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diff --git a/13003-h/13003-h.htm b/13003-h/13003-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ea519a2 --- /dev/null +++ b/13003-h/13003-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,11802 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<html> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8"> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Pioneers in Canada, by Sir Harry Johnston</title> +<style type="text/css"> + <!-- +body {font-size: 100%; } + p { margin-left: 15%; + margin-right: 15%; + text-indent: 1.5em; + margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; } + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { text-align: center; } + hr { width: 50%; } + hr.short {width: 20%; } + hr.full { width: 100%; + height: 5px; } + p.ar {margin-top: 0em; text-align: right; margin-right: 20%; } + p.note { text-indent: 0em; text-align: center; margin-top: 0em; + font-size: 90% } + p.note2 {text-indent: 0em; margin-left: 20%; + margin-right: 20%; } + p.note3 {text-indent: 0em; text-align: center; } + p.toc { text-indent: -1em; margin-right: 15%; + margin-left: 20%; font-size: 90%; margin-bottom: 0em; + margin-top: .5em; } + p.itoc { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 25%; font-size: 90%; + text-indent: -1em; margin-bottom: 0em; + margin-top: 0em; } + p.ref { text-indent: -1.5em; margin-bottom: 0em; + margin-top: .5em; } + p.block { text-indent: 0em; margin-left: 25%; } + p.foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 15%; text-align: justify; + text-indent: -1.5em; font-size: 90%; } + center { padding: 0.5em;} + p.return {text-align: center; margin-bottom: 0em; font-size: 70%} + a:link {color:#0000ff; + text-decoration:none} + link {color:#0000ff; + text-decoration:none} + a:visited {color:#0000ff; + text-decoration:none} + a:hover {color:#ff0000} + pre {font-size: 9pt; + margin-left: 15%; } + + // --> +</style> +</head> +<body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13003 ***</div> +<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Pioneers in Canada, by Sir Harry Johnston, +Illustrated by E. Wallcousins</h1> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<hr class="full" noshade> +<br> +<br> +<a name="image-0001"><!--IMG--></a> +<center> +<img src="images/pc01.jpg" width="282" height="450" +alt="Type of Ship Sailed in by the English Or French +Pioneers in the Sixteenth Century +"> +</center> +<!--IMAGE END--> +<h5>TYPE OF SHIP SAILED IN BY THE ENGLISH OR FRENCH +PIONEERS<br> +IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY</h5> +<hr> +<a name="top"></a> +<h1> + PIONEERS IN CANADA +</h1> +<br> +<h2> + By SIR HARRY JOHNSTON +</h2> +<p class="note"> + G.C.M.G., K.C.B. +</p> +<br> +<p class="note"> + <i>WITH EIGHT COLOURED ILLUSTRATIONS<br> BY E. WALLCOUSINS</i> +</p> +<center> +<img src="images/tp.jpg" width="130" height="150" +alt="title page decoration"> +</center> +<h5>1912</h5> +<hr> +<p class="note3"> + <big><b>The Pioneer Library</b></big><br><br> + + A standard series by Sir Harry<br> + Johnston. Tastefully bound.<br><br> + + <b>Pioneers in Australasia</b>.<br> + <b>Pioneers in Canada</b>. <br> + <b>Pioneers in South Africa</b>. <br> + <b>Pioneers in West Africa</b>. <br> + <b>Pioneers in Tropical America</b>. <br> + <b>Pioneers in India</b>. +</p> +<br> +<hr class="short"> +<a name="2H_PREF"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> + +<h2> + PREFACE +</h2> +<br> +<p> + I have been asked to write a series of works which should deal with + "real adventures", in parts of the world either wild and uncontrolled + by any civilized government, or at any rate regions full of dangers, + of wonderful discoveries; in which the daring and heroism of white men + (and sometimes of white women) stood out clearly against backgrounds + of unfamiliar landscapes, peopled with strange nations, savage tribes, + dangerous beasts, or wonderful birds. These books would again and + again illustrate the first coming of the white race into regions + inhabited by people of a different type, with brown, black, or yellow + skins; how the European was received, and how he treated these races + of the soil which gradually came under his rule owing to his superior + knowledge, weapons, wealth, or powers of persuasion. The books were to + tell the plain truth, even if here and there they showed the white man + to have behaved badly, or if they revealed the fact that the American + Indian, the Negro, the Malay, the black Australian was sometimes cruel + and treacherous. +</p> +<p> + A request thus framed was almost equivalent to asking me to write + stories of those pioneers who founded the British Empire; in any case, + the first volumes of this series do relate the adventures of those who + created the greater part of the British Dominions beyond the Seas, by + their perilous explorations of unknown lands and waters. In many + instances the travellers were all unconscious of their destinies, of + the results which would arise from their actions. In some cases they + would have bitterly railed at Fate had they known that the result of + their splendid efforts was to be the enlargement of an empire under + the British flag. Perhaps if they could know by now that we are + striving under that flag to be just and generous to all types of men, + and not to use our empire solely for the benefit of English-speaking + men and women, the French who founded the Canadian nation, the Germans + and Dutch who helped to create British Africa, Malaysia, and + Australia, the Spaniards who preceded us in the West Indies, and the + Portuguese in West, Central, and East Africa, in Newfoundland and + Ceylon, might—if they have any consciousness or care for things in + this world—be not so sorry after all that we are reaping where they + sowed. +</p> +<p> + It is (as you will see) impossible to tell the tale of these early + days in the British Dominions beyond the Seas, without describing here + and there the adventures of men of enterprise and daring who were not + of our own nationality. The majority, nevertheless, were of British + stock; that is to say, they were English, Welsh, Scots, Irish, perhaps + here and there a Channel Islander and a Manxman; or Nova Scotians, + Canadians, and New Englanders. The bulk of them were good fellows, a + few were saints, a few were ruffians with redeeming features. + Sometimes they were common men who blundered into great discoveries + which will for ever preserve their names from perishing; occasionally + they were men of Fate, predestined, one might say, to change the + history of the world by their revelations of new peoples, new lands, + new rivers, new lakes, snow mountains, and gold mines. Here and there + is a martyr like Marquette, or Livingstone, or Gordon, dying for the + cause of a race not his own. And others again are mere boys, whose + adventures come to them because they are adventurous, and whose feats + of arms, escapes, perils, and successes are quite as wonderful as + those attributed to the juvenile heroes of Marryat, Stevenson, and the + author of <i>The Swiss Family Robinson</i>. +</p> +<p> + I have tried, in describing these adventures, to give my readers some + idea of the scenery, animals, and vegetation of the new lands through + which these pioneers passed on their great and small purposes; as well + as of the people, native to the soil, with whom they came in contact. + And in treating of these subjects I have thought it best to give the + scientific names of the plant or animal which was of importance in my + story, so that any of my readers who were really interested in natural + history could at once ascertain for themselves the exact type alluded + to, and, if they wished, look it up in a museum, a garden, or a + natural history book. +</p> +<p> + I hope this attempt at scientific accuracy will not frighten away + readers young and old; and, if you can have patience with the author, + you will, by reading this series of books on the great pioneers of + British West Africa, Canada, Malaysia, West Indies, South Africa, and + Australasia, get a clear idea of how the British Colonial Empire came + to be founded. +</p> +<p> + You will find that I have often tried to tell the story in the words + of the pioneers, but in these quotations I have adopted the modern + spelling, not only in my transcript of the English original or + translation, but also in the place and tribal names, so as not to + puzzle or delay the reader. Otherwise, if you were to look out some of + the geographical names of the old writers, you might not be able to + recognize them on the modern atlas. The pronunciation of this modern + geographical spelling is very simple and clear: the vowels are + pronounced <i>a</i> = ah, <i>e</i> = eh, <i>i</i> = ee, <i>o</i> = o, <i>ô</i> = oh, + <i>ō</i> = aw, <i>ö</i> = u in 'hurt', and <i>u</i> = oo, as in German, Italian, or + most other European languages; and the consonants as in English. +</p> +<p class="ar"> + <big>H. H. J</big>OHNSTON. +</p> +<hr class="short"> + + +<div style="height: 3em;"><br><br><br></div> + +<a name="contents"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + <h3>CONTENTS</h3> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_PREF">Preface</a> +</p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_LIST"> +List of Illustrations +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_AUTH"> +List of the Chief Authorities +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2HCH0001"> +I. THE WHITE MAN'S DISCOVERY OF NORTH AMERICA +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2HCH0002"> +II. JACQUES CARTIER +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2HCH0003"> +III. ELIZABETHAN PIONEERS IN NORTH AMERICA +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2HCH0004"> +IV. CHAMPLAIN AND THE FOUNDATION OF CANADA +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2HCH0005"> +V. AFTER CHAMPLAIN: FROM MONTREAL TO THE MISSISSIPPI +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2HCH0006"> +VI. THE GEOGRAPHICAL CONDITIONS OF THE CANADIAN DOMINION +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2HCH0007"> +VII. THE AMERINDIANS AND ESKIMO: THE ABORIGINES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2HCH0008"> +VIII. THE HUDSON BAY EXPLORERS AND THE BRITISH CONQUEST OF ALL CANADA +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2HCH0009"> +IX. THE PIONEERS FROM MONTREAL: ALEXANDER HENRY THE ELDER +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2HCH0010"> +X. SAMUEL HEARNE +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2HCH0011"> +XI. ALEXANDER MACKENZIE'S JOURNEYS +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2HCH0012"> +XII. MACKENZIE'S SUCCESSORS +</a></p> + +<div style="height: 3em;"><br><br><br></div> + + +<a name="2H_LIST"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<h3> + LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS +</h3> +<center><small> + COLOURED PLATES</small> +</center> +<p class="itoc"><a href="#image-0001"> + Type of Ship sailed in by the English or French Pioneers in the + Sixteenth Century</a> <small><i>Frontispiece</i></small> +</p> +<p class="itoc"><a href="#image-0003"> + Icebergs and Polar Bears</a> +</p> +<p class="itoc"><a href="#image-0005"> + Indians hunting Bison</a> +</p> +<p class="itoc"><a href="#image-0007"> + Indians lying in wait for Moose</a> +</p> +<p class="itoc"><a href="#image-0009"> + Caribou swimming a River</a> +</p> +<p class="itoc"><a href="#image-0011"> + Great Auks, Gannets, Puffins, and Guillemots</a> +</p> +<p class="itoc"><a href="#image-0013"> + Scene on Canadian River: Wild Swans flying up, disturbed by Bear</a> +</p> +<p class="itoc"><a href="#image-0016"> + Big-horned Sheep of Rocky Mountains</a> +</p> +<br> +<center> + <small>BLACK-AND-WHITE ILLUSTRATIONS</small> +</center> +<p class="itoc"><a href="#image-0002"> + Jacques Cartier</a> +</p> +<p class="itoc"><a href="#image-0004"> + Samuel de Champlain and Alexander Henry the Elder</a> +</p> +<p class="itoc"><a href="#image-0008"> + An Amerindian Type of British Columbia</a> +</p> +<p class="itoc"><a href="#image-0014"> + Lake Louise, the Rocky Mountains</a> +</p> +<p class="itoc"><a href="#image-0015"> + Samuel Hearne and Alexander Mackenzie</a> +</p> +<p class="itoc"><a href="#image-0017"> + The Upper Waters of the Fraser River</a> +</p> +<p class="itoc"><a href="#image-0019"> + The Kootenay or Head Stream of the Columbia River</a> +</p> +<p class="itoc"><a href="#image-0020"> + A Hunter's "Shack" in British Columbia: After a successful Shoot of + Blue Grouse</a> +</p> +<br> +<p class="itoc"><a href="#image-0006"> + Map of Canada</a> +</p> +<p class="itoc"><a href="#image-0012"> + Map of Eastern Canada and Newfoundland</a> +</p> +<p class="itoc"><a href="#image-0018"> + Map of Part of the Coast Region of British Columbia</a> +</p> +<br> +<hr class="short"> + +<a name="2H_AUTH"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> + +<h2> + List of the Chief Authorities +</h2> +<p class="note2"> + FROM WHOM THE PRINCIPAL FACTS AND INCIDENTS OF THIS BOOK HAVE BEEN + DERIVED, IN ADDITION TO THE AUTHOR'S OWN RESEARCHES AND EXPERIENCES, + AND INFORMATION SUPPLIED BY PROFESSOR R. RAMSAY WRIGHT, OF TORONTO + UNIVERSITY +</p> +<br> +<p class="ref"> + <b>The Saint Lawrence Basin</b>. By Dr. S.E. DAWSON. London. 1905. + Lawrence & Bullen. +</p> +<p class="ref"> + <b>Relation Originale du Voyage de Jacques Cartier au Canada en + 1534</b>; Documents inédits, &c. Publiés par H. MICHELANT et A. RAME. + Paris. Librairie Tross. 1867. +</p> +<p class="ref"> + <b>Voyage de Jacques Cartier au Canada en 1534</b>, &c. Par H. + MICHELANT. Paris. 1865. +</p> +<p class="ref"> + <b>Champlain's Voyages</b>: The Publications of the Prince Society. + Boston. 1878. Three volumes. +</p> +<p class="ref"> + <b>Voyage of Verrazano</b>, &c. By HENRY C. MURPHY. New York. 1875. + (Also the Essay on the Journeys of Verrazano, by Alessandro Bacchiani, + in the Bollettino della Societá Geografica Italiana. Rome. November, + 1909.) +</p> +<p class="ref"> + <b>Volume IX of the Proceedings and Transactions of the Royal Society of + Canada</b>. (For the History of Cape Breton and of the Beothiks of + Newfoundland.) +</p> +<p class="ref"> + <b>The Search for the Western Sea</b>. By Lawrence J. Burpee. London. + Alston Rivers. 1908. +</p> +<p class="ref"> + <b>Travels and Explorations of the Jesuit Missionaries in New + France</b>, &c. Edited by REUBEN GOLD THWAITES. Vol. LIX. Cleveland, + U.S.A. Burrows Bros. 1900. +</p> +<p class="ref"> + <b>Travels and Explorations in Canada and the Indian Territories between + the years 1760 and 1776</b>. By ALEXANDER HENRY, Esq. New York. 1809. +</p> +<p class="ref"> + <b>Voyages from Montreal on the River St. Lawrence through the Continent + of North America to the Frozen and Pacific Oceans, in the years 1789 + and 1793</b>, &c. &c. By ALEXANDER MACKENZIE, Esq. London. 1801. +</p> +<p class="ref"> + <b>A Journey from Prince of Wales's Fort in Hudson's Bay to the Northern + Ocean</b>, &c. By SAMUEL HEARNE. London. 1795. +</p> +<p class="ref"> + <b>Les Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest</b>. By L.R. MASSON. + Quebec. 1890. Two volumes. +</p> +<p class="ref"> + <b>New Light on the Early History of the Greater North-West</b>: The + Manuscript Journals of Alexander Henry, Jun., and of David Thompson. + Edited by ELLIOTT COUES. Three Volumes. New York. Harper. 1897. +</p> +<p class="ref"> + <b>Sport and Travel in the Northland of Canada</b>. By DAVID T. HANBURY. + London. Edward Arnold. 1904. +</p> +<p class="ref"> + <b>Henry Hudson the Navigator</b>, &c. By G.M. ASHER. London. Hakluyt + Society, 1860. +</p> +<p class="ref"> + <b>The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher</b>. By Rear-Admiral RICHARD + COLLINSON. London. Hakluyt Society. 1867. +</p> +<p class="ref"> + <b>The Voyages and Works of John Davis the Navigator</b>. By Admiral Sir + ALBERT HASTINGS MARKHAM. London. Hakluyt Society. 1880. +</p> +<p class="ref"> + <b>The Voyages of William Baffin, 1612-1622</b>. By Sir CLEMENTS R. + MARKHAM. London. 1881. +</p> +<br> +<hr> +<a name="2HCH0001"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> + +<h2> + CHAPTER I +</h2> +<h3> + The White Man's Discovery of North America +</h3> +<p> + So far as our knowledge goes, it is almost a matter of certainty that + Man originated in the Old World—in Asia possibly. Long after this + wonderful event in the Earth's history, when the human species was + spread over a good deal of Asia, Europe, and Africa, migration to the + American continents began in attempts to find new feeding grounds and + unoccupied areas for hunting and fishing. How many thousands or + hundreds of thousands of years ago it was since the first men entered + America we do not yet know, any more than we can determine the route + by which they travelled from Asia. Curiously enough, the oldest traces + of man as yet discovered in the New World are not only in South + America, but in the south-eastern parts of South America. Although the + most obvious recent land connection between the Old and New Worlds is + the Aleutian chain of islands connecting Kamschatka with Alaska, the + ethnologist is occasionally led to think by certain evidence that + there may, both earlier and later, have existed another way of + reaching western America from south-eastern Asia through Pacific + archipelagoes and islets now sunk below the sea. In any case it seems + quite probable that men of Mongolian or Polynesian type reached + America on its western coasts long before the European came from the + north-east and east, and that they were helped on this long journey by + touching at islands since submerged by earthquake shocks or tidal + waves. +</p> +<p> + The aboriginal natives of North and South America seem to be of + entirely Asiatic origin; and such resemblances as there are between + the North-American Indians and the peoples of northern Europe do not + arise (we believe) from any ancient colonization of America from + western or northern Europe, but mainly from the fact that the + North-American Indians and the Eskimo (two distinct types of people) + are descended from the same human stocks as the ancient populations of + the northern part of Europe and Asia. +</p> +<p> + It was—we think—from the far <i>north-west</i> of Europe that America was + first visited by the true White man, though there has been an ancient + immigration of imperfect "White" men (Ainu) from Kamschatka. Three or + four hundred years after the birth of Christ there were great race + movements in northern and central Europe, due to an increase of + population and insufficiency of food. Not only did these white + barbarians (though they were not as barbarous as we were led to think + by Greek and Roman literature) invade southern Europe, North Africa, + and Asia Minor, but from the fourth century of the Christian era + onwards they began to cross over to England and Scotland. At the same + time they took more complete possession of Scandinavia, driving north + before their advance the more primitive peoples like the Lapps and + Finns, who were allied to the stock from which arose both the Eskimo + and the Amerindian.<a name="1-1"></a><a href="#note-1-1"><small>[1]</small></a> All this time the Goths and Scandinavians + were either learning ideas of navigation from the Romans of the + Mediterranean or the Greeks of the Black Sea, or they were inventing + for themselves better ways of constructing ships; and although they + propelled them mainly by oars, they used masts and sails as well.<a name="1-2"></a><a href="#note-1-2"><small>[2]</small></a> + Having got over the fear of the sea sufficiently to reach the coasts + of England and Scotland, the Hebrides, Orkneys, and Shetlands, they + became still more venturesome in their voyages from Norway, until they + discovered the Faroe Archipelago (which tradition says they found + inhabited by wild sheep), and then the large island of Iceland, which + had, however, already been reached and settled by the northern Irish. +</p> +<p> + Iceland, though it lies so far to the north that it is partly within + the Arctic Circle, is, like Norway, Scotland, and Ireland, affected by + the Gulf Stream, so that considerable portions of it are quite + habitable. It is not almost entirely covered with ice, as Greenland + is; in fact, Iceland should be called Greenland (from the large extent + of its grassy pastures), and Greenland should be called Iceland. + Instead of this, however, the early Norwegian explorers called these + countries by the names they still bear. +</p> +<p> + The Norse rovers from Norway and the Hebrides colonized Iceland from + the year 850; and about a hundred and thirty-six years afterwards, in + their venturesome journeys in search of new lands, they reached the + south-east and south-west coasts of Greenland. Owing to the glacial + conditions and elevated character of this vast continental island + (more than 500,000 sq. miles in area)—for the whole interior of + Greenland rises abruptly from the sea-coast to altitudes of from 5000 + to 11,000 ft.—this discovery was of small use to the early Norwegians + or their Iceland colony. After it was governed by the kingdom of + Norway in the thirteenth century, the Norse colonization of south-west + Greenland faded away under the attacks of the Eskimo, <a name="p18"></a>until it ceased + completely in the fifteenth century. When Denmark united herself with + the kingdom of Norway in 1397, the Danish king became also the ruler + of Iceland. In the eighteenth century the Norwegian and Danish + settlements were re-established along the south-east and south-west + coasts of Greenland, mainly on account of the value of the whale, + seal, and cod fisheries in the seas around this enormous frozen + island; and all Greenland is now regarded as a Danish possession. +</p> +<p> + But the adventurous Norsemen who first reached Greenland from Iceland + attempted to push their investigations farther to the south-west, in + the hope of discovering more habitable lands; and in this way it was + supposed that their voyages extended as far as Massachusetts and Rhode + Island, but in all probability they reached no farther than + Newfoundland and Nova Scotia. This portion of North America they + called "Vinland", more from the abundance of cranberries (<i>vinbær</i>) on + the open spaces than the few vines to be found in the woods of Nova + Scotia.<a name="1-3"></a><a href="#note-1-3"><small>[3]</small></a> +</p> +<p> + This brings us down to the year 1008. The Icelandic Norsemen then + ceased their investigations of the North-American Continent, and were + too ignorant to realize the value of their discoveries. Their colonies + on the coasts of Nova Scotia ("Vinland") and Newfoundland + ("Estotiland") were attacked probably by Eskimos, at any rate by a + short, thick-set, yellow-skinned ugly people whom the Norsemen called + "Skræling",<a name="1-4"></a><a href="#note-1-4"><small>[4]</small></a> who overcame the unfortunate settlers, murdered some, + and carried off others into the interior. +</p> +<p> + But about this period, when Europe was going through that dismal era, + the Dark Age which followed the downfall of the Roman Empire of the + west, various impulses were already directing the attention of + European adventurers to the Western Ocean, the Atlantic. One cause was + the increased hold of Roman and Greek Christianity over the peoples of + Europe. These Churches imposed fasts either for single days or for + continuous periods. When people fasted it meant that they were chiefly + denied any form of meat, and therefore must eat fish if they were not + content with oil, bread, or vegetables. So that there was an enormous + and increasing demand for fish, not only amongst those fortunate + people who lived by the seashore, and could get it fresh whenever they + liked, but among those who lived at a distance inland, and were still + required to fast when the Church so directed. Of course in many parts + of Europe they could get freshwater fish from the rivers or lakes. But + the supply was not equal to the demand; and fish sent up from the + seacoast soon went bad, so that the plan of salting and curing fish + was adopted. The Norsemen found it a paying business to fish + industriously in the seas round Iceland, Norway, Scotland, and + Ireland, salt and cure the fish, and then carry it to more southern + countries, where they exchanged it against wine, oil, clothing + materials, and other goods. This led to the Venetians (who had + absorbed so much of the carrying trade of the Mediterranean) sending + their ships through the Straits of Gibraltar into the northern seas + and trading with the Baltic for amber and salt fish. In the course of + this trade some Venetians, such as Antonio Zeno, found their way to + Norway and Iceland.<a name="1-5"></a><a href="#note-1-5"><small>[5]</small></a> It is thought that by this means Venice became + acquainted with the records of the Icelandic voyages to North + America, and that her explorers thus grew to entertain the idea of a + sea journey westward, or north-westward, of Britain, bringing mariners + to a New World represented by the far-eastern extension of Asia. +</p> +<p> + Christopher Columbus, the Genoese, conceived a similar idea, which + also may have owed something to the tradition of the Norsemen's + discovery of Vinland. But Columbus's theories were based on better + evidence, such as the discovery on the coasts of the Azores + archipelago, Madeira, and Portugal of strange seeds, tree trunks, + objects of human workmanship, and even (it is said) the bodies of + drowned savages—Amerindians—which had somehow drifted across, borne + by the current of the Gulf Stream, and escaping the notice of the + sharks. +</p> +<p> + Whilst Columbus was bestirring himself to find Asia across the + Atlantic, a sea pilot, JOHN CABOT (Zuan Cabota)—Genoese by birth, but + a naturalized subject of Venice—came to England and offered himself + to King Henry VII as a discoverer of new lands across the ocean. At + first he was employed at Copenhagen to settle fishery quarrels about + Iceland, and probably Cabota, or Cabot, visited Iceland in King + Henry's service, and there heard of the Icelandic colonies on the + other side of the Atlantic, only recently abandoned. +</p> +<p> + In 1496 King Henry VII provided money to cover some of the expense of + a voyage of discovery to search for the rumoured island across the + ocean. The people of Bristol were ordered to assist John Cabot, and by + them he was furnished with a small sailing ship, the <i>Matthew</i>, and a + crew of fifteen mariners. Cabot, with his two sons, Luis and Sancio, + sailed for Ireland and the unknown West in May, 1497, and, after a sea + voyage quite as wonderful as that of Columbus, reached the coast of + Cape Breton Island (or "the New Isle", as it was first named<a name="1-6"></a><a href="#note-1-6"><small>[6]</small></a>) on + June 24, 1497. They found "the land excellent, and the climate + temperate". The sea was so full of fish along these coasts that the + mariners opined (truly) that henceforth Bristol need not trouble about + the Iceland trade. Here along this "new isle" were the predestined + fisheries of Britain.<a name="1-7"></a><a href="#note-1-7"><small>[7]</small></a> +</p> +<p> + They encountered no inhabitants, though they found numerous traces of + their existence in the form of snares, notched trees, and bone netting + needles. John Cabot hoisted the English flag of St. George and the + Venetian standard of St. Mark; then—perhaps after coasting a little + along Nova Scotia—fearful that a longer stay might cause them to run + short of provisions, he turned the prow of the <i>Matthew</i> eastward, and + reached Bristol once more about August 6, and London on August 10, + 1497, with his report to King Henry VII, who rewarded him with a + donation of £10. He was further granted a pension of £20 a year (which + he only drew for two years, probably because he died after returning + from a second voyage to the North-American coast), and he received a + renewal of his patent of discovery in February, 1498. In this patent + it is evidently inferred that King Henry VII assumed a sovereignty + over these distant regions because of John Cabot's hoisting of the + English flag on "the new Isle" (Cape Breton Island) in the preceding + year. +</p> +<p> + The new expedition of 1498 was a relatively important affair. The + king assisted to finance the ventures of the Bristol captains, and + five of his ships formed part of the little fleet. It is probable that + John Cabot was in command, and almost certain that his young son + Sebastian was a passenger, possibly an assistant pilot. The course + followed lay much farther to the north, and brought the little sailing + vessels amongst the icebergs, ice floes, polar bears, and stormy seas + of Greenland and Labrador. Commercially the voyage was a failure, + almost a disaster. The ships returned singly, and after a considerable + interval of time. Nevertheless, some of the king's loans were repaid + to him; and in 1501 a regular chartered company was formed (perhaps at + Bristol), with three Bristolians and three Portuguese as directors. + Henry VII not only gave a royal patent to this association, but lent + more money to enable it to explore and colonize these new lands across + the western sea. +</p> +<p> + There can be little doubt that between 1498 and 1505 these Bristol + ships, directed by Italian, English, and Portuguese pilots, first + revealed to the civilized world of western Europe the coasts of + Newfoundland, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Massachusetts, and + Delaware. They must have got as far south as the State of Delaware + (according to Sebastian Cabot, their southern limit was lat. 38°), + because in 1505 they were able to bring back parrots ("popyngays"), as + well as hawks and lynxes ("catts of the mountaigne"), for the + delectation of King Henry; and parrots even at that period could not + have been obtained from farther north than the latitude of New + York.<a name="1-8"></a><a href="#note-1-8"><small>[8]</small></a> +</p> +<p> + But after 1505 English interest in "the Newe founde launde" and the + "Newe Isle" languished; the exploration of North America was taken up + and carried farther by Portuguese, Bretons and Normans of France, + Italians, and Spaniards.<a name="1-9"></a><a href="#note-1-9"><small>[9]</small></a> It revived again under Henry VIII, owing + to the irresistible attraction of the Newfoundland fisheries and the + knowledge that the ships from France were returning every autumn with + great supplies of fish cured and salted; for an adequate supply of + salt fish was becoming a matter of great importance to the markets of + western Europe. In 1527 Henry VIII sent two ships under the command of + John Rut to explore the North-American coast, and Captain Rut seems + to have reached the Straits of Belle Isle between Newfoundland + and Labrador (then blocked with ice so that he took them for + a bay), and afterwards to have passed along the east coast of + Newfoundland—already much frequented by the Bretons, Normans, and + Portuguese—and to have stopped at the harbour of St. John's, thence + sailing as far south as Massachusetts. +</p> +<p> + The Portuguese monarchy had begun to take possession of the Azores + archipelago from the year 1432. These islands were probably known to + the Phoenicians, and even to the Arabs of the Middle Ages; between the + fourteenth and fifteenth centuries they had been rediscovered by + Catalans, Genoese, Flemings, and Portuguese; and after 1444 the Azores + began to prove very useful to the sea adventurers of this wonderful + fifteenth century, as they became a shelter and a place of call for + fresh water and provisions almost in the middle of the Atlantic, 800 + to 1000 miles due west of Portugal. Portuguese vessels sailed + northwards from the Azores in search of fishing grounds, and thus + reached Iceland, which they called Terra do Bacalhao.<a name="1-10"></a><a href="#note-1-10"><small>[10]</small></a> They may + even before Cabot have visited in an unrecorded fashion the wonderful + banks of Newfoundland—an immense area of shallow sea swarming with + codfish. +</p> +<p> + As soon as the news of the Cabot voyages reached the King of Portugal + he arranged to send an expedition of discovery to the far north-west, + perhaps to find a northern sea route to Eastern Asia. He gave the + command to Gaspar Corte-Real, a Portuguese noble connected through + family property with the Azores. Starting from the Azores in the + summer of 1500, Corte-Real discovered Newfoundland, and called it + "Terra Verde" from its dense woods of fir trees, which are now being + churned into wood pulp to make paper for British books and newspapers. + He then sailed along the coast of Labrador,<a name="1-11"></a><a href="#note-1-11"><small>[11]</small></a> and thence crossed + over to Greenland, the southern half of which he mapped with fair + accuracy. His records of this voyage take particular note of the great + icebergs off the coast of Greenland. His men were surprised to find + that sea water frozen becomes perfectly fresh—all the salt is left + out in the process. So that his two ships could supply themselves + with fresh water of the purest, by hacking ice from the masses + floating in these Greenland summer seas. The next year he started + again, but on a more westerly course. His two ships reached the coasts + of New Jersey and Massachusetts, and sailed north once more to + Labrador. They captured a number of Amerindian aborigines, but only + one of the two ships (with seven of these savages on board) reached + Portugal; Gaspar Corte-Real was never heard of again. His brother + Miguel went out in search of him, but he likewise disappeared without + a trace. +</p> +<p> + Nevertheless these Portuguese expeditions to North America have left + ineffaceable traces in the geography of the Newfoundland coast, of + which (under the name of Terra Nova<a name="1-12"></a><a href="#note-1-12"><small>[12]</small></a>) the governorship was made + hereditary in the Corte-Real family. Cape Race for example—the most + prominent point of the island—is really the Portuguese <i>Cabo + Raso</i>—the bare or "shaved" cape—and this was by the Spaniards + regarded as the westernmost limit of Portuguese sovereignty in that + direction. For the Spaniards were by no means pleased at the intrusion + of other nations into a New World which they desired to monopolize + entirely for the Spanish Crown. They did not so much mind sharing it, + along the line agreed upon in the Treaty of Tordesillas, with the + Portuguese, but the ingress of the English and French infuriated them. + The Basque people of the north-east corner of Spain were a hardy + seafaring folk, especially bold in the pursuit of whales in the Bay of + Biscay, and eager to take a share in the salt-fish trade. This desire + took them in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries to Ireland and + Iceland. They began to fish off the Newfoundland coasts perhaps as + early as 1525. About this time also the Emperor Charles V, King of + Spain, having through one great Portuguese sea captain—Magalhães + (Magellan)—discovered the passage from Atlantic to Pacific across + the extremity of South America, thought by employing another + Portuguese—Estevão Gomez—to find a similar sea route through North + America, which would prove a short cut from Europe to China. This was + the famous "North-west Passage" the search for which drew so many + great and brave adventurers into the Arctic sea of America between + 1500 and 1853, to be revealed at last by our fellow countrymen, but to + prove useless to navigation on account of the enormous accumulation of + ice. +</p> +<p> + Gomez left Corunna in the winter of 1524-5, and reached the + North-American coast somewhere about Florida. He probably only began + to investigate closely after he passed into the broad gulf of Maine, + between Cape Cod and Nova Scotia. Here he sighted from the sea the + lofty mountains of New Hampshire, and steered for the mouth of the + Penobscot River (which he named the River of Deer), a title which + sticks to the locality—in Deer Island—at the present day. But this + being no opening of a broad strait, he passed on into the Bay of Fundy + (from Portuguese word, <i>Fundo</i>, the bottom of a sack or passage), + explored its two terminal gulfs, then returned along the coast of Nova + Scotia,<a name="1-13"></a><a href="#note-1-13"><small>[13]</small></a> past Cape Sable, and so to the "gut" or Canal of Canso. + Gomez realized that Cape Breton was an island (we now know that it is + two islands separated by a narrow watercourse), but thought that Cabot + Strait was a great bay, and guessed nothing of the Gulf of St. + Lawrence, and the chance of securing for Spain the possession of this + mighty waterway into the heart of North America. +</p> +<p> + From Cape North he crossed over to the south coast of Newfoundland, + and followed this more or less till he came to Cape Race. Newfoundland + was a "very cold and savage land", and Gomez decided it was no use + prosecuting any farther his enquiry as to a water passage across North + America, because, if it existed, it must lie in latitudes of frozen + sea and be unnavigable. +</p> +<p> + At different places along the east coast of North America he kidnapped + natives, and eventually returned to Spain (via Florida and Cuba) with + a cargo of Amerindian slaves. +</p> +<p> + He had been preceded, by seven or eight months, in his explorations + along the same coast by GIOVANNI DA VERRAZANO, a native of Florence, + who as a navigator and explorer had visited the East, and had + associated himself a good deal with the shipowners of Dieppe. Ever + since the issue of Cabot's voyages was known—at any rate from + 1504—ships from Brittany and Normandy had made their way to Cape + Breton Island and Newfoundland for the cod fisheries. In 1508 a Norman + named Aubert was sent out by Jean Ango—a great merchant of Dieppe of + that day—to found a colony in Newfoundland. Aubert failed to do this, + but he captured and brought away at least seven of the natives, no + doubt of the Beothik tribe, from Newfoundland to Rouen, with their + canoe, clothing, and weapons. A good many ships also went out from La + Rochelle on the west coast of France, and took part in the fishing off + the coast of Newfoundland: together with the ships of Brittany and + Dieppe there may have been a French fishing fleet of seventy to eighty + ships plying every summer season between France, Newfoundland, and + Cape Breton. So that when "John from Verrazano" offered his services + to Francis I to make discoveries across the ocean, which should become + possessions of the French Crown, he was quickly provided with the + requisite funds and ships. +</p> +<p> + Verrazano started on the 17th of January, 1524, for the coast of + North America, but I shall say little about his expedition here, + because it resulted chiefly in the discovery and mapping of what is + now the east coast of the United States. He reached as far as the + south coast of Newfoundland, it is true; he also gave the names of + Nova Gallia and Francesca to the coast regions of eastern North + America, and distinctly intended to take possession of these on behalf + of the French Crown. But his work in this direction did not lead + directly to the creation of the French colony of Canada, because, when + he returned from America, Francis I was at war with Spain, and could + pay no attention to Verrazano's projects. His voyage is worth + recording in the present volume only for these two reasons: he + certainly put it into the minds of French people that they might found + an empire in North America; and he inspired geographers for another + hundred years with the false idea that the great North American + Continent had a very narrow waist, like the Isthmus of Panama, and + that the Pacific Ocean covered the greater part of what is now called + the United States. This mistake arose from his looking across the + narrow belts or peninsulas of sand in North Carolina and Virginia, and + seeing vast stretches of open water to the west. These were found, a + hundred years afterwards, to be merely large shallow lagoons of sea + water, but Verrazano thought they were an extension of the Pacific + Ocean. +</p> +<p> + Nevertheless, Verrazano's voyage developed into the French + colonization of Canada, just as Cabot drew the British to + Newfoundland, Columbus the Spaniards to Central and South America, and + Amerigo Vespucci showed the Portuguese the way to Brazil. The modern + nations of western Europe owe the inception of their great colonies in + America to four Italians. +</p> + +<hr class="short"> + +<a name="note-1-1"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#1-1"><u>1</u></a> This is a convenient name for the race formerly called + "American Indian". They are not Indians (i.e. natives of India), and + they are not the only Americans, since there are now about 110,000,000 + white Americans of European origin and 24,000,000 negroes and + negroids. The total approximate "Amerindian" or aboriginal population + of the New World at the present day is 16,000,000, of whom about + 111,000 live in the Canadian Dominion, and 300,000 in the United + States, the remainder in Central and South America. +</p> +<a name="note-1-2"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#1-2"> +<u>2</u></a> It is doubtful whether actual masts and sails were known + in America till the coming of Europeans, though the ancient Peruvians + are said to have used mat sails in their canoes. But the northern + Amerindians had got as far as placing bushes or branches of fir trees + upright in their canoes to catch the force of the wind. +</p> +<a name="note-1-3"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#1-3"><u>3</u></a> The grapes and vines so often alluded to by the early + explorers of North America ripened, according to the species, between + August and October. They belong to the same genus—<i>Vitis</i>—as that of + the grape vines of the Old World, but they were quite distinct in + species. Nowadays they are known as the Fox Grapes (<i>Vitis vulpina</i>), + the Frost Grape (<i>V. cordifolia</i>), the <i>V. aestivalis</i>, the <i>V. + labruska</i>, &c. The fruit of the Fox Grape is dark purple, with a very + dusky skin and a musky flavour. The Frost Grape has a very small + berry, which is black or leaden-blue when covered with bloom. It is + very acid to the taste, but from all these grapes it is easy to make a + delicious, refreshing drink. Champlain, however, says that the wild + grapes were often quite large in size, and his men found them + delicious to eat. +</p> +<a name="note-1-4"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#1-4"><u>4</u></a> Perhaps from the Eastern Eskimo national name <i>Karalit</i>. +</p> +<a name="note-1-5"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#1-5"><u>5</u></a> Antonio Zeno served as pilot to Earl Sinclair of the + Faeroe Islands and of Roslyn, a Norman-Scottish nobleman who owed + joint fealty to the kings of Norway and Scotland. Sinclair was so + impressed with the stories of a "Newland" beyond Greenland that he + sailed to find it about 1390, but only reached Greenland. +</p> +<a name="note-1-6"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#1-6"><u>6</u></a> Cape Breton was not then, or for nearly two hundred years + afterwards, known to be an island. It was thought to be part of the + "island" (peninsula) of what we now call Nova Scotia, and the whole of + this region which advances so prominently into the Atlantic was + believed to be at first the great unknown "New Island" of Irish and + English legends—legends based on the Norse discoveries of the + eleventh century. Cape Breton was thus named by the Breton seaman who + came thither soon after the Cabot expeditions to fish for cod. This + large island is separated from Nova Scotia by the Gut of Canso, a + strait no broader than a river. +</p> +<a name="note-1-7"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#1-7"><u>7</u></a> Dr. S.E. DAWSON (<i>The St. Lawrence Basin</i>) says of this + voyage: "When the forest wilderness of Cape Breton listened to the + voices of Cabot's little company (of Bristol mariners) it was the + first faint whisper of the mighty flood of English speech which was + destined to overflow the continent to the shores of another + ocean...." +</p> +<a name="note-1-8"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#1-8"><u>8</u></a> Almost certainly this was <i>Conurus carolinensis</i>, a green + and orange parrakeet still found in the south-eastern States of North + America, but formerly met with as far north as New York and Boston. +</p> +<a name="note-1-9"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#1-9"><u>9</u></a> The name <i>America</i> probably appears for the first time in + English print in the old play or masque the <i>Four Elements</i>, which was + published about 1518. In a review of the geography of the Earth, as + known at that period, a description is given of this vast New World + across the Ocean: "But these new landys found lately, been called + America, because only Americus did find them first". Americus was a + Florentine bank clerk—Amerigo Vespucci—at Seville who gave up the + counting-house for adventure, sailed with a Spanish captain to the + West Indies and the mainland of Venezuela (off which he notes that he + met an English sailing vessel, and this as early as 1499!), and then + joined the first exploring voyage of the Portuguese to Brazil. He + returned to Europe, and in a letter to a fellow countryman at Paris, + written in the late autumn of 1502, he claimed to have discovered a + New World across the Ocean. His clear statement about what was really + the South American Continent aroused so much enthusiasm in civilized + Europe that five years afterwards the New World was called after him + by a German printer (Walzmüller) at the little Alsatian University of + St. Dié. By 1518 the English writers and mariners were probably aware + that the discoveries of Cabot, Columbus, and the Portuguese indicated + the extension of "America" from the Arctic to the Antarctic, but not + till about 1553 did the scholars and adventurers of England show + themselves fully alive to the gigantic importance of this New World. + Between 1530 and 1553 their attention was distracted from geography + and over-sea adventure by the religious troubles of the Reformation. +</p> +<a name="note-1-10"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#1-10"><u>10</u></a> <i>Bacalhao</i> in Portuguese (and a similar word in Spanish, + old French, and Italian) means dried, salted fish. It comes from a + Latin word meaning "a small stick", because the fish were split open + and held up flat to dry by means of a cross or framework of small + sticks, the Norse name "stokfiske" meant the same: stockfish or + stickfish. +</p> +<a name="note-1-11"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#1-11"><u>11</u></a> <i>Labrador</i> (<i>Lavrador</i> in Portuguese) means a labourer, + a serf. The Portuguese are supposed to have brought some Red Indians + from this coast to be sold as slaves. +</p> +<a name="note-1-12"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#1-12"><u>12</u></a> Corte-Real's name of Terra Verde ("Greenland") was soon + dropped in favour of the older English name "New Land" (Newfoundland, + Terra Nova). This was at once adopted by the French seamen as "Terre + Neuve". +</p> +<a name="note-1-13"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#1-13"><u>13</u></a> The name Nova Scotia was not applied to this peninsula + until 1621, by the British Government. It was at first included with + New Brunswick under the Spanish name of Norumbega, and after 1603 was + called by the French "Acadie". +<p class="return">[<a href="#contents">TABLE OF CONTENTS</a>] +</p> +<hr class="short"> +<a name="2HCH0002"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> + +<h2> + CHAPTER II +</h2> +<h3> + Jacques Cartier +</h3> +<p> + Verrazano and Gomez, and probably the English captain, John Rut, had + all sought for the opening of a strait of salt water—like Magellan's + Straits in the far south—which should lead them through the great + North-American continent to the regions of China and Japan. Yet in + some incomprehensible way they overlooked the two broad passages to + the north and south of Newfoundland—the Straits of Belle Isle and of + Cabot—which would at any rate lead them into the vast Gulf of St. + Lawrence, and thence to the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes; a + natural system of waterways connected each with the other and all with + the Mississippi and Missouri, the Arctic Ocean, and Hudson's Bay; nay, + more, with the North Pacific also; so that with a few "portages", or + carryings of canoes from one watershed to another, a traveller of any + enterprise, accompanied by a sturdy crew, can cross the broad + continent of North America at its broadest from sea to sea without + much walking. +</p> +<p> + Estevão Gomez noticed Cabot Straits between Cape Breton and + Newfoundland, but thought them only a very deep bay. John Rut and + others discerned the Straits of Belle Isle as a wide recess in the + coast rather than the mouth of a channel leading far inland. And yet, + after thirty years of Breton, English, and Portuguese fishing + operations in these waters, there must have been glimmerings of the + existence of the great Gulf of St. Lawrence behind Newfoundland: and + JACQUES CARTIER (or Quartier), who had probably made already one + voyage to Newfoundland (besides a visit to Brazil), suspected that + between Newfoundland and Labrador there lay the opening of the great + sea passage "leading to China". He proposed himself to Philippe de + Chabot, the Admiral of France, as the leader of a new French adventure + to find the North-west Passage, was accepted by King Francis, and at + the age of forty-three years set out, with two ships, from St. Malo in + Brittany, on April 20, 1534, ten years after Verrazano's voyage, and + reached the coast of Newfoundland after a voyage of only twenty days. + As he sailed northwards, past the deeply indented fiords and bays of + eastern Newfoundland (the shores of which were still hugged by the + winter ice), he and his men were much impressed with the incredible + numbers of the sea fowl settled for nesting purposes on the rocky + islands, especially on Funk Island.<a name="2-1"></a><a href="#note-2-1"><small>[1]</small></a> These birds were guillemots, + puffins, great auks,<a name="2-2"></a><a href="#note-2-2"><small>[2]</small></a> gannets (called by Cartier <i>margaulx</i>), and + probably gulls and eider duck. To his sailors—always hungry and + partly fed on salted provisions, as seamen were down to a few years + ago—this inexhaustible supply of fresh food was a source of great + enjoyment. They were indifferent, no doubt, to the fishy flavour of + the auks and the guillemots, and only noticed that they were + splendidly fat. Moreover, the birds attracted Polar bears "as large as + cows and as white as swans". The bears would swim off from the shore + to the islands (unless they could reach them by crossing the ice), and + the sailors occasionally killed the bears and ate their flesh, which + they compared in excellence and taste to veal. +</p> +<p> + Passing through the Straits of Belle Isle, Cartier's ships entered + the Gulf of St. Lawrence. They had previously visited the adjoining + coast of Labrador, and there had encountered their first "natives", + members of some Algonkin tribe from Canada, who had come north for + seal fishing (Cartier is clever enough to notice and describe their + birch-bark canoes). After examining the west coast of Newfoundland, + Cartier's ships sailed on past the Magdalen Islands (stopping every + now and then off some islet to collect supplies of sea birds, for the + rocky ground was covered with them as thickly as a meadow with + grass).<a name="2-3"></a><a href="#note-2-3"><small>[3]</small></a> He reached the north coast of Prince Edward Island, and + this lovely country received from him an enthusiastic description. The + pine trees, the junipers, yews, elms, poplars, ash, and willows, the + beeches and the maples, made the forest not only full of delicious and + stimulating odours, but lovely in its varied tints of green. In the + natural meadows and forest clearings there were red and white + currants, gooseberries, strawberries, raspberries, a vetch which + produced edible peas, and a grass with a grain like rye. The forest + abounded in pigeons, and the climate was pleasant and warm. +</p> +<p> + Later on he coasted New Brunswick, and paused for a time over Chaleur + Bay, hoping it might be the opening to the strait across the continent + of which he was in search; but finding it was not, he continued + northwards till he had almost rounded the Gaspé Peninsula, a course + which would have led him straight away into the wonderful discovery of + the St. Lawrence River, but that, being forced by bad weather into + Gaspé Bay, and perhaps hindered by fog, instead of entering the St. + Lawrence he sailed right across to Anticosti Island. After that, + being baffled by bad weather and doubtful as to his resources lasting + out, he decided to return to France through the Strait of Belle Isle. +</p> +<p> + So far he had failed to realize two of the most important things in + the geography of this region: the broad southern entrance into the + Gulf of St. Lawrence (subsequently called Cabot Strait), which + separates Newfoundland on the north from Cape Breton Island on the + south, and the broad entrance into the River St. Lawrence between + Anticosti Island and the Gaspé Peninsula. +</p> +<p> + Yet, whilst staying in Gaspé Bay, he had a very important meeting with + Amerindian natives of the Huron-Iroquois stock, who had come down the + River St. Lawrence from the neighbourhood of Quebec, fishing for + mackerel. These bold, friendly people welcomed the French heartily, + greeting them with songs and dances. But when they saw Cartier erect a + great cross on the land at the entrance to Gaspé Bay (a cross bearing + a shield with the arms of France and the letters "Vive le Roi de + France"), they were ill at ease. It is certain that not one word could + be understood in language between the two parties, for there were as + yet no interpreters; but the Amerindians were probably shrewd enough + to perceive that Cartier was making some claim on the land, and they + explained by signs that they considered all this country belonged to + themselves. Nevertheless, Cartier persuaded two youths, the sons of + one of the chiefs, to go back with him to France on his ship, to learn + the French language, to see what France looked like, and to return + afterwards as interpreters. The boys, though they were practically + kidnapped at first, were soon reconciled to going, especially when + they were dressed in French clothes! +</p> +<a name="image-0002"><!--IMG--></a> +<center> +<img src="images/pc02.jpg" width="268" height="425" +alt="Jacques Cartier"> +</center> +<!--IMAGE END--> +<h5>JACQUES CARTIER</h5> +<p> + When Cartier was on his way home he sailed in a north-easterly + direction in such a way as to overlook the broad channel between the + Gaspé Peninsula and Anticosti Island, but having rounded the + easternmost extremity of that large island, he coasted along its + northern shores until he caught sight of the opening of the Canadian + channel to the west. He believed then that he had discovered the + long-looked-for opening of the trans-continental passage, and sailed + for France with his wonderful news. +</p> +<p> + On the 19th of May, 1535, Cartier started again from St. Malo with + three ships, the biggest of which was only 120 tons, while the others + were respectively 60 and 40 tons capacity. The crew consisted of about + 112 persons, and in addition there were the two Indian youths who had + been kidnapped on the previous voyage, and were now returning as + interpreters. Instead, however, of reaching Newfoundland in twenty + days, he spent five weeks crossing the Atlantic before he reached his + rendezvous with the other ships at Blanc Sablon, on the south coast of + Labrador; for the easy access to the Gulf of St. Lawrence through + Cabot Strait (between Newfoundland and Cape Breton) was not yet + realized. Once past Anticosti Island, the two Huron interpreters began + to recognize the scenery.<a name="2-4"></a><a href="#note-2-4"><small>[4]</small></a> They now explained to Cartier that he had + entered the estuary of a vast river. This they said he had only to + pursue in ships and boats and he would reach "Canada" (which was the + name they gave to the district round about Quebec), and that beyond + "Canada" no man had ever been known to reach the end of this great + water; but, they added, it was fresh water, not salt, and this last + piece of information much disheartened Cartier, who feared that he had + not, after all, discovered the water route across North America to the + Pacific Ocean. He therefore turned about and once more searched the + opposite coast of Labrador most minutely, displaying, as he did so, a + seamanship which was little else than marvellous, for it is a very + dangerous coast, the seas are very stormy, and the look-out often + hampered by a sudden rising of dense fog; there are islands and rocks + (some of them almost hidden by the water) and sandbanks; but Cartier + made this survey of southern Labrador without an accident. +</p> +<p> + At this period, some three hundred and seventy-five years ago, the + northern coasts of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and of Anticosti Island + swarmed with huge walruses, which were described by Cartier as sea + horses that spent the night on land and the day in the water. They + have long since been exterminated by the English and French seamen and + settlers. +</p> +<p> + At last Cartier set sail for the south-west, intending to explore this + wonderful river and to reach the kingdom of Canada. According to his + understanding of the Amerindian interpreters, the waters of the St. + Lawrence flowed through three great states: <i>Saguenay</i>, which was the + mountainous Gaspé Peninsula and the opposite coast; <i>Canada</i>, Quebec + and its neighbourhood; and <i>Hochelaga</i>, the region between Montreal + and Lake Ontario. At the mouth of the Saguenay River, where Tadoussac + is now situated, he encountered large numbers of white whales—the + Beluga. These are really huge porpoises, allied to the narwhals, but + without the narwhal's exaggerated tusk. When he reached the vicinity + of the modern Quebec,<a name="2-5"></a><a href="#note-2-5"><small>[5]</small></a> and his Amerindian interpreters found + themselves at their actual home (for they were far away from home on a + fishing expedition when he caught them in Gaspé Bay) there was great + rejoicing; for they were able to tell their relations of the wonderful + country to which they had been across the ocean. Cartier was delighted + with the surroundings of "Canada" (Quebec), near which at that time + was a large settlement (Stadacona) of Huron Indians under a chief + named Donnacona. He decided to lay up his ships here for the winter, + and to pursue the rest of his western explorations in his boats. +</p> +<p> + But the Amerindians for some reason were not willing that he should go + any farther, and attempted to scare him from his projects by arranging + for three of their number to come down river in a canoe, dressed in + dogs' skins, with their faces blackened, and with bisons' horns + fastened to their heads. These devils pretended to take no notice of + the French, but to die suddenly as they reached the shore, while the + rest of the natives gave vent to howlings of despair and + consternation. The three devils were pretending to have brought a + message from a god to these Hurons of "Canada" that the country up + river (Hochelaga) was so full of ice and snow that it would be death + for anyone to go there. +</p> +<p> + However, this made little or no impression on Cartier; but he consented + to leave a proportion of his party behind with the chief Donnacona as + hostages, and then started up country in his boats with about seventy + picked officers and men. On the 2nd of October, 1535, they reached the + vicinity of the modern Montreal, the chief settlement of Hochelaga. + The Huron town at the foot of the hills was circular in outline, + surrounded by a stockade of three rows of upright tree trunks, which + rose to its highest point in the middle, where the timbers of the + inner and outward sides sloped to meet one another, the height of the + central row being about 8 feet above the ground. All round the inside + there was a platform or rampart on which were stored heavy stones to + be hurled at any enemy who should attempt to scale the fence. The town + was entered by only one doorway, and contained about fifty houses + surrounding an open space whereon the towns-people made their + bonfires. Each house was about 50 feet long by 12 to 15 feet wide. + They were roofed with bark, and usually had attics which were + storerooms for food. In the centre of each of these long houses there + was a fireplace where the cooking for the whole of the house + inhabitants was done. Each family had its own room, but each house + probably contained five families. Almost the only furniture, except + cooking pots, was mats on which the people sat and slept. The food of + the people consisted, besides fish and the flesh of beavers and deer, + of maize and beans. Cartier at once recognized the maize or Indian + corn as the same grain ("a large millet") as that which he had seen in + Brazil. +</p> +<p> + He gives a description of how they made the maize into bread (or + rather "dampers", "ashcakes"); but as this is not altogether clear, it + is better to combine it with Champlain's description, written a good + many years later, but still at a time when the Hurons were unaffected + by the white man's civilization. According to both Cartier and + Champlain, the women pounded the corn to meal in a wooden mortar, and + removed the bran by means of fans made of the bark of trees. From this + meal they made bread, sometimes mixing with the meal the beans + (<i>Phaseolus vulgaris</i>), which had been boiled and mashed. Or they + would boil both Indian corn and beans into a thick soup, adding to the + soup blueberries,<a name="2-6"></a><a href="#note-2-6"><small>[6]</small></a> dried raspberries, or pieces of deer's fat. The + meal derived from the corn and beans they would make into bread, + baking it in the ashes. +</p> +<p> + Or they would take the pounded Indian corn without removing the bran, + and put two or three handfuls of it into an earthen pot full of water, + stirring it from time to time, when it boiled, so that it might not + adhere to the pot. To this was added a small quantity of fish, fresh + or dry, according to the season, to give a flavour to the <i>migane</i> or + porridge. When the dried fish was used the porridge smelt very badly + in the nostrils of Europeans, but worst of all when the porridge was + mixed with dried venison, which was sometimes nearly putrid! If fish + was put into this porridge it was boiled whole in the mealy water, + then taken out without any attempt to remove the fins, scales, or + entrails, and the whole of the boiled fish was pounded up and put back + into the porridge. Sometimes a great birch-bark "kettle" would be + filled with water, fish, and meat, and red-hot stones be dropped in + till it boiled. Then with a spoon they would collect from the surface + the fat and oil arising from the fish or meat. This they afterwards + mixed with the meal of roasted Indian corn, stirring it with this fat + till they had made a thick soup. Sometimes, however, they were content + to eat the young corn-cobs freshly roasted, which as a matter of fact + (with a little salt) is one of the most delicious things in the world. + Or they would take ears of Indian corn and bury them in wet mud, + leaving them thus for two or three months; then the cobs would be + removed and the rotted grain eaten with meat and fish, though it was + all muddy and smelt horribly. Cartier also noticed that these Huron + Indians had melons and pumpkins, and described their wampum or shell + money.<a name="2-7"></a><a href="#note-2-7"><small>[7]</small></a> +</p> +<p> + From the eminence on which the Huron city stood, Cartier obtained a + splendid view of rivers and mountains and magnificent forests, and + called the place then and there, in his Norman French, Mont Real, or + Royal Eminence, a name which it will probably bear for all time, + though the actual city of Montreal lies a few miles below. +</p> +<p> + Montreal was the limit of Cartier's explorations on this journey. He + returned thence to "Canada" or Stadacona, where his men built a fort + armed with artillery, and where his ships were anchored. Here he had + to stay from the middle of November, 1535, to the middle of April, + 1536, his ships being shut in by the ice. The experiences of the + French during these five months were mostly unhappy. At first Cartier + gave himself up to the collecting of information. He noticed for the + first time the smoking of tobacco,<a name="2-8"></a><a href="#note-2-8"><small>[8]</small></a> and collected information about + the products and features of "Canada". The Indians told him of great + lakes in the far west, one of which was so vast that no man had seen + the end of it. They told him that anyone travelling up the Richelieu + River (as it was called sixty years later) would eventually reach a + land in the south where in the winter there was no ice or snow, and + where fruit and nut trees grew in abundance. Cartier thought that they + were talking to him of Florida, but their geographical information can + scarcely have stretched so far; they probably referred to the milder + regions of New Jersey and Virginia, which would be reached by + following southwards the valley of the Hudson and keeping to the + lowlands of the eastern United States. +</p> +<p> + As the winter set in with its customary Canadian severity the real + trouble of the French began. They did not suffer from the cold, but + they were dying of scurvy. This disease, from which the natives also + suffered to some extent, was due to their eating nothing but salt or + smoked provisions—forms of meat or fish. They lived, of course, shut + up in the fort, and Cartier's fixed idea was to keep the Hurons from + the knowledge of his misfortune, fearing lest, if they realized how + the garrison was reduced, they might treacherously attack and massacre + the rest; for in spite of the extravagant joy with which their arrival + had been greeted, the Amerindians—notably the two interpreters who + had been to France and returned—showed at intervals signs of disquiet + and a longing to be rid of these mysterious white men, whose coming + might involve the country in unknown misfortunes. In January and + February, also, Donnacona and these two interpreters and many of the + Huron men had been absent hunting in the forests, so that there was no + one among the Amerindians to whom the French could turn for + information regarding this strange disease. At last 25 out of the 112 + who had left France were dead, and of the remainder only 10 men, + including Cartier, were not grievously ill. Those who were living + found it sometimes beyond their strength to bury the dead in the + frozen ground, and simply placed their bodies in deep snow. Once or + twice, when Cartier left the fort to go out to the ships, he met + Domagaya, one of the two interpreters, and found that he also was + suffering from this mysterious disease, though not nearly so badly as + the French people. On the body of one young man who died of scurvy + Cartier and his officers, shuddering, made investigations, opening the + corpse and examining the organs to try and find the cause of death. + This was on the afternoon of a day on which they had held a solemn + service before a statue erected to the Virgin Mary on the shore + opposite to the ships. All who were fit to walk went in procession + from the fort to the statue, singing penitential psalms and the Litany + and celebrating Mass. +</p> +<p> + Some days after this religious service Cartier met the interpreter, + Domagaya, and to his surprise found him perfectly well and strong. He + asked him for an explanation, and was told that the medicine which + cured this disease was made from the leaves and bark of a tree called + ameda.<a name="2-9"></a><a href="#note-2-9"><small>[9]</small></a> Cartier then ventured to say that one of his servants was + sick of this unknown disease, and Domagaya sent for two women, who + taught the French people how to make an extract from the balsam fir + for drinking, and how to apply the same liquid to the inflamed skin. + The effect on the crews was miraculous. In six days all the sick were + well and strong. +</p> +<p> + Then came the sudden spring. Between April 15th and May 1st the ice on + the river was all melted, and on the 6th May, 1536, Cartier started + from the vicinity of Quebec to return to France. But before leaving he + had managed to kidnap Donnacona, the chief of the Huron settlement, + and six or seven other Amerindians, amongst them Tainyoanyi, one of + the two interpreters who had already been to France. He seized these + men, it appears, partly because he wanted hostages and had good reason + to fear that the Indians meditated a treacherous attack on his ships + before they could get away. He also wished for native witnesses at + Court, when he reached France, to testify to the truth of his + discoveries, and even more to convince the King of France that there + was great profit to be obtained from giving effect to Cartier's + explorations. The chief, Donnacona, was full of wonderful stories of + the Saguenay region, and of the great lakes to the northwards of + Quebec. Probably he was only alluding to the wealth of copper now + known to exist in northern Canada, but to Cartier and the other + Frenchmen it seemed as though he spoke of gold and silver, rubies, and + other precious stones. +</p> +<p> + Donnacona's people howled and wept when their chief was seized; but + Cartier obliged the chief to reassure them, and to say that the French + had promised to bring him back after he had paid a visit to their + great king, who would return him to his country with great presents. + As a matter of fact, not one of these Indians rapt away by Cartier + ever saw Canada again. But this was not the fault of Cartier, but of + the distractions of the times which turned away the thoughts of King + Francis I from American adventures. The Indians were well and kindly + treated in France, but all of them died there before Cartier left St. + Malo to return to Canada in 1541. +</p> +<p> + One advantage he derived from sailing away with these hostages was (no + doubt) that they could give him geographical information of importance + which materially shortened the return journey. For the first time he + made use of the broad strait between Anticosti Island and Gaspé + Peninsula, and, better still, entered the Atlantic, not by the + dangerous northern route through the straits of Belle Isle, but by + means of Cabot Strait, between Newfoundland and Cape Breton Island. Of + these discoveries he availed himself on his third and last voyage in + 1541. +</p> +<p> + When in that year he once more anchored his ships near Quebec he found + the attitude of the Hurons changed. They enquired about their friends + and relations who had been carried off five years before, and although + they pretended to be reconciled to their fate when they heard (not + altogether truly) that one or two were dead, and the others had become + great lords in France and had married French women, they really felt a + disappointment so bitter and a hostility so great that Cartier guessed + their expressions of welcome to be false. However, he sent back to + France two of the ships under his command and beached the other three, + landed his stores, built two forts at Cap Rouge, above and below, and + then started off with a few of his men and two boats to revisit the + country of Hochelaga. Here he intended to examine the three rapids or + "saults"—interruptions to the navigation of the St. Lawrence—which + he had observed on his previous journey, and which were later named + the La Chine Rapids (in the belief that they were obstacles on the + river route to China). But these falls proved insuperable obstacles to + his boats, and he gave up any further idea of westward exploration, + returned to his forts and ships near Quebec, and there laid the + foundations of a fortified town, which he called Charlesbourg Royal. + Here he spent a very difficult winter, the Hurons in the neighbourhood + becoming increasingly hostile, and at last, when the spring came, as + he had received no relief from France, he took to his three ships, + abandoned Charlesbourg Royal (having probably to do some fighting + before he could get safely away) and thence sailed for France. Off the + Avalon Peninsula of Newfoundland he met the other ships of the + expedition which was to have occupied Canada for France. These were + under the command of the Sieur de Roberval, a French nobleman, who had + really been made head of the whole enterprise, with Cartier as a + subordinate officer, but who, the year before, had allowed Cartier to + go off to Canada and prepare the way, promising to follow immediately. + The interview between Cartier and Roberval, near where the capital of + Newfoundland (St. John's) now stands, was a stormy one. Roberval + ordered Cartier to return at once to Charlesbourg and await his + arrival. However, in the middle of the night which followed this + interview, Cartier took advantage of a favourable wind and set sail + for France, arriving soon afterwards at St. Malo. +</p> +<p> + But Roberval arrived at Charlesbourg (going the roundabout way through + the straits of Belle Isle, for Cartier had told him nothing of the + convenient passage through Cabot Strait), and there spent the winter + of 1542-3, sending his ships back to France. This winter was one of + horrors. Roberval was a headstrong, passionate man, perfectly reckless + of human life. He maintained discipline by ferocious sentences, + putting many of his men in irons, whipping others cruelly, women as + well as men, and shooting those who seemed the most rebellious. Even + the Indians were moved to pity, and wept at the sight of the woes of + these unhappy French men and women under the control of a bloodthirsty + tyrant, and many of them dying of scurvy, or miserably weak from that + disease.<a name="2-10"></a><a href="#note-2-10"><small>[10]</small></a> +</p> +<p> + However, when the weather was warm again, in June, 1543, Roberval + started up the St. Lawrence River in boats to reach the wonderful + country of Saguenay. Apparently he met with little success, and, being + relieved by French ships in the late summer of 1543, he returned to + France. +</p> +<p> + Thus the splendid work achieved by Cartier seemed to have come to + nothing, for neither he nor Roberval revisited America. The French + settlement near Quebec was abandoned, so far as the officers of the + French king were concerned, and between 1545 and about 1583, if any + other Frenchman or European visited Canada it was some private + adventurer who traded with the natives in furs, or Basques from France + and Spain who frequented the waters of the Gulf of St. Lawrence on + account of the abundance of whales, walruses, and seals. In fact, at + the close of the sixteenth century, the Spanish Basques had + established themselves on shore at Tadoussac and other places, and + seemed likely to colonize the country. +</p> + +<hr class="short"> + +<a name="note-2-1"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#2-1"><u>1</u></a> Funk Island—called by Cartier "the Island of Birds"—is + only about 3 miles round, and 46 feet above the sea level. It is 3 + miles distant from the coast. +</p> +<a name="note-2-2"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#2-2"><u>2</u></a> The Great Auk (<i>Alca impennis</i>), extinct since about 1844 + in Europe and 1870 in Labrador, once had in ancient times a + geographical range from Massachusetts and Newfoundland to Iceland, + Ireland, Scotland, N.E. England, and Denmark. Perhaps nowhere was it + found so abundantly as on the coasts of Eastern Newfoundland and on + Funk Island hard by. The Great Auk was in such numbers on the + north-east coast of Newfoundland that the Amerindians of that country + and of southern Labrador used it as fuel in the winter time, its body + being very full of oil and burning with a splendid flame. The French + seamen called it <i>pingouin</i> ("penguin") from its fatness, and this + name was much later transferred to the real penguins of the southern + seas which are quite unrelated to the auks. +</p> +<a name="note-2-3"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#2-3"><u>3</u></a> On the shores of these islands they noticed "several + great beasts like oxen, which have two tusks in the mouth similar to + those of the elephant". These were walruses. +</p> +<a name="note-2-4"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#2-4"><u>4</u></a> Anticosti Island received from Cartier the name of "the + Island of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin", in consequence of his + having discovered it to be an island on the feast day of that name. It + did not receive its present title until the late seventeenth century. +</p> +<a name="note-2-5"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#2-5"><u>5</u></a> Then called "Canada". The word Quebec (pronounced + <i>Kebek</i>) means the narrow part of a river. +</p> +<a name="note-2-6"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#2-6"><u>6</u></a> The Canada Blueberry (<i>Vaccinium canadense</i>), called by + the French <i>bluës</i> or <i>bluëts</i>. These bluës were collected and dried + by the Amerindians, and made a sweet nutriment for eating in the + winter. +</p> +<a name="note-2-7"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#2-7"><u>7</u></a> Cartier, in Hakluyt's translation, is made to say (I + modernize the spelling): "They dig their grounds with certain pieces + of wood as big as half a sword, on which ground groweth their corn, + which they call 'offici'; it is as big as our small peason.... They + have also great store of musk melons, pompions, gourds, cucumbers, + peas, and beans of every colour, yet differing from ours."<br><br> + + Wampum, or shell money (which recalls the shell money of the Pacific + Islands), consisted either of beads made from the interior parts of + sea shells or land shells, or of strings of perforated sea shells. The + most elaborate kind of wampum was that of the Amerindians of Canada + and the eastern United States, the shell beads of which were generally + white. The commoner wampum beads were black and violet. Wampum belts + were made which illustrated events, dates, treaties of peace, &c, by a + rude symbolism (figures of men and animals, upright lines, &c), and + these were worked neatly on string by employing different-coloured + beads. +</p> +<a name="note-2-8"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#2-8"><u>8</u></a> "There groweth also a certain kind of herb whereof in + summer they make a great provision for all the year, making great + account of it, and only men use it; and first they cause it to be + dried in the sun, then wear it about their necks wrapped in a little + beast's skin made like a bag, together with a hollow piece of stone or + wood like a pipe. Then when they please they make powder of it and put + it in one of the ends of the said cornet or pipe, and laying a coal of + fire upon it at the other end, suck so long that they fill their + bodies full of smoke, till that it cometh out of their mouth and + nostrils, even as out of the tunnel of a chimney. They say that this + doth keep them warm and in health: they never go without some of it + about them. We ourselves have tried the same smoke, and having put it + in our mouths, it seemed almost as hot as pepper." The foregoing is + one of the earliest descriptions of tobacco smoking in any European + language, the original words being in Cartier's Norman French. +</p> +<a name="note-2-9"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#2-9"><u>9</u></a> This tree was the balsam fir, <i>Abies balsamea</i>. +</p> +<a name="note-2-10"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#2-10"><u>10</u></a> A story was subsequently told of Roberval's stern + treatment which had a germ of truth in it, though it has since been + the foundation of many a romance. On the journey out from France it is + said that Roberval took with him his niece Marguerite, a high-born + lady, who was accompanied by an old companion or nurse. Marguerite was + travelling with her uncle because, unknown to him, she had a lover who + had sailed with him on this expedition and whom she hoped to marry. As + they crossed the Atlantic these facts leaked out, and Roberval + resolved to bide his time and punish his niece for her deception. As + they passed the coast of Southern Labrador Marguerite and her old + nurse were seized and put into a boat, Roberval ordering his sailors + to row them ashore to an island, and leave them to their fate. They + were given four guns with ammunition and a small supply of provisions. + But, as the boat was leaving the ship, Marguerite's lover threw + himself into the sea and swam to the island. Here, according to the + story which Marguerite is supposed to have told afterwards, they + endeavoured to live by killing the wild animals and eating their + flesh; but her lover-husband died, so also did her child soon after it + was born, and then the old nurse, and the unhappy Marguerite was left + alone with the wild beasts, especially the white Polar bears, who + thronged round her hut. Nevertheless she kept them at bay with her + arquebus, and managed somehow to support an existence, until after + nineteen months' isolation the ascending smoke of her fire was seen by + people on one of the many fishing vessels which, by this time, + frequented the coasts of Newfoundland. She was taken off the island + and restored to her home in France. The island to which this tradition + more especially relates is now called Grand Meccatina. +</p> +<p class="return">[<a href="#contents">TABLE OF CONTENTS</a>] +</p> + +<hr class="short"> +<a name="2HCH0003"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> + +<h2> + CHAPTER III +</h2> +<h3> + Elizabethan Pioneers in North America +</h3> +<p> + Except that the ships of Bristol still no doubt continued to resort to + the banks of Newfoundland for fishing, and that even the captains of + these ships were occasionally elected admirals of the French, Basque, + Portuguese, and English fishing fleets during the summer, the English, + as a nation, took no part in claiming political dominion over North + America after the voyage of Captain John Rut in 1527. This was the + fault of Sebastian Cabot, the son of the man who founded British + America, and who had returned to England long afterwards as the Grand + Pilot appointed by Edward VI to further the discovery of a northern + sea passage to China. Through him the attention of adventurers for a + time was diverted from America to the "discovery" of Russia (as it has + been called). The efforts of Sebastion Cabot were directed towards the + revelation of a north-east passage by way of Arctic Russia to the + Pacific, rather than past Newfoundland and Labrador and across Arctic + America. +</p> +<p> + But as soon as Elizabeth came to the throne the sea adventurers of + Britain, freed from any subservience to Spanish wishes, developed + maritime intercourse between England, Morocco, and West Africa on the + one hand, and Tropical and North America on the other. Once more the + discovery of the North-west Passage across America to China came into + favour. MARTIN FROBISHER<a name="3-1"></a><a href="#note-3-1"><small>[1]</small></a> offered himself as a discoverer, and the + Earl of Warwick found the means which provided him with two small + sailing vessels of 25 and 20 tons each, besides a pinnace of 10 + tons.