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diff --git a/old/12910-h/12910-h.htm b/old/12910-h/12910-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..277e09f --- /dev/null +++ b/old/12910-h/12910-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,10846 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" +"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> +<html> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Early Britain--Roman Britain, by Edward Conybeare</title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + P { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + } + HR { width: 33%; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em; + } + BODY{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + font-family: Verdana, Arial, sans-serif; + } + .note {margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em; margin-bottom: 1em;} /* footnote */ + .blkquot {margin-left: 4em; margin-right: 4em;} /* block indent */ + .newpage {position: absolute; left: 1%; right: 91%; font-size: 80%;} + .poem {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; text-align: left;} + .poem br {display: none;} + .poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .poem span {display: block; margin: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i2 {display: block; margin-left: 2em;} + .poem span.i4 {display: block; margin-left: 4em;} + .poem .caesura {vertical-align: -200%;} + + .quote {text-align: center;} + + .figure {margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 5%; + text-align: center; font-size: 0.8em;} + .figure img {border: none;} + + hr.full { width: 100%; } + a:link {color:blue; + text-decoration:none} + link {color:blue; + text-decoration:none} + a:visited {color:blue; + text-decoration:none} + a:hover {color:red} + pre {font-size: 9pt;} + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> +</head> +<body> +<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Early Britain--Roman Britain, by Edward +Conybeare</h1> +<pre> +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at <a href = "https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre> +<p>Title: Early Britain--Roman Britain</p> +<p>Author: Edward Conybeare</p> +<p>Release Date: July 14, 2004 [eBook #12910]</p> +<p>Language: English</p> +<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p> +<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EARLY BRITAIN--ROMAN BRITAIN***</p> +<br /> +<br /> +<h4>E-text prepared by Paul Murray, Bill Hershey,<br /> + and Project Gutenberg Distributed Proofreaders</h4> +<br /> +<br /> +<hr class="full" /> + +<p class="figure"> + <a href="images/001.png"> + <img width="100%" src="images/001.png" alt="001.png" /></a><br /> + +<a name="Illustration_A_MAP_OF"></a>A MAP OF +BRITAIN to illustrate THE ROMAN OCCUPATION.<br /> + +<i>London: Published by the Society for Promoting +Christian Knowledge</i>.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<a name="EARLY_BRITAIN"></a><h1>EARLY BRITAIN.</h1> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h1>ROMAN BRITAIN</h1> + +<h3>BY</h3> +<h2>EDWARD CONYBEARE</h2> +<br /> + +<h3><i>WITH MAP</i></h3> + +<h4>1903</h4> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<a name="ERRATA"></a><h2><i>ERRATA</i>.</h2> + +<table width="70%" align="center"> +<tr><td>p. </td><td>vii.</td><td> <i>for</i></td><td>Caesar 55 A.D.</td><td><i>read</i></td><td>Caesar 55 B.C.</td></tr> +<tr><td>"</td><td>56</td><td> "</td><td>11th century</td><td>"</td><td>12th century.</td></tr> +<tr><td>"</td><td>58</td><td> "</td><td>Damnonian Name</td><td>"</td><td>Damnonian name.</td></tr> +<tr><td>"</td><td>66</td><td> "</td><td>ἠδικὴν [<b>êdikên</b>]</td><td>"</td><td>ἠθικὴν [<b>aethikaen</b>]</td></tr> +<tr><td>"</td><td>108</td><td> "</td><td>sunrise</td><td>"</td><td>sunset.</td></tr> +<tr><td>"</td><td>133</td><td> "</td><td>some lost authority</td><td>"</td><td>Suetonius.</td></tr> +<tr><td>"</td><td>141</td><td> "</td><td>DONATE</td><td>"</td><td>DONANTE.</td></tr> +<tr><td>"</td><td>150</td><td> "</td><td>Venta Silurum</td><td>"</td><td>Isca Silurum.</td></tr> +<tr><td>"</td><td>185</td><td> "</td><td>is flanked</td><td>"</td><td>was flanked.</td></tr> +<tr><td>"</td><td>209</td><td> "</td><td>iambic</td><td>"</td><td>trochaic.</td></tr> +<tr><td>"</td><td>"</td><td> "</td><td>Exquis</td><td>"</td><td>Ex quis.</td></tr> +<tr><td>"</td><td>213</td><td> "</td><td>one priceless</td><td>"</td><td>once priceless.</td></tr> +<tr><td>"</td><td>232 </td><td> "</td><td>in pieces</td><td>"</td><td>to pieces.</td></tr> +<tr><td>"</td><td>238</td><td> "</td><td>constrigit</td><td>"</td><td>constringit.</td></tr> +<tr><td>"</td><td> "</td><td> "</td><td>Sparas</td><td>"</td><td>Sparsas.</td></tr> +</table> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<a name="PREFACE"></a><h2>PREFACE</h2> +<br /> + +<p>A little book on a great subject, especially when +that book is one of a "series," is notoriously an object +of literary distrust. For the limitations thus imposed +upon the writer are such as few men can satisfactorily +cope with, and he must needs ask the indulgence of +his readers for his painfully-felt shortcomings in dealing +with the mass of material which he has to manipulate. +And more especially is this the case when +the volume which immediately precedes his in the +series is such a mine of erudition as the 'Celtic +Britain' of Professor Rhys.</p> + +<p>In the present work my object has been to give a +readable sketch of the historical growth and decay of +Roman influence in Britain, illustrated by the archaeology +of the period, rather than a mainly archaeological +treatise with a bare outline of the history. The chief +authorities of which I have made use are thus those +original classical sources for the early history of our +island, so carefully and ably collected in the 'Monumenta +Historica Britannica';<a name="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1"><sup>[1]</sup></a> which, along with +Huebner's 'Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum[2],' must +always be the foundation of every work on Roman +Britain. Amongst the many other authorities consulted +I must acknowledge my special debt to Mr. +Elton's 'Origins of English History'; and yet more +to Mr. Haverfield's invaluable publications in the +'Antiquary' and elsewhere, without which to keep +abreast of the incessant development of my subject +by the antiquarian spade-work now going on all over +the land would be an almost hopeless task.</p> + +<p><b>EDWARD CONYBEARE.</b></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<a name="BIBLIOGRAPHY"></a><h2>BIBLIOGRAPHY</h2> +<br /> + +<p>A complete Bibliography of Roman Britain would +be wholly beyond the scope of the present work. +Much of the most valuable material, indeed, has never +been published in book form, and must be sought out +in the articles of the 'Antiquary,' 'Hermes,' etc., and +the reports of the many local Archaeological Societies. +All that is here attempted is to indicate some of the +more valuable of the many scores of sources to which +my pages are indebted.</p> + +<p>To begin with the ancient authorities. These range +through upwards of a thousand years; from Herodotus +in the 5th century before Christ, to Gildas in the 6th +century after. From about 100 A.D. onwards we +find that almost every known classical authority +makes more or less mention of Britain. A list of +over a hundred such authors is given in the 'Monumenta +Historica Britannica'; and upwards of fifty +are quoted in this present work. Historians, poets, +geographers, naturalists, statesmen, ecclesiastics, all +give touches which help out our delineation of Roman +Britain.</p> + +<p>Amongst the historians the most important are—Caesar, +who tells his own tale; Tacitus, to whom we +owe our main knowledge of the Conquest, with the +later stages of which he was contemporary; Dion +Cassius, who wrote his history in the next century, +the 2nd A.D.;<a name="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3"><sup>[3]</sup></a> the various Imperial biographers +of the 3rd century; the Imperial panegyrists of +the 4th, along with Ammianus Marcellinus, who +towards the close of that century connects and supplements +their stories; Claudian, the poet-historian of +the 5th century, whose verses throw a lurid gleam on +his own disastrous age, when Roman authority in +Britain was at its last gasp; and finally the British +writers, Nennius and Gildas, whose "monotonous +plaint" shows that authority dead and gone, with the +first stirring of our new national life already quickening +amid the decay.