions are the same with reference to the actual difference of +property within the class of commoners. If the capitalist rejoices in +private over the great convenience and advantage which a large estate +implies for the holder, nothing is more simple, more moral, and more +lawful. + +To whatever extent the laborer and the poorer citizen--in a word, all +classes outside the capitalists--are entitled to demand from the State +that its whole thought and effort be directed toward improving the +lamentable and poverty-stricken material condition of the working +classes and toward assuring to them, through whose hands all the +wealth is produced of which our civilization boasts, to whose hands +all products owe their being, without whom society as a whole could +not exist another day, a more abundant and less uncertain revenue, and +thus the possibility of intellectual culture, and, in time, an +existence really worthy of a human being--however much, I say, the +working classes are entitled to demand this from the State and to +establish this as its true object, the workingmen must and will never +forget that all property once lawfully acquired is completely +inviolable and legitimate. + +But if the capitalist, not satisfied with the actual advantages of +large property, tries to establish the possession of capital as a +condition for participation in the control of the State and in the +determination of public policy, then the capitalist becomes a +_bourgeois_, then he makes the fact of possession the legal condition +of political control, then he characterizes himself as a new +privileged class which attempts to put the controlling stamp of its +privileges upon all social institutions in as full a degree as the +nobility in the Middle Ages did with the privilege of landholding. + +The question therefore which we must raise with reference to the +French Revolution and the period of history inaugurated by it, is the +following: Has the third class, which came into control through the +French Revolution, looked upon itself as a _bourgeoisie_ in this +sense, and has it attempted successfully to subject the people to its +privileged political control? + +The answer is given by the great facts of history, and this answer is +definitely in the affirmative. In the very first constitution which +followed the French Revolution--the one of September 3, 1791--the +difference between _citoyen actif_ and _citoyen passif_--the "active" +and "passive" citizen--is set forth. Only the active citizens received +the franchise, and the active citizen, according to this constitution, +is no other than one who pays a direct tax of a definitely stated +amount. + +This tax was at that time very moderate. It was only the value of +three days' work: but what was more important was that all those were +declared passive citizens who were _serviteurs a gages_ (wage +earners), a definition by which the working class was expressly +excluded from the franchise. After all, in such questions the +essential point is not the extent, but the principle. + +This meant the introduction of a property qualification, the +establishment of a definite amount of property as the condition of the +franchise--this first and most important of all political rights--and +in the determination of public policy. + +All those who paid no direct tax at all, or less than this fixed +amount, and those who were wage earners, were excluded from control of +the State and were made a subject body. The ownership of capital had +become the condition for control over the State, as was nobility, or +ownership of land, in the Middle Ages. + +This principle of property qualification remains (with the exception +of a very short period during the French Republic of 1793, which +perished from its own indefiniteness and from the whole state of +society at the time, which I cannot here discuss further) the leading +principle of all constitutions which originated in the French +Revolution. + +In fact, with the consistency which all principles have, this one was +soon forced to develop into a different quantitative scope. In the +constitution of 1814, according to the classified list promulgated by +Louis XVIII., a direct tax of three hundred francs (eighty thalers) +was established, in place of the value of three days' work, as a +condition of the franchise. The July Revolution of 1830 broke out, and +nevertheless, by the law of April 19, 1831, a direct tax of two +hundred francs (about fifty-three thalers) was required as a condition +of the franchise. + +What under Louis Philippe and Guizot was called the _pays legal_--that +is, the country as a legal entity--consisted of 200,000 men; for there +were not more than 200,000 electors in France who could meet the +property requirement, and these exercised sovereignty over more than +30,000,000 inhabitants. It is here to be noted that it makes no +difference whether the principle of property qualification, the +exclusion of those without property from the franchise, appears, as in +the constitutions referred to, in direct and open form, or in a form +in one way or another disguised. The effect is always the same. + +So the second French Republic in 1850 could not possibly revoke the +general direct franchise, once proclaimed, which we shall later +consider, but adopted the expedient of granting the franchise (law of +May 31,1850) only to such citizens as had been domiciled in a place +without interruption for at least three years. For, because workingmen +in France are frequently compelled by conditions to change their +domicile and to look for work in another commune, it was hoped, and +with good reason, that extremely large numbers of workingmen, who +could not bring proof of three years uninterrupted residence in the +same place, would be excluded from the franchise. + +Here you have a property qualification in disguised form. It is still +worse in our country, since the promulgation of the three-class +election law, under which, with variations according to locality, +three, ten, thirty, or more voters without property, of the third +class of electors, have only the same franchise as one single +capitalist who belongs to the first class; so that, in fact, if the +proportion were only one to ten, nine men out of every ten who had the +franchise in 1848 have lost it through the three-class election law of +1849, and exercise it only in appearance.[48] + +But this is only the average situation. In reality, conditions vary +greatly in different localities, and they are often still more +unfavorable, most unfavorable in fact where the inequality of property +is most developed; thus for instance, in Duesseldorf twenty-six voters +of the third class have no more power than one rich man. + +If we return from this discussion to our main thought, we have shown, +and shall continue to show, in what manner, since the time when, through +the French Revolution, the capitalist element obtained sovereignty, its +principle, the possession of capital, has now become the controlling +principle of all social institutions; how the capitalist class, +proceeding in just the same manner as the nobility in the Middle Ages +with land ownership, impresses now the controlling and exclusive stamp +of its particular principle, the possession of capital, upon all +institutions of society. The parallel between the nobility and the +capitalist class is, in this respect, complete. We have already seen +this with regard to the most important fundamental point, the +constitution of the Empire. As in the Middle Ages landholding was the +prevailing principle of representation in the German parliaments, so +now, by a direct or disguised property qualification, the amount of tax, +and therefore, since this is determined by the capital of an individual, +the holding of capital, is what, in the last instance, determines the +right of election to legislative bodies and therefore of participation +in the control of the State. + +Just so in reference to all other institutions in which I have +demonstrated to you that land ownership was the controlling principle +in the Middle Ages. I called your attention then to the exemption from +taxation of the noble landholders of the Middle Ages, and told you +that every privileged ruling class tries to throw the burden for the +maintenance of public welfare upon the oppressed propertyless class. +Just so the capitalists. To be sure they cannot declare publicly that +they wish to be exempt from taxation. Their expressed principle is +rather the rule that everybody shall be taxed in proportion to income; +but, on the other hand, they attain, at least fairly well, the same +result in disguised form by the distinction between direct and +indirect taxes. + +Direct taxes are those which, like the classified income tax, are +collected, and therefore are determined, according to the amount of +income and capital. Indirect taxes, however, are those which are laid +upon any necessity--for instance, salt, grain, beer, meat, fuel; or on +the necessity for legal protection--law costs, stamp taxes, etc., and +which the individual very frequently pays in the price of the +commodity without knowing or perceiving that he is being taxed, that +the tax increases the price. + +Now no man, of course, who is twenty, fifty, or a hundred times as +rich as another eats by any means twenty, fifty or a hundred times as +much salt, or bread, or meat; or drinks fifty or a hundred times as +much beer or wine; or has fifty or a hundred times as much need for +heat, and therefore for fuel, as the workingman or the relatively poor +man. + +The result of this is that all indirect taxes, instead of falling +upon individuals according to the proportion of their capital and +income, are paid in the main by the propertyless classes, the poorer +classes of the nation. It is true that the capitalists did not invent +indirect taxes--they were already in existence--but they were the +first to develop them into a monstrous system and to throw upon them +nearly the whole cost of government. To make this clear to you, I will +simply allude to the Prussian financial administration of 1855. (Shows +by official statistics that out of a budget of 109,000,000 thalers all +but 12,800,000 were derived from indirect taxes.) + +Indirect taxation is therefore the institution through which the +capitalistic class obtains the privilege of exemption for its capital +and lays the cost of the government upon the poorer classes of +society. + +Observe, at the same time, Gentlemen, the peculiar contradiction and +the strange kind of justice of the procedure of laying the whole +expense upon indirect taxation, and therefore upon the poor people, +and of setting up as a test and a condition of the franchise, and +therefore of political control, the direct taxes, which contribute for +the total need of the State only the insignificant sum of twelve +million out of one hundred and eight million. + +I said further with reference to the nobility of the Middle Ages, that +they held in contempt all activity and industry of the commoners. The +situation is the same today. All kinds of work, to be sure, are +equally esteemed today, and if anybody became a millionaire by +rag-picking he would be sure of obtaining a highly esteemed position +in society. + +But what social contempt falls upon those who, no matter at what they +labor or how hard they toil, have no capital to back them--that is a +matter which you, Gentlemen, do not need to be told by me, but can +find often enough, unfortunately, in your daily life. Indeed, in many +respects, the capitalist class asserts the supremacy of its special +privilege with even stricter consistency than the nobility of the +Middle Ages did with its land ownership. The instruction of the +people--I mean here of the adult people--was in the Middle Ages the +work of the clergy. Since then the newspapers have assumed this +function; but through the securities a newspaper must give, and still +more through the stamp tax which is laid in our country, as in France +and elsewhere, on newspapers, a daily newspaper has become a very +expensive institution, which cannot be established without very +considerable capital, with the result that, for this very reason, even +the opportunity to mold public opinion, instruct it, and guide it has +become the privilege of the capitalist class. + +Were this not the case, you would have much different and very much +better papers. It is interesting to see how early this attempt of the +_bourgeoisie_ to make the press a privilege of capital appears, and in +what frank and undisguised form. On July 24, 1789, a few days after +the capture of the Bastille, during the first days after the middle +class obtained political supremacy, the representatives of the city of +Paris passed a resolution by which they declared printers responsible +if they published pamphlets or sheets by writers _sans existence +connue_ (without visible means of support). The newly won freedom of +the press, then, was to exist only for writers who had visible means +of support. Property thus appears as the condition of the freedom +of the press, indeed of the morality of the writer. The +straightforwardness of the first days of citizen sovereignty only +expresses in a childishly frank manner what is today artfully obtained +by bonding and stamp taxes. With these main characteristic facts +corresponding to our consideration of the Middle Ages we shall have to +be satisfied here. + +What we have seen so far are two historical periods, each of which +stands for the controlling idea of a distinct class, which impresses +its own principle upon all institutions of the time. + +First, the idea of the nobility, or land ownership, which forms the +controlling principle of the Middle Ages, and permeates all the +institutions of that time. + +This period closed with the French Revolution; though, of course, +especially in Germany, where this revolution came about, not through +the people, but in much slower and more complete reforms introduced by +the governments, numerous and important survivals of that first +historical period still exist, preventing to a large extent, even +today, complete control by the capitalist class. + +We observed, second, the period beginning with the French Revolution +at the end of the last century, which has capitalism as its principle +and establishes this as the privilege which permeates all social +institutions and determines participation in the public policy. This +period is also, little as external appearances indicate, essentially +at an end. + +On February 24, 1848, the first dawn of a new historical period became +visible, for on that day in France--that land in whose mighty internal +struggles the victories as well as the defeats of liberty indicate +victories and defeats for all mankind--a revolution broke out which +placed a workingman at the head of the provisional government, which +declared the principle of the State to be the improvement of the lot +of the working classes, and proclaimed the universal and direct +franchise, through which every citizen who had attained his +twenty-first year, without regard to property, should receive an equal +share in the control of the State and the determination of public +policy. You see, Gentlemen, if the Revolution of 1789 was the +revolution of the _tiers etat_ (the third class), this time it is the +fourth class--which in 1789 was still undistinguished from the third +class and seemed to coincide with it--that now attempts to establish +its own principle as the controlling one of society and to make it +pervade all institutions. + +But here, in the case of the supremacy of the fourth class, we find +the tremendous distinction that this class is the final and +all-inclusive disinherited class of humanity, which can set up no +further exclusive condition, either of legal or actual kind, neither +nobility, land ownership, nor capital, which it might establish as a +new privilege and carry through the institutions of society. +Workingmen we all are, so far as we have the desire to make ourselves +useful to human society in any way whatsoever. + +This fourth class, in whose bosom therefore no possible germ of a new +order of privilege is concealed, is for that very reason synonymous +with the whole human race. Its class is, in truth, the class of all +humanity, its liberty is the liberty of humanity itself, its +sovereignty is the sovereignty of all. Whoever hails the principle of +the working class, in the sense in which I have developed it, as a +controlling principle of society, utters no cry which separates and +makes hostile to another the classes of society. He utters, rather, a +cry of reconciliation, a cry which includes all society, a cry for the +leveling of all hostilities among the social strata, a cry of accord, +in which all should join who do not wish privilege and the oppression +of the people by privileged classes, a cry of love, which, ever since +it spoke for the first time from the heart of the people, will always +remain the true voice of the people, and, on account of its meaning, +will still be a cry of love, even if it sounds the battle-cry of the +people. + +The principle of the working class as a controlling principle of +society we have still to consider from three points of view--first, as +to the formal means of its realization; second, as to its moral +significance; third, as to its political conception of public policy. + +The formal means for carrying out this principle is the universal and +direct franchise already discussed--I say the universal and direct +franchise, not merely the general franchise such as we had in 1848. +The introduction in elections of two steps--of voters and of +electors--is nothing but an artful means introduced purposely with the +intention of thwarting, so far as possible, the will of the people in +the elections. To be sure, the universal and direct franchise will +be no magic wand, Gentlemen, which can protect you from temporary +mistakes. We have seen in France, in the years 1848 and 1849, two +unfavorable elections in succession, but the universal and direct +franchise is the only means which automatically corrects, in course of +time, the mistakes and temporary wrong to which this may lead. It is +that legendary lance which itself heals the wounds it makes. In the +course of time it is impossible, with universal and direct franchise, +for chosen representatives not to be a completely faithful reflection +of the people who have elected them. The people, therefore, at every +time will consider universal and direct franchise as an indispensable +political weapon, and as the most fundamental and important of their +demands. + +Let us now glance at the moral bearing of this social principle which +we are considering. + +Perhaps the idea of the lowest classes of society as the controlling +principle of society and of the State may appear very dangerous and +immoral, one which threatens to expose morality and culture to the +danger of being overrun by a "modern barbarism." + +And it would be no wonder if this thought should appear so at present. +For even public opinion--I have already indicated by what means, +namely, through the newspapers--receives today its imprint from the +coining-die of capital and from the hands of the privileged capitalist +class. + +Nevertheless this fear is only a prejudice; and it can be proved, on +the contrary, that this thought would represent the highest moral +progress and triumph which the world's history has shown. That view is +a prejudice, I say, and it is the prejudice of the present time, which +is still controlled by privilege. + +At another time--at the time of the first French Republic of 1793, +which was necessarily forced to fail from its own lack of +clearness--the opposite prejudice prevailed. At that time it was held +as a dogma that all the upper classes were immoral and only the +common people were good and moral. This view is due to Rousseau. In +the new Declaration of Human Rights which the French Convention, that +powerful constitutional assembly, published, it is even set forth in a +special article--Article 19--which reads "_Toute institution, qui ne +suppose le peuple bon et le magistrat corruptible, est vicieuse_." +(Every institution which does not assume that the people is good and +the magistracy corruptible is faulty.) You see that is exactly the +opposite of the confidence which is called for today, according to +which there is no greater crime than to doubt the good-will and the +virtue of the magistrates, while the people are considered on +principle a sort of dangerous beast and centre of corruption. + +At that time the opposite dogma even went so far that almost anybody +whose coat was in good repair appeared for that very reason corrupt +and suspicious, and virtue and purity and patriotic morality were +believed to be found only in those who had no good coat. It was the +period of _sans-culottism._ + +This point of view had really a foundation of truth, which, however, +appears in a false and perverted form. Now there is nothing more +dangerous than a principle which appears in false and perverted form; +for, whatever attitude you take toward it, you are sure to fare badly. +If you adopt this truth in its false, perverted form, then, at certain +times, this will produce the most terrible devastation, as was the +case in the period of _sans-culottism._ If, on account of the false +form, you reject the whole proposition as false, you fare still worse, +for you have rejected a truth, and, in the case which we are +considering, a truth without whose recognition no wholesome progress +is possible in modern political affairs. + +There is therefore no other procedure possible than to overcome the +false and perverted form of that proposition, and to try to establish +clearly its true meaning. + +Current public opinion is, as I said, disposed to stamp the whole +proposition as entirely false and as a declamation of the French +Revolution and of Rousseau. However, if this unreceptive attitude +toward Rousseau and the French Revolution were still possible, it +would be entirely impossible with reference to one of the greatest +German philosophers (Fichte), the one hundredth anniversary of whose +birth this State will celebrate next month, one of the most powerful +thinkers of all nations and all times. + +Fichte also declares expressly and literally that, with the rising +social scale, a constantly increasing moral deterioration is found, +and that "inferiority of character increases in proportion to the +higher social class." + +The final reason of these propositions Fichte has nevertheless not +developed. He gives as the reason of this corruption the selfishness +of the upper classes; but then the question must immediately arise +whether selfishness is not also to be found in the lower classes, or +why less in these classes. Now it must immediately appear as a strong +contradiction that less selfishness should prevail in the lower +classes than in the upper, who have in large measure the advantage of +them in the well-recognized moral elements, culture and education. + +The real reason, and the explanation of this contradiction, which +appears at first so strong, is the following: + +For a long time, as we have seen, the development of nations, the +tendency of history, has been toward a constantly extending abolition +of the privileges which guarantee to the higher classes their position +as higher and ruling classes. The wish for perpetuation of these, or +personal interest, brings therefore every member of the upper classes +who has not once for all, by a wide outlook upon his whole personal +existence, raised himself above such considerations (and you will +understand, Gentlemen, that these can form only very unusual +exceptions) into a position which is from principle hostile to the +progress of the people, to the extension of education and science, to +the advance of culture, to all tendencies and victories of historical +life. + +This opposition of the personal interest of the upper classes to the +progress of culture in the nation produces the great and inevitable +immorality of the upper classes. It is a life whose daily requirements +you only need picture to yourselves in order to feel the deep decline +of character to which it must lead. To be obliged daily to take an +attitude of opposition to everything great and good, to bewail its +success, to rejoice at its failures, to check its further progress, to +make futile or to curse the progress which has already been made, is +like a continual existence in the enemy's country; and this enemy is +the moral fellowship of the whole country in which you live, for which +all true morality urges support. It is a continual existence, I say, +in an enemy's country. This enemy is your own people, who must be +looked upon and treated as an enemy, and this hostility must, at least +in the long run, be craftily concealed and more or less artfully +veiled. + +From this arises the necessity either of doing what is against the +voice of your own conscience, or of stifling this voice from the force +of custom in order not to be annoyed by it, or, finally, of never +knowing this voice, never knowing anything better or having anything +better than the religion of your own advantage. + +This life, Gentlemen, therefore leads necessarily to a complete lack +of appreciation and a contempt for all ideal efforts, to a pitying +smile when the great word "ideal" is even mentioned; to a deep lack of +appreciation and of sympathy for everything beautiful and great; to a +complete transformation of all moral elements in us into the one +passion of selfish opportunism and the pursuit of pleasure. + +This conflict between personal interest and the cultural development +of the nation is, fortunately, not to be found in the lower classes of +society. + +In the lower classes, to be sure, there is, unfortunately, selfishness +enough, much more than there should be; but this selfishness, if it +exists, is the fault of individuals and not the inevitable fault of +the class. + +Even a very slight instinct tells the members of the lower classes +that, so far as each one of them depends merely upon himself and +merely thinks of himself, he can hope for no considerable improvement +of his situation; but so far as the lower classes of society aim at +the improvement of their condition as a class, so far does this +personal interest, instead of opposing the course of history and +therefore of being condemned to the aforesaid immorality, coincide in +its tendency completely with the development of the people as a whole, +with the victory of the ideal, with the progress of culture, with the +vital principle of history itself--which is nothing else than the +development of liberty. Or, as we have already seen, their cause is +the cause of all humanity. + +You are therefore in the fortunate position, Gentlemen, instead of +being compelled to be dead to the idea, of being destined rather, +through your own personal interests, to a greater receptiveness for +it. You are in the fortunate position that that which forms your own +true personal interest coincides with the throbbing heart-beat of +history--with the active, vital principle of moral development. You +can therefore devote yourself to historical development with personal +passion and be sure that the more fervent and consuming this passion +is, the more moral is your position, in the true sense which I have +explained to you. + +These are the reasons why the control of the fourth class over the +State must produce a fullness of morality and culture and knowledge +such as never yet existed in history. + +But still another reason points in the same direction, which again is +most intimately connected with all the considerations which we have +stated and forms their keystone. + +The fourth class has not only a different formal political principle +from the capitalist class--namely, the