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diff --git a/13007-h/13007-h.htm b/13007-h/13007-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f55e22d --- /dev/null +++ b/13007-h/13007-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,1437 @@ + +<!DOCTYPE html +PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd"> + +<!-- This HTML file has been automatically generated from an XML source, using XSLT. If you find any mistakes, please edit the XML source. --><html lang="en-uk"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8"> + +<title>The Edda: I. The Divine Mythology of the North</title> +<link href="style/gutenberg.css" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css"> +<link href="style/arctic.css" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css"> +<link href="style/print.css" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="print"> +<link rel="schema.DC" href="http://purl.org/DC/elements/1.0/"> +<meta name="author" content="Winifred Faraday"> +<meta name="DC.Creator" content="Winifred Faraday"> +<meta name="DC.Title" content="The Edda: I. The Divine Mythology of the North"> +<meta name="DC.Date" content="# July 2004"> +<meta name="DC.Language" content="en-uk"> +</head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Edda, Vol. 1, by Winifred Faraday + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Edda, Vol. 1 + The Divine Mythology of the North, Popular Studies in Mythology, + Romance, and Folklore, No. 12 + + +Author: Winifred Faraday + +Release Date: July 23, 2004 [EBook #13007] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE EDDA, VOL. 1 *** + + + + +Produced by Jeroen Hellingman and the Distributed Proofreaders Team. + + + + + +</pre> + +<h1 class="docTitle">The Edda</h1><br><h1 class="docTitle">I</h1><br><h1 class="docTitle">The Divine Mythology of the North</h1> +<h2 class="byline">By +<br> +<span class="docAuthor">Winifred Faraday, M.A.</span></h2> +<h2 class="docImprint">Published by David Nutt, at the Sign of the Phœnix, Long Acre, London<br id="d0e81"> +1902 +</h2><span class="pageno"><a id="d0e83"></a></span><a id="d0e84"></a><h1>Author's Note</h1> +<p id="d0e87">Some explanation is needed of the form of spelling I have adopted in transcribing Norse proper names. The spirants <i>þ</i> and <i>ð</i> are represented by <i>th</i> and <i>d</i>, as being more familiar to readers unacquainted with the original. Marks of vowel-length are in all cases omitted. The inflexional +<i>-r</i> of the nominative singular masculine is also omitted, whether it appears as <i>-r</i> or is assimilated to a preceding consonant (as in Odinn, Eysteinn, Heindall, Egill) in the Norse form, with the single exception +of the name Tyr, where I use the form which has become conventional in English. + +</p> +<p id="d0e107"><span class="smallcaps">Manchester</span>, <br id="d0e111"> +<i>December</i> 1901. + +</p><span class="pageno"><a id="d0e117"></a>Page 1</span><a id="d0e119"></a><h1>The Divine Mythology of the North</h1> +<p id="d0e122">The Icelandic Eddas are the only vernacular record of Germanic heathendom as it developed during the four centuries which +in England saw the destruction of nearly all traces of the heathen system. The so-called Elder Edda is a collection of some +thirty poems, mythic and heroic in substance, interspersed with short pieces of prose, which survives in a thirteenth-century +MS., known as the Codex Regius, discovered in Iceland in 1642; to these are added other poems of similar character from other +sources. The Younger Edda is a prose paraphrase of, and commentary on, these poems and others which are lost, together with +a treatise on metre, written by the historian Snorri Sturluson about 1220. + +</p> +<p id="d0e124">This use of the word Edda is incorrect and unhistorical, though convenient and sanctioned by the use of several centuries. +It was early used as a general term for the rules and materials for versemaking, and applied in this sense to Snorri's <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e126"></a>Page 2</span>work. When the poems on which his paraphrase is founded were discovered, Icelandic scholars by a misunderstanding applied +the name to them also; and as they attributed the collection quite arbitrarily to the historian Saemund (1056–1133), it was +long known as Saemundar Edda, a name now generally discarded in favour of the less misleading titles of Elder or Poetic Edda. +From its application to this collection, the word derives a more extended use, (1) as a general term for Norse mythology; +(2) as a convenient name to distinguish the simpler style of these anonymous narrative poems from the elaborate formality +of the Skalds. + +</p> +<p id="d0e128">The poems of the Edda are certainly older than the MS., although the old opinion as to their high antiquity is untenable. +The majority probably date from the tenth century in their present form; this dating does not necessitate the ascription of +the shape in which the legends are presented, still less of their substance, to that period. With regard to the place of their +composition opinions vary widely, Norway, the British Isles and Greenland having all found champions; but the evidence is +rather questionable, and I incline to leave them to the country which has preserved them. They are possibly of popular origin; +this, together with their epic or narrative character, would account for the striking absence from them of some of the chief +characteristics of Skaldic poetry: the obscuring of <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e130"></a>Page 3</span>the sense by the elaborate interlacing of sentences and the extensive use of kennings or mythological synonyms, and the complication +of the metre by such expedients as the conjunction of end-rhyme with alliteration. Eddie verse is governed solely by the latter, +and the strophic arrangement is simple, only two forms occurring: (1) couplets of alliterative short lines; (2) six-line strophes, +consisting of a couplet followed by a single short line, the whole repeated. + +</p> +<p id="d0e132">Roughly speaking, the first two-fifths of the MS. is mythological, the rest heroic. I propose to observe this distinction, +and to deal in this study with the stories of the Gods. In this connexion, Snorri's Edda and the mythical Ynglinga Saga may +also be considered, but as both were compiled a couple of centuries or more after the introduction of Christianity into Iceland, +it is uncertain how much in them is literary explanation of tradition whose meaning was forgotten; some also, especially in +Snorri, is probably pure invention, fairy tale rather than myth. + +</p> +<p id="d0e134">Many attempts have been made to prove that the material of the Edda is largely borrowed. The strength and distinction of Icelandic +poetry rest rather on the fact that it is original and national and, like that of Greece, owes little to foreign sources; +and that it began in the heathen age, before Christian or Romantic influences had touched Iceland. Valuable as the early Christian +poetry <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e136"></a>Page 4</span>of England is, we look in vain there for the humour, the large-minded simplicity of motive, the suggestive character-drawing, +the swift dramatic action, which are as conspicuous in many poems in the Edda as in many of the Sagas. + +</p> +<p id="d0e138">Omitting the heroic poems, there are in Codex Regius the following: (1) Of a more or less comprehensive character, <i>Völuspa, Vafthrudnismal, Grimnismal, Lokasenna, Harbardsljod</i>; (2) dealing with episodes, <i>Hymiskvida, Thrymskvida, Skirnisför. Havamal</i> is a collection of proverbs, but contains two interpolations from mythical poems; <i>Alvissmal</i>, which, in the form of a dialogue between Thor and a dwarf Alviss, gives a list of synonyms, is a kind of mythologico-poetical +glossary. Several of these poems are found in another thirteenth-century vellum fragment, with an additional one, variously +styled <i>Vegtamskvida</i> or <i>Baldr's Dreams</i>; the great fourteenth-century codex Flateybook contains <i>Hyndluljod</i>, partly genealogical, partly an imitation of <i>Völuspa</i>; and one of the MSS. of Snorri's Edda gives us <i>Rigsthula</i>. + +</p> +<p id="d0e164"><i>Völuspa</i>, though not one of the earliest poems, forms an appropriate opening. Metrical considerations forbid an earlier date than +the first quarter of the eleventh century, and the last few lines are still later. The material is, however, older: the poem +is an outline, in allusions often obscure to us, of traditions and beliefs familiar to its first hearers. <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e168"></a>Page 5</span>The very bareness of the outline is sufficient proof that the material is not new. The framework is apparently imitated from +that of the poem known as <i>Baldr's Dreams</i>, some lines from which are inserted in <i>Völuspa</i>. This older poem describes Odin's visit to the Sibyl in hell-gates to inquire into the future. He rides down to her tomb +at the eastern door of Nifl-hell and chants spells, until she awakes and asks: “What man unknown to me is that, who has troubled +me with this weary journey? Snow has snowed on me, rain has beaten me, dew has drenched me, I have long been dead.” He gives +the name Wegtam, or Way-wise, and then follow question and answer until she discovers his identity and will say no more. In +<i>Völuspa</i> there is no descriptive introduction, and no dialogue; the whole is spoken by the Sibyl, who plunges at once into her story, +with only the explanatory words: “Thou, Valfather, wouldst have me tell the ancient histories of men as far as I remember.” +She describes the creation of the world and sky by Bor's sons; the building by the Gods of a citadel in Ida-plain, and their +age of innocence till three giant-maids brought greed of gold; the creation of the dwarfs; the creation of the first man and +woman out of two trees by Odin, Hoeni and Lodur; the world-ash and the spring beside it where dwell the three Norns who order +the fates of men. Then follows an allusion to the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e179"></a>Page 6</span>war between the Aesir and the Vanir, the battle with the giants who had got possession of the goddess Freyja, and the breaking +of bargains; an obscure reference to Mimi's spring where Odin left his eye as a pledge; and an enumeration of his war-maids +or Valkyries. Turning to the future, the Sibyl prophesies the death of Baldr, the vengeance on his slayer, and the chaining +of Loki, the doom of the Gods and the destruction of the world at the coming of the fire-giants and the release of Loki's +children from captivity. The rest of the poem seems to be later; it tells how the earth shall rise again from the deep, and +the Aesir dwell once more in Odin's halls, and there is a suggestion of Christian influence in it which is absent from the +earlier part. + +</p> +<p id="d0e181">Of the other general poems, the