</p> + +<p>Of geographical and general information we gain +most from Strabo, in the Augustan age, who tells what +earlier and greater geographers than himself had +already discovered about our island; Pliny the +Elder, who, in the next century, found the ethnology +and botany of Britain so valuable for his +'Natural History'; Ptolemy, a generation later yet, +who includes an elaborate survey of our island in his +stupendous Atlas (as it would now be called) of the +world;<a name="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4"><sup>[4]</sup></a> and the unknown compilers of the 'Itinerary,' +the 'Notitia,' and the 'Ravenna Geography.' To these +must be added the epigrammatist Martial, who lived +at the time of the Conquest, and whose references to +British matters throw a precious light on the social +connection between Britain and Rome which aids us +to trace something of the earliest dawn of Christianity +in our land.<a name="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5"><sup>[5]</sup></a></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<a name="ANCIENT_AUTHORITIES_REFERRED_TO_IN_THIS_WORK"></a><h2>ANCIENT AUTHORITIES REFERRED TO IN THIS WORK</h2> + +<table width="100%" align="center"> +<tr><td><b>NAME.</b></td><td><b>REFERENCE.</b></td><td><b>APPROXIMATE DATE, ETC.</b></td></tr> +<tr><td>Aelian</td><td>III. A. 6</td><td>A.D. 220. Naturalist.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Appian</td><td>IV. D. 1</td><td>A.D. 140. Historian.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Aristides</td><td>V.E. 4</td><td>A.D. 160. Orator.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Aristotle</td><td>I.C. 1</td><td>B.C. 333. Philosopher.</td></tr> +<tr><td>St. Athanasius</td><td>V.B. 1, etc.</td><td>A.D. 333. Theologian.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Ausonius</td><td>V.B. 7</td><td>A.D. 380. Poet.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Caesar</td><td>V. etc.</td><td>B.C. 55. Historian.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Capitolinus</td><td>IV. E. 3</td><td>A.D. 290. Imperial Biographer.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Catullus</td><td>V.E. 4</td><td>B.C. 33. Poet.</td></tr> +<tr><td>St. Chrysostom</td><td>V.E. 15, etc.</td><td>A.D. 380. Theologian.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Cicero</td><td>I.D. 3, etc.</td><td>B.C. 55. Orator, etc.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Claudian</td><td>vi. etc.</td><td>A.D. 400. Poet-Historian.</td></tr> +<tr><td>St. Clement</td><td>V.E. 4</td><td>A.D. 80. Theologian.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Constantius</td><td>V.F. 4</td><td>A.D. 480. Ecclesiastical Biographer.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Diodorus Siculus</td><td>I.E. 11, etc.</td><td>B.C. 44. Geographer.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Dion Cassius</td><td>v. etc.</td><td>A.D. 150. Historian.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Dioscorides</td><td>I.E. 4</td><td>A.D. 80. Physician.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Eumenius</td><td>V.A. 1</td><td>A.D. 310. Imperial Panegyrist.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Eutropius</td><td>V.A. 1</td><td>A.D. 300. Imperial Panegyrist.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Firmicus</td><td>V.B. 2</td><td>A.D. 350. Controversialist.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Frontinus</td><td>III. A. 1</td><td>A.D. 80. Wrote on Tactics.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Fronto</td><td>IV. D. 2</td><td>A.D. 100. Historian.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Gildas</td><td>vi. etc.</td><td>A.D. 500. Theologian.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Hegesippus</td><td>II. F. 3</td><td>A.D. 150. Historian.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Herodian</td><td>IV. E. 3</td><td>A.D. 220. Historian.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Herodotus</td><td>I.C. 3</td><td>B.C. 444. Historian, etc.</td></tr> +<tr><td>St. Hilary</td><td>V.B. 3</td><td>A.D. 350. Theologian.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Horace</td><td>III. A. 7</td><td>B.C. 25. Poet.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Itinerary</td><td>IV. A. 7</td><td>A.D. 200.</td></tr> +<tr><td>St. Jerome</td><td>V.C. 12</td><td>A.D. 400. Theologian.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Josephus</td><td>III. F. 1</td><td>A.D. 70. Historian.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Juvenal</td><td>III. F. 5</td><td>A.D. 75. Satirist.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Lampridius</td><td>IV. E. 1</td><td>A.D. 290. Imperial Biographer.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Lucan</td><td>II. E. 1</td><td>A.D. 60. Historical Poet.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Mamertinus</td><td>V.A. 5</td><td>A.D. 280. Panegyrist.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Marcellinus</td><td>vi. etc.</td><td>A.D. 380. Historian.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Martial</td><td>vi. etc.</td><td>A.D. 70. Epigrammatist.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Maximus</td><td>II. C. 13</td><td>A.D. 30. Wrote Memorabilia.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Mela</td><td>I.H. 7</td><td>A.D. 50. Geographer, etc.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Menologia Graeca</td><td>V.E. 5</td><td>A.D. 550.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Minucius Felix</td><td>I.E. 2</td><td>A.D. 210. Geographer.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Nemesianus</td><td>IV. C. 15</td><td>A.D. 280. Wrote on Hunting.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Nennius</td><td>vi. etc.</td><td>A.D. 500. Historian.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Notitia</td><td>vi. etc.</td><td>A.D. 406.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Olympiodorus</td><td>V.C. 10</td><td>A.D. 425. Historian.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Onomacritus</td><td>I.C. 1</td><td>B.C. 333. Poet.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Oppian</td><td>IV. C. 15</td><td>A.D. 140. Wrote on Hunting</td></tr> +<tr><td>Origen</td><td>V.E. 13</td><td>A.D. 220. Theologian.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Pliny</td><td>vi. etc.</td><td>A.D. 70. Naturalist.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Plutarch</td><td>I.C. 1</td><td>A.D. 80. Historian, etc.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Polyaenus</td><td>II. E. 8</td><td>A.D. 180. Wrote on Tactics.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Procopius</td><td>V.D. 5</td><td>A.D. 555. Wrote on Geography, etc.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Propertius</td><td>III. 1. 7</td><td>B.C. 10. Poet.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Prosper</td><td>V.F. 4</td><td>A.D. 450. Ecclesiastical Historian.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Prudentius</td><td>IV. C. 15</td><td>A.D. 370. Ecclesiastical Poet.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Ptolemy</td><td>v. etc.</td><td>A.D. 120. Geographer.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Ravenna Geography</td><td>vi. etc.</td><td>A.D. 450.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Seneca</td><td>III. C. 7</td><td>A.D. 60. Philosopher.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Sidonius Apollinaris</td><td>V.F. 3</td><td>A.D. 475. Letters.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Solinus</td><td>I.E. 4, etc.</td><td>A.D. 80. Geographer.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Spartianus</td><td>IV. D. 2</td><td>A.D. 303. Historian.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Strabo</td><td>vi. etc.</td><td>B.C. 20. Geographer.