universal direct franchise in +place of the property qualification of the capitalist class; it has, +further, not only through its social position a different relation to +moral forces than the upper classes, but also, and partly in +consequence of this, a conception of the moral purpose of the State +entirely different from that of the capitalist class. The moral idea +of the capitalist is this--that nothing whatsoever is to be guaranteed +to any individual but the unimpeded exercise of his faculties. + +If we were all equally strong, equally wise, equally educated, and +equally rich, this idea might be regarded as a sufficient and a moral +one; but since we are not so, and cannot be so, this thought is not +sufficient, and therefore, in its consequences, leads necessarily to a +serious immorality; for its result is that the stronger, abler, richer +man exploits the weaker and becomes his master. + +The moral idea of the working class, on the other hand, is that the +unimpeded and free exercise of individual faculties by the individual +is not sufficient, but that in a morally adjusted community there must +be added to it solidarity of interests, mutual consideration, and +mutual helpfulness in development. + +In contrast to such a condition the capitalist class has this +conception of the moral purposes of the State--that it consists +exclusively and entirely in protecting the personal liberty of the +individual and his property. + +This is a policeman's idea, Gentlemen--a policeman's idea because the +State can think of itself only in the guise of a policeman whose whole +office consists in preventing robbery and burglary. Unfortunately this +conception is to be found, in consequence of imperfect thinking, not +only among acknowledged liberals, but, often enough, even among many +supposed to be democrats. If the capitalist class were to carry their +thought to its logical extreme they would have to admit that, +according to their idea, if there were no thieves or robbers the State +would be entirely unnecessary. + +The fourth class conceives of the purpose of the State in a quite +different manner, and its conception of it is the true one. + +History is a struggle with nature--that is, with misery, with +ignorance, with poverty, with weakness, and, accordingly, with +restrictions of all kinds to which we were subject when the human race +appeared in the beginning of history. A constantly advancing victory +over this weakness--that is the development of liberty which history +portrays. + +In this struggle we should never have taken a step forward, nor should +we ever take another, if we had carried it on, or tried to carry it +on, as individuals, each for himself alone. + +It is the State which has the office of perfecting this development of +freedom, and of the human race to freedom. The State is this unity of +individuals in a moral composite--a unity which increases a +millionfold the powers of all individuals who are included in this +union, which multiplies a millionfold the powers which are at the +command of them all as individuals. + +The purpose of the State, then, is not to protect merely the personal +liberty of the individual and the property which, according to the +idea of the capitalist, he must have before he can participate in the +State; the purpose of the State is, rather, through this union to put +individuals in a position to attain objects, to reach a condition of +existence which they could never reach as individuals, to empower them +to attain a standard of education, power, and liberty which would be +utterly impossible for them, one and all, merely as individuals. The +object of the State is, accordingly, to bring the human being to +positive and progressive development--in a word, to shape human +destiny, i.e., the culture of which mankind is capable, into actual +existence. It is the training and development of the human race for +freedom. + +Such is the real moral nature of the State--its true and higher task. +This is so truly the case that for all time it has been carried out +through the force of circumstances, by the State, even without its +will, even without its knowledge, even against the will of its +leaders. + +But the working class, the lower classes of society in general, have, +on account of the helpless position in which their members find +themselves as individuals, the sure instinct that just this must be +the function of the State--the aiding of the individual, by the union +of all, to such a development as would be unobtainable by him merely +as an individual. + +The State then, brought under the control of the idea of the working +class, would no longer be driven on, as all states have been up to +this time, unconsciously and often reluctantly, by the nature of +things and the force of circumstances; but it would make this moral +nature of the State its task, with the greatest clearness and complete +consciousness. It would accomplish with ready willingness and the most +complete consistency that which, up to this time, has been forced only +in the dimmest outlines from the opposing will, and just for this +reason it would necessarily promote a nourishing of intellect, a +development of happiness, education, prosperity, and liberty, such as +would stand without example in the world's history, in comparison with +which the most lauded conditions in earlier times would drop into a +pale shadow. + +It is this which must be called the political idea of the working +class, its conception of the purpose of the State, which, as you see, +is just as different, and in a perfectly corresponding manner, from +the conception of the purpose of the State in the capitalist class as +the principle of the working class--a share of all in the +determination of public policy, or universal suffrage--is from the +corresponding principle of the capitalist class--the property +qualification. + +The line of thought here developed is therefore what must be +pronounced the idea of the working class. It is that which I had in +view when, at the beginning, I spoke of the connection between the +particular period of history in which we live and the idea of the +working class. It is this period, beginning with February, 1848, which +has the task of bringing such a political idea to realization, and we +may congratulate ourselves that we have been born in a time which is +destined to see the accomplishment of this most glorious work of +history, and in which we have the privilege of lending a helping hand. + +But for all who belong to the working class there follows from what I +have said the duty of an entirely new attitude. Nothing is more +effective in impressing upon a class a dignified and deeply moral +stamp than the consciousness that it is destined to be the ruling +class; that it is called upon to elevate the principle of its class to +the principle of the whole historical period; to make its idea the +leading truth of the whole of society, and so, in turn, to shape +society into a reflection of its own character. The lofty historical +honor of this destiny must lay hold upon all your thoughts. It is no +longer becoming to you to indulge in the vices of the oppressed, or +the idle distractions of the thoughtless, or even the harmless +frivolity of the insignificant. You are the rock upon which the church +of the present is to be built. + +The lofty moral earnestness of this thought should entirely fill your +mind, should fill your hearts and shape your whole life to be worthy +of it and conformable to it. The moral earnestness of this thought, +without ever leaving you, must stand for better thoughts in your shop +during your work, in your leisure hours, your walks, your meetings; +and, even when you lie down to rest on your hard couch, it is this +thought which must fill and occupy your soul until it passes into the +realm of dreams. The more exclusively you fill your minds with this +moral earnestness, the more undividedly you are influenced by its +warmth--of this you may be assured--the more you will hasten the time +in which our present historical period has to accomplish its task, the +sooner you will bring about the fulfilment of this work. + +If, among those who listen to me today, there were even two or three +in whom I have succeeded in kindling the moral warmth of this thought, +with that fullness which I mean and which I have described to you, I +should consider even that a great gain, and account myself richly +rewarded for my presentation. + +Above all, your soul must be free from discouragement and doubt, to +which an insufficiently valid consideration of historical efforts +might easily lead. So, for instance, it is absolutely false that in +France the Republic was overthrown by the _coup d'etat_ of December, +1851. + +What could not maintain itself in France, what really was destroyed at +that time, was not _the_ Republic but _that_ republic, which, as I +have already shown you, abolished, by the law of May 30, 1850, the +universal franchise, and introduced a disguised property qualification +for the exclusion of the workingman. It was the capitalist republic +which wished to put the stamp of the _bourgeoisie_--the domination of +capital--upon the republican forms of the State; it was this which +gave the French usurper the possibility, under an apparent restoration +of the universal franchise, to overthrow the Republic, which otherwise +would have found an invincible bulwark in the breast of the French +workingman. So what in France could not maintain itself, and was +overthrown, was not the Republic, but the _bourgeois_ republic; and, +on really correct consideration, the fact is confirmed, even by this +example, that the historical period which began with February, 1848, +will no longer tolerate any State which, whether in monarchical or in +republican form, tries to impress upon it, or maintain within it, the +controlling political stamp of the third class of society. + +From the lofty mountain tops of science the dawn of a new day is seen +earlier than below in the turmoil of daily life. + +Have you ever beheld a sunrise from the top of a high mountain? A +purple line colors blood-red the farthest horizon, announcing the new +light. Clouds and mists collect and oppose the morning red, veiling +its beams for a moment; but no power on earth can prevail against the +slow and majestic rising of the sun which, an hour later, visible to +all the world, radiating light and warmth, stands bright in the +firmament. What an hour is, in the natural phenomena of every day, a +decade or two is in the still more impressive spectacle of a sunrise +in the world's history. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 47: The word _bourgeoisie_ is henceforth used throughout the +discussion to designate the political party now defined.--TRANSLATOR.] + +[Footnote 48: Here the speaker quotes statistics showing that, on the +average, throughout Prussia, a vote by a man of the first class has as +much weight as seventeen votes by men of the third class.--TRANSLATOR.] + + * * * * * + + + + +SCIENCE AND THE WORKINGMEN (1863) + +[A speech delivered by Lassalle in his own defense before the Criminal +Court of Berlin on the charge of having incited to class hatred.] + +TRANSLATED BY THORSTEIN B. VEBLEN, PH.D. Lecturer in Economics, +University of Missouri + + +Mr. President and Gentlemen of the Court: + +I shall have to make my beginning with an appeal to your indulgence. +My defense will go somewhat into detail. It will, on that account, +necessarily be somewhat long. But I consider myself justified in +pursuing this course, first, by the magnitude of the penalty with +which I am threatened under Section 100 of the Criminal Code--the full +extent of this penalty amounting to no less than two years' +imprisonment. In the second place, and more particularly, I consider +my course justified by the fact that this trial by no means centres +about a man and the imposition of a penalty. + +You will, therefore, permit me, without further preliminary, to carry +the discussion from the region of ordinary court-room routine to that +higher level on which it properly belongs. + +The indictment brought against me is an evil and deplorable sign of +the times. It not only offends the common law, but it is a notable +violation of the Constitution. This is the first count in the defense +which I have to offer. + +I. Article 20 of the Constitution reads: "Science and its teaching is +free." + +What may be the meaning of this phrase in the Constitution, "is free," +unless it means that science and its teaching are not subject to the +ordinary provisions of the Criminal Code? Is this expression, "Science +and its teaching is free," perhaps to be taken as meaning "free within +the limits of the general provisions of the criminal code?" But +within these limits every expression of opinion is absolutely +free--not only science and its teaching. So long as they live within +the general specifications of the criminal code, every newspaper +writer and every market woman is quite free to write and say whatever +they choose. This liberty, which is conceded to all expressions of +opinion, need not and could not be proclaimed by a special article of +the Constitution as a peculiar concession to "science and its +teaching." + +To put such a construction upon this article of the Constitution +amounts to reading it out of the Constitution, to so interpreting it +that it has nothing to say,--which is in our time by no means a +neglected method of quietly putting the Constitution out of the way. + +Now, the first principle of legal interpretation is that a provision +of law must not be so interpreted as to make it superfluous or absurd, +or to virtually expunge it. This, of course, applies with peculiar +force to an article of the Constitution. There can accordingly be no +doubt, Gentlemen, that precisely this was the intention of this +provision of the Constitution; namely, that the prerogative was to be +conceded to science that it should not lie under the limitations which +the general criminal code imposes upon every-day, trivial expressions +of opinion. + +It is easy to understand that the legislature of any country will seek +to protect the institutions of the country. In the nature of the case, +the laws forbid inciting the citizens of a country to disorderly +outbreak against the constituted authority. + +Indeed, if we accept certain current views of law and order we have no +difficulty in understanding that the law may consistently forbid all +such appeal to the passions as is designed to foster contempt and +disregard of existing conventions, or to stir up sentiments of hatred +and distrust in their populace through a direct appeal to the unstable +emotions. + +But what is in the eternal nature of things free, on which no limits +must be imposed, the importance of which to the State itself is +greater than that of any single provision of law, to the free exercise +of which no provision of law can set bounds--that is the impulse to +scientific investigation. + +No situation and no institution is perfect. Such a thing may happen as +that an institution which we are accustomed to consider the most +unimpeachable and indispensable, may, in fact, be vicious in the +highest degree, and be most seriously in need of reform. + +Will any one deny this whose view comprehends the changes which +history records since the days of the Hindus or the Egyptians? Or even +if he looks no further than the narrow space of the past one hundred +years? + +The Egyptian fellah warms the hearth of his squalid mud hut with the +mummies of the Pharaohs of Egypt, the all-powerful builders of the +everlasting pyramids. Customs, conventions, codes, dynasties, states, +nations come and go in incontinent succession. But, stronger than +these, never disappearing, forever growing, from the earliest +beginnings of the Ionic philosophy, unfolding in an ever-increasing +amplitude, outleaping all else, spreading from one nation and from one +people to another, and handed down, with devout reverence, from age to +age, there remains the stately growth of scientific knowledge. + +And what is the source of all that unremitting progress, of all that +uninterruptedly, but insensibly, broadening amelioration which we see +peacefully accomplishing itself in the course of history, if it is not +this same scientific knowledge? And, this being so, science must have +its way without restraint; for science there is nothing fixed and +definite, to which its process of chemical analysis may not be +applied, nothing sacred, no _noli me tangere_. Without free scientific +inquiry, therefore, there is no outcome but stagnation, decline and +barbarism. And, while free scientific inquiry is the perennial +fountain-head of all progress in human affairs, this inquiry and its +gradually extending sway over men's convictions, is at the same time +the only guarantee of a peaceable advance. Whoever stops up this +fountain, whoever attempts to prevent its flowing at any point, or to +restrain its bearing upon any given situation, is not only guilty of +cutting off the sources of progress, but he is guilty of a breach of +the public peace and of endangering the stability of the State. It is +through the means of such scientific inquiry and its work of +painstaking elaboration that the exigencies of a progressively +changing situation are enabled gradually, and without harm, to have +their effect upon men's thinking and upon human relations, and so to +pass into the life of society. Whoever obstructs scientific inquiry +clamps down the safety valve of public opinion, and puts the State in +train for an explosion. He prohibits science from finding out the +malady and its remedy, and he thereby substitutes the resulting +convulsions of the death struggle for a diagnosis and a judicious +treatment. + +Unrestrained freedom of scientific teaching is, accordingly, not only +an inalienable right of the individual, but, what is more to the +point, it is, primarily and most particularly, a necessity of life to +the community; it involves the life of the State itself. + +Therefore has society formulated the provision that "Science and its +teaching is free," without qualification, without condition, without +limits; and this proviso is incorporated into the Constitution, in +order to make it plain that it must remain inviolate even at the hands +of the law-giver himself, that even he must not for a moment overlook +or disregard it. And so it serves as pledge of the continual peaceable +development of social life down to the remotest generations. + +Does a question present itself at this point, Gentlemen? Am I setting +up a new and unheard-of theory on this head? + +Am I, possibly, misconstruing the wording of the Constitution in order +to extricate myself from an embarrassing criminal process? + +On the contrary, nothing is easier than to prove to you from the +evidences of history that this provision of the Constitution has never +been taken in any other sense; that for long centuries before the days +of the Constitution this theory has been current among us in usage +and practice; that it is by ancient tradition a characteristic feature +of the culture of all Germanic peoples. + +In the days of Socrates, it was still possible to be indicted for +having taught new gods (Greek: katnos theous), and Socrates drank +the hemlock under such an indictment. + +In antiquity all this was natural enough. The genius of antiquity was +so utterly identified with the conditions of its political life, and +religion was so integral an element in the foundations of the ancient +State, that the ancient mind was quite incapable of divesting itself +of these convictions, and so getting out of its integument. The spirit +of antiquity must stand or fall with its particular political +conventions, and, in the event, it fell with them. + +Such being the spirit of those times, it follows that any scientific +doctrine which carried a denial of any element of the foundations of +the State was in effect an attack upon the nation's life and must +necessarily be dealt with as such. + +All this changes when the ancient world passes away and the Germanic +peoples come upon the scene. These latter are peoples gifted with a +capacity to change their integument. By virtue of that faculty for +development that belongs to the guiding principle of their life, viz.: +the principle of the subjective spirit,--by virtue of this, these +latter are possessed of a flexibility which enables them to live +through the most widely varied metamorphoses. These peoples have +passed through many and extreme transformations, and, instead of +meeting their death and dissolution in the process, they have by force +of it ever emerged on a higher plane of development and into a richer +unfolding of life.[49] + +The means by which these peoples are able to prepare the way for and +to achieve these transmutations through which they constantly emerge +to that fuller life, the rudiments of which are inborn in them, is the +principle of an unrestrained freedom of scientific research and +teaching. + +Hence it comes that this instinct of free thought among these peoples +reaches expression very early, much earlier than the modern learned +world commonly suspects. "We are mistakenly in the habit of thinking +of free scientific inquiry as a fruitage of modern times. But among +these peoples that instinct is an ancient one which asserts that free +inquiry must be bound neither by the authority of a person nor by a +human ordinance; that, on the contrary, it is a power in itself, +resting immediately upon its own divine right, superior to and +antedating all human institutions whatever. + +"_Quasi lignum vitae_," says Pope Alexander IV. in a constitution +addressed to the University of Paris in 1256, "_Quasi lignum vitae in +Paradiso Dei, et quasi lucerna fulgoris in Domo Domini, est in Sancta +Ecclesia Parisiensis Studii disciplina_." "As the tree of life in God's +Paradise and the lamp of glory in the house of God, such in the Holy +Church is the place of the Parisian corporation of learning." To +appreciate the import of these words of the holy father, it should be +borne in mind that in the Middle Ages all things whatever lived only by +virtue of a corporate existence, so that learning existed only as +incorporated in a university. + +It would be a serious mistake to believe that the universities of the +Middle Ages rested that prerogative of scientific censure--_censura +doctrinatis_--to which they laid claim in such a comprehensive way, +upon these and other like papal or imperial and royal decrees of +establishment. Petrus Alliacensis, a man whom the University of Paris +elected as its _magnus magister_ in 1381, and who afterward wore the +archiepiscopal and also the cardinal's hat, tells us that not _ex jure +humano_, not from human legislation, but _ex jure divino_, from divine +law, does science derive its competence to exercise the _censura_; and +the privileges and charters granted by popes, emperors and kings are +nothing more than the acts of recognition of this prerogative of +science that comes to it _ex jure divino_, or, as an alternative +expression has it, _ex jure naturali_, by the law of nature. And in +this, Petrus Alliacensis is substantially borne out by all the later +scholastics. + +Gentlemen, we are in the habit of giving ourselves airs and of looking +down on the Middle Ages as a time of darkness and barbarism. But in so +doing we are frequently in the wrong, and in no respect are we more +thoroughly in the wrong than in passing such an opinion upon the +position of science in the Middle Ages. Frequent and most solemn are +the cases in which recognition is made of the right of science to +raise her voice without all regard to king and pope, and even against +king and pope. + +We have recently witnessed a conflict between the government and the +house of deputies as to the meeting of expenditures not granted by the +house. An impression has been diligently spread abroad through the +country that this is an unheard of piece of boldness and a subversive +assumption of power on the part of the house of deputies, and indeed +there have not been wanting deputies who have been astonished at +their own daring, and have taken some pride in it. + +But, on the other hand, Gentlemen, in February, 1412, the University +of Paris, which was in no way intrusted with an oversight or a control +of this country's fiscal affairs, took occasion to address a memorial +to the King of France, Charles VI., as it said: "_pour la chose +publique du votre royaume_"--on the public concerns of the realm. And +in this memorial the university subjects the fiscal administration of +the country, together with other branches of the administration, to a +drastic criticism, and passes a verdict of unqualified condemnation +upon it. This _remonstrance_ of the University of Paris rises to a +degree of boldness, both in its demands and in its tone, that is quite +foreign to anything which our house of deputies has done or might be +expected to do. It points out that the revenues have not been expended +for the purposes for which they were levied--"_on appert clairement, +que les dictes finances ne sont point employees a choses dessus +dictes_," etc.