next four were probably composed before 950; in each the setting is different. <i>Vafthrudnismal</i>, a riddle-poem, shows Odin in a favourite position, seeking in disguise for knowledge of the future. Under the name of Gangrad +(Wanderer), he visits the wise giant Vafthrudni, and the two agree to test their wisdom: the one who fails to answer a question +is to forfeit his head. In each case the questions deal first with the past. Vafthrudni asks about Day and Night, and the +river which divides the Giants from the Gods, matters of common knowledge; and then puts a question as to the future: “What +is the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e186"></a>Page 7</span>plain where Surt and the blessed Gods shall meet in battle?” Odin replies, and proceeds to question in his turn; first about +the creation of Earth and Sky, the origin of Sun and Moon, Winter and Summer, the Giants and the Winds; the coming of Njörd +the Wane to the Aesir as a hostage; the Einherjar, or chosen warriors of Valhalla. Then come prophetic questions on the destruction +of the Sun by the wolf Fenri, the Gods who shall rule in the new world after Ragnarök, the end of Odin. The poem is brought +to a close by Odin's putting the question which only himself can answer: “What did Odin say in his son's ear before he mounted +the pyre?” and the giant's head is forfeit. + +</p> +<p id="d0e188">In the third poem of this class, <i>Grimnismal</i>, a prose introduction relates that Odin and Frigg quarrelled over the merits of their respective foster-children. To settle +the question, Odin goes disguised as Grimni, “the Hooded One,” to visit his foster-son Geirröd; but Frigg, to justify her +charge of inhospitality against Geirröd, sends her maiden Fulla to warn him against the coming stranger. Odin therefore meets +with a harsh reception, and is bound between two fires in the hall. Geirröd's young son, Agnar, protests against this rude +treatment, and gives wine to the guest, who then begins to instruct him in matters concerning the Gods. He names the halls +of the Aesir, describes Valhalla and the ash Yggdrasil, the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e193"></a>Page 8</span>Valkyries, the creation of the world (two stanzas in common with <i>Vafthrudnismal</i>), and enumerates his own names. The poem ends with impressive abruptness by his turning to Geirröd: + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p id="d0e199">“Thou art drunk, Geirröd, thou hast drunk too deep; thou art bereft of much since thou hast lost my favour, the favour of +Odin and all the Einherjar. I have told thee much, but thou hast minded little. Thy friends betray thee: I see my friend's +sword lie drenched in blood. Now shall Odin have the sword-weary slain; I know thy life is ended, the Fates are ungracious. +Now thou canst see Odin: come near me, if thou canst.” + +</p> +<p id="d0e201">[Prose.] “King Geirröd sat with his sword on his knee, half drawn. When he heard that Odin was there, he stood up and would +have led Odin from the fires. The sword slipt from his hand; the hilt turned downwards. The king caught his foot and fell +forwards, the sword standing towards him, and so he met his death. Then Odin went away, and Agnar was king there long afterwards.” +</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p id="d0e204"><i>Harbardsljod</i> is a dialogue, and humorous. Thor on his return from the east comes to a channel, at the farther side of which stands Odin, +disguised as a ferryman, Greybeard. He refuses to ferry Thor across, and they question each other as to their past feats, +with occasional threats from Thor and taunts from Odin, until the former goes off vowing vengeance on the ferryman: + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p id="d0e209"><span class="smallcaps">Thor</span>. “Thy skill in words would serve thee ill if I waded across the water; I think thou wouldst cry <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e213"></a>Page 9</span>louder than the wolf, if thou shouldst get a blow from the hammer.” + +</p> +<p id="d0e215"><span class="smallcaps">Odin</span>. “Sif has a lover at home, thou shouldst seek him. That is a task for thee to try, it is more proper for thee.” + +</p> +<p id="d0e219"><span class="smallcaps">Thor</span>. “Thou speakest what thou knowest most displeasing to me; thou cowardly fellow, I think that thou liest.” + +</p> +<p id="d0e223"><span class="smallcaps">Odin</span>. “I think I speak true; thou art slow on the road. Thou wouldst have got far, if thou hadst started at dawn.” + +</p> +<p id="d0e227"><span class="smallcaps">Thor</span>. “Harbard, scoundrel, it is rather thou who hast delayed me.” + +</p> +<p id="d0e231"><span class="smallcaps">Odin</span>. “I never thought a shepherd could so delay Asa-Thor's journey.” + +</p> +<p id="d0e235"><span class="smallcaps">Thor</span>. “I will counsel thee: row thy boat hither. Let us cease quarrelling; come and meet Magni's father.” + +</p> +<p id="d0e239"><span class="smallcaps">Odin</span>. “Leave thou the river; crossing shall be refused thee.” + +</p> +<p id="d0e243"><span class="smallcaps">Thor</span>. “Show me the way, since thou wilt not ferry me.” + +</p> +<p id="d0e247"><span class="smallcaps">Odin</span>. “That is a small thing to refuse. It is a long way to go: a while to the stock, and another to the stone, then keep to the +left hand till thou reach Verland. There will Fjörgyn meet her son Thor, and she will tell him the highway to Odin's land.” + + +</p> +<p id="d0e251"><span class="smallcaps">Thor</span>. “Shall I get there to-day?” + +</p> +<p id="d0e255"><span class="smallcaps">Odin</span>. “With toil and trouble thou wilt get there about sunrise, as I think.” + +</p> +<p id="d0e259"><span class="smallcaps">Thor</span>. “Our talk shall be short, since thou answerest with mockery. I will reward thee for refusing passage, if we two meet again.” + + +</p> +<p id="d0e263"><span class="smallcaps">Odin</span>. “Go thy way, where all the fiends may take thee.” +</p> +</div><p> +<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e268"></a>Page 10</span></p> +<p id="d0e269"><i>Lokasenna</i> also is in dialogue form. A prose introduction tells how the giant Oegi, or Gymi, gave a feast to the Aesir. Loki was turned +out for killing a servant, but presently returned and began to revile the Gods and Goddesses, each one in turn trying to interfere, +only to provoke a taunt from Loki. At last Thor, who had been absent on a journey, came in and threatened the slanderer with +his hammer, whereupon Loki said, “I spoke to the Aesir and the sons of the Aesir what my mind told me; but for thee alone +I will go away, for I know thou wilt strike.” Some of the poem is rather pointless abuse, but much touches points already +suggested in the other poems. + +</p> +<p id="d0e273"><i>Hyndluljod</i> is much later than the others, probably not before 1200. The style is late, and the form imitated from <i>Völuspa</i>. It describes a visit paid by Freyja to the Sibyl to learn the genealogy of her favourite Ottar. The larger part deals with +heroic genealogies, but there are scanty allusions to Baldr, Frey, Heimdal, Loki's children, and Thor, and a Christian reference +to a God who shall come after Ragnarök “when Odin shall meet the wolf.” It tells nothing new. + +</p> +<p id="d0e280">We have here then, omitting <i>Hyndluljod</i>, five poems (four of them belonging to the first half of the tenth century) which suggest a general outline of Norse mythology: +there is a hierarchy of Gods, the Aesir, who live together in a citadel, Odin <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e285"></a>Page 11</span>being the chief. Among them are several who are not Aesir by origin: Njörd and his son and daughter, Frey and Freyja, are +Vanir; Loki is really an enemy and an agent in their fall; and there are one or two Goddesses of giant race. The giants are +rivals and enemies to the Gods; the dwarfs are also antagonistic, but in bondage. The meeting-place of the Gods is by the +World-Ash, Yggdrasil, on whose well-being the fate of Gods and men depends; at its root lies the World-Snake. The Gods have +foreknowledge of their own doom, Ragnarök, the great fight when they shall meet Loki's children, the Wolf and the Snake; both +sides will fall and the world be destroyed. An episode in the story is the death of Baldr. This we may assume to be the religion +of the Viking age (800–1000 A.D.), a compound of the beliefs of various ages and tribes. + +</p> +<p id="d0e287"><b>The Aesir.</b>—The number of the Aesir is not fixed. <i>Hyndluljod</i> says there were twelve (“there were eleven Aesir when Baldr went down into the howe”). Snorri gives a list of fourteen Aesir +or Gods (Odin, Thor, Baldr, Njörd, Frey, Tyr, Bragi, Heimdal, Höd, Vidar, Vali, Ullr, Forseti, Loki), and adds Hoeni in another +list, all the fifteen occurring in the poems; and sixteen Goddesses (Asynjor), the majority of whom are merely personified +epithets, occurring nowhere else. Of the sixteen, Frigg, Gefion, Freyja and Saga (really an <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e294"></a>Page 12</span>epithet only) are Goddesses in the poems, and Fulla is Frigg's handmaid. In another chapter, Snorri adds Idunn, Gerd, Sigyn +and Nanna, of whom the latter does not appear in the Elder Edda, where Idunn, Gerd (a giantess) and Sigyn are the wives of +Bragi, Frey and Loki; and two others, the giantess Skadi and Sif, are the wives of Njörd and Thor. + +</p> +<p id="d0e296">A striking difference from classical mythology is that neither Tyr (who should etymologically be the Sky-god), nor Thor (the +Thunder-god), takes the highest place. Tyr is the hero of one important episode, the chaining of the Wolf, through which he +loses his right hand. This is told in full by Snorri and alluded to in <i>Lokasenna</i>, both in the prose preface (“Tyr also was there, with only one hand; the Fenris-wolf had bitten off the other, when he was +bound”) and in the poem itself: + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p id="d0e302"><span class="smallcaps">Loki</span>. “I must remember that right hand which Fenri bit off thee.” + +</p> +<p id="d0e306"><span class="smallcaps">Tyr</span>. “I am short of a hand, but thou of the famous wolf; to each the loss is ill-luck. Nor is the wolf in better plight, for +he must wait in bonds till Ragnarök.” +</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p id="d0e311">Otherwise, he only appears in connexion with two more popular Gods: he speaks in Frey's defence in <i>Lokasenna</i>, and in <i>Hymiskvida</i> he is Thor's companion in the search for a cauldron; the latter poem represents him as a giant's son. + +</p> +<p id="d0e319">Thor, on the other hand, is second only to his <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e321"></a>Page 13</span>father Odin; he is the strongest of the Gods and their champion against the giants, and his antagonist at Ragnarök is to be +the World-Snake. Like Odin, he travels much, but