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Suetonius</td><td>I.H. 10</td><td>A.D. 110. Imperial Biographer.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Symmachus</td><td>IV. C. 15</td><td>A.D. 390. Statesman, etc.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Tacitus</td><td>v. etc.</td><td>A.D. 80. Historian.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Tertullian</td><td>V.E. 11</td><td>A.D. 180. Theologian.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Theodoret</td><td>V.E. 4</td><td>A.D. 420. Wrote Commentaries.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Tibullus</td><td>III. A. 7</td><td>B.C. 20. Poet.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Timaeus</td><td>I.D. 2</td><td>B.C. 300. Geographer.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Vegetius</td><td>V.B. 5</td><td>A.D. 380. Historian.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Venantius</td><td>V.E. 4</td><td>A.D. 580. Wrote Ecclesiastical Poems.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Victor</td><td>V.A. 9</td><td>A.D. 380. Historian.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Virgil</td><td>III. 1. 7</td><td>B.C. 30. Poet.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Vitruvius</td><td>I.G. 5</td><td>A.D. Wrote on Geography, etc.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Vobiscus</td><td>IV. C. 17</td><td>A.D. 290. Historian.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Xiphilinus</td><td>vi. etc.</td><td>A.D. 1200. Abridged Dio Cassius.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Zosimus</td><td>V.C. 11</td><td>A.D. 400. Historian.</td></tr> +</table> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<a name="LATER_AUTHORITIES"></a><h2>LATER AUTHORITIES</h2> +<br /> + +<p>The constant accession of new material, especially +from the unceasing spade-work always going on in +every quarter of the island, makes modern books on +Roman Britain tend to become obsolete, sometimes +with startling rapidity. But even when not quite up +to date, a well-written book is almost always very far +from worthless, and much may be learnt from any in +the following list:—</p> + +<table> +<tr><td>BABCOCK</td><td> 'The Two Last Centuries of Roman Britain' (1891).</td></tr> +<tr><td>BARNES</td><td> 'Ancient Britain' (1858).</td></tr> +<tr><td>BROWNE, BISHOP</td><td> 'The Church before Augustine' (1895).</td></tr> +<tr><td>BRUCE</td><td> 'Handbook to the Roman Wall' (1895).</td></tr> +<tr><td>CAMDEN</td><td> 'Britannia' (1587).</td></tr> +<tr><td>COOTE</td><td> 'Romans in Britain' (1878).</td></tr> +<tr><td>DAWKINS</td><td> 'Early Man in Britain' (1880).</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td> 'The Place of the Welsh in English History' (1889).</td></tr> +<tr><td>DILL</td><td> 'Roman Society' (1899).</td></tr> +<tr><td>ELTON</td><td> 'Origins of English History' (1890).</td></tr> +<tr><td>EVANS, SIR J.</td><td> 'British Coins' (1869).</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td> 'Bronze Implements' (1881).</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td> 'Stone Implements' (1897).</td></tr> +<tr><td>FREEMAN</td><td> 'Historical Essays' (1879).</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td> 'English Towns' (1883).</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td> 'Tyrants of Britain' (1886).</td></tr> +<tr><td>FROUDE</td><td> 'Julius Caesar' (1879).</td></tr> +<tr><td>GUEST</td><td> 'Origines Celticae' (1883).</td></tr> +<tr><td>HADDAN AND STUBBS</td><td> 'Concilia' (1869).</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td> 'Remains' (1876).</td></tr> +<tr><td>HARDY</td><td> 'Monumenta Historica Britannica' (1848).</td></tr> +<tr><td>HAVERFIELD</td><td> 'Roman World' (1899), etc.</td></tr> +<tr><td>HODGKIN</td><td> 'Italy and her Invaders' (1892), etc.</td></tr> +<tr><td>HOGARTH (ed.)</td><td> 'Authority and Archaeology' (1899).</td></tr> +<tr><td>HORSLEY</td><td> 'Britannia Romana' (1732).</td></tr> +<tr><td>HUEBNER</td><td> 'Inscriptiones Britannicae Romanae' (1873).</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td> 'Inscriptiones Britannicae'</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td> 'Christianae' (1876), etc.</td></tr> +<tr><td>KEMBLE</td><td> 'Saxons in England' (1876).</td></tr> +<tr><td>KENRICK</td><td> 'Phoenicia' (1855).</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td> 'Papers on History' (1864).</td></tr> +<tr><td>LEWIN</td><td> 'Invasion of Britain' (1862).</td></tr> +<tr><td>LUBBOCK, SIR J.</td><td> 'Origin of Civilization' (1889).</td></tr> +<tr><td>LYALL</td><td> 'Natural Religion' (1891).</td></tr> +<tr><td>LYELL</td><td> 'Antiquity of Man' (1873).</td></tr> +<tr><td>MAINE, SIR H.</td><td> 'Early History of Institutions' (1876).</td></tr> +<tr><td>MAITLAND</td><td> 'Domesday Studies' (1897).</td></tr> +<tr><td>MARQUARDT</td><td> 'Römische Staatsverwaltung' (1873).</td></tr> +<tr><td>MOMMSEN</td><td> 'Provinces of the Roman Empire' (1865).</td></tr> +<tr><td>NEILSON</td><td> 'Per Lineam Valli' (1892).</td></tr> +<tr><td>PEARSON</td><td> 'Historical Atlas of Britain' (1870).</td></tr> +<tr><td>RHYS</td><td> 'Celtic Britain' (1882).</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td> 'Celtic Heathendom' (1888).</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td> 'Welsh People' (1900).</td></tr> +<tr><td>ROLLESTON</td><td> 'British Barrows' (1877).</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td> 'Prehistoric Fauna' (1880).</td></tr> +<tr><td>SCARTH</td><td> 'Roman Britain' (1885).</td></tr> +<tr><td>SMITH, C.R.</td><td> 'Collectanea' (1848), etc.</td></tr> +<tr><td>TOZER</td><td> 'History of Ancient Geography' (1897).</td></tr> +<tr><td>TRAILL AND MANN</td><td> 'Social England' (1901).</td></tr> +<tr><td>USHER, BP.</td><td> 'British Ecclesiastical Antiquity' (1639).</td></tr> +<tr><td>VINE</td><td> 'Caesar in Kent' (1899).</td></tr> +<tr><td>WRIGHT</td><td> 'Celt, Roman and Saxon' (1875).</td></tr> +</table> +<br /> +<br /> + +<h2>CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE</h2> + +<br /> + +<table> +<tr><td><b>DATE</b></td><td> <b>EVENTS.</b></td><td> <b>EMPEROR.</b></td></tr> +<tr><td>B.C.</td><td></td><td></td></tr> + +<tr><td>350 (?)</td> <td> Pytheas discovers Britain [I.D. 1]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>100 (?)</td> <td> Divitiacus Overlord of Britain (?)</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td> [II. B. 4]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td> Gauls settle on Thames and Humber</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td> (?) [I.F. 4]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td> Posidonius visits Britain [I.D. 3]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td> Birth of Julius Caesar [II. A. 6]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>58</td> <td> Caesar conquers Gaul [II. A. 9]</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td>56</td> <td> Sea-fight with Veneti and Britons</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td></td> <td> [II. B. 3]</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td>55 </td> <td> First invasion of Britain</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td></td> <td> [II. C., D.]</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td></td> <td> Cassivellaunus Overlord of Britain</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td></td> <td> (?) [II. F. 3]</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td></td> <td> Mandubratius, exiled Prince of</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td></td> <td> Trinobantes, appeals to Caesar (?)</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td></td> <td> [II. E. 10]</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td>54 </td> <td> Second Invasion of Britain</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td></td> <td> [II. E., F., G.]</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td>52</td> <td> Revolt of Gaul. Commius, Prince</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td></td> <td> of Arras, flies to Britain and</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td></td> <td> reigns in South-east [III. A. 1]</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td>44</td> <td> Caesar slain [II. G. 9]</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td>32</td> <td> Battle of Actium [III. A. 6]</td><td> Augustus.