--and it closes this its review with the peremptory +demand: "_Item, et il fault savoir, ou est cette finance,"--"Now, we +have a right to know what has become of these funds." It describes the +king's fiscal administration, including the highest officials, the +finance ministers, gouverneurs and treasurers, as a gang of lawless +miscreants, a band of rogues conspiring together for the ruin of the +country. It upbraids the king himself with having packed the +parliament of Paris, and so having corrupted the administration of +justice. It points out to him that his predecessors carried on the +government by means of much smaller revenues: "_au quel temps estoit +le royaume bien gouverne, autrement que maintenant_"--"when the +country was well governed, as is not the case today." The +_remonstrance_ goes on to picture the burdens which rest upon the +poor, and to demand that these burdens be lightened by means of a +forced loan levied upon the rich. And the _remonstrance_ closes with +the declaration that all this, which it has set forth is, in spite of +its length, but a very adequate presentation of the matter, in so +much that it would require several days to describe all the +misgovernment the country suffered. + +[Illustration: THE IRON FOUNDRY _From the Painting by Adolph von +Menzel_] + +The university rests its right to make such a _remonstrance_ upon this +ground alone,--that it is the spokesman of science, of which all men +know that it is without selfish interest, that there are neither +public offices nor emoluments in its keeping, and that it is not +concerned with these matters in any connection but that of their +investigation; but precisely for this reason, it is incumbent upon +science to speak out openly when the case demands it. + +And the conclusion to which it comes is of no less serious import than +this: It is the king's duty, without all delay (_sans quelque +dilacion_) to dismiss all comptrollers (_gouverneurs)_ of finance from +office, without exception (_sans nul excepter_), to apprehend their +persons and provisionally to sequestrate their goods, and, under +penalty of death and confiscation of property, to forbid all +communication between the lower officials of the fisc and these +comptrollers. + +If you will read this voluminous _remonstrance_, Gentlemen--you may +find it in the annals of that time by Enguerrand de Monstrelet (liv. +I. c. 99, Tom. II. p. 307 _et seq_., ed. Douet d'Aroy)--you cannot +avoid seeing that, had this memorial been promulgated in our time, +e.g., by the University of Berlin, there is scarce an offense +enumerated in the code but would have been found in it by the public +prosecutor. Defamation and insult of officials in the execution of +their office, contempt and abuse of the government's regulations and +the disposition taken by the officials, lese majeste, incitement of +the subjects of the State to hatred and disrespect--and, indeed, I +know not what all would be the offenses which our prosecutors would +have discovered in the document. It is less than a year since, +according to the newspapers, a disciplinary inquiry was instituted +with respect to a memorial of a very different tenor, wherein one of +our universities declined the mandatory suggestions addressed to the +university by the ministers in regard to a given appointment. But, +at that earlier day, in the dark ages, such was not the custom. On the +other hand, in compliance with the university's demands, the treasurer +of the crown, Audry Griffart, together with many others of the high +officers of finance, was taken into custody, while others avoided a +like fate only by escaping into a church vested with the right of +asylum. + +That was in 1412. But already eighty years before that date there +occurred another, and perhaps even more significant case, which I may +touch upon more briefly. Pope John XXII. promulgated a new +construction of the dogma of _visio beatifica_ and had it preached in +the churches. The University of Paris,--_nec pontificis reverentia +prohibuit_, says the report, _quominus veritati insistereat_,--"reverence +of the holy father prevented not the university from declaring the +truth"--, although the matter then in question was an article of the +faith and lay within a field within which the competence of the pope +could not be doubted, still the university, on the 22d of January, 1332, +put forth a decree in which this construction of the dogma was classed +to be erroneous. + +Philip VI. served this decree upon the pope, then resident at Avignon, +with the declaration that, unless he recanted as the decree required, +he would have him burned as a heretic. And the pope, in fact, +recanted, although he was then on his deathbed. All of which you may +find set forth in Bulas, _Historia Universitatis Parisiensis_. (Paris, +1668, fol. Tom. IV. p. 375 _et seq_.) + +These instances, which might be multiplied at will, may suffice to +show how unqualified was the freedom of science even in early days, +constrained by no punitive limitation at the hands of pope or king; +for, be it remembered, in the Middle Ages, science had, as I have +before remarked, only a corporate existence in its bearers, the +universities. So that the view for which I speak has practically been +accepted as much as five hundred years back, even in Catholic times +and among Latin peoples. + +But now comes Protestantism and creates its political structure, +which it erects on precisely this broad principle of free thought and +free research. This principle has since that epoch been the foundation +upon which our entire political life has rested. A protestant State +has no other claim to existence than precisely this--cannot possibly +exist on other ground. When has there, since that time, been talk of a +penal prosecution in Prussia on account of a scientific doctrine? + +Christian Wolf, at Halle, popularized the Leibnizian philosophy, and +it was then brought to the notice of the soldier-king, Frederick +William I., that, according to Wolf's teaching of preestablished +harmony, deserting soldiers did not desert by their own free will but +by force of this peculiar divine arrangement of a preestablished +harmony;[50] wherefore this doctrine, being spread abroad among the +military, could not but be very detrimental to the maintenance of +military discipline. It is true, this soldier-king, whose regiments +were his State, was incensed at all this in the highest degree, and +that he forthwith, in November, 1723, issued an order-in-council +against Wolf, ordering him on penalty of the halter, to leave Prussian +ground within twice twenty-four hours--and Wolf was obliged to flee. +But, inasmuch as the king's _lettres de cachet_ in that time permitted +no appeal, they are also passed over in history as being devoid of +interest or historic significance. It may be added that the +soldier-king had simply perpetrated a gratuitous outrage, and had not +set the claims of law and right aside. He threatened to hang Wolf, and +this threat he could have carried out with the help of his soldiers. +Even brute force is not devoid of dignity when it acts openly and +above-board. He did not insult his courts by asking them to condemn +scientific teaching. It did not occur to him to disguise his act of +violence under the forms of law. + +Moreover, no sooner had Frederick the Great ascended the throne, 31st +of May, 1740, than he, six days later, 6th of June, 1740, sent a note +to the Councillor of the Consistory, Reinbeck, directing the recall of +Wolf. Even Frederick William I. had repented of his violence against +Wolf and had in vain, in the most honorable terms, addressed letters +of recall to him. But Frederick the Great, while he too had use for +soldiers, was no soldier-king, but a statesman. The note to Reinbeck +runs: "You are requested to use your best endeavor with respect to +this Wolf, who is a person that seeks and loves the truth, who is to +be held in high honor among all men, and I believe you will have +achieved a veritable conquest in the realm of truth if you persuade +Wolf to return to us." + +So it appears, then, that also this conflict serves only to add force +to the ancient principle that scientific research and the presentation +of scientific truth is not to be bound by any limitations or by any +considerations of expediency, and must find its sole and all +sufficient justification in itself alone. This principle hereby +achieved a new lustre and gained the full authentication of the crown. + +Even the existence of God was not shielded from the discussion of +science. Science was allowed, as it is still allowed, to put forth its +proofs against his existence. The provisions of the new penal code +bear only upon blasphemous utterances, such revilings of God as may +offend those who believe otherwise, not upon the denial of his +existence. + +For many decades before the days of the Constitution the +unquestioned liberty of science on Prussian ground had served the +antagonists of Prussia as their supreme recourse, their chief +boast and proudest ornament. You will remember the extraordinary +sensation created by the case of Bruno Bauer, the Privat Docent +on the theological faculty at Bonn, whom it was attempted to +deprive of his _licentia docendi_[51] at the ominous instance of +the absolutist-pietistical Eichhorn ministry, because of his +peculiar doctrine concerning the gospel. This was the first case +during the present century in which an assault has been attempted +upon the freedom of scientific teaching, and even this was an +infinitely less heinous one than the present. The faculties of +the university were deeply stirred, and for months together +official pronunciamentos swarmed about the town; men of the +highest standing, such as Marheinecke and others, declared that +protestantism and enlightenment were threatened in their very +foundations in case such usurpation, hitherto unheard of in +Prussia, were allowed to take its course. And even such +expressions of opinion as reached a conclusion subservient to the +ministerial view based their conclusion on the ground that +the case in question concerned a _licentia docendi_ in the +theological faculty, with the fundamental principles of which +Bauer's doctrines were incompatible. They took care expressly to +declare that had the question concerned a _licentia docendi_ in +any one of the nontheological faculties, in a philosophical +faculty, e.g., the decision must necessarily have been reversed. +No one, not even Eichhorn himself, harbored the conceit that this +doctrine and its teaching was to be dealt with by the criminal +court. A teacher who spread abroad scientific teachings +subversive of theological doctrines was deprived of the +opportunity to proclaim his teaching from a theological chair; +but to call in the jailer to suppress him--to that depth of +subservience to absolutism had no one at that time descended. +Alas, that Eichhorn, the much berated, could not have lived to +see this day! With what admiration and with what gratification +would he have looked upon his "constitutional" successors! + +Even in the days of Eichhorn's pietistical absolutism, with its +_ecclesia militans_ of obscurantism, there survived so much of a sense +of decency regarding the ancient traditions as to exempt the liberty +of scientific teaching from the indignity of that preventive censure +which in those days rendered repressive legislation superfluous. In +their search for some tenable and tangible criterion of the scientific + character of any publication, the men of that time, it is true, hit +upon a somewhat absurd one in making the test a test of bulk--books of +more than twenty forms were exempt from censure. But however awkward +the outcome, the aim of the provision is not to be denied. + +These ancient traditions, with more than five hundred years of +prescriptive standing; this principle which prevailed by usage and +acceptance among all modern peoples long before it was embodied in +legal form; this primordial deliverance of the spiritual life of the +Germanic nations is the substantial fact which our modern society has +now finally embodied in Article 20 of the Constitution and so has +constituted a norm for the guidance of all later law-givers, in other +words: "Science and its teaching is free." + +It is free without qualification, without limits, without bolts and +bars. Under established law everything has its limitations,--every +power, every function, every vested authority. The only thing which +remains without bounds or constituted limitation, whose privilege it +is to over-spread and to overlie all established facts, in such +boundless and unhindered freedom as the sun and the air, is the +irradiating force of theoretical research. + +Scientific theory must be free even to the length of license. +For, even if we could speak of a license in science and its +teaching,--which, by the way, is most seriously to be +questioned,--this is by all means a point at which an attempt to guard +against abuse in one case would be liable in a million instances to +put a check upon the blessings of rightful use. If any given measures +of state, or any given class institutions, were shielded from +scientific discussion, so that science might not teach that the +arrangements in question are inadequate or detrimental, iniquitous or +destructive,--under these circumstances, what genius could there be of +such comprehensive reach, so far overtopping the spiritual level of +all his contemporaries and all succeeding generations, as even to +surmise the total extent of the loss which would thereby be sustained? +What fruitful discoveries and developments, what growth of spiritual +power and insight would be stifled in the germ by one such rigid +interdict upon abuse; and what violent convulsions and what decay +might not come upon the State in consequence of it? + +The question is also fairly to be asked: what is legitimate use and +what is abuse of science? Where lies the line between them, and who +determines it? This discretion would have to lie, not with a court of +law, but with a court made up of the flower of scientific talent of +the time, in all departments and branches of science. + +However enlightened your honorable body may be--and indeed the more +enlightened the more unavoidably--this proposition must appeal to you +as beyond question. What am I saying? The flower of the scientific +talent of the time? No; that would not answer. The scientific genius +of all subsequent time would have to be included; for how often does +history show us the pioneers of science in sheer contradiction with +the accepted body of scientific knowledge of their own time! It may +take fifty, and it may often take a hundred years of discussion in +scientific matters to settle the question as to what is true and +legitimate and what is abuse. + +In point of fact, there has hitherto been not an attempt, since the +adoption of the constitution, to bring an indictment against any given +scientific teaching. + +Gentlemen, since 1848--since 1830--we have here in Prussia had many a +sore and heavy burden to bear, and our shoulders are lame and tired +with the bearing of them. But even under the Manteuffel-Westphalen +administration, and until today, we have been spared this one +indignity, of being called upon to see a scientific doctrine cited +before the court. + +The keenest attacks, attacks which, taken by themselves, might easily +have been subject to criminal prosecution, have suffered no +prosecution in any case where they have been embodied in a scientific +work and when promulgated in the form of a scientific doctrine. + +I am myself in a position to testify on this point. It is not quite +two years since I published a work in which, I believe, I have +succeeded in contributing something to the advancement of your own +science, Gentlemen,--the science on which the administration of +justice is based. The work of which I speak is my "System of Acquired +Rights." _(System der erworbenen Rechte.)_ In this work I take +occasion to say (Vol. I., p. 238): "Science, whose first duty is the +most searching inquiry and concise thinking, can on this account in no +way deprive itself of the right to formulate its conceptions with all +the definiteness and concision which the clearness of these +conceptions itself requires." And proceeding on this ground I go on, +in the further discussion, to show that the agrarian legislation of +Prussia subsequent to 1850 is nothing else--to quote my own words +literally--than a robbery of the poor for the benefit of the wealthy +landed aristocracy, illegal and perpetrated in violation of the +perpetrators' own sense of equity. + +How easy would it not have been, if the expressions had occurred +elsewhere than in a scientific treatise, to find that they embodied +overt contempt of the institutions of the State, and incitement to +hatred and disregard of the regulations of the government. But they +occurred in a scientific treatise--they were the outcome of a +painstaking scientific inquiry,--therefore they passed without +indictment. + +But that was two years ago. + +In return for the accusation which has been brought against me, I, in +my turn, retort with the accusation that my accusers have this day +brought upon Prussia the disgrace that now for the first time since +the State came into existence scientific teaching is prosecuted before +a criminal court. For what can the public prosecutor say to my +accusation, since he concedes the substance of my claims, since he is +compelled to acknowledge that science and its teaching is free, and +therefore free from all penal restraint? Will he contend, perhaps, +that I do not represent science? Or will he, possibly, deny that the +work with which this indictment is concerned is a scientific work? +The prosecutor seems to feel himself hampered by the fact that he has +here to do with a scientific production, for he begins his indictment +with the sentence: "While the accused has assumed an appearance of +scientific inquiry, his discussion at all points is of a practical +bearing." The appearance of scientific inquiry? And why is it the +appearance only? I call upon the prosecutor to show why only the +appearance of scientific inquiry is to be imputed to this scientific +publication. I believe that in a question as to what is scientific and +what not, I am more competent to speak than the public prosecutor. + +In various and difficult fields of science I have published voluminous +works; I have spared no pains and no midnight vigils in the endeavor +to widen the scope of science itself, and, I believe, I can in this +matter say with Horace: _Militavi non sine gloria_.[52] But I declare +to you: Never, not in the most voluminous of my works, have I written +a line that was more carefully thought out in strict conformity to +scientific truth than this production is from its first page to its +last. And I assert further that not only is this brochure a scientific +work, as so many another may be that presents in combination results +already known, but that it is in many respects a scientific +achievement, a development of new scientific conceptions. + +What is the criterion by which the scientific standing of a book is to +be judged? None else, of course, than its contents. + +I beg you, therefore, to take a look at the contents of this pamphlet. +Its content is nothing else than a philosophy of history, condensed in +the compass of forty-four pages, beginning with the Middle Ages and +coming down to the present. It is a development of that objective +unfolding of rational thought which has lain at the root of European +history for more than a thousand years past; it is an exposition of that +inner soul of things resident in the process of history that manifests +itself in the apparently opaque, empirical sequence of events and which +has produced this historical sequence out of its own moving, creative +force. It is, in spite of the brief compass of the pamphlet, the +strictly developed proof that history is nothing else than the +self-accomplishing, by inner necessity increasingly progressive +unfolding of reason and of freedom, achieving itself under the mask of +apparently mere external and material relations. + +In the brief compass of this pamphlet, I pass three great periods of +the world's history in review before the reader; and for each one I +point out that it proceeds on a single comprehensive idea, which +controls all the various, apparently unrelated, fields of development +and all the different and widely-scattered phenomena that fall within +the period in question; and I show that each of these periods is but +the necessary forerunner and preparation for the succeeding period, +and that each succeeding period is the peculiar and imminently +necessary continuation, the consequence and unavoidable consummation +of the preceding period, and that these together, consequently, +constitute a comprehensive and logically inseparable whole. + +First comes the period of feudalism. I here show that feudalism, in +all its variations, rests on the one principle of control of landed +property, and I also show how at that time, owing to the fact that +society's productive work to a preponderating extent consisted in +agriculture, landed property necessarily was the controlling factor, +that is to say, the feature conditioning all political and social +power and standing. + +And I beg you, Gentlemen, to take note with what a strict scientific +objectivity of treatment, how free from all propagandist bias, I +proceed with the discussion. If there is any one datum which lends +itself to the purposes of that propagandist bias which the public +prosecutor claims to find in this pamphlet--namely the incitement of +the indigent classes to hatred of the wealthy--it is the peasant wars. +If there is any one fact which has hitherto been accepted, in +scientific and in popular opinion alike, and more particularly among +the unpropertied classes, with, the fondest remembrance, as a national +movement iniquitously put down by the strong hand of violence, it is +the peasant wars. + +Now, unmoved by this predilection and this shimmer of sentiment, with +which the science and the popular sense have united in investing the +peasant wars, I go on to divest these wars of this deceptive +appearance and show them up in their true light,--that they were at +bottom a reactionary movement, which, fortunately for the cause of +liberty, was of necessity doomed to failure. + +Further: If there exists in Germany an institution which, as a +question of our own times, I abominate with all my heart as the source +of our national decay, our shame and our impotence, it is the +institution of the territorial State. + +Now, the pamphlet in question is so strictly scientific and objective +in its method, so far removed from all personal bias, that I therein +go on to show that the institution of the territorial State was, in +its time, historically a legitimate and revolutionary feature; that it +was an ideal advance, in that it embodied and developed the concept of +a State independent of relations of ownership; whereas the peasant +wars sought to place the State, and all political power and standing, +on the basis of property. + +I then, further, go on to show how the period of feudalism is +succeeded by a second world-historic period. I show how, while the +peasant wars were revolutionary only in their own delusion, there +begins almost simultaneously with them a real revolution, namely, that +accumulation of capitalistic wealth which arose through the +development of industry. This wrought a thoroughgoing change in the +whole situation,--a change which reached its final act, achieved its +legal acceptance, in the French Revolution of 1789, but which had in +point of fact for three hundred years been imperceptibly advancing +toward its consummation. + +I show in detail, which I need not here expound or recapitulate, what +are the economic factors that were destined to push landed property +into the remotest back-ground and leave it relatively powerless, +by making the new industrial activity the great lever and the bearer +of modern social wealth. All this took place by force of the new +industrial activity the great lever and the bearer of methods which +they brought in. + +I show how this capitalized wealth, which has come forward as an +outcome of this industrial development and has grown to be the +dominant factor in this second period, must in its turn attain the +position of prerogative as the recognized qualification of political +competence, as the condition of a voice in the councils and policy of +the State; just as was at an earlier time the case with landed +property in relation to the public law of feudalism. I show how, +directly and indirectly in the control of opinion, in the requirement +of bonds and stamp duties, in the public press, in the growth of +individual taxation, etc., capitalized wealth, as a basis of +participation in public affairs, must work out its inherent tendency +with the same thoroughness and the same historical necessity as landed +property had done in its time. + +And this second period, which has completed its three hundred and +fifty years, as I further go on to show, is now essentially concluded. +With the French Revolution of 1848 comes the dawning of a new, a third +historical period. By its proclamation of universal and equal +suffrage, regardless of property qualifications, this third period +assigns to each and every one an equal share in the sovereignty, in +the guidance of public affairs and public policy. And so it installs +free labor as the dominating principle of social life, conditioned by +neither the possession of land nor of capital. + +I then develop the difference in point of ethical principles between +the _bourgeoisie_ and the laboring class, as well as the resulting +difference in the political ideals of the two classes. The +aristocratic principle assigned the individual his status on the basis +of descent and social rank, whereas the principal for which the +_bourgeoisie_ stands contends that all such legal restriction is +iniquitous, and that the individual must be counted simply as such, +with no prerogative beyond guaranteeing him the unhindered +opportunity to make the most of his capacities as an individual. Now, +I claim, if we all were by native gift equally wealthy, equally +capable, equally well educated, then this principle of equal +opportunity would be adequate to the purpose. But since such equality +does not prevail, and indeed cannot come to pass, and since we do not +come into the world simply as undifferentiated individuals, but +endowed in varying degree with wealth and capacities, which in turn +result in differences of education; therefore, this principle is not +an adequate principle. For, if under these actual circumstances, +nothing were guaranteed beyond the unhindered opportunity of the +individual to make the most of himself, the consequence must be an +exploitation of the weaker by the stronger. The principle for which +the working classes stand is this, that free opportunity alone will +not suffice, but that to this, for the purposes of any morally +defensible organization of society, there must be added the further +principle of a solidarity of interests, a community and mutuality in +development. + +From this difference between the two classes, in point of ethical +principle, follows, as a matter of course, the difference in political +ideals. + +The _bourgeoisie_ has elaborated the principle that the end of the +State is to protect the personal liberty of the individual and his +property. This is the doctrine put forth by the scientific spokesmen +of the _bourgeoisie_. This is the doctrine of its political leaders, +of liberalism. But this theory is in a high degree inadequate, +unscientific, and at variance with the essential nature of the State. + +The course of history is a struggle against nature, against need, +ignorance and impotence, and, therefore, against bondage of every kind +in which we were held under the state of nature at the beginning of +history. The progressive overcoming of this impotence,--this is the +evolution of liberty, whereof history is an account. In this struggle +we should never have made one step in advance, and we should never +take a further step, if we had gone into the struggle singly, each for +himself. + +Now the State is precisely this contemplated unity and cooeperation of +individuals in a moral whole, whose function it is to carry on this +struggle, a combination which multiplies a million fold the force of +all the individuals comprised in it, which heightens a million fold +the powers which each individual singly would be able to exert. + +The end of the State, therefore, is not simply to secure to each +individual that personal freedom and that property with which the +bourgeois principle assumes that the individual enters the state +organization at the outset, but which in point of fact are first +afforded him in and by the State. On the contrary, the end of the +State can be no other than to accomplish that which, in the nature of +things, is and always has been the function of the State,--in set +terms: by combining individuals into a state organization to enable +them to achieve such ends and to attain such a level of existence as +they could not achieve as isolated individuals. + +The ultimate and intrinsic end of the State, therefore, is to further +the positive unfolding, the progressive development of human life. In +other words, its function is to work out in actual achievement the +true end of man; that is to say, the full degree of culture of which +human nature is capable. It is the education and evolution of mankind +into freedom. + +As a matter of fact, even the older culture, which has become the +inestimable foundation of the Germanic genius, makes for such a +conception of the State. I may cite the words of the great leader of +our science, August Boeckh: "The concept of the State must," according +to him, "necessarily be so broadened as to make the State the +contrivance whereby all human virtue is to be realized to the full." + +But this fully developed conception of the State is, above all and +essentially, a conception that is in a peculiar sense to be ascribed +to the working classes. Others may conceive this conception of the +State by force of insight and education, but to the working +classes it is, by virtue of the helpless condition of their numbers, +given as a matter of instinct; it is forced home upon them by material +and economic facts. + +Their economic situation necessarily breeds in these classes an +instinctive sense that the function of the State is and must be that +of helping the individual, through the combined efforts of all, to +reach a development such as the individual in isolation is incapable +of attaining. + +In point of fact, however, this ethical conception of the State does +not set up any concept that has not already previously been the real +motor principle in the State. On the contrary, it is plain from what +has already been said, that this, in an unconscious way, has been the +essential nature of the State from the beginning. This essential +character of the State has always in some measure asserted itself +through the logical constraint of the course of events, even when such +an aim has been absent from the conscious purposes of the State, even +when opposed to the will of those in whose hands the power of control +had rested. + +In setting up this conception of the working classes as the dominant +concept of the State, therefore, we do nothing more than articularly +formulate what has all along, but obscurely, been the organic nature +of the State, and bring it into the foreground as the consciously +avowed end of society. + +Herein lies the comprehensive unity and continuity of all human +development, that nothing drops into the course of development from +the outside. It is only that that is brought clearly into +consciousness, and worked out on the ground of free choice, which has +in substance all along constituted the obscurely and unconsciously +effective organic nature of things. + +With the French Revolution of 1848 this clearer consciousness has made +its entry upon the scene and has been proclaimed. In the first place, +this outcome was symbolically represented in that a workman was made a +member of the provisional government; and, further, there was +proclaimed universal, equal and direct suffrage, which is in point of +method the means whereby this conception of the State is to be +realized. February, 1848, therefore, marks the dawning of the +historical period in which the ethical principle of the working +classes is consciously accepted as the guiding principle of society. + +We have reason to congratulate ourselves upon living in an epoch +consecrated to the achievement of this exalted end. But, above all, it +is to be said, since it is the destined course of this historical +period to make their conception the guiding principle of society, it +behooves the working classes to conduct themselves with all moral +earnestness, sobriety and studious deliberation. + +Such, expressed in the briefest terms, is the content and the course +of argument of the disquisition in question. + +What I have sought to accomplish in that argument is nothing else than +to explain to my auditors the intrinsic philosophical content of the +historical development, to initiate them into this most difficult of +all the sciences, to bring home to them the fact that history is a +logical whole which unfolds step by step under the guidance of +inexorable laws. + +One who gives himself up to work of this kind is entitled to address +your public prosecutor in the words of Archimedes, when, at the +sacking of Syracuse, he was set upon, sword in hand, by the savage +soldiery while drawing and studying his mathematical figures in the +sand: "_Noli turbare circulos meos_."