while the chief God generally goes craftily and in disguise, to gain knowledge +or test his wisdom, Thor's errands are warlike; in <i>Lokasenna</i> he is absent on a journey, in <i>Harbardsljod</i> and <i>Alvissmal</i> he is returning from one. His journeys are always to the east; so in <i>Harbardsljod</i>: “I was in the east, fighting the malevolent giant-brides.... I was in the east and guarding the river, when Svarang's sons +attacked me.” The Giants live in the east (<i>Hymiskvida</i> 5); Thor threatened Loki: “I will fling thee up into the east, and no one shall see thee more” (<i>Lokasenna</i> 59); the fire-giants at Ragnarök are to come from the east: “Hrym comes driving from the east, he lifts his shield before +him.... A ship comes from the east, Muspell's sons will come sailing over the sea, and Loki steers” (<i>Völuspa</i> 50, 51). It would not, perhaps, be overstraining the point to suggest that this is a reminiscence of early warfare between +the Scandinavians and eastern nations, either Lapps and Finns or Slavonic tribes. + +</p> +<p id="d0e344">Thor is the God of natural force, the son of Earth. Two of the episodical poems deal with his contests with the giants. <i>Thrymskvida</i>, the story of how Thor won back his hammer, Mjöllni, from the giant Thrym, is the finest and one of the oldest <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e349"></a>Page 14</span>of the mythological poems; a translation is given in the appendix, as an example of Eddic poetry at its best. Loki appears +as the willing helper of the Gods, and Thor's companion. The Thunderer's journey with Tyr in quest of a cauldron is related +with much humour in <i>Hymiskvida</i>: Hymi's beautiful wife, who helps her guests to outwit her husband, is a figure familiar in fairy-tales as the Ogre's wife. + + +</p> +<p id="d0e354">The chief God of the Scandinavians is, it must be confessed, an unsympathetic character. He is the head of the Valhalla system; +he is Val-father (Father of the Slain), and the Valkyries are his “Wishmaidens,” as the Einherjar are his “Wishsons.” He naturally +takes a special interest in mortal heroes, from whom come the chosen hosts of Valhalla. But, in spite of the splendour of +his surroundings, he is wanting in dignity. The chief of the Gods has neither the might and unthinking valour of Thor, nor +the self-sacrificing courage of Tyr. He is a God who practises magic, and it is as Father of Spells that he is powerful. He +is the wisest of the Gods in the sense that he remembers most about the past and foresees most about the future; yet he is +powerless in difficulty without the craft of Loki and the hammer of Thor. He always wanders in disguise, and the stories told +of him are chiefly love-adventures; this is true of all the deeds he mentions in <i>Harbardsljod</i>, and also of <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e359"></a>Page 15</span>the two interpolations in <i>Havamal</i>, though one of the two had an object, the stealing of the mead of inspiration from the giant Suptung, whose daughter Gunnlöd +guarded it. + +</p> +<p id="d0e364"><i>Völuspa</i> makes him one of three creative deities, the other two being Lodur (probably Loki) and Hoeni, of whom nothing else is known +except the story that he was given as hostage to the Vanir in exchange for Njörd. The same three Gods (Odin, Loki and Hoeni) +are connected with the legend of the Nibelung treasure; and it was another adventure of theirs, according to Snorri, which +led to the loss of Idunn. + +</p> +<p id="d0e368">Of the other Gods, Bragi is a later development; his name means simply king or chief, and his attributes, as God of eloquence +and poetry, are apparently borrowed from Odin. Heimdal, the watchman and “far-seeing like the Vanir,” who keeps guard on the +rainbow bridge Bifröst, is represented in the curious poem <i>Rigsthula</i> as founder of the different social orders. He wandered over the world under the name of Rig, and from his first journey sprang +the race of thralls, swarthy, crooked and broad-backed, who busied themselves with fencing land and tending goats and swine; +from his second, the churls, fine and ruddy, who broke oxen, built houses and ploughed the land; from his third, the earls, +yellow-haired, rosy, and keen-eyed, who broke horses and strung bows, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e373"></a>Page 16</span>rode, swam, and hurled spears; and the youngest of the earls' race was Konung the king, who knew all mysteries, understood +the speech of birds, could quench fire and heal wounds. Heimdal is said to be the son of nine mothers, and to have fought +with Loki for Freyja's Brising-necklace. His horn is hidden under Yggdrasil, to be brought out at Ragnarök, when he will blow +a warning blast. His origin is obscure. Still less is known of Vidar and Vali, two sons of Odin, one of whom is to avenge +Baldr's death, the other to slay the wolf after it has swallowed up the chief God at Ragnarök. Thor's stepson Ullr (Glory) +is probably, like his sons Modi and Magni (Wrath and Strength), a mere epithet. + +</p> +<p id="d0e375">Frigg, Odin's wife and the chief Goddess, daughter of Earth, is not very distinctly characterised, and is often confused with +Freyja. Gefion should be the sea-goddess, since that seems to be the meaning of her name, but her functions are apparently +usurped by the Wane Njörd; according to Snorri, she is the patron of those who die unwedded. + +</p> +<p id="d0e377"><b>Baldr</b>.—The story of Baldr is the most debated point in the Edda. The chief theories advanced are: (1) That it is the oldest part +of Norse mythology, and of ritual origin; (2) that Baldr is really a hero transformed into a God; (3) that the legend <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e381"></a>Page 17</span>is a solar myth with or without Christian colouring; (4) that it is entirely borrowed from Mediæval Greek and Christian sources. +This last theory is too ingenious to be credible; and with regard to the third, there is nothing essentially Christian in +the chief features of the legend, while the solar idea leaves too much unexplained. The references to the myth in the Elder +Edda are: + +</p> +<p id="d0e383">(1) <i>Vegtamskvida</i> (about 900 A.D.). Odin questions the Sibyl as to the meaning of Baldr's dreams: + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p id="d0e389"><span class="smallcaps">Odin</span>. “For whom are the benches (in hell) strewn with rings, the halls fairly adorned with gold?” + +</p> +<p id="d0e393"><span class="smallcaps">Sibyl</span>. “Here the mead, clear drink, stands brewed for Baldr; the shields are spread. The sons of the Aesir are too merry.” + +</p> +<p id="d0e397"><span class="smallcaps">Odin</span>. “Who will be Baldr's slayer and rob Odin's son of life?” + +</p> +<p id="d0e401"><span class="smallcaps">Sibyl</span>. “Höd bears thither the high branch of fame: he will be Baldr's slayer and rob Odin's son of life.” + +</p> +<p id="d0e405"><span class="smallcaps">Odin</span>. “Who will avenge the deed on Höd and bring Baldr's slayer to the funeral pyre?” + +</p> +<p id="d0e409"><span class="smallcaps">Sibyl</span>. “Rind bears a son, Vali, in the halls of the west. He shall not wash his hands nor comb his hair till he bears Baldr's foe +to the pyre.” +</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p id="d0e414">(2) In <i>Lokasenna</i> Frigg says: “If I had a son like Baldr here in Oegi's halls, thou shouldst not pass out from the sons of the Aesir, but be +slain here in thy anger”; to which Loki replies, “Wilt thou that I speak more ill words, Frigg? I am <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e419"></a>Page 18</span>the cause that thou wilt never more see Baldr ride into the hall.” + +</p> +<p id="d0e421">(3) In <i>Vafthrudnismal</i> the only reference is Odin's question, “What said Odin in his son's ear when he mounted the pyre?” + +</p> +<p id="d0e426">(4) In <i>Völuspa</i> the Sibyl prophesies, “I saw doom threatening Baldr, the bleeding victim, the son of Odin. Grown high above the meadows stood +the mistletoe, slender and fair. From this stem, which looked so slender, grew a fatal and dangerous shaft. Höd shot it, and +Frigg wept in Fenhall over Valhall's woe.” The following lines, on the chaining of Loki, suggest his complicity. + +</p> +<p id="d0e431">(5) <i>Hyndluljod</i> has one reference: “There were eleven Aesir by number when Baldr went down into the howe. Vali was his avenger and slew his +brother's slayer.” + +</p> +<p id="d0e436">Besides these there is a fragment quoted by Snorri: “Thökk will weep dry tears at Baldr's funeral pyre. I had no good of the +old man's son alive or dead; let Hel keep what she has.” <i>Grimnismal</i> assigns a hall to Baldr among the Gods. + +</p> +<p id="d0e441">There are, in addition, two prose versions of the story by later writers: the Icelandic version of Snorri (1178–1241) with +all the details familiar to every one; and the Latin one of the Dane Saxo Grammaticus (about thirty years earlier), which +makes Baldr and Höd heroes instead of Gods, and <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e443"></a>Page 19</span>completely alters the character of the legend by making a rivalry for Nanna's favour the centre of the plot and cause of the +catastrophe. On the Eddic version and on Saxo's depend the theories of Golther, Detter, Niedner and other German scholars +on the one hand, and Dr. Frazer on the other. + +</p> +<p id="d0e445">It has often been pointed out that there is no trace of Baldr-worship in other Germanic nations, nor in any of the Icelandic +sagas except the late Frithjofssaga. This, however, is true of other Gods, notably of Tyr, who is without question one of +the oldest. The only deities named with any suggestion of sacrifice or worship in the Icelandic sagas proper are Odin, Thor, +Frey, Njörd, Frigg and Freyja. The process of choice is as arbitrary in mythology as in other sciences. Again, it is more +likely that the original version of the legend should have survived in Iceland than in Denmark, which, being on the mainland, +was earlier subject to Christian and Romantic influences; and that a heathen God should, in the two or three centuries following +the establishment of Christianity in the North, be turned into a mortal hero, than that the reverse process should have acted +at a sufficiently late date to permit of both versions existing side by side in the thirteenth century. A similar gradual +elimination of the supernatural may be found in the history of the Volsung myth. Snorri's version is merely an amplification +of that in the Elder <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e447"></a>Page 20</span>Edda, which, scanty as its account of Baldr is, leaves no doubt as to his divinity. + +</p> +<p id="d0e449">The outline gathered from the poems is as follows: Baldr, Odin's son, is killed by his brother Höd through a mistletoe spray; +Loki is in some way concerned in his death, which is an overwhelming misfortune to the