<a name="3-2"></a><a href="#note-3-2"><small>[2]</small></a> Queen Elizabeth confined herself, in the way of + encouragement, to waving her lily hand from her palace of Greenwich as + these three little boats dropped down the Thames on the 8th of June, + 1576. She also sent them "an honourable message", which no doubt + reached them at Tilbury. +</p> +<p> + But the pinnace was soon swallowed up in the high seas; the seamen in + the vessel of 20 tons lost heart and turned their ship homewards. + Frobisher alone, in his 25-ton bark, sailed on and on across the + stormy Atlantic, past the south end of Greenland, and over the great + gulf that separates Greenland from Labrador. He missed the entrance to + Hudson's Bay, but reached a great "island" which he named Meta + Incognita<a name="3-3"></a><a href="#note-3-3"><small>[3]</small></a>. Here he gathered up stones and, as he believed, + minerals, besides capturing at least one Eskimo, and then returned. +</p> +<p> + One of his stones was declared by the refiners of London to contain + gold. There was at once—as we should say in modern slang—a boom for + these Arctic regions. Queen Elizabeth took part in it, and on the 27th + of May, 1577, a considerable fleet, under the command of Frobisher, + sailed past the Orkneys for the south end of Greenland. It did not + reach as far as Meta Incognita, but it brought back large heaps of + earth and pieces of rock, probably from northern Labrador, which + almost certainly contained mica schist, and were therefore believed + to be full of gold. The following year 1578, Frobisher started on his + third American voyage with a fleet of fifteen vessels, mainly financed + by Queen Elizabeth, and manned to a great extent by the sons of the + aristocracy, besides a hundred persons who were going out as + colonists. For this region of ice and snow which was believed to be a + mass of gold-bearing rocks! But the result was one of bitter + disappointment. The captains were bewildered by the immense icebergs, + "so vast that, as they melted, torrents poured from them in sparkling + waterfalls". One iceberg toppled over on to a ship and crushed it, + though most of the sailors were picked up in the sea and saved. In the + thick mists the greater part of the fleet blundered into Hudson's + Straits, yet did not realize that they had found a passage into the + heart of Canada. At last, disgusted with this land of bare rocks, ice, + and snow, they filled up the ships with cargoes of stones supposed to + contain gold, and straggled back to England. No gold was extracted, + however, from these cargoes, and much discouragement ensued. +</p> +<p> + SIR HUMPHREY GILBERT, one of the brilliant figures of Elizabeth's + reign—scholar, poet, courageous adventurer, and man of + chivalry—stimulated by the discoveries of Frobisher, obtained a + patent or charter in 1578, and, after several unsuccessful attempts, + led an expedition of small sailing ships to Newfoundland, where he + entered St. John's Bay, and in the presence of the Basque, Portuguese, + and Breton fishermen took formal possession of the country for Queen + Elizabeth, raising a pillar on which the arms of England were engraved + as a token. He then proceeded to grant lands to the fishermen to + reassure them, and loaded his ships with rocks brought from the + interior mountains and supposed to contain minerals. But in his + further explorations of the southern coast of Newfoundland one of the + ships was lost and nearly a hundred men intended as colonists were + drowned. +</p> +<p> + Gilbert then determined to return to England in his small frigate of + 10 tons named the <i>Squirrel</i>. He was accompanied by a larger vessel, + the <i>Golden Hinde</i>, but refused to leave the men on the <i>Squirrel</i> to + their fate. Consequently, between the Azores and the north coast of + Spain, when the <i>Squirrel</i> was overwhelmed by the heavy seas, Sir + Humphrey Gilbert perished together with all on board. +</p> +<p> + In spite, however, of the disappointing results of Gilbert's attempt + to found a colony in Newfoundland, the importance of the cod fishery + and the ivory tusks and oil of the walruses drew ever more and more + ships from Bristol and Devonshire to the coasts of that great island + and to the Gulf of St. Lawrence beyond. In 1592 the English + adventurers got as far west as Anticosti Island (in a ship from + Bristol), and in 1597 there is the first record of English ships (from + London—the <i>Hopewell</i> and the <i>Chancewell</i>) sailing up the St. + Lawrence River, perhaps as far west as Quebec. +</p> +<p> + In 1602, stimulated by Sir Walter Raleigh,<a name="3-4"></a><a href="#note-3-4"><small>[4]</small></a> Bartholomew Gosnold + sailed direct to the coast of North America south of the Newfoundland + latitudes, and anchored his bark off the coast of Massachusetts on the + 26th of March, 1602. Failing to find a good harbour here, he stood out + for the south and definitely discovered and named Cape Cod, not far + from the modern city of Boston. From Cape Cod he made his way to the + Elizabeth Islands in Buzzard's Bay, and here he built a storehouse and + fort, and may be said to have laid the foundations of the future + colony of New England. He brought back with him a cargo of sassafras + root, which was then much esteemed as a valuable medicine and a remedy + for almost all diseases. +</p> +<p> + Subsequent expeditions of English ships explored and mapped the coast + of Maine, and took on board Amerindians for exhibition in England. + Their adventures, together with those of the colonists farther south, + led to the creation of chartered companies, and to the great British + colonies of New England, New York, Virginia, the Carolinas, and + Georgia, which were to become in time the United States of America—a + vast field of adventure which we cannot follow farther in this book. +</p> +<p> + As regards Newfoundland, James I, in 1610, granted a patent to a + Bristol merchant for the foundation there of a colony, and although + this attempt, and another under Sir George Calvert (Lord Baltimore) in + 1616, came almost to nothing through the attacks of the French and the + dislike of the crews of the fishing vessels to permanent settlers who + might interfere with the fishing industry, the English colonization of + Newfoundland to some extent caught hold, so that in 1650 there were + about two thousand colonists of English descent along the east and + south-east coasts of the island. But settlement was prohibited within + six miles of the shore, to please the fishermen, and this regulation + checked for more than two hundred years the colonization of + Newfoundland. +</p> +<p> + Nova Scotia as a British colony also came into being as another result + of these adventurous British expeditions to North America in the reign + of James I. Under the name of Acadie this region had been declared to + be a portion of New France by De Monts and Champlain in 1604-14. But + the English colonists in 1614 drove the French out of the peninsula of + Nova Scotia on the plea that it was a part of the discoveries made by + the Cabots on behalf of the British Crown. In 1621 James I gave a + grant of all this territory to Sir William Alexander under the name of + Nova Scotia, and both Charles I and Cromwell encouraged settlement in + this beautiful region. When Charles II ceded it to France in 1667 the + English and Scottish colonists who were residing there, and the + English settlers of New England, refused to recognize the effects of + the Treaty of Bréda, and so harassed the French in the years which + followed that in 1713 Nova Scotia was, together with Newfoundland, + recognized as belonging to Great Britain. The French colonists were + allowed to remain, but during the course of the eighteenth century + they combined with the Amerindians (who liked the French and disliked + the British) and made the position of the British colonists so + precarious that they were finally expelled and obliged to transfer + themselves to Louisiana and Canada. This was the departure of the + Acadians so touchingly described by Longfellow. +</p> +<p> + The British had become tenacious of their rights over the east coast + of Newfoundland, because from the middle of the seventeenth century + onwards they were becoming increasingly interested in the whale + fisheries and the fur trade of the lands bordering on Hudson's Bay, + and would not tolerate any blocking of the sea route thither by the + French. +</p> +<p> + In the explorations of Arctic America, Frobisher's expeditions had + been succeeded by those of JOHN DAVIS, who in the course of three + voyages, beginning in June, 1585, passed the entrance of Hudson's + Straits and reached a point as far north as 72° 41', a lofty granite + island, which he named Sanderson's Hope. He saw beyond him a great + sea, free, large, very salt, and blue, unobstructed by ice and of an + unsearchable depth, and believed that he had completely discovered the + eastern entrance of the North-West Passage. +</p> +<a name="image-0003"><!--IMG--></a> +<center> +<img src="images/pc03.jpg" width="283" height="450" +alt="Icebergs and Polar Bears"> +</center> +<!--IMAGE END--> +<h5>ICEBERGS AND POLAR BEARS</h5> +<p> + HENRY HUDSON, the great English navigator, who had made two voyages + (1607-8) for the English-Moscovy Company to discover a north-east + passage to India, past Siberia, commanded a third experiment in 1609 + at the expense of the Dutch East India Company. He was to discover the + North-West Passage. For this purpose he entered the river now named + the Hudson, but soon found it was only a river; though he returned to + Holland with such an encouraging account of the surrounding country + that the Dutch a little later on, founded on the banks of the Hudson + River their colony of New Amsterdam (afterwards the State of New + York). In 1610 Hudson accepted a British commission to sail beyond + where Davis and Frobisher had passed, and once more seek for the + north-west passage to China. Instead he found the way into Hudson's + Bay. Here his men, alarmed at the idea of being lost in these regions + of ice and snow, mutinied against him, placed him and those who were + faithful to him in a boat, and cast them off, themselves returning to + England with the news of his discovery. Hudson was never heard of + again, and, strange to say, the mutineers apparently received no + punishment. +</p> +<p> + Between 1602 and 1668, English adventurers from London and Bristol, + notable amongst whom were WILLIAM BAFFIN, LUKE FOX, and CAPTAIN JAMES, + mapped the coasts of Hudson's Bay and Baffin's Bay and brought to the + notice of merchants in England the abundance of whales in these Arctic + waters, and of fur-bearing beasts and fur-trading Indians in the + region of Hudson's Bay. +</p> +<p> + This last point was most forcibly presented to Charles II and his + Government by a disappointed French Canadian, Pierre Esprit Radisson, + whose adventures will later on be described. Radisson, conceiving + himself to be badly treated by the French Governor of Canada, crossed + over to England with his brother-in-law, Chouart, and the two were + warmly taken up by Prince Rupert of Bavaria, the cousin of Charles II. + They were sent out by Prince Rupert in command of an expedition + financed by him and a number of London merchants, and in 1669 the New + England captain, Gillam, returned to England with Chouart and the + first cargo of furs from Hudson's Bay. This cargo so completely met + the expectations of those who had promoted the venture that it led in + 1670 to the foundation of the Governor and Company of Adventurers of + England trading into Hudson's Bay, a company chartered by Charles II + and presided over by Prince Rupert, and an association which proved to + be the germ of British North America, of the vast three-quarters of + the present Dominion of Canada. +</p> +<hr class="short"> +<a name="note-3-1"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#3-1"><u>1</u></a> The name was also spelt Furbusher, and in other ways. He + became Sir Martin Frobisher over the wars of the Armada, and died Lord + High Admiral of England in 1592. +</p> +<a name="note-3-2"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#3-2"><u>2</u></a> It may be of interest to set forth the kind of rations + shipped in those Elizabethan times for the food of the sailors. + According to Frobisher's accounts these consisted of salted beef, salt + pork, salt fish, biscuit, meal for making bread, dried peas, oatmeal, + rice, cheese, butter, beer, and wine, with brandy for emergencies. As + regards beer, the men were to have a ration of 1 gallon a day each. + Altogether it may be said that these rations were superior in + variety—and no doubt in quality—to the food given to seamen in the + British merchant marine in the nineteenth century. +</p> +<a name="note-3-3"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#3-3"><u>3</u></a> We now know Meta Incognita to be the southernmost + peninsula of the vast Baffin Island. +</p> +<a name="note-3-4"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#3-4"><u>4</u></a> In 1584, Sir Walter Raleigh, the half-brother of Sir + Humphrey Gilbert, financed an expedition to sail to the coast of North + America in a more southerly direction. In this way was founded the + (afterwards abandoned) colony of Roanoke, in North Carolina. It was to + this region that Queen Elizabeth applied the title of Virginia, which + some years afterwards was transferred to the first English colony on + the James River. +</p> +<p class="return">[<a href="#contents">TABLE OF CONTENTS</a>] +</p> +<hr class="short"> +<a name="2HCH0004"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> + +<h2> + CHAPTER IV +</h2> +<h3> + Champlain and the Foundation of Canada +</h3> +<p> + From the first voyage of Cartier onwards, Canada was called + intermittently New France, and its possibilities were not lost sight + of by a few intelligent Frenchmen on account of the fur trade. Amongst + these was Amyard de Chastes, at one time Governor of Dieppe, who got + into correspondence with the adventurers who had settled as fur + traders at Tadoussac, prominent amongst whom was Du Pont-Gravé. De + Chastes dispatched with Pont-Gravé a young man whose acquaintance he + had just made, SAMUEL CHAMPLAIN.<a name="4-1"></a><a href="#note-4-1"><small>[1]</small></a> This was the man who, more than + any other, created French Canada. +</p> +<p> + Champlain had had already a most adventurous life. He was born about + 1567, at Brouage, in the Saintonge, opposite to the Island of Héron, + on the coast of western France. From his earliest years he had a + passion for the sea, but he also served as a soldier for six years. + His father had been a sea captain, and his uncle as an experienced + navigator was commissioned by the King of Spain to transport by sea to + that country the remainder of the Spanish soldiers who had been + serving in Brittany. The uncle took his nephew with him. Young + Champlain when in Spain managed to ingratiate himself so much with the + Spanish authorities that he was actually commissioned as a captain to + take a king's ship out to the West Indies. No sooner did he reach + Spanish America than he availed himself of the first chance to + explore it. For two years he travelled over Cuba, and above all + Mexico. He visited the narrowest part of Central America and conceived + the possibility of making a trans-oceanic canal across the Panama + isthmus. +</p> +<p> + When he got back to France he placed before Henry IV a report on + Spanish Central America, together with a project for making a canal at + Panama. Henry IV was so pleased with his work and enterprise that he + gave him a pension and the title of Geographer to the King. Shortly + afterwards he met Governor de Chastes at Dieppe, and was by him sent + out to Canada. The ship which carried Champlain, PONT-GRAVÉ,<a name="4-2"></a><a href="#note-4-2"><small>[2]</small></a> the + SIEUR DE MONTS,<a name="4-3"></a><a href="#note-4-3"><small>[3]</small></a> and other French adventurers (together with two + Amerindian interpreters whom Pont-Gravé had brought from Canada to + learn French) arrived at Tadoussac on May 24, 1603. +</p> +<p> + Champlain lost no time in commencing his explorations. Tadoussac was + at the mouth of an important river, called by the French the Saguenay, + a name which they also applied to the mysterious and wonderful country + through which it flowed in the far north; a country rich in copper and + possibly other precious metals. Champlain ascended the Saguenay River + for sixty miles as far as the rapids of Chicoutima. The Amerindians + whom he met here told him of Lake St. John, lying at a short distance + to the west, and that beyond this lake and the many streams which + entered it there lay a region of uplands strewn with other lakes and + pools; and farther away still began the sloping of the land to the + north till the traveller sighted a great arm of the salt sea, and + found himself amongst tribes (probably the Eskimo) who ate raw flesh, + and to the Indians appeared absolute savages.<a name="4-4"></a><a href="#note-4-4"><small>[4]</small></a> This was probably + the first allusion, recorded by a European, to the existence of + Hudson's Bay, that huge inlet of the sea, which is one of the leading + features in the geography of British North America. +</p> +<p> + The Montagnais Indians round about Tadoussac received Champlain with + great protestations of friendship, and at the headquarters of their + principal chief or "Sagamore" celebrated this new friendship and + alliance with a feast in a very large hut. The banquet, as usual, was + preceded by a long address from the Sagamore in answer to the + description of France, given by one of the Indian interpreters. The + address was accompanied by the solemn smoking of tobacco, and at every + pause in this grave oration the natives present shouted with one + voice: "Ho! ho! ho!" The repast consisted of elk's meat (which struck + the Frenchmen as being like beef), also the flesh of bear, seal, + beaver, and wild fowl. There were eight or ten stone boilers or + cauldrons full of meats in the middle of the great hut, separated each + six feet from each other, and each one having its own fire. Every + native used a porringer or vessel made of birch bark. When the meat + was cooked a man in authority distributed it to each person. But + Champlain thought the Indians ate in a very filthy manner. When their + hands were covered with fat or grease they would rub them on their own + heads or on the hair of their dogs. Before the meat was cooked each + guest arose, took a dog, and hopped round the boilers from one end of + the great hut to the other. Arriving in front of the chief, the + Montagnais Indian feaster would throw his dog violently to the ground, + exclaiming: "Ho! ho! ho!" after which he returned to his place. +</p> +<p> + At the close of the banquet every one danced, with the skulls of + their Iroquois enemies slung over their backs. As they danced they + slapped their knees with their hands, and shouted: "Ho! ho! ho!" till + they were out of breath. +</p> +<p> + The huts of these Indians were low and made like tents, being covered + with the bark of the birch tree. An opening about a foot of the top + was left uncovered to admit light and to allow the smoke to escape. + Though low, the huts were sometimes quite large, and would accommodate + ten families. These slept higgledy-piggledy on skins, with their dogs + amongst them. The dogs in appearance were something like what we know + as Eskimo dogs, and also rather resembled the Chinese chow, with broad + heads and rather short muzzles, prick ears, and a tail inclined to + curl over the back. "All these people have a very cheerful + disposition, laughing often, yet at the same time they are somewhat + phlegmatic. They talk very deliberately, as if desiring to make + themselves well understood, and, stopping suddenly, they reflect for a + long time, when they resume their discourse." +</p> +<p> + They were agile, well-proportioned people, who in the summertime went + about nearly naked, but in the winter were covered with good furs of + elk, otter, beaver, bear, seal, and deer. The colour of their skin was + usually a pale olive, but the women for some reason made themselves + much darker-skinned than the men by rubbing their bodies with pigments + which turned them to a dark brown. At times they suffered very much + from lack of food, being obliged then to frequent the shore of the + river or gulf to obtain shellfish. When pressed very hard by famine + they would eat their dogs (their only domestic animal) and even the + leather of the skins with which they clothed themselves. In the autumn + they were much given to fishing for eels, and they dried a good deal + of eel flesh, to last them through the winter. During the height of + the winter they hunted the beaver, and later on the elk. Though they + ate wild roots and fruits whenever they could obtain them, they do + not seem to have cultivated any grain or vegetables. In the early + spring they were sometimes dying of hunger, and looked so thin and + haggard that they were mere walking skeletons. They were then ready to + eat carrion that was putrid, so that it is little wonder that they + suffered much from scurvy. +</p> +<p> + Yet the rivers and the gulf abounded in fish, and as soon as the + waters were unlocked by the melting of the ice in April, the surviving + Indians rapidly grew fat and well, and of course the late summer and + the autumn brought them nuts (hickory and other kinds of walnut, and + hazel nuts), wild cherries, wild plums, raspberries, strawberries, + gooseberries, blackberries, currants,<a name="4-5"></a><a href="#note-4-5"><small>[5]</small></a> cranberries, and grapes. +</p> +<p> + Champlain observed amongst them for the first time the far-famed + Amerindian snowshoes, which he compares very aptly for shape to a + racquet used in tennis. +</p> +<p> + Champlain next visited the site of Stadacona, but there was no longer + any settlement of Europeans at that place, nor were the native + Amerindians the descendants of the Hurons that had received Jacques + Cartier. For the first time the name Quebec (pronounced Kebek) is + applied to this point where the great River St. Lawrence narrows + before dividing to encircle the Isle of Orleans. In fact, Quebec meant + in the Algonkin speech a place where a river narrows; for a tribe of + the great Algonkin family, <i>the</i> Algonkins, allied to the tribes of + Maine and New Brunswick, had replaced the Hurons as the native + inhabitants of this region. +</p> +<p> + On the shore of Quebec he noticed "diamonds" in some slate rocks—no + doubt quartz crystals. Proceeding on up the River St. Lawrence he + observed the extensive woods of fir and cypress (some kind of <i>Thuja</i> + or <i>Juniper</i>), the undergrowth of vines, "wild pears", hazel nuts, + cherries, red currants and green currants, and "certain little + radishes of the size of a small nut, resembling truffles in taste, + which are very good when roasted or boiled". As they advanced towards + the interior the country became increasingly mountainous on the south + (the green mountains of New Hampshire), and was more and more + beautiful—"the pleasantest land yet seen". Landing on the south bank + of the St. Lawrence, west of the entrance of the river of the Iroquois + (the Richelieu), he found magnificent forests, which, besides the + trees already mentioned, included oaks, chestnuts, maples, pines, + walnut-like nut trees,<a name="4-6"></a><a href="#note-4-6"><small>[6]</small></a> aspens, poplars, and beeches; with climbing + hops and vines, strawberries trailing over the ground, and raspberry + canes and currant bushes "growing in the thick grass". These splendid + woods on the islands and banks of the broad river were full of game: + elks,<a name="4-7"></a><a href="#note-4-7"><small>[7]</small></a> wapiti deer, Virginian deer, bears, porcupines, hares, foxes, + beavers, otters, and musk rats, besides many animals he could not + recognize. +</p> +<p> + At last his little expedition in "a skiff and canoe" had to draw into + the bank, warned by the noise that they were approaching a great fall + of water—the La Chine or St. Louis Rapids. Champlain wrote: "I saw, + to my astonishment, a torrent of water descending with an impetuosity + such as I have never before witnessed.... It descends as if in steps, + and at each descent there is a remarkable boiling, owing to the force + and swiftness with which the water traverses the fall, which is about + a league in length.... The territory on the side of the fall where we + went overland consists, so far as we saw it, of very open wood, where + one can go with his armour without much difficulty." +</p> +<p> + From the Algonkin Indians in the neighbourhood of these St. Louis + Rapids, and also from those living near Quebec, Champlain obtained a + good deal of geographical information to add to his own observations. + He was given an idea, more or less correct, of Lake Ontario, the Falls + of Niagara, Lake Erie and Lake Huron, and perhaps also of Lake + Superior, a sea so vast, said the Amerindians, that the sun set on its + horizon. This sheet of water, Champlain calculated, must be 1200 miles + distant to the west, and therefore identical with the "Mer du sud" + (Pacific Ocean), which all North-American explorers for three + centuries wished to reach. +</p> +<p> + After collecting much information about possible copper mines in the + regions north and south of the Lower St. Lawrence, and of silver<a name="4-8"></a><a href="#note-4-8"><small>[8]</small></a> in + New Brunswick or Nova Scotia, and a terrible story which he more than + half believed about a monster of prodigious size, the <i>Gougou</i>,<a name="4-9"></a><a href="#note-4-9"><small>[9]</small></a> + Champlain set sail for France at the end of August, 1603. +</p> +<p> + In April, 1604, Champlain accompanied the Sieur de Monts (who had + succeeded the dead Amyard de Chastes as head of a chartered + fur-trading association) in a fresh expedition to North America, + together with a hundred and twenty artisans and several noblemen. + They were to occupy the lands of "Cadie" (Acadia, Nova Scotia), + Canada, and other places in New France. De Monts thought Tadoussac and + Quebec too cold in wintertime, and preferred the sunnier east coast + regions. He aimed indeed at colonizing what is now New England. +</p> +<p> + On the way to Nova Scotia, the expedition was nearly wrecked on Sable + Island, about one hundred and twenty miles south of Cape Breton + Island, and noticed there the large red cattle run wild from the bulls + and cows landed on Sable Island by the Portuguese some sixty years + earlier. (The Portuguese of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries + deserved well of humanity for the generous way in which they left + cattle, goats, pigs, and rabbits to run wild on desert islands and + serve as provender for shipwrecked mariners like Robinson Crusoe.) + Champlain also speaks of the "fine large black foxes" which he and + other voyagers noticed on Sable Island. How they came there is a + mystery, unless the island had once been part of the mainland. +</p> +<p> + This same Sable Island had been the scene of an extraordinary + experiment at the end of the previous century. In 1598 the Marquis de + la Roche, given a commission to colonize New France, sailed in a small + ship for North America with sixty convicts from French prisons as + colonists. He landed them on Sable Island, and went away to look for + some good site for his colony. But then a storm arose, and his little + ship was literally blown back to France. The convicts, abandoned thus, + built themselves shelters out of the driftwood of wrecks; killed and + ate the cattle and caught fish. They made themselves warm clothes out + of the skins of the seals which frequented the island coast in + thousands. But these convicts quarrelled and fought among themselves + so fiercely that when at last a ship from Normandy came to take them + away, there were only twelve left—twelve shaggy men with long tangled + hair and beards; and, a legend says, in addition a Franciscan monk + who had been landed on the island with them as a kind of missionary or + chaplain, and who had been so heartbroken at their bloody quarrels and + horrible deeds that when the Norman ship arrived to take the castaways + back to France, the Franciscan refused to go with them, believing + himself to be dying and wishing to end his life undisturbed. So he was + left behind. But after the ship had sailed away he slowly mended, grew + well and strong, and cultivated eagerly his little garden. For food he + ate the whelks, mussels, and oysters that were so abundant on the + shore. Occasionally ships (then as now) were wrecked on Sable Island + in stormy weather, and the good monk ministered to the mariners who + reached the shore. Also he was visited, ever and again, by the Breton + fishing boats, which brought him supplies of necessaries and the bread + and wine for celebrating Mass. Long after his death his spirit was + thought to haunt the desolate island. +</p> +<p> + Champlain and his companions passed on from Sable Island to the + south-east coast of Nova Scotia, noticing as they landed here and + there the abundance of rabbits<a name="4-10"></a><a href="#note-4-10"><small>[10]</small></a> and sea birds, especially the Great + Auk, of which they killed numbers with sticks, cormorants (whose fishy + eggs they ate with enjoyment), puffins, guillemots, gulls, terns, + scissorbills, divers, ospreys, buzzards, and falcons; and no doubt the + typical American white-tailed sea eagles, ravens, ducks, geese, + curlews, herons, and cranes. Here and there they found the shore + "completely covered with sea wolves"—seals, of course, probably the + common seal and the grey seal. Of these they captured as many as they + wanted, for the seals, like most of the birds, were quite unafraid of + man. +</p> +<p> + They then explored the Bay of Fundy, and, after zig-zagging about, + decided to fix on the harbour of St. John's (New Brunswick) as the + site for their colony. The future capital of New France, therefore, + was begun on La Sainte Croix (Dochet) Island, near the mouth of the + wonderful tidal estuary of the Uigudi (Ouygoudy) River. +</p> +<p> + Here they passed the winter, but suffered so badly from scurvy<a name="4-11"></a><a href="#note-4-11"><small>[11]</small></a> + that, when in the spring of 1605 Du Pont Gravé arrived from Brittany + with supplies, the remnant of the colony was removed to the opposite + coast of Nova Scotia to Port Royal (afterwards named by the English + Annapolis<a name="4-12"></a><a href="#note-4-12"><small>[12]</small></a>). The French seem to have fallen in love with this place + from the very first. Nevertheless here they suffered from scurvy + during the winter as elsewhere. Before moving over here, however, + Champlain, together with De Monts, had explored the west of New + England south of New Brunswick as far as Plymouth, just south of + Boston. +</p> +<p> + Off the coast of Maine (Richmond's Island) they encountered + agricultural Amerindians of a new tribe, the Penobskot probably, who + cultivated a form of rank narcotic tobacco (<i>Nicotiana rustica</i>), + which they called <i>Petun</i>. (A variety of this has produced the + handsome garden flower <i>Petunia</i>, whose Latin name is derived from + this native word Petun.) They also grew maize or Indian corn, planting + very carefully three or four seeds in little mounds three feet apart + one from the other, the soil in between being kept clear of weeds. The + American farmers of to-day cannot adopt any better method. +</p> +<p> + The islands round about Portland (Maine) were matted all over with + wild red currants, so that the eye could scarcely discern anything + else. Attracted by this fruit, clouds of wild pigeons had + assembled<a name="4-13"></a><a href="#note-4-13"><small>[13]</small></a>. They manifested hardly any fear of the French, who + captured large numbers of them in snares, or killed them with guns. + The natives of southern Maine fled with dismay on sighting the French + ships, for they had never before seen sailing vessels, but later on + they timidly approached the French ships in a canoe, then landed and + went through a wild dance on the shore to typify friendliness. + Champlain took with him some drawing paper and a pencil or crayon, + together with a quantity of knives and ship's biscuit. Landing alone, + he attracted the natives towards him by offering them biscuits, and + having gathered them round him (being of course as much unable to + understand their speech as they were French), he proceeded to ask + questions by means of certain drawings, chiefly the outlines of the + coast. The savages at once seized his idea, and taking up his pencil + drew on the paper an accurate outline of Massachusetts Bay, adding + also rivers and islands unknown to the French. They went on by further + intelligent signs to supply information. For instance, they placed six + pebbles at equal distances to intimate that Massachusetts Bay was + occupied by six tribes and governed by as many chiefs. By drawings of + growing maize and other plants they intimated that all these people + lived by agriculture. +</p> +<p> + Champlain thought Massachusetts (in his first voyage) a most + attractive region in the summer, what with the blue water of the + enclosed arms of the sea, the lofty forest trees, and the fields of + Indian corn and other crops. +</p> +<p> + When these French explorers reached the harbour of Boston, the islands + and mainland were swarming with the native population. The Amerindians + were intensely interested in the arrival of the first sailing vessel + they had ever seen. Although it was only a small barque, its size was + greater than any canoe known to them. As it seemed to spread huge + white wings and to glide silently through the water without the use of + paddles or oars, it filled them with surprise and admiration. They + manned all their canoes<a name="4-14"></a><a href="#note-4-14"><small>[14]</small></a> and came out in a flotilla to express + their honour and reverence for the wonderful white men. But when the + French took their leave, it was equally obvious that the natives + experienced a sense of relief, for they were disquieted as well as + filled with admiration at the arrival of these wonderful beings from + an unknown world. +</p> +<p> + Champlain describes the wigwams or native huts as being cone-shaped, + heavily thatched with reeds, with an opening at the top of the roof + for the smoke to escape. Inside the huts was a low bed raised a foot + from the ground and made of short posts driven into the ground, with a + surface made of boards split from trees. On these boards were laid + either the dressed skins of deer or bear, or thick mattresses made of + reeds or rushes. The beds were large enough for several people to lie + on. Champlain describes the huts as being full of fleas, and likewise + the persons of the nearly naked Indians, who carried these fleas out + with them into the fields when they were working, so that the + Frenchmen by stopping to talk to the natives became covered with + fleas to such an extent that they were obliged to change their + clothes. +</p> +<p> + In the fields were cultivated not only maize, but beans similar to the + beans grown by the natives of Brazil, vegetable marrows or pumpkins, + Jerusalem artichokes<a name="4-15"></a><a href="#note-4-15"><small>[15]</small></a>, radishes, and tobacco. The woods were filled + with oaks, walnut trees<a name="4-16"></a><a href="#note-4-16"><small>[16]</small></a>, and the red "cedar" of North America, + really a very large juniper, the foliage of which in the summertime + often assumes a reddish colour, together with the trunk. This + Virginian juniper or "red cedar" is now quite a common tree in + England. In warm weather it exhales a delicious aromatic scent. +</p> +<p> + All these natives of the Massachusetts coast were described by + Champlain as being almost naked in the summertime, wearing at most a + small piece of leather round the waist, and a short robe of spun hemp + which hung down over the shoulders. Their faces were painted red, + black and yellow. The men pulled out any hairs which might come on the + chin, and thus were beardless. They were armed with pikes, clubs, + bows, and arrows. The pikes were probably made of wood with the ends + hardened by being burnt to a point in the fire, and the arrow tips + were made of the sharp termination of the tail of the great + king-crab<a name="4-17"></a><a href="#note-4-17"><small>[17]</small></a>. +</p> +<p> + These Massachusetts "Indians" described to Champlain a wonderful bird + which at some seasons of the year they caught in snares and ate. This + Champlain at once guessed was the wild turkey, now, of course, quite + extinct in that region. This wild turkey of the eastern half of North + America (including southern Canada) was quite a distinct form from the + Mexican bird, which last is the origin of our domestic turkey. +</p> +<p> + In July, 1606, as De Monts had not returned from France, and the + little colony at Port Royal was without supplies, they decided to + leave two Frenchmen in charge of the local chief of the Mikmak + Indians, and find their way along the coast to Cape Breton, where they + might get a fishing vessel to take them back to France. But after + travelling in an open boat—a chaloupe—round the coast of Nova Scotia + they met another small boat off Cape Sable, under the charge of the + secretary of De Monts, and learnt that Lieutenant-General DE + POUTRINCOURT<a name="4-18"></a><a href="#note-4-18"><small>[18]</small></a> (one of the great names amongst the pioneers of + Canada, and the man who had really chosen Port Royal for the French + headquarters at Nova Scotia) had already returned from France with + fresh supplies. Consequently, Champlain and his companions returned to + Port Royal, and all set to work with eagerness to develop the + settlement. Champlain relates in his book how he created vegetable + gardens, trout streams and ponds, and a reservoir of salt water for + sea fish; but he was soon off again on a fresh journey of exploration, + because De Monts was not satisfied with Nova Scotia on account of the + cold in winter. Accordingly Champlain examined the whole coast round + the Bay of Fundy, and down to Cape Cod, and the islands of Martha's + Vineyard and Nantucket. But in this region, already visited in past + times by French, Spanish, and English ships, they found the natives + treacherous and hostile. An unprovoked attack was made on the French + after they landed, and several of the seamen were killed with arrows. +</p> +<p> + On the 24th of May, 1607, a small barque of six or seven tons burden + (fancy crossing the wide Atlantic from Brittany to Nova Scotia in a + ship of that size at the present day!) arrived outside Port Royal from + France, with an abrupt notification that De Monts' ten years' monopoly + and charter were <i>cancelled</i> by Henry IV, and that all the colony was + to be withdrawn and brought back to France. Henry IV took this action + simply because De Monts attempted to make his monopoly a real one,<a name="4-19"></a><a href="#note-4-19"><small>[19]</small></a> + and stop the ships of fur traders who were trading with the + Amerindians of Cape Breton without his licence. These fur traders of + Normandy then complained bitterly that because De Monts was a + Protestant he was allowed not only to have this monopoly, but to + endanger the spiritual welfare of the savages by spreading his false + doctrines! So King Henry IV, volatile and capricious, like most of the + French kings, cancelled a charter which had led to such heroic and + remarkable results. +</p> +<p> + The greater part of the little colony had to leave Port Royal and make + its way in small boats along the Nova Scotia coasts till they reached + Cape Breton Island. Here fishing vessels conveyed them back to + Brittany. It was in this boat journeying along the coast of Nova + Scotia that Champlain discovered Halifax Harbour, then called by the + Indian name of Shebuktu. As they passed along this coast with its many + islands, they feasted on ripe raspberries, which grew everywhere "in + the greatest possible quantity". +</p> +<p> + Poutrincourt, however, had succeeded in taking back with him samples + of the corn, wheat, rye, barley, and oats which had been so + successfully grown on the island of Sainte Croix and at Port Royal, + and also presented to that monarch five brent-geese<a name="4-20"></a><a href="#note-4-20"><small>[20]</small></a> which he had + reared up from eggs hatched under a hen. The king was so delighted at + these presents that he once more veered about and gave to De Monts the + monopoly of the fur trade for one more year, in order to enable him to + renew his colonies in New France. +</p> +<p> + The Sieur de Monts was again appointed by Henry IV Lieutenant-General + in New France. The latter engaged Champlain as his lieutenant, and + also sent out Du Pont Gravé in command of the second vessel, as head + of the trading operations. This time, on the advice of Champlain, the + expedition made its way directly to the St. Lawrence River, stopping + first at Tadoussac, where Du Pont Gravé proceeded to take very strong + measures with the Basque seamen, who were infringing his monopoly by + trading with the natives in furs. Apparently they were still allowed + to continue their whale fishery. +</p> +<p> + Once more Champlain heard from the Montagnais Indians of the great + Salt Sea to the north of Saguenay, in other words, the southern + extension of Hudson's Bay; and in his book he notes that the English + in these latter years "had gone thither to find their way to China". + However, he kept his intent fixed on the establishment of a French + colony along the St. Lawrence, and may be said to have founded the + city of Quebec (the site of which was then covered with nut trees) on + the 4th of July, 1608. Then his enterprise was near being wrecked by a + base conspiracy got up between a surgeon and a number of French + artisans, who believed that by seizing and killing Champlain, and then + handing over the infant settlement to the Spanish <a name="p69"></a>Basques, they might + enable these traders and fishermen with their good strong ships to + overcome Du Pont Gravé, and seize the whole country. Naturally (they + believed) the Basques would reward the conspirators, who would thus at + a stroke become rich men. They none of them wished to go to France, + but would live here independent of outside interference. A + conspirator, however, revealed the plot to Champlain as he was + planting one of the little gardens which he started as soon as he had + been in a place a few days. He went about his business very + discreetly, arrested all the leading conspirators, gave them a fair + trial, had the ringleader executed by Pont Gravé, and sent three + others back to France. After this he settled down at Quebec for the + winter, taking care, however, in the month of October, to plant seeds + and vines for coming up in the spring. +</p> +<p> + In the summer of 1609 Champlain, apparently with the idea of thus + exploring the country south of the St. Lawrence, decided to accompany + a party of Algonkins and Hurons from Georgian Bay and the + neighbourhood of Montreal, who were bent on attacking the Iroquois + confederacy in the Mohawk country at the headwaters of the Hudson + River. He was accompanied by two French soldiers—Des Marais and La + Routte—and by a few Montagnais Indians from Tadoussac. +</p> +<p> + The Hurons<a name="4-21"></a><a href="#note-4-21"><small>[21]</small></a> were really of the same group (as regards language and + descent) as the Iroquois (Irokwá), but in those days held aloof from + the five other tribes who had formed a confederacy<a name="4-22"></a><a href="#note-4-22"><small>[22]</small></a> and alliance + under the name of <i>Ongwehonwe</i>—"Superior Men". The Iroquois + (Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Kayugas, and Senekas) dominated much of + what is now New York State, and from the mountain country of the + Adirondaks and Catskills descended on the St. Lawrence valley and the + shores of Lakes Ontario and Huron to rob and massacre. +</p> +<p> + The route into the enemy's country lay along the Richelieu River and + across Lake Champlain to its southern end, in sight of the majestic + snow-crowned Adirondak Mountains. On the way the allies stopped at an + island, held a kind of review, and explained their tactics to + Champlain. They set no sentries and kept no strict watch at night, + being too tired; but during the daytime the army advanced as follows: + The main body marched in the centre along the warpath; a portion of + the troops diverged on either side to hunt up food for the expedition; + and a third section was told off for "intelligence" work, namely, they + ran on ahead and roundabout to locate the enemy, looking out + especially along the rivers for marks or signals showing whether + friends or enemies had passed that way. These marks were devised by + the chiefs of the different tribes, and were duly communicated to the + war leaders of tribes in friendship or alliance, like our cipher + codes; and equally they were changed from time to time to baffle the + enemy. Neither hunters nor main body ever got in front of the advance + guard, lest they should give an alarm. Thus they travelled until they + got within two days or so of the enemies' headquarters; thenceforward + they only marched by night, and hid in the woods by day, making no + fires or noise, and subsisting only on cooked maize meal. +</p> +<p> + At intervals the soothsayers accompanying the army were consulted for + signs and omens; and when the war-chiefs decided on their plan of + campaign they summoned all the fighting men to a smooth place in a + wood, cut sticks a foot long (as many as there were warriors), and + each leader of a division "put the sticks in such order as seemed to + him best, indicating to his followers the rank and order they were to + observe in battle. The warriors watched carefully this proceeding, + observing attentively the outline which their chief had made with the + sticks. Then they would go away and set to placing themselves in such + order as the sticks were in. This manoeuvre they repeated several + times, and at all their encampments, without needing a sergeant to + maintain them in the proper order they were able to keep accurately + the positions assigned to them" (Champlain). +</p> +<p> + The Hurons who were accompanying Champlain frequently questioned him + as to his dreams, they themselves having a great belief in the value + of dreams as omens and indications of future events. One day, when + they were approaching the country of the Iroquois, Champlain actually + did have a dream. In this he imagined that he saw the Iroquois enemies + drowning in a lake near a mountain. Moved to pity in his dream he + wished to help them, but his savage allies insisted that they must be + allowed to die. When he awoke he told the Amerindians of his dream, + and they were greatly impressed, as they regarded it as a good omen. +</p> +<p> + Near the modern town of Ticonderoga the Hurons and Algonkins of + Georgian Bay and Ottawa met a party of Iroquois, probably of the + Mohawk tribe. The Iroquois had built rapidly a stockade in which to + retreat if things should go badly with them, but the battle at first + began in the old heroic style with as much ceremony as a French duel. + First the allies from the St. Lawrence asked the Iroquois what time it + would suit them to begin fighting the next day; then the latter + replied: "When the sun is well up, if you don't mind? We can see + better then to kill you all." Accordingly in the bright morning the + Hurons and Algonkins advanced against the circular stockade of the + Iroquois, and the Iroquois marched out to fight in great pomp, their + leaders wearing plumed headdresses. With this exception both parties + fought quite naked, and armed only with bows and arrows. +</p> +<p> + "I marched twenty paces in advance of the rest" (wrote Champlain) + "till I was within about thirty paces of the Iroquois.... I rested my + musket against my cheek, and aimed directly at one of the three + chiefs. With the same shot two fell to the ground, and one of their + men was so wounded that he died some time afterwards. I had loaded my + musket with four balls. When they saw I had shot so favourably for + them, they (the Algonkins and Hurons) raised such loud cries that one + could not have heard it thunder. +</p> +<p> + "Meantime the arrows flew on both sides. The Iroquois were greatly + astonished that two men had been so quickly killed, though they were + equipped with armour woven from copper thread and with wood, which was + proof against their arrows." +</p> +<p> + Whilst Champlain was loading to fire again one of his two companions + fired a shot from the woods, whereupon the Iroquois took to flight, + abandoning their camp and fort. As they fled they threw off their + armour of wooden boards and cotton cloth. +</p> +<p> + As to the way in which the Hurons tortured their Iroquois prisoners, + Champlain writes of one instance. +</p> +<p> + "They commanded him (the prisoner) to sing, if he had courage, which + he did, but it was a very sad song." The Hurons kindled a fire, and + when it was well alight they each took a brand from the blaze, the end + of which was red-hot, and with this burnt the bodies of their + prisoners tied to stakes. Every now and then they stopped and threw + water over them to restore them from fainting. Then they tore out + their finger nails and applied fire to the extremities of the fingers. + After that they tore the scalps off their heads, and poured over the + raw and bleeding flesh a kind of hot gum. Then they pierced the arms + of the prisoners near the wrists, and drew up their sinews with sticks + inserted underneath, trying to tear them out by force, and, if + failing, cutting them. One poor wretch "uttered such terrible cries + that it excited my pity to see him treated in this manner, yet at + other times he showed such firmness that one would have said he + suffered scarcely any pain at all". +</p> +<p> + In this case Champlain, seeing that the man could not recover from his + injuries, drew apart and shot him dead, "thus putting an end to all + the tortures he would have suffered". +</p> +<p> + But the savage Hurons were not yet satisfied. They opened the corpse + and threw its entrails into the lake. Then they cut off head, arms, + and legs, and cut out the heart; this they minced up, and endeavoured + to force the other prisoners to eat it. +</p> +<p> + With those of his allies who were Montagnais Indians from Tadoussac, + Champlain returned to that place. As they neared the shore the + Montagnais women undressed themselves, jumped into the river, and swam + to the prows of the canoes, from which they took the heads of the + slain Iroquois. These they hung about their necks as if they had been + some costly chain, singing and dancing meanwhile. +</p> +<p> + However, in spite of these and other horrors, Champlain had "separated + from his Upper Canadian allies with loud protestations of mutual + friendship", promising to go again into their country and assist them + with continued "fraternal" relations. +</p> +<p> + From this expedition Champlain learned much regarding the geography of + eastern North America, and he brought back with him to France, to + present to King Henry IV, two scarlet tanagers—one of the commonest + and most beautiful birds of the eastern United States—a girdle of + porcupine quills made from the Canadian <a name="p74"></a>porcupine, and the head of a + gar-pike caught in Lake Champlain.<a name="4-23"></a><a href="#note-4-23"><small>[23]</small></a> +</p> +<p> + On Champlain's return from France in 1610 (he and other Frenchmen and + Englishmen of the time made surprisingly little fuss about crossing + the North Atlantic in small sailing vessels, in spite of the storms of + spring and autumn) he found the Iroquois question still agitating the + minds of the Algonkins, Montagnais, and Hurons. Representatives of + these tribes were ready to meet this great captain of the <i>Mistigosh</i> + or <i>Matigosh</i><a name="4-24"></a><a href="#note-4-24"><small>[24]</small></a> (as they called the French), and implored him to + keep his promise to take part in another attack on the dreaded enemy + of the Adirondak heights. Apparently the Iroquois (Mohawks) this time + had advanced to meet the attack, and were ensconced in a round + fortress of logs built near the Richelieu River.<a name="4-25"></a><a href="#note-4-25"><small>[25]</small></a> The Algonkins and + their allies on this expedition were armed with clubs, swords, and + shields, as well as bows and arrows. The swords of copper(?) were + really knife blades attached to long sticks like billhooks. Before the + barricade, as usual, both parties commenced the fight by hurling + insults at each other till they were out of breath, and shouting "till + one could not have heard it thunder". The circular log barricade, + however, would never have been taken by the Algonkins and their + allies but for the assistance of Champlain and three or four + Frenchmen, who with their musketry fire at short range paralysed the + Iroquois. Champlain and one other Frenchman were wounded with arrows + in the neck and arm, but not seriously. The victory of the allies was + followed by the usual torture of prisoners, which Champlain made a + slight—only slight—attempt to prevent. +</p> +<p> + But results far more serious arose from these two skirmishes with the + Iroquois in 1609 and 1610. The Confederacy of the Five Nations + (afterwards six) realized that they had been attacked unprovoked by + the dominant white men of the St. Lawrence, called by the Montagnais + <i>Mistigosh</i>, and by the Iroquois <i>Adoresetūi</i> ("men of iron", from + their armour). They became the bitter enemies of the French, and + tendered help first to the Dutch to establish themselves in the valley + of the Hudson, and secondly to the English. In the great Colonial wars + of the early eighteenth century the Iroquois were invaluable allies to + the British forces, Colonial and Imperial, and counted for much in the + struggle which eventually cost France Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, + Maine, the two Canadas, and Louisiana. On the other hand, the French + alliance with the Hurons, Algonkins, and Montagnais, begun by this + brotherhood-in-arms with Champlain, secured for France and the French + such widespread liking among the tribes of Algonkin speech, and their + allies and friends, that the two Canadas and much of the Middle West, + together with Michigan, Wisconsin, and Illinois, became French in + sympathy without any war of conquest. When the French dominion over + North America fell, in 1759, with the capture of Quebec by Wolfe's + army, tribes of Amerindians went on fighting for five years afterwards + to uphold the banner and the rule of the beloved French king. +</p> +<p> + On Champlain's next visit to Canada, in 1610, he handed over to the + Algonkin Indians a French youth named Étienne Brulé (see p. <a href="#p88">88</a>), to + be taught the Algonkin language (the use of which was spread far and + wide over north-east America), and, further, sent a Huron youth to + France to be taught French. Between 1611 and 1616 he had explored much + of the country between Montreal (the foundations of which city he may + be said to have laid on May 29, 1611, for his stockaded camp is now in + the centre of it) and Lakes Huron and Ontario, especially along the + Ottawa River, that convenient short cut (as a water route) between the + St. Lawrence at Sault St. Louis (Montreal) and Lakes Huron and + Superior. With short portages you can get in canoes from Montreal to + the waters of Hudson Bay, or to Lake Winnipeg and the base of the + Rocky Mountains. +</p> +<p> + In exploring this "River of the Algonkins" (as he called it), + Champlain was nearly drowned between two rocks, and much hurt, from + over bravery and want of knowledge of how to deal with a canoe on + troubled water; but on June 4, 1613, he stood on the site of the + modern city of Ottawa—the capital of the vast Canadian Dominion—and + gazed at the marvellous Rideau or Curtain Fall, where the Rideau River + enters the Ottawa. But the air was resonant with the sound of falling + water. Three miles above the falls of the Gatineau and the Rideau, the + main Ottawa River descended with a roar and a whirl of white foam and + rainbow-tinted mist into the chasm called the Chaudière or Kettle. On + a later occasion he describes the way in which the Algonkins + propitiated the Spirit of the Chasm: +</p> +<p> + "Continuing our way, we came to the Chaudière Falls, where the savages + carried out their customary ceremony. After transporting their canoes + to the foot of the fall they assemble in one spot, where one of them + takes up a collection on a wooden platter, into which each person puts + a bit of tobacco. The collection having been made, the plate is placed + in the midst of the troop, and all dance about it, singing after + their style. Then one of the captains makes an harangue, setting forth + that for a long time they have been accustomed to make this offering, + by which means they are ensured protection against their enemies, that + otherwise misfortune would befall them from the evil spirit. This + done, the maker of the harangue takes the plate and throws the tobacco + into the midst of the cauldron (the chasm of foaming water), whereupon + they all together raise a loud cry. These poor people are so + superstitious, that they would not believe it possible for them to + make a prosperous journey without observing this ceremony at this + place; for sometimes their enemies (Iroquois) await them at this + portage, not venturing to go any farther on account of the difficulty + of the journey. Consequently they are occasionally surprised and + killed by the Iroquois at this place (the south bank of the Ottawa)." +</p> +<p> + Above the Chaudière Champlain met the Algonkin chief, Tessouat, and + thus described the burial places of his tribe: +</p> +<p> + "On visiting the island I observed their cemeteries, and was struck + with wonder as I saw sepulchres of a shape like shrines, made of + pieces of wood fixed in the ground at a distance of about three feet + from each other, and intersecting at the upper end. On the + intersections above they place a large piece of wood, and in front + another upright piece on which is carved roughly, as would be + expected, the figure of the male or female interred. If it is a man, + they add a shield, a sword attached to a handle after their manner, a + mace, and bow and arrows. If it is a chief, there is a plume on his + head, and some other <i>matachia</i> or embellishment. If it is a child, + they give it a bow and arrow, if a woman or girl, a boiler, an earthen + vessel, a wooden spoon, and an oar. The entire sepulchre is six or + seven feet long at most, and four wide; others are smaller. They are + painted yellow and red, with various ornaments as neatly done as the + carving. The deceased is buried with his dress of beaver or other + skins which he wore when living, and they lay by his side all his + possessions, as hatchets, knives, boilers, and awls, so that these + things may serve him in the land whither he goes; for they believe in + the immortality of the soul, as I have elsewhere observed. These + carved sepulchres are only made for the warriors, for in respect to + others they add no more than in the case of women, who are considered + a useless class, accordingly but little is added in their case." +</p> +<p> + In the summer of 1615 Champlain, returning from France, made his way + up the Ottawa River, and, by a short portage, to Lake Nipissing, + thence down French River to the waters of Lake Huron. On the banks of + the French River he met a detachment of the Ottawa tribe (of the + Algonkin family). These people he styled the <i>Cheveux Relevés</i>, + because the men's hair was gathered up and dressed more carefully and + becomingly on the top of the head than (he says) could at that time be + done by a hairdresser in France. This arrangement of the hair gave the + men a very handsome appearance, but here their toilet ended, for they + wore no clothes whatever (in the summertime), making up for this + simplicity by painting their faces in different colours, piercing + their ears and nostrils and decorating them with shell beads, and + tattooing their bodies and limbs with elaborate patterns. +</p> +<p> + These Ottawas carried a club, a long bow and arrows, and a round + shield of dressed leather, made (wrote Champlain) "from the skin of an + animal like the buffalo".<a name="4-26"></a><a href="#note-4-26"><small>[26]</small></a> The chief of the party explained many + things to the white man by drawing with a piece of charcoal on the + white bark of the birch tree. He gave him to understand that the + present occupation of his band of warriors was the gathering of + blueberries, which would be dried in the sun, and could then be + preserved for eating during the winter. +</p> +<p> + From French River, Champlain passed southwards to the homeland of the + Hurons, which lay to the east of what Champlain called "the Fresh + Water Sea" (Lake Huron). This country he describes in enthusiastic + terms. The Hurons, like the other Iroquois tribes (and unlike the + hunting races to the north of them), were agriculturists, and + cultivated pumpkins, sunflowers,<a name="4-27"></a><a href="#note-4-27"><small>[27]</small></a> beans and Indian corn. +</p> +<p> + The Hurons persuaded Champlain to go with them to attack the Iroquois + tribe of the Senekas (Entuhónorons) on the south shores of Lake + Ontario. On the way thither he noticed the abundance of stags and + bears, and, near the lake, of cranes, white and purple-brown.<a name="4-28"></a><a href="#note-4-28"><small>[28]</small></a> +</p> +<p> + On the southern shores of the lake<a name="4-29"></a><a href="#note-4-29"><small>[29]</small></a> were large numbers <a name="p80"></a>of chestnut + trees, "whose fruit was still in the burr. The chestnuts are small but + of a good flavour." The southern country was covered with forests, + with very few clearings. After crossing the Oneida River the Hurons + captured eleven of the Senekas, four women, one girl, three boys, and + three men. The people had left the stockade in which their relations + were living to go and fish by the lake shore. One of the Huron + chiefs—the celebrated Iroquet, who had been so much associated with + Champlain from the time of his arrival—proceeded at once to cut off + the finger of one of these women prisoners. Whereupon Champlain, + firmer than in years gone by, interposed and reprimanded him, pointing + out that it was not the act of a warrior such as he declared himself + to be, to conduct himself with cruelty towards women "who had no + defence but their tears, so that one should treat them with humanity + on account of their helplessness and weakness". Champlain went on to + say that this act was base and brutal, and that if he committed any + more of such cruelties he, Champlain, "would have no heart to assist + or favour them in the war". To this Iroquet replied that their enemies + treated them in the same manner, but that since this was displeasing + to the Frenchmen he would not do anything more to women, but he would + not promise to refrain from torturing the men. +</p> +<p> + However, in the subsequent fighting which occurred when they reached + the six-sided stockade of the Senekas (a strong fortification which + faced a large pond on one side, and was surrounded by a moat + everywhere else except at the entrance), the Hurons and Algonkins + showed a great lack of discipline. Champlain and the few Frenchmen + with him, by using their arquebuses, drove the enemy back into the + fort, but not without having some of their Indian allies wounded or + killed. Champlain proposed to the Hurons that they should erect what + was styled in French a <i>cavalier</i>—a kind of box, with high, loopholed + sides, which was erected on a tall scaffolding of stout timbers. This + was to be carried by the Hurons to within a pike's length of the + stockade. Four French arquebusiers then scrambled up into the + <i>cavalier</i> and fired through the loopholes into the huts of the Seneka + town. Meantime the Hurons were to set fire, if possible, to the wooden + stockade. They managed the whole business so stupidly that the fire + produced no effect, the flames being blown in the opposite direction + to that which was desired. The brave Senekas threw water on to the + blazing sticks and put out the fire. Champlain was wounded by an arrow + in the leg and knee. The reinforcement of the five hundred Hurons + expected by the allies did not turn up. The Hurons with Champlain lost + heart, and insisted on retreating. Only the dread of the French + firearms prevented the retreat being converted into a complete + disaster. Whenever the Senekas came near enough to get speech with the + French they asked them "why they interfered with native quarrels". +</p> +<p> + Champlain being unable to walk, the Hurons made a kind of basket, + similar to that in which they carried their wounded. In this he was so + crowded into a heap, and bound and pinioned, that it was as impossible + for him to move "as it would be for an infant in his swaddling + clothes". This treatment caused him considerable pain after he had + been carried for some days; in fact he suffered agonies while fastened + in this way on to the back of a savage. +</p> +<p> + He was afterwards obliged to pass the winter of 1615-6 in the Huron + country. At that time it swarmed with game. Amongst birds, there were + swans, white cranes, brent-geese, ducks, teal, the redbreasted thrush + (which the Americans call "robin"), brown larks (<i>Anthus</i>), snipe, and + other birds too numerous to mention, which Champlain seems to have + brought down with his fowling-piece in sufficient quantities to feed + the whole party whilst waiting for the capture of deer on a large + scale. +</p> +<p> + Meanwhile, many of the Indians were catching fish, "trout and pike of + prodigious size". When they desired to secure a large number of deer, + they would make an enclosure in a fir forest in the form of the two + converging sides of a triangle, with an open base. The two sides of + these traps were made of great stakes of wood closely pressed + together, from 8 to 9 feet high; and each of the sides was 1000 yards + long. At the point of the triangle there was a little enclosure. The + Hurons were so expeditious in this work that in less than ten days + these long fences and the "pound" or enclosure at their convergence + were finished. They then started before daybreak and scattered + themselves in the woods at a considerable distance behind the + commencement of these fences, each man separated from his fellow by + about 80 yards. Every Huron carried two pieces of wood, one like a + drumstick and the other like a flat, resonant board. They struck the + flat piece of wood with the drumstick and it made a loud clanging + sound. The deer who swarmed in the forest, hearing this noise, fled + before the savages, who drove them steadily towards the converging + fences. As they closed up, the Hurons imitated very cleverly the + yapping of wolves. This frightened the deer still more, so that they + huddled at last into the final enclosure, where they were so tightly + packed that they were completely at the men's mercy. "I assure you," + writes Champlain, "there is a singular pleasure in this chase, which + takes place every two days, and has been so successful that in + thirty-eight days one hundred and twenty deer were captured. These + were made good use of, the fat being kept for the winter to be used as + we do butter, and some of the flesh to be taken to their homes for + their festivities." +</p> +<p> + Champlain himself, in the winter of 1615, pursuing one day a + remarkable bird "which was the size of a hen, had a beak like a parrot + and was entirely yellow, except for a red head and blue wings, and + which had the flight of the partridge"—a bird I cannot + identify—lost his way in the woods. For two days he wandered in the + wilderness, sustaining himself by shooting birds and roasting them. + But at last he found his way back to a river which he recognized, and + reached the camp of the Hurons, who were extremely delighted at his + return. Had they not found him, or had he not come back of himself, + they told him that they could never again have visited the French for + fear of being held responsible for his death. +</p> +<p> + By the month of December of this year (1615) the rivers, lakes, and + ponds were all frozen. Hitherto, Champlain had had to walk when he + could not travel in a canoe, and carry a load of twenty pounds, while + the Indians carried a hundred pounds each. But now the water was + frozen the Hurons set to work and made their sledges. These were + constructed of two pieces of board, manufactured from the trunks of + trees by the patient use of a stone axe and by the application of + fire. These boards were about 6 inches wide, and 6 or 7 feet long, + curved upwards at the forward end and bound together by cross pieces. + The sides were bordered with strips of wood, which served as brackets + to which was fastened the strap that bound the baggage upon the + sledge. The load was dragged by a rope or strap of leather passing + round the breast of the Indian, and attached to the end of the sledge. + The sledge was so narrow that it could be drawn easily without + impediment wherever an Indian could thread his way over the snow + through the pathless forests. +</p> +<p> + The rest of the winter and early spring Champlain spent alone, or in + company with Father Joseph Le Caron (one of the Recollet + missionaries), visiting the Algonkin and Huron tribes in the region + east of Lake Huron. He has left this description of the modern country + of Simcoe, the home, three hundred years ago, of the long-vanished + Hurons<a name="4-30"></a><a href="#note-4-30"><small>[30]</small></a>; and gives us the following particulars of their home + life. The Huron country was a pleasant land, most of it cleared of + forest. It contained eighteen villages, six of which were enclosed and + fortified by palisades of wood in triple rows, bound together, on the + top of which were galleries provided with stores of stones, and + birch-bark buckets of water; the stones to throw at an enemy, and the + water to extinguish any fire which might be put to the palisades. + These eighteen villages contained about two thousand warriors, and + about thirty thousand people in all. The houses were in the shape of + tunnels, and were thatched with the bark of trees. Each lodge or house + would be about 120 feet long, more or less, and 36 feet wide, with a + 10-foot passage-way through the middle from one end to the other. On + either side of the tunnel were placed benches 4 feet high, on which + the people slept in summer in order to avoid the annoyance of the + fleas which swarmed in these habitations. In winter time they slept on + the ground on mats near the fire. In the summer the cabins were filled + with stocks of wood to dry and be ready for burning in winter. At the + end of each of these long houses was a space in which the Indian corn + was preserved in great casks made of the bark of trees. Inside the + long houses pieces of wood were suspended from the roof, on to which + were fastened the clothes, provisions, and other things of the + inmates, to keep them from the attacks of the mice which swarmed in + these villages. Each hut might be inhabited by twenty-four families, + who would maintain twelve fires. The smoke, having no proper means of + egress except at either end of the long dwelling, and through the + chinks of the roof, so injured their eyes during the winter season + that many people lost their sight as they grew old. +</p> +<p> + "Their life", writes Champlain, "is a miserable one in comparison + with our own, but they are happy amongst themselves, not having + experienced anything better, nor imagining that anything more + excellent could be found." +</p> +<p> + These Amerindians ordinarily ate two meals a day, and although + Champlain and his men fasted all through Lent, "in order to influence + them by our example", that was one of the practices they did <i>not</i> + copy from the French. +</p> +<p> + The Hurons of this period painted their faces black and red, mixing + the colours with oil made from sunflower seed, or with bears' fat. The + hair was carefully combed and oiled, and sometimes dyed a reddish + colour; it might be worn long or short, or only on one side of the + head. The women usually dressed theirs in one long plait. Sometimes it + was done up into a knot at the back of the head, bound with eelskin. + The men were usually dressed in deerskin breeches, with gaiters of + soft leather. The shoes ("Moccasins") were made of the skin of deer, + bears, or beavers. In addition to this the men in cold weather wore a + great cloak. The edges of these cloaks would often be decorated with + bands of brown and red colour alternating with strips of a + whitish-blue, and ornamented with bands of porcupine quills. These, + which were originally white or grey in colour, had been previously + dyed a fine scarlet with colouring matter from the root of the + bed-straw (<i>Galium tinctorum</i>). The women were loaded with necklaces + of violet or white shell beads, bracelets, ear-rings, and great + strings of beads falling below the waist. Sometimes they would have + plates of leather studded with shell beads and hanging over the back. +</p> +<a name="image-0004"><!--IMG--></a> +<center> +<img src="images/pc04.jpg" width="270" height="425" +alt="Samuel de Champlain; Alexander Henry the Elder"> +</center> +<!--IMAGE END--> +<h5>SAMUEL DE CHAMPLAIN and ALEXANDER HENRY THE ELDER</h5> +<p> + In 1616 Champlain returned to France, but visited Quebec in 1617 and + 1618. During the years spent at Quebec, which followed his + explorations of 1616, he was greatly impeded in his work of + consolidating Canada as a French colony by the religious strife + between the Catholics and Huguenots, and the narrow-minded greed of + the Chartered company of fur-trading merchants for whom he worked. But + in 1620 he came back to Canada as Lieutenant-Governor (bringing his + wife with him), and after attending to the settlement of a violent + commercial dispute between fur-trading companies he tried to compose + the quarrel between the Iroquois and the Algonkins, and brought about + a truce which lasted till 1627. +</p> +<p> + In 1628 came the first English attack on Canada. A French fleet was + defeated and captured in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and in the + following year Champlain, having been obliged to surrender Quebec (he + had only sixteen soldiers as a garrison, owing to lack of food), + voyaged to England more or less as a prisoner of state in the summer + of 1629. He found, on arriving there, that the cession of Quebec was + null and void, peace having been concluded between Britain and France + two months before the cession. Charles I remained true to his compact + with Louis XIII, and Quebec and Nova Scotia were restored to French + keeping. In 1633 Champlain returned to Canada as Governor, bringing + with him a considerable number of French colonists. <i>It is from 1633 + that the real French colonization of Canada begins</i>: hitherto there + had been only one family of settlers in the fixed sense of the word; + the other Frenchmen were fur traders, soldiers, and missionaries. But + Champlain only lived two years after his triumphant return, and died + at Quebec on Christmas Day, 1635. +</p> +<p> + His character has been so well summed up by Dr. S.E. Dawson, in his + admirable book on the <i>Story of the St. Lawrence Basin</i>, that I cannot + do better than quote his words: +</p> +<p> + "Champlain was as much at home in the brilliant court of France as in + a wigwam on a Canadian lake, as patient and politic with a wild band + of savages on Lake Huron as with a crowd of grasping traders in St. + Malo or Dieppe. Always calm, always unselfish, always depending on + God, in whom he believed and trusted, and thinking of France, which he + loved, this single-hearted man resolutely followed the path of his + duty under all circumstances; never looking for ease or asking for + profit, loved by the wild people of the forest, respected by the + courtiers of the king, and trusted by the close-fisted merchants of + the maritime cities of France." +</p> +<hr class="short"> +<a name="note-4-1"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#4-1"><u>1</u></a> Afterwards the Sieur de Champlain. The title of <i>Sieur</i> + (from the Latin <i>Senior</i>) is the origin of the English "sir", and is + about equivalent to an English baronetcy. +</p> +<a name="note-4-2"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#4-2"><u>2</u></a> Correctly written this was François Gravé, Sieur du + Pont. +</p> +<a name="note-4-3"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#4-3"><u>3</u></a> The full name was Pierre du Guast, Sieur de Monts. + Including de Champlain and de Poutrincourt, who will be described + later, we have here the four great heroes who founded French Canada. +</p> +<a name="note-4-4"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#4-4"><u>4</u></a> The real name for this remarkable people, the Eskimo, is, + in Alaska and Arctic North America, <i>Innuit</i>, and in Labrador and + Greenland, <i>Karalit</i>. Eskimo (in French, <i>Esquimaux</i>) is said to be a + corruption of the Montagnais-Indian word, Eskimantsik, meaning "eaters + of raw flesh". +</p> +<a name="note-4-5"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#4-5"><u>5</u></a> The wild currants so often mentioned by the early + explorers of Canada are often referred to as red, green, and blue. The + blue currants are really the black currant, now so familiar to our + kitchen gardens (<i>Ribes nigrum</i>). This, together with the red currant + (<i>Ribes rubrum</i>), grows throughout North America, Siberia, and eastern + Europe. The unripe fruit may have been the green currants alluded to + by Champlain, or these may have been the white variety of our gardens. + The two species of wild strawberry which figure so frequently in the + stories of these early explorers are <i>Fragaria vesca</i> and <i>F. + virginiana</i>. From the last-named is derived the cultivated strawberry + of Europe. The wild strawberries of North America were larger than + those of Europe. Champlain does not himself allude to gooseberries + (unless they are his <i>groseilles vertes</i>), but later travellers do. + Three or more kinds of gooseberry grow wild in Canada, but they are + different from the European species. The blueberry so often Mentioned + by Champlain (bluëts or bluës) was <i>Vaccinium canadense</i>. +</p> +<a name="note-4-6"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#4-6"><u>6</u></a> Of the genera <i>Juglans</i> and <i>Carya</i>. +</p> +<a name="note-4-7"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#4-7"><u>7</u></a> The huge deer of the genus <i>Alces</i>. Elk is the old + Scandinavian name. <i>Moose</i>, derived from the Kri language, is the + Canadian term, "Elk" being misapplied to the wapiti (red) deer. + Champlain calls the elk <i>orignac</i>, its name in Algonkin. +</p> +<a name="note-4-8"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#4-8"><u>8</u></a> Or lead mixed with silver. The local natives used this + ore, which was white when beaten, for their arrowheads. +</p> +<a name="note-4-9"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#4-9"><u>9</u></a> The Gougou dwelt on the small island of Miscon, to the + east of the Bay of Chaleurs. It had the form of a woman but was about + a hundred feet high. Its habit was to catch and devour men and women, + whom it first placed in a pocket capacious enough to hold a small + ship. Its roarings and hissings could be heard at times coming from + the island of Miscon, where the Gougou lay concealed. Even a + Frenchman, the Sieur Prévert, had heard these noises. Probably this + islet had a whirlpool communicating with a cavern into which fishermen + were sucked by the current. +</p> +<a name="note-4-10"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#4-10"><u>10</u></a> There are no real rabbits in America. This was probably + the Polar Hare (<i>Lepus timidus glacialis</i>), or the common small + varying hare (<i>L. americanus</i>). +</p> +<a name="note-4-11"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#4-11"><u>11</u></a> How awful was this "mal de terre" or scurvy amongst the + French settlers may be seen from this description of Champlain: "There + were produced in the mouths of those who had it great pieces of + superfluous and drivelling flesh, which got the upper hand to such an + extent that scarcely anything but liquid could be taken. Their teeth + became very loose and could be pulled out with the fingers without its + causing them pain.... Afterwards a violent pain seized their arms and + legs, which remained swollen and very hard, all spotted as if with + fleabites; and they could not walk on account of the contraction of + the muscles.... They suffered intolerable pains in the loins, stomach, + and bowels, and had a very bad cough and short breath.... Out of + seventy-nine who composed our party, thirty-five died and twenty were + on the point of death (when spring began in May)."