[53] + +To enable me to write this pamphlet, five different sciences, and more +than that, have had to be brought into cooeperation and had to be +mastered: History in the narrower sense of the term, Jurisprudence and +the History of Law, Political Economy, Statistics, Finance, and, last +and most difficult of the sciences, the science of thought, or +Philosophy. + +What a paragon of scientific erudition must the public prosecutor be, +in whose eyes all this is not sufficient to lend a publication the +attribute of scientific quality. + +But the indictment itself, when it is more closely examined, is seen +to assign the ground on which this work is held to lack the requisite +scientific character. The indictment says: "While the defendant, +Lassalle, has been at pains to give himself the appearance of +scientific method in this address, still the address is after all of a +thoroughly practical bearing." + +So it appears, then, that, according to the public prosecutor, the +address is not scientific because it is claimed to have a practical +bearing. The test of scientific adequacy, according to the public +prosecutor, is the absence of practical bearing. I may fairly be +permitted to ask the public prosecutor--and it is a Schelling whose +signature this indictment bears--where he has learned all this. From +his father? Assuredly not. Schelling the elder assigns philosophy no +less serious a task than that of transforming the entire cultural +epoch. "It is conceived to be too much," says he in formulating an +anticipated objection, "to expect that philosophy shall rehabilitate +the times." To this his answer is: "But when _I_ claim to see in +philosophy a means whereby to remedy the confusion of the times, I +have, of course, in mind not an impotent philosophy, not simply a +product of workman-like dexterity, but a forceful philosophy which can +face the facts of life, philosophy which, far from feeling itself +impotent before the stupendous realities of life, far from confining +itself to the dreary business of simple negation and destruction, +draws its force from reality and, therefore, reaches effective and +enduring results." + +The public prosecutor, with his brand-new and highly extraordinary +discovery, will scarcely find much comfort with the other men of the +science. + +In his Address to the German People, Fichte tells us: "What, then, is +the bearing of our endeavors even in the most recondite of the +sciences? Grant that the proximate end of these endeavors is that of +propagating these sciences from generation to generation, and so +conserving them; but why are they to be conserved? Manifestly only in +order that they in the fulness of time shall serve to shape human life +and the entire scheme of human institutions. This is the ulterior end. +Remotely, therefore, even though it may be in distant ages, every +endeavor of science serves to advance the ends of the State." + +Now, Your Honor and Gentlemen of the Court, if I were to spend further +speech in the refutation of this discovery of the public +prosecutor--that impracticability is the test of science--I should be +insulting your intelligence. + +In the pamphlet in question my aim was the thoroughly practical one of +bringing my readers to a comprehension of the times in which they +live, and thereby permanently to affect their conduct throughout the +course of their life and in whatever direction their activity may lie. + +Now, then, what characteristic of scientific work is it which the +public prosecutor finds wanting in all this? Is it, perhaps, that it +falls short in respect of bulk? Is it the circumstance that this work +is only a pamphlet of less than fifty pages, instead of comprising +three folio volumes? But when was it decided that the bulk of a work, +instead of its contents, is to be accepted as a test of its scientific +character? Is the public prosecutor prepared, for instance, to deny +that the papers presented by the members of the Royal Academy at their +sessions are scientific productions? But nearly all of these are +shorter than this of mine. + +During the past year, as speaker for the Philosophical Society at the +celebration of Fichte's birthday, it was my fortune to present an +address in which I dealt intimately with the history of German +metaphysics. That address fills only thirty-five pages as against the +forty-four pages of the present pamphlet. Is the public prosecutor +prepared to deny the character of science to that address because of +its brevity? + +Who will not, on the contrary, appreciate that the very brevity +imposed by circumstances makes the scientific inquiry contained in +this work all the more difficult and the more considerable? I was +compelled to condense my exposition within the compass of a two-hours' +address, a pamphlet of forty-four pages, at the same time that I was +obliged to conform my presentation of the matter to an audience on +whose part I could assume no acquaintance with scientific methods and +results. To overcome obstacles of this kind and, at the same time, not +to fall short in point of profound scientific analysis, as was the +case in the present instance, requires a degree of precision, close +application and clarity of thought far in excess of what is demanded +in these respects in the common run of more voluminous scientific +works. + +I return, therefore, again to the question: What is the requirement of +science with respect to which this address falls short? Is it, +perhaps, that it offends the canons of science in respect of the place +in which it was held? + +This, in fact, touches the substantial core of this indictment, and, +at the same time, the sorest spot of the whole. This address might +well--so runs the prosecutor's reflection--have been delivered +wherever you like--from the professor's chair or from the rostrum of +the singing school, before the so-called elite of the educated people; +but that it was actually delivered before the actual people, that it +was held before workingmen and addressed to workingmen, that fact +deprives it of all standing as a scientific work and makes it a +criminal offense,--_crimen novum atque inauditum_.[54] + +I might, of course, content myself with the answer that the substance +of an address, and therefore its scientific character, is in no way +affected by the place in which it happens to have been delivered, +whether it is in the Academy of Science, before the cream of the +learned world, or in a hall in the suburbs before an audience of +machinists. + +But I owe you, Gentlemen, a somewhat fuller answer. To begin with, let +me express my amazement at the fact that here in Berlin, in the city +where Fichte delivered his immortal popular lectures on philosophy, his +speeches on the fundamental features of the modern epoch and his +speeches on the German nation before the general public, that in this +place and day it should occur to any one to fancy that the place in +which an address is delivered has anything whatever to do with its +scientific character. + +The great destiny of our age is precisely this--which the dark ages +had been unable to conceive, much less to achieve--the dissemination +of scientific knowledge among the body of the people. The difficulties +of this task may be serious enough, and we may magnify them as we +like,--still, our endeavors are ready to wrestle with them and our +nightly vigils will be given to overcoming them. + +In the general decay which, as all those who know the profounder +realities of history appreciate, has overtaken European history in all +its bearings, there are but two things that have retained their vigor +and their propagating force in the midst of all that shriveling blight +of self-seeking that pervades European life. These two things are +science and the people, science and the workingman. And the union of +these two is alone capable of invigorating European culture with a new +life. + +The union of these two polar opposites of modern society, science and +the workingman,--when these two join forces they will crush all +obstacles to cultural advance with an iron hand, and it is to this +union that I have resolved to devote my life so long as there is +breath in my body. + +But, Gentlemen, is this view something new and entirely unheard-of in +the realm of science? Let us see what Fichte himself, in his Addresses +to the German People, has to say to the cultured classes, to whom he +addresses these words: "It is particularly to the cultured classes of +Germany that I wish to direct my remarks in the present address, for +it is to these classes I hope in the first place to make myself +intelligible. And I implore these classes, then, as the first step to +be taken, to take the initiative in the work of reconstruction, and +so, on the one hand, atone for their past deeds, and, on the other +hand, earn the right to continued life in the future. + +[Illustration: FLAX BARN IN LAREN _From the Painting by Max +Liebermann_] + +It will appear in the course of this address that hitherto all the +advance in the German nation has originated with the common +people, and that hitherto all the great national interests have, in +the first instance, been the affair of the people, have been taken in +hand and pushed forward by the body of the people; so that today for +the first time does it happen that the initiative in the cultural +advance of the nation is committed to the hands of the cultured +classes, and if they will but accept the commission it will be the +first time when such has been the case. It will presently appear that +it is quite impossible for these classes to determine how long the +matter will yet rest in their discretion, how long the choice will yet +be open to them whether to take the initiative in this matter or not, +for the whole matter is nearly ripe to be taken in hand by the people, +and it will be carried out by men sprung from the body of the people, +who will presently be able to help themselves without assistance from +us." + +Fichte, then, knew and proclaimed this fact, that the realization of +all the great national interests in the past has been the work of the +common people and has never been carried out at the hands of the +cultured classes. That, in spite of this knowledge, he turned to the +cultured classes is due, as he himself says, to the hope he had of +first and most readily making himself understood by them. It is +because, in his apprehension, for the presentment of the matter to the +people, the whole was, so he says, "only approaching readiness and +maturity," but not yet ready and mature. + +That it is possible today to do what in Fichte's time was recognized +as the only fruitful thing to do, but, at the same time, as not then +ready to be done, and therefore too serious to be undertaken,--this +expresses the whole short step in advance that has been accomplished +in Germany during the past fifty years; for you will seek in vain for +the slightest progress on the part of the German government. + +Fichte himself, in the passage cited, says that this advance is coming +in the near future. This "near future" proves to have been fifty years +removed, and I trust, Mr. President and Gentlemen of the Court, that +you will all consider a fifty-years' interval long enough to satisfy +the requirements of the "near future." + +But the men who, undeterred by all the difficulties of the task, put +all their energies into this stupendous undertaking of carrying +scientific knowledge and scientific habits of thought among the body +of the people,--are they fairly open to the accusation of having +sought to incite the indigent classes to hatred of the well-to-do? Do +they not thereby really deserve the thanks and the affection of the +propertied classes, and of the bourgeoisie above all? + +Whence arises the bourgeoisie's dread of the people in political +matters? + +Look back, in memory, to the months of March, April, and May, 1848. +Have you forgotten how things looked here at that time? The power of +the police was broken; the people filled all the streets and public +places. And all streets, all public places and all the people in the +hands of Karbe, Lindenmueller, and other reckless agitators like +them,--men without knowledge, without intelligence, without culture, +thrown into prominence by the storm which stirred our political life +to its depths. The _bourgeoisie_, scared and faint hearted, hiding in +their cellars, trembling every instant for fear of their property and +their lives, which lay in the hands of these coarse agitators, and +saved only by the fact that these agitators were too good-natured to +make such use of their power as the bourgeoisie feared they would. The +_bourgeoisie_, secretly praying for the reestablishment of the police +power and quaking with a fright which they have not yet forgotten, the +recollection of which still leaves them incapable of taking up the +political struggle. + +How came it that in a city which proudly calls itself the metropolis +of intelligence, in so great a city, in the home of the most brilliant +intellects,--how came it that the people here for months together +could be at the disposal of Karbe and Lindenmueller and could tremble +before them in fear for their life and property. Where was the +intelligence of Berlin? Where were the men of science and of insight? +Where were you, Gentlemen? + +A whole city is never cowardly. + +But these men reflected and told one another: The people do not +understand our ways of thinking; they do not even understand our +speech. There is a great gulf between our scientific views and the +ways of the multitude, between the speech of scientific discussion and +the habits of thought of the people. They would not understand us. +Therefore the floor belongs to the coarsest. + +So they reflected and held their peace. Now, Gentlemen, are you quite +sure that a political upheaval will never recur? Are you ready to +swear that you have reached the end of historical development? Or are +you willing to see your lives and property again at the mercy of a +Karbe and a Lindenmueller? + +If not, then your thanks are due to the men who have devoted +themselves to the work of filling up that gulf which separates +scientific thought and scientific speech from the people, and so to +raze the barriers that divide the bourgeoisie and the people. Your +thanks are due these men, who, at the expense of their utmost +intellectual efforts, have undertaken a work whose results will +redound to the profit of each and all of you. These men you should +entertain at the prytaneum, not put under indictment. + +The place in which this address was held, therefore, can also not +afford ground for exception as to its scientific character. + +I have now shown you conclusively that the production is a scientific +work. + +But if, contrary to all expectation, this should still be questioned, +although I do not for a moment consider it possible that it should be +questioned by men as enlightened as you are, Mr. President and +Gentlemen of the Court; now, in such a case, I seek refuge in the +privilege which is accorded every cobbler and which you can all the +less deny me, viz., to submit a question of workmanship in my trade to +the award of men expert in the trade. + +In the last resort, the question as to the scientific character of a +given work is a question for the men of the trade, and therefore a +question which may not be decided on a basis of common education and +common culture alone, and therefore also not by a court of law. The +question at issue does not concern jurisprudence, with which you are +necessarily familiar, but it concerns other sciences with which you +may well be unfamiliar, although, as a matter of chance, you may, in +your private capacity, not your capacity as jurists, also be +acquainted with these matters. + +It is true, you may answer this question in the affirmative, your +competence extends that far. For in very many cases is the scientific +character of a given work manifest, even to the commonly instructed +intelligence. + +But to pass a negative opinion in the face of the expert testimony to +which I provisionally appeal as a subsidiary recourse;[55] to that +your competence does not extend, for the nicer question, whether in a +given case the most profound researches of science may not, with a +view to their readier apprehension, be presented in a facile and +popular form, whether this fact of a facile presentation may not +itself mark a peculiarly high achievement of scientific endeavor, in +which all traces of the struggle, all difficulties and all the +refractoriness of the materials handled have been successfully +eliminated and the whole has in the outcome been reduced to the +simplest and clearest terms; where the result presented is a +scientific work of art, which, in the words of Schiller, has risen +above the limitations of human infirmity and moves with such ease and +freedom as to give the impression that it offers but the free play of +the auditor's own unfolding thought; to decide with confidence whether +you have to deal with a scientific work of this class, and to decide +it with that certainty and security that is required in order to pass +a sentence, that is something of which none but men trained in the +science are capable. + +This question, therefore, I beg that the following gentlemen: Privy +Councillor August Boeckh, Efficient Privy Councillor Johannes Schultze, +formerly Director of the Ministry of Public Worship, Professor Adolf +Trendelenburg, Privy Councillor and Chief Librarian Dr. Pertz, Professor +Leopold Ranke, Professor Theodor Mommsen, Privy Councillor Professor +Hanssen, all members of the Royal Academy of Science, and as specialists +capable of judging in the matter, be constituted a subsidiary tribunal +to pass on the question, whether the address in question is not in the +strict sense a scientific production. + +But, if such is found to be the case, then, as I have already +explained, it has nothing to do with the penal code. + +I have permitted myself to go exhaustively into an exposition of this, +my first ground of defense, because, for the sake of the country +itself and the dignity and liberty of science, and for the sake of +establishing once for all a precedent which shall bar out all similar +endeavors of the public prosecutor in the future, it is incumbent on +me to adjure you to acquit me under Article 20 of the Constitution. + +But it is not that recourse to this article is necessary to protect my +person from the penalty of the law. + +For, even were it held that the present case comes within the +competence of the penal code, the law appealed to has in no wise been +violated, and the paragraph cited by the public prosecutor has no +application. + +Even this one exception, alone would suffice to set the indictment +aside; viz., that no objection is taken to any given passage in which +the specified offense is alleged to occur; so that the prosecution +proceeds wholely on an allegation of bias, and in the baldest manner. +The indictment runs against a bias; that is all. But a bias is not +actionable. + +But I am not to be permitted to dispose of my defense in so easy a +manner. The accusation of having endeavored to incite the poor to +hatred of the rich is an accusation of such a kind that, apart from +all question of punishment, it is likely to injure any citizen's name +and fame. This accusation is of such character that, even if it is +formally disproven on legal ground, it may still leave the accused an +object of suspicion. You will, accordingly, Mr. President and +Gentlemen of the Court, take it simply as evidence of the respect I +bear you when I now go on to clear my honor in your sight, with the +same solicitude as that with which I have defended my freedom. To this +end it is necessary for me to present the grounds of fact, as +painstakingly as I have presented the grounds of law, on which this +accusation is to be quashed, and you will, therefore, I am sure, hear +me with the same forbearance if this second part of my defense turns +out to be but little briefer than the first. + +I am accused of having violated Section 100 of the penal code. This +section reads as follows: "Any person who endangers or jeopardizes the +public peace by publicly inciting the subjects of the State to hatred +or to contempt of one another, is liable to punishment by a fine of +not less than 20 and not more than 200 thalers, or by imprisonment of +not less than one month and not more than two years." + +This section of the law specifies three different conditions, which +must be found to concur if it is to be applicable. + +I. There must be incitement to hatred or to contempt; + +II. This incitement must be directed to the detriment of given classes +of the subjects of the State, and I am accordingly accused by the +public prosecutor of having incited the class of the unpropertied +against the class of the propertied; + +III. This incitement must be of such a nature as to endanger the +public peace. + +These three conditions must concur, must combine, if the section of +the law is to apply,--and not one of these conditions occurs. + +As to I. There must be incitement to hatred and contempt; there can in +the case before you be no question of this point, and for several +reasons. + +1. The offense specified in Section 100 cannot be committed except +there be an intention to incite to hatred and contempt. A contingent +incitement to hatred and contempt, an incitement by inadvertence, is +in this case not conceivable. If such a contingent incitement, an +unintended incitement to hatred and contempt, were conceivable, what +would not the consequences be? We have, all of us, for instance, +recently read certain speeches delivered in the upper house, which +have, we will say, filled me,--and not me alone, Gentlemen, but along +with me a very large part of the nation--with hatred and contempt to +the point of distraction. Does it follow that the public prosecutor +could take action against the speakers in question? He is not +competent to do so, even aside from the political prerogative of the +speakers, for, although such has been the effect of these speeches, +the purpose of these gentlemen was assuredly not to stir up hatred and +contempt. But it is equally true that no one can deny that the purpose +of my address was to impart knowledge. The most that the public +prosecutor can allege is that it was a matter of indifference to me if +the knowledge imparted stirred up hatred and contempt,--an allegation +without significance, since there is no such thing as an incitement to +hatred and contempt by inadvertence. + +But, in point of fact, a deliberate incitement of this kind is in the +present case absolutely excluded for another reason, which at the same +time establishes that the address in question could not even have had +the effect of stirring up hatred and contempt. I, therefore, in order +to prevent repetition, beg to present this reason in connection with +the second, viz.: that my address could not have the effect of causing +hatred and contempt. + +I have, therefore, to say, as the second count under this head, that +this address cannot possibly have had the effect of stirring up hatred +and contempt, and _a fortiori_ cannot have had that intention. + +On what grounds alone can hatred and contempt be deserved? + +On the ground of viciousness, which in turn is an attribute of +voluntary human actions alone. But in this address of mine, I show +that the dominance of this principle of the bourgeoisie, against which +I am by the public prosecutor accused of inciting to hatred and +contempt, is but a stage of economic and ethical development, which is +the outcome of historical necessity, and that its nonexistence is an +utter impossibility and that it therefore has all the character of +natural necessity that belongs to the developmental progress of the +earth. + +Do we hate Nature because we have to struggle with her? Because we +have to strive to guide her processes and improve her products? + +But there is the further question: How has the public prosecutor +understood my pamphlet? + +The fundamental idea of my address is that the dominance of the +bourgeoisie has in no wise been produced, consciously and by their own +motion, intentionally and in a responsible manner, by the propertied +class as persons or individuals. On the contrary, the bourgeois are +but the unconscious, choiceless, and therefore irresponsible products, +not the producers of the situation as it stands and as it has +developed under the guidance of quite other laws than the direction of +personal