Gods; but it is on Höd that his death +is avenged. He is burnt on a pyre (Snorri says on his ship, a feature which must come from the Viking age; <i>Hyndluljod</i> substitutes howe-burial). He will be absent from the great fight at Ragnarök, but <i>Völuspa</i> adds that he will return afterwards. Nanna has nothing to do with the story. The connexion with the hierarchy of the Aesir +seems external only, since Baldr has no apparent relation to the great catastrophe as have Odin, Thor, Frej, Tyr and Loki; +this, then, would point to the independence of his myth. + +</p> +<p id="d0e457">The genuineness of the myth seems to depend on whether the mistletoe is an original feature of it or not, and on this point +there can be little real doubt. The German theory that Baldr could only be killed by his own sword, which was therefore disguised +by enchantment and used against him, and that the Icelandic writers misunderstood this to mean a mistletoe sprig, is far-fetched +and romantic, and crumbles at a touch. For if, as it is claimed, the Icelanders had no mistletoe, why should they introduce +it into a story to which it did not belong? <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e459"></a>Page 21</span>They might preserve it by tradition, but they would hardly invent it. Granting this, the mistletoe becomes the central point +of the legend. The older mythologists, who only saw in it a sun-myth, overlooked the fact that since any weapon would have +done to kill the God with, the mistletoe must have some special significance; and if it is a genuine part of the story, as +we have no reason to doubt, it will be hard to overturn Dr. Frazer's theory that the Baldr-myth is a relic of tree-worship +and the ritual sacrifice of the God, Baldr being a tree-spirit whose soul is contained in the mistletoe. + +</p> +<p id="d0e461">The contradictions in the story, especially as told by Snorri (such as the confusion between the parts played by Höd and Loki, +and the unsuspicious attitude of the Gods as Loki directs Höd's aim) are sometimes urged against its genuineness. They are +rather proofs of antiquity. Apparent contradictions whose explanation is forgotten often survive in tradition; the inventor +of a new story takes care to make it consistent. It is probable, however, that there were originally only two actors in the +episode, the victim and the slayer, and that Loki's part is later than Höd's, for he really belongs to the Valhall and Ragnarök +myth, and was only introduced here as a link. The incident of the oath extracted from everything on earth to protect Baldr, +which occurs in Snorri and in a paper MS. of <i>Baldr's Dreams</i>, was probably invented to <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e466"></a>Page 22</span>explain the choice of weapon, which would certainly need explanation to an Icelandic audience. If Dr. Frazer's theory be right, +Vali, who slew the slayer, must also have been an original figure in the legend. His antiquity is supported by the fact that +he plays the part of avenger in the poems; while in Snorri, where he is mentioned as a God, his absence from the account of +Baldr's death is only a part of that literary development by which real responsibility for the murder was transferred from +Höd to Loki. + +</p> +<p id="d0e468">Snorri gives Baldr a son, Forseti (Judge), who is also named as a God in <i>Grimnismal</i>. He must have grown out of an epithet of Baldr's, of whom Snorri says that “no one can resist his sentence”; the sacred tree +would naturally be the seat of judgment. + +* * * * * + +</p> +<p id="d0e473"><b>The Wanes.</b>—Three of the Norse divinities, Njörd and his son and daughter, are not Aesir by descent. The following account is given of +their presence in Asgard: + +</p> +<p id="d0e477">(1) In <i>Vafthrudnismal</i>, Odin asks: + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p id="d0e483">“Whence came Njörd among the sons of the Aesir? for he was not born of the Aesir.” + +</p> +<p id="d0e485"><span class="smallcaps">Vafthrudni</span>. “In Vanaheim wise powers ordained and gave him for a hostage to the Gods; at the doom of the world he shall come back, home +to the wise Wanes.” +</p> +</div><p> +<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e490"></a>Page 23</span></p> +<p id="d0e491">(2) There is an allusion in <i>Völuspa</i> to the war which caused the giving of hostages: + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p id="d0e497">“Odin shot into the host: this was the first war in the world. Broken was the wall of the citadel of the Aesir, so that the +Wanes could tread the fields of war.” +</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p id="d0e500">(3) Loki taunts Njörd with his position, in <i>Lokasenna</i>: + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p id="d0e506">“Thou wast sent from the east as a hostage to the Gods....” + +</p> +<p id="d0e508"><span class="smallcaps">Njörd</span>. “This is my comfort, though I was sent from far as a hostage to the Gods, yet I have a son whom no one hates, and he is +thought the best of the Aesir.” + +</p> +<p id="d0e512"><span class="smallcaps">Loki</span>. “Stay, Njörd, restrain thy pride; I will hide it no longer: thy son is thine own sister's son, and that is no worse than +one would expect.” + +</p> +<p id="d0e516"><span class="smallcaps">Tyr</span>. “Frey is the best of all the bold riders of Asgard.” +</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p id="d0e521">There is little doubt that Njörd was once a God of higher importance than he is in the Edda, where he is overshadowed by his +son. Grimm's suggestion that he and the goddess Nerthus, mentioned by Tacitus, were brother and sister, is supported by the +line in <i>Lokasenna</i>; it is an isolated reference, and the Goddess has left no other traces in Scandinavian mythology. They were the deities, +probably agricultural, of an earlier age, whose adoption by the later Northmen was explained by the story of the compact between +Aesir and Vanir. Then <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e526"></a>Page 24</span>their places were usurped by Frey and Freyja, who were possibly created out of epithets originally applied to the older pair; +Njörd was retained with lessened importance, Nerthus passed out altogether. The Edda gives Njörd a giant-bride, Skadi, who +was admitted among the Gods in atonement for the slaying of her father Thiazi; she is little more than a name. Frey and Freyja +have other marks of agricultural deities, besides their relationship. Nothing is said about Frey's changing shape, but Freyja +possesses a hawk-dress which Loki borrows when he wishes to change his form; and, according to Snorri, Frey was sacrificed +to for the crops. Njörd has an epithet, “the wealthy,” which may have survived from his earlier connexion with the soil. In +that case, it would explain why, in Snorri and elsewhere, he is God of the sea and ships, once the province of the ocean-goddess +Gefion; the transference is a natural one to an age whose wealth came from the sea. + +</p> +<p id="d0e528">In spite of their origin, Frey and Freyja become to all intents and purposes Aesir. Frey is to be one of the chief combatants +at Ragnarök, with the fire-giant Surt for his antagonist, and a story is told to explain his defeat: he fell in love with +Gerd, a giant-maid, and sacrificed his sword to get her; hence he is weaponless at the last fight. Loki alludes to this episode +in <i>Lokasenna</i>: “With gold didst thou buy Gymi's daughter, and gavest <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e533"></a>Page 25</span>thy sword for her; but when Muspell's sons ride over Myrkwood, thou shalt not know with what to fight, unhappy one.” The story +is told in full in <i>Skirnisför</i>. + +</p> +<p id="d0e538">Freyja is called by Snorri “the chief Goddess after Frigg,” and the two are sometimes confused. Like her father and brother, +she comes into connexion with the giants; she is the beautiful Goddess, and coveted by them. <i>Völuspa</i> says that the Gods went into consultation to discuss “who had given the bride of Od (<i>i.e.</i>, Freyja) to the giant race”; <i>Thrymskvida</i> relates how the giant Thrym bargained for Freyja as the ransom for Thor's hammer, which he had hidden, and how Loki and Thor +outwitted him; and Snorri says the giants bargained for her as the price for building Valhalla, but were outwitted. Sir G.W. +Dasent notices in the folk-tales the eagerness of trolls and giants to learn the details of the agricultural processes, and +this is probably the clue to the desire of the Frost-Giants in the Edda for the possession of Freyja. Idunn, the wife of Bragi, +and a purely Norse creation, seems to be a double of Freyja; she, too, according to Snorri, is carried away by the giants +and rescued by Loki. The golden apples which she is to keep till Ragnarök remind us of those which Frey offered to Gerd; and +the gift of eternal youth, of which they are the symbols, would be appropriate enough to Freyja as an agricultural deity. + +<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e549"></a>Page 26</span></p> +<p id="d0e550">The great necklace Brising, stolen by Loki and won back in fight by Heimdal (according to the tenth-century Skalds Thjodulf +and Ulf Uggason), is Freyja's property. On this ground, she has been identified with the heroine of <i>Svipdag and Menglad</i>, a poem undoubtedly old, though it has only come down in paper MSS. It is in two parts, the first telling how Svipdag aroused +the Sibyl Groa, his mother, to give him spells to guard him on his journey; the second describing his crossing the wall of +fire which surrounded his fated bride Menglad. If Menglad is really Freyja, the “Necklace-glad,” it is a curious coincidence +that one poem connects the waverlowe, or ring of fire, with Frey also; for his bride Gerd is protected in the same way, though +his servant Skirni goes through it in his place: + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p id="d0e556"><span class="smallcaps">Skirni</span>. “Give me the horse that will bear me through the dark magic waverlowe, and the sword that fights of itself against the giant-race.” + +</p> +<p id="d0e560"><span class="smallcaps">Frey</span>. “I give thee the horse that will bear thee through the dark magic waverlowe, and the sword that will fight of itself if +he is bold who bears it.” (<i>Skirnisför</i>.) +</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p id="d0e568">The connexion of both with the Midsummer fires, originally part of an agricultural ritual, can hardly be doubted. + +* * * * * + +</p> +<p id="d0e570"><b>Loki</b>, or Lopt, is a strange figure. He is admitted among the Aesir, though not one of them <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e574"></a>Page 27</span>by birth, and his whole relation to them points to his being an older elemental God. He is in alliance with them against the +giants; he and Odin have sworn blood-brothership, according to <i>Lokasenna</i>, and he