</td></tr> + <tr><td></td> <td> About this time the sons of Commius</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td></td> <td> reign in Kent, etc., Addeomarus</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td></td> <td> over Iceni, and Tasciovan</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td></td> <td> at Verulam [III. A. 1]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>A.D.</td> <td> About this time the Commian</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> princes are overthrown</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> [III. A. 2]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Cymbeline, son of Tasciovan, becomes</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td></td> <td> Overlord of Britain </td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> [III. A. 4]. Commians appeal to</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Augustus [III. A. 5]</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td>14</td> <td> Death of Augustus</td><td> Tiberius.</td></tr> + <tr><td>29</td> <td> Consulship of the Gemini. The</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td></td> <td> Crucifixion (?)</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td>37</td> <td> Death of Tiberius </td><td> Caligula.</td></tr> + <tr><td>40 (?)</td> <td> Cymbeline banishes Adminius,</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td></td> <td> who appeals to Rome [III. A. 5]</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td></td> <td> Caligula threatens invasion </td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td></td> <td> [III. A. 6]</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td>41</td> <td> Caligula poisoned [III. A. 9]</td><td> Claudius.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Death of Cymbeline (?). His son</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td></td> <td> Caradoc succeeds</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td>43</td> <td> Antedrigus and Vericus contend</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td></td> <td> for Icenian throne: Vericus appeals</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td></td> <td> to Rome [III. A. 9]</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td>44</td> <td> Claudius subdues Britain [III. B.]</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td></td> <td> Cogidubnus, King in South-east,</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td></td> <td> made Roman Legate [III. C. 8]</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td>45</td> <td> Triumph of Claudius</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td></td> <td> [III. C. 1, 2]</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td>47</td> <td> Ovation of Aulus Plautius, conqueror</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td></td> <td> of Britain. [III. C. 2]</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td>48</td> <td> Vespasian and Titus crush British</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td></td> <td> guerrillas [III. C. 3]</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td>50</td> <td> Britain made "Imperial" Province.</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td></td> <td> Ostorius Pro-praetor</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td></td> <td> [III. C. 9]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Icenian revolt crushed [III. D.</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> 1-6].</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Camelodune a colony [III. D. 8]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>51</td> <td> Silurian revolt under Caradoc</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> [III. D. 7, 8]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>52</td> <td> Caradoc captive [III. D. 9]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>53</td> <td> Uriconium and Caerleon founded</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> [III. D. 12]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>54</td> <td> Death of Ostorius [III. D. 11]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>55</td> <td> Didius Gallus Pro-praetor. Last</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Silurian effort [III. D. 13]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td> Death of Claudius [III. D. 13]</td><td> Nero.</td></tr> +<tr><td>56 (?)</td> <td> Aulus Plautius marries Pomponia</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Graecina [V.E. 10]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>61</td> <td> Suetonius Paulinus Pro-praetor</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> [III. E. 7]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Massacre of Druids in Mona</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> [III. E. 8, 9]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Boadicean revolt [III. E. 2-13].</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> St. Peter in Britain (?) [V.E. 5]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>62</td> <td> Turpiliannus Pro-praetor. "Peace"</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> in Britain [III. E. 13]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>63 (?)</td> <td> Claudia Rufina Marries Pudens</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> [V.E. 9]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>64</td> <td> Burning of Rome. First Persecution.</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> St. Paul in Britain (?)</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> [V.E. 4]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>65</td> <td> Aristobulus Bishop in Britain (?)</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> [V.E. 5]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>68</td> <td> Death of Nero (June 10)</td><td> Galba.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Galba slain (Dec. 16)</td><td> Civil War between</td></tr> +<tr><td>69</td> <td> Otho slain (April 20)</td><td> Otho and Vitellius.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Vitellius slain (Dec. 20)</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> British army under Agricola</td><td> Vespasian.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> pronounces for Vespasian</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> [III. F. 1]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>70</td> <td> Cerealis Pro-praetor. Brigantes</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> subdued by Agricola [III. F. 1]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Destruction of Jerusalem</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> [IV. C. 5]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>75</td> <td> Frontinus Pro-praetor. Silurians</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> subdued by Agricola [III. F. 2]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>78</td> <td> Agricola Pro-praetor. Ordovices</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> and Mona subdued [III. F. 3]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>79</td> <td> Agricola Latinizes Britain [III. </td><td> Titus.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> F. 4]. Vespasian dies</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>80</td> <td> Agricola's first Caledonian campaign</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> [III. F. 5].</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>81</td> <td> Agricola's rampart from Forth to</td><td> Domitian.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Clyde [III. F. 7]. Titus dies</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>82</td> <td> Agricola invades Ireland (?) [III.</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> F. 5]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>83</td> <td> Agricola advances into Northern</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Caledonia [III. F. 5]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> First circumnavigation of Britain</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> [III. F. 7]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>84</td> <td> Agricola defeats Galgacus [III.