choice. Even their reluctance to surrender this their mastery +I refer back to the laws of human nature, whose character it is to +hold fast to whatever is and to account it necessary. But a doctrine +which goes the length of denying the propertied class all +responsibility for the existing state of things, which makes them a +product instead of the producers of this state of things--this +doctrine the public prosecutor construes to have incited to hatred and +contempt of these persons. + +For, be it noted, we have here to do with persons and classes of +persons, under section 100, not with institutions established by the +State, as under section 101. + +No workingman has got so faulty an understanding of my address as the +public prosecutor, and I leave it to him to say whether this is due to +his lack of understanding or to his lack of will to understand. + +But, more than all this, I go on to show that the dominance of the +idea of the bourgeoisie is a great historic move in the liberation of +humanity; that it was a most potent moral cultural advance; that in +fact it was the historically indispensable prerequisite and +transitional stage through development out of which the idea of the +working class was to emerge. + +I therefore must be said to reconcile the working class to the +dominance of the bourgeoisie as an historical fact by showing the +logical necessity of this dominance. I reconcile them to it, for a +comprehension of the rationality of what restricts us is the fullest +possible reconciliation to it. + +And if I proceed, further, to show that the idea of the bourgeoisie is +not the highest stage of the historical development, not the perfect +flower of advancing improvement, but that beyond it lies yet a higher +manifestation of the human spirit, and that this ulterior phase rests +on the former as its base--does this mean that I incite to hatred and +contempt of the former? + +The working class might as well hate and despise themselves and all +human nature, whether in their own or in their neighbors' persons, +because it is the law of human nature to unfold step by step and to +proceed to each succeeding stage of development from the indispensable +vantage ground of the phase preceding. + +If I had any predilection for homiletical discourse, Gentlemen, I +should be quite justified in saying that I have exhorted the working +classes to a filial piety toward the bourgeoisie, in that I have shown +that the dominance of the bourgeoisie was the indispensable +prerequisite and condition by transition out of which alone the idea +of the working class could come forth. For even if the son, by grace +of a freer and fuller education and a larger endowment of personal +force, strives to place himself above the level on which his father +stood, still he never forgets the source of his own blood and the +author of his own being. How deep in the mud is it the intention to +thrust the noblest of all the sciences in bringing this charge of +criminal instigation against the doctrine that history is an unfolding +evolution of reason and human liberty? + +It was for long incomprehensible to me how the public prosecutor could +use such words as instigation to hatred and contempt in this +connection. In the end I have been able to explain this fact to myself +only on this one supposition. The public prosecutor must have +endeavored in reading this address, to put himself in the place of a +working man and has then come to feel that he would in such a case be +moved to hatred. + +The public prosecutor, then, is sensible that he would hate. + +Now, Gentlemen, I might say that this would be attributable to the +peculiarity of his temperament, and that he had no call to generalize +and go beyond that. But I will lend a hand to the public prosecutor in +this perplexity. I will bring the charge against myself in a more +telling form than he has been able to do. I will formulate it as the +facts of the case require that it must be formulated if it is to be +preferred at all. And in so doing, the more pointedly I may be able to +bring to light the essential nature of the charge, the more utterly +shall I annihilate it. + +This is what the public prosecutor should have said: + +It is true this address held by Lassalle appeals to the intellect of +the auditors, not to their practical impulses or their emotions. It is +accordingly true also that this address does not come within the +sphere of competence of the penal code. + +But in a person endowed with the normal complement of human +sensibility, cognition, will and emotion are not so many insulated +pigeonholes which stand in no relation to one another. Whenever the +one compartment is full it flows over into the next. Will and emotion +are servants of the intellect and are controlled by it. + +Lassalle, it is true, has not a word to say of hatred and contempt; he +is simply occupied with a theoretical exposition of how certain +arrangements, for instance, the three-class suffrage, is pernicious. I +am unable to confute this teaching. But I have this to say with +respect to the organic unity of human nature, that if the doctrine is +true then it follows that every normally constituted working man must +come to hate and distrust not only these arrangements and institutions +but also those who profit by them. + +Such is the logical framework on which this indictment must proceed. +This is the line of argument which avowedly or not, by logical +necessity comes to expression in this indictment. + +It is not I, but the public prosecutor speaking from the eminence of +his curule chair, who proclaims to the working classes the awful +doctrine: You must hate and distrust. + +It is not for me, it is for the public prosecutor to square himself +with the bourgeoisie. + +But what is my answer to the public prosecutor and his indictment +which charges me with his own offense? + +My answer is a four-fold one: + +In the first place a full recognition of the inadequacy or the +viciousness of a given institution must arouse in any person of normal +sensibility an enduring purpose to change such an institution, if +possible, and the arousing of such an undying purpose in my hearers +has necessarily been the aim of my scientific investigation, as it +necessarily is the end of all scientific work. But such a purpose, so +long as it does not utter itself in an illegal manner, is absolutely +unconstrained by law. The like is true of all effort to arouse such a +purpose, so long as it does not resort to illegal means. But such a +purpose to amend the shortcomings of any established arrangement, is +by no means the same thing as hatred and contempt of the arrangement +in question; since these shortcomings are a matter of historical +growth, of historical necessity; since, indeed, they may even be, in +effect, a factor in the work of liberation, and a factor of the +gravest consequence and of the most beneficial effect for cultural +growth. Further reasons to the like effect have already been recited +and I will not take up your time with their repetition and further +development. Here, then, is the first hiatus in the public +prosecutor's argument. + +In the second place, if it actually follows in any given case that +hatred and contempt is, for a normally constituted human being, the +necessary consequence of a scientific knowledge of the facts, such +hatred and contempt could by no means be laid under penalties by the +legislator. + +Whatever institution is so vicious that knowledge of it necessarily +excites hatred and contempt, that institution should be hated and +despised. + +The legislator lays penalties upon such hatred and contempt as are but +the effects produced by blind emotions and passions. But he has not +imposed penalties upon human reason and the moral constitution of man. +He consequently does not impose penalties upon hatred and contempt +which are the necessary outcome of these two features of human nature. +The public prosecutor construes section 100 to the effect that the +legislator has therein intended to prohibit the use of reason and +proscribe the moral nature of man. But such a purpose has not entered +the thoughts of the law-giver. No court will put such a construction +upon the law as to make the legislator the avowed enemy of +intelligence and science,--and here come into bearing again all the +arguments of my defense directed to Article 20 of the Constitution. +The only meaning of these arguments in this connection is that even if +science and its teaching were not by Article 20 of the Constitution +exempt from the application of the criminal code, still section 100, +except it be construed to intend the utter destruction of human +nature, cannot be leveled against such hatred and contempt as is the +necessary outcome of scientific knowledge. + +In the third place, hatred and contempt of a given institutional +arrangement or expedient is by no means the same thing as hatred and +contempt of those persons who profit by the arrangement in question; +whereas section 100 deals only with hatred of persons,--so that we +have here the third break in the public prosecutor's argument, and it +is a veritable _saltomortale_. + +In the fourth place I have to present an argument of fact. The +prosecutor's argument presents the most remarkable _quid pro quo_[56] +that has ever come to light in a legal discussion. The point which I +here touch upon constitutes the transition to the second part of my +argument, showing that all proof touching the second condition to be +fulfilled by the indictment is wanting; viz.: that even if there were +ground for speaking of hatred and contempt in this connection, it is +still quite plain that there has been no instigation to hatred or +contempt of those against whom I am charged with having incited to +hatred and contempt. + +As to this second part of the indictment: I am accused of instigating +the unpropertied classes to hatred and contempt of the propertied +classes. + +"By this presentation," says the indictment, "working men will plainly +be incited to hatred and contempt of the bourgeoisie, that is to say, +the unpropertied classes will be inflamed against the propertied +classes." And after having in this way, quietly and by subreption, +introduced this its definition of the term "_bourgeoisie_," the +indictment goes on to formulate its final charge as follows: + + "It is accordingly charged that the above named citizen, F.L., (1), + by his lecture etc., and (2) by publishing the pamphlet containing + this same lecture, has publicly instigated the unpropertied classes + of the State's subjects to hatred and contempt of the propertied + classes." + +It is true, in my address I speak of the "_bourgeoisie_." But what is +my definition of this term? It will be sufficient to cite a single +passage which contains the definition of "_bourgeoisie_" as used by me +in this pamphlet. This will show what an incomprehensible, unheard-of, +uncharacterisable _quid pro quo_ the public prosecutor has attempted +to impute to me in charging me with instigating the unpropertied +classes to hatred and contempt of the propertied classes. + +On page 20 of this pamphlet is the following passage, quoted +literally: + + "I have now reached the point, Gentlemen, where it becomes necessary + that, in order to avoid a possible gross misapprehension of what I + have to say, I explain what I mean by the term 'bourgeoisie' or 'great + bourgeoisie,' as the designation of a political party--that I define + what the word 'bourgeoisie' means in my use of it. + + "The word 'bourgeoisie' might be translated into German by the term + _Buergertum_ (citizenship, or the body of citizens). But that is not the + meaning actually attached to the word. We are all citizens--workingmen, + petty burghers, commercial aristocracy and all the rest alike. On the + other hand the word 'bourgeoisie' has, in the course of historical + development, come to designate a particular political bias and + movement which I will now go on to characterize. + + "At the time of the French Revolution, and, indeed, even yet, that entire + body of subjects which is not of noble birth, was roughly divided into + two sub-classes: First the class comprising those persons who, wholly or + chiefly, get their income from their own labor and are without capital, + or are, at the most, possessed of but a moderate capital which affords + them the means of carrying on some employment from which they and their + families derive their subsistence. This class comprises the + workingmen, the lower middle classes (_Kleinbuerger_), the citizen + class and also the body of the peasants. The second class is made up + of those persons who have the disposal of a large property, of a large + capital, and who are producers or receivers of income on the basis of + their possession of capital. These latter might be called the great + burghers or commoners, or the capitalist gentry. But such a great + burgher or capitalist gentleman, is not by reason of that fact a + bourgeois. No commoner has any objection to raise because a nobleman + in the bosom of his family finds comfort in his pedigree and in his + lands. But when, on the other hand, this nobleman insists on making + such pedigree or such landed property the basis of a peculiar + importance and prerogative in the State, when he insists on making + them a ground for controlling public policy, then the commoner takes + offense at the nobleman and calls him a feudalist. + + "The case is entirely similar as regards the distinctions in respect + of property within the body of commoners. + + "That the capitalist gentleman in his chamber takes pleasure in the high + degree of comfort and the great advantage which large wealth confers + upon its possessor,--nothing can be more natural, simpler or more + legitimate than that he should do so." + +Incidentally, then, Gentlemen, so far am I in this pamphlet from +instigating the unpropertied classes to hatred and contempt of the +wealthy, that, on the contrary, I expressly declare myself for the +legitimacy of such property. I explicitly declare that the +satisfaction taken in the advantages and amenities which flow from +such wealth are the most natural and legitimate things in the world. + +Let me now go on with the definition referred to: + + "The workingmen and the lower middle class, that is to say the class + without capital, may be wholly justified in demanding that those by whose + hands all that wealth which is the pride of our civilization is produced, + whose hands have brought forth all these products without which society + could not live for a single day--it may well be demanded that these should + be secured an ample and unfailing income, and thereby be given an + opportunity for some intellectual development, and that they be by this + means put in the way of a truly human manner of life. But, while I + am free to say that the working classes are fairly within their rights in + making these demands of the State, and to stand out stiffly for their + demands as being the essential purpose for which the State exists, yet + the workingman must never allow himself to forget that all property + that has once been acquired and is legally held must be considered lawful + and inviolable." + +Such, then, is the manner and degree of my instigation of the +unpropertied class to hatred and distrust that I incontinently preach +to them the inviolability and sacredness of all property acquired by +the wealthy classes, and exhort them to respect it. + +But I go on to say: + + "In case the man of means is not content with the material amenities + of large wealth, but insists that possession of wealth, of capital, be + made the basis of a control to be exercised over the State, a condition + of participation in the direction of public policy and of the direction + of public affairs, then and only then does the man of means become a + bourgeois; then does he make the fact of property a legal ground of + political power; then does he stand forth as representative of a + privileged class aiming to put the imprint of its prerogative upon all + social features and institutions, just as truly as the nobility of the + Middle Ages did with respect to the basis of their privilege, landed + property." + +Accordingly, in my use of the term, as I have explicitly and +painstakingly defined it, the man of means, the man of the +upper-middle class, is a _bourgeois_ in case he proceeds to set up the +essentially harmless and inoffensive fact of his large property as a +legal condition of participation in the direction of public affairs; +in short, when he proceeds to set up the ownership of capital as a +legal and political prerogative, and so abolishes the equality of the +propertied and the unpropertied classes before the law, and thereby +infringes upon the liberty and further growth of the people, in the +interest of accumulated wealth and continued upper-class mastery. Only +under these circumstances, as I particularly point out, does the +_bourgeoisie_ become a privileged class, which it otherwise, in spite +of all inequality of wealth, is not. + +In my pamphlet I point out how all this has its effect through the +census rating whereby admission to a share in the direction of public +policy, through eligibility to any legislative body, is so limited by +property qualifications as to make the possession of capital a +prerequisite. I point out further that this effect follows equally +whether the property qualification is open and above-board or +under-hand, and finally that the existing three-class system of +elections, dating back to 1849, amounts to such an under-hand, +disguised property rating. + +The point at which the pamphlet strikes, therefore, albeit in a purely +theoretical way, is the three-class system of elections. It makes no +attack upon the propertied classes, whose accumulated wealth, on the +contrary, I am repeatedly at pains to define as wholly incontestable, +inoffensive, inviolable and perfectly lawful. + +This three-class system of elections is one of our political +institutions. + +Now, this being the case, why has not the public prosecutor indicted +me under section 101 of the criminal code, "for having exposed the +measures of the State to hatred and to contempt?" To be sure, if the +prosecutor had chosen to make this charge, I should have known how to +answer him. To go into this matter today would be superfluous, +for I am not accused of this offense, and my defense would be drawn +out endlessly if I were to defend myself against charges that have +never been brought against me. + +But why, among all impossible charges, does the public prosecutor +choose to bring precisely the most impossible? Why does he make this +substitution as to the point of my attack? I point out that the +three-class system of elections is an injustice because it makes an +essentially innocent difference in wealth a legal qualification for +participation in the direction of public affairs; whereupon this +envenomed accusation is brought against me that I have instigated the +unpropertied classes to hatred and contempt of the propertied. + +Is there, then, no remedy, Gentlemen, against such a public defamation +of one's name and fame? + +Can we say that among us the introduction, of the three-class system +of elections is to be laid at the door of the propertied classes or +the commonalty? Something of that kind might be said of the French +_bourgeoisie_. In France the property qualification and rating was +introduced as long ago as the revolutionary _Assemblee Constituante_. +But the like has not been done by the German. + +When the Prussian bourgeoisie came into power through the March +revolution of 1848 it introduced universal and equal suffrage by the +law of the 8th of April, 1848. The German bourgeoisie at St. Paul's +Church, Frankfort, enacted universal equal suffrage. + +The three-class system of elections which we now have, was arbitrarily +imposed, imposed by the government. + +Now, why does the public prosecutor shelter the government behind the +backs of the Prussian _bourgeoisie? A tout seigneur tout honneur_![57] + +It is the Prussian government, not the propertied classes, that must +for all time and in the eyes of all people bear the responsibility of +this arbitrarily imposed three-class system of elections. + +But, whatever may have been the reasons which decided the public +prosecutor to make this very singular substitution of grievances in +his indictment--and we may perhaps presently come to find out what his +reasons were--at any rate, this second ground of the indictment also +fails. There has been no incitement against the propertied classes of +the community; there has been no instigation against those against +whom I am accused of instigating to hatred and contempt. + +The third ground on which the indictment is brought, the charge of +having endangered the public peace, fails likewise. + +As to this third count: + + Section 100 says: "Any person who endangers the public peace by + publicly inciting the subjects of the State to hatred or to contempt + of one another is to be punished." + +Now, when the State speaks of the public peace it cannot be taken to +mean peace of mind, for the State is not a pietistic overseer +concerned about the subjects' peace of mind and the general sphere of +spiritual edification. What it looks to is the peace of the streets. +This is made quite plain by the phrase, "public peace." + +The like is plain from all principles of law. Subjective states of +mind do not concern the State; it is concerned with overt actions +alone. It has, accordingly, no concern with hatred and contempt or +with instigation thereto in so far as they are a matter of subjective +sensibility only; but such instigation is subject to penalties only in +case it is of such a nature as to lead to overt action. This is very +patently indicated by the legislator in making use of the expression, +"Any person who endangers public peace." The legislator says not any +one who "disturbs," but any one who "endangers." If, in the +contemplation of the law, any incitement whatever to hatred and +contempt were punishable; if, in the contemplation of the law, the +public peace were to be "endangered" through the mere incitement to +such subjective sentiments; then the law would necessarily have said: +any person who disturbs the public peace by inciting. If such had been +the phrasing of the law, then it might perhaps be held that such +disturbance always follows when instigation to hatred and contempt is +made. + +"Endanger" means to bring about the possibility of a disturbance, and +by his choice of this term, therefore, the legislator has shown us +that in speaking of the public peace he has not in mind a harmony of +sentiments--which in the case contemplated must already have been +disturbed, not simply endangered--but the peace of the streets. He has +shown that he does not consider that a disturbance of the public peace +necessarily has arisen in case of incitement to subjective sentiments +of hatred and contempt. Consequently not every case of such incitement +is held to be punishable, but only those cases in which the peace of +the streets is in danger of being disturbed. In other words the +penalty follows only when the incitement to hatred and contempt +attains such a pitch as to become dangerous, that is to say, liable to +result in overt unlawful acts. Section 100 is accordingly not to be +taken to say that any person who incites to hatred and contempt +endangers the public peace and is therefore subject to punishment. +Such an interpretation would be wholly fallacious, on juridical as +well as on grammatical grounds. Its meaning is that any person who +puts the public peace in jeopardy through inciting to hatred and +contempt--that is to say in case the incitement is of such a nature +that it necessarily carries danger to the public peace--such a person +is subject to the penalties of this law. In making use of the term +"endanger," therefore, the law defines the crime of incitement to this +effect, that it must be incitement of such a kind that it at least may +lead to overt action--to the endangering of the peace of the +streets--otherwise it is not punishable. + +To show how far my action falls short of this third criterion, how +little the alleged instigation is of the kind which might, even +conceivably, lead to tangible action in the way of endangering the +political peace, the peace of the public highways--to this end let me +simply point out that in this address I am occupied with a discussion +of periods of historical development of secular duration, and at the +close I make the explicit statement that in the advance of a +historical dawning one or two decades count but as a single hour in +the revolution of a natural day. + +So that we have here to do with an indictment which meets the +requirements of the law at not a single point; whereas in order to an +adequate charge, the several counts should concur, should combine and +bear one another out. + +It has frequently happened that indictments have been made in which +some one count has not been well taken. But an indictment of which not +even a single count proves to come within the contemplation of the +law,--such an indictment deserves a special, and in every sense of the +word a peculiar, place on honor in the temple of jurisprudence. + +However, _audiatur et altera pars_.