helps Thor to recover his hammer that Asgard may be defended against the giants. On the other hand, while in present +alliance with the Gods, he is chief agent in their future destruction, and this they know. In Snorri, he is a mischievous +spirit of the fairy-tale kind, exercising his ingenuity alternately in getting the Gods into difficulties, and in getting +them out again. So he betrays Idunn to the giants, and delivers her; he makes the bargain by which Freyja is promised to the +giant-builders of Valhalla, and invents the trick by which they are cheated of their prize; by killing the otter he endangers +his own head, Odin's and Hoeni's, and he obtains the gold which buys their atonement. Hence, in the systematising of the Viking +religion, the responsibility for Baldr's death also was transferred to him. At the coming of the fire-giants at Ragnarök, +he is to steer the ship in which Muspell's sons sail (<i>Völuspa</i>), further evidence of his identity as a fire-spirit. Like his son the Wolf, he is chained by the Gods; the episode is related +in a prose-piece affixed to <i>Lokasenna</i>: + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p id="d0e586">“After that Loki hid himself in Franangr's Foss in the form of a salmon. There the Aesir caught him. He was bound with the +guts of his son Nari, but his <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e588"></a>Page 28</span>son Narfi was changed into a wolf. Skadi took a poisonous snake and fastened it up over Loki's face, and the poison dropped +down. Sigyn, Loki's wife, sat there and held a cup under the poison. But when it was full she poured the poison away, and +meanwhile poison dropped on Loki, and he struggled so hard that all the earth shook; those are called earthquakes now.” +</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p id="d0e591"><i>Völuspa</i> inserts lines corresponding to this passage after the Baldr episode, and Snorri makes it a consequence of Loki's share in +that event. + +</p> +<p id="d0e595">He is more especially agent of the doom through his children: at Ragnarök, Fenri the Wolf, bound long before by Tyr's help, +will be freed, and swallow the sun (<i>Vafthrudnismal</i>) and Odin (<i>Vafthrudnismal</i> and <i>Völuspa</i>); and Jörmungandr, the Giant-Snake, will rise from the sea where he lies curled round the world, to slay and be slain by +Thor. The dragon's writhing in the waves is one of the tokens to herald Ragnarök, and his battle with Thor is the fiercest +combat of that day. Only <i>Völuspa</i> of our poems gives any account of it: “Then comes the glorious son of Hlodyn, Odin's son goes to meet the serpent; Midgard's +guardian slays him in his rage, but scarcely can Earth's son reel back nine feet from the dragon.” + +</p> +<p id="d0e609">When Thor goes fishing with the giant Hymi, he terrifies his companion by dragging the snake's head out of the sea, but he +does not slay it; it must wait there till Ragnarök: +<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e611"></a>Page 29</span> +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p id="d0e614">“The protector of men, the only slayer of the Serpent, baited his hook with the ox's head. The God-hated one who girds all +lands from below swallowed the bait. Doughtily pulled mighty Thor the poison-streaked serpent up to the side; he struck down +with his hammer the hideous head of the wolf's companion. The monster roared, the wilderness resounded, the old earth shuddered +all through. The fish sank back into the sea. Gloomy was the giant when they rowed back, so that he spoke not a word.” +</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p id="d0e617">There is nothing to suggest that Jörmungandr, to whom the word World-Snake (Midgardsorm) always refers in the Edda, is the +same as Nidhögg, the serpent that gnaws at Yggdrasil's roots; but both are relics of Snake-worship. + +* * * * * + +</p> +<p id="d0e619"><b>The World-Ash</b>, generally called Yggdrasil's Ash, is one of the most interesting survivals of tree-worship. It is described by the Sibyl +in <i>Völuspa</i>: “I know an ash called Yggdrasil, a high tree sprinkled with white moisture (thence come the dews that fall in the dales): +it stands ever-green by Urd's spring. Thence come three maids, all-knowing, from the hall that stands under the tree”; and +as a sign of the approaching doom she says: “Yggdrasil's ash trembles as it stands; the old tree groans.” <i>Grimnismal</i> says that the Gods go every day to hold judgment by the ash, and describes it further: + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p id="d0e630">“Three roots lie three ways under Yggdrasil's ash: Hel dwells under one, the frost-giants under the second, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e632"></a>Page 30</span>mortal men under the third. The squirrel is called Ratatosk who shall run over Yggdrasil's ash; he shall carry down the eagle's +words, and tell them to Nidhögg below. There are four harts, with necks thrown back, who gnaw off the shoots.... More serpents +lie under Yggdrasil's ash than any one knows. Ofni and Svafni I know will ever gnaw at the tree's twigs. Yggdrasil's ash suffers +more hardships than men know: the hart bites above, the side decays, and Nidhögg gnaws below.... Yggdrasil's ash is the best +of trees.” +</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p id="d0e635">The snake and the tree are familiar in other mythologies, though in most other cases the snake is the protector, while here +he is the destroyer. Both Nidhögg and Jörmungandr are examples of the destroying dragon rather than the treasure-guardian. +The Ash is the oracle: the judgment-place of the Gods, the dwelling of the Fates, the source of the spring of knowledge. + +* * * * * + +</p> +<p id="d0e637"><b>Ragnarök</b>.—The Twilight of the Gods (or Doom of the Gods) is the central point of the Viking religion. The Regin (of which <i>Ragna</i> is genitive plural) are the ruling powers, often called Ginnregin (the great Gods), Uppregin (the high Gods), Thrymregin +(the warrior Gods). The word is commonly used of the Aesir in <i>Völuspa</i>; in <i>Alvissmal</i> the Regin seem to be distinguished from both Aesir and Vanir. The whole story of the Aesir is overshadowed by knowledge of +this coming doom, the time when they shall meet foes more terrible than the giants, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e650"></a>Page 31</span>and fall before them; their constant effort is to learn what will happen then, and to gather their forces together to meet +it. The coming Ragnarök is the reason for the existence of Valhalla with its hosts of slain warriors; and of all the Gods, +Odin, Thor, Tyr and Loki are most closely connected with it. Two poems of the verse Edda describe it: + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p id="d0e653">(1) <i>Vafthrudnismal</i>: + +</p> +<p id="d0e658">V. “What is the plain called where Surt and the blessed Gods shall meet in battle?” + +</p> +<p id="d0e660">O. “Vigrid is the name of the place where Surt and the blessed Gods shall meet in battle. It is a hundred miles every way; +it is their destined battle-field.” + +* * * * * + +</p> +<p id="d0e662">O. “Whence shall the sun come on the smooth heaven when Fenri has destroyed this one?” + +</p> +<p id="d0e664">V. “Before Fenri destroy her, the elf-beam shall bear a daughter: that maid shall ride along her mother's paths, when the +Gods perish.” + +</p> +<p id="d0e666">O. “Which of the Aesir shall rule over the realms of the Gods, when Surt's fire is quenched?” + +</p> +<p id="d0e668">V. “Vidar and Vali shall dwell in the sanctuary of the Gods when Surt's fire is quenched. Modi and Magni shall have Mjöllni +at the end of Vingni's (<i>i.e.</i>, Thor's) combat.” + +</p> +<p id="d0e673">O. “What shall be Odin's end, when the Gods perish?” + +</p> +<p id="d0e675">V. “The Wolf will swallow the father of men; Vidar will avenge it. He will cleave the Wolf's cold jaws in the battle.” + +</p> +<p id="d0e677">(2) <i>Völuspa</i>: + +</p> +<p id="d0e682">“A hag sits eastward in Ironwood and rears Fenri's children; one of them all, in troll's shape, shall be the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e684"></a>Page 32</span>sun's destroyer. He shall feed on the lives of death-doomed men; with red blood he shall redden the seat of the Gods. The +sunshine shall grow black, all winds will be unfriendly in the after-summers.... I see further in the future the great Ragnarök +of the Gods of Victory.... Heimdal blows loudly, the horn is on high; Yggdrasil's ash trembles as it stands, the old tree +groans.” +</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p id="d0e687">The following lines tell of the fire-giants and the various combats, and the last section of the poem deals with a new world +when Baldr, Höd and Hoeni are to come back to the dwelling-place of the Gods. + +</p> +<p id="d0e689">The whole points to a belief in the early destruction of the world and the passing away of the old order of things. Whether +the new world which <i>Vafthrudnismal</i> and <i>Völuspa</i> both prophesy belongs to the original idea or not is a disputed point. Probably it does not; at all events, none of the old +Aesir, according to the poems, are to survive, for Modi and Magni are not really Gods at all, Baldr, Höd and Vali belong to +another myth, Hoeni had passed out of the hierarchy by his exchange with Njörd, and Vidar's origin is obscure. + +* * * * * + +</p> +<p id="d0e697"><b>The Einherjar</b>, the great champions or chosen warriors, are intimately connected with Ragnarök. All warriors who fall in battle are taken +to Odin's hall of the slain, Valhalla. According to <i>Grimnismal</i>, he “chooses every day men dead by the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e704"></a>Page 33</span>sword”; his Valkyries ride to battle to give the victory and bring in the fallen. Hence Odin is the giver of victory. Loki +in <i>Lokasenna</i> taunts him with giving victory to the wrong side: “Thou hast never known how to decide the battle among men. Thou hast often +given victory to those to whom thou shouldst not give it, to the more cowardly”; this, no doubt, was in order to secure the +best fighters for Valhalla. That the defeated side sometimes consoled themselves with this explanation of a notable warrior's +fall is proved by the tenth-century dirge on Eirik Bloodaxe, where Sigmund the Volsung asks in Valhalla: “Why didst thou take +the victory from him, if thou thoughtest him brave?” and Odin replies: “Because it is uncertain when the grey Wolf will come +to the seat of the Gods.” There are similar lines in Eyvind's dirge on Hakon the Good. In this way a host was collected ready +for Ragnarök: for <i>Grimnismal</i> says: “There are five hundred doors and eighty in Valhalla; eight hundred Einherjar will go out from each door, when they +go to fight the wolf.” Meanwhile they fight and feast: “All the Einherjar in Odin's courts fight every day: they choose the +slain and ride from the battle, and