</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> F. 6], resigns and dies [III. F. 7]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>95</td> <td> Second persecution. Flavia Domitilla</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> [V.E. 11]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>96</td> <td> Domitian slain</td><td> Nerva.</td></tr> +<tr><td>98</td> <td> Nerva dies</td><td> Trajan.</td></tr> +<tr><td>117</td> <td> Trajan dies</td><td> Hadrian.</td></tr> +<tr><td>120</td> <td> Hadrian visits Britain and builds Wall</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> [IV. D. 1]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Britain divided into "Upper" and</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> "Lower" [IV. D. 3]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> First "Britannia" coinage [IV. D. 4]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>138</td> <td> Hadrian dies</td><td> Antoninus Pius.</td></tr> +<tr><td>139</td> <td> Lollius Urbicus, Legate in Britain,</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> replaces Agricola's rampart by turf</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> wall from Forth to Clyde [IV. D. 5]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>140</td> <td> Britain made Pro-consular [IV. E. 5]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>161</td> <td> Antoninus dies</td><td> Marcus Aurelius.</td></tr> +<tr><td>180</td> <td> British Church organized by Pope</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Eleutherius (?) [V.E. 12]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Marcus Aurelius dies</td><td> Commodus.</td></tr> +<tr><td>181</td> <td> Caledonian invasion driven back by</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Ulpius Marcellus [IV. E. 1]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>184</td> <td> Commodus "Britannicus" [IV. E. 1]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>185</td> <td> British army mutinies against reforms</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> of Perennis [IV. E. 1]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>187</td> <td> Pertinax quells mutineers [IV. E. 3]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>192</td> <td> Pertinax superseded by Junius Severus</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> [IV. E. 3]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Death of Commodus</td><td> Interregnum.</td></tr> +<tr><td>193</td> <td> Pertinax slain by Julianus and Albinus.</td><td> Pertinax; Julianus;</td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Julianus slain</td><td> Albinus; Severus.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Severus proclaimed. Albinus Emperor in</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Britain [IV. E. 3]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>197</td> <td> British army defeated at Lyons.</td><td> Severus.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Albinus slain [IV. E. 3]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>201</td> <td> Vinius Lupus, Pro-praetor, buys off</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Caledonians [IV. E. 4]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>208</td> <td> Caledonian invasion. Severus comes to</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Britain [IV. E. 5]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>209</td> <td> Severus overruns Caledonia</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> [IV. E. 5]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>210</td> <td> Severus completes Hadrian's Wall</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> [IV. E. 6]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>211</td> <td> Severus dies at York [IV. G. 2]</td><td> Caracalla.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td> <td> Geta.</td></tr> +<tr><td>212</td> <td> Geta murdered [IV. G. 2]</td><td> Caracalla.</td></tr> +<tr><td>215 (?)</td> <td> Roman citizenship extended to</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> British provincials [IV. G. 2]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>(?)</td> <td> Itinerary of Antonius [IV. A. 7]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>217</td> <td> Caracalla slain</td><td> Macrinus.</td></tr> +<tr><td>218</td> <td> Macrinus slain</td><td> Helagabalus.</td></tr> +<tr><td>222</td> <td> Helagabalus slain</td><td> Alexander Severus.</td></tr> +<tr><td>235</td> <td> Alexander Severus slain</td><td> Maximin.</td></tr> +<tr><td>238</td> <td> Maximin slain</td><td> Gordian.</td></tr> +<tr><td>244</td> <td> Gordian slain</td><td> Philip.</td></tr> +<tr><td>249</td> <td> Philip slain</td><td> Decius.</td></tr> +<tr><td>251</td> <td> Decius slain</td><td> Gallus.</td></tr> +<tr><td>254</td> <td> Gallus slain</td><td> Valerian.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td></td> <td> {Gallienus.</td></tr> +<tr><td>258</td> <td> Postumus proclaimed Emperor in</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Britain [V.A. 1]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>260</td> <td> Valerian slain</td><td> Gallienus.</td></tr> +<tr><td>265</td> <td> Victorinus associated with</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Postumus [V.A. 1]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>268</td> <td> Gallienus slain </td><td> Tetricus.</td></tr> +<tr><td>269</td> <td> Tetricus slain</td><td> Claudius Gothicus.</td></tr> +<tr><td>270</td> <td> Claudius Gothicus dies</td><td> Aurelian.</td></tr> +<tr><td>273 (?)</td> <td> Constantius Chlorus marries</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Helen, a British lady [V.A. 6]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>274</td> <td> Constantine the Great born at</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> York [V.A. 6]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>275</td> <td> Aurelian slain </td><td> Tacitus.</td></tr> +<tr><td>276</td> <td> Tacitus slain </td><td> Florianus.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Florianus slain</td><td> Probus.</td></tr> +<tr><td>277</td> <td> Vandal prisoners deported to</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Britain [V.A. 1]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>282</td> <td> Probus slain</td><td> Carus.</td></tr> +<tr><td>283</td> <td> Carus dies</td><td> Numerian.</td></tr> +<tr><td>284</td> <td> Numerian dies</td><td> Carinus.</td></tr> +<tr><td>285</td> <td> Carinus dies</td><td> Diocletian.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td> <td> Maximian.</td></tr> +<tr><td>286</td> <td> Carausius, first "Count of the</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Saxon Shore," becomes Emperor</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> in Britain [V.A. 3]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>292</td> <td> Constantine and Galerius "Caesars"</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> [V.A. 5]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>294</td> <td> Carausius murdered by Allectus</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> [V.A. 4]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>296</td> <td> Constantius slays Allectus and</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> recovers Britain [V.A. 7, 8]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Britain divided into four "Diocletian"</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Provinces [V.A. 9]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>303</td> <td> Tenth Persecution. Martyrdom</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> of St. Alban [V.A. 11]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>305</td> <td> Diocletian and Maximian abdicate</td><td> Constantius.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> [V.A. 12]</td><td> Galerius.</td></tr> +<tr><td>306</td> <td> Constantius dies at York [V.A.