<br><br> + + Scurvy is said to be a disease of the blood caused by a damp, cold, + and impure atmosphere combined with absence of vegetable food and a + diet of salted or semi-putrid meat or fish, such as was so often the + winter food of Amerindians and of the early French pioneers in Canada. + We have already noted Cartier's discovery of the balsam remedy. +</p> +<a name="note-4-12"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#4-12"><u>12</u></a> From Queen Anne. +</p> +<a name="note-4-13"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#4-13"><u>13</u></a> The pigeons referred to by Champlain were probably the + Passenger pigeon (<i>Ectopistes</i>) which at one time was extraordinarily + abundant in parts of North America, though it has now been nearly + killed out by man. It would arrive in flocks of millions on its + migratory journeys in search of food. +</p> +<a name="note-4-14"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#4-14"><u>14</u></a> It is interesting to learn from his accurate notes that + in Massachusetts (and from thence southwards) there were no more bark + canoes, but that the canoes were "dug-outs"—trunks of tall trees + burnt and chipped till they were hollowed into a narrow vessel of + considerable length. +</p> +<a name="note-4-15"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#4-15"><u>15</u></a> This tuber, which is a well-known and very useful + vegetable in England, comes from the root of a species of sunflower + (<i>Helianthus tuberosus</i>). It has nothing to do with the real + artichoke, which is a huge and gorgeous thistle, and it has equally + nothing to do with Jerusalem. The English people have always taken a + special delight in mispronouncing and corrupting words in order to + produce as much confusion as possible in their names for things. + Jerusalem is a corruption of <i>Girasole</i>, which is the Italian name + given to this sunflower with the edible roots, because its flower is + supposed always to turn towards the sun. The Jerusalem artichoke was + originally a native of North America. +</p> +<a name="note-4-16"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#4-16"><u>16</u></a> These walnut trees were afterwards known in modern + American speech as hickories, butter-nuts, and pig-nuts, all of which + are allied to, but distinct from, the European walnut. +</p> +<a name="note-4-17"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#4-17"><u>17</u></a> <i>Limulus polyphemus</i>. This extraordinary crustacean is + one of the oldest of living animals in its history, as it is closely + related to the Xiphosura and even the Trilobites of the Primary Epoch, + which existed millions of years ago. In a rough way it is a kind of + connecting link between the Crustacea, or crabs and lobsters, and the + Scorpions and spiders. +</p> +<a name="note-4-18"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#4-18"><u>18</u></a> Jean de Biencourt, the Sieur de Poutrincourt and Baron + de Saint-Just, were his full titles. +</p> +<a name="note-4-19"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#4-19"><u>19</u></a> You will observe that neither the French nor the English + sovereigns of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries went to much + personal expense over the creation of colonies. They simply gave a + charter or a monopoly, which cost them nothing, but which made other + people pay. +</p> +<a name="note-4-20"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#4-20"><u>20</u></a> <i>Branta canadensis</i>, a handsome black-and-brown goose + with white markings, which the French pioneers in Canada styled + "outarde" or "bustard", and whose eggs were considered very good + eating. +</p> +<a name="note-4-21"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#4-21"><u>21</u></a> Huron was a French name given to the westernmost group + of the Iroquois family (see p. <a href="#p159">159</a>). The Huron group included the + Waiandots, the Eries or Erigas, the Arendáronons, and the Atiwándoronk + or "neutral" nation. The French sometimes called all these Huron + tribes "the good Iroquois". Iroquois was probably pronounced "Irokwá", + and seems to have been derived from a word like Irokosia, the name of + the Adirondack mountain country. +</p> +<a name="note-4-22"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#4-22"><u>22</u></a> The confederacy was founded about 1450 by the great + Hiawatha (of Longfellow's Poem), himself an Onondaga from south of + Lake Ontario, but backed by the Mohawks only, in the beginning of his + work. +</p> +<a name="note-4-23"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#4-23"><u>23</u></a> Unconsciously, no doubt, he brought away with him to the + King of France one of the most remarkable freshwater fish living on + the North-American continent, for the gar-pike belongs, together with + the sturgeon and its allies, to an ancient type of fish the + representatives of which are found in rock formations as ancient as + those of the Secondary and Early Tertiary periods. Champlain may be + said to have discovered this remarkable gar-pike (<i>Lepidosteus + osseus</i>), which is covered with bony scales "so strong that a poniard + could not pierce them". The colour he describes as silver-grey. The + head has a snout two feet and a half long, and the jaws possess double + rows of sharp and dangerous teeth. These teeth were used by the + natives as lancets with which to bleed themselves when they suffered + from inflammation or headache. Champlain declares that the gar-pike + often captures and eats water birds. It would swim in and among rushes + or reeds and then raise its snout out of the water and keep perfectly + still. Birds would mistake this snout for the stump of a tree and + would attempt to alight on it; whereupon the fish would seize them by + the legs and pull them down under the water. +</p> +<a name="note-4-24"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#4-24"><u>24</u></a> Spelt by Champlain with a "ch" instead of <i>sh</i>. +</p> +<a name="note-4-25"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#4-25"><u>25</u></a> Then called the Rivière des Iroquois. +</p> +<a name="note-4-26"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#4-26"><u>26</u></a> This was the first intimation probably that any European + sent home for publication regarding the existence of the bison in + North America, though the Spanish explorers nearly a hundred years + before Champlain must have met with it in travelling through + Louisiana, Texas, and northern Mexico. The bison is not known ever to + have existed near Hudson Bay, or in Canada proper (basin of the St. + Lawrence). South of Canada it penetrated to Pennsylvania and the + Susquehanna River, but not farther eastward. +</p> +<a name="note-4-27"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#4-27"><u>27</u></a> The Amerindians of the Lake regions made much use of the + sunflowers of the region (<i>Helianthus multiflorus</i>). Besides this + species of sunflower already mentioned, which furnishes tubers from + its roots (the "Jerusalem" artichoke) others were valued for their + seeds, and some or all of these are probably the originals of the + cultivated sunflower in European gardens. The largest of these was + called <i>Soleille</i> by the French Canadians. It grew in the cultivated + fields of the Amerindians to seven or eight feet in height, with an + enormous flower. The seeds were carefully collected and boiled. Their + oil was collected then from the water and was used to grease the hair. + This same Huron country (the Simcoe country of modern times) was + remarkable for its wild fruits. There was the Canada plum (<i>Prunus + americana</i>), the wild black cherry (<i>Prunus serotina</i>), the red + cherries (<i>P. pennsylvanica</i>), the choke cherry (<i>P. virginiana</i>), + wild apples (<i>Pyrus coronaria</i>), wild pears (a small berry-like pear + called "poire" by the French: <i>Pyrus canadensis</i>), and the may-apple + (<i>Podophyllum peltatum</i>). Champlain describes this may-apple as of the + form and colour of a small lemon with a similar taste, but having an + interior which is very good and almost like that of figs. The + may-apples grow on a plant which is two and a half feet high, with not + more than three or four leaves like those of the fig tree, and only + two fruits on each plant. +</p> +<a name="note-4-28"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#4-28"><u>28</u></a> The cranes of Canada—so often alluded to by the French + explorers as "Grues"—are of two species, <i>Grus canadensis</i>, with its + plumage of a purple-grey, and <i>Grus americanus</i>, which is pure white + (see p. <a href="#p139">139</a>). +</p> +<a name="note-4-29"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#4-29"><u>29</u></a> Lakes Ontario and Huron were probably first actually + reached by Father Le Caron, a Recollett missionary who came out with + Champlain in 1615 (see p. <a href="#p90">90</a>), and by Étienne Brulé, Champlain's + interpreter. +</p> +<a name="note-4-30"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#4-30"><u>30</u></a> They were almost completely exterminated by the Iroquois + confederacy between thirty and forty years after Champlain's visit. +</p> +<p class="return">[<a href="#contents">TABLE OF CONTENTS</a>] +</p> +<hr class="short"> +<a name="2HCH0005"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> +<a name="p88"></a> +<h2> + CHAPTER V +</h2> +<h3> + After Champlain: from Montreal to the Mississippi +</h3> +<p> + A very remarkable series of further explorations were carried out as + the indirect result of Champlain's work. In 1610 he had allowed a + French boy of about eighteen years of age, named ÉTIENNE BRULÉ, to + volunteer to go away with the Algonkins, in order to learn their + language. Brulé was taken in hand by Iroquet,<a name="5-1"></a><a href="#note-5-1"><small>[1]</small></a> a chief of the + "Little Algonkins", whose people were then occupying the lands on + either side of the Ottawa River, including the site of the now great + city of Ottawa. After four years of roaming with the Indians, Brulé + was dispatched by Champlain with an escort of twelve Algonkins to the + headwaters of the Suskuehanna, far to the south of Lake Ontario, in + order to warn the Andastes<a name="5-2"></a><a href="#note-5-2"><small>[2]</small></a> tribe of military operations to be + undertaken by the allied French, Hurons, and Algonkins against the + Iroquois. This enabled Brulé to explore Lake Ontario and to descend + the River Suskuehanna as far south as Chesapeake Bay, a truly + extraordinary journey at the period. This region of northern Virginia + had just been surveyed by the English, and was soon to be the site of + the first English colony in North America.<a name="5-3"></a><a href="#note-5-3"><small>[3]</small></a> +</p> +<p> + In attempting to return to the valley of the St. Lawrence in 1616, + with his Andaste guides, Brulé lost his way, and to avoid starvation + surrendered himself to the Seneka Indians (the westernmost clan of the + Iroquois) against whom the recent warlike operations of the French + were being directed. Discovering his nationality, the Senekas decided + to torture him before burning him to death at the stake. As they tore + off his clothes they found that he was wearing an <i>Agnus Dei</i> medal + next his skin. Brulé told them to be careful, as it was a medicine of + great power which would certainly kill them. By a coincidence, at that + very moment a terrific thunderstorm burst from a sky which until + recently had been all sunshine. The Senekas were so scared by the + thunder and lightning that they believed Brulé to be a person of + supernatural powers. They therefore released him, strove to heal such + slight wounds as he had incurred, and carried him off to their + principal town, where he became a great favourite. After a while they + gave him guides to take him north into the country of the Hurons. +</p> +<p> + His further adventures led him to discover Lake Superior and the way + thither through the Sault Ste. Marie, and to reach a place probably + not far from the south coast of Hudson Bay, in which there was a + copper mine. Then he explored the Montagnais country north of Quebec, + and even at one time (in 1629) entered the service of the English, who + had captured Quebec and Tadoussac from the French. When the English + left this region Brulé travelled again to the west and joined the + Hurons once more. +</p> +<p> + <a name="p90"></a>His licentious conduct amongst his Indian friends seems to have + roused them to such a pitch of anger that in 1632 they murdered him, + then boiled and ate his body. But immediately afterwards misfortune + seemed to fall on the place. The Hurons were terrified at what they + had done, and thought they heard or saw in the sky the spirits of the + white relations of Brulé—some said the sister, some the + uncle—threatening their town (Toanche), which they soon afterwards + burnt and deserted. +</p> +<p> + In 1615 Champlain, returning from France, had brought out with him + friars of the Récollet order.<a name="5-4"></a><a href="#note-5-4"><small>[4]</small></a> These were the pioneer missionaries + of Canada, prominent amongst whom was FATHER LE CARON, and these + Récollets traversed the countries in the basin of the St. Lawrence + between Lake Huron and Cape Breton Island, preaching Christianity to + the Amerindians as well as ministering to the French colonists and fur + traders. One of these Récollet missionaries died of cold and hunger in + attempting to cross New Brunswick from the St. Lawrence to the Bay of + Fundy, and another—Nicholas Viel—was the first martyr in Canada in + the spread of Christianity, for when travelling down the Ottawa River + to Montreal he was thrown by the pagan Hurons (together with one of + his converts) into the waters of a rapid since christened Sault le + Récollet. Another Récollet, Father d'Aillon, prompted by Brulé, + explored the richly fertile, beautiful country known then as the + territory of the Neutral nation, that group of Huron-Iroquois + Amerindians who strove to keep aloof from the fierce struggles between + the Algonkins and Hurons on the one hand and the eastern Iroquois + clans on the other. This region, which lies between the Lakes + Ontario, Erie, and Huron, is the most attractive portion of western + Canada. Lying in the southernmost parts of the Dominion, and nearly + surrounded by sheets of open water, it has a far milder climate than + the rest of eastern Canada. +</p> +<p> + In 1626 the Jesuit order supplanted the Récollets, and commenced a + campaign both of Christian propaganda and of geographical exploration + which has scarcely finished in the Canada of to-day. +</p> +<p> + In 1627 the war between the Iroquois Confederacy and the Huron and + Algonkin tribes recommenced, and this, together with the British + capture of Quebec and other portions of Canada, put a stop for several + years to the work of exploration. This was not resumed on an advanced + scale till 1634, when Champlain, unable himself, from failing health, + to carry out his original commission of seeking a direct passage to + China and India across the North-American continent, dispatched a + Norman Frenchman named JEAN NICOLLET to find a way to the Western Sea. + Nicollet, as a very young man, had lived for years amongst the + Amerindian tribes, especially amongst the Nipissings near the lake of + that name. Being charged, amongst other things, with the task of + making peace between the Hurons and the tribes dwelling to the west of + the great lakes, Nicollet discovered Lake Michigan. He was so + convinced of the possibility of arriving at the Pacific Ocean, and + thence making his way to China, that in the luggage which he carried + in his birch-bark canoe was a dress of ceremony made of Chinese damask + silk embroidered richly with birds and flowers. He was on his way to + discover the Winnebago Indians, or "Men of the Sea", of whom Champlain + had heard from the Hurons, with whom they were at war. But the great + water from which they derived their name was not in this instance a + sea, but the Mississippi River. The Winnebago Indians were totally + distinct from the Algonkins or the Iroquois, and belonged to the + Dakota stock, from which the great Siou confederation<a name="5-5"></a><a href="#note-5-5"><small>[5]</small></a> was also + derived. +</p> +<p> + Nicollet advanced to meet the Winnebagos clad in his Chinese robe and + with a pistol in each hand. As he drew near he discharged his pistols, + and the women and children fled in terror, for all believed him to be + a supernatural being, a spirit wielding thunder and lightning. + However, when they recovered from their terror the Winnebagos gave him + a hearty welcome, and got up such lavish feasts in his honour, that + one chief alone cooked 120 beavers at a single banquet. +</p> +<p> + Nicollet certainly reached the water-parting between the systems + of the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi, and under that + name—Misi-sipi—"great water"—he heard through the Algonkin Indians + of a mighty river lying three days' journey westward from his last + camp. Winnebago (from which root is also derived the names of the + Lakes Winnipeg and Winnipegosis much farther to the north-west) meant + "salt" or "foul" water. Both terms might therefore be applied to the + sea, and also to the lakes and rivers which, in the minds of the + Amerindians, were equally vast in length or breadth. +</p> +<p> + From 1648 to 1653 the whole of the Canada known to the French settlers + and explorers was convulsed by the devastating warfare carried on by + the Iroquois, who during that period destroyed the greater part of the + Algonkin and Huron clans. The neutral nation of Lake Erie (the Erigas) + was scattered, and between the shores of Lakes Michigan and Huron and + Montreal the country was practically depopulated, except for the + handfuls of French settlers and traders who trembled behind their + fortifications. Then, to the relief and astonishment of the French, + one of the Iroquois clans—the Onondaga—proposed terms of peace, + probably because they had no more enemies to fight of their own + colour, and wished to trade with the French. +</p> +<p> + The fur trade of the Quebec province had attracted an increasing + number of French people (men bringing their wives) to such settlements + as Tadoussac and Three Rivers. Amongst these were the parents of + PIERRE ESPRIT RADISSON. This young man went hunting near Three Rivers + station and was captured in the woods by Mohawks (Iroquois) who + carried him off to one of their towns and intended to burn him alive. + Having bound him at a stake, they proceeded to tear out some of his + finger nails and shoot arrows at the less vital parts of his body. But + a Mohawk woman was looking on and was filled with pity at the + sufferings of this handsome boy. She announced her intention of + adopting him as a member of her family, and by sheer force of will she + compelled the men to release him. After staying for some time amongst + the Mohawks he escaped, but was again captured just as he was nearing + Three Rivers. Once more he was spared from torture at the intercession + of his adopted relations. He then made an even bolder bid for freedom, + and fled to the south, up the valley of the Richelieu and the Hudson, + and thus reached the most advanced inland post of Dutch America—then + called Orange, now Albany—on the Hudson River. From this point he was + conveyed to Holland, and from Holland he returned to Canada. +</p> +<p> + Soon after his return he joined two Jesuit fathers who were to visit a + mission station of the Jesuits amongst the Onondagas (Iroquois) on a + lakelet about thirty miles south-east of the present city of + Rochester. The Iroquois (whose language Radisson had learnt to speak) + received them with apparent friendliness, and there they passed the + winter. But in the spring Radisson found out that the Onondaga + Iroquois were intending to massacre the whole of the mission. + Instructed by him, the Jesuits pretended to have no suspicions of the + coming attack, but all the while they were secretly building canoes at + their fort. As soon as they were ready for flight, and the sun of + April had completely melted the ice in the River Oswego, the French + missionaries invited the Onondagas to a great feast, no doubt making + out that it was part of the Easter festivities sanctioned by the + Church. They pointed out to their guests that from religious motives + as well as those of politeness it was essential that the <i>whole</i> of + the food provided should be eaten, "nothing was to be left on the + plate". They set before their savage guests an enormous banquet of + maize puddings, roast pigs, roast ducks, game birds, and fish of many + kinds, even terrapins, or freshwater turtles. The Iroquois ate and ate + until even <i>their</i> appetites were satisfied. Then they began to cry + off; but the missionaries politely insisted, and even told them that + in failing to eat they were neglecting their religious duties. To help + them in this respect they played hymn and psalm tunes on musical + instruments. At last the Onondagas were gorged to repletion, and sank + into a stertorous slumber at sunset. Whilst they slept, the Jesuits, + their converts, and Radisson got into the already prepared canoes and + paddled quickly down the Oswego River far beyond pursuit. +</p> +<p> + Radisson next joined his brother-in-law, Medard Chouart, and after + narrowly escaping massacre by the Iroquois (once more on the warpath + along the Ottawa River) reached the northern part of Lake Huron, and + Green Bay on the north-west of Lake Michigan. From Green Bay they + travelled up the Fox River and across a portage to the Wisconsin, + which flows into the Mississippi. Down this river they sped, meeting + people of the great Siou confederation and Kri (Cree) Indians, these + last an Algonkin nation roaming in the summertime as far north as + Hudson's Bay, until at length they reached the actual waters of the + Mississippi, first of all white men. Returning then to Lake Michigan, + the shores of which seemed to them an earthly paradise with a climate + finer than Italy, they journeyed northwards into Lake Huron, and + thence north-westwards through the narrow passages of St. Mary's River + into Lake Superior. The southern coast of Lake Superior was followed + to its westernmost point, where they made a camp, and from which they + explored during the winter (in snowshoes) the Wisconsin country and + collected information regarding the Mississippi and its great western + affluent the Missouri. The Mississippi, they declared, led to Mexico, + while the other great forked river in the far west was a pathway, + perhaps, to the Southern Sea (Pacific). +</p> +<p> + The Jesuits, on the other hand, were convinced that Hudson's Bay (or + the "Bay of the North") was at no great distance from Lake Superior + (which was true) and that it must communicate to the north-west with + the Pacific Ocean or the sea that led to China. +</p> +<p> + In 1661, without the leave of the French Governor of Canada, who + wanted them to take two servants of his own with them and to give him + half the profits of the venture, Chouart and Radisson hurried away to + the west, picked up large bodies of natives who were returning to the + regions north of Lake Huron, with them fought their way through the + ambushed Iroquois, and once more navigated the waters of Lake + Superior. Once again they started for the Mississippi basin and + explored the country of Minnesota, coming thus into contact with + native tribes which lived on the flesh of the bison. In Minnesota they + met a second time the Kri or Kinistino Indians of north-central + Canada, and joined one of their camps in the spring of 1662, somewhere + to the west of Lake Superior. With Kri guides they started away to the + north and north-east, no doubt by way of the Lake of the Woods, the + English River, Lake St. Joseph, and the Albany River, thus reaching + the salt sea at James Bay, the southernmost extension of Hudson Bay. + Or they may have proceeded by an even shorter route, though with + longer portages for canoes, through Lake Nipigon to the Albany. +</p> +<p> + The summer of 1662 they passed on the islands and shores of James Bay + hunting "buffalo"<a name="5-6"></a><a href="#note-5-6"><small>[6]</small></a> with the Indians. Then, in 1663, travelling back + along the same route they had followed in the previous year, they + regained Lake Superior, and so passed by the north of Lake Huron to + the Ottawa River and the St. Lawrence. But on their return to Three + Rivers they were arrested by the French Governor, D'Avaugour, who + condemned them to imprisonment and severe fines. The courts of France + gave them no redress, and in their furious anger Chouart and Radisson + went over to the English, offered their services to England, and so + brought about the creation of the Hudson Bay Company. +</p> +<p> + Radisson's journey from England to Hudson Bay has been treated of in + an earlier chapter: it is preferable to follow out to its finish the + great, western impulse of the French, which led them to neglect for a + time the doings of the British on the east coast of North America and + in the sub-Arctic regions of Hudson Bay. +</p> +<p> + From 1660 onwards the Jesuit missionaries again took up vigorously + that work of Christianizing the Amerindians which had been so + completely checked by the frightful ravages of the Iroquois between + 1648 and 1654. +</p> +<p> + By 1669 the Jesuits had three permanent stations in western Canada. + The first was the mission station at Sault Ste. Marie, the second was + the station of Ste. Esprit, on Lake Superior (not far from the modern + town of Ashland), and the third was the station of St. François Xavier + at the mouth of the Fox River, on Green Bay, Lake Michigan. +</p> +<p> + As regards some of the sufferings which these missionaries had to go + through when travelling across Canada in the winter, I quote the + following from <i>The Relations of the Jesuits</i> (p. 35):— +</p> +<p> + "I [Father de Crépieul] set out on the 16th of January, 1674, from the + vicinity of Lake St. John, near the Saguenay River, with an Algonkin + captain and two Frenchmen. We started after Mass, and walked five long + leagues on snowshoes with much trouble, because the snow was soft and + made our snowshoes very heavy. At the end of five leagues, we found + ourselves on a lake four or five leagues long all frozen over, on + which the wind caused great quantities of snow to drift, obscuring the + air and preventing us from seeing where we are going. After walking + another league and a half with great difficulty our strength began to + fail. The wind, cold, and snow were so intolerable that they compelled + us to retrace our steps a little, to cut some branches of fir which + might in default of bark serve to build a cabin. After this we tried + to light a fire, but were unable to do so. We were thus reduced to a + most pitiful condition. The cold was beginning to seize us to an + extraordinary degree, the darkness was great, and the wind blew + fearfully. In order to keep ourselves from dying with cold, we resumed + our march on the lake in spite of our fatigue, without knowing whither + we were going, and all were greatly impeded with the wind and snow. + After walking a league and a half we had to succumb in spite of + ourselves and stop where we were. The danger we ran of dying from cold + caused me to remember the charitable Father de Noue, who in a similar + occasion was found dead in the snow, kneeling and with clasped + hands.... We therefore remained awake during the rest of the night.... + On the following morning two Frenchmen arrived from Father Albanel's + cabin very opportunely, and kindled a great fire on the snow.... After + this we resumed our journey on the same lake, and at last reached the + spot where Father Albanel was.... A serious injury, caused by the fall + of a heavy load upon his loins, prevented him from moving, and still + more, from performing a missionary's duties." +</p> +<p> + One of the Jesuit fathers, Allouez, in founding the station of St. + François Xavier on Green Bay, Lake Michigan, had gained further + information about the wonderful Mississippi, which he called "Messi + Sipi". He also thoroughly explored Lake Nipigon, to the north of Lake + Superior. In 1669 two missionaries, named Dollier de Casson and + Galinée, started from the seminary of St. Sulpice (Montreal) to reach + the great tribes of the far west, supposed to be eager to learn of + Christianity and known to be much more tractable than the Iroquois. + These two missionaries, in their expedition of seven canoes and + twenty-one Amerindians, were accompanied by a remarkable young man + commonly known as La Salle, but whose real name was Robert + Cavalier.<a name="5-7"></a><a href="#note-5-7"><small>[7]</small></a> +</p> +<p> + Before leaving Lake Ontario, they actually passed the mouth of the + Niagara River and heard the falls, but had not sufficient curiosity to + leave their canoes and walk a short distance to see them. The + wonderful cascades of Niagara, where the St. Lawrence leaving Lake + Erie plunges 328 feet down into Lake Ontario (which is not much above + sea level), remained nearly undiscovered and undescribed until the + year 1678, when they were visited by Father Hennepin. Near the western + end of Lake Ontario the two Sulpician missionaries met another + Frenchman, Jolliet, who had come down to Lake Superior by way of the + Detroit passage, which is really the portion of the St. Lawrence + connecting Lake Huron with Lake Erie. Jolliet told the missionary de + Casson of a great tribe in the far west, the Pottawatomies, who had + asked for missionaries, and who were of Algonkin stock. La Salle, on + the other hand, was determined to make for the rumoured Ohio River, + which lay somewhere to the south-west of Lake Erie. +</p> +<p> + The two Sulpicians wintered in "the earthly paradise" to the north of + Lake Erie, passing a delightful six months there in the amazing + abundance of game and fish. They then met with various disasters to + their canoes, and consequently gave up their western journey, passing + northwards through Detroit and Lake St. Clair into Lake Huron, and + thence to the Jesuit mission station of the Sault Ste. Marie. Here + they were received rather coldly, as being rivals in the mission field + and in exploration. They in their turn accused the Jesuits of thinking + mainly, if not entirely, of the foundation of French colonies, and + very little of evangelizing the natives. +</p> +<p> + JOLLIET, a Canadian by birth,<a name="5-8"></a><a href="#note-5-8"><small>[8]</small></a> was dispatched by the Viceroy of + Canada in 1672 to explore the far west. Two years—1670—previously + the French Government had for the first time adopted a really definite + policy about Canada, and had taken formal possession of the Lake + region and of all the territories lying between the lakes and the + Mississippi. A great assembly of Indians was held at Sault Ste. Marie, + near the east end of Lake Superior; and here a representative of the + French Government, accompanied by numerous missionaries and by + Jolliet, read a proclamation of the sovereignty of King Louis XIV of + France and Navarre. Below a tall cross was erected a great shield + bearing the arms of France. Father Allouez addressed the Indians in + the Algonkin language, and told them of the all-powerful Louis XIV, + who "had ten thousand commanders and captains, each as great as the + Governor of Quebec". He reminded them how the troops of this king had + beaten the unconquerable Iroquois, of how he possessed innumerable + soldiers and uncountable ships; that at times the ground of France + shook with the discharge of cannon, while the blaze of musketry was + like the lightning. He pictured the king covered with the blood of his + enemies and riding in the middle of his cavalry, and ordering so many + of his enemies to be slain that no account could be kept of the number + of their scalps, whilst their blood flowed in rivers. The Amerindians + being what they were, addicted to warfare, and only recognizing the + right of the strongest, it may be that this gospel of force was not + quite so shocking and unchristian as it reads to us nearly 250 years + afterwards, though it jars very much as coming from the lips of a + missionary of Christianity. However, it must be remembered that but + for the valour of the French soldiers in the awful period between 1648 + and 1666 (when the Mohawks received a thorough and well-deserved + thrashing) many of the tribes addressed on this occasion by the Jesuit + missionaries would have been completely exterminated; the Iroquois + would have depopulated much of north-eastern America. It is obvious, + indeed, from our study of the conditions of life amongst the + Amerindians, that one reason why the New World was so poorly populated + at the time of its discovery by Europeans was the wars of + extermination between tribe and tribe; for America between the Arctic + regions and Tierra del Fuego is marvellously well supplied with + natural food products—game, fish, fruits, nuts, roots, and + grain—much more so than any area of similar extent in the Old World. +</p> +<p> + Jolliet was to be accompanied on his westward expedition by Father + JACQUES MARQUETTE,<a name="5-9"></a><a href="#note-5-9"><small>[9]</small></a> a Jesuit missionary who had become well + acquainted with the tribes visiting Lake Superior, and had learnt the + Siou dialect of the Illinois people. On May 17, 1673, Jolliet and + Marquette started from the Straits of Michili-Makinak with only two + bark canoes and five Amerindians. They coasted along the north coast + of Lake Michigan, passed into Green Bay, and thence up the River Fox. + They were assisted by the Maskutins, or Fire Indians, and were given + Miami guides. Thence the natives assisted them to transport their + canoes and baggage over the very short distance that separates the + upper waters of the Fox River from the Wisconsin River, and down the + Wisconsin they glided till they reached the great Mississippi. The + Governor of Quebec, who had sent Jolliet on this mission, believed + that the Great River of the west would lead them to the Gulf of + California, which was then called the Vermilion Sea by the Spaniards, + because it resembled in shape and colour the Red Sea. +</p> +<p> + "On the 17th of June (1673)", writes Father Marquette, "we safely + entered the Mississippi with a joy that I cannot express. Its current + is slow and gentle, the width very unequal. On its banks there are + hardly any woods or mountains. The islands are most beautiful, and + they are covered with fine trees. We saw deer and cattle (bison), + geese, and swans. From time to time we came upon monstrous fish, one + of which struck our canoe with such violence that I thought it was a + great tree. On another occasion we saw on the water a monster with the + head of a tiger, a sharp nose like that of a wild cat, with whiskers + and straight erect ears. The head was grey, and the neck quite black + (possibly a lynx).... We found that turkeys had taken the place of + game, and the <i>pisikiou</i>, or wild cattle, that of the other animals." +</p> +<p> + Father Marquette, of course, by his wild cattle means the bison, of + which he proceeds to give an excellent description. He adds: "They are + very fierce, and not a year passes without their killing some savages. + When attacked, they catch a man on their horns if they can, toss him + in the air, throw him on the ground, then trample him under foot and + kill him. If a person fires at them from a distance with either a bow + or a gun, he must immediately after the shot throw himself down and + hide in the grass, for if they perceive him who has fired they run at + him and attack him." +</p> +<p> + Soon after entering the Mississippi, Marquette noticed some rocks + which by their height and length inspired awe. "We saw upon one of + them two painted monsters which at first made us afraid, and upon + which the boldest savages dare not long rest their eyes. They are as + large as a calf; they have horns on their heads like those of deer, a + horrible look, red eyes, a beard like a tiger's, a face somewhat like + a man's, a body covered with scales, and so long a tail that it winds + all round the body and ends like that of a fish. Green, red, and black + are the three colours composing the picture. Moreover, these two + monsters are so well painted that we cannot believe that any savage is + their author, for good painters in France would find it difficult to + paint so well, and, besides, they are so high up on the rock that it + is difficult to reach that place conveniently to paint them."<a name="5-10"></a><a href="#note-5-10"><small>[10]</small></a> +</p> +<p> + As the Jolliet expedition paddled down the Mississippi—ever so easily + and swiftly—a marvellous panorama unfolded itself before the + Frenchmen's fascinated gaze. Immense herds of bison occasionally + appeared on the river banks, flocks of turkeys flew up from the glades + and roosted in the trees and on the river bank. Everywhere the natives + seemed friendly, and Father Marquette was usually able to communicate + with them through his knowledge of the Illinois Algonkin dialect, + which the Siou understood. +</p> +<a name="image-0005"><!--IMG--></a> +<center> +<img src="images/pc05.jpg" width="450" height="284" +alt="Indians Hunting Bison"> +</center> +<!--IMAGE END--> +<h5>INDIANS HUNTING BISON</h5> +<p> + On their first meeting with the Mississippi Indians, the French + explorers were not only offered the natives' pipes to smoke in token + of peace, but an old man amongst the latter uttered these words to + Jolliet: "How beautiful the sun is, O Frenchman, when thou comest to + visit us. Our village awaits thee, and thou shalt enter all our cabins + in peace."... "There was a crowd of people," writes Marquette; "they + devoured us with their eyes, but nevertheless preserved profound + silence. We could, however, hear these words addressed to us from time + to time in a low voice: 'How good it is, my brothers, that you should + visit us'. +</p> +<p> + "... The council was followed by a great feast, consisting of four + dishes, which had to be partaken of in accordance with all their + fashions. The first course was a great wooden platter full of + sagamité, that is to say, meal of Indian corn boiled in water, and + seasoned with fat. The Master of the Ceremonies filled a spoon with + sagamité three or four times, and put it to my mouth as if I were a + little child. He did the same to Monsieur Jollyet. As a second course + he caused a second platter to be brought, on which were three fish. He + took some pieces of them, removed the bones therefrom, and, after + blowing upon them to cool them, he put them in our mouths as one would + give food to a bird. For the third course, they brought a large dog + that had just been killed, but, when they learned that we did not eat + this meat, they removed it from before us. Finally, the fourth course + was a piece of wild ox, the fattest morsels of which were placed in + our mouths.... We thus pushed forward and no longer saw so many + prairies, because both shores of the river are bordered with lofty + trees. The cotton wood, elm and bass wood are admirable for their + height and thickness. There are great numbers of wild cattle whom we + hear bellowing. We killed a little parroquet, with a red and yellow + head and green body.... We have got down to near the 33° of + latitude.... We heard from afar savages who were inciting one another + to attack us by their continual yelling. They were armed with bows and + arrows, hatchets, clubs, and shields.... Part of them embarked in + great wooden canoes, some to ascend, others to descend the river in + order to surround us on all sides.... Some young men threw themselves + into the water and seized my canoe, but the current compelled them to + return to land. One of them hurled his club, which passed over without + striking us. In vain I showed the calumet (pipe of peace), and made + them signs that we were not coming to war against them. The alarm + continued; they were already preparing to pierce us with arrows from + all sides when God suddenly touched the hearts of the old men who were + standing at the water's edge, who checked the ardour of their young + men.... Whereon we landed, not without fear on our part. First we had + to speak by signs, because none of them understood the six languages + which I spoke. At last we found an old man who could speak a little + Illinois. We informed them that we were going to the sea. +</p> +<p> + "The next day was spent in feasting on Indian corn and dogs' flesh. + The people here had an abundance of Indian corn, which they sowed at + all seasons. They cook it in great earthen jars which are very well + made, and also have plates of baked earth. The men go naked and wear + their hair short; they pierce their noses, from which, as well as from + their ears, hang beads.... Their cabins are made of bark, and are long + and wide. They sleep at the two ends, which are raised two feet above + the ground. They know nothing of the beaver, and their wealth consists + in the skins of wild cattle. They never see snow in their country, and + recognize the winter only through the rains." +</p> +<p> + The expedition had passed the confluence of the Missouri and that of + the Ohio, and had finally reached the place where the Arkansas River + enters the Mississippi. Here the Frenchmen gathered from the natives + that the sea was only ten days distant, and this sea they knew (for + Jolliet was able to take astronomical observations and to make a rough + survey) could only be the Gulf of Mexico. Jolliet feared if he + prosecuted his journey any farther, he and his people would fall into + the hands of the Spaniards and be imprisoned, if not killed. + Therefore, at this point on the Lower Mississippi, the expedition + turned back. Its return journey was a weary business, for the current + was against the canoes as they were propelled northwards up the Great + River. But Jolliet learnt from the natives of a better homeward route, + that of following the Illinois River upstream until the expedition + came within a very short distance of Lake Michigan, near where Chicago + now stands. The canoes were carried over a low ridge of ground, + launched again in the Chicago River, and so passed into Lake Michigan. + (There is, in fact, at this point the remains of an ancient water + connection between Lake Michigan and the Illinois River, and a canal + now connects the two systems.) Jolliet, in describing this region, + realized that by cutting a canal through two miles of prairie it would + be possible to go "in a small ship" from Lake Erie or Lake Superior + "to Florida". +</p> +<p> + Father Marquette remained at his new mission on the Fox River (he died + two years afterwards on the shores of the Straits of Michili-makinak). + Jolliet, on returning by way of the Ottawa River to Quebec, was nearly + drowned in the La Chine Rapids (Montreal), and all his papers and maps + were lost. The natives with him also perished, but he struggled to + shore with difficulty, and went on his way to Quebec to report his + wonderful discoveries to the Governor, Frontenac. Fortunately Father + Marquette had also kept a journal and had made maps, and these + reaching the superior of his mission arrived in time to confirm + Jolliet's statements. +</p> +<p> + Jolliet married at Quebec, and proceeded to explore and develop the + regions along the north coast of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, travelling + in this work as far as Hudson's Bay. He was given by the French + Government the Island of Anticosti as a reward for his achievements, + but the work and capital which he put into the development of this + long-neglected island came to nothing; for it was captured by the + English, and Jolliet died a poor man whilst attempting to explore the + coast of Labrador. +</p> +<p> + As to ROBERT CAVALIER DE LA SALLE, he had, after all, discovered the + Ohio, and had descended that river as far as the site of the present + town of Louisville. Then he interested the Governor (Frontenac) of + Canada in his enterprises. A fort, called Fort Frontenac, was built at + what is now Kingston, at the point where the St. Lawrence leaves Lake + Ontario. La Salle returned to France, and obtained the grant of the + lordship of this fort and the surrounding country on conditions of + maintaining the whole cost of the establishment, and making a + settlement of colonists. Another visit to France in 1677-8 secured him + further support and capital, and he returned from France with a + companion, Henry de Tonty. +</p> +<p> + La Salle, with de Tonty, started from Fort Frontenac in September, + 1678, so intensely anxious to commence his discoveries that he + disregarded the difficulties of the winter season. On his way to + Niagara he paid a visit to the Iroquois to conciliate them, and + cleverly got from them permission to build a vessel on Lake Erie and + also to erect a blacksmith's forge, near where Niagara now stands. The + blacksmith's forge grew rapidly into a fort before the Indians were + aware of what was being done. By August, 1679, he had built and + launched (in spite of extraordinary calamities and misfortunes) on the + Upper Niagara River the first sailing boat which ever appeared on the + four great upper lakes of the St. Lawrence basin. +</p> +<p> + In this ship he sailed through Lake Erie and past Detroit into Lake + Huron, and thence to Green Bay (Lake Michigan), stopping at intervals + amongst the canoes of the amazed natives, who for the first time heard + the sound of cannon, for he had armed his vessel with guns. At Green + Bay he collected a large quantity of furs, which had been obtained in + trade by the men he had sent on in advance. He loaded up his sailing + boat, the <i>Griffon</i>, and sent her on a voyage back to the east to + transport this splendid load of furs to the merchants with whom he had + become deeply indebted. Unhappily the <i>Griffon</i> foundered in a storm + on Lake Michigan, and was never heard of again. Meantime La Salle, + with de Tonty and Father HENNEPIN, the discoverer of Niagara, had + travelled in canoes to the south-east end of Lake Michigan, had passed + up the Joseph River, and thence by portage into the Kankaki, which + flows into the Illinois. This river he descended till he stopped near + the site of the modern Peoria. Below this place he built a fort—for + it was winter time—and although the natives were not very friendly he + collected enough information from them to satisfy himself that he + could easily pass down the Illinois to the Mississippi. +</p> +<p> + He sent one of the Frenchmen, Michel Accault, together with Father + Hennepin, to explore the Illinois down to the Mississippi; de Tonty he + placed in charge of the fort with a small garrison; and then himself, + on the last day of February, 1680, started to walk overland from Lake + Michigan to Detroit. Eventually, by means of a canoe, which he + constructed himself, he regained Fort Frontenac and Montreal. When he + returned to Fort Crèvecoeur, on the Illinois River,<a name="5-11"></a><a href="#note-5-11"><small>[11]</small></a> it was to meet + with the signs of a horrible disaster. The Iroquois in his absence had + descended on the place with a great war party. They had massacred the + Illinois people dwelling in a big settlement near the fort, and the + remains of their mutilated bodies were scattered all over the place. + Their town had been burnt; the fort was empty and abandoned. There + were no traces of the Frenchmen, however, amongst the skulls and + skeletons lying around him; for the skulls retained sufficient hair to + show that they belonged to Amerindians. Nevertheless, he deposited his + new stock of goods and most of his men in the ruins of the Fort + Crèvecoeur, and descended the River Illinois to the Mississippi. But + he was obliged to turn back. On the west bank of the river were the + scared Illinois Indians, on the east the raging Iroquois. Whenever La + Salle could safely visit a deserted camp he would examine the remains + of the tortured men tied to stakes to see if amongst them there was a + Frenchman. +</p> +<p> + But de Tonty was not dead. After incredible adventures he had escaped + the raids of the Iroquois and had reached the Straits of + Michili-makinak, between Lakes Michigan and Huron, and there met La + Salle, who was once more on his way to Montreal. +</p> +<p> + Again de La Salle and de Tonty, in the winter of 1681, returned to the + south end of Lake Michigan, and made their way over the snow to the + Illinois River. On the 6th February, 1682, they left the junction of + the Illinois and the Mississippi to trace that great river to its + outlet in the sea. La Salle reached the delta on the 6th April, 1682, + having on the way taken possession of the country in the name of the + King of France. Accault and Father Hennepin had meantime paddled up + the Northern Mississippi as far as its junction with the Wisconsin. At + this place their party was surrounded and captured by a large band of + Siou warriors. +</p> +<p> + The Frenchmen were at first in danger of being killed, as the Sious + refused to smoke with them the pipe of peace. But being much less + bloodthirsty than the Iroquois, they soon calmed down and treated + their captives with a certain rough friendliness. All their goods were + taken from them, even the vestments worn by Father Hennepin. But they + were well supplied with food such as the country produced—bison, + beef, fish, wild turkeys, and the grain of the wild rice, which made + such excellent flour. They were gradually conveyed by the Siou<a name="5-12"></a><a href="#note-5-12"><small>[12]</small></a> to + a large settlement of that tribe on the shore of Mille Lacs, a sheet + of water not far distant from the westernmost extremity of Lake + Superior. Whilst staying at this Siou town Hennepin conversed with + Indians from the far north and north-west, and from what they told him + came to the conclusion that there was no continuous waterway or + "Strait of Anian" across the North-American continent, but that + the land extended to the north-west till it finally joined the + north-eastern part of Asia—a guess that was not very far wrong. But + he also surmised that there were rivers in the far west which led to + an ocean—the Pacific—across which ships might go to Japan and China + without passing to the southward of the Equator. +</p> +<p> + Whilst moving up and down the northern Mississippi, bison-hunting with + the Indians, the Frenchmen were met near the site of St. Paul by one + of the great French pioneers of the seventeenth century, the Sieur + DANIEL DE GREYSOLON DU L'HUT. This remarkable man, who was an officer + of the French army, had already planted the French arms at the + Amerindian settlement of Mille Lacs in 1679, and had established + himself as a powerful authority at the west end of Lake Superior. He + had also summoned a great council of Amerindian tribes—the Siou from + the Upper Mississippi, the Assiniboins from the Lake of the Woods + (between Lake Superior and Lake Winnipeg), and the Kri Indians from + Lake Nipigon. He had further discovered, in 1679, the water route of + the St. Croix River from near Lake Superior to the Mississippi. +</p> +<p> + Du L'Hut soon persuaded the Siou to let his fellow countrymen return + with him to Lake Superior. Accault remained behind with the Siou, + delighted with their wild, roving life, and no doubt married an Indian + wife and became the father of some of those bold half-breeds who + played such a great part in the subsequent history of innermost + Canada. But Father Hennepin returned to Montreal, and made his way + eventually to France, where he fell into great disgrace and was + unfrocked. He had richly merited this treatment, for after he heard of + the death of La Salle he impudently claimed the discovery of the whole + course of the Mississippi River for himself, and for a long time was + believed. He will certainly go down in history as the man who + discovered and described Niagara Falls (in 1678), and he also assisted + greatly to clear up the geography of the time by the information he + collected from the Amerindians as to the vast extent of the + North-American continent; but he was a boastful, unscrupulous man. +</p> +<p> + Du L'Hut, who came to the rescue of Accault and Hennepin, was of noble + family, and a member of the king's bodyguard. He decided, however, to + seek his fortune in Canada, and obtained a commission as captain. It + was his cousin, Henri de Tonty, who had accompanied La Salle. After + returning to France to fight in the wars then going on, he came back + to Canada with a younger brother, Claude. He had in him the spirit of + great adventurers, and longed to visit the unknown countries of the + upper Mississippi. In the early part of these journeys he rescued his + fellow countrymen from the keeping of the Sious in the manner + described. After that he spent <i>thirty</i> years travelling and trading + about North America, from the northern Mississippi into what we + should now call Manitoba, and from the vicinity of Lake Winnipeg to + Hudson Bay. He brought the great Amerindian nation of the Dakotas into + direct relations with the French. He was absolutely fearless, and in + no period of Canadian history has France been more splendidly + represented in the personality of any of her officers than she was by + Daniel de Greysolon du L'Hut. His was a tiresome name for English + scribes and speakers. It was therefore written by them "Duluth" and + pronounced Dălăth (instead of "Dülüt"). It is the name given to + the township near the southernmost extremity of Lake Superior. +</p> +<p> + When the journeys of du L'Hut came to an end—he died at Montreal in + 1710—and after the era of great French explorations in North America + drew to a close, the French power was beginning to be eclipsed by that + of the British, who were building up the foundations of a colony on + the shores of Hudson's Bay, and were taking steps to acquire + Newfoundland and to colonize New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. +</p> +<p> + Nevertheless, in 1720, the King of France, or rather the regent acting + for the king, decided that a serious attempt must be made to discover + the Western Sea, or Pacific Ocean, from the French posts which had + been established in what is now known as Manitoba. The French had + already discovered the Missouri, and had heard from several Indian + tribes that it was possible to cross the Rocky Mountains and descend + by other rivers to the waters of a great ocean, the coasts of which + were visited by Spaniards. Several expeditions were sent out, more or + less under the control of Jesuits, but did not accomplish much. +</p> +<p> + The really great discoveries which link the "Great North-West" for all + time in history with France and French names were initiated by PIERRE + GAULTIER DE LA VÉRENDRYE, who was born in 1685 at the town of Three + Rivers, in Lower Canada, where his father was Governor. He entered + the army at the age of twelve, and took part in the French campaigns + in Flanders, winning the rank of lieutenant at the battle of + Malplaquet, where he received nine wounds and was left for dead on the + field. He then returned to Canada, not having the necessary means with + which to support the position of a lieutenant; and then, as France + seemed to have entered upon a period of protracted peace, he + determined to become an explorer. In 1728, when he was commandant of + the trading post of Nipigon, to the north of Lake Superior, he heard + from an Indian that there was a great lake beyond Lake Superior, out + of which flowed a river towards the west, which ultimately led to a + great salt lake where the water ebbed and flowed. As a matter of fact, + these stories simply referred to Lake Winnipeg, but the importance of + them lay in the fact that they acted as a powerful incentive to La + Vérendrye to push his explorations westwards, and perhaps discover a + route to the Pacific Ocean.<a name="5-13"></a><a href="#note-5-13"><small>[13]</small></a> +</p> +<p> + La Vérendrye afterwards went to Quebec, where he discussed his plans + for Western exploration with the Governor of New France, the Marquis + de Beauharnais, who was a distant connection of the Beauharnais family + from which sprang the first husband of the Empress Joséphine, the + grandfather of Napoleon III. +</p> +<p> + This Governor entered into his scheme with enthusiasm, though he could + obtain little or no money from the ministers of Louis XVI. But a way + out of the difficulty was found by the Governor giving La Vérendrye + the monopoly of the fur trade in the far North-West.<a name="5-14"></a><a href="#note-5-14"><small>[14]</small></a> This + monopoly enabled La Vérendrye to obtain the funds for his expenditure + from the merchants of Montreal, and in the summer of 1731 he started + out on his explorations, accompanied by three of his sons, his nephew, + fifty soldiers and French Canadian canoe men, and a Jesuit missionary. + For a guide they had the Indian, Oshagash, who had first told La + Vérendrye of the western river and the salt water. After many delays, + necessitated by the need for trading in furs to satisfy the merchants + of Montreal, La Vérendrye and his expedition skated on snowshoes down + the ice of the Winnipeg River and reached the shores of Lake Winnipeg. + They were probably the first white men to arrive there. La Vérendrye + established forts and posts along his route from Lake Nipigon, but his + expedition had not been a commercial success. There was a deficit of + £1700 between the amount realized in furs and the cost of the + equipment and wages of the French and French Canadians. De Beauharnais + made a fresh appeal to the French Court; he urged that the expenditure + to convey La Vérendrye's expedition to the Pacific Ocean would not be + a large one—perhaps only £1500. +</p> +<p> + But the French Court was obdurate; it would not furnish a penny. Thus + La Vérendrye, in all probability, was prevented from forestalling the + British explorers of sixty and seventy years later, besides the + expeditions of Captain Cook and Captain Vancouver, which secured for + Great Britain a foothold on the Pacific seaboard of British Columbia. +</p> +<p> + La Vérendrye in his fort on Lake Winnipeg was in a desperate position. + He made a hasty journey back to Montreal and even Quebec, to beat up + funds and to pacify the capitalists of his fur-trading monopoly. He + painted in glowing colours the prospects of cutting off the trade of + the Hudson's Bay Company and the building up of an immense commerce in + valuable furs, and these men agreed once again to furnish the funds + for the extension of the expedition. On his return he took back with + him his youngest son, Louis, a boy of eighteen. Whilst he had been + absent from Fort St. Charles (a post which he had built on the Lake of + the Woods, in communication by water with the Winnipeg River), on Lake + Winnipeg, that place was visited by a party of Siou Indians. They + found the fort occupied in the absence of the French by a number of + Kri or "Knistino" Indians in French service. These Kris were + frightened at the arrival of the Sious and fired guns at them. "Who + fired on us?" demanded these haughty Indians from Dakota, and the Kris + replied, "The French". Then the Sious withdrew, but vowed to be + completely revenged on the treacherous white man. +</p> +<p> + When La Vérendrye reached Fort St. Charles its little garrison was + almost at the point of starvation. He had travelled himself ahead of + his party, and the immense stock of supplies and provisions he was + bringing up country were a long way behind him when he reached the + fort. He therefore sent back his son Jean, together with the most + active of his Canadian voyageurs and the Jesuit missionary, in order + that they might meet the heavily laden canoes and hurry them up + country as fast as possible. But this party was met by the Sious on + Rainy River, who massacred them to a man. They were afterwards found + lying in a circle on the beach, decapitated and mutilated. The heads + of most of them were wrapped ironically in beaver skins, and La + Vérendrye's son, Jean, was horribly cut and slashed, and his + mutilated, naked body decorated with garters and bracelets of + porcupine quills. +</p> +<p> + Meantime, during his absence in Lower Canada, two of his sons in + charge of Fort Maurepas, on Lake Winnipeg, had been very active. They + had discovered the great size of this lake, and also the entrance of + the Red River on the south. They then proceeded to explore both the + Red River and its western tributary the Assiniboin. On the Assiniboin + was afterwards built the post of Fort La Reine, and from this place in + 1738 La Vérendrye started with two of his sons, several other + Frenchmen, a few Canadian voyageurs, and twenty-five Assiniboin + Indians. Leaving the Assiniboin River, they crossed the North Dakota + prairies on foot. Owing to the timidity of his Indian guides, La + Vérendrye was not led direct to the Missouri River, the "Great River + of the West", but along a zigzag route which permitted his guides to + reinforce their numbers at Assiniboin villages, and every now and then + join in a bison hunt. All the party were on foot, horses not then + having reached the Assiniboin tribe. But on the 28th of November, + 1738, they drew near to the Missouri and were met by a chief of the + great Mandan tribe, who was accompanied by thirty of his warriors, and + who presented La Vérendrye with young maize cobs and leaves of native + tobacco, these being regarded as emblems of peace and friendship. +</p> +<p> + The Mandan tribe differed materially in its habits and customs from + the Indians to the north, who supported themselves mainly, if not + entirely, by hunting, who cared very little for agriculture, and moved + continually like nomads over great stretches of country, living + chiefly in tents or temporary villages. The Mandans, on the other + hand, were a people who practised agriculture, and had permanent and + well-constructed towns. In fact, their civilization and demeanour made + such an impression on the Assiniboin and other northern tribes that + they had been considered a sort of "white people", somewhat akin to + Europeans, and La Vérendrye was a little disappointed to find them + only Amerindians in race and colour. +</p> +<p> + The six hundred Assiniboins who had gathered about La Vérendrye's + expedition proved to be a great trouble to him, as they were + constantly picking quarrels with the Mandans, who were very dishonest. + Accordingly, La Vérendrye arranged with the Mandans to frighten them + away by pretending that the Siou Indians were on the warpath. The six + hundred Assiniboins bolted, but took with them La Vérendrye's + interpreter, so that he was henceforth obliged to communicate with the + Mandans by means of signs and gestures. This and other reasons decided + him to return—even though it was the depth of winter, to Fort La + Reine, but not before he had given the head chief of the Mandans a + flag and a leaden plate which (unknown to the Mandans) meant taking + possession of their country in the name of the French king. +</p> +<p> + The journey back to Fort La Reine, over the plains of the Assiniboin, + was a terrible experience. The party had to travel in the teeth of an + almost unceasing north-east wind which was freezingly cold. Night + after night they were obliged to dig deep holes in the snow for their + sleeping places. La Vérendrye nearly died of agonizing pain and + fatigue during this journey, and was a long time recovering from its + effects. +</p> +<p> + As they continued to receive friendly messages from the Mandans, + inviting them to make further discoveries, LA VÉRENDRYE'S sons, PIERRE + and FRANCOIS, set out in the spring of 1742, and, after some checks + and disappointments, managed with a single Mandan guide to reach Broad + Lands on the Little Missouri River, where they noticed the earths of + different colours, blue, green, red, black, white, and yellow, which + are so characteristic of this region. They reached the village of the + Crow Indians, passed through a portion of the friendly tribe, the + Cheyennes (the name was probably pronounced Shian) and got into the + country which was constantly being ravaged by the Snake Indians, or + Shoshones. Here, on the 1st of January, 1743, when the mists of + morning cleared away, they saw upon the horizon the outline of huge + mountains. As they travelled westwards or south-westwards, day after + day, the jagged blue wall resolved itself into towering snow-capped + peaks, glittering in the sun and provoking the appellation of "the + Mountains of Bright Stones", a name probably given to the Rocky + Mountains by the Amerindians, but used in all the earlier French and + English maps until the end of the eighteenth century.<a name="5-15"></a><a href="#note-5-15"><small>[15]</small></a> +</p> +<p> + On the 12th of January they reached the very foot of the mountains, + the slopes of which they saw were thickly covered with magnificent + forests of pine and fir—forests, that have since suffered to an + appalling extent from annual bush fires, which so far the United + States Government seems unable to check. Here they were to meet with a + bitter disappointment. They were travelling with a very large war + party of the Bow Indians for the purpose, if need be, of attacking and + routing the Shoshones; but a Shoshone camp at the base of the + mountains was found to be deserted, and the Bow Indians jumped to the + conclusion that the Shoshones had turned back through the forest + unseen, and were now making with all speed for the principal war camp + of the Bow Indians, where they would massacre the women and children. + They would listen to no remonstrances from the two Frenchmen, who + perforce had also to travel back, either alone or with the Bow + Indians, in the direction of their war camp, where the idea of a + Shoshone attack was found to be baseless. Eventually, the two La + Vérendrye brothers were obliged to make their way to the Missouri + River, and abandon any idea of finding a way to the Western Ocean + across the Rocky Mountains. +</p> +<p> + The French pioneers had already heard of the Spaniards in California, + and the possibility of getting into touch with them. They had now + discovered, first of all Europeans, the Rocky Mountains—that great + snowy range of North America which extends from Robson Peak on the + eastern borders of British Columbia to Baldy Peak in New Mexico. +</p> +<p> + Afterwards the La Vérendryes directed their attention more to the + opportunities of reaching the Far West through the streams that flowed + into the system of Lake Winnipeg, and in this way discovered, in or + about 1743, the great River Saskatchewan. This river La Vérendrye's + sons followed up till they reached the junction between the North and + the South Rivers, and then they probably learnt a good deal more of + the Southern Saskatchewan, on which they may have built one or two + posts. La Vérendrye himself thought that this would prove to be the + best route by which the French could reach the Western Sea. +</p> +<p> + By this time the French Government was becoming alive to the + importance of these discoveries, and it conferred a decoration on La + Vérendrye, and allowed him to hope that he might be furnished with + means for further exploration. But he died soon afterwards, at the + close of 1749, and after his death his sons were treated with gross + ingratitude and neglect. The self-seeking Governor of New France + endeavoured to secure the fur trade for his own friends, and sent an + officer with a terribly long name—Captain Jacques Répentigny Le + Gardeur de Saint Pierre—to continue the exploration towards the + Pacific. From 1750 to 1763 the French occupation of this region of the + two Saskatchewan Rivers was extended till in all probability the + French got within sight of the northern Rocky Mountains in the + vicinity of Calgary. Then came the English conquest of Canada to stop + all further enterprise in this direction, and the story was next to be + taken up by English, Scottish, and Canadian explorers. +</p> +<p> + It will be men with English and Scottish names, mainly, who will + henceforth complete the work begun and established so magnificently by + Cartier, Brulé, Nicollet, Jolliet, La Salle, du L'Hut, and La + Vérendrye, though the French Canadians will also play a notable part, + together with "Americans", from New England. +</p> +<hr class="short"> +<a name="note-5-1"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#5-1"><u>1</u></a> Mentioned on p. <a href="#p80">80</a>. +</p> +<a name="note-5-2"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#5-2"><u>2</u></a> The Andastes were akin to the Iroquois, but did not + belong to their confederacy; they lived in Pennsylvania. +</p> +<a name="note-5-3"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#5-3"><u>3</u></a> The inaccurate statement has frequently been written + about Newfoundland being "the first British American colony". + Newfoundland was reached by the ship in which John Cabot sailed on his + 1497 voyage of discovery, and a few years afterwards its shores were + sought by the English in common with the French and the Portuguese, + and later on the Spaniards and Basques, for the cod fishery. But no + definite British settlement, such as subsequently grew into an actual + colony, was founded in Newfoundland until the year 1624; the island + was not recognized as definitely British till 1713, and no governor + was appointed till 1728. The first permanent English colonial + settlement in America was founded at Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607; and + in the Bermudas and Barbados (West Indies) soon afterwards. +</p> +<a name="note-5-4"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#5-4"><u>4</u></a> The Récollet (properly Recollect) friars were a strict + branch of the Franciscan order that were sometimes called the + Observantines. They were also known as "Recollects" (pronounced in + French <i>récollet</i>) because they were required to be constantly keeping + guard over their thoughts. This development of the Franciscan order of + preaching missionary friars was originally a Spanish one, founded + early in the sixteenth century, and becoming well established in the + Spanish Netherlands. Many of them were Flemings or Walloons. +</p> +<a name="note-5-5"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#5-5"><u>5</u></a> See p. <a href="#p160">160</a>. +</p> +<a name="note-5-6"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#5-6"><u>6</u></a> More probably musk oxen. +</p> +<a name="note-5-7"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#5-7"><u>7</u></a> La Salle was the name of his property in France. +</p> +<a name="note-5-8"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#5-8"><u>8</u></a> Born at Quebec in 1645. +</p> +<a name="note-5-9"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#5-9"><u>9</u></a> Father Jacques Marquette was born in the province of + Champagne, eastern France. He came to Canada when he was twenty-nine + years old, having already been prepared by the Jesuits for priesthood + and missionary work since his seventeenth year. He spent nine years in + Canada, and died at the age of thirty-eight. He has left an enduring + memory for goodness, courage, and purity of life. +</p> +<a name="note-5-10"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#5-10"><u>10</u></a> These remarkable rock pictures were situated immediately + above the present city of Alton, Illinois. In 1812 they still remained + in a good state of preservation, but the thoughtless Americans had + gradually destroyed them by 1867 in quarrying the rock for building + stone. +</p> +<a name="note-5-11"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#5-11"><u>11</u></a> He had named this place "Heartbreak" because when + building it he had learnt of the loss of his sailing ship <i>Griffon</i>, + with the splendid supply of furs which was to have paid off his debts, + with all his reserve supplies and his men. This was not the limit of + his troubles; for, after the overland journey of appalling hardships + through a country of melting ice, flood, swamp, and hostile + Iroquois—the Iroquois being furious with La Salle for having + outwitted them in the building of this fort, and seeking him + everywhere to destroy him—when he got to Montreal it was only to + learn that a ship, coming from France with further supplies for his + great journey had been wrecked at the mouth of the St. Lawrence! +</p> +<a name="note-5-12"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#5-12"><u>12</u></a> The real name of the Siou, as far as we can arrive at it + through the records of the French pioneers, was Issati or Naduessiu. +</p> +<a name="note-5-13"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#5-13"><u>13</u></a> The water of Lake Winnipeg—whatever it may be now—was + frequently stated by Amerindians in earlier days to be "stinking + water", or salt, brackish water, disagreeable to drink, and this lake + exhibits a curious phenomenon of a regular rise and fall, reminding + the observer of a tide, a phenomenon by no means confined to Lake + Winnipeg, but occurring on sheets of water of much smaller extent. +</p> +<a name="note-5-14"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#5-14"><u>14</u></a> What we should call to-day a "concession". +</p> +<a name="note-5-15"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#5-15"><u>15</u></a> The term Rocky Mountains was probably first officially + applied by the American expedition, under Lewis and Clarke, sent out + by the United States Government in 1804 to take possession of the + coast of Oregon, but it was used twenty or thirty years earlier by + British explorers of Western Canada. +</p> +<p class="return">[<a href="#contents">TABLE OF CONTENTS</a>] +</p> +<hr class="short"> +<a name="2HCH0006"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> + +<h2> + CHAPTER VI +</h2> +<h3> + The Geographical Conditions of the Canadian Dominion +</h3> +<p> + Before we continue to follow the adventures of the pioneers of British + North America, I think—even if it seems wearisome and discursive—my + readers would better understand this story if I placed before them a + general description of what is now the Dominion of Canada, more + particularly as it was seen and discovered by the earliest European + explorers. +</p> +<p> + The most prominent feature on the east, and that which was nearest to + Europe, was the large island of NEWFOUNDLAND, 42,000 square miles in + extent, that is to say, nearly as large as England without Wales. It + seems to bar the way of the direct sea access by the Gulf of St. + Lawrence to the very heart of North America; and, until the Straits of + Belle Isle and of Cabot were discovered, did certainly arrest the + voyages of the earliest pioneers. Newfoundland, as you can see on the + map, has been cut into and carved by the forces of nature until it has + a most fantastic outline. Long peninsulas of hills alternate with + deep, narrow gulfs, and about the south-east and east coasts there are + innumerable islets, most of which in the days of the early discoverers + were the haunt of millions of sea birds who resorted there for + breeding purposes. The heart of Newfoundland, so to speak, is an + elevated country with hills and mountains rising to a little over 2000 + feet. A great deal of the country is, or was, dense forests, chiefly + consisting of fir trees. As numerous almost as the sea birds were the + seals and walruses which frequented the Newfoundland coasts. Inland + there were very large numbers of reindeer, generally styled nowadays + by the French-Canadian name of <i>Caribou</i><a name="6-1"></a><a href="#note-6-1"><small>[1]</small></a>. Besides reindeer there + were wolves, apparently of a smaller size than those of the mainland. + There were also lynxes and foxes, besides polar bears, martens, + squirrels, &c. The human inhabitants of Newfoundland, whom I shall + describe in the next chapter, were known subsequently by the name of + Beothuk, or Beothik, a nickname of no particular meaning. They had + evidently been separated for many centuries from contact with the + Amerindians of the mainland, though they may have been visited + occasionally on the north by the Eskimo. They had in fact been so long + separated from the other Amerindians of North America that they were + strikingly different from them in their habits, customs, and language. +</p> +<p> + The climate of Newfoundland is not nearly so cold as that of the + mainland, nor so hot in summer, but it is spoilt at times by fogs and + sea mists which conceal the landscape for days together. In the + wintertime, and quite late in the spring, quantities of ice hang about + the shores of the islands, and when the warm weather comes, these + accumulations of ice slip away into the Atlantic in the form of + icebergs and are most dangerous to shipping. +</p> +<p> + To the south-east of Newfoundland the sea is very shallow for hundreds + of miles, the remains no doubt of a great extension of North America + in the direction of Europe which had sunk below the surface ages ago. + In this shallow water—the "Banks" of Newfoundland—fish, especially + codfish, swarmed in millions, and still continue to swarm with little, + if any, diminution from the constant toll of the fishing fleets. + Another creature found in great abundance on these coasts is the true + lobster,<a name="6-2"></a><a href="#note-6-2"><small>[2]</small></a> which filled as important a part in the diet of the + Beothuk natives, before the European occupation, as the salmon did in + the dietary of the British Columbian tribes. +</p> +<p> + The next most striking feature in the geography of Eastern North + America is NOVA SCOTIA. AS you look at it on the map this province + seems to be a long peninsula connected with the mainland by the narrow + isthmus of Chignecto; but its northernmost portion—Cape + Breton—really consists of two big and two little islands, only + separated from Nova Scotia by a very narrow strait—the Gut of Canso. + On the north of Nova Scotia lies the large Prince Edward Island, and + north of this again the small group of the Magdalen Islands, + discovered by Cartier, the resort of herds of immense walruses at one + time. Due west of Nova Scotia the country, first flat (like Nova + Scotia itself) and at one time covered with magnificent forests, rises + into a very hilly region which culminates on the north in the Shikshok + Mountains of the Gaspé Peninsula (nearly 4000 feet in height) and the + White Mountains (over 6000 feet) and the Adirondak Mountains (over + 5000 feet). The White, the Green, and the Adirondak Mountains lie just + within the limits of the United States. +</p> +<p> + North of the Gaspé Peninsula, in the great Gulf of St. Lawrence, is + Anticosti Island, which rises on the south in a series of terraces + until it reaches an altitude of about 2000 feet. This island, which is + well wooded, was said to have swarmed with reindeer at one time, and + perhaps other forms of deer also, and to have possessed grizzly bears + which fed on the deer, besides Polar bears visiting it in the winter. +</p> +<a name="image-0006"><!--IMG--></a> +<center> +<a href="images/map06-large.jpg"> <img src="images/map06-small.jpg" width="606" height="400" alt="Map of Canada"></a> +</center> +<!