sit then in peace together” (<i>Vafthrudnismal</i>,) and the Valkyries bear ale to them <i>(Grimnismal</i>). + +</p> +<p id="d0e718">It is often too hastily assumed that the Norse Ragnarök with the dependant Valhalla system are <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e720"></a>Page 34</span>in great part the outcome of Christian influence: of an imitation of the Christian Judgment Day and the Christian heaven respectively. +Owing to the lateness of our material, it is, of course, impossible to decide how old the beliefs may be, but it is likely +that the Valhalla idea only took form at the systematising of the mythology in the Viking age. The belief in another world +for the dead is, however, by no means exclusively Christian, and a reference in <i>Grimnismal</i> suggests the older system out of which, under the influence of the Ragnarök idea, Valhalla was developed. The lines, “The +ninth hall is Folkvang, where Freyja rules the ordering of seats in the hall; half the slain she chooses every day, Odin has +the other half,” are an evident survival of a belief that all the dead went to live with the Gods, Odin having the men, and +Freyja (or more probably Frigg) the women; the idea being here confused with the later system, under which only those who +fell in battle were chosen by the Gods. Christian colouring appears in the last lines of <i>Völuspa</i> and in Snorri, where men are divided into the “good and moral,” who go after death to a hall of red gold, and the “perjurers +and murderers,” who are sent to a hall of snakes. + +</p> +<p id="d0e728">For Ragnarök also a heathen origin is at least as probable as a Christian one. I would suggest as a possibility that the expectation +of the Twilight of <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e730"></a>Page 35</span>the Gods may have grown out of some ritual connected with the eclipse, such as is frequent among heathen races. Such ceremonies +are a tacit acknowledgment of a doubt, and if they ever existed among the Scandinavians, the possibility, ever present to +the savage mind, of a time when his efforts to help the light might be fruitless, and the darkness prove the stronger, would +be the germ of his more civilised descendant's belief in Ragnarök. + +</p> +<p id="d0e732">By turning to the surviving poems of the Skalds, whose dates can be approximately reckoned from the sagas, we can fix an inferior +limit for certain of the legends given above, placing them definitely in the heathen time. Reference has already been made +to the corroboration of the Valhalla belief supplied by the elegies on Eirik Bloodaxe and Hakon the Good. In the former (which +is anonymous, but must have been written soon after 950, since it was composed, on Eirik's death, by his wife's orders), Odin +commands the Einherjar and Valkyries to prepare for the reception of the slain Eirik and his host, since no one knows how +soon the Gods will need to gather their forces together for the great contest. Eyvind's dirge on Hakon (who fell in 970) is +an imitation of this: Odin sends two Valkyries to choose a king to enter his service in Valhalla; they find Hakon on the battle-field, +and he is slain with many of his followers. Great <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e734"></a>Page 36</span>preparation is made in Valhalla for his reception, and the poet ends by congratulating Hakon (who, though a Christian, having +been educated in England, had not interfered with the heathen altars and sacrifices) on the toleration which has secured him +such a welcome. A still earlier poet, Hornklofi, writing during the reign of Harald Fairhair (who died in 933), alludes to +the slain as the property of “the one-eyed husband of Frigg.” + +</p> +<p id="d0e736">Several Skalds mention legends of Thor: his fishing for the World-Snake is told by Bragi (who from his place in genealogies +must have written before 900), and by Ulf Uggason and Eystein Valdason, both in the second half of the tenth century; and +Thjodulf and Eilif (the former about 960, the latter a little later) tell tales of his fights with the giants. Turning to +the other Gods, Egil Skallagrimsson (about 970) names Frey and Njörd as the givers of wealth; Bragi tells the story of Gefion's +dragging the island of Zealand out of Lake Wener into the sea; and Ulf Uggason speaks of Heimdal's wrestling with Loki. + +</p> +<p id="d0e738">The legend of Idunn is told by Thjodulf much as Snorri tells it: Odin, Hoeni and Loki, while on a journey, kill and roast +an ox. The giant Thiazi swoops down in eagle's shape and demands a share; Loki strikes the eagle, who flies off with him, +releasing him only on condition that he will betray to the giants Idunn, “the care-healing maid who <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e740"></a>Page 37</span>understands the renewal of youth.” He does so, and the Gods, who grow old and withered for want of her apples, force him to +go and bring her back to Asgard. + +</p> +<p id="d0e742">The poet of <i>Eiriksmal</i>, quoted above, alludes to the Baldr myth: Bragi, hearing the approach of Eirik and his host, asks “What is that thundering +and tramping, as if Baldr were coming back to Odin's hall?” The funeral pyre of Baldr is described by Ulf Uggason: he is burnt +on his ship, which is launched by a giantess, in the presence of Frey, Heimdal, Odin and the Valkyries. + +</p> +<p id="d0e747">Though heathen writers outside of Scandinavia are lacking, references to Germanic heathendom fortunately survive in several +Continental Christian historians of earlier date than any of our Scandinavian sources. The evidence of these, though scanty, +is corroborative, and the allusions are in striking agreement with the Edda stories in tone and character. + +</p> +<p id="d0e749">Odin (Wodanus) is always identified by these writers with the Roman Mercurius (whom Tacitus named as the chief German God). +This identification occurs in the eighth-century Paulus Diaconus, and in Jonas of Bobbio (first half of the seventh century), +and probably rests on Odin's character as a wandering God (Mercury being <span class="Greek">διάκτορος</span>), his disguises, and his patronage of poetry and eloquence (as Mercury is <span class="Greek">λόγιος</span>). Odin <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e757"></a>Page 38</span>is not himself in general the conductor of dead souls (<span class="Greek">ψυχοπομπός</span>), like the Roman God, his attendant Valkyries performing the office for him. The equation is only comprehensible on the presumption +of the independence of Germanic mythology, and cannot be explained by transmission. For if Odin were in any degree an imitation +of the Roman deity, other notable attributes of the latter would have been assigned to him: whereas in the Edda the thieving +God (<span class="Greek">κλέπτης</span>) is not Odin but Loki, and the founder of civilisation is Heimdal. + +</p> +<p id="d0e765">The legend of the origin of the Lombards given by Paulus Diaconus illustrates the relations of Odin and Frigg. The Vandals +asked Wodan (Odin) to grant them victory over the Vinili; the latter made a similar prayer to Frea (Frigg), the wife of Wodan. +She advised them to make their wives tie their hair round their faces like beards, and go with them to meet Wodan in the morning. +They did so, and Wodan exclaimed, “Who are these <i>Long-beards</i>?” Then Frea said that having given the Vinili a name, he must give them the victory (as Helgi in the Edda claims a gift from +Svava when she names him). As in <i>Grimnismal</i>, Odin and Frigg are represented as supporting rival claims, and Frigg gains the day for her favourites by superior cunning. +This legend also shows Odin as the giver of victory. + +</p> +<p id="d0e773">Few heathen legends are told however by these <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e775"></a>Page 39</span>early Christian writers, and the Gods are seldom called by their German names. An exception is the Frisian Fosite mentioned +by Alcuin (who died 804) and by later writers; he is to be identified with the Norse Forseti, the son of (probably at first +an epithet of) Baldr, but no legend of him is told. It is disappointing that these writers should have said so little of any +God except the chief one. A very characteristic touch survives in Gregory of Tours (died 594), when the Frank Chlodvig tells +his Christian wife that the Christian God “cannot be proved to be of the race of the Gods,” an idea entirely in keeping with +the Eddic hierarchy. Before leaving the Continental historians, reference may be made to the abundant evidence of Germanic +tree-worship to be gathered from them. The holy oak mentioned by Wilibald (before 786), the sacred pear-tree of Constantius +(473), with numerous others, supply parallels to the World-Ash which is so important a feature of Norse mythology. + +</p> +<p id="d0e777">A study of this subject would be incomplete without some reference to the mythology of Saxo Grammaticus. His testimony on +the old religion is unwilling, and his effort to discredit it very evident. The bitterness of his attack on Frigg especially +suggests that she was, among the Northmen, a formidable rival to the Virgin. When he repeats a legend of the Gods, he transforms +them into <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e779"></a>Page 40</span>mortal heroes, and when, as often happens, he refers to them accidentally as Gods, he invariably hastens to protest that he +does so only because it had been the custom. He describes Thor and Odin as men versed in sorcery who claimed the rank of Gods; +and in another passage he speaks of the latter as a king who had his seat at Upsala, and who was falsely credited with divinity +throughout Europe. His description of Odin agrees with that in the Edda: an old man of great stature and mighty in battle, +one-eyed, wearing a great cloak, and constantly wandering about in disguise. The story which Saxo tells of his driving into +battle with Harald War-tooth, disguised as the latter's charioteer Brun, and turning the fight against him by revealing to +his enemy Ring the order of battle which he had invented for Harald's advantage, is in thorough agreement with the traditional +character of the God who betrayed Sigmund the Volsung and Helgi Hundingsbane. Saxo's version of the Baldr story has been mentioned +already. Baldr's transformation into a hero (who could only be slain by a sword in the keeping of a wood-satyr) is almost +complete. But Odin and Thor and all the Gods fight for him against his rival Hother, “so that it might be called a battle +of Gods against men”; and Nanna's excuse to Baldr that “a God could not wed with a mortal,” preserves a trace of his origin. +The chained Loki appears in Saxo as <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e781"></a>Page 41</span>Utgarda-Loki, lying bound in a cavern of snakes, and worshipped as a God by the Danish king Gorm Haraldsson. Dr. Eydberg sees +the Freyja myth in Saxo's story of Syritha, who was