</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> 13]. Constantine, Galerius,</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Maxentius, Licinius, etc., contend</td><td> Interregnum.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> for Empire [V.A. 14]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>312</td> <td> Constantine with British Army</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> wins at Milvian Bridge, and</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> embraces Christianity [V.A. 14]</td><td> Constantine.</td></tr> +<tr><td>314</td> <td> Council of Arles [V.E. 14]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>325</td> <td> Council of Nicaea [V.B. 1]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td></td> <td> Constantine II.</td></tr> +<tr><td>337</td> <td> Constantine dies</td> <td> Constantius II.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td></td> <td> Constans.</td></tr> +<tr><td>340</td> <td> Constantine II. dies</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>343</td> <td> Constans and Constantius II. visit</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Britain [V.B. 1]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>350</td> <td> Constans slain. Usurpation of</td><td> Constantius II.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Magnentius in Britain [V.B. 3]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>353</td> <td> Magnentius dies [V.B. 3]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>358</td> <td> Britain under Julian. Exportation</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> of corn [V.B. 4]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>360</td> <td> Council of Ariminum [V.E. 14]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>361</td> <td> Death of Constantius [V.B. 6]</td><td> Julian.</td></tr> +<tr><td>362</td> <td> Lupicinus, Legate in Britain, repels</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> first attacks of Picts</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> and Scots [V.B. 5]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>363</td> <td> Julian dies</td><td> Valentinian.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td></td> <td> Valens.</td></tr> +<tr><td>365</td> <td> Saxons, Picts, and Scots ravage</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> shores of Britain [V.B. 7]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td></td> <td> Valentinian.</td></tr> +<tr><td>366</td> <td> Gratian associated in Empire</td> <td> Valens.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td> <td> Gratian.</td></tr> +<tr><td>367</td> <td> Great barbarian raid on Britain</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Roman commanders slain </td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> [V.B. 7]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>368</td> <td> Theodosius, Governor of Britain,</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> expels Picts and Scots</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> [V.B. 7]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>369</td> <td> Theodosius recovers Valentia </td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> [V.B. 7]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>374</td> <td> Saxons invade Britain [V.B. 8]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td></td> <td> Valens.</td></tr> +<tr><td>375</td> <td> Valentinian dies</td><td> Gratian.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td> <td> {Valentinian II.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td></td> <td> Gratian.</td></tr> +<tr><td>378</td> <td> Valens slain. Theodosius associated</td><td> Valentinian II.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> in Empire</td><td> Theodosius.</td></tr> +<tr><td>383</td> <td> Gratian slain. British Army proclaims </td> <td> Valentinian II.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Maximus and conquer</td><td> Theodosius.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Gaul [V.C. 1]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>387</td> <td> British Army under Maximus take</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Rome [V.C. 1]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>388</td> <td> Maximus slain. First British</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> settlement in Armorica (?) [V.</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> C. 1]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>392</td> <td> Valentinian II. slain. Penal laws</td><td> Theodosius.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> against Heathenism</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>394</td> <td> Ninias made Bishop of Picts by</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Pope Siricius (?) [V.F. 1]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>395</td> <td> Death of Theodosius</td><td> Arcadius.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td> <td> Honorius.</td></tr> +<tr><td>396</td> <td> Stilicho sends a Legion to protect</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Britain (?) [V.C. 1]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td></td><td> Arcadius.</td></tr> +<tr><td>402</td> <td> Theodosius II. associated in Empire</td><td> Honorius.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td></td> <td> Theodosius II.</td></tr> +<tr><td>406</td> <td> Stilicho recalls Legion to meet</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Radagaisus [V.C. 2]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> 'Notitia' composed (?) [V.C. 3-9]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> German tribes flood Gaul [V.C. 2]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>407</td> <td> British Army proclaim Constantine</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> III. and reconquer Gaul [V.C.</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> 10]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>408</td> <td> Arcadius dies. Constantine III.</td> <td> Honorius.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> recognized as "Augustus"</td><td> Theodosius II.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td> <td> Constantine III.</td></tr> +<tr><td>410</td> <td> Visigoths under Alaric take Rome</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> [V.C. 11]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>411</td> <td> Constantine III. slain </td><td> Honorius.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td> <td> Theodosius II.</td></tr> +<tr><td>413 (?)</td> <td> Pelagian heresy arises in Britain</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> [V.F. 3]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>415 (?)</td> <td> Rescript of Honorius to the Cities</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> of Britain [V.C. 11]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>423</td> <td> Death of Honorius</td> <td> Theodosius II.</td></tr> +<tr><td>425</td> <td> Valentinian III., son of Galla</td> <td> Theodosius II.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Placidia, Emperor of West [V.D. 3]</td><td> Valentinian III.</td></tr> +<tr><td>429 (?)</td> <td> SS. Germanus and Lupus sent to</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Britain by Pope Celestine (?)</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> [V.F. 4]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>432 (?)</td> <td> St. Patrick sent to Ireland by</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Pope Celestine [V.F. 2]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>435 (?)</td> <td> Roman Legion sent to aid Britons (?)</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>436 (?)</td> <td> Roman forces finally withdrawn (?)</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>446</td> <td> Vain appeal of Britons to Actius (?)</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> [V.D. 2]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>447 (?)</td> <td> The Alleluia Battle [V.F. 4]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>449 (?)</td> <td> Hengist and Horsa settle in</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Thanet (?) [V.D. 3]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>450 (?)