--IMAGE END--> +<p class="ar"> [<a href="images/map06-large.jpg"><small>LARGER MAP</small></a>]</p> + +<p> + Newfoundland is separated from the mainland of LABRADOR on the north + by the Strait of Belle Isle, and from Cape Breton Island on the south + by Cabot Strait. Labrador is an immense region on the continent, where + the coast (except for the deep inlet of Melville Lake) soon rises into + an elevated plateau 2000 feet in height, which is strewn with almost + uncountable lakes, out of which rivers flow north, south, east, and + west. On the north-east corner of Labrador there are mountains from + 3000 to 4000 feet, overlooking the sea. The whole of this vast + Labrador or Ungava Peninsula, which is bounded on the south by the + River and Gulf of St. Lawrence, and on the north by Hudson's Bay and + Hudson's Straits, is an inhospitable land, at no time with much + population. +</p> +<p> + "The winter of Labrador is long and severe; one would need to have + blood like brandy, a skin of brass, and an eye of glass not to suffer + from the rigours of a Labrador winter. In the summer the frequent fogs + render the air damp, and the constant breezes from the immense fields + of ice floating in the gulf keep the land very cool, and make any + alteration in the winter dress almost unnecessary" (James M'Kenzie). + Labrador and the lands farther north on the continent of North America + are separated from Greenland on the east by the broad straits—a great + branch of the Atlantic—named after Davis and Baffin, who first + explored them. Passing up Davis Strait, along the coast of Labrador to + beyond 60° N. lat., the voyager comes to Hudson's Straits, which, if + followed up first to the northwards and then to the south-west, would + lead him into the great expanse of Hudson's Bay, one of the most + important features in the geography of North America. +</p> +<p> + HUDSON'S BAY, which is a great inland sea with an area of about + 315,000 square miles, has a southern loop or extension called James + Bay, the shores of which are not at a very great distance either from + Lake Superior to the south-west, or from the source of the River + Saguenay on the south. The Saguenay flows into the Lower St. Lawrence + River. It is therefore not surprising that as soon as the French began + to settle in Lower Canada they heard of a vast northern inland sea of + salt water—Hudson's Bay. But the people who discovered and surveyed + Hudson's Bay during the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth + centuries were always on the search for a passage out of its waters + into the Arctic Sea, which would enable them to get right round + America into the Pacific Ocean. +</p> +<p> + In Arctic North America Nature really seems to have been preparing + during millions of years a grim joke with which to baffle exploring + humanity! It is easy enough to pass from Davis Straits into Hudson's + Bay, but to get out of Hudson's Bay in the direction of the Arctic + Ocean is like getting out of a very cleverly arranged maze. There are + innumerable false exits, which have disappointed one Arctic explorer + after another. When they had discovered that Hudson's Bay to the south + was only like a great bottle, and had no outlet, they explored its + northern waters; and when they found Chesterfield Inlet on the + north-west, which leads into Baker Lake, they thought perhaps here was + the passage through into the Arctic Sea. But no; that was no good. To + the north of Chesterfield Inlet was a broad channel called Roe's + Welcome, which led into Wager Bay and through frozen straits into + Fox's Channel, and this again into Ross Bay. Here only a very narrow + isthmus separates Hudson's Bay from the Arctic Sea; but still it is an + isthmus of solid land. Turning to the north-east and north there are + the broad waters of Fox's Channel leading into Fox's Basin; but the + north-west corner of this inland sea was so blocked with ice and + islands that it was not until the year 1822 that the <i>real</i> northern + outlet of Hudson's Bay was discovered by Captain EDWARD PARRY to be + the narrow Fury and Hecla Straits (the discovery was not completed + until 1839 <a name="p125"></a>by the Hudson's Bay Company's explorers T. SIMPSON and W. + DEASE). +</p> +<p> + Here you have found the way out into the Gulf of Boothia, which + communicates in the north with Barrow Strait and Baffin's Bay. But + across the supposed peninsula of Boothia there were discovered, in + 1847, by Dr. JOHN RAE (also an officer of the Hudson's Bay Company) + the narrow Bellot Straits, which lead into Franklin Straits and so + into M'Clintock Channel and the Arctic Ocean. After this you might + theoretically (if the ice permitted it) sail or steam your ship + through Victoria Straits and Coronation Gulf till you got into + Beaufort Sea (part of the open Arctic Ocean), or, by turning round + Prince Albert Land, pass through the Prince of Wales' Straits or + M'Clure Straits into the same Beaufort Sea. +</p> +<p> + The North-West Passage across the Arctic extremity of North America, + therefore, <i>did</i> exist after all, and the directest route would be up + Davis Straits, through Hudson's Straits into Fox's Basin, then through + the Fury and Hecla Straits into the Gulf of Boothia, then through the + Bellot Straits and Franklin Straits (past Victorialand and Kemp + Peninsula) and out through the Dolphin and Union Straits into the + Arctic Ocean, and so on round the north coast of Alaska, past Bering's + Straits into Bering Sea and the Pacific. But of course the + accumulations of ice completely block continuous navigation. +</p> +<p> + The huge jagged island of BAFFIN'S LAND differs from much of Arctic + America in that it has high land rising into mountains. This is so + completely covered with ice that it is of little interest under + present circumstances to the world of civilization, though the large + herds of musk oxen which it once supported were of much use to Arctic + explorers as a food supply in winter. The coasts are inhabited by a + few thousand Eskimo, and Davis Straits and Baffin's Bay possess a + certain amount of commercial importance owing to the whale fisheries + which are carried on there by the British, the Danes, the Americans, + and the Eskimo. In fact the importance of these whale fisheries have + of late made the Americans of the United States a little inclined to + challenge the British possession of these great Arctic islands. North + Devon, North Somerset, Prince of Wales' Land, Melville Island, Banks + Land, Prince Albert Land, &c. &c, are names of other great Arctic + islands completely within the grip of the ice. The nature of their + interior is almost unknown. They are at present of use to no form of + man unless it be to a few wandering Eskimo, who come to their coasts + in the summer to kill seals. +</p> +<p> + The great NORTH-WEST TERRITORIES of the Canadian Dominion extend from + the American frontier of Alaska (which is the 141° of W. long.) to the + Ungava Peninsula, which abuts on Labrador. Where this vast region + slopes to the Arctic Ocean and Hudson's Bay it is rather low and flat, + except between Alaska and the Mackenzie River, and between the + Mackenzie and the watershed of Hudson's Bay. The principal river + system in the far North-West is that of the great Mackenzie River, + which flows into the Arctic Ocean (Beaufort Sea) through an immense + delta, and is one of the longest rivers in the world. The southernmost + sources of the Mackenzie (such as the Peace River and the Athabaska + River) rise in the Rocky Mountains to the east of British Columbia. + These waters are stored for a time in Lake Athabaska, and then under + the name of Slave River flow northwards into the Great Slave Lake, and + out of this, under the name of Mackenzie River, into Beaufort Sea, + through an immense delta. The Great Bear Lake is also a feeder of the + Mackenzie. +</p> +<p> + Two other Arctic rivers at one time thought to be of great importance + as means of communication with the Arctic Ocean, are the Great Fish + River, which flows into Elliot Bay, and the Coppermine River, which + enters Coronation Gulf. The other northward-flowing rivers (passing + through innumerable lakes and lakelets) enter Hudson's Bay. +</p> +<p> + West of the great Mackenzie River rises the northernmost extension of + the Rocky Mountains. All this easternmost part of Alaska, which is + under British control, is a region of great elevation, something like + parts of Central Asia. The streams which rise here unite in the great + Yukon River, and this has its outlet in Bering's Sea. Some points of + the great mountains within the limits of British territory in this + direction reach to nearly 20,000 feet (Mount Logan). +</p> +<p> + But the climate of the northern parts of the Canadian Dominion differs + very greatly in the west as compared to the east. For instance, the + northern parts of Labrador are cruelly Arctic, hopelessly frozen, + though they are in the same latitude as St. Petersburg (the capital of + European Russia) and as the splendidly forested northern parts of + British Columbia. Eastern Labrador is a region in which explorers have + frequently perished from cold and starvation. Although in the lofty + parts of the Yukon country (three hundred and fifty miles north of + treeless Labrador) the winter is intensely cold, and the ground is + frozen for a considerable depth downwards, all the year round, there + are still great forests; and a white and Amerindian population find it + possible to live there all the year round, while animal life is + extremely abundant. On the other hand, a good deal of the territory + between Mackenzie River and Hudson's Bay is almost uninhabitable, + except during the summertime, owing to the depth of the snow and the + bare rocky nature of the ground. +</p> +<p> + The treeless area north of Lake Athabaska (the "barren lands" of the + Canadian Dominion) seems to consist of nothing but slabs of rock and + loose stones. Yet this region is far from being without vegetation. + The rock is often covered with a thin or thick sod of lichen + <a name="p128"></a>("reindeer moss", in some districts three feet deep) intermixed with + the roots of the wishakapakka herb (<i>Ledum palustre</i>, from which + Labrador tea is made), of cranberries, gooseberries, heather (with + white bell flowers), and a dwarf birch. This last, in sheltered places + where a little vegetable soil has been formed, grows into a low + scrubby bush. As to the gooseberries—here and farther south—Hearne + describes them as "thriving best on the stony or rocky ground, open + and much exposed to the sun". They spread along the ground like vines. + The small red fruit is always most plentiful and fine on the under + side of the branches, probably owing to the reflected heat of the + stones. In the bleaker places a hard, black, crumply lichen—the + "Tripe de roche" of the French Canadians (<i>Gyrophoreus</i>) grows on the + rocks and stones, and is of great service to the Amerindians, as it + furnishes them with a temporary subsistence when no animal food can be + procured. This lichen, when boiled, turns to a gummy consistence + something like sago. Hearne describes it as being remarkably good when + used to thicken broth; but some other pioneers complained that it made + them and their Indians seriously ill. Another lichen, "reindeer moss" + (<i>Cladina</i>), is also eaten by men as well as deer. The <i>muskegs</i>, or + bogs and marshes, produce in the summertime a very rapid growth of + grass (as well as breeding swarms of mosquitoes!), and thus furnish + food for the geese and swans which throng them between June and + October. +</p> +<p> + In the summertime all these northern territories of Canada—from the + basin of Lake Winnipeg, with its white pelicans, to the Arctic + circle—swarm with birds, wild swans, geese, ducks, plovers, grouse, + cranes, eagles, owls of several kinds—especially the great snowy + eagle-owl—red-breasted thrushes, black and white snow-buntings, + scarlet grosbeaks (the female green and grey), crested jays, and + ravens "of a beautiful glossy black, richly tinged with purple", but + smaller in size than those of Europe. +</p> +<p> + This is also the country for bears. Some grizzlies still linger here. + Their range at one time extended to near the Arctic circle. In + Alaska (British as well as United States) there is an enormous + chocolate-coloured bear, the biggest in the world. The Polar bear, + usually creamy white along the seacoast, is stated to range inland + during the summer over the "barren grounds", and to develop either a + permanent local variety or a seasonal change of coat, which is + greyish-brown or blue-grey. +</p> +<p> + The black bear in northern Canada is said to give birth at times to + cubs which are cinnamon-brown in colour. +</p> +<p> + "In the early summer the black bears swim up and down the northern + rivers with their mouths open, swallowing the immense number of water + insects which have come into being at that season." Hearne goes on to + state that bears which have subsisted on this food for some days, when + cut open emit a stench that is intolerable, and which taints their + flesh to a sickening degree. The insects on which they feed are mostly + of two kinds: one a sort of grasshopper with a hard black skin, and + the other a soft, brown, sluggish fly. "This last is the most + numerous. In some of the lakes such quantities are forced into the + bays when the wind blows hard, that they are pressed together in dead + multitudes and remain a great nuisance. I have several times, in my + inland voyages from York Fort (Hudson's Bay), found it scarcely + possible to land in some of those bays for the intolerable stench of + those insects, which in some places were lying in putrid masses to the + depth of two or three feet." It is more than probable that the bears + occasionally feed on these dead insects. After the middle of July, + when they take to a diet of berries, they are excellent eating, and + continue to be so to the end of the winter. +</p> +<p> + The Arctic foxes of this region when young are sooty black all over, + and gradually change to a light ash-grey in colour, with a dark, + almost blue, tint on the head, legs, and back. In winter they usually + become white all over, with or without a black tip to the tail; but it + is recorded by some travellers that not all the foxes of the <i>Canis + lagopus</i> species turn white; some keep their dark-grey colour all the + year round. The common fox (<i>C. vulpes fulvus</i>) in Northern Canada is + sometimes black, with white-tipped hairs. Wolves in these far northern + regions do not seem to have been so abundant as farther south. +</p> +<p> + The deer tribe are represented (north of the Athabaska region) by the + reindeer and the elk (called by the Canadians "Moose"). The wapiti or + red deer (for which the common Amerindian name in the north was + <i>Waskesiu</i>) seldom ranged farther north than the vicinity of Lake + Winnipeg. The reindeer of the "barren ground" sub-species extended to + the Arctic seacoast, and were at one time especially abundant in + Labrador. Here they were so tame, down to a hundred years ago, that + fishermen were often known to shoot many of them from the windows of + their huts near the seashore. This type (<i>Rangifer tarandus arcticus</i>) + might possibly be domesticated; not so the larger and much wilder + Caribou woodland reindeer of the more southern and western parts of + the Dominion, which dislikes the neighbourhood of man. The elk or + moose, east of the Rocky Mountains, was not found northward of about + 50° to 55°; but west of that range extended over all British Columbia + and Alaska, in which latter country it grows to a giant size and + develops enormous antlers. +</p> +<p> + Hearne says of the elk in northern Canada: "In summer, when they + frequent the margins of rivers and lakes, they are often killed by the + Indians in the water while they are crossing rivers or swimming from + the mainland to islands, &c. When pursued in this manner, they are + the most inoffensive of all animals, never making any resistance; and + the young ones are so simple that I remember to have seen an Indian + paddle his canoe up to one of them and take it by the poll without the + least opposition; the poor, harmless animal seeming at the same time + as contented alongside the canoe as if swimming by the side of its + dam, and looking up in our faces with the same fearless innocence that + a house lamb would; making use of its fore foot almost every instant + to clear its eyes of mosquitoes, which at that time were remarkably + numerous.... The moose are also the easiest to tame and domesticate of + any of the deer kind. I have repeatedly seen them at Churchill as tame + as sheep, and even more so; for they would follow their keeper any + distance from home, and at his call return with him without the least + trouble, or ever offering to deviate from the path." +</p> +<p> + The most northern range of the elk would seem to be the region round + Lake Athabaska. +</p> +<p> + The musk ox (<i>Ovibos</i>) is perhaps the most remarkable beast of Arctic + Canada.<a name="6-3"></a><a href="#note-6-3"><small>[3]</small></a> Samuel Hearne is my principal source for the following + notes as to its habits and appearance: The number of bulls is very few + in proportion to the cows, for it is rare to see more than two or + three full-grown bulls with the largest herd; and from the number of + the males that are found dead, the Indians are of opinion that they + kill each other in contending for the females. In the rutting season + they are so jealous of the cows that they run at either man or beast + who offers to approach them, and have been observed to run and bellow + even at ravens and other large birds which chanced to alight near + them. They delight in the most stony and mountainous parts of the + "barren ground", but are seldom found at any great distance from the + woods. Though they are a beast of great magnitude, and apparently of a + very unwieldy inactive structure, yet they climb the rocks with ease + and agility, and are nearly as surefooted as a goat. Like it, too, + they will feed on anything; and though they seem fondest of grass, yet + in winter, when grass cannot be had in sufficient quantity, they will + eat moss or any other herbage they can find, as also the tops of + willows and the tender branches of the pine tree. +</p> +<p> + "The musk ox, when full grown, is as large as the generality of + English black cattle; but their legs, though thick, are not so long, + nor is their tail longer than that of a bear; and, like the tail of + that animal, it always bends downward and inward, so that it is + entirely hid by the long hair of the rump and hind quarters. The hunch + on their shoulders is not large, being little more in proportion than + that of a deer. Their hair is in some parts very long, particularly on + the belly, sides, and hind quarters; but the longest hair about them, + particularly the bulls, is under the throat, extending from the chin + to the lower part of the chest between the fore legs. It there hangs + down like a horse's mane inverted, and is fully as long, which gives + the animal a most formidable appearance. It is of the hair from this + part that the Eskimo make their mosquito wigs (face screens or masks). + In winter the musk oxen are provided with a thick fine wool or fur + that grows at the root of the long hair, and shields them from the + intense cold to which they are exposed during that season; but as the + summer advances this fur loosens from the skin, and by frequently + rolling themselves on the ground it works out to the end of the hair, + and in time drops off, leaving little for their summer clothing except + the long hair. This season is so short in these high latitudes, that + the new fleece begins to appear almost as soon as the old one drops + off, so that by the time the cold becomes severe they are again + provided with a winter dress." +</p> +<p> + According to Hearne, the flesh of the musk ox does not resemble that + of the bison, but is more like the meat of the moose or wapiti. The + fat is of a clear white, "slightly tinged with a light azure". The + calves and young heifers are good eating, but the flesh of the bulls + both smells and tastes so strongly of musk as to be very disagreeable; + "even the knife that cuts the flesh of an old bull will smell so + strongly of musk that nothing but scouring the blade quite bright can + remove it, and the handle will retain the scent for a long time". +</p> +<p> + Bisons of the "wood" variety are (or were) found far up the heights of + the Rocky Mountains and in the regions south-west of the Great Slave + Lake. These "wood buffaloes" delight in mountain valleys, and never + resort to the plains. And higher than anything, of course, range the + great white mountain goat-antelopes (<i>Oreamnus montanus</i>) from + northern Alaska to the Columbia River. +</p> +<p> + The north and the north-west were, of course, pre-eminently the great + fur-trading regions, though all parts of the vast Dominion have at one + time or another yielded furs for commerce with the white man. The + principal fur-bearing smaller mammals of the north and north-west were + wolves, foxes, lynxes, gluttons (wolverene), otters, martens (sables) + and black fishing martens, mink (a kind of polecat), ermine-stoats, + weasels, polar hares (<i>Lepus timidus</i>), beavers, musquash, lemming, + gopher or pouched ground-squirrels, and the common red squirrel of + North America. The grey squirrel and striped chipmunk are only found + in southern Canada. +</p> +<p> + The musquash (<i>Fiber zibethicus</i>) is such a characteristic animal of + northern Canada that it is worth while to give Hearne's description of + it (I would mention it is really a huge <i>vole</i>, and no relation of the + beaver):— +</p> +<p> + "The musk rat or musquash builds a dwelling near the banks of ponds or + swamps to shelter it from the bitter cold of the winter, but never on + land, always on the ice, as soon as it is firm enough, taking care to + keep a hole open to admit it to dive for its food, which chiefly + consists of the roots of grass or arums. It sometimes happens in very + cold winters that the holes communicating with their dwellings under + the water are so blocked by ice that they cannot break through them. + When this is the case, and they have no provisions left in the house, + they begin to eat one another. At last there may be only one rat left + out of a whole lodge. They occasionally eat fish, but in general feed + very cleanly, and when fat are good eating. They are easily tamed and + soon grow fond of their owner. They are very cleanly and playful, and + 'smell exceedingly pleasant of musk', but their resemblance to the rat + is so great that few are partial to them, though of course they are + much larger in size, and have webbed hind feet and a flat scaly tail. + In Canadian regions farther south the musquash no longer builds on the + ice, but in swamps, where it raises heaps of mud like islands in the + surrounding water. On the top of these mounds they build their nests, + and on the top of the musquash nest, or 'lodge', wild geese frequently + lay their eggs and bring forth their young brood without any fear of + being molested by foxes." +</p> +<p> + The YUKON territories of the Dominion, and above all the State of + BRITISH COLUMBIA, constitute a very distinct region from the rest of + British North America, not only in their tribes of Amerindians but in + their fauna, flora, and climate. British Columbia is one of the most + beautiful and richly endowed countries in the world. Here, in spite + of northern latitudes, the warm airs coming up from the Pacific Ocean + act somewhat in the same way as the Gulf Stream on north-west Europe, + and favour the growth of magnificent forests. +</p> +<p> + All this north-western part of British Columbia is very mountainous, + and the rocks are rich in minerals, especially gold in the Fraser and + Columbia Rivers, far north in the upper valley of the Yukon, and + copper and coal in Vancouver Island. +</p> +<p> + The rainfall in British Columbia is considerable, and the + flora—trees, plants, ferns—richer than anywhere else in North + America, with many resemblances to the trees and plants of Japan and + northern China. In British Columbia more than in any other part of the + world are found the noblest developments of the pines, firs, and + junipers (<i>Coniferæ</i>). +</p> +<p> + The coast rivers swarm with salmon, and perhaps because of the + abundance of sea fish close in shore there have been developed in the + course of ages those remarkable aquatic mammals, the sea lions or fur + seals (<i>Otaria</i>), whose relationship to the true seals is a very + distant one. On the Alaskan coasts and islands is <i>Otaria ursina</i>, the + creature which provides the sealskin fur of commerce. There is also + the much larger sea lion (<i>Otaria stelleri</i>), on the coasts of British + Columbia and Vancouver Island. Alexander Henry, jun., gives some + interesting facts about this remarkable beast. +</p> +<p> + "The natives at Oak Point, during the time Mr. Keith was there, killed + five very large sea lions by spearing them at night. Two canoes being + lashed together, they approach very softly, and throw their spears, + which are fastened by a long, strong cord, with a barb so fixed in a + socket that, when it strikes the animal and pierces the flesh, it is + detached from the shaft of the spear, but remains fastened to the + cord. This is instantly made fast between the canoes; the animal + dives and swims down river, dragging the canoes with such velocity + that they may be in danger of filling, and require great skill in + steering. In this manner they are carried down some miles before the + animal becomes exhausted with loss of blood, makes for the shore, and + lies on the beach, where they dispatch it and cut it up. The price of + a sea lion among the natives is one slave and an assortment of other + articles. Mr. Keith bought the flesh of one of these animals, and we + had some roasted; it resembles bear's meat. The hair is like that of a + horse, in summer of a chestnut colour. The natives, and also the + Russians, are particularly fond of marine animals, such as whales, + &c.; they drink the oil like milk." +</p> +<p> + Another notable water beast of the British Columbia coast was the sea + otter (<i>Enhydris</i>), described on p. <a href="#p305">305</a>. Such an immense value was set + on its fur that it is now nearly extinct within British limits. +</p> +<p> + The huge chocolate-coloured bear of the Yukon valley has already been + mentioned; also the very large, blackish-brown wild dog (<i>Canis + pambasileus</i>), which from one or two passages in the writings of + Canadian pioneers may also be found as far south as the British + Columbian Rocky Mountains. In the Yukon country the elk (which was + formerly very common in British Columbia) grows to gigantic + proportions with longer and larger antlers than elsewhere. In the + forested mountains of British Columbia (as well as farther north) are + the wood bison, the white mountain goat, grizzly bears, black bears, + two kinds of lynx, the wapiti red deer, and the large bighorn sheep. +</p> +<p> + These (<i>Ovis montana</i>) sheep are of a grey or leaden colour; the rump + and the inner side of the legs are white; the hoofs black, about one + inch long. "The hair is rather soft, and at the roots is mixed with + exceedingly fine white wool, which seems to grow only in certain + patches. The neck is relatively much thicker than that of other + animals of the same size; the legs and hoofs are also strongly built, + like the neck." The horns of the female are comparatively small, + flat, and have only a small bend backward; they are of a + dirty-yellowish white, marked with closely connected annulations to + the very tip. The legs are brown, as are also the ends of the hairs + about the neck; the hoofs are black. "A ewe will weigh about 100 lb. + when in full flesh, with only the entrails taken out. The head bears + every resemblance to that of our European sheep." The colour of the + males is nearly the same as that of the females, only rather browner; + they are much larger and more strongly built, with a pair of enormous + horns, which incline backward. As they grow they bend downward, and in + the course of time form a complete curve and project forward. At the + root the horns are nearly three inches square, the flat sides + opposite; they are marked with closely connected ridges and end in a + tapering flat point. +</p> +<p> + When the horns grow to a great length, forming a complete curve, the + tips project on both sides of the head so as to prevent the ram from + feeding. This, with their great weight, causes the sheep to dwindle to + a mere skeleton and die. The bighorn sheep feed much in the caverns of + the Rocky Mountains, eating a kind of moss and grass growing on the + floors of these caves, and also a peculiar soft, sweet-tasting "clay", + of which the natives also are fond. +</p> +<p> + The southern part of British Columbia contains the mule deer of + western North America (<i>Mazama macrotis</i>), and a very strange rodent, + the sewellel or mountain beaver (<i>Haplodon</i>), a creature distantly + allied to squirrels, marmots, and beavers, but restricted in its + distribution to a few parts of California, Oregon, and British + Columbia. Amongst the birds noteworthy in the landscape are the + white-headed sea eagles and Californian condors (<i>Pseudogryphus + californianus</i>). Humming-birds range through British Columbia and + Vancouver Island between mid-April and October. +</p> +<p> + In the regions about the upper Kootenay River (Eastern British + Columbia), before the railway was constructed, there were wild horses, + descended, no doubt, from those which had escaped from the Spaniards + in New Mexico and California. They went in large herds, and in the + winter when the snow was deep the natives would try to catch them by + running them down with relays of fresh horses, or driving them up the + mountains into the deepest snow or some narrow pass. A noose would + then be thrown about the exhausted animal, which would be instantly + mounted by an Indian and broken immediately to the saddle. Some of + these wild horses were exceedingly swift, well-proportioned, and + handsome in shape, but they seldom proved as docile as those born in + captivity. When in a wild condition they would snort so loudly through + the nostrils on descrying an enemy that they could be heard at a + distance of five hundred yards. +</p> +<p> + The provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba—the MIDDLE + WEST—represent mainly the great prairie region of the Canadian + Dominion. Nearly all the streams here flow from the eastern side of + the Rocky Mountains and direct their course to the basin of Lake + Winnipeg and to Hudson's Bay. A few turn south-west to the Missouri + and Mississippi. The landscapes here remind one more of the middle + part of the United States. The climate is severe in winter but very + warm and dry in summer. In the extreme south, within the basin of the + upper Missouri, the "prickly pear" (<i>Opuntia</i>) cactus grows in + sheltered places, and suggests affinities with distant Colorado and + California. +</p> +<p> + These great plains and river courses of the middle West were, until + about fifty years ago, one of the world's great natural parks or + zoological gardens. Large numbers of wapiti deer, of the smaller + Virginian deer,<a name="6-4"></a><a href="#note-6-4"><small>[4]</small></a> and of the <a name="p139"></a>prongbuck "antelope"<a name="6-5"></a> <a href="#note-6-5"><small>[5]</small></a> thronged the + grassy flats, and elk browsed on the foliage of the thickets along the + river banks. Grizzly bears and black bears,<a name="6-6"></a><a href="#note-6-6"><small>[6]</small></a> large grey wolves, the + small coyote wolf, the pretty little kit fox and large red fox preyed + on these herbivores, as did also pumas and lynxes. Marmots and prairie + hares (<i>Lepus campestris</i>)—often called rabbits by the pioneers, who + also named the marmots "wood-chucks"—frolicked in the herbage, and + formed the principal prey of the numerous rattlesnakes. By the shores + of streams and lakes stood rows of stately cranes: the whooping crane, + of large size, pure white, with black quill feathers, the crown of the + head crimson scarlet and the long legs black; and the purple-brown + crane, somewhat smaller in size. On hot, calm days in the region of + Lake Winnipeg the cranes soar to an amazing height, flying in circles, + till by degrees they are almost out of sight. Yet their loud note + sounds so distinct and near that the spectator might fancy they were + close to him. +</p> +<p> + The air at this season is full of great birds—eagles, buzzards, + hawks, and falcons—soaring in circles to look out for prey among the + flocks of wild swans, white geese, bernicle geese and brent geese, + duck and teal, which cover the backwaters and the marshes and shallow + lagoons. Turkey buzzards, coming up from the south, act as scavengers + during the summer months. Immense flocks of passenger pigeons, + buntings, grosbeaks, attack the ripening fruits and the wild rice of + the swamps. Grouse in uncountable numbers inhabit the drier tablelands + and open moors.<a name="6-7"></a><a href="#note-6-7"><small>[7]</small></a> +</p> +<a name="image-0007"><!--IMG--></a> +<center> +<img src="images/pc07.jpg" width="281" height="450" +alt="Indians Lying in Wait for Moose"> +</center> +<!--IMAGE END--> +<h5>INDIANS LYING IN WAIT FOR MOOSE</h5> +<p> + But—a hundred years ago and more—the dominant features in the + fauna of the Middle West was the bison. Between the Athabaska and + Saskatchewan Rivers on the north, the Rocky Mountains on the west, and + Lake Superior on the east the bison passed backwards and forwards over + the great plains and prairies in millions, when white explorers first + penetrated these lands. They moved in herds which concealed the ground + from sight for miles. Here are some word pictures selected from the + writings of the pioneers between 1770 and 1810: +</p> +<p> + "The buffaloes chiefly delight in wide open plains, which in those + parts produce very long coarse grass, or rather a kind of small flags + and rushes, upon which they feed; but when pursued they always take to + the woods. They are of such an amazing strength, that when they fly + through the woods from a pursuer, they frequently brush down trees as + thick as a man's arm; and be the snow ever so deep, such is their + strength and agility, that they are enabled to plunge through it + faster than the swiftest Indian can run in snowshoes. To this I have + been an eyewitness many times, and once had the vanity to think that I + could have kept pace with them; but though I was at that time + celebrated for being particularly fleet of foot in snowshoes, I soon + found that I was no match for the buffaloes, notwithstanding they were + then plunging through such deep snow, that their bellies made a + trench in it as large as if many sacks had been hauled through it. Of + all the large beasts in those parts the buffalo is easiest to kill, + and the moose are the most difficult; neither are the (red) deer very + easy to come at, except in windy weather: indeed it requires much + practice and a great deal of patience to slay any of them, as they + will by no means suffer a direct approach, unless the hunter be + entirely sheltered by woods or willows. +</p> +<p> + "The flesh of the buffalo is exceedingly good eating, and so entirely + free from any disagreeable smell or taste, that it resembles beef as + nearly as possible." +</p> +<p> + "The spots of wood along the Park River are ravaged by buffaloes + (bison); none but the large trees are standing, the bark of which is + rubbed perfectly smooth, and heaps of hair and wool lie at the bottom + of the trees ... and even the grass is not permitted to grow.... The + ground is trampled more by these cattle than about the gate of a + farmyard." +</p> +<p> + "The Kris informed me they had seen a calf as white as snow in a herd + of buffalo. White buffalo are very scarce. They are of inestimable + value among the nations of the Missouri.... There were also some of a + dirty-grey colour, but these are very rare." +</p> +<p> + "I brought home two buffalo calves alive; they no sooner lost sight of + the herd than they followed my horse like dogs, directly into the + fort. On chasing a herd at this season the calves follow it until they + are fatigued, when they throw themselves down in high grass and lie + still, hiding their heads if possible. But seeing only a man and his + horse they remain quiet and allow themselves to be taken. Having been + a little handled, they follow like dogs." +</p> +<p> + In the spring, when the ice melted, innumerable buffaloes were killed + through attempting to cross the rivers on the melting ice. They would + drift by an observer (such as Alexander Henry, jun.) in entire herds + of drowned corpses. Vast numbers perished. They formed one continuous + line on the current for two days and two nights. +</p> +<p> + "By this time the river was crowded with them, swimming across, + bellowing and grunting terribly. The bulls really looked fierce; all + had their tails up, and each appeared eager to land first. The scene + would have struck terror to one unaccustomed to such innumerable + herds. From out in the plains, as far as the eye could reach, to the + middle of the river, they were rushing toward us, and soon began to + land about ten yards off. I shot one dead on the spot, my ball having + broken his neck; my hunter and guide only wounded theirs. This + discharge suddenly halted those on the south side, and turned those + that were still in the water." +</p> +<p> + In the autumn:—"Plains burned in every direction and blind buffalo + seen every moment wandering about. The poor beasts have all the hair + singed off; even the skin in many places is shrivelled up and terribly + burned, and their eyes are swollen and closed fast. It was really + pitiful to see them staggering about, sometimes running afoul of a + large stone, at other times tumbling down hill and falling into creeks + not yet frozen over. In one spot we found a whole herd lying dead." +</p> +<p> + Throughout British North America, from the Yukon to Newfoundland, and + from Labrador to Vancouver's Island, the rivers and freshwater lakes + swarm with fish, and fish that in most cases is exceedingly good to + eat. Salmon are most strikingly abundant in the rivers of British + Columbia and Newfoundland, but they also ascend most of the rivers + flowing into the Atlantic and Hudson's Bay. In the great lakes of + Canada and of the middle west there are trout and white fish + (<i>Coregonus</i>), pike, bass, chub, barbel, and five species of sturgeon. + In the rivers and lakes of the far north-west is found the blackfish + (<i>Dallia</i>). +</p> +<p> + Hearne writes of Lake Athabasca that it swarms with fish, such as + pike, trout, perch, barbel, and other kinds not easily identified. + Apparently there is also a form of gar-pike found here (see p. <a href="#p74">74</a>); + this is described as having scales of a very large and stiff kind, and + being a beautiful bright silver in colour. The size of these gar-pike + range from two feet to four feet in length. Their flesh was delicately + white and soft, but so foul and rank in taste that even the Indians + would not eat it. The trout in Lake Athabaska seem to have been + enormous, weighing from 35 to 40 pounds, while pike were of about the + same weight. +</p> +<p> + The Amerindian tribes and the early European explorers lived mainly on + fish, which was a palatable and easily obtained food. Yet it must be + admitted that they had a splendid array of large and small game from + which to take their toll. +</p> +<p> + Nor was the whole Dominion, from west to east and up to the Arctic + zone, wanting in wild vegetable produce fit for man's consumption. The + sugar maple (<i>Acer saccharinum</i>) and its ally the <i>Negundo</i> maple + provided a delicious syrup; the bark of certain poplars and the bast + of the sugar pine were chewed for their well-flavoured sweetness; the + wild rice of the marshes will be further described in the next + chapter. The wild fruits included delicious strawberries, cherries, + gooseberries, currants, black currants, grapes (in the south only), + blackberries of many kinds, whortleberries, cranberries, pears of the + service tree (<i>Pyrus canadensis</i><a name="6-8"></a><a href="#note-6-8"><small>[8]</small></a>), and raspberries of various + types—red, yellow, and black. Southern Canada and Nova Scotia + contained various nut trees of the walnut order (hickories, + butter-nuts, &c.), and hazel nuts were found everywhere except in the + north. +</p> +<p> + We have left undescribed what is still politically the most important + part of the whole of British North America—UPPER and LOWER CANADA. + These regions lie within the basin of the great St. Lawrence River, + beyond all doubt the most important waterway of North America, more + important even than the Mississippi. The main origin of the St. + Lawrence in the west is Lake Superior, the largest sea of fresh water + in the world, which is connected with Lake Nipigon on the north. The + waters of Lake Superior are carried over the Sault Ste. Marie rapids + into Lake Huron and find a huge backwater in Lake Michigan.<a name="6-9"></a><a href="#note-6-9"><small>[9]</small></a> Out of + Lake Huron again they flow past Detroit into Lake Erie. From Duluth, + at the westernmost extremity of Lake Superior, to Buffalo, on the + easternmost point of Lake Erie, including all Lake Michigan and Lake + Huron, with its bays and channels, a steamer can pass with just the + one difficulty (easily surmounted) of the rapids at Sault Ste. Marie + between Lake Superior and Lake Huron. But after you have left Lake + Erie on the east you find yourself in the Niagara River, which at the + Niagara Falls plunges several hundred feet downwards into Lake + Ontario. From Lake Ontario to the sea along the St. Lawrence there is + uninterrupted navigation, though there are rapids that require careful + steering both with steamers and boats. Quebec marks the place where + the St. Lawrence River suddenly broadens from a river into a tidal + gulf of brackish or salt water. Ocean steamers from all over the world + can come (except during the height of the winter, when the water + freezes) to Quebec. But for the ice in wintertime Quebec would be + <i>the</i> great sea-port of eastern Canada. +</p> +<p> + "If pitiless rock is commonly understood by an 'iron-bound shore', + then the coasts of the River St. Lawrence along the northern side of + the Gulf may truly be so styled, as nothing scarcely is to be seen + for hundreds of leagues but bare rocky mountains, capes and cliffs in + various shapes and figures, some of which are dotted with a few spruce + firs, while others present their bald pates deprived of covering by + the unmerciful hand of time." (James M'Kenzie). +</p> +<p> + The winters of the Quebec province are extremely cold, but the summer + and autumn are warm and sunny. The best winter climate, possibly, in + all Canada (though not as good as that of Vancouver Island, British + Columbia) is to be found in the small peninsula region, on the shores + of Lakes Erie and Huron, between Toronto and Detroit. This is the + district which the Jesuit missionaries described as "an earthly + paradise" even during the winter-time. +</p> +<p> + The following extracts, mostly from the journals of Alex. Henry, jun., + give a good idea of the difference in climate and temperature between + the western and the central parts of the Canadian Dominion. +</p> +<p> + The late spring of northern Canada (Lake Nipigon, 50° N. lat.):—About + May 15, the tops of the poplars begin to appear green, with fresh + buds; the hills are changing their hue from a dry straw colour to a + delightful verdure, and fragrant odours greet us. +</p> +<p> + "Early in March, 1800, in the Assiniboin country (Manitoba, about 29° + N. lat.) the snow was entirely gone, for this winter had been an + abnormally mild one for central Canada. The birds soon realized the + openness of the season, for, on the 7th of March, turkey-buzzards + began to arrive from the south, and cormorants, ducks, swans, and + other spring birds; indeed, by the 24th of March not only had the snow + quite melted, but the meadows had grown so dry with the hot sun that + some accidents set them on fire. By April the 11th the weather had + become excessively hot, and immense flocks of the traveller-pigeon + (<i>Ectopistes</i>) flew northwards over the country." +</p> +<p> + In somewhat similar latitudes (50°) the spring bursts on the Pacific + coast region of British Columbia towards the end of February. "The + tall raspberry bushes were in blossom with a beautiful red flower, + which appeared more forward than the leaf (<i>Rubus spectabilis</i>). The + elder had sprouts an inch long, the alder was also beginning to + sprout, and willows were budding." +</p> +<p> + Although nowhere in Upper and Lower Canada (or in the maritime + provinces of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia) are the forests so + splendid as in parts of British Columbia, yet nevertheless when this + region was first discovered the magnificence of its woodlands greatly + impressed even the explorers of the sixteenth and seventeenth + centuries, who were not as much given to praise of landscape beauty as + are we of later times. These Canadian forests include oaks, elms, + pines and firs, chestnuts and beeches, birch trees and sycamores, + maples and poplars, willows, alders, and hazelnuts (these last + sometimes growing into tall trees with thick trunks). The trees and + low-growing plants are partly like those of the north-eastern United + States, and partly resemble those of northern and central Europe. +</p> +<p> + Nowadays, owing to two centuries of incessant killing, the beasts and + birds of Upper and Lower Canada are not nearly so abundant as they + were a hundred years ago. When Canada proper was first discovered, the + wapiti red deer was still found in the basin of the St. Lawrence; it + has long since been extinct. There are, however, still lingering, + reindeer in the north, and elk in the forests of the east. There are + also Virginian deer (<i>Mazama</i>), but there is no bison (and, so far as + we know, never has been). There is no prongbuck, and many other + creatures characteristic of the United States and British Columbia are + not found in Upper and Lower Canada or in the maritime provinces. The + tree porcupine (<i>Erethizon dorsatus</i>), which the Canadians call + "Urson", or "Little Bear" is found still in the well-wooded regions + of eastern and southern Canada, as well as in British Columbia and + Alaska. In southern Canada there is the wood hare (<i>Lepus + sylvaticus</i>), and in the east and north the varying hare (<i>L. + americanus</i>) which turns white in winter. +</p> +<p> + Perhaps the most characteristic animal of this region was and is still + the beaver, though the beaver is found all over British North America + as far north as the Saskatchewan province and westwards into British + Columbia. +</p> +<p> + It is curious that the Indians of central Canada had a belief + (recorded by French and English pioneers) that occasionally in the + dusk, or at night, they have seen an enormously large beaver in the + water, so large that at first sight they have taken it for a moose. + Travellers who have related this have surmised that the Indian perhaps + saw a bear swimming, or a female moose, and in the dim light mistook + it for a giant beaver. But as we know that there were once giant + beavers (<i>Trogontherium</i>) as large as a bear, existing in England, it + is just possible there may have been a gigantic type of beaver + lingering in Canada before the opening up of the country by Europeans. +</p> +<p> + The beaver of North America is a very similar animal to the beaver + which used to exist wild in Wales, England, France, Germany, and + central Europe, and which still lingers in some parts of the Rhine + valley, Poland, Russia, and Siberia; but the American form is + classified as a separate species—<i>Castor canadensis</i>. +</p> +<p> + Beavers were sometimes exterminated or diminished in numbers by an + epidemic disease, which, according to JAMES TANNER<a name="6-10"></a><a href="#note-6-10"><small>[10]</small></a>, destroyed vast + quantities of them. +</p> +<p> + "I found them dead or dying in the water, on the ice, and on the land; + sometimes I found one that, having cut a tree half down, had died at + its roots; sometimes one who had drawn a stick of timber halfway to + his lodge was lying dead by his burthen. Many of them which I opened + were red and bloody about the heart. Those in large rivers and running + water suffered less; almost all of those that lived in ponds and + stagnant water, died. Since that year the beaver have never been so + plentiful in the country of Red River and Hudson's Bay as they used + formerly to be." +</p> +<p> + The great attraction which Canada offered to France and England as a + field of adventure lay in its wonderful supply of furs. The beaver + skins were perhaps the commonest article of export, and were generally + regarded as a unit of value, such as a shilling might be. Other skins + were valued at "so many beavers," or the smaller ones at half or a + quarter of a beaver each. Besides beaver skins, which were used for + making hats, as well as capes and coats, the following furs and skins + were formerly, or are still, exported from Canada. "Buffalo" + robes—the carefully rubbed-down hides of the bison, rendered, by + shaving and rubbing, so thin and supple that they could be easily + folded; reindeer and musk-ox skins treated in the same way; marten or + sable skins; mink (a kind of polecat); ermine (the white winter dress + of the stoat); the fishing marten, or pekan; otter skins; black bear + and white polar bear skins; raccoon, muskwash, squirrel, suslik, and + marmot skins, and the soft white fur of the polar hare; the white + skins of the Arctic fox, the skins of the blue fox, black fox, and red + fox;<a name="6-11"></a><a href="#note-6-11"><small>[11]</small></a> wolf skins, and the furs of the wolverene or glutton, and of + the skunk—a handsome black-and-white creature of the weasel family, + which emits a most disgusting smell from a gland in its body. (The + skunk only comes from the south-central parts of the Canadian + Dominion). At one time a good many swans' skins were exported for the + sake of the down between the feathers, also the skins of grebes. +</p> +<hr class="short"> +<p> + A general fact that must not be forgotten in studying the adventures + of the pioneers of Canada was the means which Nature and savage man + had provided or invented for quickly traversing in all directions this + enormous area of nearly half North America. These means consisted (1) + of the distribution of salt and fresh water in such a way that by + means of ocean-sailing ships explorers coming from the east could + enter through straits and bays of the sea into the heart of Canada; + and (2) the facility, on quitting the seashore, of passing up + navigable rivers in boats or canoes into big lakes, and from these + lakes into other rivers leading to other lakes. Moreover, the + different river systems approached so closely to one another that even + the Amerindians and the Eskimo, long before the white man, had + realized that they had only to pick up their light canoes and carry + them a few miles, to launch them on fresh waters which might provide + hundreds or even thousands of miles of continuous travel. These are + the celebrated "portages" of Canadian history, from the French word + <i>porter</i>, to carry, transport. Sometimes the portages were made still + easier for loaded canoes by a road being cleared through the scrub and + over the rocks, and wooden rollers placed across it. Strong men could + then easily haul a loaded canoe over these wooden rollers until it + could be launched again in the water. Often these portages were made + to circumvent dangerous rapids or waterfalls. The Indians and the + French Canadians soon learnt how to steer canoes down rushes of + water—rapids—which we should think very dangerous on an English + river; but of course many of the rivers were obstructed <a name="p150"></a>at intervals + by descents of water which no canoe could traverse up or down, and in + these cases a path was cut from one smooth part of the river to + another, and the canoe carried or hauled overland. +</p> +<p> + In this way the great French and British explorers found it possible + to travel by water from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean across a + width of land of something like 2500 miles. The only serious walking + that had to be done was the crossing somewhere or other of the Rocky + Mountains, where the streams, of course, were far too precipitate in + descent to be navigable. In the hot, dusty plains of Assiniboia and + the upper Missouri region the Amerindians had introduced horses, + obtained indirectly from Spanish Mexico, and these were of great + service to the white pioneers, especially in their pursuit of the + bison. +</p> +<p> + So much for the summer season, when the rivers were full and + overflowing, and the ground consisted of bare rock, sand, or soil + covered with vegetation; the abundance of navigable streams and the + suitability of the country to horses rendered very little walking + necessary for those who wished to traverse the Canadian Dominion from + end to end. +</p> +<p> + But the winter changed these conditions, the rivers became coated with + thick ice, and the ground was covered, except in steep places, with an + unvarying mantle of snow. Yet transport became just as easy as in the + summertime, though perhaps a trifle more fatiguing. Men and women put + on snowshoes shaped like tennis rackets, and flew over the hard snow + quicker than a canoe could travel, dragging after them small sledges + on which their luggage was packed; or, if they had not much luggage, + carrying it slung round the shoulders and scurrying away on their + snowshoes even swifter for the weight they carried; or they travelled + over the smooth ice of the rivers and lakes. +</p> +<p> + Winter travellers, however, were sometimes troubled with a disorder + known as the snowshoe evil. This arose from the placing of an unusual + strain on the tendons of the leg, occasioned by the weight of the + snowshoe. It often resulted in severe inflammation of the lower leg. + The local remedy was a drastic one: it was to place a piece of lighted + touchwood on the most inflamed part, and to leave it there till the + flesh was burnt to the nerve! +</p> +<p> + In the north and the regions round Hudson's Bay, and also in the far + west—British Columbia and Alaska—there were dogs, more or less of + the Eskimo breed, trained by Eskimo or by Amerindians to drag the + sledges. In the months of December and January it is true that the + daylight in Arctic Canada (north of Lake Athapaska) became so short + that the sun at its greatest altitude only appeared for two or three + hours a short distance above the horizon. But there were + compensations. The brilliancy of the Aurora Borealis, even without the + assistance of the moon and the stars, made some amends for that + deficiency, for it was frequently so light all night that travellers + could see to read a very small print (Samuel Hearne). The importance + of these "Northern lights" must not be overlooked in forming an + opinion on the habitability of the far north in the "dark" winter + months. The display was frequent and brilliant. +</p> +<p> + The Athapaskan Indians called this phenomenon <i>Edthin</i>, that is to + say, "reindeer". When the Aurora Borealis was particularly bright in + the sky they would say that deer were plentiful in that part of the + heavens. Their fancy in this respect was not quite so silly as one + might think. They had learnt from experience that the Aurora Borealis + was in some way connected with electricity, and experience had equally + shown them that the skin of the reindeer, if briskly stroked by the + hand on a dark night, would emit as many electric sparks as the back + of a cat. On the other hand, the Amerindians in the southern and more + temperate regions thought the Aurora Borealis was a vast concourse of + "spirits of the happy day" dancing in the clouds. +</p> +<p> + Thus there were no climatic reasons why, both in summer and in winter, + immense distances should not be quickly covered in Canada between the + Rocky Mountains and the Atlantic Ocean. This is how a mere hundred of + white pioneers opened up Canada to the knowledge of the civilized + world far quicker than the same area could have been discovered in + Africa or Asia. Sometimes, for about a month, between the melting of + the snow and ice and the steady flowing of the rivers in the late + spring, or between the uncertain autumn of November and the confirmed + winter of December, there might be an interval of a few weeks in which + journeys had to be made on foot under conditions of great hardship, + through mud, swamp, and over sharp stones or slippery rocks. +</p> +<p> + "The plains are covered with water from the melting of the snow so + suddenly, and our men suffer much, as they are continually on the + march, looking after Indians in every creek and little river. The + water is commonly knee deep, in some places up to the middle, and in + the morning is usually covered with ice, which makes it tedious and + even dangerous travelling. Some of our men lose the use of their legs + while still in the prime of life", wrote one eighteenth-century + pioneer, in the Canadian spring. +</p> +<p> + Severe as were the winter conditions of climate, the explorers were + just as willing to travel through the winter as the summer, because in + the winter they were spared the awful plague of mosquitoes and midges + which still renders summer and early-autumn travel throughout the + whole of Canada, from the United States borders on the south to the + Arctic Ocean on the north, a severe trial, and even an unbearable + degree of physical suffering. +</p> +<hr class="short"> +<a name="note-6-1"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#6-1"><u>1</u></a> The first Frenchmen visiting North America, and seeing + the caribou without their horns, thought they were a kind of wild ass. + The reindeer of Newfoundland is a sub-species peculiar to this + island. +</p> +<a name="note-6-2"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#6-2"><u>2</u></a> <i>Homarus americanus</i>. The lobster of Newfoundland and the + coasts of North-east America is closely related to the common lobster + of British waters. These true lobsters resemble the freshwater + crayfish in having their foremost pair of legs modified into large, + unequal-sized claws. The European rock-lobster of the Mediterranean + and French coasts (the <i>langouste</i> of the French) has no large claws. +</p> +<a name="note-6-3"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#6-3"><u>3</u></a> The musk ox, which is not an ox, but a creature about + midway in structure and affinities between cattle on the one hand and + sheep and goats on the other, is a large beast comparatively, being + the size of a small ox, but appearing very much larger than it is on + account of the extremely thick coat of hair and wool. Both sexes have + horns, and the horns, after meeting in the middle and making more or + less of a boss over the forehead, droop down at the sides of the + cheeks and then turn up with sharp points. The musk ox once ranged + right across the northern world, from England and Scandinavia, through + Germany, Russia, and Siberia, to Alaska and North America. Many + thousands of years ago, during one of the Glacial periods, it + inhabited southern England. At the present day it is extinct + everywhere, excepting in the eastern parts of Arctic America, not + going west of the Mackenzie River nor south of Labrador. It is also + found in Greenland. +</p> +<a name="note-6-4"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#6-4"><u>4</u></a> <i>Mazama americana</i>, similar to, but quite distinct from, + the larger mule deer of British Columbia. +</p> +<a name="note-6-5"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#6-5"><u>5</u></a> The prongbuck (<i>Antilocapra americana</i>) is not a true + antelope, though in outward appearance it resembles a large gazelle. + It was called "cabri" by the French Canadians. +</p> +<a name="note-6-6"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#6-6"><u>6</u></a> "Bears make prodigious ravages in the brush and willows; + the plum trees, and every tree that bears fruit share the same fate. + The tops of the oaks are also very roughly handled, broken, and torn + down, to get the acorns. The havoc they commit is astonishing...." + —Alex. Henry, jun. +</p> +<a name="note-6-7"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#6-7"><u>7</u></a> Nowhere in the world are there so many kinds of grouse as + in North America. In the more northern regions are several species of + ptarmigan or snow partridges (<i>Lagopus</i>), which turn white in winter, + and the spruce partridges (<i>Canachites</i>); in the more genial climate + of the great plains of eastern Canada and in the Far West the ruffled + grouse and hazel grouse (<i>Bonasa</i>), the sage cocks (<i>Centrocercus</i>), + the prairie hens (<i>Tympanuchus</i>), and the blue or pine grouse + (<i>Dendrapagus</i>).<br><br> + + "To snare grouse requires no other process than making a few little + hedges across a creek, or a few short hedges projecting at right + angles from the side of an island of willows, which those birds are + found to frequent. Several openings must be left in each hedge, to + admit the birds to pass through, and in each of them a snare must be + set; so that when the grouse are hopping along the edge of the willows + to feed, which is their usual custom, some of them soon get into the + snares, where they are confined till they are taken out. I have caught + from three to ten grouse in a day by this simple contrivance, which + requires no further attendance than going round them night and + morning" (Hearne). +</p> +<a name="note-6-8"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#6-8"><u>8</u></a> Sometimes called <i>Amelanchier canadensis</i>. +</p> +<a name="note-6-9"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#6-9"><u>9</u></a> The south shore of Lake Superior, the whole of Lake + Michigan, the west shore of Lake Huron, and the south coasts of Lake + Erie and Lake Ontario are within the territories of the United + States. +</p> +<a name="note-6-10"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#6-10"><u>10</u></a> A remarkable eighteenth-century pioneer who joined the + Indians when a boy and lived as one of them. +</p> +<a name="note-6-11"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#6-11"><u>11</u></a> The blue fox is the Arctic fox (<i>Canis lagopus</i>) in its + summer dress; the black fox is a beautiful variety or sub-species of + the common fox (<i>C. vulpes</i>); so also is the red or "cross" fox. There + is also common throughout the Canadian Dominion the pretty little kit + fox (<i>Canis velox</i>). +</p> +<p class="return">[<a href="#contents">TABLE OF CONTENTS</a>] +</p> +<hr class="short"> +<a name="2HCH0007"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> + +<h2> + CHAPTER VII +</h2> +<h3> + The Amerindians and Eskimo: the Aborigines of British North America +</h3> +<p> + I have already attempted to describe in the first chapter the ancient + peopling of America from north-eastern Asia, but it might be useful if + I gave here some description of the Eskimo and Amerindian tribes of + the Canadian Dominion at the time of its gradual discovery by + Europeans, especially during the great explorations of the eighteenth + and early nineteenth centuries. +</p> +<p> + It is evident that the ESKIMO—who are quite distinct from the + Amerindians in physical type, language, customs, and industries—have + been for thousands of years the only inhabitants of Arctic America. + When the Norsemen came to the New World they seem to have met with + Eskimo as far south as New England, but in more recent times the + Eskimo have only been found inhabiting the extreme north and + north-east: in Greenland, on the Labrador coast, on Baffin's Land, and + along the Arctic coast of the North-American continent, between the + Coppermine River and the westernmost extremity of Alaska, as well as + on the opposite islands and promontories of Asia. +</p> +<p> + Their name for themselves as a people is usually "Innuit" (in + Greenland, "Karalit"). Eskimo is a corruption of <i>Eskimantsik</i>, a + northern Algonkin word meaning "eaters of raw flesh". Although their + geographical range extends over a distance of about three thousand + five hundred miles—from north-easternmost Asia to the east coast of + Greenland—the difference in their dialects is little more than that + between French and Italian; whereas the difference between the speech + of one Amerindian tribe and another—even where they belong to the + same language group—is very great—not less than that between German + and Latin, or English and French, or even between Russian and + Hindustani. This fact—of the widespread Eskimo language—makes some + authorities suppose that the presence of the Eskimo in Arctic America + cannot be such a very ancient event as, from other evidence, one might + believe. Perhaps the bold travelling habits of the Eskimo—which makes + them range over vast distances of ice and snow when hunting seals, + walruses, whales, musk ox, or reindeer—enables them to keep in touch + with their far-away relations. +</p> +<p> + The canoes or <i>kayaks</i> in which they travel (first described by the + Norsemen in the tenth century) are made out of the hide of the seal or + walrus. The leather is stretched over a framework constructed from + driftwood or whales' bones. There is a hole in the middle for the man + or woman to insert their legs. This hole they fill up with their + bodies. If the canoe capsizes, the Eskimo cannot fall out, but bobs up + immediately. He and the canoe are really "one-and-indivisible" when he + is navigating the seas and lakes, plying deftly a large paddle. +</p> +<p> + In regard to food they were certainly not particular or squeamish. + They loved best of all whales' blubber, or to drink the fishy-tasting + oil from bodies of whales, seals, or walruses. Besides the meat of + Polar bears and of any fur animals they could catch, or the musky beef + of the musk ox, they devoured eagerly sea birds' eggs, Iceland moss, + and even the parasitic insects of their own heads and bodies! Hearne + relates that they will eat with a relish whole handfuls of maggots + that have been produced in meat by the eggs of the bluebottle fly! On + the other hand, they held cannibalism in horror, whereas for two-two's + their Amerindian neighbours on the west and south would eat human + flesh without repugnance. +</p> +<p> + The Eskimo, though occasionally tall, are as a rule stumpy and + thickset, with very small hands and feet, broad faces, and projecting + cheekbones, a narrow nose without the aquiline bridge of the + Amerindian, slanting narrow eyes, and long heads containing large + well-developed brains. In disposition the Eskimo are nearly always + merry, affectionate to one another, honest, and modest. Modern + travellers in the Arctic regions give them invariably a high + character; but Frobisher, Davis, and the explorers of the sixteenth + and seventeenth centuries accused them of treachery and an inclination + to steal. Iron in any shape or form they could hardly resist taking. + Moreover, if they are the same people as the Skraellings of the Norse + traditions they must have been of a fiercer disposition a thousand + years ago. +</p> +<p> + The Amerindians who inhabited (more or less) the rest of the Canadian + Dominion, and the whole remainder of the New World, differed in + physical appearance from the Eskimo mainly in being taller and better + proportioned, with shorter and rounder heads, larger, fuller eyes, a + bigger nose, and a handsomer personal appearance. The skin colour, as + a rule, was darker and browner than the greyish- or pinkish-yellow of + the Eskimo. +</p> +<p> + The various human types that went to form the Amerindian race (beside + the Eskimo element in them) seem to have entered north-west America + from Asia, and first to have peopled the Pacific slopes of the Rocky + Mountains, after which they wandered farther and farther south till + they got into a warmer climate. Then they crossed the Rocky Mountains + and peopled the centre and east of what is now the United States. As + they pushed their way north up the valleys of the great rivers, they + no doubt killed, mingled with, or pushed back the Eskimo. At last + their northernmost extensions reached to the Mackenzie River, the + vicinity of Hudson's Bay, Labrador, and Newfoundland. But in all the + middle, west, and <a name="p156"></a>even east of Canada they seem to have been + <i>relatively recent arrivals</i>,<a name="7-1"></a><a href="#note-7-1"><small>[1]</small></a> not to have inhabited the country for + a great many centuries before the white man came, and all their + recorded and legendary movements in North America have been from the + south-west towards the north-east (after they had got across the Rocky + Mountains). The few cultivated plants they had, such as maize (Indian + corn), tobacco, and pumpkins, they brought with them or received from + the south. +</p> +<p> + The only domestic animal possessed by either Eskimo or Amerindian was + the dog. We are most of us by now familiar with the type of the Eskimo + dog—a large, wolf-like animal with prick ears and a bushy tail curled + over its back. In this carriage of the tail the Eskimo and most other + true dogs differ from wolves, with whom the tail droops between the + hind quarters. But there is a small wild American wolf—the + coyote—which carries its tail more upright, like that of the true + dog; and the coyote seems indeed an intermediate form between the wolf + and the original wild dog. Most of the domestic dogs of the + Amerindians<a name="7-2"></a><a href="#note-7-2"><small>[2]</small></a> (as distinguished from those of the Eskimo) seem to + have been derived from the coyote or small wolf of central North + America. +</p> +<p> + On the Pacific coast there were other types of domestic dog, + resembling greatly breeds that are found in eastern Asia and the + Pacific islands. Some of these were naked, and others grew silky hair, + which was woven by the natives into cloth (see p. <a href="#p323">323</a>). The Eskimo dog + almost certainly has been derived from northern Asia, and is closely + related to the well-known Chinese breed—the chow dog—and the + domestic breeds of ancient Europe. Even the commonest type of house + dog in the Roman Empire was very much like an Eskimo or a chow in + appearance. There is a true wild dog, however, in the Yukon province + of the Canadian Dominion and in Alaska—<i>Canis pambasileus</i>—a dark, + blackish-brown in colour. This may have been a parent of the Eskimo + dog, but it is also doubtless closely allied to the original (extinct) + wild dog of northern Asia, from which the chow and many other breeds + are directly descended. The Eskimo never under ordinary circumstances + ate their dogs; on the other hand, the Amerindians were fond of dog's + flesh, and in some tribes simply bred dogs for the table. +</p> +<p> + When Europeans first reached America all these Amerindian tribes, and + also the Eskimo, were still, for all practical purposes, in the Stone + Age. Those who lived in the north had discovered the use of copper and + had shaped for themselves knives and spear blades out of copper, but + not even this metal was in use to any great extent, and for the most + part they relied, down to the end of the eighteenth century, for their + implements and weapons, on polished and sharpened stones, on deer's + antlers, buffalo horns, sticks, sharp shells, beavers' incisor + teeth,<a name="7-3"></a><a href="#note-7-3"><small>[3]</small></a> the claws or spines of crustaceans, flints, and suchlike + substances—in short, they were leading the same life and using almost + exactly the same tools as the long-since-vanished hunter races of + Europe of five thousand to one hundred thousand years ago—the people + who pursued the mammoth, the bison, the Irish "elk", and the other + great beasts of prehistoric Europe. Indeed, North America represented + to some extent, as late as a hundred years ago, what Europe must have + looked like in the days of palæolithic Man. +</p> +<hr class="short"> +<p> + The AMERINDIANS of the Canadian Dominion (when the country first + became known to Europeans) belonged to the following groups and + tribes. The order of enumeration begins in the east and proceeds + westwards. I have already mentioned the peculiar <i>Beothiks</i> of + Newfoundland.<a name="7-4"></a><a href="#note-7-4"><small>[4]</small></a> In Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick, + and the Gaspé Peninsula there were the <i>Mikmak</i> Indians belonging to + the widespread ALGONKIN family or stock. West and south of the + Mikmaks, in New Brunswick and along the borders of New England, were + other tribes of the Algonkin group: the Etchemins, Abenakis, + Tarratines, Penobscots, <i>Mohikans</i>, and Adirondacks. North of these, + in the eastern part of the Quebec province, on either side of the Gulf + of St. Lawrence, were the <i>Montagnais</i>. This name, though it looks + like a French word meaning "mountaineers", was also spellt Montagnet, + and in various other ways, showing that it was originally a native + name, pronounced Montanyé. The Montagnais in various clans extended + northwards across Labrador until they touched the Eskimo, with whom + they constantly fought. The interior of Labrador was inhabited by + another Algonkin tribe, the <i>Naskwapi</i>, living in a state of rude + <a name="p159"></a>savagery. The <i>Algonkins</i> proper, whose tribe gave their name to the + whole stock because the French first became acquainted with them as a + type, dwelt in the vicinity of Montreal, Lake Ontario, and the valley + of the St. Lawrence. In upper Canada, about the great lakes and the + St. Lawrence valley, were the Chippeways, or <i>Ojibwés</i>, and the + Ottawas. West and north of Lake Michigan were the Miamis, the + Potawátomis, and the Fox Indians (the Saks or Sawkis). Between Lake + Winnipeg and Lake Superior were the <i>Cheyennes</i> (Shians); between + North and South Saskatchewan, the <i>Blackfeet</i> or Siksika Indians + (sections of which were also called Bloods, Paigans, Piegans, &c). + North of Lake Winnipeg, as far as Lake Athabaska, and almost from the + Rocky Mountains to the shores of Hudson's Bay, were the widespread + tribe of the <i>Kris</i>, or <i>Knistino</i>.<a name="7-5"></a><a href="#note-7-5"><small>[5]</small></a> The Gros Ventres or Big + Bellies—properly called <i>Atsina</i>—inhabited the southern part of the + middle west, between the Saskatchewan and the Missouri basins; and the + Monsoni or Maskegon were found in eastern Rupert Land. +</p> +<p> + All the above-enumerated tribes, except the Beothik indigenes of + Newfoundland, belong to the great and widespread ALGONKIN group. + (Algonkin is a word derived from the "Algommequin" of Champlain.) In + the valley of the St. Lawrence the French first encountered those + Indians whom they called <i>Huron</i>. This was a French word meaning + "crested", because these people wore their hair in a great crest over + the top and back of the head, which reminded the French of the + appearance of a wild boar (<i>Hure</i>). The real name of the Hurons, who + dwelt at a later date between Lakes Huron, Erie, Ontario, and the + neighbourhood of Montreal, was <i>Waiandot</i> (Wyandot); but they went + under a variety of other names, according to the clans, such as the + Eries and the Atiwándoran or Neutral Nation. They were also called the + "Good" <a name="p160"></a>Iroquois, to distinguish them from the six other nations, the + IROQUOIS proper of the French Canadians, who signalized themselves by + fiendish and frightful warfare against the French and the various + tribes of Algonkin Indians. The Hurons and the rest of the six tribes + grouped under the name of IROQUOIS <a name="7-6"></a><a href="#note-7-6"><small>[6]</small></a> were of the same stock + originally, forming a separate group like that of the Algonkins, + though they are supposed to be related distantly to the Dakota or + Siou. Amongst the "Six Nations" or tribes banded together in warfare + and policy were the celebrated "Mohawks" who dwelt on the southern + borders of the St. Lawrence basin and near Lake Champlain. As the + others of the six nations (including the Senekas and Onondagas) + inhabited the eastern United States, well outside the limits of + Canada, they need not be referred to here. +</p> +<p> + Between the South Saskatchewan, the Rocky Mountains, and Lake + Superior, nearly outside the limits of the Canadian Dominion, was the + great DAKOTA, or Siou group,<a name="7-7"></a><a href="#note-7-7"><small>[7]</small></a> divided into the distinct tribe of + <i>Assiniboin</i> or "Stone" Indians (because they used hot stones in + cooking), the "Crows" or Absaroka, the Hidatsa or Minitari (also + called Big Bellies, like the quite distinct Atsina of the Algonkin + family), the Menómini (the most north-eastern amongst the Siouan + tribes, and the first met with by the British and French Canadians + south-west of Lake Superior), the Winnebagos on the southern borders + of Manitoba, the Yanktons or Yanktonnais, the "<i>Santi Siou</i>" + proper—generally calling themselves <i>Dakota</i> or Mdewakanton—and the + "Tétons" along the northern Dakota frontier and into the Rocky + Mountains—also known as <i>Blackfeet</i>, Sans Arcs ("without bows"), + "Two-kettles", "Brulés" or "Burnt" Indians, &c. +</p> +<p> + Next must be mentioned the very important and widespread ATHAPASKAN or + Déné (Tinné) group, named after Lake Athapaska (or Athabaska), because + that sheet of water became a great rallying place for these northern + tribes. The Athapaskan group of Indians indeed represents the + "Northern Indians" of the Hudson's Bay Company's reports and + explorers. They drew a great distinction between the Northern Indians + (the Athapaskan tribes) and the Southern Indians, which included all + the other Amerindian groups dwelling to the south of the Athapaskan + domain. But although nowadays so much associated with the far north + and north-west of America, the Athabaskan group evidently came from a + region much farther south, and has been cut in half by other tribal + movements, wars, and migrations; for the Athapaskan family also + includes the Apaches and the Navaho of the south-western portions of + the United States and the adjoining territories of Mexico. The + northern and southern divisions of the Athapaskan group are separated + by something like twelve hundred miles. The following are the + principal tribes into which the Northern ATHAPASKAN group was divided + at the time of the first explorations of the north-west. There were + the <i>Chippewayan</i> Indians<a name="7-8"></a><a href="#note-7-8"><small>[8]</small></a> round about Lake Athapaska, and the + Caribou Eaters or Ethen-eldeli between Lake Athapaska and Reindeer + Lake. The "<i>Slaves</i>", or Slave Indians of the Great Slave Lake and the + upper Mackenzie River; the Beaver and Sarsi Indians (known also as the + Tsékehn), about the Peace River and the northern part of Alberta + province; and the <i>Yellow Knives</i>, or Totsan-ottine (so called from + their being found with light-coloured copper knives when first + discovered by Europeans), north-east of the Great Slave Lake and along + the Coppermine River: the <i>Dogribs</i> between the Great Slave Lake and + Great Bear Lake, perhaps (except in Alaska) the most northern + extension of the Amerindian type towards the Arctic regions. West of + the Dogribs dwelt—and still dwell—the interesting tribe of <i>Hare</i> + Indians, or Kawcho-Tinné. They extend northwards to the Anderson + River, on the verge of the Arctic Ocean. West of the lower Mackenzie + River, and stretching thence to the Porcupine or Yukon Rivers, are the + Squinting Indians ("Loucheux", or Kuchin), who in former times were + met with much farther to the south-east than at the present day. + Finally, there are the Nahani Indians, who have penetrated through the + Rocky Mountains to the Stikine River, reaching thus quite close to the + Pacific Ocean. This penetration northwards of groups of Athapaskan + Indians into districts inhabited for the most part by Amerindian + tribes differing widely in language and customs from all those <i>east</i> + of the Rocky Mountains, explains the way in which stories of the great + western sea—the Pacific—reached, by means of trading intercourse, + those Amerindian tribes of the middle-west and upper Canada, and so + stirred up the French and English explorers of the seventeenth and + eighteenth centuries to make the marvellous journeys which are + recounted in this book. +</p> +<p> + <i>West</i> of the Rocky Mountains, in British Columbia and Vancouver + Island (besides southern Alaska), the Amerindian tribes form the + Nūtka-Columbian group, which is markedly distinct from the + Amerindians <i>east</i> of the Rocky Mountains, from whom they differ + <i>widely</i> in language, type, and culture. They are divided into quite a + large number of small separate groups—the Wakashan or <i>Nūtkas</i> of + Vancouver Island and south-western British Columbia, the Shahaptian or + "Nez percés" Indians of the Columbia basin, and the Chinūks of + the lower Columbia River, the <i>Salishan</i> or "Flathead" group + (including the Atnās) of the Fraser and Thompson Rivers and central + British Columbia; and the <i>Haida</i> Indians of Queen Charlotte's Islands + and the north-west coast of British Columbia. It must be remembered + that these different groups are only based on the relationships of + their component tribes in language or dialect, and do not always imply + that the tribes belonging to them had the same customs and + dispositions; but they were generally able to communicate with one + another in speech, whereas if they met the Indians of another group + the language might be so totally different that they could only + communicate by means of signs. +</p> +<a name="image-0008"><!--IMG--></a> +<center> +<img src="images/pc08.jpg" width="274" height="425" +alt="An Amerindian Type of British Columbia"> +</center> +<!