[58] Let us take one last look at +the motivation which the indictment offers. In so doing it is possible +that we shall find that in what I have been saying I have, by some +highly ingenious artifice of exposition, succeeded in concealing the +legally offensive features of my action; or on the other hand it may +turn out that the totally nugatory character of this indictment will +by this means be brought out in even more startling fashion than has +yet appeared. + +There is one sentence in this indictment which serves as underpinning to +the whole structure. This sentence may, therefore, be expected to be of +selected timber. The preamble of the document says: "The leading ideas +of this address are as follows:--" and then, having given an ostensible +_resume_ of these ideas, it goes on to the following effect: "By these +expositions, and by the frequently recurring allusions to an imminent +social revolution, the workingmen will manifestly be provoked to hatred +and contempt of the bourgeoisie; that is to say, the unpropertied +classes will be stirred up against the propertied, whereby the public +peace will be endangered, particularly since the address contains a +direct appeal to make the mastery of the working class over the other +classes of society the end of their endeavors, to be pursued with the +most ardent and consuming passion." + +This is the only passage in the document that is of the nature of a +legal motivation. Let us look more closely into this sentence. This is +a sentence which might give the asthma to a person with weak lungs, +and it is so constructed as to hide its total lack of substance from +any superficial view under a shimmering verbiage and a confusion of +ideas. If you will look more closely into this passage, Gentlemen, you +will be astonished at the quantity of juristic monstrosities, +absurdities, misstatements and misconstructions of fact which it +contains. + +Now, whereby, according to this passage, have I accomplished my +alleged incitement to hatred and contempt? "By these expositions," +says the document. That is to say by a purely theoretical, purely +objective exposition of historical events; by what the indictment +itself designates as the exposition of my leading ideas; by nothing +else, therefore, than the scientific doctrine simply. It is by this +means that I am alleged to have incited to hatred and contempt. The +indictment may shift and turn as it likes; it cannot escape the avowal +that its accusation runs against nothing else than purely scientific +arguments,--against science and its teaching. + +But the passage goes on to add an "and." By these expositions _and_ by +the frequently recurring allusions to an imminent social revolution is +the instigation alleged to have been effected. + +What are these allusions to an imminent social revolution? Where are +they to be found? Why does not the public prosecutor cite them? I call +upon him to do so. But he cannot cite them. There is no passage in +this pamphlet which will bear out his insinuations on this point. + +It is true, throughout this pamphlet I make frequent use of the words +"revolutionary" and "revolution;" although I do not speak of an +"imminent social revolution," as the public prosecutor alleges. What +I speak of is a social revolution which supervened in February, 1848. +But with this word, "revolution," the public prosecutor hopes to crush +me. For he, taking the word in its narrower legal sense alone, cannot +read this word, "revolution," without conjuring up before his fancy +the brandishing of pitchforks. But such is not the meaning of the word +in its scientific use, and the consistent use of the term in my +pamphlet might have apprised the public prosecutor of the fact that +the term is there employed in its alternative, scientific +signification. So, for instance, I speak of the development of the +territorial principality as a "revolutionary" phenomenon. + +And so again, on the other hand, I expressly declare that the peasant +wars, which, assuredly, were sufficiently garnished with violence and +bloodshed,--I declare these wars to have been a movement which was +revolutionary only in the imagination of those who participated in +them, whereas they were in reality not a revolutionary, but a +reactionary movement. + +The progress of industry which took place in the sixteenth century, on +the contrary, I repeatedly and constantly characterize as a "really +and veritably revolutionary fact" (page 7), although no sword was +drawn on its account. Likewise I characterize (page 7) the invention +of the spinning jenny in 1775 as a radical and effectual revolution. + +Is this an abuse of language, or am I hereby introducing a novel use +of words in making use of the term "revolution" in this sense,--in +that I apply it to peaceful developments and deny it to sanguinary +disturbances! + +The elder Schelling says (_Untersuchungen ueber das Wesen der +menschlichen Freiheit_, Vol. VII, p. 351): "The happy thought of +making freedom the all in all of Philosophy has not only made the +human intellect free as regards its own motives and effected a greater +change in this science in all directions than any earlier revolution," +etc. The elder Schelling, at least, does not, like the public +prosecutor's fancy, see pitchforks flashing before his eyes at the +sound of the word "revolution." Applying the word, as he does, to the +effects wrought by a philosophical principle, he takes it, as I do, in +a sense which has no relation whatever to physical violence. + +What, then, is the scientific meaning of this word "revolution," and +how does revolution differ from reform? Revolution means +transmutation, and a revolution is, accordingly, accomplished +whenever, by whatever means, with or without shock or violence, an +entirely new principle is substituted for what is already in effect. A +reform, on the other hand, is effected in case the existing situation +is maintained in point of principle, but with a more humane, more +consequent or juster working out of this principle. Here, again, it is +not a question of the means. A reform may be effected by means of +insurrection and bloodshed, and a revolution may be carried out in +piping times of peace. The peasant wars were an attempt at compelling +a reform by force of arms. The development of industry was a +full-blown revolution, accomplished in the most peaceable manner; for +in this latter case an entirely new and novel principle was put in the +place of the previously existing state of affairs. Both these ideas +are developed at length and with great pains in the pamphlet under +consideration. + +How comes it that the public prosecutor alone has failed to understand +me? Why is all this unintelligible to him alone, when every workingman +understands it? + +Now, even suppose that I had spoken of an "imminent social +revolution," as in point of fact I did not; would I, therefore, +necessarily have been talking of pitchforks and bayonets? + +Professor Huber is a thoroughly conservative man, a strenuous +royalist, a man who, on the adoption of the constitution of 1850, +voluntarily resigned the professor's chair which he held in the +University of Berlin, because, if I am rightly informed, he had +scruples about subscribing to it; but at the same time he is a man who +is with the deepest affection devoted to the welfare of the working +classes, who has given the most painstaking study to their development +and has written most excellent works upon that subject, particularly +upon the history of industrial corporations or labor organizations. +After having shown that the labor organizations of England, France, +and Germany already have in hand a capital of fifty million thalers, +Professor Huber says in this latest work (_Concordia_, p. 24): + + "Under these circumstances and under the influences herein at work, + and in view of the historical facts above indicated in outline, it is + to be hoped that I need enter no disclaimer against Utopian daydreams + of a universal millenium when I say that not only is a very substantial + reform of the existing political conditions of the factory population + practicable in such a measure as to bring about an elevation of their + entire social and economic situation, but such a reform is to be looked + for as in the natural course of things the assured outcome of the + growth of labor organizations." + +Here we have a prediction of a thoroughgoing social transmutation +spoken of as the assured outcome of the labor-organization movement +working out its effects simply within the lines of the peaceable and +conventional course of things. But how if I, with all the stronger +reason, had spoken of a prospective social change that might be +expected to result from the combined force of the two factors, +organized labor and universal suffrage? + +But how can I be held accountable for the public prosecutor's literary +limitations? for his lack of acquaintance with what is going on all +around us in modern times and what science has already accepted and +made a matter of record? Am I the scientific whipping-boy of the +public prosecutor? If that were the case, the punishment which it +would be for you, Mr. President and Gentlemen of the Court, to mete +out to me would be something stupendous. But all that apart, how can +an allusion to an imminent social revolution, even to a pitchfork +revolution, constitute an instigation to hatred and contempt of the +bourgeoisie? And this is, after all, what the public prosecutor must +be held to allege in the passage cited, and this in fact is what he +does allege. Hatred and contempt can be aroused against any man only +by his own acts and their publicity. But how can anything done by +Peter excite the hatred and contempt of Paul? If any one were to tell +us: "The workingmen are going to get up a social revolution," how +could that remark arouse hatred and contempt of the bourgeoisie? The +passage in question, then, shows itself to have been one that makes no +sense, either in point of grammar or in point of logic. It is not only +untrue with a threefold untruth, but it is contradictory and +meaningless. At least it is quite unintelligible to me. + +I have as great difficulty in understanding the public prosecutor's +language as he has in understanding mine. The Greeks were in the habit +of calling any one _barbaros_ (a barbarian) who did not understand the +current speech. So the public prosecutor and I are both barbarians, +the one to the other. + +But this passage in the indictment which I have been analyzing brings +up a third point at which I am alleged to have been guilty of inciting +to hatred and contempt of the bourgeoisie. This is introduced with the +word "particularly." The exposition and the allusions above spoken of +are alleged to have incited to hatred and contempt, "particularly +because the address contains a direct appeal to make the mastery of +the working classes over the other classes of society the end of their +endeavors, to be pursued with the most ardent and consuming passion." +Suppose that such were the case; an exhortation addressed to a given +class of society to pursue the vain ambition of a mastery over the +other classes would be worthy of all reprobation, but it would still +be legally permissible unless it urged to criminal acts. Every class +in society is at liberty to strive for the control of the State, so +long as it does not seek to realize its end by unlawful means. No +political purpose is punishable, the means employed alone are. Now, +the character of this prosecution, as a prosecution directed against a +political bias, appears plainly and should be manifest to every one in +every line of the indictment, in that it constantly charges incitement +to the seeking of certain ends; it never attempts to show that +criminal means have been employed, or that I have, in my address, +urged the employment of such means. But even if I had been guilty of +urging the working classes to resort to criminal means for gaining +control over the other classes of society, then I could only have been +indicted under Article 61,[59] or some other article of the criminal +code, but never under Article 100, or as having offended against that +article by an instigation of the workingmen to hatred and contempt; +for such an exhortation addressed to the working classes to make +themselves masters of the other classes of society must have incited +the workingmen to political ambition, but by no means to hatred and +contempt of any third party. This ambition on the part of the +workingmen could, of course, not have been fathered upon the +bourgeoisie; and since responsibility for it could not have been put +upon them, hatred and contempt of them could not have been aroused by +the fact of such an ambition. It therefore appears again that this +passage is quite devoid of grammatical and logical content. But upon +what ground has the public prosecutor read into my address an +exhortation urging to the pursuit of "mastery on the part of the +workingmen over the other classes of society?" + +All that I have to say in my pamphlet bearing on this head is that it +is the destiny of the historical epoch beginning with February, 1848, +to install the ethical principle of the working classes as the +dominant principle of society, to make it the guiding principle of the +State; the nature of this principle is expounded in my pamphlet, and I +have already restated it in outline in the introductory part of my +speech. + +I repeatedly and explicitly express myself to the same effect. So I +say (page 31) that, as in 1789 the revolution was a revolution of the +third estate, so in this later case it was a revolution of the fourth +estate, "which now seeks to erect its principle into the dominant +principle of society and to permeate all institutions with it." Or +again + +(page 32): "Whoever, therefore, appeals to the principle of the +working class as the dominant principle of society;" and, further, on +the same page: "We have now to examine, in three several hearings, +this principle of the working class as the dominant principle of +society." And (page 33): "Perhaps the idea of making the principle of +the lowest class of society the dominant principle of the State and of +society may seem to be a dangerous idea." I, then, proceed to develop, +from page 39 onward, the difference between the ethical and political +principle of the bourgeoisie and the ethical and political principle +of the working class, and conclude on page 42 with the words: "This, +then, is it, Gentlemen, that is to be characterized as the political +principle of the working class," etc. + +And because I present an exalted ethical principle, the noblest +ethical principle which my intelligence is capable of grasping, the +noblest ethical principle yet achieved by political philosophy, +because I proclaim this as destined to become the guiding principle of +the present period of history; because of this and because I bring +evidence to show that this principle, as being the expression of the +natural instinct due to the economic situation of the working classes, +is properly to be designated as the principle of the working +classes,--this is what the public prosecutor has construed into an +atrocious crime, and has accused me of urging the working classes to +aim at making their own class the masters of the other classes of +society. + +The public prosecutor appears to believe that I aspire to see the +propertied classes reduced to servitude under the working classes, +that I would invert history and make the landed gentry and the +manufacturers the servants of the workingmen. + +But however widely we may differ in the use of language, however much +we may mutually be barbarians to one another, could such a +misapprehension, or anything approaching it, be at all possible? + +I develop (page 32) my view, explicitly and in detail, to the effect +that this is precisely the characteristic mark of the fourth estate, +that its principle contains no ground of discrimination, whether in +point of fact or in point of law, such as could be erected into a +domineering prerogative and applied to reconstruct the institutions of +society to that end. The words I use are as follows (page 32): +"Laborers we all are, in so far as we are willing to make ourselves +useful to human society in any way whatever. This fourth estate, in +the recesses of whose heart there lies no germ of a new and further +development of privilege, is therefore a term coincident with the +human race. Its concerns are, therefore, in truth the concerns of +mankind as a whole; its freedom is the freedom of mankind itself; its +sovereignty is the sovereignty of all men." And I thereupon go on to +say: "Therefore, whoever appeals to the principle of the working class +as the dominant principle of society, in the sense in which I have +presented this idea,--his cry is not a cry designed to divide the +classes of society," etc. And while I, with all my heart and soul, am +making an appeal for the termination of all class rule and all class +antagonism, the public prosecutor charges me with inciting the +laborers to establish class rule over the propertied classes. I ask +again: How is such an astonishing misunderstanding to be explained? +Permit me once again, to quote the father against the son: + + "The medium," says Schelling (Vol. I, p. 243, _Abhandlungen zur + Erlaeuterung des Idealismus der Wissenschaftslehre_)--"The medium + whereby intellects understand one another is not the circumambient + atmosphere, but the joint and common freedom whose movements penetrate + to the innermost recesses of the soul. A human spirit not consciously + replete with freedom is excluded from all spiritual communion, not only + with others but even with himself. No wonder, therefore, that he + remains incomprehensible to himself as well as to others, and wearies + himself in his pitiable solitude with empty words which stir no friendly + response whether in his own or in another's breast. To be unintelligible + to such an unfortunate is a credit and an honor before God and man." + +So says Schelling, the father. + +Gentlemen, I have now reached the close of my argument. It were +bootless to ask whether this charge could possibly have any weight +with you, Mr. President and Gentlemen of the Court. But there was +probably another design at the root of the prosecution. The political +struggle between the bourgeoisie and the government has lately shown +some slight signs of life. It has, not improbably, been thought that +under these circumstances a prosecution for incitement of the +unpropertied classes to hatred and contempt of the propertied classes +would create an effective diversion; it was probably hoped that even +if such an accusation were dismissed by you, still--you remember the +ancient adage: _calumniare audacter, semper aliquit haeret_[60]--it +would serve as a wet towel to bind about the slightly-inflamed +countenance of our bourgeoisie,--and so, with this in view, Gentlemen, +I was selected as the scapegoat to be driven out into the wilderness. +But even this design, Gentlemen, will fail. + +It will fail shamefully through the mere reading of my pamphlet, which +I most particularly commend to the bourgeoisie. It will fail before +the force of my own voice; and precisely with this in view I felt +called on to go so extensively into the facts of the case in my +defense. We are all, bourgeoisie and laborers, members of one people, +and we stand firmly together against our oppressors. + +Let me now close. Upon a man who, as I have presented the matter to +you, has devoted his life under the motto, "Science and the +Workingmen," even a sentence which may meet him on the way will make +no other impression beyond that made upon a chemist by the breaking of +a retort used by him in his scientific experiments. With a momentary +knitting of the brow and a reflection on the physical properties of +matter, as soon as the accident is remedied he goes on with his +experiments and his investigation as before. + +But I appeal to you that for the sake of the nation and its honor, for +the sake of science and its dignity, for the sake of the country and +its liberty under the law, for the sake of your own memory as history +shall preserve it, Mr. President and Gentlemen of the Court, acquit +me. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 49: The criteria which are here appealed to as working the +differences of spiritual constitution between the so-called Germanic +peoples and the peoples of antiquity are today questioned at more than +one point. And quite legitimately so. Considered as peoples simply, +the Greeks or Romans were scarcely less capable of development than +the Germanic peoples. That their States, their political +organizations, collapsed because of the decay of certain institutional +arrangements peculiar to the social life of the times, that is a +fortune in which the states of antiquity quite impartially have shared +with the various States of the Germanic world. Political structures in +general are capable of but a moderate degree of development. If the +development proceeds beyond this critical point the result, sooner or +later, is a historical cataclysm, whereby the old State is supplanted +by a new form of social organization resting on a new foundation. As +elements in this new foundation there may be comprised new religious +or new ethical notions, but, in a general way, it is to be said that, +except in the theocratic States, the role played by religion is only +of secondary importance even in antiquity. + +Socrates was not the first nor the only one in Greece who had taught +"new gods." That he in particular was called on to drink the hemlock +was due to reasons of State policy, which had but a very slight and +unessential relation to the acts of sacrilege of which he was accused. +It may be added that this Greek promulgator of new gods is among the +German peoples fairly matched by John Huss and thousands of other +victims of religious persecution. + +Lassalle's mistake lies in this, that he seeks the motor force of +development in the "spirit" of the nations, instead of looking for an +explanation of their spiritual life in the peculiar circumstances +which condition their development. But, in spite of this, it must be +said that his conclusions as bearing upon the modern situation are for +the most part substantially sound.--TRANSLATOR.] + +[Footnote 50: According to this doctrine, the motions of the +"Monads"--animistically conceived units of which the entire universe, +organic or inorganic, was held to be constituted--were (by the fiat of +God at the creation of the world) bound in a preordained sequence, in +such a manner that all these motions constitute a comprehensive, +harmonious series. Wherefore, all events whatever that may take place, +take place as the necessary outcome of the constitution of these +monads moving independently of one another.--TRANSLATOR.] + +[Footnote 51: Permission to teach.] + +[Footnote 52: I have fought not without glory.] + +[Footnote 53: Don't disturb my circles.] + +[Footnote 54: A new and unheard-of-crime.] + +[Footnote 55: In case it becomes necessary.] + +[Footnote 56: Confusion of one thing with another.] + +[Footnote 57: Honor to whom honor belongs!] + +[Footnote 58: Hear also the other side.] + +[Footnote 59: That is, for high treason.] + +[Footnote 60: Calumniate boldly, some of it will always stick.] + + * * * * * + + + + +OPEN LETTER TO THE CENTRAL COMMITTEE (1863) + +FOR THE SUMMONING OF A GENERAL GERMAN WORKINGMEN'S CONGRESS AT LEIPZIG + +BY FERDINAND LASSALLE + +TRANSLATED BY E.H. BABBITT, A.B. + +Assistant Professor of German, Tufts College + + +Gentlemen:--You have asked me in your letter to express my opinion, +in any way that seems suitable to me, on the workingmen's movement +and the means which it should use to attain an improvement of the +condition of the working class in political, material, and intellectual +matters--especially on the value of associations for the class of +people who have no property. + +I have no hesitation in following your wishes, and I choose the form +which is simplest and most suitable to the nature of the matter--the +form of a public letter of reply to your communication. + +Last October in Berlin, at a time when I was absent from here, during +your first preliminary discussion concerning the German Workingmen's +Congress--a discussion which I followed in the newspapers with +interest--two opposing views were brought forward in the meeting. + +One was to the effect that you have no concern whatever with political +agitation and that it has no interest for you. + +The other, in distinction from this, was that you were to consider +yourselves an appendix to the Prussian Progressive party, and to +furnish a sort of characterless chorus or sounding-board for it. + +If I had attended that meeting, I should have expressed myself against +both views. It is utterly narrow-minded to believe that political +agitation and political progress do not concern the workingman. On the +contrary, the workingman can expect the realization of his legitimate +ambitions only from political liberty. + +Even the question to what extent you are allowed to meet, discuss your +interests, form general and local unions for their consideration, +etc., is a question which depends upon the political situation and +upon political legislation, and therefore it is not worth the trouble +even to refute such a narrow view by further consideration. + +No less false and misleading was the other view which was placed +before you, namely, to consider yourselves politically a mere annex of +the Progressive party. + +It would certainly be unjust not to recognize that the Progressive +party, in its struggle with the Prussian Government, performed at that +time a certain service, though a moderate one, in behalf of political +liberty, by its insistence upon the right of granting appropriations +and its opposition to the reorganization of the army in Prussia. + +Nevertheless the realization of that suggestion is completely out of +the question, for the following reasons: + +In the first place, such a position was in no way fitting for a +powerful independent party with much more important political +purposes, such as the German Workingmen's party should be, with +reference to a party which, like the Prussian Progressive party, has +set up as its standard, in the matter of principle, only the +maintenance of the Prussian constitution, and, as the basis of its +activity, only the prevention of the one-sided organization of the +army--which is not even attempted in other German countries; or the +insistence upon the right of granting appropriations--which is not +even disputed in other German countries. + +In the second place, it was in no way certain that the Prussian +Progressive party would carry on its conflict with the Prussian +Government with that dignity and energy which alone are appropriate +for the working class, and which alone can count upon its warm +sympathy. + +In the third place, it was also not certain that the Prussian +Progressive party, even if it had won a victory over the Prussian +administration, would use this victory in the interest of the whole +people, or merely for the maintenance of the privileged position of +the _bourgeoisie_; in other words, that it would apply this victory +toward the establishment of the universal equal and direct franchise, +which is demanded by democratic principles and by the legitimate +interests of the working class. In the latter case it evidently could +not make the slightest claim to any interest on the part of the German +working class. + +That is what I should have said to you at that time with reference to +that suggestion. + +Today I can add furthermore that in the meantime it has been shown by +facts--a thing which at that time would not have been very difficult +to foresee--that the Progressive party is completely lacking in the +energy which would have been required to carry to a conclusion, in a +dignified and victorious manner, even such a limited conflict between +itself and the Prussian administration. + +And since it continues, in spite of the denial by the Government of +the right of granting appropriations, to meet and to carry on +parliamentary affairs with the ministry, which has been declared by +the party itself criminally liable, it humiliates, by this +contradiction, itself and the people through a lack of force and +dignity without parallel. + +Since it continues to meet, to debate, and to arrange parliamentary +affairs with the administration itself--in spite of the violation of +the constitution which it has declared to exist--it is a support to +the administration and aids it in maintaining the appearance of a +constitutional situation. + +Instead of declaring the sessions of the Chamber closed until the +administration has declared that it will no longer continue the +expenditures refused by the Chamber, instead of thus placing upon the +administration the unavoidable alternative either of respecting the +constitutional right of the Chamber or of renouncing every appearance +of a constitutional procedure, of ruling openly and without +prevarication as an absolute government, of taking upon itself the +tremendous responsibility of absolutism, and thus of precipitating the +crisis which must necessarily come, in time, as the result of open +absolutism, this party by its own action enables the administration to +unite all the advantages of absolute power with all the advantages of +an apparently constitutional procedure. + +And since, instead of forcing the administration into open and +unconcealed absolutism and by that action enlightening the people as +to the non-existence of constitutional procedure, it consents to +continue to play its part in this comedy of mock constitutionalism, it +helps maintain an appearance which, like every system of government +based on appearances, must have a confusing and debasing effect upon +the intelligence of the people. + +Such a party has in this way shown that it is, and always will be, +utterly impotent against a determined administration. + +Such a party has shown that it is for this very reason entirely +incapable of accomplishing even the slightest genuine development of +the interests of liberty. + +Such a party has shown that it has no claim to the sympathies of the +democratic classes of the population, and that it has no realization +and no understanding of the feeling