</td> <td> English defeat Picts at Stamford(?)</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> [V.B. 2]</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> Theodosius II. dies</td><td> Valentinian III.</td></tr> +<tr><td>455 (?)</td> <td> Battle of Aylesford begins English</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td> <td> conquest of Britain (?) [V.D. 2]</td><td></td></tr> +</table> +<br /> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> +<br /> +<center><a href="#Illustration_A_MAP_OF"><b>A MAP OF +BRITAIN to illustrate THE ROMAN OCCUPATION.</b></a></center><br /> +<center><a href="#ERRATA"><b>ERRATA.</b></a></center><br /> +<center><a href="#PREFACE"><b>PREFACE</b></a></center><br /> +<center><a href="#BIBLIOGRAPHY"><b>BIBLIOGRAPHY</b></a></center><br /> +<center><a href="#ANCIENT_AUTHORITIES_REFERRED_TO_IN_THIS_WORK"><b>ANCIENT AUTHORITIES REFERRED TO IN THIS WORK</b></a></center><br /> +<center><a href="#LATER_AUTHORITIES"><b>LATER AUTHORITIES</b></a></center><br /> +<br /> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<br /> +<center><a href="#CHAPTER_I"><b>CHAPTER I</b></a></center><br /> + +<h4>PRE-ROMAN BRITAIN</h4> +<br /> +<p><a href="#A."><b>§ A.</b></a>—<i>Palaeolithic Age—Extinct fauna—River-bed men—Flint +implements—Burnt stones—Worked bones—Glacial climate</i></p> + +<p><a href="#B."><b>§ B.</b></a>—<i>Neolithic Age—"Ugrians"—Polished flints—Jadite—Gold ornaments—Cromlechs<br /> +—Forts—Bronze Age—Copper and tin—Stonehenge</i></p> + +<p><a href="#C."><b>§ C.</b></a>—<i>Aryan immigrants—Gael and Briton—Earliest classical nomenclature—British Isles<br /> +—Albion—Ierne—Cassiterides—Phoenician tin trade viâ Cadiz</i></p> + +<p><a href="#D."><b>§ D.</b></a>—<i>Discoveries of Pytheas—Greek tin trade viâ Marseilles—Trade routes—Ingots—Coracles<br /> +—Earliest British coins—Lead-mining</i></p> + +<p><a href="#E."><b>§ E.</b></a>—<i>Pytheas trustworthy—His notes on Britain—Agricultural tribes—Barns—Manures—Dene<br /> +Holes—Mead—Beer—Parched corn—Pottery—Mill-stones—Villages—Cattle—Pastoral<br /> +tribes—Savage tribes—Cannibalism—Polyandry—Beasts of chase—Forest trees—British<br /> +clothing and arms—Sussex iron</i></p> + +<p><a href="#F."><b>§ F.</b></a>—<i>Celtic types—"Roy" and "Dhu"—Gael—Silurians—Loegrians—Basque peoples—Shifting<br /> +of clans—Constitutional disturbances—Monarchy—Oligarchy—Demagogues—First inscribed +coins</i></p> + +<p><a href="#G."><b>§ G.</b></a>—<i>Clans at Julian invasion—Permanent natural boundaries—Population Celtic settlements<br /> +—"Duns"—Maiden Castle</i></p> + +<p><a href="#H."><b>§ H.</b></a>—<i>Religious state of Britain—Illustrated by +Hindooism—Totemists—Polytheists—Druids<br /> +—Bards—Seers—Druidic Deities—Mistletoe—Sacred herbs—"Ovum Anguinum"—Suppression<br /> +of Druidism—Druidism and Christianity</i></p> +<br /> + +<center><a href="#CHAPTER_II"><b>CHAPTER II</b></a></center> + +<h4>THE JULIAN INVASION</h4> + +<h4>B.C. 55, 54</h4> +<br /> + +<p><a href="#AII."><b>§ A.</b></a><i>—Caesar and Britain—Breakdown of Roman Republican institutions—Corruption +abroad<br /> +and at home—Rise of Caesar Conquest of Gaul</i></p> + +<p><a href="#BII."><b>§ B.</b></a><i>—Sea-fight with Veneti and Britons—Pretexts for invading Britain—British dominion of<br /> +Divitiacus—Gallic tribes in Britain—Atrebates—Commius</i></p> + +<p><a href="#CII."><b>§ C.</b></a><i>—Defeat of Germans—Bridge over Rhine—Caesar's army—Dread of ocean—Fleet at<br /> +Boulogne—Commius sent to Britain—Channel crossed—Attempt on Dover—Landing<br /> +at Deal—Legionary sentiment—British army dispersed</i></p> + +<p><a href="#DII."><b>§ D.</b></a><i>—Wreck of fleet—Fresh British levy—Fight in corn-field—British chariots—Attack on<br /> +camp—Romans driven into sea</i></p> + +<p><a href="#EII."><b>§ E.</b></a><i>—Caesar worsted—New fleet built—Caesar at Rome—Cicero—Expedition of 54 B.C.<br /> +—Unopposed landing—Pro-Roman Britons—Trinobantes—Mandubratius—British army<br /> +surprised—"Old +England's Hole"</i></p> + +<p><a href="#FII."><b>§ F.</b></a><i>—Fleet again wrecked—Britons rally under Caswallon—Battle of Barham Down—Britons fly<br /> +to London—Origin of London—Patriot army dispersed</i></p> + +<p><a href="#GII."><b>§ G.</b></a><i>—Passage of Thames—Submission of clans—Storm of Verulam—Last patriot effort in<br /> +Kent—Submission of Caswallon—Romans leave Britain—"Caesar Divus"</i></p> +<br /> + +<center><a href="#CHAPTER_III"><b>CHAPTER III</b></a></center> + +<h4>THE ROMAN CONQUEST</h4> + +<h4>B.C. 54-A.D. 85</h4> +<br /> + +<p><a href="#AIII."><b>§ A.</b></a><i>—Britain after Julius Caesar—House of Commius—Inscribed coins—House of Cymbeline<br /> +—Tasciovan—Commians overthrown—Vain appeal to Augustus—Ancyran Tablet—Romano-British<br /> +trade—Lead-mining—British fashions in Rome—Adminius banished by Cymbeline—Appeal<br /> +to Caligula—Futile demonstration—Icenian civil war—Vericus banished—Appeal to<br /> +Claudius—Invasion prepared</i></p> + +<p><a href="#BIII."><b>§ B.</b></a><i>—Aulus Plautius—Reluctance to embark—Narcissus—Passage of Channel—Landing at<br /> +Portchester—Strength of expedition—Vespasian's legion—British defeats—Line of Thames<br /> +held—Arrival of Claudius—Camelodune taken—General submission of island</i></p> + +<p><a href="#CIII."><b>§ C.</b></a><i>—Claudius triumphs—Gladiatorial shows—Last stand of Britons—Gallantry of Titus—Ovation<br /> +of Plautius—Distinctions bestowed—Triumphal arch—Commemorative coinage—Conciliatory<br /> +policy—British worship of Claudius—Cogidubnus—Attitude of clans—Britain made Imperial<br /> +province</i></p> + +<p><a href="#DIII."><b>§ D.</b></a><i>—Ostorius Pro-praetor—Pacification of Midlands—Icenian revolt—The Fleam Dyke—Iceni<br /> +crushed—Cangi—Brigantes—Silurian war—Storm of Caer Caradoc—Treachery of Cartismandua<br /> +—Caradoc at Rome—Death of Ostorius—Uriconium and Caerleon—Britain quieted—Death of<br /> +Claudius</i></p> + +<p><a href="#EIII."><b>§ E.</b></a><i>—Neronian misgovernment—Seneca—Prasutagus—Boadicean revolt—Sack of Camelodune<br /> +—Suetonius in Mona—Druidesses—Sack of London and Verulam—Boadicea crushed at Battle<br /> +Bridge—Peace of Petronius</i></p> + +<p><a href="#FIII."><b>§ F.</b></a><i>—Otho and Vitellius—Civil war—Army of Britain—Priscus—Agricola—Vespasian Emperor<br /> +—Cerealis—Brigantes put down—Silurians put down—Agricola Pro-praetor—Ordovices<br /> +put down—Frontinus—Pacification of South Britain—Roman civilization introduced—Caledonian<br /> +campaign—Galgacus—Agricola's rampart—Domitian—Resignation and death of Agricola</i></p> +<br /> + +<center><a href="#CHAPTER_IV"><b>CHAPTER IV</b></a></center> + +<h4>THE ROMAN OCCUPATION</h4> + +<h4>A.D. 85-211</h4> + +<p><a href="#AIV."><b>§ A.</b></a><i>—Pacification of Britain—Roman roads—London their centre—Authority for names—Watling<br /> +Street—Ermine Street—Icknield Way</i></p> + +<p><a href="#BIV."><b>§ B.</b></a><i>—Romano-British towns—Ancient lists—Method of identification—Dense rural population<br /> +—Remains in Cam valley—Coins—Thimbles—Horseshoes</i></p> + +<p><a href="#CIV."><b>§ C.</b></a><i>—Fortification of towns late—Chief Roman centres—London—York—Chester—Bath<br /> +—Silchester—Remains there found—Romano-British handicrafts—Pottery—Basket-work<br /> +—Mining—Rural life—Villas—Forests—Hunting-dogs—Husbandry—Britain under Pax Romana</i></p> + +<p><a href="#DIV."><b>§ D.</b></a><i>—The unconquered North—Hadrian's Wall—Upper and Lower Britain—Romano-British<br /> +coinage—Wall of Antoninus—Britain Pro-consular</i></p> + +<p><a href="#EIV."><b>§ E.</b></a><i>—Commodus Britannicus—Ulpius Marcellus—Murder of Perennis—Era of military turbulence<br /> +—Pertinax—Albinus—British army defeated at Lyons—Severus Emperor—Caledonian war<br /> +—Severus overruns Highlands</i></p> + +<p><a href="#FIV."><b>§ F.</b></a><i>—Severus completes Hadrian's Wall—"Mile Castles"—"Stations"—Garrison<br /> +—The Vallum—Rival theories—Evidence—Remains—Coins—Altars—Mithraism—Inscription<br /> +to Julia Domna—"Written Rock" on Gelt—Cilurnum +aqueduct</i></p> + +<p><a href="#GIV."><b>§ G.