--IMAGE END--> +<h5>AN AMERINDIAN TYPE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA</h5> +<p> + Sign and gesture language<a name="7-9"></a><a href="#note-7-9"><small>[9]</small></a> was extraordinarily developed amongst all + the Amerindian races from the Arctic Ocean to the Antarctic. Not only + that, but they were quick to understand the purpose of pictures. They + could draw maps in the sand to explain the geography of their country, + and Europeans could often make them understand what they required by + rough drawings. They themselves related many events by means of a + picture language—the beginning of hieroglyphics; and in the + south-eastern parts of Canada, as in the United States, these signs or + pictographs were recorded in bead-shell work—the celebrated "wampum". +</p> +<p> + All these tribes, of course, varied very much in personal appearance, + though not in disposition. The vanished <a name="p164"></a>Beothiks of Newfoundland are + described as having been a good-looking tall people, with large black + eyes and a skin so light, when washed free from dirt or paint, that + the Portuguese compared them to gipsies; and the writer of Fabian's + <i>Chronicle</i>, who saw two of them (brought back by Cabot) at Henry + VII's Court, in 1499, took them for Englishmen when they were dressed + in English clothes. It was these people—subsequently killed out by + the British settlers on Newfoundland—who originated the term "Red + Indians", or, in French, <i>Peaux Rouges</i>, because their skins, like + those of so many other Amerindians, were painted with red ochre. +</p> +<p> + Many of the British Columbian peoples made themselves artificially + ugly by flattening the sides of the head. To press the skull whilst it + was soft, they squeezed the heads of their children between boards; + others, such as the warlike tribes of the upper Missouri, had a + passion for submitting themselves to mutilation by the medicine man of + the clan, in order to please the sun god. Such would submit to large + strips being cut from the flesh of their shoulders, arms, or legs, or + having their cheeks slashed. The result, of course, was to leave their + limbs and features horribly scarred when they healed up. In some + tribes, however, a young man could not obtain—or retain—a wife + unless he had shown his bravery by submitting to this mutilation. + Women often cut off one or more joints of their fingers to show their + grief for the death of children. +</p> +<p> + In some tribes, especially of the far north-west and of the Rocky + Mountains, the personal habits of men and women, or of the women only, + were so filthy, and their dislike to bathing so pronounced, that they + became objects of loathing to white men; in other tribes personal + cleanliness was highly esteemed, especially on the seacoast of British + Columbia or along the banks of the great rivers. Usually the men were + better looking and better developed than the women—for one reason, + because they were better fed. +</p> +<p> + Here is a description by PETER GRANT—a pioneer of the North-West + Company—of the Ojibwé Indians dwelling near the east end of Lake + Superior at the beginning of the nineteenth century:— +</p> +<p> + "Their complexion is a whitish cast of copper colour, their hair + black, long, straight, and of a very strong texture. The young men + allow several locks of the hair to fall down over the face, ornamented + with ribbons, silver brooches, &c. They gather up another lock from + behind the head into a small clump, and wrap it up with very thin + plates of silver, in which they fix the tail feathers of the eagle or + any other favourite bird with the wearing of which they have + distinguished themselves in war. They are very careful with their + hair, anointing it with bears' oil, which gives it a smooth and glossy + appearance. The teeth are of a beautiful ivory white, the cheeks + rather high and prominent, the eyes black and lively. Their + countenances are generally pleasant, and they might often be called + handsome. The ears are pierced in infancy, and the lobe is extended to + an unnatural size by suspending lead or any other heavy metal from the + outer rim, which in time brings them down near the shoulder. The nose + ornaments hang down half an inch, and nearly touch the upper lip. +</p> +<p> + "The men are bold, manly, and graceful in their gait, always carrying + their bodies erect and easy. On the other hand, the women, by walking + with the toes of their feet turned inwards, have a disagreeable and + lame appearance. The men are specially fond of painting their faces + and bodies with vermilion, white and blue clay, charcoal or soot mixed + with a little grease or water. With this colour they daub the body, + legs, and thighs in bars and patches, and take the greatest pains + about painting the face, usually with red and black. Their skins are + generally tattooed <a name="p166"></a>with figures representing the sun, stars, eagles, + serpents, &c, especially objects which have appeared to them in their + dreams. The women's faces are much less painted, usually a spot of red + on each cheek and a circle of red round the roots of the hair or + eyes." +</p> +<p> + Here is a summary of what Alexander Henry, sen., wrote of the <i>Kri</i> or + <i>Knistino</i> Indians of Lake Athabaska about 1770:— +</p> +<p> + "The men in general tattoo their bodies and arms very much. The women + confine this ornamentation to the chin, having three perpendicular + lines from the middle of the chin to the lip, and one or more running + on each side, nearly parallel with the corner of the mouth. Their + dress consists of leather; that of the men is a pair of leggings, + reaching up to the hip and fastened to the girdle. Between the legs is + passed a strip of woollen stuff, but when this cannot be procured they + use a piece of dressed leather about nine inches broad and four feet + long, whose ends are drawn through the girdle and hang down before and + behind about a foot.... The shirt is of soft dressed leather, either + from the prong-buck or young red deer, close about the neck and + hanging to the middle of the thigh; the sleeves are of the same, loose + and open under the arms to the elbows, but thence to the wrist sewed + tight. The cap is commonly a piece of leather, or skin with the hair + on, shaped to fit the head, and tied under the chin; the top is + usually decorated with feathers or other ornament. Shoes are made of + buffalo (bison) hide, dressed in the hair, and mittens of the same. + Over the whole a buffalo robe is thrown, which serves as covering day + and night. +</p> +<p> + "Such is their common dress, but on particular occasions they appear + to greater advantage, having their cap, shirt, leggings, and shoes + perfectly clean and white, trimmed with porcupine quills and other + ingenious work of their women, who are supposed to be the most skilful + hands in the country at decorations of this kind. The women's dress + consists of the same materials as the men's. Their leggings do not + reach above the knee, and are gathered below that joint; their shoes + always lack decoration. The shift or body garment reaches down to the + calf, where it is generally fringed and trimmed with quillwork; the + upper part is fastened over the shoulders by strips of leather; a flap + or cape hangs down about a foot before and behind, and is ornamented + with quillwork and fringe. This covering is quite loose, but tied + around the waist with a belt of stiff parchment fastened on the side, + where also some ornaments are suspended. The sleeves are detached from + the body garment; from the wrist to the elbow they are sewed, but + thence to the shoulder they are open underneath and drawn up to the + neck, where they are fastened across the breast and back. +</p> +<p> + "Their ornaments are two or three coils of brass wire twisted around + the rim of each ear, in which incisions are made for that purpose; + blue beads, brass rings, quillwork, and fringe occasionally answer. + Vermilion (a red clay) is much used by the women to paint the face. +</p> +<p> + "Their hair is generally parted on the crown and fastened behind each + ear in large knots, from which are suspended bunches of blue beads or + other ingenious work of their own. The men adjust their hair in + various forms; some have it parted on top and tied in a tail on each + side, while others make one long <i>queue</i> which hangs down behind, and + around which is twisted a strip of otter skin or dressed buffalo + entrails. This tail is frequently increased in thickness and length by + adding false hair, but others allow it to flow loose naturally. Combs + are seldom used by the men, and they never smear the hair with grease, + but red earth is sometimes put upon it. White earth daubed over the + hair generally denotes mourning. The young men sometimes have a bunch + of hair on the crown, about the size of a small teacup, and nearly in + the shape of that vessel upside down, to which they fasten various + ornaments of feathers, quillwork, ermine tails, &c. Red and white + earth and charcoal are much used in their toilets; with the former + they usually daub their robes and other garments, some red and others + white. The women comb their hair and use grease on it." +</p> +<p> + The Slave Indians (a tribe of the Athapaskan family) tattooed their + cheeks with charcoal inserted under the skin, also daubed their + bodies, robes, and garments profusely with red earth (generally + called, in the text of travellers, vermilion), but they had another + favourite pigment, procured from the regions on the west of the Rocky + Mountains, some kind of graphite, like the lead of lead pencils. With + this they marked their faces in black lead after red earth has been + applied, and thus gave themselves a ghastly and savage appearance. + Their dress consists of a leather shirt trimmed with human hair and + porcupine-quill work, and leggings of leather. Their shoes and caps + were made of bison leather, with the hair outside. Their necklaces + were strings of grizzly-bear claws, and a "buffalo" robe was thrown + over all occasionally. Some of them occasionally had quite light + skins—when free of dirt or paint—and grey eyes, and their hair, + instead of being black, was greyish-brown. These last features (grey + eyes and brown hair) characterized many individuals among the northern + British-Columbian tribes. +</p> +<p> + The Naskwapis of inland Labrador—allied in speech to the Kris and the + Montagnais, but in blood to the Eskimo—are described as above the + middle size in height, slender, and long-legged, their cheeks being + very prominent, eyes black, nose rather flat, mouth large, lips thick, + teeth white, hair rough and black, and the complexion a yellowish + "frog" colour. They were dressed in elaborate and warm garments made + of reindeer skin. The ordinary covering for the head of the men was + the skin of a bear's head. "Thus accoutred, with the addition of a + bow and quiver, a stone axe, and a bone knife, a Naskwapi man + possessed no small degree of pride and self-importance" (James + M'Kenzie). +</p> +<p> + The handsomest tribes of Amerindians encountered by the Canadian + pioneers seem to have been the Ojibwés of Lake Superior, the Iroquois + south of the St. Lawrence, and the Mandans of the upper Missouri. +</p> +<p> + Until well on in the nineteenth century none of the Canadian + Amerindians were particular about wearing clothes if the weather was + hot. The men, especially, were either quite oblivious of what was + seemly in clothing (except perhaps the Iroquois) or thought it + necessary to go naked into battle, or to remove all clothing before + taking part in religious ceremonies. +</p> +<p> + It is commonly supposed that the Red Man was a rather glum person, + seldom seen to smile and averse to showing any emotion. That is not + the impression one derives from the many pen portraits of Amerindians + in the journals of the great pioneers. Here, on the contrary, you see + the natives laughing, smiling, kissing eagerly their wives and + children after an absence, displaying exuberant and cordial friendship + towards the white man who treated them well, having love quarrels and + fits of raging jealousy, moods of deep remorse after a fight, touching + devotion to their comrades or chiefs, and above all to their children. + They are most emotional, indeed, and, apart from this chapter you will + find frequent descriptions of how they wept at times over the + remembrance of their dead relations and friends. +</p> +<p> + Hearne remarked, in 1772, that when two parties of Athapaska Indians + met, the ceremonies which passed between them were very formal. They + would advance within twenty or thirty yards of each other, make a full + halt, and then sit or lie down on the ground, not speaking for some + minutes. At length one of them, generally an elderly man, broke + silence by acquainting the other party with every misfortune that had + befallen him and his companions from the last time they had seen or + heard of each other, including all deaths and other calamities which + had happened to any other Indians during the same period. When he + finished, another orator, belonging to the other party, related in + like manner all the bad news that had come to <i>his</i> knowledge. If + these orations contained any news that in the least affected either + party, it would not be long before some of them began to sigh and sob, + and soon after to break out into a loud cry, which was generally + accompanied by most of the grown persons of both sexes; and sometimes + it was common to hear them all—men, women, and children—joining in + one universal howl. When the first transports of grief had subsided, + they advanced by degrees, and both parties mixed with each other, the + men with the men, the women with the women. They then passed round + tobacco pipes very freely, and the conversation became general. They + had now nothing but good news left to tell, and in less than half an + hour probably nothing but smiles and cheerfulness would be seen on + every face. +</p> +<p> + One direction in which the Amerindians did not shine was in their + treatment of women. This perhaps was worse than in other uncivilized + races. Woman was very badly used, except perhaps for the first year of + courtship and marriage. Courtship began by the young man throwing + sticks at the girl<a name="7-10"></a><a href="#note-7-10"><small>[10]</small></a> who pleased his fancy, and if she responded he + asked her in marriage. But not long after she had become a mother she + sank into the position of a household drudge and beast of burden. For + example, amongst the Beaver Indians, an Athapaskan tribe of the <a name="p171"></a>far + north-west, it is related by Alexander Mackenzie that the women are + permanently crippled and injured in physique by the hardships they + have to undergo. "Having few dogs for transport in that country, the + women alone perform that labour which is allotted to beasts of burden + in other countries. It is not uncommon whilst the men carry nothing + but a gun, that their wives and daughters follow with such weighty + burdens that if they lay them down they cannot replace them; nor will + the men deign to perform the service of hoisting them on to their + backs. So that during their journeys they are frequently obliged to + lean against a tree for a small degree of temporary relief. When they + arrive at the place which their tyrants have chosen for their + encampment, they arrange the tent in a few minutes by forming a curve + of poles meeting at the top and expanding into a circle of twelve or + fifteen feet in diameter at the bottom, covered with dressed skins of + the moose sewn together. During these preparations the men sit down + quietly to the enjoyment of their pipes, if they happen to have any + tobacco." +</p> +<p> + Among the Ojibwé and Huron Indians of the Great Lakes the men + sometimes obliged their wives to bring up and nourish young bears + instead of their own children, so that the bears might eventually be + fattened for eating. If food was scarce, the women went without before + even the male slaves of the tribe were unprovided with food. Women + might never eat in the society of males, not even if these males were + slaves or prisoners of war. If food was very scarce, the husband as + likely as not killed and ate a wife; perhaps did this before slaying + and eating a valuable dog. (On the other hand, Mackenzie instances the + case of a woman among the Slave Indians who, in a winter of great + scarcity, managed to kill and devour her husband and several + relations.) So terrible was the ill-treatment of the women in some + tribes that these wretched beings sometimes committed suicide to end + their tortures. Even in this, however, they were not let off lightly, + for the Siou men invented as a tenet of their religion the saying that + "Women who hang themselves are the most miserable of all wretches in + the other world". +</p> +<p> + On the other hand, the kind treatment of children by fathers as well + as mothers is an "Indian" trait commented on by writer after writer. + Here is a typical description by Alexander Henry the Elder, concerning + the children of the Ojibwé tribe: +</p> +<p> + "As soon as the boys begin to run about, they are provided with bows + and arrows, and acquire, as it were 'by instinct', an astonishing + dexterity in shooting birds, squirrels, butterflies, &c. Hunting in + miniature may be justly said to comprise the whole of their education + and childish diversion. Such as excel in this kind of exercise are + sure of being particularly distinguished by their parents, and seldom + punished for any misbehaviour, but, on the contrary, indulged in every + degree of excess and caprice. I have often seen grown-up boys of this + description, when punished for some serious fault, strike their father + and spit in his face, calling him 'bad dog', or 'old woman', and, + sometimes, carrying their insolence so far as to threaten to stab or + shoot him, and, what is rather singular, these too-indulgent parents + seem to encourage such unnatural liberties, and even glory in such + conduct from their favourite children. I heard them boast of having + sons who promised at an early age to inherit such bold and independent + sentiments.... Children of nine or ten years of age not only enjoy + the confidence of the men, but are generally considered as companions + and very deliberately join in their conversations." +</p> +<p> + When death overtook anybody the grief of the female relations was + carried to great excess. They not only cut their hair, cried and + howled, but they would sometimes, with the utmost deliberation, + employ some sharp instrument to separate the nail from the finger and + then force back the flesh beyond the first joint, which they + immediately amputated. "Many of the old women have so often repeated + this ceremony that they have not a complete finger remaining on either + hand" (Mackenzie). +</p> +<a name="image-0009"><!--IMG--></a> +<center> +<img src="images/pc09.jpg" width="281" height="450" +alt="Caribou Swimming a River"> +</center> +<!--IMAGE END--> +<h5>CARIBOU SWIMMING A RIVER</h5> +<p> + The Amerindians of North America were religious and superstitious, and + had a firm faith in a world of spiritual agencies within or outside + the material world around us. Most of them believed in the existence + of "fairies",—woodland, earth, mountain, or water spirits—whom they + declared they could see from time to time in human semblance. Or such + spirit or demi-god might assume for a time or permanently the form of + an animal. To all such spirits of earth, air, and water, or to the + sacred animals they inhabited, sacrifices would be offered and prayers + made. Great importance was attributed to dreams and visions. They + accustomed themselves to make long fasts, so that they might become + light-headed and see visions, or hear spirit voices in a trance. To + prepare their minds for this state they would go four or five days + without food, and even abstain from drinking. +</p> +<p> + Undoubtedly their "medicine men" developed great mesmeric powers, and + this force, combined with rather clumsy juggling and ventriloquism, + enabled them to perform a semblance of "miracles". The Iroquois + offered much opposition to Christianity, thinking it would tame their + warriors too quickly and affect their national independence; but by + the greater part of the Amerindians the message of the Gospel brought + by the French priests was eagerly received, and the converts became + many and most sincere. Their reverence for the missionaries and belief + in them was increased when they saw how effectually they were able to + protect them from too-rapacious white adventurers, fierce soldiers, + and unscrupulous traders. +</p> +<p> + The Miamis of Lake Michigan held the symbol of the cross in great + respect. A young Frenchman who was trading with them got into a + passion and drew his sword to avenge himself for a theft committed on + his goods. The Miama chieftain, to appease him, showed him the cross, + which was planted in the ground at the end of his lodge, and said to + him: "Behold the tree of the Black Gown; he teaches us to pray and not + to lose our temper,"—of course, referring to the missionary in the + black gown who had been amongst them. Before the cross was planted + here these Miamis kept in their houses one or more bogies, to which + they appealed in times of distress or sickness. One of these was the + skull of the bison with its horns. Another was the skin of the bear + raised on a pole in the middle of the hut and retaining the head, + which was usually painted green. The women sometimes died of terror + from the stories told them by the men about these idols, and the + Jesuits did a great deal of good by getting them abolished in many + places. +</p> +<p> + The Supreme Being of the Eskimos was a goddess rather than a god: a + mother of all things who lived under the sea. On the other hand, most + of the Amerindian tribes believed in one great God of the Sky—Manito, + as He was called by the peoples of Algonkin stock, Nainubushan by the + Siou and their kindred. This Being was usually kindly disposed towards + man; but they also (in most cases) believed in a <i>bad</i> Manito, who was + responsible for most of the harm in the world. But sometimes the Great + Manito was capricious, or apparently made many mistakes which he had + afterwards to rectify. Thus the Siou tribes of Assiniboia believed + that the Supreme Being (whom they called Eth-tom-é) first created + mankind and all living things, and then, through some oversight or + mistake, caused a great flood to cover the earth's surface. So in a + hurry he was obliged to make a very large canoe of twigs and + branches, and into this he put a pair of every kind of bird and beast, + besides a family of human beings, who were thus saved from drowning, + and began the world afresh when the waters subsided. This legend was + something like the story of Noah's ark, but seems in some form or + another to have existed in the mind of all the North-American peoples + before the arrival of Christian missionaries. Much the same story was + told by the Ojibwés about the Great Hare-God, Nainiboju. +</p> +<p> + The Siou and the Ojibwé (and other tribes also) believed that after + death the soul lay for a time in a trance, and then found itself + floating towards a River which must be crossed. Beyond the River lay + the Happy Hunting Grounds, the Elysian fields; but to oppose the weary + soul anxious to reach this paradise there ramped on the other side a + huge, flaming-red bison bull, if it had been ordained by the Great + Spirit that the soul's time was not yet come, this red bison pushed it + back, and the soul was obliged to re-enter the body, which then awoke + from its trance or swoon and resumed its worldly activities. +</p> +<p> + Suicide was regarded as the most heinous of crimes. Any man killing + himself deliberately, fell into the river of the ghost world and was + never heard of again, while women who hanged themselves "were regarded + as the most miserable of all wretches in the other world". +</p> +<p> + Their belief in spirits—even ancestral spirits—taking up an abode in + the bodies of beasts, birds, or reptiles, or even in plants or stones, + caused them to view with respect of a superstitious kind many natural + objects. Some one thing—a beast, bird, reptile, fish, plant, or + strange stone had been fixed on as the abode of his tutelary spirit by + some father of a family. The family grew into a clan, and the clan to + a tribe, and the object sacred in the eyes of its father and founder + became its "totem", crest, or symbol. As a rule, whatever thing was + the <i>totem</i> of the individual or the clan was held sacred in their + eyes, and, if it was an animal, was not killed, or, if killed, not + eaten. Many of the northern Indians would refrain from killing the + wolf or the glutton, or if they did so, or did it by accident, they + would refuse to skin the animal. The elder people amongst the + Athapaskan Indians, in Hearne's day, would reprove the young folk for + "speaking disrespectfully" of different beasts and birds. +</p> +<p> + Their ideas of medicine and surgery were much mixed up with a belief + in magic and in the mysterious powers of their "medicine men". This + person, who might be of either sex, certainly knew a few simple + medicines to be made from herbs or decoctions of bark, but for the + most part he attempted to cure the sick or injured by blowing lustily + on the part affected or, more wisely, by massage. A universal cure, + however, for all fevers and mild ailments was sweating. Sweating huts + were built in nearly every settlement. They were covered over in a way + to exclude air as much as possible. The inside was heated with red-hot + stones and glowing embers, on to which from time to time water was + poured to fill the place with steam. The Amerindians not only went + through these Turkish baths to cure small ailments but also with the + idea of clearing the intelligence and as a fitting preliminary to + negotiations—for peace, or alliance, or even for courtship. In many + tribes if a young "brave" arrived with proposals of marriage for a + man's daughter he was invited to enter the sweating house with her + father, and discuss the bargain calmly over perspiration and the + tobacco pipe. +</p> +<p> + Tobacco smoking indeed was almost a religious ceremony, as well as a + remedy for certain maladies or states of mind. The "pipe of peace" has + become proverbial. Nevertheless tobacco was still unknown in the + eighteenth century to many of the Pacific-coast and far-north-west + tribes, as to the primitive Eskimo. It was not a very old practice in + the Canadian Dominion when Europeans first arrived there, though it + appeared to be one of the most characteristic actions of these + red-skinned savages in the astonished eyes of the first pioneers. They + used pipes for smoking, however, long before tobacco came among them, + certain berries taking the place of tobacco. +</p> +<p> + The Amerindians of the southern parts of Canada and British Columbia + were more or less settled peoples of towns or villages, of fixed homes + to which they returned at all seasons of the year, however far afield + they might range for warfare, trade, or hunting. But the more northern + tribes were nomads: people shifting their abode from place to place in + pursuit of game or trade. Unlike the people of the south and west + (though these only grew potatoes) they were not agriculturists: the + only vegetable element in their food was the wild rice of the marshes, + the sweet-tasting layer between the bark and the wood of certain + trees, and the fruits or fungi of the forest or the lichen growing on + the rocks. Though these people might in summertime build some hasty + wigwam of boughs and moss, their ordinary dwelling place was a tent. +</p> +<p> + The Wood Indians, or Opimitish Ininiwak, of the Athapaskan group + (writes Alexander Henry, sen.) had no fixed villages; and their lodges + or huts were so rudely fashioned as to afford them very inadequate + protection against the weather. The greater part of their year was + spent in travelling from place to place in search of food. The animal + on which they chiefly depended was the <i>hare</i>—a most prominent animal + in Amerindian economy and tradition. This they took in springes. From + its skin they made coverings with much ingenuity, cutting it into + narrow strips and weaving this into the shape of a blanket, which was + of a very warm and agreeable quality. +</p> +<p> + The Naskwapi Algonkins of inland Labrador were savages that led a + wandering life through the bare, flat parts of that country, + subsisting chiefly upon flesh, and clothing themselves with the skin + of the caribou, which they caught in pitfalls or shot with the bow + and arrow. "Very few sights, I believe, can be more distressing to the + feelings of humanity than a Labrador savage, surrounded by his wife + and five or six small children, half-famished with cold and hunger in + a hole dug out of the snow and screened from the inclemency of the + weather by the branches of the trees. Their whole furniture is a + kettle hung over the fire, not for the purpose of cooking victuals, + but for melting snow" (James M'Kenzie). +</p> +<p> + A description of the tents of the Kris or Knistino (Algonkins of the + Athabaska region), written by Alexander Henry, sen., applies with very + little difference to all the other tribes dwelling to the east of the + Rocky Mountains.<a name="7-11"></a><a href="#note-7-11"><small>[11]</small></a> +</p> +<p> + These tents were of dressed leather, erected with poles, generally + seventeen in number, of which two were tied together about three feet + from the top. The first two poles being erected and set apart at the + base, the others were placed against them in a slanting position, + meeting at the top, so that they all formed nearly a circle, which was + then covered with the leather. This consisted of ten to fifteen + dressed skins of the bison, moose, or red deer, well sewed together + and nicely cut to fit the conical figure of the poles, with an opening + above, to let out smoke and admit the light. From this opening down to + the door the two edges of the tent were brought close together and + well secured with wooden pegs about six inches long, leaving for the + door an oval aperture about two feet wide and three feet high, below + which the edges were secured with similar pegs. This small entrance + did well enough for the natives, who would be brought up to it from + infancy, but a European might be puzzled to get through, as a piece of + hide stretched upon a frame of the same shape as the door, but + somewhat larger, hung outside, and must be first raised by the hand of + the incomer. +</p> +<p> + Such tents were usually spacious, measuring twenty feet in diameter. + The fire was always made in the centre, around which the occupants + generally placed a range of stones to prevent the ashes from + scattering and to keep the fire compact. New tents were perfectly + white; some of them were painted with red and black figures. These + devices were generally derived from the dreams of the Amerindians, + being some mythical monster or other hideous animal, whose description + had been handed down from their ancestors. A large camp of such tents, + pitched regularly on a level plain, had a fine effect at a distance, + especially when numerous bands of horses were seen feeding in all + directions. +</p> +<p> + The "lodges" or long houses made of poles, fir branches, moss, &c., + wherein, among the Iroquois, Algonkin, and Siou peoples, several + families made a common habitation, are described here and there in the + course of the narrative. The houses of the coast tribes of British + Columbia were bigger, more elaborate, and permanent, and in this + region the natives had acquired some idea of carpentry, and had learnt + to make planks of wood by splitting with wedges or hewing with adzes. +</p> +<p> + One of these British Columbian houses was measured, and found to be + seventy feet long by twenty-five feet wide; the entrance in the gable + end was cut through a plank five and a half feet wide, and nearly + oval. A board suspended on the outside answered for a door; on the + other side of the broad plank was rudely carved a large painted figure + of a man, between whose legs was the passage. But other houses on the + Pacific coast, visited by Cook or Vancouver, are said to have been + large enough to accommodate seven hundred people. These houses of the + Pacific coast region were exceedingly filthy, sturgeon and salmon + being strewn about in every direction. The men inhabiting them were + often disgusting in their behaviour, while the women are declared to + have been "devoid of shame or decency". +</p> +<p> + According to Mackenzie, such habitations swarmed with fleas, and even + the ground round about them "was alive with this vermin". The + Alexander Henrys, both uncle and nephew, complain of the flea plague + (partly due to the multitude of dogs) in every Indian village or + encampment. +</p> +<p> + The domestic implements of the Amerindians were few. Pottery seems to + have been unknown amongst the northern tribes to the east and north of + the Mississippi valley, but earthen jars and vessels were made by the + Dakota-Siou group in the valley of the Mississippi. Amongst these + agricultural Indians the hoe was made of a buffalo's blade bone + fastened to a crooked wooden handle. The Ojibwés manufactured chisels + out of beavers' teeth. The Eskimo and some of the neighbouring + Amerindian tribes used oblong "kettles" of stone—simply great blocks + of stone chipped, rubbed, and hollowed out into receptacles, with + handles at both ends. (It is suggested that they borrowed the idea of + these stone vessels for cooking from the early Norse settlers of + Greenland; see p. <a href="#p18">18</a>.) +</p> +<p> + The Amerindians of the regions west of the Rocky Mountains made + kettles or cooking vessels out of blocks of "cedar" (<i>Juniper</i>) wood; + east of the Rocky Mountains the birch-bark kettle was universal. Of + course these vessels of wood or bark could not be placed on the fire + or embers to heat or boil the contents, as was possible with the + "kettles" of stone or the cooking pots of clay. So the people using + them heated the water in which the food or the soup was boiled by + making stones red-hot in the fire and then dropping them into the + birch-bark or cedar-wood tubs. Many of the northern Indians got into + the way of eating their food raw because of the difficulty of making a + fire away from home. +</p> +<p> + In regard to food, neither Amerindian nor Eskimo was squeamish. They + were almost omnivorous, and specially delighted in putrid or noisome + substances from which a European would turn in loathing, and from the + eating of which he might conceivably die. +</p> +<p> + It was only in the extreme south of Canada or in British Columbia + (potatoes only) that any agriculture was carried on and that the + natives had maize, pumpkins, and pease to add to their dietary; but + (as compared to the temperate regions of Europe and Asia) Nature was + generous in providing wild fruits and grain without trouble of + husbandry. The fruits and nuts have been enumerated elsewhere, but a + description might be given here of the "wild oats" (<i>Avena fatua</i>) and + the "wild rice" of the regions of central Canada and the middle west. + The wild oats made a rough kind of porridge, but were not so important + and so nourishing as the wild rice which is so often mentioned in the + stories of the pioneers, who liked this wild grain as much as the + Indians did. +</p> +<p> + This wild rice (<i>Zizania aquatica</i>) grew naturally in small rivers and + swampy places. The stems were hollow, jointed at intervals, and the + grain appeared at the extremity of the stalk. By the month of June + they had grown two feet above the surface of the shallow water, and + were ripe for harvesting in September. At this period the Amerindians + passed in canoes through the water-fields of wild rice, shaking the + ears into the canoes as they swept by. The grain fell out easily when + ripe, but in order to clean it from the husk it was dried over a slow + fire on a wooden grating. After being winnowed it was pounded to flour + in a mortar, or else boiled like rice, and seasoned with fat. "It had + a most delicate taste", wrote Alexander Henry the Elder. +</p> +<p> + Fish was perhaps the staple of Amerindian diet, because in scarcely + any part of the Canadian Dominion is a lake, river, or brook far away. + In the region of the Great Lakes fish were caught in large quantities + in October, and exposed to the weather to be frozen at nighttime. They + were then stored away in this congealed state, and lasted good—more + or less—till the following April. +</p> +<p> + Pemmican—that early form of potted meat so familiar to the readers of + Red-Indian romances—was made of the lean meat of the bison. The + strips of meat were dried in the sun, and afterwards pounded in a + mortar and mixed with an equal quantity of bison fat. Fish "pemmican" + was sun-dried fish ground to powder. +</p> +<p> + A favourite dish among the northern Indians was blood mixed with the + half-digested food found in the stomach of a deer, boiled up with a + sufficient quantity of water to make it of the consistency of pease + porridge. Some scraps of fat or tender flesh were shredded small and + boiled with it. To render this dish more palatable they had a method + of mixing the blood with the contents of the stomach in the paunch + itself, and hanging it up in the heat and smoke of the fire for + several days—in other words, the Scotch haggis. The kidneys of both + moose and buffalo were usually eaten <i>raw</i> by the southern Indians, + for no sooner was one of those beasts killed than the hunter ripped up + its belly, snatched out the kidneys, and ate them warm, before the + animal was quite dead. They also at times put their mouths to the + wound the ball or the arrow had made, and sucked the blood; this, they + said, quenched thirst, and was very nourishing. +</p> +<p> + The favourite drink of the Ojibwé Indians in the wintertime was hot + broth poured over a dishful of pure snow. +</p> +<p> + The Amerindians of the Nipigon country (north of Lake Superior) and + the Ojibwés and Kris often relapsed into cannibalism when hard up for + food. Indeed some of them became so addicted to this practice that + they simply went about stalking their fellow Indians with as much + industry as if they were hunting animals. "These prowling ogres caused + such terror that to sight the track of one of them was sufficient to + make twenty families decamp in all the speed of their terror" + (Alexander Henry). It was deemed useless to attempt any resistance + when these monsters were coming to kill and eat. The people would even + make them presents of clothes and provisions to allow them and their + children to live. There were women cannibals as well as men (see p. + <a href="#p171">171</a>). +</p> +<p> + As the greater part of their food came from the chase, and their only + articles of commerce likewise, they devoted themselves more entirely + to hunting and fishing than to any other pursuit. The women did most + of the fishing (and all the skin-curing for the fur market and for + their own dress), while the men pursued with weapons the beasts of the + chase, trapped them in pitfalls or snares, or drove them into "pounds" + (excavated enclosures). +</p> +<p> + Illustrating the wonderful sagacity of the Amerindians as game + trackers, Alexander Henry the Elder tells the following story in the + autumn of 1799:— +</p> +<p> + "We had not gone far from the house before we fell upon the fresh + tracks of some red deer (wapiti), and soon after discovered the herd + in a thicket of willows and poplars; we both fired, and the deer + disappeared in different directions. We pursued them, but to no + purpose, as the country was unfavourable. We then returned to the spot + where we had fired, as the Indian suspected that we had wounded some + of them. We searched to see if we could find any blood; on my part, I + could find tracks, but no blood. The Indian soon called out, and I + went to him, but could see no blood, nor any sign that an animal had + been wounded. However, he pointed out the track of a large buck among + the many others, and told me that from the manner in which this buck + had started off he was certain the animal had been wounded. As the + ground was beaten in every direction by animals, it was only after a + tedious search that we found where the buck had struck off. But no + blood was seen until, passing through a thicket of willows, he + observed a drop upon a leaf, and next a little more. He then began to + examine more strictly, to find out in what part of the body the + animal had been wounded; and, judging by the height and other signs, + he told me the wound must have been somewhere between the shoulder and + neck. We advanced about a mile, but saw nothing of the deer, and no + more blood. I was for giving up the chase; but he assured me the wound + was mortal, and that if the animal should lie down he could not rise + again. We proceeded two miles farther, when, coming out upon a small + open space, he told me the animal was at no great distance, and very + probably in this meadow. We accordingly advanced a few yards, and + there we found the deer lying at the last gasp. The wound was exactly + as I had been told. The sagacity of the Saulteurs [Ojibwés] in tracing + big wood animals is astonishing. I have frequently witnessed + occurrences of this nature; the bend of a leaf or blade of grass is + enough to show the hunter the direction the game has taken. Their + ability is of equally great service to war parties, when they discover + the footsteps of their enemies." +</p> +<p> + The Assiniboin Indians (a branch of the Sious) down to about fifty + years ago captured the bison of the plains in hundreds at a time by + driving them into large excavated areas below the level of the ground. +</p> +<p> + Alexander Henry, jun., gives the following description of this + procedure in 1810:— +</p> +<p> + "The pounds are of different dimensions, according to the number of + tents in one camp. The common size is from sixty to one hundred paces + or yards in circumference, and about five feet in height. Trees are + cut down, laid upon one another, and interwoven with branches and + green twigs; small openings are left to admit the dogs to feed upon + the carcasses of the (old) bulls, which are generally left as useless. + This enclosure is commonly made between two hummocks, on the declivity + or at the foot of rising ground. The entrance is about ten paces wide, + and always fronts the plains. On each side of this entrance commences + a thick range of fascines, the two ranges spreading asunder as they + extend to the distance of one hundred yards, beyond which openings are + left at intervals; but the fascines soon become more thinly planted, + and continue to spread apart to the right and left until each range + has been extended about three hundred yards from the pound. The labour + is then diminished by only placing at intervals three or four cross + sticks, in imitation of a dog or other animal (sometimes called 'dead + men'); these extend on the plain for about two miles, and double rows + of them are planted in several other directions to a still greater + distance. Young men are usually sent out to collect and bring in the + buffalo—a tedious task, which requires great patience, for the herd + must be started by slow degrees. This is done by setting fire to dung + or grass. Three young men will bring in a herd of several hundred from + a great distance. When the wind is aft it is most favourable, as they + can then direct the buffalo with great ease. Having come in sight of + the ranges, they generally drive the herd faster, until it begins to + enter the ranges, where a swift-footed person has been stationed with + a buffalo robe over his head, to imitate that animal; but sometimes a + horse performs this business. When he sees buffaloes approaching he + moves slowly toward the pound until they appear to follow him; then he + sets off at full speed, imitating a buffalo as well as he can, with + the herd after him. The young men in the rear now discover themselves, + and drive the herd on with all possible speed. There is always a + sentinel on some elevated spot to notify the camp when the buffalo + appear; and this intelligence is no sooner given than every man, + woman, and child runs to the ranges that lead to the pound to prevent + the buffalo from taking a wrong direction. Then they lie down between + the fascines and cross sticks, and, if the buffalo attempt to break + through, the people wave their robes, which causes the herd to keep + on, or turn to the opposite <a name="p186"></a>side, where other persons do the same. + When the buffalo have been thus directed to the entrance of the pound, + the Indian who leads them rushes into it and out at the other side, + either by jumping over the enclosure or creeping through an opening + left for that purpose. The buffalo tumble in pell-mell at his heels, + almost exhausted, but keep moving around the enclosure from east to + west, and never in a direction against the sun. What appeared + extraordinary to me on those occasions was that, when word was given + to the camp of the near approach of the buffalo, the dogs would skulk + away from the pound and not approach until the herd entered. Many + buffaloes break their legs and some their necks in jumping into the + pound, as the descent is generally six or eight feet, and stumps are + left standing there. The buffalo being caught, the men assembled at + the enclosure, armed with bows and arrows; every arrow has a + particular mark of the owner, and they are let fly until the whole + herd is killed. Then the men enter the pound, and each claims his own; + but commonly there is what they term the master of the pound, who + divides the animals and gives each tent an equal share, reserving + nothing for himself. But in the end he is always the best provided + for; everyone is obliged to send him a certain portion, as it is in + his tent that the numerous ceremonies relating to the pound are + observed. There the young men are always welcome to feast and smoke, + and no women are allowed to enter, as that tent is set apart for the + affairs of the pound. Horses are sometimes used to collect and bring + in buffalo, but this method is less effectual than the other; besides, + it frightens the herds and soon causes them to withdraw to a great + distance. When horses are used the buffalo are absolutely driven into + the pound, but when the other method is pursued they are in a manner + enticed to their destruction." +</p> +<p> + A somewhat similar method was adopted by the northern Kris and + Athapascans for the capture of reindeer. +</p> +<p> + As regards means of transport, the use of dogs as draught animals was + by no means confined to the Eskimo: they were used in wintertime to + draw sledges over the snow or ice by nearly all the northern Indian + tribes, and by the people of the Rocky Mountains and Pacific coast. + After the Amerindians of the prairies and plains received horses + (indirectly through the Spaniards of Mexico)<a name="7-12"></a><a href="#note-7-12"><small>[12]</small></a> they sometimes + employed the smaller and poorer kind of ponies as pack animals; but + for the most part throughout the summer season of the Canadian + Dominion—from May to October—transport and travel by canoe was the + favourite method. +</p> +<p> + There were four very well marked types of canoe or boat in British + North America. There was the already-described Eskimo <i>kayak</i>, made of + leather stretched over a framework of wood or bone; the Amerindians of + the Dominion, south of the Eskimo and east of the Rocky Mountains, + used the familiar "birch-bark" canoe;<a name="7-13"></a><a href="#note-7-13"><small>[13]</small></a> the peoples of the Pacific + coast belt possessed something more like a boat, made out of a + hollowed tree trunk and built up with planks; and the tribes of the + Upper Mississippi used round coracles. Here are descriptions of all + three kinds of Amerindian canoe from the pens of eighteenth-century + pioneers: The birch-bark canoe used on the Great Lakes was about + thirty-three feet long by four and a half feet broad, and formed of + the smooth rind or bark of the birch tree fastened outside a wooden + framework. It was lined with small splints of juniper cedar, and the + vessel was further strengthened with ribs of the same wood, of which + the two ends were fastened to the gunwales. Several bars rather than + seats were laid across the canoe from gunwale to gunwale, the small + roots of the spruce fir afforded the fibre with which the bark was + sewn or stitched, and the gum of the pine tree supplied the place of + tar and oakum. Bark, some spare fibre, and gum were always carried in + each canoe for repairs, which were constantly necessary (one + continually reads in the diaries of the pioneers of "stopping to gum + the canoe"). The canoes were propelled with paddles, and occasionally + a sail. +</p> +<p> + The aborigines of Newfoundland—the Beothiks—are said to have known + the birch-bark canoe, framework canoe, but to have employed + "dug-outs"—hollowed tree trunks. The canoes of the Mandans of the + upper Missouri basin were like coracles, of circular form, made of a + framework of bent willow branches over which was stretched a raw + bison-hide with the hair inside. This was sewn tightly round the + willow rim. In lieu of a paddle they use a pole about five feet long, + split at one end to admit a piece of board about two feet long and + half a foot broad, which was lashed to the pole and so formed a kind + of cross. There was but one for each canoe. The paddler of this + coracle made directly for the opposite shore; every stroke he gave + turned his "dish" almost entirely round; to recover his position and + go on his intended route, he must give a stroke on the other side, + which brought him up again; and so on till he got over, not without + drifting down sometimes nearly a mile. +</p> +<p> + Alexander Henry, jun., thus describes a canoe of the Clatsop people on + the Lower Columbia (Pacific coast, opposite Vancouver Island): "This + was a war canoe—the first of the kind I had seen. She was about + thirty-six feet long and wide in proportion, the stem rising upright + about six feet, on top of which was a figure of some imaginary monster + of uncouth sculpture, having the head of a carnivorous animal with + large erect ears but no body, clinging by arms and legs to the upper + end of the canoe, and grinning horribly. The ears were painted green, + the other parts red and black. The stern also rose about five feet in + height, but had no figure carved on it. On each side of both stem and + stern broad strips of wood rose about four feet, having holes cut in + them to shoot arrows through. She had a high sprit-sail made of + handkerchiefs and pieces of gunny-cloth or jute, forming irregular + stripes, I am told these Indians commonly have pieces of squared + timber, not unlike a three-inch plank, high and broad, perforated to + shoot arrows through; this is fixed on the bow of the war canoe to + serve as bulwarks in battle." +</p> +<p> + Canoe voyages were mainly embarked on for trading; but in all + probability before the coming of the European there was little trading + done between one tribe and another, except in the region <i>west</i> of the + Rocky Mountains, in which—especially to the north—the Amerindians + were so different in their habits and customs from those dwelling east + of the mountains as to suggest that they must very occasionally have + been in touch with some world outside America, such as Hawaii, + Kamschatka, or Japan. In these Pacific coastlands they used a white + seashell as a currency and a medium of exchange. So also did the + Iroquois people and the southern Algonkin tribes, in the form of + "wampum". The principal articles of barter were skins of fur animals, + porcupine quills, dogs, slaves, and women. +</p> +<p> + First Hunting (to supply food), then Trading in the products of the + chase, and lastly War were the main subjects which occupied the + Amerindian's thoughts before the middle of the nineteenth century. + They usually went to war to turn other tribes out of profitable + hunting grounds or productive fisheries; or because they wanted slaves + or more wives; or because a chief or a medicine man had a dream; or + because some other notability felt he had given way too much to tears + over some personal or public sorrow, and must show his manliness by + killing the people of another tribe. In their wars they knew no mercy + when their blood was up, and frequently perpetrated frightful + cruelties for the sheer pleasure of seeing human suffering. Yet these + devilish moods would alternate with fits of sentimentality. A man or a + woman would suddenly take a war prisoner, or a person who was wounded + or half-tortured to death, under their protection, and a short time + afterwards the whole war party would be greeting this rescued wretch + (usually a man—they were far more pitiless towards women) as brother, + son, or friend, and even become quite maudlin over a scratch or a + bruise; whereas an hour or so before they were on the point of + disembowelling, or of driving splinters up the nails and setting them + on fire. In warfare they often gave way to cannibalism. +</p> +<p> + Though extremely fond of singing—they sang when they were merry; when + they thought they were going to die; when they were victorious in + hunting, love, or war; when they were defeated; when they were + paddling a canoe or sewing a moccasin—they had but a poor range of + musical instruments. Most of the tribes used flutes made out of the + wing bones of cranes or out of reeds, and some had small trumpets of + wood, bark, or buffalo horn. The Pacific coast Indians made gongs or + "xylophones" out of blocks or slabs of resonant wood. +</p> +<p> + Here is a specimen of Amerindian singing. It is the song which + accompanied the famous Calumet dance in celebration of the peacemaking + qualities of tobacco-smoking. It was taken down by the Jesuit + missionaries in the seventeenth century from the Ilinwa (Illinois) + Algonkin Indians of the middle west, and its notation reminds one of + Japanese music. +</p> +<a name="image-0010"><!--IMG--></a> +<center> +<img src="images/music.jpg" width="450" height="685" +alt="The Calumet Or Tobacco-pipe Dance"> +</center> +<!--IMAGE END--> +<p class="block"> + Ninahani, &c, ongo; ninahani, &c, hoho; ninahani, &c.,<br> + Kawa bannoge atchicha Koge ake awā;<br> + Banoge atchicha shagobe hé hé hé! Mintingo mitade<br> + Pini pini hé! Atchicha lé machi mi nam ba miktande,<br> + Miktande pini pini hé! +</p> +<p> + Dancing was little else than posturing and jumping in masks—usually + made to look like the head of a wild beast. But the men were usually + very athletic. Wrestling competitions were almost universal, + especially as a means of winning a wife. The conqueror in a wrestling + match took the wife or wives of the defeated man. Their running powers + for endurance and speed became justly celebrated. +</p> +<p> + "Their principal and most inveterate game is that of the hoop," writes + Alexander Henry, sen., "which proves as ruinous to them as the platter + does to the Saulteurs (Ojibwé)." This game was played in the following + manner. A hoop was made about two feet in diameter, nearly covered + with dressed leather, and trimmed with quillwork, feathers, bits of + metal, and other trinkets, on which were certain particular marks. Two + persons played at the same time, by rolling the hoop and accompanying + it, one on each side; when it was about to fall, each gently threw one + arrow in such a manner that the hoop might fall upon it, and according + to that mark on the hoop which rested on the arrows they reckoned the + game. They also played another game by holding some article in one + hand, or putting it into one of two shoes, the other hand or shoe + being empty. They had another game which required forty to fifty small + sticks, as thick as a goose quill and about a foot long; these were + all shuffled together and then divided into two bunches, and according + to the even or odd numbers of sticks in the bunch chosen, the players + lost or won. +</p> +<p> + A favourite game amongst the Ojibwé is described as "the hurdle", + which is another name for the Canadian national game of La Crosse. + When about to play, the men, of all ages, would strip themselves + almost naked, but dress their hair in great style, put ornaments on + their arms, and belts round their waists, and paint their faces and + bodies in the most elaborate style. Each man was provided with "a + hurdle", an instrument made of a small stick of wood about three feet + long, bent at the end to a small circle, in which a loose piece of + network is fixed, forming a cavity big enough to receive a leather + ball about the size of a man's fist. Everything being prepared, a + level plain about half a mile long was chosen, with proper barriers or + goals at each end. Having previously formed into two equal parts, they + assembled in the very middle of the field, and the game began by + throwing up the ball perpendicularly in the air, when instantly both + parties (writes an eyewitness) "formed a singular group of naked men, + painted in different colours and in the most comical attitudes + imaginable, holding their rackets elevated in the air to catch the + ball". Whoever was so fortunate as to catch it in his net ran with it + to the barrier with all his might, supported by his party; whilst the + opponents were pursuing and endeavouring to knock the ball out of the + net. He who succeeded in doing so ran in the same manner towards the + opposite barrier, and was, of course, pursued in his turn. If in + danger of being overtaken, he might throw it with his hurdle towards + any of his associates who happened to be nearer the barrier than + himself. They had a particular knack of throwing it a great distance + in this manner, so that the best runners had not always the advantage; + and, by a peculiar way of working their hands and arms while running, + the ball never dropped out of their "hurdle". +</p> +<p> + "The best of three heats wins the game, and, besides the honour + acquired on such occasions, a considerable prize is adjudged to the + victors. The vanquished, however, generally challenge their + adversaries to renew the game the next day, which is seldom refused. + The game then becomes more important, as the honour of the whole + village is at stake, and it is carried on with redoubled impetuosity, + every object which might impede them in their career is knocked down + and trodden under foot without mercy, and before the game is decided, + it is a common thing to see numbers sprawling on the ground with + wounded legs and broken heads, yet this never creates any disputes or + ill-will after the play is decided" (Alexander Henry, sen.). +</p> +<p> + It has been computed that in the middle of the eighteenth century the + Amerindian population of the vast territories now known as the + Dominion of Canada numbered about 300,000. It now stands at an + approximate 110,000. The chief diminution has taken place in + Newfoundland, Lower and Upper Canada, New Brunswick, Assiniboia, and + British Columbia. There may even have been an increase in the north + and north-west. The first great blow to the Amerindians of these + regions was the smallpox epidemic of 1780. The next was the effect of + the strong drink<a name="7-14"></a><a href="#note-7-14"><small>[14]</small></a> introduced by the agents of the Hudson's Bay and, + still more, the two North-west Companies. Phthisis or pulmonary + consumption also seems to have been introduced from Europe (though + Hearne thought that the Northern Indians had it before the white man + came). In fact, before the European invaded America neither Eskimo nor + Amerindian seem to have had many diseases. They suffered from ulcers, + scurvy, digestive troubles, rheumatism, headache, bronchitis, and + heart complaints, but from few, if any, "germ" diseases. +</p> +<p> + Some of the agents of the North-west Company apologize in their + writings for the amount of rum that was circulated among the + Amerindians at the orders of that company to stimulate trade, by + saying that it was seven parts water. Nevertheless it excited them to + madness, as the following extracts show. These are mostly taken from + the journals of Alexander Henry the Younger, but they are typical of + what was recorded by many other writers who describe the far interior + of British North America between 1775 and 1835. +</p> +<p> + "To see a house full of drunken Indians, consisting of men, women, and + children, is a most unpleasant sight; for, in that condition, they + often wrangle, pull each other by the hair, and fight. At times, ten + or twelve of both sexes may be seen fighting each other promiscuously, + until at last they all fall on the floor, one upon another, some + spilling rum out of a small kettle or dish which they hold in their + hands, while others are throwing up what they have just drunk. To + add to this uproar, a number of children, some on their mothers' + shoulders, and others running about and taking hold of their clothes, + are constantly bawling, the elder ones, through fear that their + parents may be stabbed, or that some other misfortune may befal them + in the fray. These shrieks of the children form a very unpleasant + chorus to the brutal noise kept up by their drunken parents." +</p> +<hr class="short"> +<p> + "In a drinking match at the Hills yesterday, Gros Bras (Thick Arms) in + a fit of jealousy stabbed Aupusoi to death with a hand-dague (dagger); + the first stroke opened his left side, the second his belly, and the + third his breast; he never stirred, although he had a knife in his + belt, and died instantly. Soon after this Aupusoi's brother, a boy + about ten years of age, took the deceased's gun, loaded it with two + balls, and approached Gros Bras's tent. Putting the muzzle of the gun + through the door the boy fired the two balls into his breast and + killed him dead, just as he was reproaching his wife for her affection + for Aupusoi, and boasting of the revenge he had taken. The little + fellow ran into the woods and hid. Little Shell (Petite Coquille) + found the old woman, Aupusoi's mother, in her tent; he instantly + stabbed her. Ondainoiache then came in, took the knife, and gave her a + second stab. Little Shell, in his turn taking the knife, gave a third + blow. In this manner did these two rascals continue to murder the old + woman, as long as there was any life in her. The boy escaped into + Langlois' house, and was kept hid until they were all sober. Next + morning a hole was dug in the ground, and all three were buried + together. This affair kept the Indians from hunting, as Gros Bras was + nearly related to the principal hunters." +</p> +<hr class="short"> +<p> + "Grand' Gueule stabbed Perdrix Blanche with a knife in six places. + Perdrix Blanche fighting with his wife, fell in the fire and almost + roasted, but had strength enough left notwithstanding his wounds to + bite her nose off." +</p> +<hr class="short"> +<p> + "In the first drinking match a murder was committed in an Assiniboine + tent, but fortunately it was done by an Ojibwé. L'Hiver stabbed + Mishewashence to the heart three times, and killed him instantly. The + wife and children cried out, and some of my people ran to the tent + just as L'Hiver came out with the bloody knife in his hand, expecting + we would lay hold of him. The first person he met was William Henry, + whom he attempted to stab in the breast; but Henry avoided the stroke, + and returned the compliment with a blow of his cudgel on the fellow's + head. This staggered him; but instantly recovering he made another + attempt to stab Henry. Foiled in this design, and observing several + coming out of the fort, he took to his heels and ran into the woods + like a deer. I chased him with some of my people, but he was too fleet + for us. We buried the murdered man, who left a widow and five + helpless orphans, having no relations on this river. The behaviour of + two of the youngest was really piteous while we were burying the body; + they called upon their deceased father not to leave them, but to + return to the tent, and tried to prevent the men from covering the + corpse with earth, screaming in a terrible manner; the mother was + obliged to take them away." +</p> +<hr class="short"> +<p> + "Men and women have been drinking a match for three days and nights, + during which it has been drink, fight—drink, fight—drink, and fight + again—guns, axes, and knives being their weapons—very disagreeable." +</p> +<hr class="short"> +<p> + "Mithanasconce was so troublesome (in drink) that we were obliged to + tie him with ropes to prevent his doing mischief. He was stabbed in + the back in three different places about a month ago. His wounds were + still open, and had an ugly appearance; in his struggling to get loose + they burst out afresh and bled a great deal. We had much trouble to + stop the blood, as the fellow was insensible to pain or danger; his + only aim was to bite us. We had some narrow escapes, until we secured + his mouth, and then he fell asleep." +</p> +<hr class="short"> +<p> + "Some Red Lake Indians having traded here for liquor which they took + to their camp, quarrelled amongst themselves. One jumped on another + and bit his nose off. It was some time before the piece could be + found; but, at last, by tumbling and tossing the straw about, it was + recovered, stuck on, and bandaged, as best the drunken people could, + in hopes it would grow again" (Alexander Henry, jun.). +</p> +<hr class="short"> +<p> + As regards drunkenness, several authors among the early explorers + declared that the French Canadian voyageurs were more disagreeable + when drunk even than the Amerindians, for their quarrels were noisier + and more deadly. "Indeed I had rather have fifty drunken Indians in + the fort than sixty-five drunken Canadians", writes Alexander Henry in + 1810. And yet the extracts I have given from his journal show that it + would be hard to beat the Amerindians for disagreeable ferocity when + intoxicated. +</p> +<p> + Henry, summing up his experiences before leaving for the Pacific coast + in 1811, writes these remarks in his diary:— +</p> +<p> + "What a different set of people they would be, were there not a drop + of liquor in the country! If a murder is committed among the Saulteurs + (Ojibwés), it is always in a drinking match. We may truly say that + liquor is the root of all evil in the north-west. Great bawling and + lamentation went on, and I was troubled most of the night for liquor + to wash away grief." +</p> +<p> + As a rule, the treatment of the Amerindians by the British and French + settlers was good, except the thrusting of alcohol on them. But in + Newfoundland a great crime was perpetrated. Between the middle of the + seventeenth and the beginning of the nineteenth centuries the British + fishermen and settlers on the coasts of Newfoundland had <i>destroyed</i> + the native population of Beothik Indians. +</p> +<p> + Before the English arrived on the coasts of Newfoundland the Beothiks + lived an ideal life for savages. They were well clothed with beasts' + skins, and in the winter these were supplemented by heavy fur robes. + Countless herds of reindeer roamed through the interior, passing from + north to south in the autumn and returning in the spring. Vast flocks + of willow grouse (like ptarmigan) were everywhere to be met with; the + many lakes were covered with geese, swans, and ducks. The woods were + full of pigeons; the salmon swarmed up the rivers to <a name="p199"></a>breed; the sea + round the coasts was—except in the wintertime—the richest fishery in + the world. They caught lobsters in the rock pools, and speared or + clubbed seals and great walruses for their flesh and oil. An + occasional whale provided them with oil, blubber, and meat. The Great + Auk—which could not fly—swarmed in millions on the cliffs and + islets. So abundant was this bird, and so fat, that its body was + sometimes used as fuel, or as a lamp. In the summertime their fish and + flesh diet could be varied by the innumerable berries growing + wild—strawberries, raspberries, currants, cranberries, and + whortleberries. The <i>capillaire</i> plant yielded a lusciously sweet, + sugary substance.<a name="7-15"></a><a href="#note-7-15"><small>[15]</small></a> +</p> +<a name="image-0011"><!--IMG--></a> +<center> +<img src="images/pc11.jpg" width="283" height="450" +alt="Great Auks, Gannets, Puffins, and Guillemots"> +</center> +<!--IMAGE END--> +<h5>GREAT AUKS, GANNETS, PUFFINS, AND GUILLEMOTS</h5> +<p> + The Beothiks were a tall, good-looking people, with large black eyes + and a light-coloured skin. The early French and Biscayan seamen, who + resorted to the coasts of Newfoundland for the whale fisheries, + reported these "Red Indians" to be "an ingenious and tractable people, + if well used, who were ready to help the white men with great labour + and patience in the killing, cutting-up, and boiling of whales, and + the making of train oil, without other expectation of reward than a + little bread or some such small hire". +</p> +<p> + Yet from the beginning of the seventeenth century the Beothiks—then + about four thousand in number—were ill-treated by the European + fishermen who frequented the Newfoundland coasts. They soon greatly + decreased in numbers, and became very shy of white men. The French, + when they occupied the south coast of Newfoundland, brought over + Mikmak Indians to chase and kill the Beothiks or "Red" Indians. The + Eskimo attacked them from Labrador. Finally, when Newfoundland became + British in the eighteenth century, the English fishermen settlers and + fur hunters attacked and slew the harmless Beothiks with a wanton + ferocity (described by horror-struck officers of the British navy) + which is as bad as anything attributed to the Spaniards in Cuba and + Hispaniola. By about 1830 they were all extinct. As late as 1823 the + following anecdote is recorded of two English settlers whose names are + hidden behind the initials C and A. "When near Badger Bay they fell in + with an Indian man and woman, who approached, apparently soliciting + food. The man was first killed, and the woman, who was afterwards + found to be his daughter, in despair remained calmly to be fired at, + when she was also shot through the chest and immediately expired. This + was told Mr. Cormack by the man who did the deed." Even English women + in the late eighteenth century were celebrated for their skill "in + shooting Red Indians and seals". +</p> +<p> + "For a period of nearly two hundred years this barbarity had + continued, and it was considered meritorious to shoot a Red Indian. + 'To go to look for Indians' came to be as much a phrase as to look for + partridges (ptarmigan). They were harassed from post to post, from + island to island; their hunting and fishing stations were + unscrupulously seized by the invading English. They were shot down + without the least provocation, or captured to be exposed as + curiosities to the rabble at the fairs of the western towns of + Christian England at twopence a piece."<a name="7-16"></a><a href="#note-7-16"><small>[16]</small></a> +</p> +<p> + Too late—when the worry and anxiety of the Napoleonic wars were + over—the British Government sent a commission of naval officers to + enquire into the treatment of the Beothiks by the settlers. One woman + alone remained, as a frightened semi-captive, to be consoled and + soothed. There are Indians in the south of Newfoundland at the present + day, but they are Mikmaks who come over from the adjoining regions of + Cape Breton and Nova Scotia. So tender, indeed, is the modern + government of the island towards these (out of compunction for the + past) that they are allowed to kill the reindeer and other wild + animals without the licence which is exacted from white people, and so + are actually injuring Newfoundland's resources! +</p> +<p> + Since the great Dominion of Canada was brought into existence in 1871 + as a unified, responsible government, the treatment of the remaining + Amerindian natives of British North America has been admirable; and + splendid work has been done in reclaiming them to a wholesome + civilization by the Moravian, Roman Catholic, and Church of England + missionaries. +</p> + +<a name="note-7-1"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#7-1"><u>1</u></a> There may have been an earlier race inhabiting north-east + America which was killed out or driven away by the last Glacial + period. +</p> +<a name="note-7-2"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#7-2"><u>2</u></a> "The dogs of the Northern Indians are of various sizes + and colours, but all of them have a foxy or wolf-like appearance, + sharp noses, bushy tails, and sharp ears standing erect." (Samuel + Hearne).<br><br> + + Hearne also remarks that the northern Indians had a superstitious + reverence and liking for the wolf. They would frequently go to the + mouth of the burrows where the female wolves lived with their young, + take out the puppies and play with them, and even paint the faces of + the young wolves with vermilion or red ochre.<br><br> + + When first observed by Europeans the unhappy Beothiks (of + Newfoundland) had apparently no domestic dogs, only "tame wolves", + whom they distinguished from the wild wolves by marking their ears. + They were made more angry by the European seamen attacking and killing + the wolves than by anything else they did. Apparently some kind of + alliance had been struck up between the Beothiks—a nation of + hunters—and the wolf packs which followed in their tracks; and the + Newfoundland wolves were on the way to becoming domesticated "dogs". + Later on it was realized that the island <i>did</i> produce a special + breed—the celebrated Newfoundland dog—the original type of which was + much smaller than the modern type, nearly or entirely black in colour, + with a sharper muzzle and less pendulous ears. But its feet were as + strongly webbed and its habits as aquatic as those of the + "Newfoundland" of the modern breed. Some people have noticed the + resemblance between the farmers' dogs in Norway and the Newfoundland + type, and have thought that the latter may not be altogether of wolf + extraction, but be descended from the dogs brought from Norway and + Iceland by the Norse adventurers who visited Newfoundland in the tenth + and eleventh centuries. +</p> + + +<a name="note-7-3"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#7-3"><u>3</u></a> Of which they made very serviceable chisels. +</p> +<a name="note-7-4"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#7-4"><u>4</u></a> See also pp. <a href="#p156">156</a>, <a href="#p164">164</a>, <a href="#p186">186</a>, and <a href="#p199">199</a>. In this list I have + put in italics the names of the tribes more important in history, and + in capitals the principal group names. +</p> +<a name="note-7-5"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#7-5"><u>5</u></a> Kinistino, Kiristineaux, Kilistino; called "Crees" or + "Kris" for short. +</p> +<a name="note-7-6"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#7-6"><u>6</u></a> "Iroquois" was a name invented by Champlain (see p. <a href="#p69">69</a>). + Apparently this confederation called themselves <i>Hodenosauni</i>. The + termination "ois" in all French-American names is pronounced + "wa"—Irokwá. +</p> +<a name="note-7-7"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#7-7"><u>7</u></a> The far-famed term <i>Siou</i> is said to have been an + abbreviation of one of the original French names for this type of + Amerindian, <i>Nadouessiou</i>. In early books they are often called the + Nadouessies. +</p> +<a name="note-7-8"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#7-8"><u>8</u></a> These northern Indians are described by Hearne as having + very low foreheads, small eyes, high cheekbones, Roman noses, broad + cheeks, and long, broad chins. Their skins were soft, smooth and + polished, somewhat copper-coloured, and inclining towards a dingy + brown. The hair of the head was black, strong, and straight. They were + not in general above middle size, though well proportioned. +</p> +<a name="note-7-9"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#7-9"><u>9</u></a> "It is surprising how dexterous all these natives of the + plains are in communicating their ideas by signs. They hold + conferences for several hours, upon different subjects, during the + whole of which time not a single word is pronounced upon either side, + and still they appear to comprehend each other perfectly well. This + mode of communication is natural to them; their gestures are made with + the greatest ease, and they never seem to be at a loss for a sign to + express their meaning" (Alex. Henry the Younger, 1800). But it should + also be noted that during the last hundred years the peoples belonging + to the Nūtka-Columbian group have developed a trade language which + they use in common. This is a mixture of Chinūk, English, French, + Chinese, and Hawaaian. +</p> +<a name="note-7-10"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#7-10"><u>10</u></a> The manner of courtship among the Ojibwés seemed to + Peter Grant not only singular, but rude. "The lover begins his first + addresses by gently pelting his mistress with bits of clay, snowballs, + small sticks, or anything he may happen to have in his hand. If she + returns the compliment, he is encouraged to continue the farce, and + repeat it for a considerable time, after which more direct proposals + of marriage are made by word of mouth." +</p> +<a name="note-7-11"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#7-11"><u>11</u></a> See also p. <a href="#p249">249</a>. +</p> +<a name="note-7-12"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#7-12"><u>12</u></a> See p. <a href="#p150">150</a>. +</p> +<a name="note-7-13"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#7-13"><u>13</u></a> In the far north-west, on the rivers of the Pacific + slope, the natives used spruce-fir bark instead of birch. +</p> +<a name="note-7-14"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#7-14"><u>14</u></a> Before the white man came to <i>North</i> America the natives + had no form of intoxicating drink. +</p> +<a name="note-7-15"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#7-15"><u>15</u></a> This was the Moxie plum or creeping snowberry + (<i>Chiogenes hispidula</i>). +</p> +<a name="note-7-16"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#7-16"><u>16</u></a> These are the remarks of an English chaplain in the + island, quoted by the Rev. George Patterson, who contributed a most + interesting article on the vanished Beothiks of Newfoundland to the + Royal Society of Canada in 1891. +</p> +<p class="return">[<a href="#contents">TABLE OF CONTENTS</a>] +</p> +<hr class="short"> +<a name="2HCH0008"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> + +<h2> + CHAPTER VIII +</h2> +<h3> + The Hudson Bay Explorers and the British Conquest of all Canada +</h3> +<p> + In a general way the discovery of the main features of the vast + Canadian Dominion may be thus apportioned amongst the different + European nations. First came the British, led by an Italian pilot. + They discovered Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland. + Then came the Portuguese, who discovered the north-east of + Newfoundland and the coast of Labrador, while a French expedition + under an Italian captain reached to Nova Scotia and southern + Newfoundland. A Spanish expedition under a Portuguese leader shortly + afterwards reached the coast of New Brunswick. After that the French + from Brittany, Normandy, and the west coast of France laid bare the + <i>west</i> coast of Newfoundland, the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the River St. + Lawrence, and the Great Lakes. +</p> +<p> + Sir Francis Drake led the way in the exploration of the north-west + coast of North America. He reached, in 1579, as far north on that side + as the country of Oregon, which he christened New Albion. This action + stirred up the Spaniards, who explored the coast of California, and in + 1591-2 sent an Ionian Island pilot, Apostolos Valeriano (commonly + called Juan de Fuca), in charge of an expedition to discover the + imagined Straits of Anian. He gave strength to this idea of a + continuous water route across temperate North America by entering (in + 1592) the straits, since called Juan de Fuca, between Vancouver Island + and the modern State of Washington, and passing thence into the + Straits of Georgia, which bear a striking resemblance in their + features to the Straits of Magellan. +</p> +<p> + French explorers and adventurers, as we have seen, penetrated from the + basin of the St. Lawrence to the north and west until they touched the + southern extension of Hudson Bay (James's Bay), discovered Lake + Winnipeg and the Saskatchewan Rivers, the upper Missouri and the whole + course of the Mississippi, and finally recorded the existence of the + Rocky Mountains. +</p> +<p> + Parallel with these movements the British discovered the broad belt of + sea between Greenland and North America and the whole area of Hudson + Bay. After the French had ceased to reign in North America, the + British were to reveal the great rivers flowing into the Arctic Ocean, + the coasts and islands of the Arctic Ocean, the Yukon River, and the + coasts and islands of British Columbia and Alaska. +</p> +<p> + The first Europeans, however, to reach Alaska were Russians led by + Vitus Bering, a great Danish sea captain in the Russian service. + Bering was born in 1680 at Horsens, in the province of Aarhuus, E. + Denmark, and entered the service of Peter the Great, who was desirous + of knowing where Asia terminated and America began. Bering discovered + the straits which bear his name in 1728, and in 1741 was wrecked and + died on Bering's Island. Captain James Cook, the British discoverer of + Australia and of so many Pacific islands, completed the work of Bering + in 1788 in charting the north-west American coast right into the + Arctic Ocean. +</p> +<p> + It has already been related in Chapter III how the Hudson's Bay + Chartered Company came to be founded. Soon after their first pioneers + were established, in 1670, at Fort Nelson, on the west coast of Hudson + Bay, near where York Factory now stands, there was born—or brought + out from England as an infant—a little boy named Henry Kellsey, who + as a child took a great fancy to the Amerindians who came to trade at + Fort Nelson. As he played with them, and they returned his affection, + he learnt their language, and—for some inconceivable reason—this + gave great offence to the stupid governor of the fort (indeed, when + Kellsey as a grown man, some years afterwards, compiled a vocabulary + of the Kri language for the use of traders, the Hudson's Bay Company + ordered it to be suppressed). Stupid Governor Geyer not only objected + to Kellsey picking up the Kri language, but punished him most severely + for that and for his boyish tricks and jokes; so much so, that + Kellsey, when he was about ten years old, ran away with the returning + Indians, some of whom had grown very fond of him whilst they stayed at + Fort Nelson. +</p> +<p> + Six years afterwards an Indian brought to the governor of the fort a + letter written by Kellsey in charcoal on a piece of white birch bark. + In this he asked the governor's pardon for running away, and his + permission to return to the fort. As a kind reply was sent, Kellsey + appeared not long afterwards grown into a young man, accompanied by an + Indian wife and attended by a party of Indians. He was dressed exactly + like them, but differed from them in the respect which he showed to + his native wife. She attempted to accompany her husband into the + factory or place of business, and the governor stopped her; but + Kellsey at once told him in English that he would not enter himself if + his wife was not suffered to go with him, and so the governor + relented. After this Kellsey (who must then have been about seventeen) + seems to have regularly enrolled himself in 1688 in the service of the + Company, and he was employed as a kind of commercial traveller who + made long journeys to the north-west to beat up a fur trade for the + Company and induce tribes of Indians to make long journeys every + summer to the Company's factory with the skins they had secured + between the autumn and the spring. In this way Kellsey penetrated + into the country of the Assiniboines, and he finally reached a more + distant tribe or nation called by the long name of Néwátamipoet.<a name="8-1"></a><a href="#note-8-1"><small>[1]</small></a> + Kellsey first of all made for Split Lake, up the Nelson River, and + thence paddled westwards in his canoe for a distance of 71 miles. Here + he abandoned the canoe, and, for what he estimated as 316 miles, he + tramped through a wooded country, first covered with fir and pine + trees, and farther on with poplar and birch. Apparently he then + reached a river flowing into Reindeer Lake. In a general way his steps + must have taken him in the direction of Lake Athapaska. +</p> +<p> + On the way he had much trouble with the Assiniboin Indians and Kris, + with whom he had caught up, and with whom he was to travel in the + direction of these mysterious Néwátamipoets. The last-named tribe, who + were probably of the Athapaskan group, had killed, a few months + previously, three of the Kri women, and the Kri Indians who belonged + to Kellsey's party were bent, above all things, on attacking the + Néwátamipoets and punishing them for this outrage. Kellsey only wished + to open up peaceful relations with them and create a great trade in + furs with the Hudson's Bay Company, so he kept pleading with the + Indians not to go to war with the Néwátamipoets. On this journey, + however, one of the Kri Indians fell ill and died. The next day the + body was burnt with much ceremony—first the flesh, and then the + bones—and after this funeral the companions of the dead man began to + reason as to the cause of his death, and suddenly blamed Kellsey. + Kellsey had obstructed them from their purpose of avenging their slain + women, therefore the gods of the tribe were angry and claimed this + victim in the man who had died. Kellsey was very near being sent to + the other world to complete the sacrifice; but he arranged for "a + feast of tobacco"—in other words, a calm deliberation and the smoking + of the pipe of peace. He explained to the angry Indians that his + Company had not supplied him with guns and ammunition with which to go + to war, but to induce them to embark on the fur trade and to kill wild + animals for their skins. If, instead of this, they went to war, or + injured him, they need never again go down to Fort Nelson for any + further trade or supplies. Four days afterwards, however, the + attention of the whole party was concentrated on bison. +</p> +<p> + Bison could now be seen in abundance. Kellsey was already acquainted + with the musk ox, which he had seen in the colder regions near to + Hudson Bay; but the bison seemed to him quite different, with horns + growing like those of an English ox, black and short. In the middle of + September he reached the country of the Néwátamipoets, and presented + to their chief, on behalf of the Hudson's Bay Company, a present of + clothes, knives, awls, tobacco, and a gun, gunpowder, and shot. On + this journey Kellsey encountered the grizzly bear, a more common + denizen of the western regions of North America. According to his own + account, he and one of the Indians with him were attacked by two + grizzly bears and obliged to climb into the branches of trees. The + bears followed them; but Kellsey fired and killed one, and later on + the other also. For this feat he was greatly reverenced by the + Indians, and received the name of Mistopashish, or "little giant". + Kellsey afterwards rose to be governor of York Fort, on the west coast + of Hudson Bay. +</p> +<p> + The next great explorer ranging westward from Hudson Bay was Anthony + Hendry.<a name="8-2"></a><a href="#note-8-2"><small>[2]</small></a> Anthony Hendry left York factory in 1754, with a company of + Kri Indians, to make a great journey of exploration to the west, and + with the deliberate intention of wintering with the natives and not + returning for that purpose to Hudson Bay. By means of canoe travel and + portages he reached Oxford Lake. From here he gained Moose Lake, and + soon afterwards "the broad waters of the Saskatchewan—the first + Englishman to see this great river of the western plains".<a name="8-3"></a><a href="#note-8-3"><small>[3]</small></a> + Twenty-two miles upstream from the point where it reached the + Saskatchewan he came to a French fort which had only been standing for + a year, and which represented probably the farthest advance northwards + of the French Canadians. +</p> +<a name="image-0012"><!--IMG--></a> +<center> +<a href="images/map12-large.jpg"> <img src="images/map12-small.jpg" width="610" height="400" +alt="Map of Eastern Canada and Newfoundland"></a> +</center> +<!