of political honor which must +permeate the working class. + +Such a party has, in a word, shown by its action that it is nothing +else than the resurrection of the unsavory Gotha idea, decked out with +a different name. + +I can add today also the following facts: Today, as at that time, I +should have been obliged to say to you that a party which compels +itself through its dogma of Prussian leadership to see in the Prussian +administration the chosen Messiah for the German renaissance--while +there is not a single German administration (even including Hesse), +which is more backward than the Prussian in political development, +and while there is hardly a single German government (and +this includes Austria) which is not far ahead of Prussia--for this +reason alone loses all claim to representing the German working class; +for such a party shows by this alone a depth of illusion, +self-conceit, and incompetence drunken with the sound of its own +words, which must dash all hope of expecting from it a real +development of the liberty of the German people. + +From what has been said we can now understand definitely what position +the working class must take in political matters and what attitude +toward the Progressive party it must maintain. + +The working class must establish, itself as an independent political +party, and must make the universal, equal, and direct franchise the +banner and watchword of this party. Representation of the working +class in the legislative bodies of Germany--nothing else can satisfy +its legitimate interests from a political point of view. To begin a +peaceful and law-abiding agitation for this by all lawful means is and +must be, from a political point of view, the programme of the +workingmen's party. + +It is self-evident what attitude this workingmen's party is to take +toward the German Progressive party. + +It must feel and organize itself everywhere as an independent party +completely separate from the latter, although the Progressive party is +to be supported on points and questions in which the interest of the +two parties is a common one; it must turn its back decidedly upon the +Progressive party and oppose it whenever it departs from that +interest, and thus force the Progressive party either to develop +progressively and to rise above its own level or to sink deeper and +deeper into the mire of insignificance and weakness in which it +already stands knee deep; these must be the straightforward tactics of +the German workingmen's party with reference to the Progressive party. + +So much as to what you must do from a political point of view. + +Now for the social question which you raise, a question which rightly +interests you to a still greater extent. + +I have read in the papers, not without a sad smile, that part of the +program for your Congress consists in debates concerning freedom of +choosing places of residence and of employment for the workingman. + +What, Gentlemen, are you going to debate about the right of choosing +places of residence, the right of settling down anywhere without being +specially taxed! + +I can answer you on this point with nothing better than Schiller's +epigram: + + Jahre lang schon bedien' ich mich meiner Nase zum Riechen: Aber + hab' ich an sie auch ein erweisliches Recht? + + (Year after year I have used the nose God gave me to smell with: + But can I legally prove any such right to its use?) + +And is not the situation the same as to freedom of employment? + +All these debates have at least one mistake--they come more than fifty +years too late. Freedom of moving about and freedom of employment are +things which nowadays are decreed in a legislative body in silence, +but no longer debated. + +Should the German working class repeat again the spectacle of +assemblies whose enjoyment consists in giving themselves over to long +purposeless speeches and applauding them? The seriousness and the +energy of the German working class will know how to protect it from +such a pitiable spectacle. + +But you propose to establish institutions for savings, funds for +retiring pensions, insurance against accidents and sickness? I am +willing to recognize the relative usefulness of these institutions, +although it is a subordinate one and hardly worth notice. + +But let us make a complete distinction between two questions which +have absolutely nothing to do with each other. + +Is it your object to make the misery of individual workingmen more +endurable; to counteract the effects of thoughtlessness, sickness, old +age, accidents of all kinds, through which by chance or necessity +individual workingmen are forced even below the normal condition of +the working class? For such objects all these institutions are +entirely appropriate means. Only it would not be worth while in that +case to begin a movement for such a purpose throughout all Germany, to +stir up a general agitation in the whole working class of the nation. +You must not bring mountains into labor in order that a ridiculous +mouse appear. This so extremely limited and subordinate purpose can +better be left to local unions and local organizations, which can +always handle it far better. + +Or is this your object: To improve the normal condition of the whole +working class and elevate it above its present level? In truth this is +and must be your purpose, but this sharp line of distinction is +necessary, which I have drawn between these two objects, which must +not be confused with each other, in order to show you, better than I +could through a long exposition, how utterly powerless these +institutions are to attain this second object, and therefore how +utterly outside the scope of the present workingmen's movement. + +Permit me to adduce the testimony of a single authority--the admission +of a strict conservative, a strict royalist, Professor Huber--a man +who has likewise devoted his studies to the social question and the +development of the workingmen's movement. + +I like to call on the testimony of this man (in the course of this +letter I shall do it now and then again) because he is politically +entirely opposed to me, and in regard to economic questions differs +radically from me, and must accordingly be the best person to remove, +through his testimony, the suspicion that the slight advantage which I +attach to those institutions is only the consequence of previously +formed political tendencies; furthermore because Professor Huber, +who stands as far from liberalism as from my political views, has for +this very reason the necessary impartiality to make in the field of +political economy admissions which are in accordance with the truth; +whereas all adherents of the liberal school of political economy are +forced to deceive the workingmen, or, in order to deceive them better, +first to deceive themselves, in order to bring the facts into harmony +with their tendencies. + +"Without underestimating," says Professor Huber, "the relative +usefulness of savings banks, accident and sickness insurance, etc., as +far as it really goes, these good things may nevertheless carry great +negative disadvantages with them, in that they stand in the way of +improvement." + +And surely never would these negative disadvantages persist and stand +in the way of improvement more than if they took up the attention of +the great German workingmen's movement, or divided its forces. + +It was stated in various newspapers, and your letter itself states, +that you have been recommended from almost all sides to take into +consideration the Schulze-Delitzsch organizations--credit associations, +raw material associations, and consumers' associations--for the +improvement of the situation of the working class. Allow me to ask you +for still closer attention. + +Schulze-Delitzsch may be considered from three points of view: First, +from the political point of view, he belongs to the Progressive party, +which has already been discussed. Second, he claims to be a political +economist. In this respect--as a theoretical economist--he stands +entirely on the ground of the Liberal school: he shares all its +mistakes, fallacies, and self-deceptions. The addresses which he has +made so far to the Berlin workingmen are a striking proof of +this--misrepresentations of fact and conclusions which in no way +follow from his premises. However, it will not help your purpose, and +it is not my intention, to go into a criticism here of the economic +views and the speeches of Schulze-Delitzsch and to point out these +self-deceptions and fallacies which, in matters of theoretical +economics, he has in common with the whole Liberal school to which he +belongs. I shall be compelled later, in any case, to come back to the +essential content of these doctrines. + +But Schulze-Delitzsch has, in the third place, a practical nature, +which is of more importance than his theoretical economic viewpoint. +He is the only member of his party, the Progressive party--and all the +more credit is due him just for this reason--who has done anything for +the people. Through his tireless activity, even though he stands alone +at a most unfavorable time, he has become the father and founder of +the German associations, and so has given an impulse, of the most +far-reaching importance, to the cause of associations in general, a +service for which, however I may be opposed to him in theory, I shake +his hand warmly in spirit as I write this. Truth and justice even +toward an adversary (and for the working class above all it is +befitting to take this deeply to heart)--this is the first duty of +man. + +That the question whether associations are to be understood according +to his or my interpretation is under discussion today is in large part +due to him, and that is a real service which cannot be too highly +esteemed. + +But the warmth with which I recognize this service must not prevent us +from stating the question with critical clearness: "Are the +Schulze-Delitzsch associations for credit and for raw materials, and +are the consumers' leagues able to accomplish the improvement of the +situation of the working class?" + +The answer to this question must be a most decided "no." It will be +easy to show this briefly. As to the credit and raw material +associations, these both agree in that they exist only for those who +are carrying on business on their own account--that is, only for +artisan production. For the working class in the narrower sense--the +hands employed in factory production, who have no business of their +own for which they can use credit and raw materials--neither kind +of association exists. Their help can therefore reach only the artisan +producers. + +But, even in this respect, please notice and impress upon your minds +two essential circumstances: + +In the first place the inevitable tendency of our industrialism is to +put factory production more and more from day to day in place of +artisan production, and, in consequence, to drive the workmen of a +constantly increasing number of trades into the laboring class proper, +which finds work in the factories. England and France, which are ahead +of us in economic development, show this in a still greater degree +than Germany, which is, however, taking tremendous strides in the same +direction. Your own experience will confirm this sufficiently. + +It follows from this that the Schulze-Delitzsch credit and raw +material associations, even if they could help the artisans, could be +of advantage only to a very small number of people, a number which is +constantly decreasing and tends to disappear, through the inevitable +development of our manufacturing system--people who through the +progress of our culture are, in constantly increasing numbers, forced +into the class of workingmen who are not affected by this aid. That +is, nevertheless, only the first conclusion. A second, of still +greater importance, is the following: In competition with factory +production, which is in constantly increasing scope taking the place +of small artisan production, even the artisans who remain in the +latter are in no way certain of being protected by the credit and raw +material associations. I will again cite Professor Huber as a witness +on this point. "Unfortunately," says he, after speaking in praise, as +I have done, of the Schulze-Delitzsch credit and raw material +associations, "unfortunately, however, the assumption that the +competition of production on a small scale with factory production +would be made possible seems by no means sufficiently established." +But, better than any testimony, the easily explained internal reasons +of what I say will convince you. + +How far can the credit associations accomplish the procuring of cheap +and good raw materials? It can place the artisan without capital in a +position to compete with the artisan who has sufficient small capital +for his small artisan production. It can, therefore, at most put the +artisan without capital on an equality and in the same situation with +the master workman who has sufficient capital of his own for his +production. But now the fact is just here--even the master workman +with sufficient capital of his own cannot stand the competition of +large capitalists and of factory production, both on account of the +smaller cost of production of all kinds made possible by the factory +system, and on account of the smaller rate of the profit which in +wholesale production is to be reckoned on each single piece, and, +finally, on account of other advantages connected with it. Since, now, +the credit and raw material associations can at most bring the small +producer without capital into the same general position as the one who +has sufficient capital for his small production, and since the latter +cannot stand the competition of the wholesale production of the +factories, this result is still more certain for the small producer +who carries on his business with the help of these associations. + +These associations can, therefore, with reference to the artisan, only +prolong the death struggle in which artisan production is destined to +succumb and give place to factory production; can only increase +thereby the agony of this death struggle and hold back in vain the +development of our culture--that is the whole result which they have +with reference to the artisan class, while they do not touch at all +the real laboring class occupied, in constantly increasing numbers, in +factory production. + +There remain for consideration the consumers' associations. The effect +of these would reach the whole working class. They are, however, +utterly incapable of accomplishing the improvement of the situation of +the working class. This can be shown by three reasons which +essentially, however, form a single one. + +(1) The disadvantage under which the working class labors affects it, +as the economic law which I shall adduce under the second head shows, +as producer, not as consumer. It is therefore an entirely false kind +of aid to try to help the workingman as a consumer instead of helping +him in the place where the shoe really pinches him--as producer. + +As consumers, we are, in general, all on the same footing; as before +the law, so before the salesman, all men are equal--provided only they +pay. + +Just for this reason it is true that for the working class, in +consequence of its limited ability to pay, a special additional evil +has developed which has nothing to do with the general cancer which is +eating into it--the disadvantage of having to supply needs on the +smallest scale, and so of being exposed to the extortion of the +retailer. Against this the consumers' associations give protection; +but, aside from the facts that you will see under No. 3 as to how long +this help can last and when it must cease, this limited help, which +can for the time being make the sad condition of the workingman a +little more endurable, must by no means be mistaken for a means for +that improvement in the situation of the working class at which the +workingmen are aiming. + +(2) The relentless economic law which, under present conditions, fixes +the wages by the law of demand and supply of labor is this: The +average wage always remains at the lowest point which will maintain +existence and propagate the race at the standard of living accepted by +the people. This is the point about which the actual wage always +oscillates like a pendulum, without ever rising above or falling below +it for any length of time. It cannot permanently rise above this +average, for then, through the easier situation of the workingman, an +increase of the working population and therefore of the supply of +hands would ensue, which would bring the wage again to a point below +its former scale. + +Neither can the wage fall permanently far below what is necessary to +support life, for then arise emigration, celibacy, and avoidance of +child-bearing, and, finally, a reduction of the number of laborers, +which then diminishes still more the supply of hands, and therefore +brings the wage back to its former position again. + +The real average wage, therefore, is fixed by a constant movement +about this point of equilibrium, to which it must constantly return, +sometimes rising a little above it (period of prosperity in some or +all industries), sometimes falling a little below it (period of more +or less general distress and industrial crises). + +The limitation of the average wage to the amount necessary to exist +and propagate the race under the accepted standard of living in a +community--that, I repeat, is the inexorable and cruel law which +determines the wage under present conditions. + +This law can be denied by no one. I could cite as many authorities for +it as there are great and famous names in economic science, and even +from the Liberal school itself, for it is just the Liberal school of +political economy which has discovered this law and proved it. This +inexorable and cruel law, Gentlemen, you must above all things fix +deeply in your minds and base upon it all your thinking. + +In this connection I can give you and the whole working class an +infallible means of escaping once for all the many attempts to deceive +and mislead you. To everyone who talks to you about the improvement of +the situation of the working class, you must first put the question: +Does he acknowledge the existence of this law, or not? If he does not, +you must say to yourself at the start that this man is either trying +to deceive you, or has the most pitiable ignorance in the science of +political economy; for, as I said, there is not a single economist of +the Liberal school worthy of mention who denies it--Adam Smith as well +as Say, Ricardo as well as Malthus, Bastiat as well as John Stuart +Mill, are unanimous in recognizing it. There is an agreement on this +point among all men of science. And if he who talks to you about the +condition of workingmen has recognized this law, then ask further: How +does he expect to abolish this law? And, if he can give no answer to +this, then coolly turn your back upon him. He is an idle prattler, who +is trying to deceive you or himself, or dazzle you with empty talk. + +Let us consider for a moment the effect and the nature of this law. It +is stated in other words as follows: From the product of industry +there is first withdrawn and divided among the workingmen the amount +which is required to maintain their existence (wage). The whole +remainder of the product (profit) goes to the employer. It is +therefore a consequence of this inexorable and cruel law that you (and +for this reason in my pamphlet on the working class to which you refer +in your letter I have called you the class of the disinherited) are +forever necessarily excluded from the productiveness which increases +in amount through the progress of civilization, i.e., from the +increased product of industry, from the increased earning power of +your own work! For you there remain forever the bare necessities of +life, for the employer everything produced by labor beyond this +amount. + +When, because of this great advance of productive power (yield of +labor), many manufactured products become extremely cheap, it may +happen that through this cheapness you have a certain indirect +advantage from the increased productiveness of labor--but as +consumers, not as producers. This advantage in no way affects, +however, your activity as producers. It does not affect nor change the +portion of the yield which falls to your share; it affects only your +situation as consumer and also improves the situation as consumer of +the employer, and of all men, whether they take part in the work or +not, and in a much more considerable degree than yours. And this +advantage, which affects you merely as human beings and not as +workingmen, again disappears in consequence of this inexorable and +cruel law, which always forces wages in the long run down to the point +of consumption necessary to maintain life. + +Now, however, it may happen that if such an increased yield from labor +(and the extreme cheapness of many products caused thereby), comes +about very suddenly; if, moreover, it coincides with a prolonged +period of increased demand for labor, then these products, which have +become disproportionately cheaper, are taken into the body of products +that are regularly considered in a community as necessities of life. + +The fact, then, that workingmen and wages are always dancing on the +extreme verge of what suffices, according to the social standard of +each age, for the maintenance of life, sometimes standing a little +above and sometimes a little below this limit--this never changes. But +this extreme limit itself may at different ages have changed through +the coincidence of the above circumstances, and it may therefore +happen that, if you compare different periods with one another, the +situation of the working class in the later century or generation +(seeing that now the minimum of necessities of life demanded by custom +is somewhat increased) has improved somewhat in comparison with the +situation of the working class in the previous century or generation. + +I was obliged to make this slight digression, Gentlemen, even if it is +somewhat remote from my essential purpose, because this slight +improvement in the course of centuries and generations is always the +point to which those go back, who, after Bastiat's example, wish to +throw dust in your eyes by declamation that is as easy as it is +meaningless. + +Consider exactly my words, Gentlemen. I say it may, for the above +reasons, occur that the minimum of the necessities of life has risen, +and accordingly the situation of the working class when compared with +that of former generations is somewhat improved. Whether this is +really so, whether the whole situation of the working class has +constantly improved in different centuries is a very difficult and +involved problem--a problem for scholars that cannot be treated at all +by those who incessantly fill your ears with statements of how +expensive cotton was in the last century and how much cotton clothing +is used now, and similar commonplaces which anybody may copy from any +reference book. + +It is not my purpose to enter upon a consideration of this problem +here. For at this time I must confine myself to giving you not only +what is absolutely accepted, but what is also easy to prove. Let us +assume, then, that such an improvement of the minimum of the +necessities of life, and therefore of the situation of the working +class, goes on constantly in different generations and different +centuries. + +But I must show you, Gentlemen, that with these commonplaces the real +question is taken out of your hands and perverted into a totally +different question. + +If you speak of the situation of the workingman and its improvement, +you mean your situation compared with that of your fellow +citizens--that is, compared with contemporary standards of living. + +And they amuse you with alleged comparisons of your condition with the +condition of workingmen in previous centuries! But what value has the +question for you, and what satisfaction can it give you, if, in case +the minimum of the accepted standard has risen, you are better off +today than the workingmen of eighty, two hundred, three hundred years +ago? No more than the fully proved fact that you are better off today +than Hottentots and cannibals. + +Every satisfaction of human needs depends merely on the relation of +the means of satisfaction to the necessities of life demanded by the +standard of living of the time, or, what amounts to the same thing, +upon the surplus of the means over the minimum amount of such +necessities. An increased minimum of the absolute necessities of life +brings also sufferings and deprivations which former times never +knew. What deprivation is it to the Hottentot that he cannot buy soap? +What deprivation is it to the cannibal if he cannot wear a decent +coat? What deprivation was it to the workingman, if before the +discovery of America, he had no tobacco to smoke, or if, before the +invention of printing, he could not get a useful book? All human +suffering and deprivation depend only on the proportion of the means +of satisfaction to the needs and customs of living at a given time. +All human suffering and deprivation, and all human satisfactions, +accordingly every human condition, is, therefore, to be measured only +by comparison with the situation of other men of the same period and +their customary necessities of life. The condition of any class is, +therefore, to be measured only by its relation to the condition of +other classes at the same period. + +If it were ever so well established, then, that the standard of the +necessaries of life has risen through different periods, that +satisfactions previously unknown have become daily necessities, and +for this reason deprivations and sufferings not before known have +appeared, your social situation has remained at these different +periods always the same, always this--that you are standing on the +verge of the usual minimum necessities of life, sometimes a little +above it, sometimes a little below. Your social position, therefore, +has remained the same, for this social position is reckoned not by its +relation to the position of the beast in primeval forests, or negroes +in Africa, or of the serf in the Middle Ages, or the workingmen of +eighty years ago, but only by the relation of this position to the +position of your fellowmen--to the position of other classes in the +same time. + +And instead of taking account of this, instead of considering how this +position can be improved, and how this cruel law, which constantly +keeps you at the lowest verge of the necessities of life, can be +changed, these people amuse themselves by changing the question under +your nose without your perceiving it, and by entertaining you with +very dubious historical retrospects as to the situation of the working +class in previous periods--retrospects which are all the more +questionable because manufactured products, becoming constantly +cheaper, are far less consumed by the working class than the food +products which are their chief articles of consumption, and are in no +way subject to any similar tendency of constantly increasing +cheapness! These are retrospects, finally, which could have value only +if they undertook investigations from every point of view into the +general position of workingmen at different ages--investigations of +the most difficult nature and to be carried on only with the utmost +circumspection, investigations for which those who talk to you about +them have not even the material at hand, and which they, therefore, +should all the more leave to special scholars. + +(3) Let us now come back from this necessary digression to the +question: What influence can the consumers' leagues have upon the +situation of the working class according to the law of wages discussed +under No. 2? The