carried away by the giants and delivered by her lover Othar (the Od of +the Edda): an example, like <i>Svipdag and Menglad</i>, of the complete transformation of a divine into an heroic myth. In almost all cases Saxo vulgarises the stories in the telling, +a common result when a mythical tale is retold by a Christian writer, though it is still more conspicuous in his versions +of the heroic legends. + +</p><span class="pageno"><a id="d0e786"></a>Page 42</span><a id="d0e788"></a><h1>Appendix</h1> +<p id="d0e791"><span class="smallcaps">Thrymskvida</span>. + +</p> +<p id="d0e795">1. Then Wing-Thor was angry when he awoke, and missed his hammer. He shook his beard, he tossed his hair, the son of Earth +groped about for it. + +</p> +<p id="d0e797">2. And first of all he spoke these words: “Hear now, Loki, what I tell thee, a thing that no one in earth or heaven above +has heard: the Asa has been robbed of his hammer!” + +</p> +<p id="d0e799">3. They went to the dwelling of fair Freyja, and these words he spoke first of all: “Wilt thou lend me, Freyja, thy feather +dress, to see if I can find my hammer?” + +</p> +<p id="d0e801">4. <span class="smallcaps">Freyja</span>. “I would give it thee, though it were of gold; I would grant it, though it were of silver.” + +</p> +<p id="d0e806">5. Then Loki flew, the feather-coat rustled, until he came out of Asgard and into Jötunheim. + +</p> +<p id="d0e808">6. Thrym, lord of the Giants, sat on a howe; he twisted golden bands for his greyhounds and trimmed his horses' manes. + +</p> +<p id="d0e810">7. <span class="smallcaps">Thrym</span>. “How is it with the Aesir? How is it with the Elves? Why art thou come alone into Jötunheim?” + +</p> +<p id="d0e815"><span class="smallcaps">Loki</span>. “It is ill with the Aesir, it is ill with the Elves; hast thou hidden the Thunderer's hammer?” + +</p> +<p id="d0e819">8. <span class="smallcaps">Thrym</span>. “I have hidden the Thunderer's hammer eight miles below the earth. No man shall bring it back, unless he bring me Freyja +to wife.” + +</p> +<p id="d0e824">9. Then Loki flew, the feather-coat rustled, until he came out of Jötunheim and into Asgard. Thor met <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e826"></a>Page 43</span>him in the middle of the court, and these words he spoke first: + +</p> +<p id="d0e828">10. “Hast thou news in proportion to thy toil? Tell me from on high thy distant tidings, for a sitting man often breaks down +in his story, and he who lies down falls into falsehood.” + +</p> +<p id="d0e830">11. <span class="smallcaps">Loki</span>. “I bring news for my toil: Thrym, lord of the Giants, has thy hammer; no man shall bring it back, unless he take him Freyja +as a bride.” + +</p> +<p id="d0e835">12. They went to see fair Freyja, spoke to her first of all these words: “Bind on the bridal veil, Freyja, we two must drive +to Jötunheim.” + +</p> +<p id="d0e837">13. Angry then was Freyja; she panted, so that all the hall of the Aesir trembled, and the great Brising necklace fell: “Eager +indeed for marriage wouldst thou think me, if I should drive with thee to Jötunheim.” + +</p> +<p id="d0e839">14. Then all the Aesir went into council, and all the Asynjor to consultation, and the mighty Gods discussed how they should +recover the Thunderer's hammer. + +</p> +<p id="d0e841">15. Then spoke Heimdal, whitest of the Aesir; he could see into the future like the Vanir: “Let us bind on Thor the bridal +veil; let him have the great necklace Brising. + +</p> +<p id="d0e843">16. “Let the keys jingle, and let women's weeds fall about his knees; let us put broad stones on his breast, and a hood dexterously +on his head.” + +</p> +<p id="d0e845">17. Then spoke Thor, the mighty Asa: “Vile would the Aesir call me, if I let the bridal veil be bound on me.” + +</p> +<p id="d0e847">18. Then spoke Loki, Laufey's son: “Speak not such words, Thor! soon will the Giants dwell in Asgard, unless thou bring home +thy hammer.” + +</p> +<p id="d0e849">19. Then they bound on Thor the bridal veil, and the great necklace Brising; they let the keys jingle and women's weeds fall +about his knees, and they put broad <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e851"></a>Page 44</span>stones on his breast, and the hood dexterously on his head. + +</p> +<p id="d0e853">20. Then spoke Loki, Laufey's son: “I also will go with thee as thy maiden; we two will drive together to Jötunheim.” + +</p> +<p id="d0e855">21. Then the goats were driven out, urged forward in their harness; well must they run. Rocks were riven, the earth burned +in name: Odin's son was driving into Jötunheim. + +</p> +<p id="d0e857">22. Then spoke Thrym, lord of the Giants: “Stand up, giants, and strew the benches! They are bringing me now Freyja my bride, +Njörd's daughter from Noatun. + +</p> +<p id="d0e859">23. “Gold-horned kine run in the court, oxen all-black, the giant's delight. I have many treasures, I have many jewels, Freyja +only is lacking.” + +</p> +<p id="d0e861">24. The guests assembled early in the evening, and ale was carried to the Giants. One ox did Sif's husband eat, and eight +salmon, and all the dishes prepared for the women; three casks of mead he drank. + +</p> +<p id="d0e863">25. Then spoke Thrym, lord of the Giants: “Who ever saw a bride eat so eagerly? I never saw a bride make such a hearty meal, +nor a maid drink so deep of mead.” + +</p> +<p id="d0e865">26. The prudent handmaid sat near, and she found answer to the Giant's words: “Eight nights has Freyja eaten nothing, so eager +was she to be in Jötunheim.” + +</p> +<p id="d0e867">27. He looked under the veil, he longed to kiss the bride, but he started back the length of the hall: “Why are Freyja's eyes +so terrible? Fire seems to burn from her eyes.” + +</p> +<p id="d0e869">28. The prudent handmaid sat near, and she found answer to the Giant's speech: “Eight nights has Freyja had no sleep, so eager +was she to be in Jötunheim.” + +</p> +<p id="d0e871">29. In came the Giants' wretched sister, she dared to ask for a bridal gift: “Take from thine arms the red rings, if thou +wouldst gain my love, my love and all my favour.” +<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e873"></a>Page 45</span></p> +<p id="d0e874">30. Then spoke Thrym, lord of the Giants: “Bring the hammer to hallow the bride. Lay Mjöllni on the maiden's knee, hallow +us two in wedlock.” + +</p> +<p id="d0e876">31. The Thunderer's heart laughed in his breast, when the bold of soul felt the hammer. Thrym killed he first, the lord of +the Giants, and all the race of the Giants he struck. + +</p> +<p id="d0e878">32. He slew the Giants' aged sister, who had asked him for a bridal gift. She got a blow instead of shillings, and a stroke +of the hammer for abundance of rings. So Odin's son got back his hammer. +<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e880"></a>Page 46</span></p><a id="d0e881"></a><h1>Bibliography</h1><a id="d0e884"></a><h2>I. Study in the Original.</h2> +<p id="d0e887">(1) <i>Poetic Edda</i>.—The classic edition, and on the whole the best, is Professor Bugge's (Christiania, 1867); the smaller editions of Hildebrand +(<i>Die Lieder der Aelteren Edda</i>, Paderborn, 1876), and Finnur Jónsson (<i>Eddalieder</i>, Halle, 1888–90) are also good; the latter is in two parts, <i>Göttersage</i> and <i>Heldensage</i>. The poems may also be found in the first volume of Vigfusson and Powell's <i>Corpus Poeticum Boreale</i> (Oxford, 1883), accompanied by translations; but in many cases they are cut up and rearranged, and they suffer metrically +from the system adopted of printing two short lines as one long one, with no dividing point. There is an excellent palaeographic +edition of the <i>Codex Regius of the Elder Edda</i>, by Wimmer and Finnur Jónsson (Copenhagen, 1891), with photographic reproductions interleaved with a literal transcription. + + +</p> +<p id="d0e910">(2) <i>Snorra Edda</i>.—The most recent edition of the whole is Dr. Finnur Jónsson's (Copenhagen, 1875). There is a useful edition of the mythological +portions <i>(i.e., Gylfaginning, Bragaraedur</i>, and the narrative parts of <i>Skaldskaparmal</i>) by Ernst Wilken (<i>Die Prosäische Edda</i>, Paderborn, 1878). + +</p> +<p id="d0e924">(3) <i>Dictionaries and Grammars</i>.—For the study of the Poetic Edda, Gering's <i>Glossar zu den Liedern der Edda</i> (Paderborn, 1896) will be found most useful; it is complete <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e932"></a>Page 47</span>and trustworthy, and in small compass. A similar service has been performed for <i>Snorra Edda</i> in Wilken's <i>Glossar</i> (Paderborn, 1883), which forms a second volume to his edition, mentioned above. Both are, of course, in German. The only +English dictionary is the lexicon of Cleasby and Vigfusson (Oxford). + +</p> +<p id="d0e940">Of Grammars, the best are German; those of Noreen (<i>Altnordische Grammatik</i>, Halle, 1892), of which there is an abbreviated edition, and Kahle (<i>Altisländisches Elementarbuch</i>, Heidelberg, 1896) being better suited for advanced students; the English grammars included in Vigfusson and Powell's <i>Icelandic Reader</i> (Oxford) and Sweet's <i>Icelandic Primer</i> (Oxford) are more elementary, and therefore hardly adequate for the study of the verse literature. + +</p><a id="d0e954"></a><h2>II. Translations.</h2> +<p id="d0e957">There are English translations of the Elder Edda by Anderson (Chicago, 1879) and Thorpe (1866), as well as the translations +in the <i>Corpus Poeticum</i>, which are, of course, liable to the same objection as the text. The most accurate German translation is Gering's (Leipzig, +1893); in Simrock's (<i>Aeltere und Jüngere Edda</i>, Stuttgart, 1882), the translations of the verse Edda are based on an uncritical text. Snorra Edda was translated into English +by Dasent (Stockholm, 1842); also by Anderson (Chicago, 1880). + +</p><a id="d0e965"></a><h2>III. Modern Authorities.