--IMAGE END--> +<p class="ar"> [<a href="images/map12-large.jpg"><small>LARGER MAP</small></a>]</p> + +<p> + The situation was a rather delicate one, for the Hudson's Bay Company + was a thorn in the side of French Canada. However, in this + year—1754—the two nations were not actually at war, and the two + Frenchmen in charge of the fort received him "in a very genteel + manner", and invited him into their home, where he readily accepted + their hospitality. At first they spoke of detaining him till the + commandant of the fort returned, but abandoned this idea after + reflection, and Hendry continued his journey up the Saskatchewan. He + then left the river and marched on foot over the plains which separate + the North and the South Saskatchewan Rivers. The South Saskatchewan + was found to be a high stream covered with birch, poplar, elder, and2 + fir. He and his Indian guides were searching for the horse-riding + Blackfeet Indians.<a name="8-4"></a><a href="#note-8-4"><small>[4]</small></a> All the Amerindians known to the Hudson's Bay + Company hitherto travelled on foot, using snowshoes in the winter; but + vague rumours had reached the Company that in the far south-west there + were great nations of Indians which did all their hunting on + horseback. +</p> +<p> + Hendry had now found them, and he also met a small tribe of + Assiniboins—the Mekesue or Eagle Indians—who differed from the + surrounding tribes by going about, at any rate in the summertime, + absolutely naked. Here, too, between the two Saskatchewans, they saw + herds of bison on the plains grazing like English cattle. But they + also found elk (moose), wapiti or red deer, hares, grouse, geese, and + ducks. He records in his journal: "I went with the young men + a-buffalo-hunting, all armed with bows and arrows; killed several; + fine sport. We beat them about, lodging twenty arrows in one beast. So + expert were the natives that they will take the arrows out of the + buffalo when they are foaming and raging with pain and tearing up the + ground with their feet and horns until they fall down." The + Amerindians killed far more of these splendid beasts than they could + eat, and from these carcasses they merely took the tongues and a few + choice pieces, leaving the remainder to the wolves and the grizzly + bears. +</p> +<p> + At last they arrived at the temporary village of the Blackfeet. Two + hundred tents or <i>tipis</i> were pitched in two parallel rows, and down + this avenue marched Anthony Hendry, gazed at silently by many + Blackfeet Indians until he reached the large house or lodge of their + great chief, at the end of the avenue of tents. This lodge was large + enough to contain fifty persons. The chief received him seated on the + sacred skin of a white buffalo. The pipe of peace was then produced + and passed round in silence, each person taking a ceremonial puff. + Boiled bison beef was then brought to the guests in baskets made of + willow branches. Hendry told the great chief of the Blackfeet that he + had been sent by the great leader of the white men at Hudson Bay to + invite the Blackfeet Indians to come to these eastern waters in the + summertime, and bring with them beaver and wolf skins, for which they + would get, in return, guns, ammunition, cloth, beads, and other trade + goods. But this chief, though he listened patiently, pointed out that + this fort on Hudson Bay was situated at a very great distance, that + his men only knew how to ride horses, and not how to paddle canoes. + Moreover, they could not live without bison beef, and disliked fish. +</p> +<p> + After leaving the headquarters of the Blackfeet, Hendry rambled over + the beautiful country of fir woods and pine woods until he must have + got within sight of the Rocky Mountains, though these are not + mentioned in his journal. Then, after passing the winter (which did + not begin as regards cold weather till the 2nd of December, and was + over at the end of March) he returned to the French fort on the + Saskatchewan, where he was received by the Commandant, de La Corne, + with great kindness and hospitality. These Frenchmen, he found, were + able to speak in great perfection several Indian languages; they were + well dressed, and courtly in manners, and led a civilized life in + these distant wilds. They had excellent trade goods and were sincerely + liked by the Indians, but for some reason or other they lacked + Brazilian tobacco, which seems to have been a commodity much in favour + amongst the Indians. With this the Hudson's Bay Company were kept well + supplied, and that alone enabled them in any degree to compete with + the French. But in ten years more this French fort would be abandoned + owing to the cession of Canada to Britain. +</p> +<p> + The British, in fact, all through the first half of the eighteenth + century, by their superiority in sea power, were steadily strangling + the French empire in North America. Acadia, or Nova Scotia, and New + Brunswick had been, as we have seen, recognized as British in 1713, + and Newfoundland, also, subject to certain conditions, giving France + the exclusive right to fish on the <i>western</i> and <i>northern</i> coasts of + Newfoundland. The result was that when "New France", or Canada and + Louisiana combined, was at its greatest extent of conquered and + administered territory, France held but a very limited seacoast from + which to approach it—just the mouth of the Mississippi, and a little + bit of Alabama on the south and Cape Breton Island on the east. Cape + Breton Island was commanded by the immensely strong fortress of + Louisburg, and the possession of this place gave the French some + security in entering the Gulf of St. Lawrence through Cabot Straits. + But Louisburg was captured by the British colonists of New England + (United States) in 1745; and although it was given back to France + again, it was reoccupied in 1758, and served as a basis for the + armaments which were directed against Quebec in 1759, and which + resulted at the close of that year in the surrender of that important + city. In 1763 all Canada was ceded to the British, and Louisiana + (which had become the western barrier of the about-to-be-born United + States) was ceded to Spain; the French flag flew no more on the + Continent of North America, save in the two little islands of St. + Pierre and Miquelon adjoining Newfoundland, wherein it still remains + as a reminder of the splendid achievements of Frenchmen in America. +</p> +<hr class="short"> +<a name="note-8-1"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#8-1"><u>1</u></a> Spelt in the documents of the Hudson's Bay Company, + Naywatame-poet. +</p> +<a name="note-8-2"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#8-2"><u>2</u></a> The young or old reader of this and other books dealing + with the exploration of the Canadian Dominion will be indeed puzzled + between the various Hendrys and Henrys. The last-named was a prolific + stock, from which several notable explorers and servants of the + fur-trading companies were drawn. In this book a careful distinction + must be made between the <i>Anthony</i> Hendrey or Hendey, who commenced + his exploration of the west in 1754; the unrelated <i>Alexander</i> Henry + the Elder, who journeyed between 1761 and 1776; and the nephew of the + last-named, Alexander Henry the Younger, whose pioneering explorations + occurred between 1799 and 1814. +</p> + +<a name="note-8-3"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#8-3"><u>3</u></a> <i>The Search for the Western Sea</i>, by Lawrence J. Burpee. +</p> +<a name="note-8-4"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#8-4"><u>4</u></a> See p. <a href="#p159">159</a>. +</p> +<p class="return">[<a href="#contents">TABLE OF CONTENTS</a>] +</p> +<hr class="short"> +<a name="2HCH0009"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> + +<h2> + CHAPTER IX +</h2> +<h3> + The Pioneers from Montreal: Alexander Henry the Elder +</h3> +<p> + After 1763, when the two provinces of Canada were definitely ceded to + Great Britain, the exploring energies of the Hudson's Bay Fur-trading + Company revived. But before this rather sluggish organization could + take full advantage of the cessation of French opposition, independent + British pioneers were on their way to explore the vast north-west and + west, soon carrying their marvellous journeys beyond the utmost limits + reached by La Vérendrye and his sons. Eventually these pioneers, who + had Montreal for their base and who wisely associated themselves in + business and exploration with French Canadians, founded in 1784 a + great trading association known as the North-west Trading Company. A + few years later certain Scottish pioneers brought a rival exploration + and trading corporation into existence and called it the "X.Y. + Company". In 1804 these rival Montreal fur-trading associations were + fused into a new North-west Trading Company. Between this and the old + Hudson's Bay Company an intensely bitter rivalry and enmity—almost at + times a state of war—arose, and continued until 1821, when the + North-west Company and that of Hudson's Bay amalgamated. It is + necessary that these dry details should be understood in order that + the reader may comprehend the motives and reasons which prompted the + journeys which are about to be described. +</p> +<p> + Jonathan Carver, of Boston, U.S.A., was perhaps the pioneer of all + the British traders into the far west of Canada, beyond Lake Superior, + after Canada had been handed over to the British.<a name="9-1"></a><a href="#note-9-1"><small>[1]</small></a> In 1766-7 he + reached the Mississippi at its junction with the St. Peter or + Minnesota River, and journeyed up it to the land of the Dakota. Thomas + Currie, of Montreal, in 1770 travelled as far as Cedar Lake,<a name="9-2"></a><a href="#note-9-2"><small>[2]</small></a> where + there had been established the French post of Fort Bourbon. He was + succeeded the next year by James Finlay, who extended his explorations + to the Saskatchewan, whither he was followed by Alexander Henry the + Elder in 1775. +</p> +<p> + Alexander Henry (styled The Elder to distinguish him from his famous + nephew of the same name) was a native of New Jersey (U.S.A.), where he + was born in 1739. His parents were well-to-do people of the middle + class who are believed to have emigrated at the beginning of the + eighteenth century from the West of England, and to have been related + to Matthew Henry, the Bible commentator. Their son, Alexander, + received a good education, and after some commercial apprenticeship at + Albany (New York) came to Quebec when Canada was occupied by the + British in 1760; at which period he was about twenty-one years old. He + was in such a hurry to try a trading adventure in the country of the + great lakes that he ventured into central Canada before it was + sufficiently calmed down and reconciled to British rule. The + hostility, curiously enough, manifested itself much more among the + Amerindians than the settlers of French blood. These white men had not + been so well treated by the arrogant French officers and officials as + much to mind the change to the greater freedom of British government. + But the Indian chiefs and people loved the French, largely owing to + the goodness and solicitude of the missionaries. +</p> +<p> + "The hostility of the Indians", wrote Henry in his journal, travelling + along the coast of Lake Huron, "was exclusively against the English. + Between them and my Canadian attendants, there appeared the most + cordial goodwill. This circumstance suggested one means of escape, of + which, by the advice of my friend, Campion, I resolved to attempt + availing myself; namely, that of putting on the dress usually worn by + such of the Canadians as pursue the trade into which I had entered, + and assimilating myself, as much as I was able, to their appearance + and manners. To this end I laid aside my English clothes and covered + myself only with a cloth passed about the middle; a shirt, hanging + loose; a 'molton', or blanket coat, and a large, red worsted cap. The + next thing was to smear my face and hands with dirt and grease; and, + this done, I took the place of one of my men, and, when the Indians + approached, used the paddle with as much skill as I possessed. I had + the satisfaction to find, that my disguise enabled me to pass several + canoes without attracting the smallest notice." +</p> +<p> + When he reached Fort Michili-makinak<a name="9-3"></a><a href="#note-9-3"><small>[3]</small></a> he wrote: "At two o'clock in + the afternoon, the Chipeways came to my house, about sixty in number, + and headed by Minaváváná, their chief. They walked in single file, + each with his tomahawk in one hand and scalping knife in the other. + Their bodies were naked from the waist upward, except in a few + examples, where blankets were thrown loosely over the shoulders. Their + faces were painted with charcoal, worked up with grease; their bodies, + with white clay, in patterns of various fancies. Some had feathers + thrust through their noses, and their heads decorated with the + same.... It is unnecessary to dwell on the sensations with which I + beheld the approach of this uncouth, if not frightful assemblage. +</p> +<p> + "The chief entered first, and the rest followed without noise. On + receiving a sign from the former, the latter seated themselves on the + floor. +</p> +<p> + "Minaváváná appeared to be about fifty years of age. He was six feet + in height, and had, in his countenance, an indescribable mixture of + good and evil.... Looking steadfastly at me, where I sat in ceremony, + with an interpreter on either hand and several Canadians behind me, he + entered at the same time into conversation with Campion, enquiring how + long it was since I left Montreal, and observing that the English, as + it would seem, were brave men, and not afraid of death, since they + dared to come, as I had done, fearlessly among their enemies." +</p> +<p> + The Indians now gravely smoked their pipes, whilst Henry inwardly + endured tortures of suspense. At length, the pipes being finished, a + long pause of silence followed. Then Minaváváná, taking a few strings + of wampum in his hand, began a long speech, of which it is only + necessary to give a few extracts:— +</p> +<p> + "Englishman, it is to you that I speak, and I demand your attention! +</p> +<p> + "Englishman, although you have conquered the French, you have not yet + conquered us! We are not your slaves. These lakes, these woods and + mountains, were left to us by our ancestors. They are our inheritance, + and we will part with them to none. Your nation supposes that we, like + the white people, cannot live without bread—and pork—and beef! But, + you ought to know, that He, the Great Spirit and Master of Life, has + provided food for us in these spacious lakes, and on these woody + mountains. +</p> +<p> + "Englishman, our father, the King of France, employed our young men to + make war upon your nation. In this warfare many of them have been + killed, and it is our custom to retaliate, until such time as the + spirits of the slain are satisfied. But the spirits of the slain are + to be satisfied in either of two ways. The first is by the spilling of + the blood of the nation by which they fell; the other by covering the + bodies of the dead, and thus allaying the resentment of their + relations. This is done by making presents. +</p> +<p> + "Englishman, your king has never sent us any presents, nor entered + into any treaty with us, wherefore he and we are still at war; and, + until he does these things, we must consider that we have no other + father, nor friend, among the white men, than the King of France; but, + for you, we have taken into consideration, that you have ventured your + life among us in the expectation that we should not molest you. You do + not come armed with an intention to make war; you come in peace, to + trade with us, and supply us with necessaries, of which we are in + want. We shall regard you, therefore, as a brother, and you may sleep + tranquilly, without fear of the Chipeways.... As a token of our + friendship, we present you with this pipe to smoke." +</p> +<p> + When Minaváváná had finished his harangue, an Indian presented Henry + with a pipe, the which, after he had drawn smoke through it three + times, was carried back to the chief, and after him to every person in + the room. This ceremony ended, the chief arose, and gave the + Englishman his hand, in which he was followed by all the rest. +</p> +<p> + At the Sault Ste Marie, on the river connecting Lake Superior and + Huron, Henry spent part of the spring of 1763-4, and engaged with a + few French Canadians and Indians in making maple sugar, the season for + which—April—was now at hand. +</p> +<p> + A temporary house for eight persons was built in a convenient part of + the maple woods, distant about three miles from the fort. The men + then gathered the bark of white birch trees, and made out of it + vessels to hold the sap which was to flow from the incisions they cut + in the bark of the maple trees. Into these cuts they introduced wooden + spouts or ducts, and under them were placed the birch-bark vessels. + When these were filled, the sweet liquid was poured into larger + buckets, and the buckets were emptied into bags of elkskin containing + perhaps a hundred gallons. Boilers (probably of metal, introduced by + the French) were next set up in the camp over fires kept burning day + and night, and the maple sap thus boiled became, by concentration, + maple sugar. +</p> +<p> + The women attended to all the business of sugar manufacture, while the + men cut wood and went out hunting and fishing to secure food for the + community; though, as a matter of fact, sugar and syrup were their + main sustenance during all this absence from home. "I have known + Indians", wrote Henry, "to live for a time wholly on maple sugar and + syrup and become fat." The sap of the maple had certain medicinal + qualities which were exceedingly good for persons who had previously + been eating little else than meat and fish, so that the three weeks of + sugar-boiling in Canada was, no doubt, a splendid assistance to the + health of the natives. On this particular occasion described by Henry, + the party returned, after three weeks' absence, to the Sault Ste Marie + with 1600 lb. of maple sugar, and 36 gallons of syrup.<a name="9-4"></a><a href="#note-9-4"><small>[4]</small></a> +</p> +<p> + Henry returned in the summer of 1763 to Fort Michili-makinak. The + place was then held by a British garrison under Major Etherington. + Shortly after Henry's arrival, an Ojibwé chief named Wáwátam came + often to his lodgings, and, taking a great fancy to the Englishman, + asked leave to become his blood brother. He was about forty-five + years of age, and of an excellent character amongst his nation. He + warned Henry that he, Wáwátam, had had bad dreams during the winter, + in which he had been disturbed "by the noises of evil birds", and gave + him other roundabout warnings that the Indians of different tribes + were going to attack the British garrison at Michili-Makinak, and + endeavour to destroy all the English in Upper Canada. Henry did not + pay over much attention to this warning, because "the Indian manner of + speech is so extravagantly figurative". +</p> +<p> + The King's birthday was celebrated with, no doubt, somewhat tipsy + rejoicings in the summer of 1763. The Ojibwé Indians outside the fort + pretended they were going to have a great game of La Crosse with the + Sāki or "Fox" Indians. This game was got up to find a pretext for + entering the fort and taking the British officers and garrison at a + disadvantage. Some of the officers and soldiers, suspecting nothing in + the way of danger, were outside the fort by the waterside. However, + the sport commenced, and suddenly the ball was struck over the pickets + of the fort. At once the Ojibwés, pretending great ardour in their + game, came leaping, struggling and shouting over the defences into the + fort as though "in the unrestrained pursuit of a rude, athletic + exercise". Once inside the fortifications, they attacked the + unsuspicious and unarmed soldiers and officers, of whom they killed + seventy out of ninety. +</p> +<p> + Henry had not gone with the others, but had stayed in his room writing + letters. Suddenly he heard the Indian warcry and a noise of general + confusion. Looking out of his window he saw a crowd of Indians inside + the fort furiously cutting down and scalping every Englishman they + could reach. Meantime, the French Canadian inhabitants of the fort + looked on calmly, neither intervening to stop the Indians, nor + suffering any injury from them. Realizing that all his fellow + countrymen were practically destroyed, Henry endeavoured to hide + himself. He entered the house of his next-door neighbour, a Frenchman, + and found the whole family at the windows gazing at the scene of blood + before them. He implored this Frenchman to put him into some place of + safety until the massacre was over. The latter merely shrugged his + shoulders and intimated that he could do nothing for him; but a Pani + Indian woman, a slave of this Frenchman, beckoned to Henry to follow + her, and hid him in a garret. Then the Indians burst into the house + and asked the Frenchman if he had got any Englishmen concealed, the + latter returned an evasive answer, telling them to search for + themselves. Henry hid himself under a heap of birch-bark vessels, + which were used in maple-sugar manufacture. The door was unlocked, the + four Indians dashed in, their bodies covered with blood, and armed + with tomahawks. The hidden man thought that the throbbing of his heart + must make a noise loud enough to betray him. The Indians searched the + garret, and one of them approached Henry so closely as almost to touch + him; yet he remained undiscovered, possibly owing to the dark colour + of his clothes and the dim light in the room. Then the Indians, after + describing to the Frenchman how many they had killed and scalped, + returned downstairs, and the door was locked behind them. +</p> +<p> + But the next day the Indians insisted on a further search, and, + regarding every attempt at concealment as vain, Henry, by a desperate + resolve, rose from his bed and presented himself in full view to the + Indians as they entered the room. They were all in a state of + intoxication and entirely naked. One of them, upwards of six feet in + height, had all his face and body covered with charcoal and grease, + but with a large white ring encircling each of his eyes. This man, + walking up to Henry, seized him with one hand by the collar of his + coat, and in the other held up a large carving knife, making a feint + as if to plunge it into his breast, his eyes meanwhile fixed + steadfastly on those of the Englishman. At length, after some seconds + of the most anxious suspense, he dropped Henry's arm, saying: "I won't + kill you," adding that he had often fought in war with the English and + brought away many scalps, but that on a certain occasion he had lost a + brother whose name was Musinigon, and that he would adopt Henry in his + place. +</p> +<p> + One would like the story to have stopped here at this happy turn of + events, but Wenniway (as this saviour of Henry was called) entertained + a very fickle regard for his adopted brother, and, though he once or + twice intervened, subsequently took no great pains to see that his + life was spared. However, for the time being he was reprieved, and + regarded Wenniway as his "master". Nevertheless, he was soon haled out + of the house by another Indian, apparently coming with Wenniway's + authority. This man ordered him to undress, and then took away all his + clothes, giving him such dirty rags or strips of leather as he + possessed himself. He frankly owned that his motive for stripping him + was that, as he wished afterwards to kill him, Henry's clothes might + not be stained with blood! With the intention of assassinating him, in + fact, he dragged Henry along to a region of bushes and sandhills, and + then produced a knife and attempted to execute his purpose. But with + the rage and strength of absolute despair Henry wrenched himself free, + pushed his would-be murderer on one side, and ran for his life towards + the fort. +</p> +<p> + Here Wenniway rather indifferently helped him to take refuge in the + house of the Frenchman in which he had formerly hidden, but the same + night he was roused from sleep and ordered to come below, where to his + surprise he found himself in the presence of three of the British + officers who had formerly commanded in this fort, and who were now + prisoners of the Ojibwés. The Indian chiefs for the time being had + handed these men over to the surveillance of the French Canadians, + together with the seventeen surviving English soldiers and traders. + Henry, like the others, was almost without clothes. The French + Canadian in whose house he had taken refuge refused to give him as + much as a blanket, but another Canadian, less indifferent to the + sufferings of a fellow white man, did give him a blanket, but for + which he would certainly have perished from cold. +</p> +<p> + The next day he and the other English prisoners were embarked in + canoes and taken away to Lake Michigan. On reaching the mouth of that + lake, at the Beaver Islands, the Ojibwé canoes, on account of the fog, + were obliged to approach the lands of the Ottawa Indians. These last + suddenly seized the canoes as they entered shallow water, and + professed great indignation at the capture of Fort Michili-Makinak and + the slaughter of the Englishmen. They declared their intention of + saving the survivors, and charged the Ojibwés with being about to kill + and eat them. By the Ottawa Indians, therefore, the twenty Englishmen + were carried back again and deposited in Fort Michili-Makinak, which + was now taken possession of by the Ottawas. The English were still + held as prisoners. After hearing all the Ojibwés had to say, and + receiving from them large presents, the Ottawas finally decided to + restore their English prisoners to the Ojibwés, who consequently took + them away with ropes tied round their necks, and put them into an + Indian habitation. Here, as they were starving, they were offered + loaves of bread, but with the horrible accompaniment of seeing the + slices cut with knives still covered with the blood of the murdered + English. The Ojibwés moistened this blood on the knife blades with + their spittle, and rubbed it on the slices of bread, offering this + food then to their prisoners, so that they might force them to eat the + blood of their countrymen. +</p> +<p> + The next morning, however, there appeared before Ménéhewéhná, the + great war chief of the Ojibwés, Henry's friend and adopted brother, + Wáwátam. This man made an earnest speech to the council of Ojibwé + chiefs and braves, in which he pleaded hard for the Englishman's life, + at the same time tendering from out of his own goods a considerable + ransom. After much pipe-smoking and an embarrassing silence, the war + chief rose to his feet and accepted the ransom, giving Wáwátam + permission to take away into safety his adopted brother. "Wáwátam led + me to his lodge, which was at the distance of a few yards only from + the prison lodge. My entrance appeared to give joy to the whole + family; food was immediately prepared for me; and I now ate the first + hearty meal which I had made since my capture. I found myself one of + the family; and, but that I had still my fears as to the other + Indians, I felt as happy as the situation could allow." +</p> +<p> + The next day seven of the English prisoners were killed by the + Ojibwés, and Henry actually saw their dead bodies being dragged out + into the open. They had been killed in cold blood by an Indian chief + who had just arrived from a hunting expedition, and who, not having + been present at the attack on the fort, now desired to satisfy his + warlike instincts and his agreement with the policy of the Ojibwés by + going into the lodge where the English officers and men were tied up, + and slaughtering seven of them in cold blood. +</p> +<p> + Shortly afterwards two of the Ojibwés took the fattest amongst the + dead men, cut off his head, and divided his body into five parts, one + of which was put into each of five kettles hung over as many fires, + which were kindled for this purpose at the door of the house in which + the other prisoners were tied up. They then sent to insist on the + attendance at their cannibal feast of Wáwátam, the adopted brother and + protector of Henry. The invitation was delivered after the Amerindian + fashion. A small cutting of cedar wood about four inches in length + supplies the place of the written or printed invitation to dinner of + European civilization, and the man who bore the slip of cedar wood + gave particulars as to place and time by word of mouth. Guests on + these occasions were expected to bring their own dish and spoon. +</p> +<p> + In spite of repugnance, Wáwátam, to save his life and that of Henry, + was obliged to go. He returned after an absence of half an hour, + bringing back in his dish the portion given to him—a human hand and a + large piece of flesh. His objection to eat this gruesome food was + apparently not very deep or persistent. He excused the custom by + saying that amongst all Amerindian nations there existed this practice + of making a war feast from out of the bodies of the slain after a + successful battle. +</p> +<p> + Soon after this episode of horror the Ojibwés abandoned Fort + Michili-Makinak, for fear the English should come to attack it. Henry + was hidden by his adopted brother, Wáwátam, in a cave, where he found + himself by the light of the next morning sleeping on a bed of human + bones, which the night before he had taken to be twigs and boughs. The + whole of the cave was, in fact, filled with these human remains. No + one knew or remembered the reason. Henry thought that the cave had + been an ancient receptacle for the bones of persons who had been + sacrificed and devoured at war feasts; for, however contemptuous they + may be of the flesh, the Amerindians paid particular attention + to the bones of human beings—whether friends, relations, or + enemies—preserving them unbroken, and depositing them in some + place kept exclusively for that purpose. +</p> +<p> + The great chief of the Ojibwés, however, advised that Henry, who had + rejoined Wáwátam, should be dressed in disguise as an Indian to save + him from any further harm, for the natives all round about were + preparing for what they believed to be an inevitable war with the + English. +</p> +<p> + "I could not but consent to the proposal, and the chief was so kind as + to assist my friend and his family in effecting that very day the + desired metamorphosis. My hair was cut off, and my head shaved, with + the exception of a spot on the crown, of about twice the diameter of a + crown piece. My face was painted with three or four different colours; + some parts of it red, and others black. A shirt was provided for me, + painted with vermilion, mixed with grease. A large collar of wampum<a name="9-5"></a><a href="#note-9-5"><small>[5]</small></a> + was put round my neck, and another suspended on my breast. Both my + arms were decorated with large bands of silver above the elbow, + besides several smaller ones on the wrists; and my legs were covered + with <i>mitasses</i>, a kind of hose, made, as is the favourite fashion, of + scarlet cloth. Over all I was to wear a scarlet blanket or mantle, and + on my head a large bunch of feathers. I parted, not without some + regret, with the long hair which was natural to it, and which I + fancied to be ornamental; but the ladies of the family, and of the + village in general, appeared to think my person improved, and now + condescended to call me handsome, even among Indians." +</p> +<p> + He then went away to live with his protectors, and with them passed a + by no means unhappy autumn, winter, and spring, hunting and fishing. +</p> +<p> + Here are some of his adventures at this period. +</p> +<p> + "To kill beaver, we used to go several miles up the rivers, before the + approach of night, and after the dusk came on, suffer the canoe to + drift gently down the current, without noise. The beavers, in this + part of the evening, come abroad to procure food, or materials for + repairing their habitations, and as they are not alarmed by the canoe, + they often pass it within gunshot. +</p> +<p> + "On entering the River Aux Sables, Wáwátam took a dog, tied its feet + together, and threw it into the stream, uttering, at the same time, a + long prayer, which he addressed to the Great Spirit, supplicating his + blessing on the chase, and his aid in the support of the family, + through the dangers of a long winter. Our 'lodge' was fifteen miles + above the mouth of the stream. The principal animals, which the + country afforded, were red deer (wapiti), the common American deer, + the bear, racoon, beaver, and marten. +</p> +<p> + "The beaver feeds in preference on young wood of the birch, aspen, and + poplar tree<a name="9-6"></a><a href="#note-9-6"><small>[6]</small></a>; but, in defect of these, on any other tree, those of + the pine and fir kinds excepted. These latter it employs only for + building its dams and houses. In wide meadows, where no wood is to be + found, it resorts, for all its purposes, to the roots of the rush and + water lily. It consumes great quantities of food, whether of roots or + wood; and hence often reduces itself to the necessity of removing into + a new quarter. Its house has an arched dome-like roof, of an + elliptical figure, and rises from three to four feet above the surface + of the water. It is always entirely surrounded by water; but, in the + banks adjacent, the animal provides holes or <i>washes</i>, of which the + entrance is below the surface, and to which it retreats on the first + alarm. +</p> +<p> + "The female beaver usually produces two young at a time, but not + unfrequently more. During the first year, the young remain with their + parents. In the second, they occupy an adjoining apartment, and assist + in building, and in procuring food. At two years old, they part, and + build houses of their own; but often rove about for a considerable + time before they fix upon a spot. There are beavers, called, by the + Indians, <i>old bachelors</i>, who live by themselves, build no houses, and + work at no dams, but shelter themselves in holes. The usual method of + taking these is by traps, formed of iron, or logs, and baited with + branches of poplar. +</p> +<p> + "According to the Indians, the beaver is much given to jealousy. If a + strange male approaches the cabin, a battle immediately ensues. Of + this the female remains an unconcerned spectator, careless as to which + party the law of conquest may assign her. The Indians add that the + male is as constant as he is jealous, never attaching himself to more + than one female. +</p> +<p> + "The most common way of taking the beaver is that of breaking up its + house, which is done with trenching tools, during the winter, when the + ice is strong enough to allow of approaching them; and when, also, the + fur is in its most valuable state. +</p> +<p> + "Breaking up the house, however, is only a preparatory step. During + this operation, the family make their escape to one or more of their + <i>washes</i>. These are to be discovered by striking the ice along the + bank, and where the holes are, a hollow sound is returned. After + discovering and searching many of these in vain, we often heard the + whole family together in the same wash. I was taught occasionally to + distinguish a full wash from an empty one, by the motion of the water + above its entrance, occasioned by the breathing of the animals + concealed in it. From the washes, they must be taken out with the + hands; and in doing this, the hunter sometimes receives severe wounds + from their teeth. Whilst I was a hunter with the Indians, I thought + beaver flesh was very good; but after that of the ox was again within + my reach, I could not relish it. The tail is accounted a luxurious + morsel. +</p> +<p> + "One evening, on my return from hunting, I found the fire put out, and + the opening in the top of the lodge covered over with skins—by this + means excluding, as much as possible, external light. I further + observed that the ashes were removed from the fireplace, and that dry + sand was spread where they had been. Soon after, a fire was made + withoutside the cabin, in the open air, and a kettle hung over it to + boil. +</p> +<p> + "I now supposed that a feast was in preparation. I supposed so only, + for it would have been indecorous to enquire into the meaning of what + I saw. No person, among the Indians themselves, would use this + freedom. Good breeding requires that the spectator should patiently + wait the result. +</p> +<p> + "As soon as the darkness of night had arrived, the family, including + myself, were invited into the lodge. I was now requested not to speak, + as a feast was about to be given to the dead, whose spirits delight in + uninterrupted silence. +</p> +<p> + "As we entered, each was presented with his wooden dish and spoon, + after receiving which we seated ourselves. The door was next shut, and + we remained in perfect darkness. +</p> +<p> + "The master of the family was the master of the feast. Still in the + dark, he asked everyone, by turn, for his dish, and put into each two + boiled ears of maize. The whole being served, he began to speak. In + his discourse, which lasted half an hour, he called upon the manes of + his deceased relations and friends, beseeching them to be present, to + assist him in the chase, and to partake of the food which he had + prepared for them. When he had ended, we proceeded to eat our maize, + which we did without other noise than what was occasioned by our + teeth. The maize was not half boiled, and it took me an hour to + consume my share. I was requested not to break the spikes,<a name="9-7"></a><a href="#note-9-7"><small>[7]</small></a> as this + would be displeasing to the departed spirits of their friends. +</p> +<p> + "When all was eaten, Wáwátam made another speech, with which the + ceremony ended. A new fire was kindled, with fresh sparks, from flint + and steel; and the pipes being smoked, the spikes were carefully + buried, in a hole made in the ground for that purpose, within the + lodge. This done, the whole family began a dance, Wáwátam singing, and + beating a drum. The dance continued the greater part of the night, to + the great pleasure of the lodge. The night of the feast was that of + the first day of November." +</p> +<p> + In the month of January, Henry happened to observe that the trunk of a + very large pine tree was much torn by the claws of a bear, made both + in going up and down. On further examination he saw there was a large + opening, in the upper part, near which the smaller branches were + broken. From these marks, and from the additional circumstances that + there were no tracks on the snow, there was reason to believe that a + bear lay concealed in the tree. +</p> +<p> + He communicated his discovery to his Indian friends, and it was agreed + that all the family should go together in the morning to cut down the + tree, the girth of which was not less than eighteen feet! This task + occupied them for one and a half days with their poor little axes, + till about two o'clock in the second afternoon the tree fell to the + ground. For a few minutes everything remained quiet, and Henry feared + that all his expectations would be disappointed; but, as he advanced + to the opening, there came out a female bear of extraordinary size, + which he had shot and killed before she had proceeded many yards. +</p> +<p> + "The bear being dead, all my assistants approached, and all, but more + particularly my old mother, (as I was won't to call her), took the + bear's head in their hands, stroking and kissing it several times; + begging a thousand pardons for taking away her life; calling her their + relation and grandmother; and requesting her not to lay the fault upon + them, since it was truly an Englishman that had put her to death. +</p> +<p> + "This ceremony was not of long duration; and if it was I that killed + their grandmother, they were not themselves behindhand in what + remained to be performed. The skin being taken off, we found the fat + in several places six inches deep. This, being divided into two parts, + loaded two persons; and the flesh parts were as much as four persons + could carry. In all, the carcass must have exceeded five + hundredweight. +</p> +<p> + "As soon as we reached the lodge, the bear's head was adorned with all + the trinkets in the possession of the family, such as silver armbands + and wristbands, and belts of wampum; and then laid upon a scaffold, + set up for its reception, within the lodge. Near the nose was placed a + large quantity of tobacco. +</p> +<p> + "The next morning no sooner appeared, than preparations were made for + a feast to the manes. The lodge was cleaned and swept; and the head of + the bear lifted up, and a new Stroud blanket, which had never been + used before, spread under it. The pipes were now lit; and Wáwátam blew + tobacco smoke into the nostrils of the bear, telling me to do the + same, and thus appease the anger of the bear, on account of my having + killed her. +</p> +<p> + "At length, the feast being ready, Wáwátam commenced a speech, + resembling, in many things, his address to the manes of his relations + and departed companions; but, having this peculiarity, that he here + deplored the necessity under which men laboured, thus to destroy their + <i>friends</i>. He represented, however, that the misfortune was + unavoidable, since without doing so, they could by no means subsist. + The speech ended, we all ate heartily of the bear's flesh; and even + the head itself, after remaining three days on the scaffold, was put + into the kettle. The fat of our bear was melted down, and the oil + filled six porcupine-skin bags. A part of the meat was cut into + strips, and fire-dried, after which it was put into the vessels + containing the oil, where it remained in perfect preservation, until + the middle of summer." +</p> +<p> + In the spring of 1762 Henry once more returned to Fort + Michili-Makinak, and went sugar-making with his Indian companions. + Whilst engaged in this agreeable task, a child belonging to one of the + party fell into a kettle of boiling syrup. It was instantly snatched + out, but with little hope of its recovery. So long, however, as it + lived, a continual feast was observed; and this was made "to the Great + Spirit and Master of Life", that he might be pleased to save and heal + the child. At this feast Henry was a constant guest; and often found + some difficulty in eating the large quantity of food which, on such + occasions as these, was put upon his dish. +</p> +<p> + Several sacrifices were also offered; among which were dogs, killed + and hung upon the tops of poles, with the addition of blankets and + other articles. These, also, were yielded to the Great Spirit, in the + humble hope that he would give efficacy to the medicines employed. But + the child died. To preserve the body from the wolves it was placed + upon a scaffold, and then later carried to the borders of a lake, on + the border of which was the burial ground of the family. +</p> +<p> + "On our arrival there, which happened in the beginning of April, I did + not fail to attend the funeral. The grave was made of a large size, + and the whole of the inside lined with birch bark. On the bark was + laid the body of the child, accompanied with an axe, a pair of + snowshoes, a small kettle, several pairs of common shoes, its own + strings of beads, and—because it was a girl—a carrying belt and a + paddle. The kettle was filled with meat. All this was again covered + with bark; and at about two feet nearer the surface logs were laid + across, and these again covered with bark, so that the earth might by + no means fall upon the corpse. +</p> +<p> + "The last act before the burial, performed by the mother, crying over + the dead body of her child, was that of taking from it a lock of hair + for a memorial. While <a name="p230"></a>she did this, I endeavoured to console her by + offering the usual arguments: that the child was happy in being + released from the miseries of this present life, and that she should + forbear to grieve, because it would be restored to her in another + world, happy and everlasting. She answered that she knew it, and that + by the lock of hair she should discover her daughter; for she would + take it with her. In this she alluded to the day when some pious hand + would place in her own grave, along with the carrying belt and paddle, + this little relic, hallowed by maternal tears." +</p> +<p> + After many ups and downs of hope and despair, and many narrow escapes + of being killed and made into broth for warlike Ojibwés, Henry at + length obtained permission to travel with a party of Ojibwé Indians + who were invited to visited Sir William Johnson at Niagara. This + British Governor of Canada was attempting to enter into friendly + relations with the Amerindian tribes, and induce them to accept + quietly the transference of Canada from French to English control. +</p> +<a name="image-0013"><!--IMG--></a> +<center> +<img src="images/pc13.jpg" width="450" height="286" +alt="Scene on Canadian River: Wild Swans Flying up Disturbed +By Bear"> +</center> +<!--IMAGE END--> +<h5>SCENE ON CANADIAN RIVER: WILD SWANS FLYING UP DISTURBED BY BEAR</h5> +<p> + Before starting, however, to interview this great White Governor, the + Ojibwés decided to consult their oracle, the Great Turtle, after which + Fort Michili-Makinak was named.<a name="9-8"></a><a href="#note-9-8"><small>[8]</small></a> Behind Fort Michili-Makinak is an + extraordinary mound or hill of stone supposed to resemble this reptile + exactly, and in fact to be in some way the residence of a supernatural + giant turtle. +</p> +<p> + For invoking and consulting the Great Turtle, the first thing to be + done was to build a large house, within which was placed a kind of + tent, for the use of the priest and reception of the spirit. The tent + was formed of moose skins, hung over a framework of wood made out of + five pillars of five different species of timber, about ten feet in + height and eight inches in diameter, set up in a circle of four feet + in diameter, with their bases two feet deep in the soil. At the top + the pillars were bound together by a circular hoop of withies. Over + the whole of this edifice were spread the moose skins, covering it at + top and round the sides, and made fast with thongs of the same, except + that on one side a part was left unfastened, to admit of the entrance + of the priest. +</p> +<p> + The ceremonies did not commence till the approach of night. To give + light inside the house several fires were kindled round the tent. + Nearly the whole village assembled in the house, Alexander Henry among + the rest. It was not long before the priest appeared, almost in a + state of nakedness. As he approached the tent the skins were lifted + up, as much as was necessary to allow of his creeping under them on + his hands and knees. His head was scarcely within side when the + edifice, massive as it has been described, began to shake; and the + skins were no sooner let fall than the sounds of numerous voices were + heard beneath them—some yelling, some barking as dogs, some howling + like wolves; and in this horrible concert were mingled screams and + sobs of despair, anguish, and the sharpest pain. Articulate speech was + also uttered, as if from human lips, but in a tongue unknown to any of + the audience. +</p> +<p> + After some time these confused and frightful noises were succeeded by + a perfect silence; and now a voice, not heard before, seemed to + manifest the arrival of a new character in the tent. This was low and + feeble, resembling the cry of a young puppy. The sound was no sooner + distinguished than all the Indians clapped their hands for joy, + exclaiming that this was the Chief Spirit, the Turtle, the Spirit that + never lied! Other voices, which they had distinguished from time to + time, they had previously hissed, as recognizing them to belong to + evil and lying spirits, the deceivers of mankind. +</p> +<p> + Then came from the tent a succession of songs, in which a diversity + of voices met the ear. From his first entrance, till these songs were + finished, we heard nothing in the proper voice of the priest. But now + he addressed the multitude, declaring the presence of the Great + Turtle, and the spirit's readiness to answer such questions as should + be proposed. The questions were to come from the chief of the village, + who was silent, however, till after he had put a large quantity of + tobacco into the tent, introducing it at the aperture. This was a + sacrifice offered to the spirit; for the spirits were supposed by the + Indians to be as fond of tobacco as themselves. This done, the chief + desired the priest to enquire: Whether or not the English were + preparing to make war upon the Indians? and whether or not there were + at Fort Niagara a large number of English troops? +</p> +<p> + The priest was heard to put the questions, and then the tent shook and + rocked so violently that Henry expected to see it levelled with the + ground. But apparently answers were given, after which a terrific cry + announced, with sufficient intelligibility, the departure of the + Turtle. Subsequently the priest interpreted the Great Turtle's + answers, which gave a great deal of information regarding the + disposition and numbers of the English soldiers, and the presents + which Sir William Johnson was preparing for the Ojibwés; and which + finally approved the wisdom of the embassy proceeding on its way. +</p> +<p> + Journeying along the shores of Lake Huron, they stopped to avoid a + gale of wind and to rest. Henry, gathering firewood, disturbed a + rattlesnake which manifested hostile intentions. He went back to the + canoe to fetch his gun; but upon telling the Ojibwés that he was about + to kill a rattlesnake they begged him to desist. They then seized + their pipes and tobacco pouches and returned with him to the place + where he had left the rattlesnake, which was still coiled up and + angry. +</p> +<p> + "The Indians, on their part, surrounded it, all addressing it by + turns, and calling it their <i>grandfather</i>; but yet keeping at some + distance. During this part of the ceremony they filled their pipes; + and now each blew the smoke towards the snake, who, as it appeared to + me, really received it with pleasure. In a word, after remaining + coiled, and receiving incense for the space of half an hour, it + stretched itself along the ground, in visible good humour. Its length + was between four and five feet. Having remained outstretched for some + time, at last it moved slowly away, the Indians following it, and + still addressing it by the title of grandfather, beseeching it to take + care of their families during their absence, and to be pleased to open + the heart of Sir William Johnson, so that he might <i>show them + charity</i>, and fill their canoe with rum. +</p> +<p> + "One of the chiefs added a petition, that the snake would take no + notice of the insult which had been offered him by the Englishman, who + would even have put him to death, but for the interference of the + Indians, to whom it was hoped he would impute no part of the offence." +</p> +<p> + Early the next morning they proceeded on their way, with a serene sky + and very little wind, so that to shorten the journey they determined + to steer across the lake to an island which just appeared on the + horizon. But after hoisting a sail the wind increased, and the + Indians, beginning to be alarmed, frequently called on the rattlesnake + to come to their assistance. By degrees the waves grew high, and at + last it blew a hurricane, Henry and his companions expecting every + moment to be swallowed up. From prayers the Indians now proceeded to + sacrifices, both alike offered to the god-rattlesnake, or + <i>manito-kinibik</i>. One of the chiefs took a dog, and, after tying its + fore legs together, threw it overboard, at the same time calling on + the snake to preserve the party from being drowned, and desiring him + to satisfy his hunger with the carcass of the dog. The snake was + unpropitious, and the wind increased. Another chief sacrificed + another dog, with the addition of some tobacco. In the prayer which + accompanied these gifts he besought the snake, as before, not to + avenge upon the Indians the insult which he had received from the + Englishman. "He assured the snake that I was <i>absolutely</i> an + Englishman, and of kin neither to him nor to them." +</p> +<p> + "At the conclusion of this speech, an Indian, who sat near me, + observed, that if we were drowned it would be for my fault alone, and + that I ought myself to be sacrificed, to appease the angry manito; nor + was I without apprehensions, that in case of extremity this would be + my fate; but, happily for me, the storm at length abated, and we + reached the island safely." +</p> +<p> + The next day they arrived at the shore of Lake Ontario. Here they + remained two days to make canoes out of the bark of the elm tree, in + which they might travel to Niagara. For this purpose the Indians first + cut down a tree, then stripped off the bark in one entire sheet of + about eighteen feet in length, the incision being lengthwise. The + canoe was now complete as to its bottom and sides. Its ends were next + closed, by sewing the bark together; and a few ribs and bars being + introduced, the architecture was finished. In this manner they made + two canoes; of which one carried eight men, and the other nine. +</p> +<p> + A few days later Henry was handed over safe and sound to Sir William + Johnson at Niagara. He was then given the command of a corps of Indian + allies which was to accompany the expedition under General Bradstreet + to raise the siege of Detroit, which important place had been long + invested by a great Indian chief, Pontiac, who still carried on the + war on behalf of King Louis XV. This enterprise was successful, and + British control was extended to many places in central Canada. Henry + returned to Fort Michili-Makinak and regained much of the property + which he had lost in the Indian attacks. As some compensation for his + former sufferings he received from the British commandant of + Michili-Makinak the exclusive fur trade of Lake Superior. +</p> +<p> + The currency at that period, and long before, in Canadian history, was + in beaver skins, which were approximately valued at the price of two + shillings and sixpence a pound. Otter skins were valued at six + shillings each, and marten skins at one shilling and sixpence, and + others in proportion; but all these things were classed at being worth + so many beaver skins or proportion of beaver skins. Thus, for example, + the native canoemen and porters engaged by Henry for his winter hunts + were paid each at the rate of a hundred pounds weight of beaver + skins.<a name="9-9"></a><a href="#note-9-9"><small>[9]</small></a> +</p> +<p> + At various places on the River Ontonagan, which flows into Lake + Superior, Henry was shown the extraordinary deposits of copper, which + presented itself to the eye in masses of various weight. The natives + smelted the copper and beat it into spoons and bracelets. It was so + absolutely pure of any alloy that it required nothing but to be beaten + into shape. In one place Henry saw a mass of copper weighing not less + than five tons, pure and malleable, so that with an axe he was able to + cut off a portion weighing a hundred pounds. He conjectured that this + huge mass of copper had at some time been dislodged from the side of a + lofty hill and thence rolled into the position where he found it. + Farther to the north of Lake Superior he found pieces of virgin copper + remarkable for their form, some resembling leaves of vegetables, and + others the shapes of animals. +</p> +<p> + In these journeys he collected some of the native traditions, amongst + others that of the Great Hare, Naniboju, who was represented to him as + the founder or creator of the Amerindian peoples. An island in Lake + Superior was called Naniboju's burial place. Henry landed there, and + "found on the projecting rocks a quantity of tobacco, rotting in the + rain; together with kettles, broken guns, and a variety of other + articles. His spirit is supposed to make this its constant residence; + and here to preside over the lake, and over the Indians, in their + navigation and fishing." +</p> +<p> + In the spring of the following year (1768), whilst the snow still lay + many feet thick on the ground, he and his men made sugar from the + maple trees on a mountain, and for nearly three weeks none of them ate + anything but maple sugar, consuming a pound a day, desiring no other + food, and waxing fat and strong on this diet. Then they returned to + the banks of the Ontonagan River, where the wild fowl appeared in such + abundance that one man, with a muzzle-loading gun, could kill in a day + sufficient birds for the sustenance of fifty men. As soon as the ice + and snow had melted, parties of Indians came in from their winter's + hunt, bringing to Henry furs to pay him for all the goods he had + advanced. In this way the whole of his outstanding credit was + satisfied, with the exception of thirty skins, which represented the + contribution due from one Indian who had died. In this case even, the + man's family had sent all the skins they could gather together, and + gradually acquitted themselves of the amount due, in order that the + spirit of the dead man might rest in peace, which it could not do if + his debts were not acquitted. +</p> +<p> + In the following autumn he had an experience which showed him how near + famine was to great abundance, and how ready the Amerindians were in + cases of even slight privation to turn cannibal, kill and eat the + weaker members of the party. He was making an excursion to the Sault + de Sainte Marie, and took with him three half-breed Canadians and a + young Indian woman who was journeying in that direction to see her + relations. As the distance was short, and they expected to obtain much + fish by the way, they only took with them as provisions a quart of + maize for each person. On the first night of their journey they + encamped on the island of Naniboju and set their net to catch fish. + But there arose a violent storm, which continued for three days, + during which it was impossible for them to take up the net or to leave + the island. In consequence of this they ate up all their maize. On the + evening of the third day the storm abated, and they rushed to examine + the net. It was gone! It was impossible to return to the point of + their departure, where there would have been plenty of food, on + account of the strong wind against them. They therefore steered for + the Sault de Sainte Marie. But the wind veered round, and for nine + days blew a strong gale against their progress in this direction, + making the waves of the lake so high that they were obliged to take + refuge on the shore. +</p> +<p> + Henry went out perpetually to hunt, but all he got during those nine + days were two small snow-buntings. The Canadian half-breeds with him + then calmly proposed to kill and feed upon the young woman. One of + these men, indeed, admitted that he had had recourse to + this expedient for sustaining life when wintering in the north-west + and running out of food. But Henry indignantly repudiated the + suggestion. Though very weak, he searched everywhere desperately for + food, and at last found on a very high rock a thick lichen, called by + the French Canadians <i>tripe de roche</i>,<a name="9-10"></a><a href="#note-9-10"><small>[10]</small></a> looking, in fact, very much + like slices of tripe. Henry fetched the men and the Indian woman, and + they set to work gathering quantities of this lichen. The woman was + well acquainted with the mode of preparing it, which was done by + boiling it into a thick mucilage, looking rather like the white of an + egg. On this they made hearty meals, though it had a bitter and + disagreeable taste. After the ninth day of their sufferings the wind + fell, they continued their journey, and met with kindly Indians, who + supplied them with as many fish as they wanted. Nevertheless, they all + were so ill afterwards that they nearly died, from the effects of the + lichen diet. +</p> +<p> + Some time after this Henry resolved to search for the marvellous + island of Yellow Sands,<a name="9-11"></a><a href="#note-9-11"><small>[11]</small></a> an island of Lake Superior which, it is + true, the French had discovered, but about which they kept up a good + deal of mystery. The Indian legend was that the sands of this small + island consisted of gold dust, and the Ojibwé Indians, having + discovered this, and attempting to bring some away, they were + disturbed by a supernatural being of amazing size, sixty feet in + height, which strode into the water and commanded them to deliver back + what they had taken away. Terrified at his gigantic stature, they + complied with his request, since which time no Indian has ever dared + to approach the haunted coast. Henry, however, with his men, finally + discovered this Island of Yellow Sands in 1771, in the north-east part + of Lake Superior. It was much smaller than he had been led to expect, + and very low and studded with small lakes, probably made by the action + of beavers damming up the little streams. He found no supernatural + monster to dispute the island with him, but a number of large + reindeer, so unused to the sight of man that they scarcely got out of + his way, so that he was able to shoot as many as he wanted. The + ancestors of these reindeer may have reached the island either by + floating ice or by swimming. They seem, with the birds, to have been + the island's only inhabitants, and to have increased and multiplied to + a remarkable extent, small portions of the island's surface being + actually formed of immense accumulations of reindeer bones. +</p> +<p> + Amongst the birds of the island, besides geese and pigeons, were + hawks. No serpents whatever were seen by the party, but Henry remarks + that the hawks nearly made up for them in abundance and ferocity. They + appeared very angry at the intrusion of these strangers on the sacred + island, and hovered round perpetually, swooping at their faces and + even carrying off their caps. +</p> +<p> + In 1775 Henry, having been greatly disappointed over an attempt to + work the copper of Lake Superior, entered with vigour into a fur trade + with the north-west. He penetrated from Lake Superior to the Lake of + the Woods and reached the great Lake Winnipeg. Here he encountered the + Kristino,<a name="9-12"></a><a href="#note-9-12"><small>[12]</small></a> Knistino, or Kri Indians. He found these people very + different in appearance from the other Amerindian tribes farther + south. The men were almost entirely naked in spite of the much colder + climate. Their bodies were painted with an ochre or clay so red that + it was locally known by the French Canadians as vermilion. Every man + and boy had his bow strung and in his hand, with the arrow, ready to + attack in case of need. Their heads were shaved all over except for a + large spot on the crown. Here the hair grew very long, and was rolled + and gathered into a tuft; and this tuft, which was the object of the + greatest care, was covered with a piece of skin. The lobes of their + ears were pierced, and through the opening was inserted the bones of + fish or small beasts. The women wore their hair in great length all + over the head. It was divided by a parting, and on each side was + collected into a roll fastened above the ear and covered with a piece + of painted skin or ornamented with beads. The clothing of the women + was of leather, the dressed skins of buffalo or deer. This cloak was + fastened round the waist by a girdle, and the legs were covered with + leather gaiters. The Kristino men were eager that their women should + marry Europeans, because the half-breed children proved to be bolder + warriors and better hunters than themselves. Henry found that although + the Kris were much addicted to drunkenness they were peaceable when + inebriated, and, moreover, detached two of their number, who refused + ever to touch the liquor under such circumstances, in order that they + might guard the white men, and not allow any drunken Indian to + approach their camp. +</p> +<p> + Henry and his party, after crossing Lake Winnipeg, ascended the + Saskatchewan (in the autumn of 1775). On their way up this river they + came to a village of Paskwaya Indians, which consisted of thirty + families, who were lodged in tents of a circular form, composed of + dressed bison skins stretched upon poles twelve feet in length. On + their arrival the chief of this village, named Chatik, which name + meant Pelican,<a name="9-13"></a><a href="#note-9-13"><small>[13]</small></a> called the party rather imperiously into his lodge + or meeting house, and then told them very plainly that his armed men + exceeded theirs in number, and that he would put the whole of the + party to death unless they were very liberal in their presents. To + avoid misunderstanding, he added that he would inform them exactly + what it was that he required: Three casks of gunpowder, four bags of + shot and ball, two bales of tobacco, three kegs of rum, and three + guns, together with knives, flints, and other articles. He went on to + say that he had already seen white men, and knew that they promised + more than they performed. He, personally, was a peaceful man, who + contented himself with moderate views in order to avoid quarrels; + nevertheless, he desired that an immediate answer should be given + before the strangers quitted his lodge. A hurried consultation took + place, and Henry could do nothing but comply with the chief's demands, + for he was powerless to resist. Having, therefore, intimated his + acceptance of these demands, he was invited to smoke the pipe of + peace, and then obtained permission to depart. After this the goods + demanded were handed over, but Chatik managed to snatch more rum from + them before they got safely away. +</p> +<p> + In the winter of 1776 Henry, who, together with his party, had + received welcome hospitality from the Hudson's Bay Company's station + at Cumberland House, resolved to reach the western region known as the + Great Plains, or Prairies—that immense tract of country through which + flow the Athabaska, the Saskatchewan, the Red River, and the Missouri. + He and his party, of course, travelled on snowshoes, and their goods + were packed on sledges made of thin boards, and drawn after them by + the men. The cold was intense, so that, besides wearing very warm + woollen clothes, they were obliged to wrap themselves in blankets of + beaver skin and huge bison robes. On these plains there were + occasional knolls covered with trees, which were usually called + "islands". These provided the precious fuel which alone enabled the + travellers to support the intense cold of the nights. +</p> +<p> + After fifteen days of very difficult travel, during which it had been + impossible to kill any game, as the beasts were mostly hidden in the + dense woods on these rare hillocks, the situation of his party became + alarming. They were now on the borders of the plains, and the trees + were getting small and scanty. On the twentieth day of their journey + they had finished the last remains of their provisions. But Henry had + taken the precaution of concealing a large cake of chocolate<a name="9-14"></a><a href="#note-9-14"><small>[14]</small></a> as a + reserve in case of great need. His men had walked till they were + exhausted, and had lost both strength and hope, when Henry informed + them of the treasure which was still in store. They filled the big + kettle with snow. It held two gallons of water, and into this was put + one square of the chocolate. The quantity was scarcely sufficient to + give colour to the water, but each man drank off a gallon of this hot + liquor and felt much refreshed. The next day they marched vigorously + for six hours on another two gallons of chocolate and water. For five + days the chocolate kept them going, though more by faith than by any + actual nourishment that it imparted. They now began to be surrounded + by large herds of wolves, who seemed to be conscious of their dire + extremity and the probability that they would soon fall an easy prey, + yet were cunning enough to keep out of gunshot. At last, however, at + sunset on the fifth day, they discovered on the ice the remains of an + elk's carcass on which the wolves had left a little flesh. From these + elk bones a meal of strong and excellent soup was soon prepared, and + the men's bodies thrilled with new life. +</p> +<p> + "Want had lost his dominion over us. At noon we saw the horns of a red + deer, standing in the snow, on the river. On examination we found that + the whole carcass was with them, the animal having broken through the + ice in the beginning of the winter, in attempting to cross the river, + too early in the season; while his horns, fastening themselves in the + ice, had prevented him from sinking. By cutting away the ice we were + enabled to lay bare a part of the back and shoulders, and thus procure + a stock of food amply sufficient for the rest of our journey. We + accordingly encamped, and employed our kettle to good purpose, forgot + all our misfortunes, and prepared to walk with cheerfulness the twenty + leagues which, as we reckoned, still lay between ourselves and Fort + des Prairies. Though the deer must have been in this situation ever + since the month of November, yet its flesh was perfectly good. Its + horns alone were five feet high or more, and it will therefore not + appear extraordinary that they should be seen above the snow." +</p> +<p> + The next day they reached the Fort des Prairies, established by the + Hudson's Bay people, on the verge of the Assiniboin country. The + journey was resumed in company with Messrs. Patterson and Holmes, and + accompanied by a band of natives. They had entered the bison country, + and were regaled by the Indians with bison tongue and beef. +</p> +<p> + "Soon after sunrise we descried a herd of oxen (bison) extending a + mile and a half in length, and too numerous to be counted. They + travelled, not one after another, as, in the snow, other animals + usually do, but, in a broad phalanx, slowly, and sometimes stopping to + feed.... Their numbers were so great that we dreaded lest they should + fairly trample down the camp; nor could it have happened otherwise, + but for the dogs, almost as numerous as they, who were able to keep + them in check. The Indians killed several when close upon their tents, + but neither the fire of the Indians nor the noise of the dogs could + soon drive them away." The poor animals were more frightened of the + frightful snowstorm which was raging than of what man or dog might do + to them in the shelter of the woods. +</p> +<p> + At last the party reached the residence of the great chief of the + Assiniboins, whose name was "Great Road". These Amerindians received + Henry and his people with the greatest respect, giving them a + bodyguard, armed with bows and spears, who escorted them to the lodge + or tent prepared for their reception. This was of circular form, + covered with leather, and not less than twenty feet in diameter. On + the ground within, bison skins were spread for beds and seats. +</p> +<p> + "One-half of the tent was appropriated to our use. Several women + waited upon us, to make a fire and bring water, which latter they + fetched from a neighbouring tent. Shortly after our arrival these + women brought us water, unasked for, saying that it was for washing. + The refreshment was exceedingly acceptable, for on our march we had + become so dirty that our complexions were not very distinguishable + from those of the Indians themselves." +</p> +<p> + Invited to feast with the great chief, they proceeded to the tent of + "Great Road", which they found neither more ornamented nor better + furnished than the rest. At their entrance the chief arose from his + seat, saluted them in the Indian manner by shaking hands, and + addressed them in a few words, in which he offered his thanks for the + confidence which they had reposed in him in trusting themselves so far + from their own country. After all were seated, on bearskins spread on + the ground, the pipe, as usual, was introduced, and presented in + succession to each person present. Each took his whiff, and then let + it pass to his neighbour. The stem, which was four feet in length, was + held by an officer attendant on the chief. The bowl was of red marble + or pipe stone. +</p> +<p> + When the pipe had gone its round, the chief, without rising from his + seat, delivered a speech of some length, after which several of the + Indians began to weep, and they were soon joined by the whole party. + "Had I not previously been witness" (writes Henry) "to a weeping scene + of this description, I should certainly have been apprehensive of some + disastrous catastrophe; but, as it was, I listened to it with + tranquillity. It lasted for about ten minutes, after which all tears + were dried away, and the honours of the feast were performed by the + attending chiefs." This consisted in giving to every guest a dish + containing a boiled bison's tongue. Henry having enquired why these + people always wept at their feasts, and sometimes at their councils, + he was answered that their tears flowed to the memory of their + deceased relations, who were formerly present on these occasions, and + whom they remembered as soon as they saw the feast or the conference + being got ready.<a name="9-15"></a><a href="#note-9-15"><small>[15]</small></a> +</p> +<p> + The chief to whose kindly reception they were so much indebted was + about five feet ten inches high, and of a complexion rather darker + than that of the Indians in general. His appearance was greatly + injured by the condition of his head of hair, and this was the result + of an extraordinary superstition. +</p> +<p> + "The Indians universally fix upon a particular object, as sacred to + themselves; as the giver of their prosperity, and as their preserver + from evil. The choice is determined either by a dream, or by some + strong predilection of fancy; and usually falls upon an animal, or + part of an animal, or something else which is to be met with, by land, + or by water; but 'Great Road' had made choice of his <i>hair</i>—placing, + like Samson, all his safety in this portion of his proper substance! + His hair was the fountain of all his happiness; it was his strength + and his weapon, his spear and his shield. It preserved him in battle, + directed him in the chase, watched over him on the march, and gave + length of days to his wife and children. Hair, of a quality like this, + was not to be profaned by the touch of human hands. I was assured that + it had never been cut nor combed from his childhood upward, and, that + when any part of it fell from his head, he treasured up that part with + care: meanwhile, it did not escape all care, even while growing on the + head; but was in the special charge of a spirit, who dressed it while + the owner slept. All this might be; but the spirit's style of + hairdressing was at least peculiar; the hair being suffered to remain + very much as if it received no dressing at all, and matted into ropes, + which spread themselves in all directions." +</p> +<p> + From this Assiniboin village Henry saw, for the first time, one of + those herds of horses which the Assiniboins possessed in numbers. The + herd was feeding on the skirts of the plain. The horses were provided + with no fodder, but were left to find food for themselves, which they + did in winter by removing the snow with their feet till they reach + the grass. This was everywhere on the ground in plenty. +</p> +<p> + Amongst these people they saw the paunch or stomach of a bison + employed as a kettle. This was hung in the smoke of a fire and filled + with snow. As the snow melted, more was added, till the paunch was + full of water. The lower orifice of the organ was used for drawing off + the water, and stopped with a plug and string. +</p> +<p> + Henry also noticed amongst the Assiniboins the celebrated lariat. This + is formed of a stone of about two pounds weight, which is sewed up in + leather and made fast to a wooden handle two feet long. In using it + the stone is whirled round the handle by a warrior sitting on + horseback and riding at full speed. Every stroke which takes effect + brings down a man, a horse, or a bison. To prevent the weapon from + slipping out of the hand, a string, which is tied to the handle, is + also passed round the wrist of the wearer. +</p> +<p> + Alexander Henry extended his travels in the north-west within four + hundred and fifty miles of Lake Athabaska. He met at this point some + Chipewayan slaves in the possession of the Assiniboins, and heard from + them (1) of the Peace River in the far west which led one through the + Rocky Mountains (he uses that name) to a region descending towards a + great sea (the Pacific Ocean); and (2) of the Slave River which, after + passing through several lakes, also reached a great sea on the north. + This, of course, was an allusion to the Mackenzie River. Here were + given and recorded the chief hints at possible lines of exploration + which afterwards sent Alexander Mackenzie and other explorers on the + journeys that carried British-Canadian enterprise and administration + to the shores of the Pacific and Arctic Oceans. +</p> +<p> + After 1776 Alexander Henry ceased his notable explorations of the far + west. In that year he paid a visit to England and France, returning to + Canada in 1777. Whilst in France he was received at the French Court + and had the privilege of relating to Queen Marie Antoinette some of + his wonderful adventures and experiences. After two more visits to + England he settled down at Montreal as a merchant (autumn of 1780), + and in 1784 he joined with other great pioneers in founding, at + Montreal, The North-west Trading Company. Eventually he handed over + his share in this enterprise to his nephew, Alexander Henry the + Younger, and established himself completely in a life of ease and + quiet. He died at Montreal in 1824, aged eighty-five years. +</p> +<hr class="short"> +<a name="note-9-1"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#9-1"><u>1</u></a> Carver was not so remarkable for his actual journeys as + for his confident predictions of a feasible transcontinental route + being found to the Pacific coast. +</p> +<a name="note-9-2"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#9-2"><u>2</u></a> The white-barked conifer, which gives its name to this + lake, is <i>Thuja occidentalis</i>. There are no real "cedars" in America. +</p> +<a name="note-9-3"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#9-3"><u>3</u></a> The famous place of call (the name means "Turtle Island") + in the narrow strait between Lakes Huron and Michigan, and near Lake + Superior. (See p. <a href="#p230">230</a>.) But some authorities declare that + Michili-makinak means "Island of the great wounded person". +</p> +<a name="note-9-4"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#9-4"><u>4</u></a> There are at least two species of maple in Canada + yielding sugar from their sap; but the best is <i>Acer saccharinum</i>. The + maple leaf is the national emblem of Canada. +</p> +<a name="note-9-5"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#9-5"><u>5</u></a> Shell beads. +</p> +<a name="note-9-6"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#9-6"><u>6</u></a> <i>Populus nigra</i>, called by the French Canadians <i>liard</i>. +</p> +<a name="note-9-7"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#9-7"><u>7</u></a> The grains of maize (Indian corn) grow in compact cells, + round a pithy core. +</p> +<a name="note-9-8"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#9-8"><u>8</u></a> Michili, pronounced "Mishili", means "great", and + Makinak, "turtle", in the translation of some Canadian writers. The + turtle in question is, of course, not the turtle of sea waters, but + the Snapping Turtle (<i>Chelydra serpentina</i>) found in most Canadian + lakes and the big rivers of North America, east of the Rocky + Mountains. +</p> +<a name="note-9-9"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#9-9"><u>9</u></a> The smallest change, so to speak, was the skin of a + marten, worth one shilling and sixpence. If you went to a canteen for + a drink you paid your score with a marten skin, unless the value of + your refreshment exceeded the sum of eighteen pence. +</p> +<a name="note-9-10"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#9-10"><u>10</u></a> See p. <a href="#p128">128</a>. +</p> +<a name="note-9-11"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#9-11"><u>11</u></a> The Isle of Yellow Sands, famed in legend for its + terrible serpents and ogre sixty feet high, was subsequently + identified with the Ile de Pont Chartrain, which is distant sixty + miles from the north shore of Lake Superior. +</p> +<a name="note-9-12"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#9-12"><u>12</u></a> See p. <a href="#p166">166</a>. +</p> +<a name="note-9-13"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#9-13"><u>13</u></a> Elsewhere Henry observes the great numbers of pelicans + to be seen on Lake Winnipeg. +</p> +<a name="note-9-14"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#9-14"><u>14</u></a> Chocolate from St. Domingue (Haiti) was a favourite form + of portable nutriment among the French Canadians, who also provided a + means of subsistence for long journeys called <i>praline</i>. This was made + of roasted Indian corn on which sugar had been sprinkled. It was a + most nourishing food, as well as being an agreeable sweet-meat. +</p> +<a name="note-9-15"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#9-15"><u>15</u></a> The Assiniboins (whom Henry calls the Osinipoilles) are + the Issati of older travellers, and have sometimes been called the + Weeper Indians, from their tendency to tears. +</p> +<p class="return">[<a href="#contents">TABLE OF CONTENTS</a>] +</p> +<hr class="short"> +<a name="2HCH0010"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> + +<h2> + CHAPTER X +</h2> +<h3> + Samuel Hearne +</h3> +<p> + The first noteworthy explorer of the far north was SAMUEL HEARNE, +<a name="10-1"></a><a href="#note-10-1"><small>[1]</small></a> + who had been mate of a vessel in the employ of the whale fishery of + Hudson Bay. He entered the service of the Hudson's Bay Company about + 1765, and was selected four years afterwards by the Governor of Prince + of Wales's Fort (a certain Moses Norton, a half-breed) to lead an + expedition of discovery in search of a mighty river flowing + northwards, which was rumoured to exist by the Eskimo. This + "Coppermine" River was said to flow through a region rich in deposits + of copper. From this district the northern tribes of Indians derived + their copper ornaments and axeheads. +</p> +<p> + Samuel Hearne started on the 6th of November, 1769, from Prince of + Wales's Fort at the mouth of the Churchill River, on the north-west + coast of Hudson Bay. Presumably he and the two "common white men" who + were with him travelled on snowshoes and hauled small sledges after + them. Travelling westward they passed over bleak hills with very + little vegetation—"the barren grounds, where, in general, we thought + ourselves well off if we could scrape together as many shrubs as would + make a fire; but it was scarcely ever in our power to make any <a name="p249"></a>other + defence against the weather than by digging a hole in the snow down to + the moss, wrapping ourselves up in our clothing, and lying down in it, + with our sledges set up edgeways to windward". But the principal + Indian guide that he engaged was so obviously determined to make the + expedition a failure that Hearne returned to his base, Prince of + Wales's Fort, and made a second start on the 23rd of February, 1770, + this time taking care not to be accompanied by any other white men, + and insisting that the Indians who accompanied him should be more + carefully chosen. +</p> +<p> + It must be remembered that in all these early expeditions, French and + English, the explorers relied for their food almost entirely on what + could be obtained as they went along, in the way of venison, grouse, + geese, fish, and wild fruits. In the springtime they would probably + get goose eggs and some form of maple sugar through the Indians. From + the summer to the autumn there would be an abundance of wild fruits + and nuts, but for the rest of the year it would be a diet almost + entirely of flesh or fish. As a stand-by there was probably + <i>pemmican</i>, made in times of plenty from fish, from bison meat and + fat, or from the dried flesh of deer or musk oxen; but tea, coffee, + bread, biscuits, and such like accessories were absolutely unknown to + them, in fact they lived exactly as the Amerindians did. Their + habitations, of course, were the tents or houses of the natives, or + what they made for themselves. +</p> +<p> + In order to pitch an Indian tent in winter it was first necessary to + search for a level piece of dry ground, and this could only be + ascertained by thrusting a stick through the snow, down to the ground, + all over the proposed plot. When a suitable site had been found the + snow was then cleared away down to the very moss, in the shape of a + circle. When a prolonged stay was contemplated, even the moss was cut + up and removed, as it was very liable when dry to catch fire. A + quantity of poles were then procured, proportionate in number and + length to the size of the tent cloth and the number of persons the + tent was intended to contain. Two of the longest poles were tied + together at the top and raised to an angle of about 45 degrees from + the ground, so that the lower ends extended on either side as widely + as the proposed diameter of the tent. The other poles were then + arranged on either side of the first two, so that they formed a + complete circle round the bottom, and their points were tied together + at the top. The tent cloth was usually of thin moose leather, and in + shape resembled the vane of a fan, so that the large outer curve + enclosed the bottom of the poles, and the smaller one fitted round the + apex of the poles at the top, leaving an open space which let out the + smoke and let in air and light. The fire was made on the ground in the + centre of the floor, which floor was covered all over with small + branches of firs and pines serving as seats and beds. Pine foliage and + branches were laid round the bottom of the poles on the outside, and a + quantity of snow was packed all round the exterior of the tent, thus + excluding a great part of the external air, and contributing much to + the warmth within. +</p> +<p> + For a month or more Hearne camped in this fashion by the side of a + lake, waiting till the season was sufficiently open for him to + continue his journey by water. He and his party of Indians lived + mainly on fish, but when these became scarce they attempted to snare + grouse or kill deer. In the intervals of rare meals all the party + smoked or slept, unless they were obliged to go out to hunt and fish. + They would delight, after killing deer, in securing as much as + possible of the blood and turning it into broth by boiling it in a + kettle with fat and scraps of meat. This was reckoned a dainty dish. + Their spoons, dishes, and other necessary household furniture were cut + out of birch bark. +</p> +<a name="image-0014"><!