answer will be a very easy one. + +As long as only particular groups of workingmen unite in consumers' +leagues, general wages will not be affected thereby, and the +consumers' leagues will accordingly furnish, through lower prices, to +the workingmen who belong to them--as long as this condition +lasts--that minor relief for the oppressed condition discussed and +admitted under No. 1; but as soon as the consumers' leagues begin to +take in more and more the whole working class, then, in consequence of +the above-considered law, the inevitable result will follow that the +wage, because sustenance has become cheaper through the consumers' +leagues, will drop to just that extent. + +The consumers' leagues can never, even in the slightest degree, help +the whole working class, and they can furnish to the single groups of +workingmen who compose them the above-considered aid only as long as +the example of these workingmen has not been generally followed. +Every day that the consumers' leagues extend and take in larger +numbers of the working class, even this slight relief is lost more and +more even for the workingmen who belong to them, until it drops to +zero at the time when the consumers' leagues have been joined by the +majority of the whole working class. Can anybody talk seriously of the +working class turning its attention to a means which gives it no aid +whatever as a class, and furnishes its individual members this +inconsequential relief only until the time when the class as such has +completely, or to a large extent, made use of it? If the German +working class is willing to enter upon such a treadmill round, the +time before the real improvement of its position will be long indeed. + +I have now analyzed all the Schulze-Delitzsch organizations and shown +that they do not and can not help you. + +What then? Can not the principle of free individual associations of +workingmen effect the improvement of the position of the workingmen? + +Certainly it can, but only by its application and extension to the +field of factory production. To make the working class their own +employers--that is the means, the only means, by which, as you can see +for yourself, this inexorable and cruel law which determines wages can +be abolished. When the working class is its own employer, the +distinction between wages and profits will disappear, and the total +yield of the industry will take the place, as the reward of labor, of +the bare living wage. + +The abolition by this only possible means of that law which under +present conditions assigns to the workingman his wages--that part of +the product which is necessary for bare existence--and the whole +remainder to the employer--this is the only real, non-visionary, just +improvement in the position of the working class. + +But how? Look at the railroads, machine shops, ship yards, cotton and +woolen mills, etc., etc., and the millions required for these +establishments; then look into your own empty pockets and ask +yourself where you will ever get the enormous capital necessary for +these establishments, and how therefore you can ever make possible the +carrying on of wholesale production on your own account! + +And surely there is no fact more true, more thoroughly established, +than that you would never accomplish this if you were reduced +exclusively and essentially to your own isolated efforts as +individuals alone. + +Just for this reason it is the business and the duty of the State to +make it possible for you to take in hand the great cause of the free, +individual association of the working class in such a way as to help +its development, and make it its solemn duty to offer you the means +and the opportunity for this association. + +Now, do not allow yourselves to be deceived and misled by the cry of +those who will tell you that any such intervention by the State +destroys social incentive. It is not true that I hinder anybody from +climbing a tower by his own strength if I hand him a ladder or a rope. +It is not true that the State prevents children from educating +themselves by their own powers if it provides them with teachers, +schools and libraries. It is not true that I hinder anybody from +plowing a field by his own strength if I give him a plow. It is not +true that I hinder anyone from defeating a hostile enemy by his own +strength if I put a weapon into his hand for the purpose. + +Although it is true that now and then someone may have climbed a tower +without a rope or a ladder; that individuals have acquired an +education without teachers, schools, or public libraries; that the +peasants in the Vendee in the wars of the Revolution now and then +defeated an enemy even without weapons; yet all these exceptions do +not vitiate the rule--they only prove it; and therefore, although it +is true that under certain special conditions single groups of +workingmen in England have been able to improve their condition, to a +certain limited extent, in certain minor branches of wholesale +production, by an association based chiefly upon their own +exertions, nevertheless the law stands that the real improvement of +the situation of the workingman, which he has a just right to demand, +and to demand for the whole working class as such, can be accomplished +only by this aid of the State. No more should you allow yourselves to +be misled and deceived by the cry of those who talk about Socialism or +Communism and try to oppose this demand of yours by such cheap +phrases; but be firmly convinced regarding such people that they are +only trying to deceive you, or else they themselves do not know what +they are talking about. Nothing is further from so-called Socialism +and Communism than this demand according to which, if realized, the +working classes, just as they do today, would maintain their +individual liberty, individual manner of living, and individual +compensation for work, and would stand in no different relation to the +State, except that the necessary capital, or credit, for their +association would be provided for them by it. But that is exactly the +office and the destiny of the State--to make easy and provide means +for the great cultural progress of humanity. This is its ultimate +purpose. For this it exists. It has always served this purpose and +always must. + +I will give you a single example among hundreds--the canals, highways, +postoffices, steamboat lines, telegraph lines, banking institutions, +agricultural improvements, the introduction of new branches of +industry, etc., in all of which the intervention of the State was +necessary--a single example, but one which is worth a hundred others, +and one which is especially near at hand. When railroads were to be +built, in all German as well as in all foreign states except in some +few isolated lines, the State had to intervene in one way or +another--chiefly by undertaking to guarantee at least the dividends on +the stock, in many countries going much further than this. + +The guarantee of dividends constitutes a one-sided contract of the +rich stockholder with the State--namely, if the new enterprises are +unprofitable, then the loss falls upon the State, and consequently +upon all taxpayers, and, consequently again, especially upon you, +Gentlemen, upon the great class of the propertyless. If, on the other +hand, the new enterprises are profitable, then the profit, the large +dividends, come to us, the rich stockholders, and this is not obviated +by the fact that in many countries--for instance in Prussia--certain +very uncertain advantages for the State in a very distant future are +stipulated, advantages which would result much sooner and much more +abundantly from an association of the working class. + +Without this intervention of the State, of which, as I have said, the +guarantee of dividends was the weakest form, we should perhaps have no +railroads on the whole continent today. + +The fact is also unquestionable that the State was obliged to take +this step; that the guarantee of dividends was a most pronounced +intervention of the State, that, furthermore, this intervention took +place in favor of the rich and well-to-do class, which also controls +all capital and all credit, and which therefore could dispense with +the intervention of the State far more easily than you; and that this +intervention was called for by the whole capitalist class. + +Why then did not a cry arise at that time against the guarantee of +dividends as an inadmissible intervention of the State? Why was it not +then discovered that by this guarantee the social incentive of the +rich managers of those stock companies was threatened? Why was this +guarantee of the State not decried as Socialism and Communism? + +But forsooth, this intervention of the State was in the interests of +the rich and well-to-do classes of society, and in that case it is +entirely admissible and always has been! It is only when there is any +question of intervention in favor of the poverty-stricken classes, in +favor of the infinite majority, then it is "pure Socialism and +Communism." + +Give this answer, therefore, to those who wish to raise a howl about +the inadmissibility of State intervention and the social +independence endangered by it, and the Socialism and Communism +concealed in a demand which does not give the slightest occasion for +such a howl; and add that since we have, after all, been living in a +state of Socialism and Communism, as those guarantees of dividends on +railroads and all the other above-mentioned examples show, we will +continue right on in that state. + +A further consideration is that, however great was the advance in +civilization accomplished by the railroads, it drops to the vanishing +point in contrast with that mighty advance which would be accomplished +by the association of the working class. Of what avail are all the +hoarded wealth and all the fruits of civilization if they exist for +only a few, and if the majority of the human race always remains the +Tantalus who reaches in vain for these fruits! Worse than +Tantalus--for he at least had not produced the fruits for which his +parched lips were condemned to pant in vain! This, the mightiest +advance of culture which history could know, would justify the helpful +intervention of the State if anything would. The State furthermore can +furnish this possibility in the easiest manner through the banking +institutions (a matter into which I cannot go at length here) without +assuming any greater responsibility than it did by the guarantee of +dividends to the railroads. + +Finally, Gentlemen, what, after all, is the State? (Quotes statistics +which may be summed up as follows: In 1851 the percentage of the +population of Prussia having more than 1,000 thalers ($750) annual +income for each family of five persons was less than 1/2 of 1 per cent.; +of those having less than 100 thalers ($75) for such a family was 72-1/4 +per cent; those having 100 to 200 thalers, 16-1/4 per cent.; and 200 to +400, 7-1/4 per cent.) The two lowest classes form, therefore, 89 per +cent, of the population; and if you take also the 7% per cent, of the +third class, who must still be considered in oppressive poverty, you +have 96-1/4 per cent, of the population in a most needy, unfortunate +situation. The State, therefore, belongs to you, Gentlemen, to the +suffering classes--not to us, the upper classes; for it is you who +compose it. "What is the State?" I ask; and you see now from a few +figures, more vividly than from heavy volumes, the answer. The great +association of the poorer classes--yourselves--that is the State. + +And why should not your great association have a helpful and fruitful +effect upon your smaller associated groups? This question you may also +put to those who talk to you about the inadmissibility of State +intervention and about Socialism and Communism in the demand for it. + +If, finally, you desire a special instance of the impossibility of +producing an improvement in the condition of the working class in any +other way than by free association through this helpful intervention +of the State, you may look to England, that country which is most +frequently called in evidence to prove the possibility for an +association of individual workingmen established purely and +exclusively through their unassisted powers, to improve the condition +of the whole class--England, which in fact must appear best suited, +for various reasons based on its particular national conditions, to +carry out this experiment, without, nevertheless, demonstrating +thereby a similar possibility for other countries. + +And this special instance comes directly from those English +workingmen's associations which up to this time have usually been +referred to as triumphant proof of such an assertion. I speak of the +Pioneers of Rochdale. This cooeperative society, organized in 1844, +established in 1858 a spinning and weaving establishment with a +capital of L5,500 sterling. According to the statutes of this +association, the workmen employed in the factory, whether they were +stockholders in the association or not, drew a profit, in addition to +the usual wages, equal to that distributed as dividends to the +stockholders--the arrangement having been made that the annual +dividends should be reckoned and distributed both on wages and on +capital stock. Now the number of stockholders of this factory is one +thousand six hundred, while only five hundred workmen are employed +there. Accordingly, there exists a large number of stockholders who +are not also workmen in the factory; on the other hand, all the +workmen are not at the same time stockholders. In consequence of this +an agitation broke out in 1861 among the workingmen stockholders who +did not work in the factory, and also among those who were both +employees and stockholders, against the workmen who were not +stockholders receiving a share of the profits. On the part of the +workingmen stockholders the principle was laid down simply and frankly +that, according to the usual custom in the whole industrial world, the +claims of labor were satisfied with the wages and that wages were +determined by supply and demand (we have seen above by what law). +"This fact," relates Professor Huber in his report of this affair, +"was considered valid without further question, as the natural +condition, needing no further justification, in opposition to a quite +exceptional, arbitrary innovation, even though it were according to +the statutes." Bravely, but only with very dimly understood emotional +reasons, this proposition for the changing of the statutes was opposed +by the original founders and managers of the association. In fact, a +majority of five-eighths of the workingmen stockholders voted for the +change of the statutes, taking exactly the same position as the +capitalist employers, and the change was defeated for the time being +only because, according to the statutes, a majority of three-fourths +of the votes was required. "But nobody," states Professor Huber, "is +unaware that the matter is not thereby settled; it is more likely that +still further serious internal dissensions are to be looked for by +this association, the outcome of which, perhaps even next year, may +well be a successful repetition of this attempt--all the more so since +the opposition is determined to make its influence felt in the +election of the officials of the association, an election at which the +majority elects, and through which the controlling offices of the +management may soon be in their hands." + +Huber reports further in this matter that most of the associations +producing on a factory scale have fallen in at the outset with the +general custom, evidently without any further consideration or any +consciousness of a principle. Only a few have adopted the cooeperative +principle in favor of labor, and Huber must further admit, although +very unwillingly and with a heavy heart, for he is a partisan of +cooeperation depending upon individual workingmen alone: "There is no +doubt that this question will very soon come to discussion and +decision in all the producing associations where the opposition of +capital and labor exists, and that the competition of the industrial +macrocosm (i.e., the world's industry as a whole) is reproduced in the +cooeperative microcosm (the individual world represented by the +workingmen's associations)." + +You see, Gentlemen, if you reflect about these facts that great +questions can be solved only in a large way, never in a small way. As +long as the universal wage is determined by the above-considered law, +the small associations will not be able to escape the prevailing +influence of it; and what does the working class as a whole gain, or +the workingman as such, whether he works for workingmen employers or +for capitalist employers? Nothing! You have only scattered the +employers to whose profit the result of your labor falls. But labor +and the working class are not set free. What does it gain by this! It +gains only depravation, only corruption, which now takes hold of it +and sets workingman as an exploiting employer against workingman. The +employers have changed in person; but labor, the only source of +production, remains, as before, dependent upon the so-called +wage--that is, the maintenance of existence. Under the influence of +this law the perversion of conceptions is so great that, in our +instance, even those workingmen stockholders not employed in the +factory, instead of recognizing that they owe their dividends to the +labor of the workmen who are employed, and accordingly that it is +they who draw the profit from the labor of the latter, will, in +defiance of this, not allow the latter even a share in the product of +their own work, not even a share of what labor has a just claim to. +Workingmen with workingmen's means and employers' hearts--that is the +repulsive caricature into which those workingmen have been changed. + +And now finally one more clear and decisive proof based on these +facts. You have seen that in that factory of the Pioneers five hundred +workmen were employed and sixteen hundred workingmen held the stock. +This much must also be clear to you--that, unless we are willing to +imagine the workmen as rich people (in which case all questions are +solved--in imagination), the capital necessary for the establishment +of a factory can never be raised from the pockets of the workmen +employed in it. They will be obliged to take in a much greater number +of other workingmen stockholders, who are not employed in their +factory. In this respect the proportion in the case of that factory of +the Pioneers--sixteen hundred stockholders to five hundred workingmen +in the factory (say a proportion of only about three to one)--may be +called astonishingly favorable and unusual--as small as is in any way +possible, and to be accounted for partly by the especially fortunate +situation of the Pioneers, who represent a great exception in the +working class, partly by the fact that this branch of manufacturing is +far from being one of those which require the heaviest capitalization, +and partly because this factory is not large enough to count among the +really large enterprises, for in these the proportion, even in this +branch of industry, would be a very different one. And, finally, it +may be added that through the development of industrialism itself, and +through the progress of civilization, this proportion must increase +daily. For the progress of civilization consists in the very fact that +from day to day more natural mechanical power--more machinery--takes +the place of human labor, and that accordingly the proportion of the +amount of invested capital to the amount of human labor becomes +larger; so then, if in that factory of the Pioneers sixteen hundred +stockholders were necessary to raise the capital to employ five +hundred workmen, a proportion of one to three, the proportion among +other workmen in other branches and in larger establishments--and also +in consideration of the daily advance of civilization--will be one to +four, one to five, six, eight, ten, twenty, etc. However, let us keep +this proportion of one to three. To establish a factory in which five +hundred workmen find employment, I need sixteen hundred workingmen +stockholders in order to have the necessary capital. Very well: as +long as I try to establish one, two, three, etc., factories, there is +no difficulty in theory (always in theory, Gentlemen--in imagination), +I call to aid (always in theory) the three, four, etc., times the +number of workingmen stockholders. But if I extend this association to +the whole working class--and their cause, not that of individuals who +wish to improve their position, is in question here--if in course of +time I wish to establish factories enough to occupy the whole working +class, where shall I get the three, five, ten, twenty-fold number of +the whole working class who, as workingmen stockholders, must stand +behind the workmen occupied in the factories in order to establish +these factories? + +You see then that it is a mathematical impossibility to free the +working class in this way--by the exertions of its members as merely +single individuals; that only very confused, uncritical imaginations +can lend themselves to these illusions, and that the only way to this +end, the only way for the abolition of that cruel law of wages to +which the working class is bound as to a martyr's stake, is the +encouragement and development of free, individual, cooeperative +associations of workingmen through the helping hand of the State. The +movement for workingmen's associations founded upon the purely +atomistic, isolated power of individual workingmen had only the +value--and this, to be sure, is an enormous one--of showing +definitely the practical way in which this liberation can take place, +of giving brilliant, practical proofs for overcoming all real or +assumed doubt of its practical feasibility, and, in just that way, of +making it the urgent duty of the State to lend its supporting hand to +those highest cultural interests of humanity. At the same time I have +already proved that the State is essentially nothing else than the +great association of the working class, and that therefore the help +and fostering care through which the State made possible those smaller +associations would be nothing else than the legitimate social +initiative, absolutely natural and lawful, which the working classes +put forth for themselves as a great association, for their members as +single individuals. Once more then: free individual association of the +workingmen, but such association made possible by the supporting and +fostering hand of the State--that is the workingmen's only way out of +the wilderness. + +But how shall the State be enabled to make this intervention? The +answer must be immediately evident to you all: it will be possible +only through universal and direct suffrage. When the legislative +bodies of Germany are based on universal and direct suffrage, then, +and only then, will you be able to prevail upon the State to undertake +this duty. + +Then this demand will be brought forward in the legislative bodies; +then the limits and the forms and the means of this intervention will +be discussed by reason and science; and then--be assured of +this!--those men who understand your situation and are devoted to your +cause, armed with the glittering steel of science, will stand at your +side and protect your interests; then you, the propertyless class of +society, will have only yourselves and your own unwise choices to +blame if the representatives of your class remain in a minority. + +The universal and direct franchise is, as now appears, not merely your +political principle--it is your social principle, the fundamental +principle of all social advancement. It is the only means for +improving the material condition of the working class. But how can +they accomplish the introduction of the universal and direct +franchise? For an answer, look to England! The great agitation of the +English people against the corn laws lasted for more than five years, +but then they had to go--abolished by the Tory ministry itself. + +Organize yourselves as a general workingmen's union for the purpose +of a lawful and peaceable, but untiring, unceasing agitation for the +introduction of universal and direct suffrage in all German states. +From the moment when this union includes even one hundred thousand +German workingmen, it will be a force with which everybody must +reckon. Send abroad this call into every workshop, every village, +every cottage. Let the city workingmen pass on their higher standard +of judgment and education to the country workers. Debate, discuss, +everywhere, daily, untiringly, incessantly, as was done in that great +English agitation against the corn laws, in peaceable public assemblies +as well as in private meetings, the necessity of the universal and +direct franchise. The more the echo of your voice resounds in the ears +of millions, the more irresistible its force will be. + +Establish financial committees, to which every member of the German +workingmen's union must contribute, and to which your plans for +organization can be submitted. + +With these contributions establish funds which, in spite of the +smallness of the individual amounts, would form a tremendous financial +power for the purpose of agitation. A weekly contribution of only one +silver groschen each from one hundred thousand members of the union +would produce over one hundred and sixty thousand thalers yearly. +Establish newspapers which would daily bring forward this demand and +prove that it is founded upon social conditions; send out by the same +means pamphlets for the same purpose; employ with the resources of +this union agents to carry this same view into every corner of the +land, to arouse with the same call the heart of every workingman, of +every cotter and plowman; indemnify from the resources of this union +all those workingmen who suffer injury and persecution on account of +their activity in this cause. + +Repeat daily, unceasingly, this same call. The more it is repeated, +the more it will spread and the mightier will become its power. The +whole art of practical success consists in concentrating all efforts +at all times upon one point, and that the most important one, looking +neither to the right nor to the left. Look you neither to the right +nor to the left; be deaf to everything which does not mean universal +and direct suffrage, to everything which is not connected with it, or +able to lead to it. + +If you have really spread this call, as you can do within a few years, +through the 89 to 96 per cent. of the total population which, as I +have shown you, constitutes the poor and propertyless classes of +society, then your will can no longer be resisted--depend upon that! +Quarrels and feuds may exist about political rights between the +government and the capitalist. You may even be denied political powers +and therefore universal suffrage, because of the luke-warmness with +which political rights are regarded; but universal suffrage, which 89 +to 96 per cent. of the population regard as a life question, and +therefore spread with the warmth of life through the whole national +body--depend upon it, Gentlemen, there is no power which can resist +it. + +This is the banner which you must raise. This is the standard under +which you will conquer. There is no other for you. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The German Classics of The Nineteenth +and Twentieth Centuries, Vol. X., by Kuno Francke + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GERMAN CLASSICS *** + +***** This file should be named 13056.txt or 13056.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/3/0/5/13056/ + +Produced by Stan Goodman, Jayam Subramanian and PG Distributed +Proofreaders + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. |