</h2> +<p id="d0e968">To the works on Northern mythology mentioned below in the note on the Baldr theories, must be added Dr. Rydberg's <i>Teutonic Mythology</i> (English version by R.B. Anderson, London, 1889), which devotes special attention to Saxo. +<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e973"></a>Page 48</span></p><a id="d0e974"></a><h1>Notes</h1> +<p id="d0e977"><span class="smallcaps">Home of the Edda</span>. (Page <a id="d0e981" href="#d0e126">2</a>.) + +</p> +<p id="d0e984">The chief apologists for the British theory are Professor Bugge (<i>Studien über die Entstehung der nordischen Götter- und Heldensagen</i>, München, 1889), and the editors of the <i>Corpus Poeticum Boreale</i> (see the Introduction to that work, and also the Prolegomena prefixed to their edition of the <i>Sturlunga Saga</i>, Oxford). The case for Norway and Greenland is argued by Dr. Finnur Jónsson (<i>Den oldnorsk og oldislandske Literaturs-Historie,</i> Copenhagen). The cases for both British and Norwegian origin are based chiefly on rather fanciful arguments from supposed +local colour. The theory of the <i>Corpus Poeticum</i> editors that many of the poems were composed in the Scottish isles is discredited by the absence of Gaelic words or traces +of Gaelic legend. Professor Bugge's North of England theory is slightly stronger, being supported by several Old English expressions +in the poems, but these are not enough to prove that they were composed in England, since most Icelanders travelled east at +some time of their lives. + +</p> +<p id="d0e1001">(Page <a id="d0e1003" href="#d0e130">3</a>.) + +</p> +<p id="d0e1006">A later study will deal with the Heroic legends. <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1008"></a>Page 49</span> + +</p> +<p id="d0e1010"><span class="smallcaps">Ynglinga Saga</span>. (Page <a id="d0e1014" href="#d0e130">3</a>.) + +</p> +<p id="d0e1017"><i>Ynglinga Saga</i> is prefixed to the Lives of the Kings in the collection known as <i>Heimskringla</i> (edited by Unger, Christiania, 1868, and by Finnur Jónsson, Christiania, 1893); there is an English translation in Laing's +<i>Lives of the Kings of Norway</i> (London, 1889). + +</p> +<p id="d0e1027"><span class="smallcaps">Völuspa</span>. (Page <a id="d0e1031" href="#d0e136">4</a>.) + +</p> +<p id="d0e1034">A poem of similar form occurs among the heroic poems. <i>Gripisspa</i>, a prophetic outline of Sigurd's life, introduces the Volsung poems, as <i>Völuspa</i> does the Asgard cycle. + +</p> +<p id="d0e1042"><span class="smallcaps">Riddle-poems</span>. (Page <a id="d0e1046" href="#d0e179">6</a>.) + +</p> +<p id="d0e1049">So many of the mythological poems are in this form that they suggest the question, did the asking of riddles form any part +of Scandinavian ritual? + +</p> +<p id="d0e1051"><span class="smallcaps">The Aesir</span>. (Page <a id="d0e1055" href="#d0e285">11</a>.) + +</p> +<p id="d0e1058"><i>Ynglinga Saga</i> says that Odin and the Aesir came to Norway from Asia; a statement due, of course, to a false etymology, though theories +as to the origin of Norse mythology have been based on it. + +</p> +<p id="d0e1062"><span class="smallcaps">Tyr</span>. (Page <a id="d0e1066" href="#d0e294">12</a>.) + +</p> +<p id="d0e1069">Tyr is etymologically identical with Zeus, and with the Sanskrit Dyaus (Sky-God). + +</p> +<p id="d0e1071"><span class="smallcaps">Baldr</span>. (Pages <a id="d0e1075" href="#d0e373">16</a> to <a id="d0e1078" href="#d0e466">22</a>.) + +</p> +<p id="d0e1081">The Baldr theories are stated in the following authorities: +<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1083"></a>Page 50</span></p> +<p id="d0e1084">(1) Ritual origin: Frazer, <i>The Golden Bough</i>, vol. 3. + +</p> +<p id="d0e1089">(2) Heroic origin: Golther, <i>Handbuch der Germanischen Mythologie</i> (Leipzig, 1895); Niedner, <i>Eddische Fragen</i> (<i>Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum</i>, new series, 29), <i>Zur Lieder-Edda</i> (<i>Zeitschr. f. d. Alt</i>. vol. 36). + +</p> +<p id="d0e1106">(3) Solar myth: Sir G.W. Cox, <i>Mythology of the Aryan Nations</i> (London, 1870); Max Müller, <i>Chips from a German Workshop</i>, vol. 4. + +</p> +<p id="d0e1114">(4) Borrowed: Bugge, <i>Studien über die Entstchung der nordischen Götter- und Heldensagen</i> (transl. Brenner, München, 1889). + +</p> +<p id="d0e1119"><span class="smallcaps">Vegtamskvida</span>. (Page <a id="d0e1123" href="#d0e381">17</a>.) + +</p> +<p id="d0e1126">The word <i>hroðrbaðm</i> (which I have given as “branch of fame”) would perhaps be more accurately translated “tree of fame,” which Gering explains +as a kenning for Baldr. But there are no kennings of the same sort in the poem, and the line would have no meaning. If it +refers to the mistletoe, as most commentators agree, it merely shows that the poet was ignorant of the nature of the plant, +which would be in favour of its antiquity, rather than the reverse. + + +</p> +<p id="d0e1131"><span class="smallcaps">Saxo Grammaticus</span>. (Page <a id="d0e1135" href="#d0e419">18</a>.) + +</p> +<p id="d0e1138">English translation by Professor Elton (London, D. Nutt, 1894). As Saxo's references to the old Gods are made in much the +same sympathetic tone as that adopted by Old Testament writers towards heathen deities, his testimony on mythological questions +is of the less value. + + +</p> +<p id="d0e1140"><span class="smallcaps">The Mistletoe</span>. (Page <a id="d0e1144" href="#d0e447">20</a>.) + +</p> +<p id="d0e1147">It seems incredible that any writers should turn to the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1149"></a>Page 51</span>travesty of the Baldr story given in the almost worthless saga of Hromund Gripsson in support of a theory. In it “Bildr” is +killed by Hromund, who has the sword Mistilteinn. It must be patent to any one that this is a perverted version of a story +which the narrator no longer understood. + + +</p> +<p id="d0e1151"><span class="smallcaps">Loki</span>. (Page <a id="d0e1155" href="#d0e549">26</a>.) + +</p> +<p id="d0e1158">It is hardly necessary to point out the parallel between Loki and Prometheus, also both helper and enemy of the Gods, and +agent in their threatened fall, though in the meantime a prisoner. In character Loki has more in common with the mischievous +spirit described by Hesiod, than with the heroic figure of Aeschylus. The struggles of Loki (p. 28) find a parallel in those +of the fire-serpent Typhon, to which the Greeks attributed earthquakes. + + +</p> +<p id="d0e1160"><span class="smallcaps">Eclipse Ritual</span>. (Page <a id="d0e1164" href="#d0e730">35</a>.) + +</p> +<p id="d0e1167">Mr. Lang, in <i>Myth, Ritual, and Religion</i>, (London, 1887) gives examples of eclipse ritual. Grimm, in the <i>Teutonic Mythology</i>, vol. 2, quotes Finnish and Lithuanian myths about sun-devouring beasts, very similar to the Fenri myth. + + +</p> +<p id="d0e1175"><span class="smallcaps">The Skalds</span>. 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+} + +/* + +h1..h5 headers + +class + sub subtitle + +*/ + +h1 +{ + font-family: helvetica, sans-serif; + font-size: 2em; + font-style: normal; + font-weight: 600; + letter-spacing: normal; + text-decoration: none; + text-transform: none; + word-spacing: normal; + font-size-adjust: .4; + + line-height: 1.5em; + + margin-bottom: 0.33em; + margin-top: 1.33em; +} + +h2 +{ + font-family: helvetica, sans-serif; + font-size: 1.44em; + line-height: 1.2em; + +} + +h3 +{ + font-family: helvetica, sans-serif; + font-size: 1.2em; + line-height: 1.2em; +} + +h4 +{ + font-family: helvetica, sans-serif; + font-size: 1.0em; + font-weight: 400; + line-height: 1.0em; +} + +h5 +{ + font-family: helvetica, sans-serif; + font-size: 1.0em; + font-style: italic; + font-weight: 400; + line-height: 1.0em; +} + + +/* +p -- paragraph + +class + initial initial paragraph of chapter, i.e. no indentation + argument argument, the list of topics at the head of a chapter + note footnote + quote quoted material, like blockquote + stb small thematic break + mtb medium thematic break + ltb large thematic break + navline navigation line + figure figure, plate, illustration + legend legend with figure, plate, or other type of illustration +*/ + +p +{ + text-indent: 0em; +} + +p.poetry +{ + margin: 0em 10% 1.58em 10%; + /* font-style: italic; */ +} + +p.initial +{ + text-indent: 0em; +} + +p.argument, p.note +{ + text-indent: 0em; + font-size: 0.8em; + line-height: 1.2em; +} + +p.argument +{ + margin: 1.58em 10% 1.58em 10%; +} + +p.quote +{ + font-size: 0.9em; + line-height: 1.3em; + margin: 1.58em 5% 1.58em 5%; +} + +div.blockquote +{ + font-size: 0.9em; + line-height: 1.3em; + margin: 1.58em 5% 1.58em 5%; +} + +div.notetext +{ + font-size: 0.9em; + line-height: 1.3em; +} + +div.divFigure +{ + text-align: center; +} + +p.figureHead +{ + text-align: center; +} + +p.figure, p.legend +{ + text-align: center; +} + +p.legend +{ + font-size: 0.9em; + margin-top: 0; +} + +p.navline +{ + text-indent: 0em; + text-align: center; + font-size: 0.7em; + font-family: helvetica, sans-serif; + margin-top: 0em; + margin-bottom: 0em; +} + +p.smallprint, li.smallprint +{ + font-size: 0.8em; + line-height: 1.1em; + color: #666666; +} + +/* +// span -- used for special effects in formatting. +// +// class +// leftnote note in the left margin +// rightnote note in the right margin +// pageno page number, inserted at location of original page break. +// +// Note that the positioning only works properly in IE 5.0. +*/ + +span.leftnote +{ + position:absolute; + left:1%; + height:0em; + width:14%; + font-size:0.8em; + text-indent: 0em; + line-height: 1.2em; +} + +span.rightnote, span.pageno +{ + position:absolute; + left:86%; + height:0em; + width:14%; + text-align:right; + text-indent:0em; + font-size:0.8em; + line-height: 1.2em; +} + +span.lineno +{ + position: absolute; + left: 12%; + height: 0em; + width: 12%; + text-align: right; + text-indent: 0em; + font-size: 0.6em; + line-height: 1em; + font-style: normal; +} + +.Greek +{ + font-family: Gentium, Arial Unicode MS, serif; /* font that supports classical Greek */ +} + +.Arabic +{ + font-family: Arial Unicode MS, sans-serif; /* font that supports Arabic */ +} + +.letterspaced +{ + letter-spacing: 0.2em; +} + +span.smallcaps +{ + font-variant: small-caps; +} + +/* +a -- anchor + +class + offsite + gloss glossary entry; should be less visible + noteref (foot) note reference. + hidden + navline +*/ + +a.navline +{ + text-decoration: none; +} + +a.navline:hover +{ + text-decoration: none; +} +a.hidden:hover +{ + text-decoration: none; +} +a.noteref:hover +{ + text-decoration: none; +} + +a.noteref +{ + text-decoration: none; + font-size: 0.7em; + vertical-align: super; +} + +a.hidden +{ + text-decoration: none; +} + +hr +{ + width: 100%; + height: 1px; + color: black; +} + +hr.noteseparator +{ + width: 25%; + height: 1px; + text-align: left; +} + +/* +// ol ul -- ordered list, unordered list +// +// class +// toc table of contents +*/ + + +/* +// li -- list item +// +// class +// toc_h1 table of contents h1 +// toc_h2 + +// table -- table +*/ + +table.navline +{ + font-size: 0.7em; + font-family: 'TITUS Cyberbit Basic', helvetica, sans-serif; + margin-top: 0em; + margin-bottom: 0em; + margin-top: 0em; + margin-bottom: 0em; +} diff --git a/13007-h/style/print.css b/13007-h/style/print.css new file mode 100644 index 0000000..764ba41 --- /dev/null +++ b/13007-h/style/print.css @@ -0,0 +1,36 @@ +/* + print.css --- A stylesheet for HTML in gutenberg HTML files, optimized for printing. + + Jeroen Hellingman + + This file is hereby irrevocably dedicated to the Public Domain. +*/ + +body +{ + font-family: Gentium, Times New Roman, serif; + margin: 12pt 1cm 12pt 1cm; + font-size: 11pt; +} + +h1, h2, h3, h4, h5 +{ + color: black; + font-family: Gentium, Times New Roman, serif; +} + +.figureHead, .noteref, span.leftnote, p.legend, .navline, span.rightnote, span.pageno, span.lineno +{ + color: black; +} + +a, a.navline:hover, a.hidden:hover, a.noteref:hover +{ + color: black; + text-decoration: none; +} + +span.pageno +{ + font-size: 6pt; +}
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