--IMG--></a> +<center> +<img src="images/pc14.jpg" width="425" height="268" +alt="Lake Louise, the Rocky Mountains"> +</center> +<!--IMAGE END--> +<h5>LAKE LOUISE, THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS</h5> +<p> + By the 19th of May, geese, swans, ducks, gulls, and other birds of + passage were so plentiful, flying from south to north, and halting to + rest at the lake, that Hearne felt the time had come to resume his + journey, provisions being now very plentiful and the worst of the thaw + over. The weather was remarkably fine and pleasant as the party + travelled northwards. +</p> +<p> + There must have been good patent medicines even in those days. Of + these Hearne possessed "Turlington's Drops" and "Yellow Basilicon", + and with these he not only healed the terrible wounds of a valuable + Indian who had cut his leg most severely (when making birch-bark + dishes, spoons, &c), but also the hand of another Indian, which was + shattered with the bursting of a gun. These medicines soon restored + the use of his hand, so that in a short time he was out of danger, + while the carver of birch-bark spoons was able to walk. Nevertheless, + although they were to the south of the 60th degree of latitude, the + snow was not completely melted until the end of June. +</p> +<p> + All at once the weather became exceedingly hot, the sledges had to be + thrown away, and each man had to carry on his back a heavy load. For + instance, Hearne was obliged to carry his quadrant for taking + astronomical observations, and its stand; a trunk containing books and + papers, &c.; a large compass; and a bag containing all his wearing + apparel; also a hatchet, a number of knives, files, &c., and several + small articles intended for presents to the natives—in short, a + weight of <i>sixty pounds</i>. Moreover, the barren ground was quite + unsuited to the pitching of the southern type of tent, the poles of + which obviously could not be driven into the bare rock, so that Hearne + was obliged to sleep in the open air in all weathers. Very often he + was unable to make a fire, and was constantly reduced to eating his + meat quite raw. "Notwithstanding these accumulated and complicated + hardships, we continued in perfect health and good spirits." The + average day's walk was twenty miles, sometimes without any other + subsistence than a pipe of tobacco and a drink of water. +</p> +<p> + At last they saw three musk oxen grazing by the side of a small lake. + This seemed a splendid piece of fortune, but, to their mortification, + before they could get one of them skinned, a tremendous downpour of + rain ensued, so as to make it out of their power to have a fire, for + their only form of fuel was moss. And the flesh of the musk ox eaten + raw was disgusting; it was coarse and tough, and tasted so strongly of + musk that Hearne could hardly swallow it. "None of our natural wants," + he writes, "except thirst, are so distressing or hard to endure as + hunger.... For want of action, the stomach so far loses its digestive + powers that, after long fasting, it resumes its office with pain and + reluctance." After these prolonged fasts, his stomach was scarcely + able to contain two or three ounces of food without producing the most + agonizing pain. "We fasted many times two whole days and nights, and + twice for three days; once for nearly seven days, during which we + tasted not a mouthful of anything, except a few cranberries, water, + scraps of old leather, and burnt bones." +</p> +<p> + At a place 63° north latitude he bought a canoe for a single knife + "the full value of which did not exceed one penny", having been told + that they would soon reach rivers through which they could not wade. + And, moreover, they found an Indian who was willing to carry it. In + July his guide persuaded him to join an encampment of natives—about + six hundred persons living in seventy tents—asserting that, as it was + no use proceeding much farther north in their search for the + Coppermine River that season, it would be well to winter to the west, + and resume their northern journey in the spring. The country, though + quite devoid of trees, and mostly barren rock, was covered with a herb + or shrub called by the Indian name of Wishakapakka, <a name="10-2"></a><a href="#note-10-2"><small>[2]</small></a> from which the + European servants of the Hudson's Bay Company had long been used to + prepare a kind of tea by steeping it in boiling water. Here there were + multitudes of reindeer feeding on the <i>Cladina</i> lichen and the Indians + with Hearne killed large numbers for the food of the party, and also + for their skins and the marrow in their bones. +</p> +<p> + The Indian who had volunteered to carry the canoe proved unequal to + his task. But Hearne found another of his carriers who was willing to + take the burden. In order, therefore, to be readier with his gun to + shoot deer, he transferred a portion of his own load to the ex-canoe + carrier. This portion consisted of the invaluable quadrant and its + stand, and a bag of gunpowder. The gunpowder was of such importance to + Hearne and his party that one wonders he made this exchange; for if he + lost this powder he had no means of killing game, and was entirely + dependent for food on the troop of Indians with whom he was + travelling, and whom he knew to be most niggardly and inhospitable. + Judge, therefore, of his horror when, at the end of a day's march, + this weakly Indian porter was missing with his load. All night Hearne + was unable to sleep with anxiety, and the whole of the next day he + spent searching the rocky ground for miles to discover some sign of + the missing man. At that season of the year it was like looking for a + needle in a pottle of hay, for there was no snow, and equally no + herbage, on which a man's foot could leave traces. However, at last, + by some miracle, they discovered the load by the banks of a little + river where a party of Indians had crossed. +</p> +<p> + Shortly afterwards, leaving his quadrant on its stand for a few + minutes, whilst he went to eat his dinner, a violent wind arose and + blew the whole thing on to the rocks, so that the quadrant was + smashed and rendered useless. On this account he determined once more + to return to Fort Prince of Wales. The Northern Indians<a name="10-3"></a><a href="#note-10-3"><small>[3]</small></a> with whom + Hearne travelled backwards towards the fort were most inhospitable, + not to say dangerous. They robbed him of most of his goods, and + refused to allow their women to assist his people to dress the + reindeer skins out of which it would be necessary shortly to make + coverings to protect them from the severe cold of the autumn. In fact + Hearne was in rather a desperate condition by September, 1770, when he + was joined by a party of Indians under a famous leader, whom he calls + Matonabi. +</p> +<p> + Matonabi, though of Athapaskan stock, had, when a boy, resided several + years at Prince of Wales's Fort, and learnt a little English, and, + above all, was a master of several Algonkin dialects or languages, so + that he could discourse with the Southern Indians. As soon as he heard + of Hearne's distress he furnished him with a good, warm suit of skins, + and had the reindeer skins dressed for the Indian carriers who + accompanied Hearne. In journeying together, Matonabi invited him to + return once more, with himself as guide, to discover the copper mines. +</p> +<p> + "He attributed all our misfortunes to the misconduct of my guides, and + the very plan we pursued, by the desire of the Governor, in not taking + any women with us on this journey, was, he said, the principal thing + that occasioned all our wants. 'For,' said he, 'when all the men are + heavy laden, they can neither hunt nor travel to any considerable + distance; and in case they meet with success in hunting, who is to + carry the produce of their labour?' 'Women,' added he, 'were made for + labour; one of them can carry, or haul, as much as two men can do. + They also pitch our tents, make and mend our clothing, keep us warm at + night; and, in fact, there is no such thing as travelling any + considerable distance, or for any length of time, in this country, + without their assistance.' 'Women,' said he again, 'though they do + everything, are maintained at a trifling expense; for as they always + stand cook, the very licking of their fingers in scarce times is + sufficient for their subsistence.' +</p> +<p> + "This," added Hearne, "however odd it may appear, is but too true a + description of the situation of women in this country: it is at least + so in appearance; for the women always carry the provisions, though it + is more than probable they help themselves when the men are not + present." +</p> +<p> + On the 7th of December, 1770, Samuel Hearne started again + from Prince of Wales's Fort, Hudsons Bay, but under very much happier + circumstances, Matonabi being practically in charge of the expedition. +</p> +<p> + Unfortunately, on reaching the Egg River, where Matonabi's people had + made a <i>cache</i> or hiding place in which they had stored a quantity of + provisions and implements, they found that other Indians had + discovered this hiding place and robbed it of nearly every article. + This was a great disappointment to Matonabi's people; but Hearne + remarks the fortitude with which they bore this, nor did one of them + ever speak of revenge. But the expedition's scarcity of food obliged + them to push on from morning till night, day after day; yet the road + being very bad, and their sledges heavy, they were seldom able to do + more than eighteen miles a day. Hearne himself writes that he never + spent so dull a Christmas. For the last three days he had not tasted a + morsel of anything, except a pipe of tobacco and a drink of snow + water, yet he had to walk daily from morning till night heavily laden. + However, at the end of December they reached Island Lake, where they + entered a camp of Matonabi's people, and here they found a little + food in the way of fish and dried venison. From Island Lake they made + their way in a zigzag fashion, stopping often to drive reindeer into + pounds to secure large supplies of venison and of skins, till, in the + month of April, 1771, they reached a small lake with an almost + unpronounceable name, which meant "Little Fish Hill", from a high hill + which stood at the west end of this sheet of water. +</p> +<p> + On an island in this lake they pitched their tents, as deer were very + numerous. During this time also they were busily employed in preparing + staves of birch wood, about seven or eight feet long, to serve as tent + poles in the summer, and in the winter to be converted into snowshoe + frames. Here also Chief Matonabi purchased another wife. He had now + with him no less than seven, most of whom would for size have made + good grenadiers. He prided himself much on the height and strength of + his wives, and would frequently say few women could carry off heavier + loads. In fact in this country wives were very seldom selected for + their beauty, but rather for their strength. +</p> +<p> + "Ask a Northern Indian," wrote Hearne, "'What is beauty?' He will + answer: 'A broad, flat face, small eyes, high cheekbones, three or + four broad black lines across each cheek, a low forehead, a broad + chin, a clumsy hook nose, and a tawny hide.'" +</p> +<p> + But the model woman amongst these Indians was one who was capable of + dressing all kinds of skins and making them into clothing, and who was + strong enough to carry a load of about a hundred pounds in weight in + summer, and to haul perhaps double that weight on a sledge in winter. + "As to their temper, it is of little consequence; for the men have a + wonderful facility in making the most stubborn comply with as much + alacrity as could possibly be expected." When the men kill any large + beast the women are always sent to bring it to the tent. When it is + brought there, every operation it undergoes, such as splitting, + drying, pounding, is performed by the women. When anything is prepared + for eating it is the women who cook it; and when it is done, not even + the wives and daughters of the greatest chiefs in the country are + served until all the males—even the male slaves—have eaten what they + think proper. In times of scarcity it was frequently the lot of the + women to be left without a single mouthful; though, no doubt, they + took good care to help themselves in secret. +</p> +<a name="image-0015"><!--IMG--></a> +<center> +<img src="images/pc15.jpg" width="273" height="425" +alt="Samuel Hearne; Alexander Mackenzie"> +</center> +<!--IMAGE END--> +<h5>SAMUEL HEARNE and ALEXANDER MACKENZIE</h5> +<p> + Hearne mentions that in this country among the Northern Indians the + names of the boys were various and generally derived from some place, + or season of the year, or animal; whilst the names of the girls were + chiefly taken from some part or property of a marten, <a name="10-4"></a><a href="#note-10-4"><small>[4]</small></a> such as the + white marten, the black marten, the summer marten, the marten's head, + foot, heart, or tail. +</p> +<p> + From the Lake of Little Fish Hill the party moved on to Lake Clowey, + and here the Northern Indians set to work to build their canoes in the + warm and dry weather, which was about to come in at the end of May. + These canoes were very slight and simple in construction and + wonderfully light, which was necessary, for some of the northern + portages might be a hundred to one hundred and fifty miles in length, + over which the canoes would have to be carried by the Indians. All the + tools employed in those days, in building such canoes and making + snowshoes and all the other furniture and utensils of Indian life, + consisted of a <i>hatchet</i>, a <i>knife</i>, a <i>file</i>, and an <i>awl</i> obtained + from the stores of the Hudson's Bay Company. In the use of these tools + they were so dexterous that everything they manufactured was done with + a neatness which could not be excelled by the most expert mechanic. + These northern canoes were flat-bottomed, with straight, upright + sides, and sharp prow and peak. The stern part of the canoe was wider + than the rest in order to receive the baggage. The average length of + the canoe would be from twelve to thirteen feet, and the breadth in + the widest part about two feet. Generally but a single paddle was + used, and that rather attenuated. When transporting the canoes from + one river to another, a strong band of bark or fibre would be fastened + round the thwarts of the canoe, and then slung over the breast and + shoulders of the Indian that was carrying it. +</p> +<p> + From Lake Clowey the northern progress was made on foot, steady and + fatiguing walking over the barren grounds. The wooded region had been + left behind to the south; but for a distance of about twenty miles + outside the living woods there was a belt of dry stumps more or less + ancient. According to Hearne, these vestiges of trees to the north of + the present forest limit were an indication that the climate had grown + colder during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, because, + according to the traditions of the Indians and the remembrances of + their old people, the forest had formerly extended much farther to the + north. +</p> +<p> + Whilst they were staying for the canoe building at Lake Clowey, Hearne + was a great deal bothered by the domestic troubles of his Indian + friend Matonabi. This man had been constantly trying to add to his + stock of wives as he passed up country, and at Clowey he had met the + former husband of one of these women whom he had carried off by force. + The man ventured to reproach him, whereupon Matonabi went into his + tent, opened one of his wives' bundles, and with the greatest + composure took out a new, long, box-handled knife; then proceeded to + the tent of the man who had complained, and without any parley + whatever took him by the collar and attempted to stab him to death. + The man had already received three bad knife wounds in the back before + other people, rushing in to his assistance, prevented Matonabi from + finishing him. After this, Matonabi returned to his tent as though + nothing had happened, called for water, washed the blood off his hands + and knife, and smoked his pipe as usual, asking Hearne if he did not + think he had done quite right! +</p> +<p> + "It has ever been the custom among those people for the men to wrestle + for any woman to whom they are attached; and of course the strongest + party always carries off the prize. A weak man, unless he be a good + hunter and well beloved, is seldom permitted to keep a wife that a + stronger man thinks worth his notice; for at any time when the wives + of those strong wrestlers are heavy laden either with furs or + provisions, they make no scruple of tearing any other man's wife from + his bosom and making her bear a part of his luggage. This custom + prevails throughout all their tribes, and causes a great spirit of + emulation among their youth, who are upon all occasions, from their + childhood, trying their strength and skill in wrestling. This enables + them to protect their property, and particularly their wives, from the + hands of those powerful ravishers, some of whom make almost a + livelihood by taking what they please from the weaker parties without + making them any return. Indeed it is represented as an act of great + generosity if they condescend to make an unequal exchange, as, in + general, abuse and insult are the only return for the loss which is + sustained. +</p> +<p> + "The way in which they tear the women and other property from one + another, though it has the appearance of the greatest brutality, can + scarcely be called fighting. I never knew any of them receive the + least hurt in these <i>rencontres</i>; the whole business consists in + hauling each other about by the hair of the head; they are seldom + known either to strike or kick one another. It is not uncommon for one + of them to cut off his hair and to grease his ears immediately before + the contest begins. This, however, is done privately; and it is + sometimes truly laughable to see one of the parties strutting about + with an air of great importance, and calling out: 'Where is he? Why + does he not come out?' when the other will bolt out with a clean-shorn + head and greased ears, rush on his antagonist, seize him by the hair, + and, though perhaps a much weaker man, soon drag him to the ground, + while the stronger is not able to lay hold of him. It is very frequent + on those occasions for each party to have spies, to watch the other's + motions, which puts them more on a footing of equality. For want of + hair to pull, they seize each other about the waist, with legs wide + extended, and try their strength by endeavouring to vie who can first + throw the other down." +</p> +<p> + "Early in the morning of the twenty-ninth 'Captain' Keelshies (an + Indian) joined us. He delivered to me a packet of letters and a + two-quart keg of French brandy, but assured me that the powder, shot, + tobacco, knives, &c, which he received at the fort for me, were all + expended. He endeavoured to make some apology for this by saying that + some of his relations died in the winter, and that he had, according + to native custom, thrown all his own things away; after which he was + obliged to have recourse to my ammunition and other goods to support + himself and a numerous family. The very affecting manner in which he + related this story, often crying like a child, was a great proof of + his extreme sorrow, which he wished to persuade me arose from the + recollection of his having embezzled so much of my property; but I was + of a different opinion, and attributed his grief to arise from the + remembrance of his deceased relations. However, as a small recompense + for my loss, he presented me with four ready-dressed moose skins, + which was, he said, the only retribution he could then make. The moose + skins, though not the twentieth part of the value of the goods which + he had embezzled, were in reality more acceptable to me than the + ammunition and the other articles would have been, on account of their + great use as shoe leather, which at that time was a very scarce + article with us, whereas we had plenty of powder and shot." +</p> +<p> + During Hearne's stay at Lake Clowey a great number of Indians entered + into a combination with those of his party to travel together to the + Coppermine River, with no other intent than to murder the Eskimo who + frequented that river in considerable numbers. Before leaving Lake + Clowey all the Northern Indians who had assembled there prepared their + arms for the encounter, and did not forget to make shields before they + left the woods of Clowey. These shields were composed of thin boards + about three-quarters of an inch thick, two feet broad, and three feet + long, and were intended to ward off the arrows of the Eskimo. +</p> +<p> + When the now large expedition reached a river with the fearful name of + Congecathawhachaga, they found a portion of the tribe known as Copper + Indians,<a name="10-5"></a><a href="#note-10-5"><small>[5]</small></a> and these had never before seen a white man. They gave a + very friendly reception to Hearne on account of Matonabi. +</p> +<p> + "They expressed as much desire to examine me from top to toe as a + European naturalist would a nondescript animal. They, however, found + and pronounced me to be a perfect human being, except in the colour of + my hair and eyes; the former, they said, was like the stained hair of + a buffalo's tail, and the latter, being light, were like those of a + gull. The whiteness of my skin also was, in their opinion, no + ornament, as they said it resembled meat which had been sodden in + water till all the blood was extracted. On the whole I was viewed as + so great a curiosity in this part of the world that during my stay + there, whenever I combed my head, some or other of them never failed + to ask for the hairs that came off, which they carefully wrapped up, + saying: 'When I see you again, you shall again see your hair'." +</p> +<p> + The Copper Indians sent a detachment of their men in the double + capacity of guides and warriors, and the whole party now turned + towards the north-west, and after some days' walking reached the Stony + Mountains. "Surely no part of the world better deserves that name", + wrote, Hearne. They appeared to be a confused heap of stones quite + inaccessible to the foot of man. Nevertheless, with the Copper Indians + as guides, they got over this range, though not without being obliged + frequently to crawl on hands and knees. This range, however, had been + so often crossed by Indians coming to and fro that there was a very + visible path the whole way, the rocks, even in the most difficult + places, being worn quite smooth. By the side of the path there were + several large, flat stones covered with thousands of small pebbles. + These marks had been gradually built up by passengers going to and fro + from the copper mines in the far north. The weather all this time, + although the month was July, was very bad—constant snow, sleet, and + rain. Hearne seldom had a dry garment of any kind, and in the caves + where they lodged at night the water was constantly dropping from the + roof. Their food all this time was raw venison. One snowstorm which + fell on them was heavier than was customary even in the winter, but at + last the weather cleared up and sunshine made the journey far more + tolerable. +</p> +<p> + As they descended the northern side of the Stony Mountains they + crossed a large lake, passing over its unmelted ice, and called it + Musk-ox Lake, from the number of these creatures which they found + grazing on the margin of it. +</p> +<p> + This was not the first time that Hearne had seen the musk ox. These + animals were wont to come down as far south as the shores of Hudson + Bay. +</p> +<p> + On the northern side of the Stony Mountains Hearne was taken by the + Indians to see a place which he called Grizzly-bear Hill, which took + its name from the numbers of those animals (presumably what we call + grizzly bears) which resorted here for the purpose of bringing forth + their young in a cave in this hill. On the east side of the adjoining + marsh Hearne was amazed at the sight of the many hills and dry ridges, + which were turned over like ploughed land by the long claws of these + bears in searching for the ground squirrels and mice which constitute + a favourite part of their food. It was surprising to see the enormous + stones rolled out of their beds by the bears on these occasions. +</p> +<p> + As they neared the Coppermine River the weather became very warm, and + the country had a good supply of firewood. Reindeer were abundant, + and, the Indians having killed some of these, Hearne sat down to the + most comfortable meal he had had for some months. +</p> +<p> + It was a kind of haggis, called by the Amerindians "biati", made with + the blood of the reindeer, a good quantity of fat shredded small, some + of the tenderest of the flesh, together with the heart and lungs, cut, + or more commonly torn, into small slivers—all which would be put into + the stomach, and roasted by being suspended before the fire by a + string. Care had to be taken that it did not get too much heat at + first, as the bag would thereby be liable to be burnt and the contents + be let out. When it was sufficiently done it emitted steam, "which", + writes Hearne, "is as much as to say: 'Come, eat me now'; and if it be + taken in time, before the blood and other contents are too much done, + it is certainly a most delicious morsel, even without pepper, salt, or + any other seasoning." +</p> +<p> + It was now almost impossible to sleep at night for the mosquitoes, + which swarmed in myriads as soon as the warmth of the sun melted the + ice and snow. When Hearne actually reached the banks of the Coppermine + River he was a little disappointed at its appearance, as it seemed to + be only one hundred and eighty yards wide, shallow, and full of + shoals. The Chipewayan Amerindians with him now sent out their spies + to try and locate the Eskimo. Presently they found that there were + five tents of them on the west side of the river. +</p> +<p> + "When the Indians received this intelligence no further attendance or + attention was paid to my survey, but their whole thoughts were + immediately engaged in planning the best method of attack, and how + they might steal on the poor Eskimo the ensuing night and kill them + all when asleep. To accomplish this bloody design more effectually the + Indians thought it necessary to cross the river as soon as possible; + and, by the account of the spies, it appeared that no part was more + convenient for the purpose than that where we had met them, it being + there very smooth, and at a considerable distance from any fall. + Accordingly, after the Indians had put all their guns, spears, + shields, &c, in good order, we crossed the river.... +</p> +<p> + "When we arrived on the west side of the river, each painted the front + of his shield; some with the figure of the sun, others with that of + the moon, several with different kinds of birds and beasts of prey, + and many with the images of imaginary beings, which, according to + their silly notions, are the inhabitants of the different elements, + Earth, Sea, Air, &c. On enquiring the reason of their doing so, I + learned that each man painted his shield with the image of that being + on which he relied most for success in the intended engagement. Some + were content with a single representation; while others, doubtful, as + I suppose, of the quality and power of any single being, had their + shields covered to the very margin with a group of hieroglyphics quite + unintelligible to everyone except the painter. Indeed, from the hurry + in which this business was necessarily done, the want of every colour + but red and black, and the deficiency of skill in the artist, most of + those paintings had more the appearance of a number of accidental + blotches, than 'of anything that is on the earth, or in the water + under the earth'.... +</p> +<p> + "After this piece of superstition was completed, we began to advance + towards the Eskimo tents; but were very careful to avoid crossing any + hills, or talking loud, for fear of being seen or overheard by the + inhabitants." +</p> +<p> + When the attacking party was within two hundred yards of the Eskimo + tents, they lay in ambush for some time, watching the motions of their + intended victims; and here the Indians wanted Hearne (for whom they + had a sincere affection) to stay till the fight was over; but to this + he would not consent, lest, when the Eskimo came to be surprised, they + should try every way to escape, and, finding him alone, kill him in + their desperation. +</p> +<p> + While they lay in ambush the Northern Indians performed the last + ceremonies which were thought necessary before the engagement. These + chiefly consisted in painting their faces: some all black, some all + red, and others with a mixture of the two; and to prevent their hair + from blowing into their eyes, it was either tied before or behind, and + on both sides, or else cut short all round. The next thing they + considered was to make themselves as light as possible for running, + which they did by pulling off their stockings, and either cutting off + the sleeves of their jackets, or rolling them up close to their + armpits; and though the mosquitoes at that time "were so numerous as + to surpass all credibility", yet some of the Indians actually pulled + off their jackets and entered the lists nearly or quite naked. Hearne, + fearing he might have occasion to run with the rest, thought it also + advisable to pull off his stockings and cap, and to tie his hair as + close up as possible. +</p> +<p> + By the time the Indians had made themselves thus "completely + frightful", it was nearly one in the morning. Then, finding all the + Eskimo quiet in their tents, they rushed forth from their ambuscade, + and fell on the poor, unsuspecting creatures, unperceived till they + were close to the very eaves of the tents. A horrible massacre + forthwith took place, while Hearne stood neutral in the rear. +</p> +<p> + "The scene was shocking beyond description. The poor unhappy victims + were surprised in the midst of their sleep, and had neither time nor + power to make any resistance; men, women, and children, in all upward + of twenty, ran out of their tents stark naked, and endeavoured to make + their escape; but the Indians having possession of all the landside, + to no place could they fly for shelter. One alternative only remained, + that of jumping into the river; but, as none of them attempted it, + they all fell a sacrifice to Indian barbarity! +</p> +<p> + "The shrieks and groans of the poor expiring wretches were truly + dreadful; and my horror was much increased at seeing a young girl, + seemingly about eighteen years of age, killed so near me, that when + the first spear was stuck into her side she fell down at my feet, and + twisted round my legs, so that it was with difficulty that I could + disengage myself from her dying grasp. As two Indian men pursued this + unfortunate victim, I solicited very hard for her life; but the + murderers made no reply till they had stuck both their spears through + her body, and transfixed her to the ground. They then looked me + sternly in the face, and began to ridicule me by asking if I wanted an + Eskimo wife; and paid not the smallest regard to the shrieks and agony + of the poor wretch, who was twining round their spears like an eel!" +</p> +<p> + On his requesting that they would at least put the woman out of her + misery, one of the Indians hastily drew his spear from the place where + it was first lodged, and pierced it through her breast near the heart. + The love of life, however, even in this most miserable state, was so + predominant, that "though this might justly be called the most + merciful act that could be done for the poor creature, it seemed to be + unwelcome, for, though much exhausted by pain and loss of blood, she + made several efforts to ward off the friendly blow."... "My own + situation and the terror of my mind at beholding this butchery, + cannot easily be conceived, much less described; though I summed up + all the fortitude I was master of on the occasion, it was with + difficulty that I could refrain from tears; and I am confident that my + features must have feelingly expressed how sincerely I was affected at + the barbarous scene I then witnessed; even at this hour I cannot + reflect on the transactions of that horrid day without shedding + tears." +</p> +<p> + There were other Eskimo on the opposite shore of the river. Though + they took up their arms to defend themselves, they did not attempt to + abandon their tents, for they were utterly unacquainted with the + nature of firearms; so much so that when the bullets struck the + ground, they ran in crowds to see what was sent them, and seemed + anxious to examine all the pieces of lead which they found flattened + against the rocks. At length one of the Eskimo men was shot in the + calf of his leg, which put them in great confusion. They all + immediately embarked in their little canoes, and paddled to a shoal in + the middle of the river, which being somewhat more than a gunshot from + any part of the shore, put them out of the reach of our barbarians. +</p> +<p> + "When the savages discovered that the surviving Eskimo had gained the + shore above-mentioned, the Northern Indians began to plunder the + tents of the deceased of all the copper utensils they could find; such + as hatchets, bayonets, knives, &c, after which they assembled on the + top of an adjacent hill, and, standing all in a cluster, so as to form + a solid circle, with their spears erect in the air, gave many shouts + of victory, constantly clashing their spears against each other, and + frequently calling out <i>tima! tima!<a name="10-6"></a></i><a href="#note-10-6"><small>[6]</small></a> by way of derision to the poor + surviving Eskimo, who were standing on the shoal almost knee deep in + water." +</p> +<p> + "It ought to have been mentioned in its proper place," writes Hearne, + after describing further atrocities, "that in making our retreat up + the river, after killing the Eskimo on the west side, we saw an old + woman sitting by the side of the water killing salmon, which lay at + the foot of the fall as thick as a shoal of herrings. Whether from the + noise of the fall, or a natural defect in the old woman's hearing, it + is hard to determine, but certain it is, she had no knowledge of the + tragical scene which had been so lately transacted at the tents, + though she was not more than two hundred yards from the place. When we + first perceived her she seemed perfectly at ease, and was entirely + surrounded with the produce of her labour. From her manner of + behaviour, and the appearance of her eyes, which were as red as blood, + it is more than probable that her sight was not very good; for she + scarcely discerned that the Indians were enemies, till they were + within twice the length of their spears of her. It was in vain that + she attempted to fly, for the wretches of my crew transfixed her to + the ground in a few seconds, and butchered her in the most savage + manner. There was scarcely a man among them who had not a thrust at + her with his spear; and many in doing this aimed at torture rather + than immediate death, as they not only poked out her eyes, but stabbed + her in many parts very remote from those which are vital. +</p> +<p> + "It may appear strange that a person supposed to be almost blind + should be employed in the business of fishing, and particularly with + any degree of success; but when the multitude of the fish is taken + into the account, the wonder will cease. Indeed they were so numerous + at the foot of the fall, that when a light pole, armed with a few + spikes, which was the instrument the old woman used, was put under + water, and hauled up with a jerk, it was scarcely possible to miss + them. Some of my Indians tried the method, for curiosity, with the old + woman's staff, and seldom got less than two at a jerk, sometimes + three or four. Those fish, though very fine, and beautifully red, are + but small, seldom weighing more (as near as I could judge) than six or + seven pounds, and in general much less. Their numbers at this place + were almost incredible, perhaps equal to anything that is related of + the salmon in Kamschatka, or any other part of the world." +</p> +<p> + Hearne seems to have been so intent on geographical discovery that he + did not allow his feelings to influence him very long against the + society of his Amerindian companions, who apparently sat down and ate + a dish of salmon with him an hour or so after they had killed this + last old woman! The Indians now told him that they were ready again to + assist him in making an end of his survey, and apparently on foot, for + the Coppermine River was not navigable here, even for a boat. +</p> +<p> + Thus, first of all white men coming overland, he reached the sea coast + of the Arctic Ocean. The tide was then out, and a good deal of the sea + surface was covered with ice, on which he observed many seals lying + about. Along the sea coast and river banks were many birds; gulls, + divers or loons, golden plovers, green plovers, curlews, geese, and + swans. The country a little way inland was obviously inhabited by + numbers of musk oxen, reindeer, bears, wolves, gluttons, foxes, polar + hares, snowy owls, ravens, ptarmigans, gopher ground-squirrels, stoats + (ermines), and mice. In this region also he saw a bird which the + Copper Indians called the Alarm Bird. He tells us that in size and + colour it resembles a "Cobadekoock"; but as none of us know what that + is, we can only go on to imagine that the Alarm Bird was a kind of + owl, as Hearne says it was "of the owl genus". When it perceived + people or beasts it directed its way towards them immediately, and, + after hovering over them for some time, flew over them in circles or + went away with them in the same direction as they walked. All this + time the bird made a loud screaming noise like the cry of a child. + These owls were sometimes accustomed to follow the Indians for a whole + day, and the Copper Indians believed that they would in some way + conduct them to herds of deer and musk oxen, which without the birds' + assistance might never be found. They also warned Indians of the + arrival of strangers. The Eskimo, according to Hearne, paid no heed to + these birds, and it was thus that they allowed themselves to be + surprised and massacred, for if they had looked out from the direction + in which the Chipewayans were lying in ambush, they would have seen a + large flock of these owls continually flying about and making + sufficient noise to awaken any man out of the soundest sleep. +</p> +<p> + The country on either side of the estuary of the Coppermine River was + not without vegetation. There were stunted pines and tufts of dwarf + willows, and the ground was covered with a lichen or herb, which the + English of the Hudson's Bay Company knew by the name of + Wishakapaka,<a name="10-7"></a><a href="#note-10-7"><small>[7]</small></a> and which they dried and used instead of tea. There + were also cranberry and heathberry bushes, but without fruit. The + scrub grew gradually thinner and smaller as one approached the sea, + and at the mouth of the river there was nothing but barren hills and + marsh. +</p> +<p> + The unfortunate Eskimo of this region, judging by the examples seen by + Hearne, were of low stature, with broad thickset bodies. Their + complexion was a dirty copper colour, but some of the women were + almost fair and ruddy. Their dress, their arms and fishing tackle were + precisely similar to those of the Greenland Eskimo. Their tents were + made of deerskins, and were pitched in a circular form. But these were + only their summer habitations, those for the winter being partly + underground, with a roof framework of poles, over which skins were + stretched; and of course Nature did the rest, covering the roof with + several feet of snow. Owing to being almost entirely surrounded by + snow, these winter houses were very warm. Their household furniture + consisted of stone kettles and wooden troughs of various sizes, also + dishes, scoops, and spoons made of musk-ox horns. The stone kettles + (which some people think they borrowed from the Norse discoverers of + America in the eleventh century) were as large as to be capable of + containing five or six gallons. They were, of course, carved out of + solid blocks of stone, every one of them being ornamented with neat + moulding round the rims, and some of the large ones with fluted work + at each corner. In shape they were oblong, wider at the top than the + bottom, and strong handles of solid stone were left at each end to + lift them up. +</p> +<p> + The Eskimo hatchets were made of a thick lump of copper about five or + six inches long, and one and a half to two inches broad. They were + bevelled away at one end like a chisel. This piece of copper was + lashed into the end of a piece of wood about twelve or fourteen inches + long. The men's daggers and the women's knives were also made of + copper. The former were in shape like the ace of spades, and the + handle was made of reindeer antler. +</p> +<p> + With the Eskimo was a fine breed of dogs, with erect ears, sharp + noses, bushy tails. They were all tethered to stones to prevent them + from eating the flesh that was spread all over the rocks to dry. + Apparently, these beautiful dogs were left behind still tethered by + the wicked Amerindians, after the massacre of their owners. Hearne, + however, noticed with these Coppermine River Eskimo that the men were + entirely bald, having all their head hair pulled out by the roots. The + women wore their hair at the usual length. +</p> +<p> + Before leaving this region to return southwards, Hearne was led by the + Indians to one of the copper mines about thirty miles south-east of + the river mouth. It was no more than a jumble of rocks and gravel, + which had been rent in many ways, apparently by an earthquake shock. + This mine was at the time of Hearne's visit very poor in copper, much + of the metal having already been removed. +</p> +<p> + The Copper Indians set a great value on this native metal even at the + present day, and prefer it to iron for almost every use except that of + a hatchet, a knife, and an awl. "For these three necessary + implements", writes Hearne, "copper makes but a very poor substitute." +</p> +<p> + On the return journey, in the course of which the Great Slave + Lake—which Hearne calls "Lake Athapuscow"—was discovered and crossed + on the ice, the party travelled so hard and stayed so seldom to rest + that Hearne suffered terribly with his legs and feet. "I had so little + power to direct my feet when walking, that I frequently knocked them + against the stones with such force, as not only to jar and disorder + them, but my legs also; and the nails of my toes were bruised to such + a degree, that several of them festered and dropped off. To add to + this mishap, the skin was entirely chafed off from the tops of both my + feet, and between every toe; so that the sand and gravel, which I + could by no means exclude, irritated the raw parts so much, that for a + whole day before we arrived at the women's tents, I left the print of + my feet in blood almost at every step I took. Several of the Indians + began to complain that their feet also were sore; but, on examination, + not one of them was the twentieth part in so bad a state as mine. This + being the first time I had been in such a situation, or seen anybody + foot-foundered, I was much alarmed, and under great apprehensions for + the consequences. Though I was but little fatigued in body, yet the + excruciating pain I suffered when walking had such an effect on my + spirits, that if the Indians had continued to travel two or three days + longer at that unmerciful rate, I must unavoidably have been left + behind; for my feet were in many places quite honeycombed by the dirt + and gravel eating into the raw flesh." +</p> +<p> + "Among the various superstitious customs of those people, it is worth + remarking, and ought to have been mentioned in its proper place, that + immediately after my companions had killed the Eskimo at the Copper + River, they considered themselves in a state of uncleanness, which + induced them to practise some very curious unusual ceremonies. In the + first place, all who were absolutely concerned in the murder were + prohibited from cooking any kind of victuals, either for themselves or + others. As luckily there were two in company who had not shed blood, + they were employed always as cooks till we joined the women. This + circumstance was exceedingly favourable on my side; for had there been + no persons of the above description in company, that task, I was told, + would have fallen on me; which would have been no less fatiguing and + troublesome, than humiliating and vexatious. +</p> +<p> + "When the victuals were cooked, all the murderers took a kind of red + earth, or ochre, and painted all the space between the nose and chin, + as well as the greater part of their cheeks, almost to the ears, + before they would taste a bit, and would not drink out of any other + dish, or smoke out of any other pipe, but their own; and none of the + others seemed willing to drink or smoke out of theirs." +</p> +<p> + He goes on to relate that they practised the custom of painting the + mouth and part of the cheeks before each meal, and drinking and + smoking out of their own utensils, till the winter began to set in, + and during the whole of that time they would never kiss any of their + wives or children. They refrained also from eating many parts of the + deer and other animals, particularly the head, entrails, and blood; + and during their "uncleanness" their food was never cooked in water, + but dried in the sun, eaten quite raw, or broiled. When the time + arrived that was to put an end to these ceremonies, the men, without a + female being present, made a fire at some distance from the tents, + into which they threw all their ornaments, pipe stems, and dishes, + which were soon consumed to ashes; after which a feast was prepared, + consisting of such articles as they had long been prohibited from + eating, and when all was over each man was at liberty to eat, drink, + and smoke as he pleased, "and also to kiss his wives and children at + discretion, which they seemed to do with more raptures than I had ever + known them to do it either before or since". +</p> +<p> + On the 11th of January, as some of Hearne's companions were hunting, + they saw the track of a strange snowshoe, which they followed, and at + a considerable distance came to a little hut, where they discovered a + young woman sitting alone. As they found that she understood their + language, they brought her with them to the tents. On examination she + proved to be one of the Western Dog-rib Indians, who had been taken + prisoner by the Athapaska Indians in the summer of 1770. From these, + in the following summer, she had escaped, with the intention of + returning to her own country, but the distance being so great, and the + way being unknown to her, she forgot the track, so she built the hut + in which they found her, to protect her from the weather during the + winter, and here she had resided from the first setting in of the cold + weather. For seven months she had seen no human face. During all this + time she had supported herself in comparative comfort by snaring + grouse, rabbits, and squirrels; she had also killed two or three + beaver, and some porcupines. That she did not seem to have been in + want was evident, as she had a small stock of provisions by her when + she was discovered, and was in good health and condition; and Hearne + thought her "one of the finest women", of the real Indian type, that + he had seen in any part of North America. +</p> +<p> + "The methods practised by this poor creature to procure a livelihood + were truly admirable, and are great proofs that necessity is the real + mother of invention. When the few deer sinews that she had an + opportunity of taking with her were all expended in making snares and + sewing her clothing, she had nothing to supply their place but the + sinews of the rabbits' [he means hares'] legs and feet; these she + twisted together for that purpose with great dexterity and success. + The rabbits, &c, which she caught in those snares, not only furnished + her with a comfortable subsistence, but of the skins she made a suit + of neat and warm clothing for the winter. It is scarcely possible to + conceive that a person in her forlorn situation could be so composed + as to be capable of contriving or executing anything that was not + absolutely necessary to her existence; but there were sufficient + proofs that she had extended her care much farther, as all her + clothing, beside being calculated for real service, showed great taste + and exhibited no little variety of ornament. The materials, though + rude, were very curiously wrought and so judiciously placed as to make + the whole of her garb have a very pleasing, though rather romantic, + appearance. +</p> +<p> + "Her leisure hours from hunting had been employed in twisting the + inner rind or bark of willows into small lines, like net twine, of + which she had some hundred fathoms by her; with this she intended to + make a fishing net as soon as the spring advanced. It is of the inner + bark of willows, twisted in this manner, that the Dog-rib Indians make + their fishing nets, and they are much preferable to those made by the + Northern Indians. +</p> +<p> + "Five or six inches of an iron hoop, made into a knife, and the shank + of an arrowhead of iron, which served her as an awl, were all the + metals this poor woman had with her when she eloped, and with these + implements she had made herself complete snowshoes, and several other + useful articles. +</p> +<p> + "Her method of making a fire was equally singular and curious, having + no other materials for that purpose than two hard sulphurous stones. + These, by long friction and hard knocking, produced a few sparks, + which at length communicated to some touchwood (a species of fungus + which grew on decayed poplars); but as this method was attended with + great trouble, and not always with success, she did not suffer her + fire to go out all the winter...." +</p> +<p> + Hearne regained Prince of Wales's Fort on Hudson Bay in June, 1772. + Subsequently he was dispatched, in the year 1774, to found the first + great inland trading station and fort of the Hudson's Bay Company + which was established at any considerable distance westward of Hudson + Bay—the first step, in fact, which led to this chartered company + becoming in time the ruler and colonizing agent of Alberta and British + Columbia. Hearne chose for his station of "Cumberland House" a site at + the entrance to Pine Island Lake on the lower Saskatchewan River. +</p> +<p> + In 1775 he became Governor of his old starting-point on Hudson + Bay—Fort Prince of Wales. During the American war with France, the + French admiral, La Pérouse, made a daring excursion into Hudson Bay + (1782), and summoned Hearne to surrender his fort. This he felt + obliged to do, not deeming his small garrison strong enough to resist + the French force. +</p> +<p> + Samuel Hearne returned to England in 1787, and died (probably in + London) in 1792. +</p> +<hr class="short"> + +<a name="note-10-1"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#10-1"><u>1</u></a> Hearne was born in London in 1745. He entered the Royal + Navy as a midshipman at the tender age of eleven, and remained in the + Navy till about 1765, when he went out to Hudson Bay with the rank of + quartermaster. He must have acquired a considerable education, even in + botany and zoology. He not only wrote well, and was a good surveyor + for rough map making, but he had a considerable talent as a + draughtsman. +</p> +<a name="note-10-2"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#10-2"><u>2</u></a> This word is said to be a corruption or altered form of + <i>Wishakagamiū</i>, a liquid or broth (Kri language). The drink made + from this shrub or herb (<i>Ledum palustre</i>) is now known as Labrador + tea. It is a bitter aromatic infusion. +</p> +<a name="note-10-3"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#10-3"><u>3</u></a> The Indians of the Athapaskan or Déné group were usually + called the <i>Northern Indians</i> by the Hudson Bay people, in comparison + to all the other tribes of the more temperate regions farther south, + who were known as the <i>Southern Indians</i> (Algonkins, &c.). +</p> +<a name="note-10-4"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#10-4"><u>4</u></a> A fur-bearing animal (<i>Mustela americana</i>), very like the + British pine marten. +</p> +<a name="note-10-5"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#10-5"><u>5</u></a> Or "Tantsawhūts". Like the "Dog-rib" Indians, + mentioned farther on, they belonged to the "Northern", Tinné, + Athabaskan type. +</p> +<a name="note-10-6"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#10-6"><u>6</u></a> "<i>Tima</i> in the Eskimo language is a friendly word similar + to <i>what cheer</i>?"—Hearne. +</p> +<a name="note-10-7"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#10-7"><u>7</u></a> <i>Ledum palustre</i>. +</p> +<p class="return">[<a href="#contents">TABLE OF CONTENTS</a>] +</p> +<hr class="short"> + +<a name="2HCH0011"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> + +<h2> + CHAPTER XI +</h2> +<h3> + Alexander Mackenzie's Journeys +</h3> +<p> + It has been already mentioned that the conquest of Canada by the + British led to a great increase in travel for the development of the + fur trade. Previously, under the French, permission was only granted + to a few persons to penetrate into the interior to trade with the + natives, commerce being regarded as a special privilege or monopoly to + be sold or granted by the Crown. But after the British had completely + assumed control, nothing was done to bar access to the interior. So + long as the Catholic missionaries had been practically placed in + charge of the Amerindians, and had served as buffers between them and + unscrupulous traders, they—the Amerindians—had been saved from two + scourges, smallpox and strong drink.<a name="11-1"></a><a href="#note-11-1"><small>[1]</small></a> But now, unhappily, all + restrictions about trade in alcohol were removed. In their eagerness + to obtain ardent spirits and "high" wine, the Indians eagerly welcomed + British traders and French Canadians in their midst. The fur trade + developed fast. The Hudson's Bay Company had established its trading + stations only in the vicinity or on the coasts of that inland sea, far + away from the two Canadas, from the Middle West and the vast North + West. After a little reluctance and suspicion, most of the northern + Amerindian tribes were persuaded to deflect their caravans from the + routes leading to Hudson Bay, and to meet the British, the New + Englander ("Bostonian"), and the French Canadian traders at various + rendezvous on <a name="p278"></a>Lake Winnipeg and its tributary lakes and rivers. The + principal depot and starting-point for the north-west traders was + <i>Grand Portage</i>, on the north-west coast of Lake Superior, whence + canoes and goods were transferred by a nine-mile portage to the waters + flowing to Rainy Lake, and so onwards to the Winnipeg River and the + vast system of the Saskatchewan, the Red River, and the Assiniboine. +</p> +<p> + Amongst the pioneers in this new development of the fur trade, who + became also the great explorers of northernmost America, was Alexander + Henry (already described), THOMAS CURRIE, JAMES FINLAY, PETER POND,<a name="11-2"></a><a href="#note-11-2"><small>[2]</small></a> + JOSEPH and BENJAMIN FROBISHER, and SIMON M'TAVISH. These and some of + their supporting merchants in Montreal resolved to form a great + fur-trading association, the celebrated North-west Trading Company, + and did so in 1784. +</p> +<p> + Two of the Montreal merchant firms participating in this confederation + (Gregory and M'Leod) were inclined to play a somewhat independent + part, and called themselves the New North-west Trading Company. They + had the foresight to engage as their principal agents in the + north-west (Sir) ALEXANDER MACKENZIE and his cousin RODERICK + MACKENZIE. Both these young men were Highlanders, probably of Norse + origin. Alexander Mackenzie was born at Stornoway, in the Island of + Lewis (Hebrides), in 1763. He was only sixteen when he started for + Canada to take up a position as clerk in the partnership concern of + Gregory & M'Leod at Montreal. +</p> +<p> + It may be said here briefly that this "New North-west Company" went at + first by the nickname of "The Little Company" or "The Potties", this + last being an Amerindian corruption of the French <i>Les Petits</i>. Later + it developed into the "X.Y. Company", or "Sir Alexander Mackenzie & + Co.". Although much in rivalry with the original "Nor'-westers", the + rivalry never degenerated into the actual warfare, the indefensible + deeds of violence and treachery, which later on were perpetrated by + the Hudson's Bay Company on the agents of the North-west, and returned + with interest by the latter. Often the New North-west agents and the + original Nor'-westers would camp or build side by side, and share + equably in the fur trade with the natives; their canoemen and + French-Canadian <i>voyageurs</i> would sing their boating songs in chorus + as they paddled side by side across the lakes and down the rivers, or + marched with their heavy loads over the portages and along the trails. + Eventually, in 1804, the X.Y. Company and the North-west fused into + the North-west Trading Company, which until 1821 fought a hard fight + against the encroachments and jealousy of the Hudson's Bay Company. +</p> +<p> + During the period, however, from 1785 to 1812 the men of the + north-west, of Montreal, and Grand Portage (as contrasted with those + of Hudson Bay) effected a revolution in Canadian geography. They + played the rôle of imperial pioneers with a stubborn heroism, with + little thought of personal gain, and in most cases with full + foreknowledge and appreciation of what would accrue to the British + Empire through their success. It is impossible to relate the + adventures of all of them within the space of any one book, or even of + several volumes. Moreover, this has been done already, not only in + their own published journals and books, but in the admirable works of + Elliot Coues, Dr. George Bryce, Dr. S.J. Dawson, Alexander Ross, and + others. I must confine myself here to a description of the adventures + of Sir Alexander Mackenzie, with a glance at incidents recorded by + Simon Fraser and by Alexander Henry the Younger. +</p> +<p> + Mackenzie, having been appointed at the age of twenty-two a partner in + the New North-west Company, proceeded to Grand Portage in 1785, and + by the year 1788 (after founding Fort Chipewayan on Lake Athabaska) + conceived the idea of following the mysterious Slave River to its + ultimate outlet into the Arctic or the Pacific Ocean. He left Fort + Chipewayan on June 3, 1789, accompanied by four French-Canadian + <i>voyageurs</i>, two French-Canadian women (wives of two <i>voyageurs</i>), a + young German named John Steinbruck, and an Amerindian guide known as + "English Chief". This last was a follower and pupil of the Matonabi + who had guided Hearne to the Coppermine River and the eastern end of + the Great Slave Lake. The party of eight whites packed themselves and + their goods into one birch-bark canoe. English Chief and his two + wives, together with an additional Amerindian guide and a hunter, + travelled in a second and smaller canoe. The expedition, moreover, was + accompanied as far as Slave River by LE ROUX, a celebrated + French-Canadian exploring trader who worked for the X.Y. Company. The + journey down the Slave River was rendered difficult and dangerous by + the rapids. Several times the canoes and their loads had to be lugged + past these falls by an overland portage. Mosquitoes tortured the whole + party almost past bearance. The leaders of the expedition and their + Indian hunter had to be busily engaged (the Indian women also) in + hunting and fishing in order to get food for the support of the party, + who seemed to have had little reserve provisions with them. Pemmican + was made of fish dried in the sun and rubbed to powder. Swans, geese, + cranes, and ducks fell to the guns; an occasional beaver was also + added to the pot. When they reached the Great Slave Lake they found + its islands—notwithstanding their barren appearance—covered with + bushes producing a great variety of palatable fruits—cranberries, + juniper berries, raspberries, partridge berries, gooseberries, and the + "pathogomenan", a fruit like a raspberry. +</p> +<p> + <a name="p281"></a>Slave Lake, however, was still, in mid-June, under the spell of + winter, its surface obstructed with drifting ice. In attempting to + cross the lake the frail birch-bark canoes ran a great risk of being + crushed between the ice floes. However, at length, after halting at + several islands and leaving Le Roux to go to the trading station he + had founded on the shores of Slave Lake, Mackenzie and his two canoes + found their way to the river outlet of Slave Lake, that river which + was henceforth to be called by his name. Great mountains approached + near to the west of their course. They appeared to be sprinkled with + white stones, called by the natives "spirit stones"—indeed over a + great part of North America the Rocky Mountains were called "the + Mountains of Bright Stones"—yet these brilliant patches were nothing + more wonderful than unmelted snow. +</p> +<p> + A few days later the party encountered Amerindians of the Slave and + Dog-rib tribes, who were so aloof from even "Indian" civilization that + they did not know the use of tobacco, and were still in the Stone Age + as regards their weapons and implements. These people, though they + furnished a guide, foretold disaster and famine to the expedition, and + greatly exaggerated the obstacles which would be met with—rapids near + the entrance of the tributary from Great Bear Lake—before the salt + water was reached. +</p> +<p> + The canoes of these Slave and Dog-rib tribes of the Athapaskan (Tinné) + group were covered, not with birch bark, but with the bark of the + spruce fir. +</p> +<p> + The lodges of the Slave Indians were of very simple structure: a few + poles supported by a fork and forming a semicircle at the bottom, with + some branches or a piece of bark as a covering. They built two of + these huts facing each other, and made a fire between them. The + furniture consisted of a few dishes of wood, bark, or horn. The + vessels in which they cooked their victuals were in the shape of a + gourd, narrow at the top and wide at the bottom, and made of <i>wátápé</i>. +</p> +<p> + This was the name given to the divided roots of the spruce fir, which + the natives wove into a degree of compactness that rendered it capable + of containing a fluid. Wátápé fibre was also used to sew together + different parts of the bark canoes. They also made fibre or thread + from willow bark. Their cooking vessels made of this wátápé not only + contained water, but water which was made to boil by putting a + succession of hot stones into it. It would, of course, be impossible + to place these vessels of fibre on a fire, and apparently none of the + Amerindians of temperate North America knew anything about pottery. + Those that were in some degree in touch with the Eskimo used kettles + or cauldrons of stone. Elsewhere the vessels for boiling water and + cooking were made of bark or fibre, and the water therein was made to + boil by the dropping in of red-hot stones. The arrows of these Slave + Indians were two and a half feet long, and the barb was made of bone, + horn, flint, or copper. Iron had been quite lately introduced, + indirectly obtained from the Russians in Alaska. Their spears were + pointed with barbed bone, and their daggers were made of horn or bone. + Their great club, the <i>pógamagán</i>, was made of a reindeer's antler. + Axes were manufactured out of a piece of brown or grey stone, six to + eight inches long and two inches thick. They kindled fire by striking + together a piece of iron pyrites and touchwood, and never travelled + without a small bag containing such materials. +</p> +<p> + The Amerindians along the lower Mackenzie had heard vague and terrible + legends about the Russians, far, far away on the coast of Alaska; they + were represented as beings of gigantic stature, and adorned with + wings; which, however, they never employed in flying (possibly the + sails of their ships). They fed on large birds, and killed them with + the greatest ease. They also possessed the extraordinary power of + killing with their eyes (no doubt putting up a gun to aim), and they + travelled in canoes of very large dimensions. +</p> +<a name="image-0016"><!--IMG--></a> +<center> +<img src="images/pc16.jpg" width="285" height="450" +alt="Big-horned Sheep of Rocky Mountains"> +</center> +<!--IMAGE END--> +<h5>BIG-HORNED SHEEP OF ROCKY MOUNTAINS</h5> +<p> + "I engaged one of these Indians," writes Mackenzie, "by a bribe of + some beads, to describe the surrounding country upon the sand. This + singular map he immediately undertook to delineate, and accordingly + traced out a very long point of land between the rivers ... which he + represented as running into the great lake, at the extremity of which + he had been told by Indians of other nations there was a white man's + fort." The same people described plainly the Yukon River westward of + the mountains, and told Mackenzie it was a far greater stream than the + one he was exploring. This was the first "hint" of the existence of + the great Alaskan river which was ever recorded. They also spoke to + Mackenzie of "small white buffaloes" (?the mountain goat), which they + found in the mountains west of the Mackenzie. +</p> +<p> + Whenever and wherever Mackenzie's party met these northernmost tribes + of Athapascan Indians they were always ready to dance in between short + spells of talking. This dancing and jumping was their only amusement, + and in it old and young, male and female, went to such exertions that + their strength was exhausted. As they jumped up and down they imitated + the various noises produced by the reindeer, the bear, and the wolf. +</p> +<p> + In descending the Mackenzie River, and again on the return journey + upstream, Mackenzie notices the abundance of berries on the banks of + the river, especially the kind which was called "pears" by the French + Canadians. These were of a purple hue, rather bigger than a pea, and + of a luscious taste. There were also gooseberries and a few + strawberries. Quantities of berries were collected and dried, but + while on the lower Mackenzie the expedition fed mainly on fat geese. + On the beach of the great river they found an abundance of a sweet + fragrant root which Mackenzie calls "liquorice". +</p> +<p> + Mackenzie seemed to think that along the lower Mackenzie River, near + the sea, there were not only reindeer, bears, wolverines, martens, + foxes, and hares, but a species of white buffalo or white musk ox, + which may have been the mountain goat above referred to. He noted, in + the cliffs or banks of the lower Mackenzie, pieces of "petroleum" + which bore a resemblance to yellow wax but was more friable. His + Indian guide informed him that rocks of a similar kind were scattered + about the country at the back of the Slave Lake, near where the + Chipewayans collected copper. If so, there may be a great oilfield yet + to be discovered in Arctic Canada. +</p> +<p> + On the river coming out of the Bear Lake Mackenzie discovered coal; + the whole beach was strewn with it. He was attracted towards it by + seeing smoke and noticing a strong sulphurous smell. The whole bank of + the river was on fire for a considerable distance, and he thought this + was due to the natives having camped there and set fire to the coal in + the bank from their hearths. But subsequent travellers have also found + this lignite coal burning to waste, and imagine that, being full of + gas, it catches fire spontaneously if any landslip or other accident + exposes it to moist air. In 1906 it was still burning! +</p> +<p> + According to Mackenzie, the ground in the regions about the lower + reaches of the Mackenzie River is always frozen at least five inches + down from the surface, yet he found small spruce trees growing in + patches near the delta of this river, besides pale-yellow raspberries + of an agreeable flavour, and a great variety of other plants and + herbs. +</p> +<p> + As the expedition drew near to the estuary of the great Mackenzie + River a range of lofty snowy mountains rose into sight on the west. + These mountains were said by the natives to swarm with large + bears—probably of the huge chocolate-coloured Alaska type; and again + a mention was made of "small white buffaloes", which were in all + probability the large white mountain goat (<i>Oreamnus</i>). The + Amerindians along the river greatly magnified the dangers, predicting + impassable rapids between the confluence of the Great Bear River and + the sea. But these stories were greatly exaggerated. Every now and + then the river would narrow and flow between white precipitous + limestone walls of rock, but there was no obstacle to navigation, + though it was very deep and the current fast. +</p> +<p> + The travellers now began to get within touch of the Eskimo and to hear + of their occasional raids up the river from the sea. They were said to + use slings, from which they flung stones with such dexterity as to + prove formidable in their fights with the Amerindians, who regarded + them with great respect, the more so because of their intercourse with + the mysterious white people (Russians) from whom they obtained iron. +</p> +<p> + Mackenzie just managed to reach within sight of the sea, beyond the + delta of the river, his most northern point being about 69° 14" north + latitude. Hence he gazed out northwards over a vast expanse of + piled-up ice in which several small islands were embedded. In the + spaces of open water whales were visible (the small white whale, + <i>Beluga</i>). The water in between the islands was affected by the tide. + The travellers had, in fact, reached the Arctic ocean. But, owing to + the fickleness of their guides, and the danger of being detained by + some obstacle in these northern latitudes without proper supplies for + the winter, Mackenzie was afraid to stay for further investigations, + and on July 16, 1789, turned his back on the sea and commenced his + return journey up the stream of the great river which was henceforth + to bear his name. +</p> +<p> + The strength of the current made the homeward travel much more + lengthy and tedious. The Indians of the party were troublesome, and + the principal guide, English Chief, was sulky and disobedient. This + man had insisted on being accompanied by two of his wives, of whom he + was so morbidly jealous that he could scarcely bring himself to leave + them for an hour in order to go hunting or to prospect the country; + consequently he did little or nothing in the killing of game, and this + kept the expedition on very small rations. Mackenzie got wroth with + him, and so gave him a sound rating. This irritated English Chief to a + high degree, and after a long and vehement harangue he burst into + tears and loud and bitter lamentations. Thereat his friends and wives + commenced crying and wailing vociferously, though they declared that + their tears were shed, not for any trouble between the white man and + English Chief, but because they suddenly recollected all the friends + and relations they had lost within the last few years! "I did not + interrupt their grief for two hours, but as I could not well do + without them, I was at length obliged to sooth it and induce the chief + to change his resolution (to leave me), which he did with great + apparent reluctance." +</p> +<p> + Later on English Chief told Mackenzie that he feared he might have to + go to war, because it was a custom amongst the Athapaskan chiefs to + make war after they had given way to the disgrace attached to such a + feminine weakness as shedding tears. Therefore he would undertake a + warlike expedition in the following spring, but in the meantime he + would continue with Mackenzie as long as he wanted him. +</p> +<p> + Mackenzie, rejoining Le Roux at the Slave Lake, safely reached his + station at Fort Chipewayan on September 12, 1789, just as the approach + of winter was making travel in these northern regions dangerous to + those who relied on unfrozen water as a means of transit. +</p> +<p> + Mackenzie seems to have been a little disappointed with the results + of his northward journey; perhaps he had thought that the outlet of + Slave Lake and the Mackenzie River would be into the Pacific, the <i>Mer + de l'Ouest</i> of his Canadian <i>voyageurs</i>. Yet he must have realized + that he had discovered something very wonderful after all: the + beginning of Alaska, the approach to a region which, though lying + within the Arctic circle, has climatic conditions permitting the + existence of trees, abundant vegetation, and large, strange beasts, + and which, moreover, is highly mineralized. His work in this + direction, however (and that of Hearne), was to be completed in the + next century by SIR JOHN FRANKLIN, SIR GEORGE BACK, SIR JOHN + RICHARDSON, and SIR JOHN ROSS—all knighthoods earned by magnificent + services in geographical exploration—and by THOMAS SIMPSON, Dr. John + Rae,<a name="11-3"></a><a href="#note-11-3"><small>[3]</small></a> WARREN DEASE, JOHN M'LEOD, ROBERT CAMPBELL, and other servants + of the Hudson's Bay Company. +</p> +<p> + In October, 1792, Mackenzie had determined to make a great attempt to + reach the Pacific Ocean. By this time he and his colleagues had + explored the Peace River (the main tributary of Slave Lake), and had + realized that they could travel up it into the heart of the Rocky + Mountains. He wintered and traded at a place which he called "New + Establishment", on the banks of the Peace River, near the foothills of + the Rocky Mountains. He left this station on May 9, 1793, accompanied + by ALEXANDER MACKAY,<a name="11-4"></a><a href="#note-11-4"><small>[4]</small></a> six French Canadians, and two Indian guides. + They travelled up the Peace River in a twenty-five-foot canoe, and at + first passed through scenery the most beautiful Mackenzie had ever + beheld. He describes it as follows:— +</p> +<p> + "The ground rises at intervals to a considerable height, and + stretching inwards to a considerable distance: at every interval or + pause in the rise, there is a very gently ascending space or lawn, + which is alternate with abrupt precipices to the summit of the whole, + or at least as far as the eye could distinguish. This magnificent + theatre of nature has all the decorations which the trees and animals + of the country can afford it: groves of poplars in every shape vary + the scene; and their intervals are enlivened with vast herds of elks + and buffaloes: the former choosing the steeps and uplands and the + latter preferring the plains. At this time the buffaloes were attended + with their young ones, who were striking about them; and it appeared + that the elks would soon exhibit the same enlivening circumstance. The + whole country displayed an exuberant verdure; the trees that bear a + blossom were advancing fast to that delightful appearance, and the + velvet rind of their branches reflecting the oblique rays of a rising + or setting sun, added a splendid gaiety to the scene which no + expressions of mine are qualified to describe." +</p> +<p> + Of course, as they neared the Rocky Mountains the navigation of the + Peace River became more and more difficult. At last they left the + river to find their way across the mountains till they should reach + the headwaters of a stream flowing towards the Pacific Ocean. + Sometimes they only accomplished three miles a day, having to carry + all their goods and their canoe. The mountainous country was covered + with splendid forests of spruce, pine, cypress, poplar, birch, willow, + and many other kinds of trees, with an undergrowth of gooseberries, + currants, and briar roses. The travellers generally followed paths + made by the elk,<a name="11-5"></a><a href="#note-11-5"><small>[5]</small></a> just as in the dense forests of Africa the way + sometimes is cleared for human travellers by the elephant. Every now + and again they resumed their journey on the river between the falls + and cascades. The mountains seemed to be a solid mass of limestone, in + some places without any covering of foliage. +</p> +<p> + "In no part of the north-west", writes Mackenzie, "did I see so much + beaver work" (along the eastern branch of the Peace River). In some + places the beavers had cut down acres of large poplars, and were + busily at work on their labours of dam-making during the night, + between the setting and the rising sun. +</p> +<p> + Gnats and mosquitoes came with the intense heat of June to make life + almost unbearable. As they got close to the Rocky Mountains they + encountered Amerindians who had never seen a white man before, and who + at first received them with demonstrations of great hostility and + fright. But owing to the diplomatic skill of Mackenzie they gradually + yielded to a more friendly attitude, and here he decided to camp until + the natives had become familiarized with him and his party, and could + give them information as to his route. But they could only tell that, + away to the west beyond the mountains, a month's travel, there was a + vast "lake of stinking water", to which came, for purposes of trade, + other white men with vessels as big as islands. +</p> +<p> + These Rocky Mountain Indians made their canoes from spruce bark<a name="11-6"></a><a href="#note-11-6"><small>[6]</small></a> in + the following manner: The bark is taken off the spruce fir to the + whole length of the intended canoe, only about eighteen feet, and is + sewed with <i>wátápé</i> at both ends. Two laths are then laid across the + end of the gunwale. In these are fixed the bars, and against them the + ribs or timbers, that are cut to the length to which the bark can be + stretched; and to give additional strength, strips of wood are laid + between them. To make the whole water-tight, gum is abundantly + employed. +</p> +<p> + Obtaining a guide from these people, Mackenzie continued his journey + along the Parsnip, or southern branch of the upper Peace River, + partly by water, partly by land till he reached its source,<a name="11-7"></a><a href="#note-11-7"><small>[7]</small></a> a lake, + on the banks of which he saw innumerable swans, geese, and ducks. Wild + parsnips grew here in abundance, and were a grateful addition to the + diet of the travellers. As to birds, they not only saw blue jays and + yellow birds, but the first humming bird which Mackenzie had ever + beheld in the north-west.<a name="11-8"></a><a href="#note-11-8"><small>[8]</small></a> +</p> +<p> + From this tiny lake he made his way over lofty mountains to another + lake at no great distance, and from this a small stream called the Bad + River flowed southwards to join a still bigger stream, which Mackenzie + thought might prove to be one of the branches of the mighty Columbia + River that flows out into the Pacific through the State of Oregon. It + really was the Fraser River, and of the upper waters of the Fraser + Mackenzie was the discoverer.<a name="11-9"></a><a href="#note-11-9"><small>[9]</small></a> +</p> +<a name="image-0017"><!--IMG--></a> +<center> +<img src="images/pc17.jpg" width="268" height="425" +alt="The Upper Waters of the Fraser River"> +</center> +<!--IMAGE END--> +<h5>THE UPPER WATERS OF THE FRASER RIVER</h5> +<p> + Their experiences down the little mountain stream which was to take + them into the Fraser nearly ended in complete disaster. "The violence + of the current being so great as to drive the canoe sideways down the + river, and break her by the first bar, I instantly jumped into the + water and the men followed my example; but before we could set her + straight, or stop her, we came to deeper water, so that we were + obliged to re-embark with the utmost precipitation.... We had hardly + regained our situations when we drove against a rock which shattered + the stern of the canoe in such a manner, that it held only by the + gunwales, so that the steersman could no longer keep his place. The + violence of this stroke drove us to the opposite side of the river, + which is but narrow, when the bow met with the same fate as the + stern.... In a few moments, we came across a cascade which broke + several large holes in the bottom of the canoe, and started all the + bars.... The wreck becoming flat on the water, we all jumped out ... + and held fast to the wreck; to which fortunate resolution we owed our + safety, as we should otherwise have been dashed against the rocks by + the force of the water, or driven over the cascades.... At length we + most fortunately arrived in shallow water, and at a small eddy, where + we were enabled to make a stand, from the weight of the canoe resting + on the stones, rather than from any exertions of our exhausted + strength.... The Indians, when they saw our deplorable situation, + instead of making the least effort to help us, sat down and gave vent + to their tears." +</p> +<p> + Nobody, however, had been killed, though much of the luggage was lost, + and what remained had to be spread out to dry. Many of Mackenzie's + people, however, when they took stock of their misfortunes, were + rather pleased than otherwise, as they thought the disaster would stop + him from any further attempt to reach the Western Sea. He wisely + listened to their observations without replying, till their panic was + dispelled, and they had got themselves warm and comfortable with a + hearty meal and a glass of rum; though a little later only by their + indifferent carelessness they nearly exploded the whole of the + expedition's stock of gunpowder. +</p> +<p> + Fortunately the weather was fine. Mackenzie and his fellow + countryman, Mackay, allowed nothing to dismay them or damp their + spirits. Bark was obtained from the forest, the canoe was repaired, + and they heard from their guide that this violent little stream + would before long join a great and much smoother river. But they + were tormented with sandflies and mosquitoes, and a day or two + afterwards the guide bolted, while the expedition had to cross + morasses in which they were nearly engulfed, and the water journey + was constantly obstructed by driftwood. Nevertheless, at last they + had "the inexpressible satisfaction of finding themselves on the + bank of a navigable river on the western side of the first great + range of mountains". Here they re-embarked, and were cheerful in + spite of heavy rain. +</p> +<p> + As they paddled down this great stream, more than two hundred yards + wide, snow-capped mountains rose immediately above the river. The + current was strong, but perfectly safe. Flocks of ducks, entirely + white, except the bill and a part of the wing, rose before them. Smoke + ascending in columns from many parts of the woods showed that the + country was well inhabited, and the air was fragrant with the strong + odour of the gum of cypress and spruce fir. +</p> +<p> + Then came a series of cascades and falls and a most arduous portage + of the heavy canoe. These labours were somewhat lightened by the + discovery of quantities of wild onions growing on the banks; but + these, when mixed with the pemmican, on which the party was + subsisting, stimulated their appetites to an inconvenient degree, + seeing that they were on short commons. Meeting with strange Indians + they found no one to interpret, and had to use signs. But on the banks + of the Fraser they were lucky enough to find the "real red deer", the + great wapiti stag, which is absent from the far north-west, beyond the + region of the Saskatchewan. The canoe was loaded with venison. The + banks of the Fraser River sank to a moderate height and were covered + with poplars and cypresses, birch trees, junipers, alders, and + willows. The deserted house or lodge of some Amerindian tribe was + visited on the banks. It was a finer structure than anything that + Mackenzie had seen since he left Fort Michili-Makinak in upper + Canada. It had been constructed for three families. There were three + fireplaces and three beds and a kind of larder for the purpose of + keeping fish. The whole "lodge" was twenty feet long by three wide, + and had three doors. The walls were formed of straight spruce timbers + with some skill of carpentry. The roof was covered with bark, and + large rods were fixed across the upper part of the building, where + fish might hang and dry. +</p> +<p> + As they continued to descend the Fraser River, with here and there a + rapid which nearly swamped the canoe, and lofty cliffs of red and + white clay like the ruins of ancient castles (stopping on their way to + bury supplies of pemmican against their return, and to light a fire on + the top of the burial place so as to mislead bears or other animals + that might dig it up), they were more or less compelled to seek + intercourse with the new tribes of Amerindians, whose presence on the + river banks was obvious. As usual, Mackenzie had to exercise great + bravery, tact, and guile to get into peaceful conversation with these + half-frightened, half-angry people. The peacemaking generally + concluded with the distribution of trinkets amongst the men and women, + and presents of sugar to the children. Talking with these folk, + however, through such interpreters as there were amongst the Indians + of his crew, he learnt that lower down on the Fraser River there was a + peculiarly fierce, malignant race, living in vast caves or + subterranean dwellings, who would certainly massacre the Europeans if + they attempted to pass through their country on their way to the sea. + He therefore stopped and set some of his men to work to make a new + canoe. He noticed, by the by, that these Amerindians of the Fraser had + small pointed canoes, "made after the fashion of the Eskimo". +</p> +<p> + Renewing their voyage, they reached a house the roof of which just + appeared above the ground. It was deserted by its inhabitants, who had + been alarmed at the approach of the white men, but in the + neighbourhood appeared gesticulating warriors with bows and arrows. + Yet these people of underground houses turned out to be friendly and + very ready to give information, partly because they were in + communication with the Amerindian tribes to the east of the Rocky + Mountains. From the elderly men of this tribe Mackenzie ascertained + that the Fraser River flowed south by east, was often obstructed by + rapids, and, though it would finally bring them to a salt lake or + inlet, and then to the sea, it would cause them to travel for a great + distance to the south. He noticed the complete difference in the + language of these Atna or Carrier Indians<a name="11-10"></a><a href="#note-11-10"><small>[10]</small></a> and that of the Nagailer + or Chin Indians of the Athapaskan group on the eastern side of the + Rocky Mountains. +</p> +<p> + He, however, learnt from these Atna Indians that although the Fraser + was out of the question as a quick route to the sea, if he retraced + his journey a little up this river he would find another stream + entering it from the west, and along this they could travel upstream. + And then the route to the water "which was unfit to drink", and the + region to which came people with large ships, would be of no great + length. Accordingly, after having had a tree engraved with Mackenzie's + name and the date, by the bank of the Fraser River, the expedition + returned to the subterranean house which they had seen the day before. +</p> +<p> + "We were in our canoe by four this morning, and passed by the Indian + hut, which appeared in a state of perfect tranquillity. We soon came + in sight of the point where we first saw the natives, and at eight + were much surprised and disappointed at seeing Mr. Mackay and our two + Indians coming alone from the ruins of a house that had been partly + carried away by the ice and water, at a short distance below the place + where we had appointed to meet. Nor was our surprise and apprehension + diminished by the alarm which was painted in their countenances.... + They informed me they had taken refuge in that place, with the + determination to sell their lives ... as dear as possible. In a very + short time after we had separated, they met a party of the Indians, + whom we had known at this place, and were probably those whom we had + seen landing from their canoe. These Indians appeared to be in a state + of extreme rage, and had their bows bent, with their arrows across + them. The guide stopped to ask them some questions, which our people + did not understand, and then set off with his utmost speed. Mr. + Mackay, however, followed, and did not leave him till they were both + exhausted with running.... The guide then said that some treacherous + design was meditated against them, ... and conducted them through very + bad ways as fast as they could run. When he was desired to slacken his + pace, he answered that they might follow him in any manner they + pleased, but that he was impatient to get to his family, in order to + prepare shoes and other necessaries for his journey. They did not, + however, think it prudent to quit him, and he would not stop till ten + at night. On passing a track that was but lately made, they began to + be seriously alarmed, and on enquiring of the guide where they were, + he pretended not to understand. Then they all laid down, exhausted + with fatigue, and without any kind of covering; they were cold, wet, + and hungry, but dared not light a fire, from the apprehension of an + enemy. This comfortless spot they left at the dawn of day, and, on + their arrival at the lodges, found them deserted; the property of the + Indians being scattered about, as if abandoned for ever. The guide + then made two or three trips into the woods, calling aloud, and + bellowing like a madman. At length he set off in the same direction as + they had come, and had not since appeared. To heighten their misery, + as they did not find us at the place appointed, they concluded that + we were all destroyed, and had already formed their plan to take to + the woods, and cross in as direct a line as they could proceed, to the + waters of the Peace River, a scheme which could only be suggested by + despair. They intended to have waited for us till noon, and if we did + not appear by that time, to have entered without further delay on + their desperate expedition." +</p> +<p> + Making preparations for warfare, if necessary, yet neglecting no + chance of re-entering into friendly relations with the natives, + Mackenzie set to work to repair the wretched canoe, which was + constantly having holes knocked through her. He dealt tactfully with + the almost open mutiny of his French Canadians and Indians. At last + everyone settled down to the making of a new canoe, on an island in + the river where there were plenty of spruce firs to provide the + necessary bark. Even here they were plagued with thunderstorms. + Nevertheless, the men set to work, and as they worked Mackenzie + addressed them with simple fervour, saying he knew of their plans to + desert him, but, come what might, <i>he</i> was resolved to travel on to + the westwards until he reached the waters of the Pacific. +</p> +<p> + This calmed down the mutineers, and, to the great relief of all + concerned, that very afternoon the runaway guide of the Atna people + returned and apologized for having deserted them. He then offered once + again to conduct them to the seacoast. Nevertheless, again he fled, + and Mackenzie was obliged to guide the expedition, according to the + information he had gathered from the natives, up the small western + affluent of the upper Fraser, which he called the West Road River (now + known as the Blackwater). +</p> +<p> + His perseverance was rewarded, for after proceeding up this river for + some distance he saw two canoes coming towards them containing the + runaway guide and six of his relations. The guide was dressed in a + painted beaver robe, and looked so splendid that they scarcely knew + him again. Once more he declared it really was his intention not to + disappoint them. Soon afterwards they landed, buried their property + and provisions, and placed their canoe on a stage, shaded by a + covering of small trees and branches from the sun. Each man carried on + his back four bags and a half of pemmican, of an average weight of + eighty-five pounds, or other loads (instruments, goods for presents, + ammunition, &c.) of ninety pounds in weight. Moreover, each of the + Canadians carried a gun. The Amerindian servants of the expedition + were only asked to carry loads of forty-five pounds in weight. + Mackenzie's pack, and that of his companion, Mackay, amounted to about + seventy pounds. Loaded like this they had to scramble up the wooded + mountains, first soaked in perspiration from the heat and then + drenched with heavy rain. Nevertheless they walked for about thirteen + miles the first day. Now they began to meet natives who were closely + in touch with the seacoast, which lay to the west at a distance of + about six days' journey. +</p> +<p> + "We had no sooner laid ourselves down to rest last night than the + natives began to sing, in a manner very different from what I had been + accustomed to hear among savages. It was not accompanied either with + dancing, drum, or rattle; but consisted of soft, plaintive tones, and + a modulation that was rather agreeable: it had somewhat the air of + church music." The country through which they travelled abounded in + beavers. It was the month of July, however, and they were harassed + with thunderstorms, some of which were followed by hailstones as big + as musket balls. After one such storm the ground was whitened for two + miles with these balls of ice. +</p> +<p> + In order not to be deserted by all of their new guides, Mackenzie was + obliged to insist on one of them sharing his hut. This young + Amerindian was dressed in beaver garments which were a nest of + vermin. His hair was greased with fish oil, and his body smeared with + red earth, so that at first Mackenzie thought he would never be able + to sleep; but such was his fatigue that he passed a night of profound + repose, and found the guide still there in the morning. In this region + he notes that the balsam fir of Canada was abundant, the tree which + provided the gum that cured Cartier's expedition of scurvy. Some of + the natives with whom they now came into contact were remarkable for + their grey eyes, a feature often observed amongst the Amerindians of + the North Pacific coast. +</p> +<p> + "On observing some people before us, our guides hastened to meet them, + and, on their approach, one of them stepped forward with an axe in his + hand. This party consisted only of a man, two women, and the same + number of children. The eldest of the women, who probably was the + man's mother, was engaged, when we joined them, in clearing a circular + spot, of about five feet in diameter, of the weeds that infested it; + nor did our arrival interrupt her employment, which was sacred to the + memory of the dead. The spot to which her pious care was devoted + contained the grave of a husband and a son, and whenever she passed + this way she always stopped to pay this tribute of affection." +</p> +<p> + By this time, exposure to wind and sun, the attacks of mosquitoes and + flies, the difficulty of washing or of changing their clothes, had + made all the Europeans of the party as dark in skin colour as the + Amerindians, so that such natives as they met who had the courage to + examine them, did so with the intention of discovering whether they + had any white skin left. The natives whom they now encountered + (belonging to the maritime tribes) were comely in appearance, and far + more cleanly than the tribes of the north-west. As already mentioned, + they had grey eyes, sometimes tinged with hazel. Their stature was + noble, one man measuring at least six feet four inches. They were + clothed in leather, and their hair was nicely combed and dressed with + beads. One of a travelling band of these Indians, finding that + Mackenzie's party was on short rations and very hungry, offered to + boil them a kettle of fish roes. +</p> +<p> + "He took the roes out of a bag, and having bruised them between two + stones, put them in water to soak. His wife then took an handful of + dry grass in her hand, with which she squeezed them through her + fingers. In the meantime her husband was employed in gathering wood to + make a fire, for the purpose of heating stones. When she had finished + her operation, she filled a <i>wátápé</i> kettle nearly full of water, and + poured the roes into it. When the stones were sufficiently heated, + some of them were put into the kettle, and others were thrown in from + time to time, till the water was in a state of boiling. The woman also + continued stirring the contents of the kettle, till they were brought + to a thick consistency; the stones were then taken out, and the whole + was seasoned with about a pint of strong rancid oil. The smell of this + curious dish was sufficient to sicken me without tasting it, but the + hunger of my people surmounted the nauseous meal. When unadulterated + by the stinking oil these boiled roes are not unpalatable food." +</p> +<p> + Farther on their journey their hunger was alleviated by wild parsnips, + also roots which appeared, when pulled up, like a bunch of white peas, + with the colour and taste of a potato. On their way they were obliged + to cross snow mountains, where the snow was so compact that their feet + hardly made any perceptible impression. "Before us appeared a + stupendous mountain, whose snow-clad summit was lost in the clouds." + These mountains, according to the Indians, abounded in white + goats.<a name="11-11"></a><a href="#note-11-11"><small>[11]</small></a> Emerging from the mountains on to the lower ground, sloping + towards the sea, at nightfall they came upon a native village in the + thickness of the woods. Desperate with his fatigue, and risking any + danger to obtain rest, Mackenzie walked straight into one of the + houses, where people were busily employed in cooking fish, threw down + his burden, shook hands with the people, and sat down. +</p> +<p> + "They received me without the least appearance of surprise, but soon + made signs for me to go up to the large house, which was erected, on + upright posts, at some distance from the ground. A broad piece of + timber with steps cut in it led to the scaffolding even with the + floor, and by this curious kind of ladder I entered the house at one + end; and having passed three fires, at equal distances in the middle + of the building, I was received by several people, sitting upon a very + wide board, at the upper end of it. I shook hands with them, and + seated myself beside a man, the dignity of whose countenance induced + me to give him that preference...." +</p> +<p> + Later on, this man, seeing Mackenzie's people arriving tired and + hungry, rose and fetched from behind a plank, four feet wide, a + quantity of roasted salmon. A whole salmon was offered to Mackenzie, + and another to Mackay; half a salmon was given to each of the French + Canadian <i>voyageurs</i>. Their host further invited them to sleep in the + house, but, Mackenzie thinking it preferable to camp outside, a fire + was lit to warm the weary travellers, and each was lent a thick board + on which to sleep, so that he might not lie on the bare ground. +</p> +<p> + "We had not long been seated round the fire when we received a dish of + salmon roes, pounded fine and beat up with water so as to have the + appearance of a cream. Nor was it without some kind of seasoning that + gave it a bitter taste. Another dish soon followed, the principal + article of which was also salmon roes, with a large proportion of + gooseberries, and an herb that appeared to be sorrel. Its acidity + rendered it more agreeable to my taste than the former preparation. + Having been regaled with these delicacies, for such they were + considered by that hospitable spirit which provided them, we laid + ourselves down to rest with no other canopy than the sky. But I never + enjoyed a more sound and refreshing rest, though I had a board for my + bed and a billet for my pillow." +</p> +<p> + The gooseberries, wortleberries, and raspberries which Mackenzie ate + at this hospitable village were the finest he ever saw or tasted of + their respective kinds. They were generally eaten together with the + dry roes of salmon. Salmon was the staple food of the country, and + very abundant in the river which Mackenzie was following down to the + Pacific shore. The fish were usually caught in weirs, and also by + dipping nets. The natives were so superstitious about the salmon, that + they believed they would give offence to the spirits if they ate any + other animal food, especially meat. They would scarcely allow + Mackenzie to carry venison in his canoe, in case the salmon should + smell it and abandon the river. +</p> +<p> + After this welcome rest they embarked in two canoes on the stream + which Mackenzie calls the Salmon River. The stream was rapid, and they + proceeded at a great rate, stopping every now and then to get out and + walk round salmon weirs. Nevertheless, although other Indians ran + before them announcing their approach towards a village, the noise of + which was apparent in the distance, they were received at this place + in a very hostile way, the men rapidly arming themselves with bows and + arrows, spears, and axes. But Mackenzie walked on alone to greet them, + and shook hands with the nearest man. Thereupon an elderly man broke + from the crowd and took Mackenzie in his arms. Another then came and + paid him the same compliment. One man to whom he presented his hand + broke the string of a handsome robe of sea-otter skin and threw it + over Mackenzie. +</p> +<p> + The chief made signs to the white men to follow him to his house, + which Mackenzie found to be of larger dimensions and better materials + than any he had yet seen. "Very clean mats" were spread in this house + for the chief, his counsellors, and the two white men. A small roasted + salmon was then placed before each person. +</p> +<p> + "When we had satisfied ourselves with the fish, one of the people who + came with us from the last village approached, with a kind of ladle in + one hand, containing oil, and in the other something that resembled + the inner rind of the cocoanut, but of a lighter colour. This he + dipped in the oil, and, having eaten it, indicated by his gestures how + palatable he thought it. He then presented me with a small piece of + it, which I chose to taste in its dry state, though the oil was free + from any unpleasant smell. A square cake of this was next produced, + when a man took it to the water near the house, and having thoroughly + soaked it, he returned, and, after he had pulled it to pieces like + oakum, put it into a well-made trough, about three feet long, nine + inches wide, and five deep. He then plentifully sprinkled it with + salmon oil, and manifested by his own example that we were to eat of + it. I just tasted it, and found the oil perfectly sweet, without which + the other ingredient would have been very insipid. The chief partook + of it with great avidity after it had received an additional quantity + of oil. This dish is considered by these people as a great delicacy; + and on examination, I discovered it to consist of the inner rind of + the hemlock pine tree, taken off early in summer, and put into a + frame, which shapes it into cakes of fifteen inches long, ten broad, + and half an inch thick; and in this form I should suppose it may be + preserved for a great length of time. This discovery satisfied me + respecting the many hemlock trees which I had observed stripped of + their bark." +</p> +<p> + Mackenzie found some of the older men here with long beards, and to + one of them he presented a pair of scissors for clipping his beard. +</p> +<p> + After describing some remarkable oblong "tables" (as they might be + called) of cedar wood—twenty feet long by eight feet broad—made of + thick cedar boards joined together with the utmost neatness, and + painted with hieroglyphics and the figures of animals; and his visit + to a kind of temple in the village, into the architecture of which + strangely carved and painted figures were interwoven; Mackenzie + goes on to relate an episode giving one a very vivid idea of the + helplessness of "native" medicine in many diseases. +</p> +<p> + He was taken to see a son of the chief, who was suffering from a + terrible ulcer in the small of his back, round which the flesh was + gangrened, one of his knees being afflicted in the same way. The poor + fellow was reduced to a skeleton, and apparently drawing very near to + death. +</p> +<p> + "I found the native physicians busy in practising their skill and art + on the patient. They blew on him, and then whistled; at times they + pressed their extended fingers with all their strength on his stomach; + they also put their forefingers doubled into his mouth, and spouted + water from their own with great violence into his face. To support + these operations the wretched sufferer was held up in a sitting + posture, and when they were concluded he was laid down and covered + with a new robe made of the skin of a lynx. I had observed that his + belly and breast were covered with scars, and I understood that they + were caused by a custom prevalent among them of applying pieces of + lighted touchwood to their flesh, in order to relieve pain or + demonstrate their courage. He was now placed on a broad plank, and + carried by six men into the woods, where I was invited to accompany + them. I could not conjecture what would be the end of this ceremony, + particularly as I saw one man carry fire, another an axe, and a third + dry wood. I was, indeed, disposed to suspect that, as it was their + custom to burn the dead, they intended to relieve the poor man from + his pain, and perform the last sad duty of surviving affection. When + they had advanced a short distance into the wood, they laid him upon a + clear spot, and kindled a fire against his back, when the physician + began to scarify the ulcer with a very blunt instrument, the cruel + pain of which operation the patient bore with incredible resolution. + The scene afflicted me, and I left it." +</p> +<p> + The chief of this village had probably met Captain Cook about ten + years before. He had been down in a large canoe<a name="11-12"></a><a href="#note-11-12"><small>[12]</small></a> with forty of his + people to the seacoast, where he saw two large vessels. +</p> +<p> + Farther down the river the natives, instead of regaling them with + fish, placed before them a long, clean, and well-made trough full of + berries, most of them resembling blackberries, though white in colour, + and others similar to huckleberries. In this region the women were + employed in beating and preparing the inner rind of the juniper bark, + to which they gave the appearance of flax, and others were spinning + with a distaff; again, others were weaving robes of this fibrous + thread, intermixed with strips of sea-otter skin. The men were fishing + on the river with drag nets between two canoes, thus intercepting the + salmon coming up the river. +</p> +<p> + At last, on Saturday, the 20th of July, 1793, they emerged from the + Salmon River into an arm of the sea (probably near King Island). The + tide was out, and had <a name="p305"></a>left a large space covered with seaweed. The + surrounding hills were involved in fog.... The bay appeared to be some + three miles in breadth, and on the coast the travellers saw a great + number of sea otters.<a name="11-13"></a><a href="#note-11-13"><small>[13]</small></a> At two in the afternoon the swell was so + high, and the wind, which was against them, so boisterous, that they + could not proceed along the seacoast in their leaky canoe. A young + chief who had come with them as one of their guides, and who had been + allowed to leave when the seacoast was reached, returned bearing a + large porcupine on his back. He first cut the animal open and threw + its entrails into the sea, then singed the skin and boiled it in + separate pieces; nor did he go to rest till, with the assistance of + two others who happened to be awake, every morsel of it had been + devoured. This was fortunate, because their stock of provisions was + reduced to twenty pounds' weight of pemmican, sixteen pounds of rice, + and six pounds of flour amongst ten men, "in a leaky vessel, and on a + barbarous coast". +</p> +<p> + The rise and fall of the tide here was noted at fifteen feet in + height. Mr. Mackay collected a quantity of small mussels, which were + boiled and eaten by the two Scotchmen, but not by the Canadians, who + were quite unacquainted with sea shellfish. +</p> +<p> + Near Point Menzies, which had already been reached and named by + Captain VANCOUVER in the spring of 1793 on his great voyage of + discovery up the North American coast,<a name="11-14"></a><a href="#note-11-14"><small>[14]</small></a> Alexander Mackenzie met a + party of Amerindians, amongst whom was a man of insolent aspect, who, + by means of signs and exclamations, made him understand that he and + his friends had been fired at by a white man named Makuba (Vancouver), + and that another white man, called "Bensins", had struck him on the + back with the flat of his sword. This man more or less compelled + Mackenzie to accompany him in the direction of his village, and on the + way explained that "Makuba" had come there with his "big boat". + Indeed, Mackenzie's party perceived the remains of sheds or buildings + on the shore where Europeans had probably made a camp, and here they + established themselves, taking up a position of defence, because the + attitude of the natives was rather threatening. +</p> +<p> + At this camp there was a rock, and on this Alexander Mackenzie, mixing + up some vermilion or red clay in melted grease, inscribed in large + characters the following words: "Alexander Mackenzie, from Canada, by + land, the twenty-second of July, one thousand seven hundred and + ninety-three". He then shifted his camp to a place three miles to the + north-east, below a precipice from which issued streams of fine water + as cold as ice. And here he took careful observations with his + astronomical and surveying instruments, in order to fix his position. + Fortunately the day was one of bright sunshine. Otherwise, had there + been a long persistence of cloud, he might have been obliged to leave + the Pacific coast without being able to fix precisely the place where + he had reached the sea. +</p> +<p> + Then he yielded to the passionate desire of his people to withdraw + inland from the possibly dangerous inhabitants of the coast, and + returned with them to the encampment where the porcupine had been + eaten. Here the guide made off into the woods. Mackenzie followed him, + and thus reached a village from which two men issued armed with + daggers and intending to attack him. While stopping to defend himself, + many other people assembled, and amongst them he recognized the + irritating person who incessantly repeated the names "Makuba" and + "Benzins". However, this threatened danger was narrowly averted, and + eventually they left the village with a supply of food; but also in a + state of considerable irritation with—fleas! For some of the houses + of these Pacific coast villages swarmed with fleas to such an extent + that Mackenzie and his men were obliged to take to the water to rid + themselves of these vermin, which swarmed also on the ground that was + bare of grass. +</p> +<p> + The return journey up the Salmon River was a series of bewildering + vicissitudes. Sometimes Mackenzie and his party were received in the + most threatening way by persons who had been warm friends on their + downward journey, then seemingly inevitable war was transformed into + peace, but guides deserted, or the Amerindians from across the Rocky + Mountains attempted to mutiny. However, they struggled through all + their difficulties, till at last they reached the place known as the + Friendly Village, and were here fortunately received with great + kindness, being once more entertained "with the most respectful + hospitality". "In short, the chief behaved to us with so much + attention and kindness that I did not withhold anything in my power to + give which might afford him satisfaction.... I presented him with two + yards of blue cloth, an axe, knives, and various other articles. He + gave me in return a large shell which resembled the under shell of a + Guernsey oyster, but was somewhat larger. Where they procure them I + could not discover, but they cut and polish them for bracelets, + ear-rings, and other personal ornaments...." +</p> +<p> + The women of this place were employed in boiling sorrel and different + kinds of berries in large square kettles made of cedar wood. This + pottage, when it had attained a certain consistency, they took out + with ladles, and poured it into frames about twelve inches square. + These were then exposed to the sun, until their contents became so + many dried cakes. This was their principal article of food, and + probably of traffic. These people had also made portable chests of + cedar, in which they packed these cakes, as well as their salmon, both + dried and roasted. The only flesh they ate in addition to the salmon + was that of the sea otter and the seal; except that one instance + already mentioned of the young Indian who feasted on the flesh of the + porcupine. +</p> +<p> + "Their faces are round, with high cheekbones, and their complexion + between olive and copper. They have small grey eyes with a tinge of + red,... their hair is of a dark-brown colour." The men wore their hair + long, and either kept it well combed and hanging loose over the + shoulders, or plaited it and bedaubed it with brown earth so as to + make it quite impervious to the comb. Those who adopted this fashion + had to carry a bone bodkin about with them to ease the frequent + irritation which arose from the excessive abundance of vermin in their + hair. +</p> +<p> + The women, on the other hand, usually wore their hair short. Mackenzie + noticed that the infants had their heads enclosed with boards covered + with leather, to press the skull into the shape of a wedge. The women + wore a fringed apron, and over that a long robe made of skins or + leather, either loose or tied round the middle with a girdle. Over + these in wet weather was worn a cap in the shape of an inverted bowl + or dish. The men also wore this cap, and in cold weather used the + robe, but in warm weather went about in no clothing at all, except + that their feet were protected with shoes made of dressed elks' skins. + In wet weather, over their robe they wore a circular mat with an + opening in the middle sufficiently large to admit the head. This, + spreading over the shoulders, threw off the wet. As compared with the + Indians of the Rocky Mountains and the great plains, the men and boys + were very cleanly, being constantly in the water. The women, however, + were dirty. +</p> +<p> + At the end of July, 1793, Mackenzie left what he calls the Friendly + Village, and prepared to return to the east across the Rocky + Mountains, having distributed to each man about twenty pounds weight + of smoked salmon, flour, and pemmican. The fatigue of ascending the + precipices of the mountains was past description. When they arrived at + a spot where water could be obtained, and a camp made, they were in + such an extremity of weariness they could hardly crawl about to gather + wood for the purpose of making a fire; but two hours afterwards the + Amerindians of their party arrived and came to their assistance. Then + when they were sitting round a blazing fire, and some of their fatigue + had lessened, they could sit and talk of past dangers, and indulge in + the delightful reflection that they were thus far advanced on their + homeward journey. "Nor was it possible to be in this situation without + contemplating the wonders of it. Such was the depth of the precipices + below, and the height of the mountains above, with the rude and wild + magnificence of the scenery around, that I shall not attempt to + describe such an astonishing and awful combination of objects.... Even + at this place, which is only, as it were, the first step towards + gaining the summit of the mountains, the climate was very sensibly + changed. The air that fanned the village which we left at noon, was + mild and cheering; the grass was verdant, and the wild fruits ripe + around it. But here the snow was not yet dissolved, the ground was + still bound by the frost, the herbage had scarce begun to spring, and + the crowberry bushes were just beginning to blossom." +</p> +<p> + Eventually they found their canoe, and the property which they had + left behind, in perfect safety. At this camp, where the canoe had been + left behind, many natives arrived both from the upper and lower parts + of the river, all of them dressed in beaver robes, which they were + ready enough to sell for large knives. It struck Alexander Mackenzie + as being very extraordinary that these people, who had left absolutely + untouched the property stored at this place—when anyone passing by + could have stolen it and never have been detected—should now be so + ready to pilfer articles and utensils from the camp. So many small + things had been picked up and taken away by them, when coming to sell + their beaver robes, that he was obliged to take some action. So, + before all these beaver-clad Amerindians had departed on their + westward journey, he told the rearguard that he had noticed the + thefts, and scarcely thought their relations who were guilty of + stealing realized the awful mischief that would result from this + dishonesty; that they were on their way now to the sea to procure + large quantities of salmon from the rivers, but the salmon, which was + absolutely necessary to their existence, came from the sea which + belonged to the white men, and it only needed a message from the white + men to the powers of nature to prevent the fish coming up from the sea + into the rivers; and if this word were spoken they and their children + might starve. He consequently advised them to hurry after their + friends, and see that all the stolen articles were sent back. This + plan succeeded. The stolen articles were restored, and then Mackenzie + purchased from these people several large salmon, and his party + enjoyed a delicious meal. +</p> +<p> + Mackenzie declared that there were no bison to be found on the west + side of the Rocky Mountains<a name="11-15"></a><a href="#note-11-15"><small>[15]</small></a> (British Columbia), and no wolves. +</p> +<p> + Resuming their journey up the Fraser River, they passed through the + narrow gut between mountainous rocks, which on the outward journey had + been a passage of some risk. But now the state of the water was such + that, they got up without difficulty, and had more time to examine + these extraordinary rocks, which were as perpendicular as a wall, and + gave the traveller the idea of a succession of enormous Gothic + cathedrals. With little difficulty they transported their canoe across + the water parting to the Peace River. +</p> +<p> + As they began to glide down this stream, homeward bound, they noticed + at the entrance of a small tributary an object which proved to be four + beaver skins hung up to attract their attention. These were the skins + which had been given to Mackenzie as a present by a native as he + travelled westwards. Not wishing to add to his loads, he had left the + skins behind, saying he would call for them on his return. Mackenzie + imagined, therefore, that, being under the necessity of leaving the + river, this Indian had hung up the skins in the hope that they would + attract the attention of the travellers on their return. "To reward + his honesty, I left three times the value of the skins in trade goods + in their place." As the Peace River carried them away from the great + mountains, and the plains extended before their sight, they stopped to + repair the canoe and to get in supplies of food from the herds of game + that were visible. They began with a hearty meal of bison beef. "Every + fear of future want was removed." Soon afterwards they killed an elk, + the carcass of which weighed over two hundred and fifty pounds. "As we + had taken a very hearty meal at one o'clock, it might naturally be + supposed that we should not be very voracious at supper; nevertheless, + a kettleful of elk flesh was boiled and eaten, and that vessel + replenished with more meat and put on the fire. All that remained of + the bones, &c, were placed after the Indian fashion round the fire to + roast, and at ten the next morning the whole was consumed by ten + persons and a large dog, who was allowed his share of the banquet. Nor + did any inconvenience result from what may be considered as an + inordinate indulgence." +</p> +<p> + On the 24th of August, 1793, Mackenzie was back again at Fort + Chipewayan, after an absence of eleven months, having been the first + white man to cross the broad continent of North America from the + Atlantic to the Pacific, north of Mexico. +</p> +<hr class="short"> +<a name="note-11-1"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#11-1"><u>1</u></a> See Sir Alexander Mackenzie's <i>Travels</i>, p. 5. +</p> +<a name="note-11-2"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#11-2"><u>2</u></a> Peter Pond was a native of Connecticut, and in the + opinion of his trading associates rather a ruffian. He was strongly + suspected of having murdered an amiable Swiss fur trader named Wadin, + and at a later date he actually did kill his trading partner, Ross. +</p> +<a name="note-11-3"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#11-3"><u>3</u></a> See p. <a href="#p125">125</a>. +</p> +<a name="note-11-4"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#11-4"><u>4</u></a> Alexander Mackay long afterwards left the service of the + North-west Company, and was killed by savages on the Alaska coast, + near Nutka Sound. +</p> +<a name="note-11-5"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#11-5"><u>5</u></a> For the word "elk" Mackenzie uses "moose deer". "Elk" in + the Canadian Dominion is misapplied to the great Wapiti red deer. +</p> +<a name="note-11-6"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#11-6"><u>6</u></a> See p. <a href="#p281">281</a>. +</p> +<a name="note-11-7"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#11-7"><u>7</u></a> Mr. Burpee points out that this was really the + southernmost source of the mighty congeries of streams which flowed + northwards to form the Mackenzie River system. Having traced the + Mackenzie to the sea, its discoverer now stood four years afterwards + at its most remote source, 2420 miles from its mouth at which he had + seen the ice floes and the whales. +</p> +<a name="note-11-8"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#11-8"><u>8</u></a> Humming birds arrive annually in British Columbia between + April and May, and stay there till the autumn. They winter in the + warmer parts of California. +</p> +<a name="note-11-9"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#11-9"><u>9</u></a> The great surveyor and map maker, David Thompson, was the + first white man to reach the upper waters of the <i>Columbia</i> River. The + Fraser River was afterwards followed to its outlet in the Straits of + Georgia (opposite Vancouver Island) by Simon Fraser. +</p> +<a name="note-11-10"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#11-10"><u>10</u></a> Apparently these were of the Sikanni tribe, and only + another branch of the great Tinné (Athapaskan) stock. +</p> +<a name="note-11-11"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#11-11"><u>11</u></a> <i>Oreamnus</i>. +</p> +<a name="note-11-12"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#11-12"><u>12</u></a> Mackenzie thus describes one of the large sea-going + canoes of the coast natives: "This canoe was built of cedar, + forty-five feet long, four feet broad, and three and a half in depth. + It was painted black and decorated with white figures of different + kinds. The gunwale fore and aft was inlaid with the teeth of the sea + otter." He adds that "these coast tribes (north of Vancouver Island + and of Queen Charlotte Sound) had been in indirect contact with the + Spaniards since the middle of the sixteenth century, and with the + Russians from the middle of the eighteenth century. Therefore, from + these two directions they had learnt the use of metal, and had + obtained copper, brass, and iron. They may possibly have had copper + earlier still from the Northern Indians on the other side of the Rocky + Mountains; but brass and iron they could, of course, only have + obtained from Europeans. They had already become very deft at dealing + with these metals, and twisted the iron into collars which weighed + upwards of twelve pounds, also beating it into plates for their + daggers and knives." +</p> +<a name="note-11-13"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#11-13"><u>13</u></a> These <i>may</i> have been small seals, but the sea otter + (<i>Enhydris lutris</i>), now nearly extinct, was at one time found in + numbers along the north-west American coast, from the Aleutian Islands + and Alaska to Oregon. Owing to persecution it now leads an almost + entirely aquatic life, resting at times on the masses of floating + seaweed. +</p> +<a name="note-11-14"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#11-14"><u>14</u></a> GEORGE VANCOUVER (born about 1758, and probably + descended from Dutch or Flemish ancestors) was one of the great + pioneers of the British Empire. His name is commemorated in + Vancouver's Island, an important portion of British Columbia. + Vancouver entered the navy when only thirteen, sailed with Captain + Cook, and eventually was appointed to command a naval expedition sent + out in 1791 to survey and take over from the Spaniards the north-west + American coast north of Oregon. It is remarkable that he should only + have missed Mackenzie's arrival at Point Menzies by about two months. + With what amazed rejoicing would these two heroic explorers have + greeted one another had they met on this remote point of the Pacific + coast, the one coming overland (so to speak) from Quebec and the + Atlantic, and the other all the way by sea from Falmouth via the Cape + of Good Hope, Australia, New Zealand, Tahiti, and Hawaii. +</p> +<a name="note-11-15"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#11-15"><u>15</u></a> He was not quite accurate: there were a few "wood" bison + in the north and east of British Columbia. +</p> +<p class="return">[<a href="#contents">TABLE OF CONTENTS</a>] +</p> +<hr class="short"> +<a name="2HCH0012"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br><br><br><br></div> + +<h2> + CHAPTER XII +</h2> +<h3> + Mackenzie's Successors +</h3> +<p> + The Spaniards of California had been aware in the middle of the + eighteenth century that there was a big river entering the sea to the + north of the savage country known as Oregon. The estuary of this river + was reached in May, 1792, by an American sea captain of a whaling + ship—ROBERT GRAY, of Boston. He crossed the bar, and named the great + stream after his own ship, the <i>Columbia</i>. Five months afterwards + (October, 1792) Lieutenant BROUGHTON, of the Vancouver expedition, + entered the Columbia from the sea, explored it upstream for a hundred + miles, and formally took possession of it for the King of Great + Britain. The news of this discovery reached Alexander Mackenzie (no + doubt after his return from his overland journey to the Pacific + coast), and he at once jumped to the conclusion that the powerful + stream he had discovered in the heart of the Rocky Mountains, and had + partially followed on its way to the Pacific, must be the Columbia. As + a matter of fact it was the river afterwards called Fraser. +</p> +<p> + If you look at the map of British North America, and then at the map + of Russian Asia—Siberia—you will notice a marked difference in the + arrangement of the waterways. Those of the Canadian Dominion, on the + whole, flow more eastwards and westwards, or at any rate radiate in + all directions, so as to constitute the most wonderful system of + natural canals possessed by any country or continent. On the contrary, + the rivers of Siberia flow usually in somewhat parallel lines from + south to north. Siberia also is far less well provided than British + North America with an abundance of navigable rivers, streams, and + great lakes. Therefore the traveller in pre-railway days wishing to + cross Siberia from west to east or east to west was obliged to have + recourse to wheeled traffic, to ride, or to walk. Consequently, until + the beginning of the twentieth century, the "exploitation" (or turning + to useful account) of Siberia was a far more difficult process than + the development of North America, once the question of British + <i>versus</i> French or Spanish was settled. Siberia at one time was almost + as rich in fur-bearing animals as British North America; yet so + difficult was transport (and so severe were the rigours of the + climate) that the Russians, once they reached the shores of the + Pacific at the beginning of the eighteenth century, began to stretch + out their influence to the opposite peninsula of Alaska mainly on + account of the fur trade. For it was easier and less expensive to + bring furs from Alaska round Cape Horn, or the Cape of Good Hope, to + Europe than to convey them overland from eastern Siberia. Then, also, + the Chinese market was becoming of importance to the fur trade. + Already Mackenzie, at the end of the eighteenth century, is found + considering whether a sea trade between China and a British port on + the North Pacific coast could not be arranged so as to develop a + profitable market among the mandarins and grandees of the Celestial + Empire for a good proportion of the North-west Company's skins. +</p> +<a name="image-0018"><!--IMG--></a> +<center> +<a href="images/map18-large.jpg"><img src="images/map18-small.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="Map of Part Of the Coast Region Of British Columbia"></a> +</center> +<!--IMAGE END--> +<p class="ar"> [<a href="images/map18-large.jpg"><small>LARGER MAP</small></a>] +<p> + Peter Pond, already referred to on p. <a href="#p278">278</a>, is said to have expressed + his intention (in 1788) of going to treat with the Empress Catherine + II for a Russian occupation of the Alaskan and Columbian coasts. For + this reason, or the mere desire to have a proportion of this + fur-producing country, the Emperor Paul, in 1799, created a Russian + Chartered Company to occupy the Alaska and north Columbian coasts. + Great Britain offered no objection—in spite of having acquired some + rights here by an agreement with Spain—and that is why, when you look + at the map of the vast Canadian Dominion, you find with surprise that + it has been robbed (one might almost say) of at least half of its + legitimate Pacific seaboard. The Russian Company was allowed to claim + the north Columbian coast between Alaska proper and Queen Charlotte + Islands. +</p> +<p> + In 1867 the Russian Government sold all Alaska and the north Columbian + coast to the United States, partly to annoy Great Britain, whom it had + not forgiven for the Crimean War. +</p> +<p> + You will have noticed that quite a number of United States citizens + (mostly born British subjects in New England) had taken part in the + north-west fur trade immediately after the British conquest of Canada + disposed of French monopolies. There were Jonathan Carver and Peter + Pond, for example; and a much more worthy person than the last + named—Daniel W. Harmon, a New Englander, who entered the service of + the North-west Company in 1800, and followed in Mackenzie's footsteps + to the upper Fraser River and the vicinity of the Skeena. Simon Fraser + also, whose tracing of the Fraser River from its upper waters to the + Pacific coast we shall presently deal with, was a native of Vermont, + though his father came from Scotland. The furs which began to + penetrate into the United States by way of Detroit and Niagara, the + rising scale of luxury in dress in the towns of the eastern seaboard + of the United States, the voyages of American whalers up the west + coast of North America (including the discovery of the Columbia River + in 1792 by Captain Robert Gray), the purchase of Louisiana from the + Emperor Napoleon in 1804—with the vague claim it gave to the coast + line of Oregon on the Pacific: all these circumstances inspired + far-sighted persons in the United States at the beginning of the + nineteenth century with a wish to secure for their Government and + commerce a share in the fur trade and in these wonderful new lands of + the Pacific watershed. American ships (whaling ships) had already + become accustomed to sail round Cape Horn and to visit the Oregon and + Alaskan coasts. The American Government therefore, immediately after + the Louisiana purchase, dispatched an American expedition under + Captains Meriwether Lewis and Jonathan Clarke to travel up the + Missouri River and so across the mountains to the coast of Oregon, a + wonderful expedition, which they carried out with great success in two + years (1804-6), reaching the lower Columbia River and following it + down to the sea. +</p> +<p> + Consequently, with all this in the air, it is not very surprising that + the far-sighted John Jacob Astor, a wealthy German merchant of New + York, should have conceived the idea of founding a great American + fur-trading company and of establishing it at the mouth of the + Columbia River. +</p> +<p> + At the beginning of the nineteenth century he had entered into + arrangements with an Anglo-Canadian Company (the Mackinaw), which + worked the southernmost part of Canada, to fuse its enterprise with + his, and thus founded the <i>South-west Company</i>, the name of which (at + any rate in current speech) was afterwards changed into the Pacific + Fur-trading Company. After attempting in vain to come to a working + arrangement with the great North-west Company, he decided to act quite + independently and to establish the headquarters of his new concern at + the mouth of the Columbia River. Accordingly, the expedition was sent + out in duplicate to the mouth of the Columbia River, one-half going a + six-months' voyage round Cape Horn in a sailing ship, the <i>Tonquin</i>, + and the other marching overland or canoeing on lakes and rivers in + eighteen months from Montreal via the Mississippi and Missouri. These + two parties together founded "Astoria", at the mouth of the Columbia. + But most of Astor's employees were British subjects derived from men + of the North-west and Mackinaw Companies; and when, in 1812, war + broke out between the United States and Great Britain, a British war + vessel came up the Pacific coast to Astoria and promptly turned it + into "Fort George". Forthwith the North-west Company bought up the + derelict property of Mr. Astor's Company from his not very honest + British employees, and the few Americans in the concern retreated + inland, and, after almost incredible sufferings from the attacks of + unfriendly Indians, succeeded in reaching the Mississippi. +</p> +<a name="image-0019"><!--IMG--></a> +<center> +<img src="images/pc19.jpg" width="425" height="271" +alt="The Kootenay Or Head Stream of the Columbia River"> +</center> +<!--IMAGE END--> +<h5>THE KOOTENAY OR HEAD STREAM OF THE COLUMBIA RIVER</h5> +<p> + This Columbia River had in reality been discovered at its sources, and + traced down to the sea, between 1807 and 1811 by DAVID THOMPSON (once + a Blue-coat boy in London; from 1784 to 1792 in the service of the + Hudson's Bay Company, and after that one of the most famous of the + Nor'-westers). The upper course of this river and its northern + affluents were annexed as British by David Thompson; the lower course + did not at once become the political property of the United States, + but was considered vaguely to be the joint property of both nations, + till the Oregon settlement of 1846. By the treaty of 1792, the + southern boundary of central Canada was agreed upon as being the 49th + degree of north latitude, but only between the Lake of the Woods and + the Rocky Mountains. The agreement of 1846 continued the 49th degree + boundary to the shore of the Pacific opposite Vancouver Island. +</p> +<p> + Prominent among the agents of the North-western Company who followed + Sir Alexander Mackenzie as a pioneer towards the Pacific shores was + ALEXANDER HENRY THE YOUNGER,<a name="12-1"></a><a href="#note-12-1"><small>[1]</small></a> regarding whose journeys some extracts + may be given. +</p> +<p> + The first entry in his diary of 1799 is not particularly romantic, but + shows some of the unexpected dangers attending the life of an + adventurer in the far north-west. He had been riding through the + Assiniboin country in the autumn of 1799, probably after one of the + very indigestible meals which he describes here and there in his + pages. Alone, and crossing an open plain swarming with wolves, he was + seized suddenly with a violent colic, the pain of which was so + terrible that he could not remain in the saddle. He dismounted, + hobbled his horse, and threw himself on the grass, where he lay in + agony for two hours, expecting every moment would be his last, till, + quite exhausted, he fell asleep. He was awakened, however, by the + howling of the wolves advancing to tear him to pieces; yet he was so + weak that he was scarcely able to mount his horse, and then could only + proceed at a slow walk, with the wolves snapping at his horse's heels. +</p> +<p> + Near the site of the present city of Winnipeg, in the late summer of + 1800, he and his expedition were much troubled by swarms of water + snakes. They were harmless but not pleasant in their familiarity, for + they entered the tents and took refuge in the explorers' beds; and as + they apparently came from their breeding places in Amerindian graves + which covered the remains of people who had died of smallpox in a + recent epidemic, they were additionally loathsome. +</p> +<p> + Smallpox indeed played a very important part in the historical + development of western North America. Prior to 1780 the Amerindian + tribes between the upper Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains, and + between the Saskatchewans and the Missouri, were numerous and warlike. + At first, about 1765, they received in very friendly fashion the + pioneer British traders and French Canadians who attempted to resume + the fur trade where it had been dropped by the French monopolists in + 1760. But fifteen years afterwards, enraged at the violence and + wrongdoing of the British and Canadian traders, and maddened by strong + drink, they were planning a universal massacre of the whites, when + suddenly smallpox (introduced by the Spaniards into New Mexico) came + on them as a scourge, which destroyed whole tribes, and depopulated + much of western North America. +</p> +<p> + Alexander Henry had many adventures with the bison of the plains. Here + is one of them. +</p> +<p> + "Just as I came up to him at full speed and prepared to fire, my horse + suddenly stopped. The bull had turned about to face my horse, which + was naturally afraid of buffaloes, and startled at such a frightful + object; he leaped to one side to avoid the bull. As I was not prepared + for this I was pitched over his head, and fell within a few yards of + the bull's nose; but fortunately for me he paid no more attention to + my horse than to me. The grass was long, and I lay quiet until a + favourable opportunity offered as he presented his placotte. I + discharged both barrels of my double gun at him; he turned and made + one plunge toward me, but had not time to repeat it before he fell, + with his nose not more than three paces off.... I had to return on + foot as my horse had bolted." +</p> +<p> + At this place—near the Red River (the season September)—the country + swarmed with big game such as North America will never see any more: + enormous numbers of bison, of wapiti or Canadian red deer, moose or + elk, prong-buck, and of grizzly bears and black bears who followed the + herds to attack them. The rivers swarmed with otters and beavers. The + ground along the banks of the river was worn into a smooth, hard + pavement by the hoofs of the thousands of buffaloes. Racoons, red + foxes, wolves, and pumas frequented the bush country and the chumps of + forest. A large white wolf, prowling rather imprudently, came within a + few yards of Henry, and was shot dead. "We observed on the opposite + beach no fewer than seven bears drinking all at the same time. Red + deer were whistling in every direction, but our minds were not + sufficiently at ease to enjoy our situation." Large flocks of swans + (<i>Cygnus columbianus</i>) rose out of the Red River apparently in a state + of alarm and confusion, possibly caused by the many herds of buffaloes + rushing down to the river to drink. At night everything was quiet + except the bellowing of buffaloes and the whistling of red deer. "I + climbed up a tall oak at the entrance of the plain, from the top of + which I had an extensive view of the country. Buffalo and red deer + were everywhere in sight passing to and fro." +</p> +<p> + But the prairie had its nuisances as well as its wonders of animal + life. From the end of April to the end of July the woods and grass + swarmed with ticks (<i>Ixodes</i>), which covered the clothes of the + Europeans and entered their ears and there caused serious + inflammations. They would in time get such a firm hold by the + insertion of their heads into the skin that they could not be removed + without pulling the body from the head, which caused a terrible + itching lasting for months. If left alone they adhered to the flesh + until they swelled to the size of a musket ball, when they fell off of + themselves. In the summertime gadflies were exasperating in their + attacks on men and cattle. Mosquitoes were a veritable plague, and + midges also, between June and the end of September. +</p> +<p> + Not the least of the terrors of life in the far north-west in those + days was the vermin that collected in the houses or huts built for a + winter sojourn. It is frequently mentioned, in the records of the + pioneers, how the lodges or tents of the Amerindians swarmed with + fleas and lice. Henry notes on the 19th of April, 1803: "The men began + to demolish our dwelling houses, which were built of bad wood, and to + build new ones of oak. The nests of mice we found, and the swarms of + fleas hopping in every direction, were astonishing." +</p> +<p> + Henry reached the Pacific coast in 1814, by way of the Kootenay, + Spokane, and Columbia River route, which had been discovered by David + Thompson. He describes well the forests of remarkable trees on this + portion of the Pacific coast, opposite the south end of Vancouver + Island: the crooked oaks loaded with mistletoe, the tall wild cherry + trees, the hazels with trunks thicker than a man's thigh, the + evergreen arbutus, the bracken fern, blackberries, and black + raspberries; and the game in these glades of trees and fern: small + Columbian <i>Mazama</i> deer, large lynxes, bears, gluttons, wolves, foxes, + racoons, and squirrels. Overhead soared huge Californian condors + (<i>Pseudogryphus</i>). +</p> +<p> + Henry was drowned in 1812 in the estuary of the Columbia River, + through the capsizing of a boat. +</p> +<p> + The question of the identity of the great river flowing to the Pacific + from near the headwaters of the Peace—the river which Mackenzie had + discovered and been forced to leave—was finally decided by SIMON + FRASER, one of the most celebrated among the North-west Company's + pioneers. Like Mackenzie, he believed this stream to be the upper + Columbia. +</p> +<p> + Accompanied by John Stuart and Jules Quesnel, he left the Fraser River + at its junction with the Nechaco on May 22, 1807, and, keeping as near + as he could to the course of the river, found himself in the country + of the Atna tribe, Amerindians of a diminutive size but active + appearance, from whom he obtained an invaluable guide and faithful + interpreter, Little Fellow, but for whose bravery, wise advice, and + clever diplomacy the journey must have ended in disaster or + disappointment—a remark which might be made about nearly all the + Amerindian guides of the pioneers. +</p> +<p> + The Atna Indians were dressed in skins with the hair outside, and were + armed with bows and arrows. They besmeared their bodies with fish oil + and red earth, and painted their faces in different colours. Bison + were quite unknown to them, being very seldom found in those latitudes + on the western side of the Rocky Mountains. The country of the Atna + Indians on the upper Fraser abounded in elk, wapiti, reindeer, bighorn + sheep, mountain goats,<a name="12-2"></a><a href="#note-12-2"><small>[2]</small></a> and beaver. +</p> +<p> + Here is a description by Fraser of some of the rapids in the upper + part of the river named after him. +</p> +<p> + "The channel contracts to about forty yards, and is enclosed by two + precipices of immense height, which bending towards each other make it + narrower above than below. The water which rolls down this + extraordinary passage in tumultuous waves and with great velocity has + a frightful appearance. However, it being impossible to carry canoes + by land, all hands without hesitation embarked, as it were, <i>à corps + perdu</i> upon the mercy of this awful tide. Once engaged, the die was + cast. Our great difficulty consisted in keeping the canoes in the + middle of the stream, that is, clear of the precipice on the one side, + and of the gulfs formed by the waves on the other. Thus, skimming + along as fast as lightning, the crews, cool and determined, followed + each other in awful silence, and when we arrived at the end we stood + gazing at each other in silent gratification at our narrow escape from + total destruction.... I scarcely ever saw anything so dreary and + dangerous in any country (such precipices, mountains, and rapids), and + I still seem to see, whichever way I turn my eyes, mountains upon + mountains whose summits are covered with eternal snow." +</p> +<a name="image-0020"><!--IMG--></a> +<center> +<img src="images/pc20.jpg" width="425" height="271" +alt="A Hunter's 'shack' in British Columbia: After A +Successful Shoot of Blue Grouse"> +</center> +<!--IMAGE END--> +<h5>A HUNTER'S 'SHACK' IN BRITISH COLUMBIA: AFTER A SUCCESSFUL SHOOT OF BLUE GROUSE</h5> +<p> + They had to take to these same mountains, the river being unnavigable. + The Asketti Indians brought them different kinds of roots, especially + wild onions boiled into a syrup, excellent dried salmon, and some + berries. These Indians had visited the seacoast, and had seen ships of + war come there with white men, "very well dressed, and very proud, + for," continued the chief, getting up and clapping his two hands upon + his hips, and then striding <a name="p323"></a>about the place with an air of + importance, "this is the way they go". In this country of the Hakamaw + and Asketti Indians, dogs were much in use for carrying purposes, and + could draw from one hundred to one hundred and fifty pounds. They were + considered by the French Canadians very good eating, though only the + smaller kinds were eaten, the large dogs being of another race and + having a rank taste. They also shaved these dogs in the summer time, + and wove rugs from their hair. These rugs were striped in different + colours, crossing at right angles, and resembling at a distance a + Highland plaid. +</p> +<p> + The tombs of the Indian villages on this western side of the Rocky + Mountains were superior to anything that Fraser had ever seen amongst + savages. They were about fifteen feet long, and of the form of a chest + of drawers. Upon the boards and posts, beasts and birds were carved in + a curious but crude manner, and pretty well proportioned. Returning to + the river, when the worst of the rapids were passed, they descended it + rapidly, helped by a strong current, and at length entered a lake + where they saw seals, which showed that they had got near to the + Pacific Ocean. They also beheld a round mountain, the now celebrated + Mount Baker, which is visible from so much of the surrounding country + of British Columbia and Vancouver Island. The trees were splendid, + junipers thirty feet in circumference in their trunks and two or three + hundred feet high. Mosquitoes, however, were in clouds. Nearer to the + coast the Indians often appeared in the distance like white men, for + the very literal reason that they had covered their skins with white + paint. Their houses were built of cedar planks, and were six hundred + and forty feet long by sixty feet broad, all under one roof, but of + course separated into a great number of partitions for different + families. On the outside the boards (as Mackenzie had noticed) were + carved with figures of men, beasts, and birds as large as life. Simon + Fraser, however, when he reached sea water, near the site of New + Westminster, was greatly disappointed that any view of the main ocean + should be obstructed by distant lands. He had believed all along that + he was tracing the far-famed Columbia River to its entrance into the + Pacific Ocean; and now that, instead of this, he had discovered an + entirely new river, henceforth to be called after him but without so + long a course as the Columbia, his vanity was hurt. +</p> +<p> + The Amerindians of the sea coast, opposite Vancouver Island, showed + hostility to Fraser's party, as they had done farther north to + Mackenzie. The Canadian <i>voyageurs</i> got alarmed, and told Fraser's + assistant, John Stuart, that they had made up their minds to return by + land across the Rocky Mountains. Fraser and the other officers of the + expedition joined in arguing with them and recalling them to their + senses. Finally each member of the party swore a solemn oath before + Almighty God that they would sooner perish than forsake in distress + any of the crew in the present voyage. After this ceremony was over + all hands dressed in their best apparel, and each took charge of his + own bundle. They therefore returned as much as possible by the Fraser + River, and only took to the mountains when obliged by the rapids. They + had to pass many difficult rocks, defiles, precipices, in which there + was a beaten path made by the natives, and made possible by means of + scaffolds, bridges, and ladders, so peculiarly constructed that it + required no small degree of necessity, dexterity, and courage in + strangers to undertake them. For instance, they had to ascend + precipices by means of ladders composed of two long poles placed + upright, with sticks tied crosswise with twigs; upon the end of these + others were placed, and so on to any height; add to this that the + ladders were often so slack that the smallest breeze put them in + motion, swinging them against the rocks, while the steps leading from + scaffold to scaffold were so narrow and irregular that they could + scarcely be traced by the feet without the greatest care and + circumspection; but the most perilous part was when another rock + projected over the one they were clearing. +</p> +<p> + The Hakamaw Indians certainly deserved Fraser's grateful remembrance + for their able assistance throughout these alarming situations. The + descents were, if possible, still more difficult; in these places the + white men were under the necessity of trusting their property to the + Indians, even the precious guns were handed from one Indian to + another; yet they thought nothing of it, they went up and down these + wild places with the same agility as sailors do on a ship. After + escaping innumerable perils in the course of the day, the party + encamped about sunset, being supplied by the natives with plenty of + dried fish. +</p> +<p> + Thus the main lines of the exploration of the great Canadian Dominion + were completed. Alexander Mackenzie went to England in 1799 and + received a knighthood for his remarkable achievements. On his return + he first definitely created the New North-west or "X.Y." Company, and + then brought about its fusion (after several years of bitter rivalry) + with the old North-west Company; and it was this united and + strengthened organization which, between 1804 and 1819, sent out so + many bold pioneers to fill in the details of the map between the + Columbia and Missouri on the south, and the Great Slave Lake and Liard + River on the north. But during these years the energies of the + Hudson's Bay Company were reviving under a strange personality—THOMAS + DOUGLAS, EARL OF SELKIRK. Lord Selkirk conceived the idea of putting + new life into the Hudson's Bay Company, reviving the monopolies of + trading granted in its old charter, and turning its vague rights to + land into the absolute ownership of the enormous area of North + America north and west of the Canadian provinces. No regard of course + was paid to any rights of the natives, who as a matter of fact were + dying out rapidly from the effects of bad alcohol and epidemic + diseases. +</p> +<p> + His motive was to establish large colonies of stalwart Highlanders as + the tenants of a Chartered Company. Alexander Mackenzie had already + called the north-west country "New Caledonia". Lord Selkirk wished to + make it so in its population. +</p> +<p> + Already he had been instrumental in establishing a Scottish colony on + Prince Edward's Island,<a name="12-3"></a><a href="#note-12-3"><small>[3]</small></a> which, after some difficulties at the + beginning, had soon begun to prosper. Two or three years later he came + to Montreal, and there collected all the information he could obtain + from the partners in the North-west Company regarding the prospects of + trade and colonization in the far west. In the year 1811 he had + managed to acquire the greater part of the shares in the Hudson's Bay + Company, and, placing himself at its head, he sent out his first + hundred Highlanders and Irish to form a feudatory colony in the Red + River district (the modern Manitoba). He also dispatched an official + to govern what might be called the Middle West on behalf of the + Hudson's Bay Company. This person, acting under instructions, claimed + the whole region beyond the provinces of Upper and Lower Canada as the + private property of the Hudson's Bay Company, on the strength of their + antiquated charter issued by Charles II. The agents of the North-west + Company were warned (as also the two or three thousand French + Canadians and half-breeds in their pay) that henceforth they must not + cut wood, fish or hunt, build or cultivate, save by the permission and + as the tenants of the Hudson's Bay Company. +</p> +<p> + It is not surprising that such an outrageous demand, when it was + followed up by the use of armed force, soon provoked bloodshed and a + state of civil war throughout the North-west Territories. Lord Selkirk + himself took command on the Red River, with a small army of + disciplined soldiers. At length, in 1817, the British Government + intervened through the Governor-General of Canada, and in 1818 Lord + Selkirk left North America disgusted, and two years afterwards died at + Pau, in France, from an illness brought on by grief at the failure of + his projects. +</p> +<p> + Sir Alexander Mackenzie also died suddenly in 1820, in Scotland. For + twelve years he had been member of parliament for Huntingdon, and + since 1812 had been the determined opponent in England of Lord + Selkirk's plans of forcible colonization. After his death, however, in + 1821, a sudden movement for reconciliation took place between the two + Companies. Thenceforth the Hudson's Bay Company ruled over the vast + regions of British North America, beyond Newfoundland, New Brunswick, + Nova Scotia, and the two Canadian provinces. Under their government + the work of geographical exploration went on apace. In 1834 one of + their officers, J. M'Leod, discovered the Stikine River in northern + British Columbia, and by 1848 J. Bell and Robert Campbell had revealed + the Porcupine and Yukon Rivers. By the time Thomas Simpson, Warren + Dease, and Dr. John Rae, on behalf of the Hudson's Bay Company; and + Franklin, Back, Parry, Richardson, and M'Clintock, for the Imperial + Government, had completed the explorations mentioned in Chapter VI, + all the main features of Canadian geography were made known. The next + series of pioneers were to be those of the mining industry—it was the + discovery of gold in 1856 which created British Columbia; of + agriculture—the wheat-growers of the Red River region made the + province of Manitoba; of the steamboat; and above all the railway. + Developments of science scarcely yet dreamt of will demand in further + time their pioneers, and these will not come from abroad, but will + assuredly be found in this splendid Canadian people, the descendants + of the men or of the types of men I have attempted to describe. +</p> +<hr class="short"> + +<a name="note-12-1"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#12-1"><u>1</u></a> The nephew of the Alexander Henry already mentioned as an + explorer between 1761 and 1775. +</p> +<a name="note-12-2"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#12-2"><u>2</u></a> This remarkable beast (<i>Oreamnus</i>) they called "Aspai", + and wove from its white wool an excellent cloth for their clothing. +</p> +<a name="note-12-3"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +<a href="#12-3"><u>3</u></a> Prince Edward's Island is off the north coast of New + Brunswick. It was named after Queen Victoria's father, the Duke of + Kent. +</p> +<br> +<p class="return">[<a href="#top">TOP</a>] +</p> +<br> +<br> +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13003 ***</div> +</body> +</html> diff --git a/13003-h/images/map06-large.jpg b/13003-h/images/map06-large.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5ed510a --- /dev/null +++ b/13003-h/images/map06-large.jpg diff --git a/13003-h/images/map06-small.jpg b/13003-h/images/map06-small.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..93ba5f3 --- /dev/null +++ b/13003-h/images/map06-small.jpg diff --git a/13003-h/images/map12-large.jpg b/13003-h/images/map12-large.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..92b5121 --- /dev/null +++ b/13003-h/images/map12-large.jpg diff --git a/13003-h/images/map12-small.jpg b/13003-h/images/map12-small.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..fbbbee2 --- /dev/null +++ b/13003-h/images/map12-small.jpg diff --git a/13003-h/images/map18-large.jpg b/13003-h/images/map18-large.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9069863 --- /dev/null +++ b/13003-h/images/map18-large.jpg diff --git a/13003-h/images/map18-small.jpg b/13003-h/images/map18-small.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2bdfbb0 --- /dev/null +++ b/13003-h/images/map18-small.jpg diff --git a/13003-h/images/music.jpg b/13003-h/images/music.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..cd2f2e7 --- /dev/null +++ b/13003-h/images/music.jpg diff --git a/13003-h/images/pc01.jpg b/13003-h/images/pc01.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3abcb41 --- /dev/null +++ b/13003-h/images/pc01.jpg diff --git a/13003-h/images/pc02.jpg b/13003-h/images/pc02.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..94a12cb --- /dev/null +++ b/13003-h/images/pc02.jpg diff --git a/13003-h/images/pc03.jpg b/13003-h/images/pc03.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a2d9281 --- /dev/null +++ b/13003-h/images/pc03.jpg diff --git a/13003-h/images/pc04.jpg b/13003-h/images/pc04.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..38859a6 --- /dev/null +++ b/13003-h/images/pc04.jpg diff --git a/13003-h/images/pc05.jpg b/13003-h/images/pc05.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1d441ae --- /dev/null +++ b/13003-h/images/pc05.jpg diff --git a/13003-h/images/pc07.jpg b/13003-h/images/pc07.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d626d91 --- /dev/null +++ b/13003-h/images/pc07.jpg diff --git a/13003-h/images/pc08.jpg b/13003-h/images/pc08.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f9c8238 --- /dev/null +++ b/13003-h/images/pc08.jpg diff --git a/13003-h/images/pc09.jpg b/13003-h/images/pc09.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..949d524 --- /dev/null +++ b/13003-h/images/pc09.jpg diff --git a/13003-h/images/pc11.jpg b/13003-h/images/pc11.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e2721e9 --- /dev/null +++ b/13003-h/images/pc11.jpg diff --git a/13003-h/images/pc13.jpg b/13003-h/images/pc13.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..eba13ed --- /dev/null +++ b/13003-h/images/pc13.jpg diff --git a/13003-h/images/pc14.jpg b/13003-h/images/pc14.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ef56b5f --- /dev/null +++ b/13003-h/images/pc14.jpg diff --git a/13003-h/images/pc15.jpg b/13003-h/images/pc15.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e86f19e --- /dev/null +++ b/13003-h/images/pc15.jpg diff --git a/13003-h/images/pc16.jpg b/13003-h/images/pc16.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..26b3b9b --- /dev/null +++ b/13003-h/images/pc16.jpg diff --git a/13003-h/images/pc17.jpg b/13003-h/images/pc17.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4e69cce --- /dev/null +++ b/13003-h/images/pc17.jpg diff --git a/13003-h/images/pc19.jpg b/13003-h/images/pc19.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1f1dc92 --- /dev/null +++ b/13003-h/images/pc19.jpg diff --git a/13003-h/images/pc20.jpg b/13003-h/images/pc20.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6bfb43f --- /dev/null +++ b/13003-h/images/pc20.jpg diff --git a/13003-h/images/tp.jpg b/13003-h/images/tp.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f3eeccd --- /dev/null +++ b/13003-h/images/tp.jpg |