</b></a><i>—Death of Severus—Caracalla and Geta—Roman citizenship—Extension to veterans<br /> +—Tabulae honestae missionis—Bestowed on all British provincials</i></p> +<br /> + +<center><a href="#CHAPTER_V"><b>CHAPTER V</b></a></center> + +<h4>THE END OF ROMAN BRITAIN</h4> + +<h4>A.D. 211-455</h4> +<br /> + +<p><a href="#AV."><b>§ A.</b></a><i>—Era of Pretenders—Probus—Vandlebury—First notice of Saxons—Origin of name—Count<br /> +of the Saxon Shore—Carausius—Allectus—Last Romano-British coinage—Britain Mistress of<br /> +the Sea—Reforms of Diocletian—Constantius Chlorus—Re-conquest of Britain—Diocletian<br /> +provinces—Diocletian persecution—The last "Divus"—General scramble for Empire—British<br /> +army wins for Constantine—Christianity established</i></p> + +<p><a href="#BV."><b>§ B.</b></a><i>—Spread of Gospel—Arianism—Britain orthodox—Last Imperial visit—Heathen temples<br /> +stripped—British Emperors—Magnentius—Gratian—Julian—British corn-trade—First inroad of<br /> +Picts and Scots—Valentinian—Saxon raids—Campaign of Theodosius—Re-conquest of<br /> Valentia—Wall +restored and cities fortified</i></p> + +<p><a href="#CV."><b>§ C.</b></a><i>—Roman evacuation of Britain begun—Maximus—Settlement of Brittany—Radagaisus<br /> +invades Italy—Twentieth Legion leaves Britain—Britain in the 'Notitia'—Final effort of<br /> +British army—The last Constantine—Last Imperial Rescript to Britain—Sack of Rome by<br /> +Alaric—Final collapse of Roman rule in Britain</i></p> + +<p><a href="#DV."><b>§ D.</b></a><i>—Beginning of English Conquest—Vortigern—Jutes in Thanet—Battle of Stamford<br /> +—Massacre of Britons—Valentinian III.—Latest Roman coin found in Britain—Progress<br /> +of Conquest—The Cymry—Survival of Romano-British titles—Arturian Romances—Procopius<br /> +—Belisarius—Roman claims revived by Charlemagne—The British Empire</i></p> + +<p><a href="#EV."><b>§ E.</b></a><i>—Survivals of Romano-British civilization—Romano-British Church—Legends of its origin<br /> +—St. Paul—St. Peter—Joseph of Arimathaea—Glastonbury—Historical notices—Claudia and<br /> +Pudens—Pomponia—Church of St. Pudentiana—Patristic references to Britain—Tertullian<br /> +—Origen—Legend of Lucius—Native Christianity—British Bishops at Councils—Testimony<br /> +of Chrysostom and Jerome</i></p> + +<p><a href="#FV."><b>§ F.</b></a><i>—British missionaries—Ninias—Patrick—Beatus—British heresiarchs—Pelagius—Fastidius<br /> +—Pelagianism stamped out by Germanus—The Alleluia Battle—Romano-British churches—Why<br /> +so seldom found—Conclusion</i></p> +<br /> + +<center><a href="#INDEX"><b>INDEX</b></a></center><br /> + +<center><a href="#FOOTNOTES"><b>FOOTNOTES</b></a></center><br /> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<a name="ROMAN_BRITAIN"></a><h1>ROMAN BRITAIN</h1> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page25" id="page25">[25]</a></span> +<a name="CHAPTER_I"></a><h2>CHAPTER I</h2> + +<h3>PRE-ROMAN BRITAIN</h3> +<br /> + +<a name="A."></a><h4>SECTION A.</h4> + +<p><i>Palaeolithic Age—Extinct fauna—River-bed men—Flint implements—Burnt stones—Worked<br /> bones—Glacial climate. </i></p> +<br /> +<p>A. 1.—All history, as Professor Freeman so well +points out, centres round the great name of Rome. +For, of all the great divisions of the human race, it +is the Aryan family which has come to the front. +Assimilating, developing, and giving vastly wider +scope to the highest forms of thought and religion +originated by other families, notably the Semitic, the +various Aryan nationalities form, and have formed for +ages, the vanguard of civilization. These nationalities +are now practically co-extensive with Christendom; +and on them has been laid by Divine Providence +"the white man's burden"—the task of raising the +rest of mankind along with themselves to an ever +higher level—social, material, intellectual, and spiritual.</p> + +<p>A. 2.—Aryan history is thus, for all practical purposes, +the history of mankind. And a mere glance at +<span class="newpage"><a name="page26" id="page26">[26]</a></span> +Aryan history shows how entirely its great central +feature is the period during which all the leading +forces of Aryanism were grouped and fused together +under the world-wide Empire of Rome. In that +Empire all the streams of our Ancient History find +their end, and from that Empire all those of Modern +History take their beginning. "All roads," says the +proverb, "lead to Rome;" and this is emphatically +true of the lines of historical research; for as we tread +them we are conscious at every step of the <i>Romani +Nominis umbra</i>, the all-pervading influence of "the +mighty name of Rome."</p> + +<p>A. 3.—And above all is this true of the history of +Western Europe in general and of our own island in +particular. For Britain, History (meaning thereby +the more or less trustworthy record of political and +social development) does not even begin till its +destinies were drawn within the sphere of Roman +influence. It is with Julius Caesar, that great writer +(and yet greater maker) of History, that, for us, this +record commences.</p> + +<p>A. 4.—But before dealing with "Britain's tale" as +connected with "Caesar's fate," it will be well to note +briefly what earlier information ancient documents +and remains can afford us with regard to our island +and its inhabitants. With the earliest dwellers upon +its soil of whom traces remain we are, indeed, scarcely +concerned. For in the far-off days of the "River-bed" +men (five thousand or five hundred thousand years +ago, according as we accept the physicist's or the +geologist's estimate of the age of our planet) Britain +was not yet an island. Neither the Channel nor the +North Sea as yet cut it off from the Continent when +those primaeval savages herded beside the banks of its +streams, along with elephant and hippopotamus, bison +and elk, bear and hyaena; amid whose remains we +find their roughly-chipped flint axes and arrow-heads, +the fire-marked stones which they used in boiling their +water, and the sawn or broken bases of the antlers +which for some unknown purpose<a name="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6"><sup>[6]</sup></a> they were in the +habit of cutting up—perhaps, like the Lapps of to-day, +to anchor their sledges withal in the snow. For +the great Glacial Epoch, which had covered half the +Northern Hemisphere with its mighty ice-sheet, was +still, in their day, lingering on, and their environment +was probably that of Northern Siberia to-day. Some +archaeologists, indeed, hold that they are to this day +represented by the Esquimaux races; but this theory +cannot be considered in any way proved.</p> + +<p>A. 5.—Whether, indeed, they were "men" at all, in +any real sense of the word, may well be questioned. +For of the many attempts which philosophers in all +ages have made to define the word "man," the only +one which is truly defensible is that which differentiates +him from other animals, not by his physical or +intellectual, but by his spiritual superiority. Many +other creatures are as well adapted in bodily conformation +for their environment, and the lowest savages +are intellectually at a far lower level of development +than the highest insects; but none stand in the same +<span class="newpage"><a name="page27" id="page27">[27]</a></span> +relation to the Unseen. "Man," as has been well +said, "is the one animal that can pray." And there +is nothing amongst the remains of these "river-bed +men" to show us that they either did pray, or could. +Intelligence, such as is now found only in human +beings, they undoubtedly had. But whether they had +the capacity for Religion must be left an unsolved +problem. In this connection, however, it may be noted +that Tacitus, in describing the lowest savages of his +Germania [c. 46], "with no horses, no homes, no +weapons, skin-clad, nesting on the bare ground, men +and women alike, barely kept alive by herbs and such +flesh as their bone-tipped arrows can win them," +makes it his climax that they are "beneath the need +of prayer;"—adding that this spiritual condition is, +"beyond all others, that least attainable by man."</p> + +<br /> + +<a name="B."></a><h4>SECTION B.</h4> + +<p><i>Neolithic Age—"Ugrians"—Polished flints—Jadite—Gold ornaments—Cromlechs—Forts—Bronze<br /> +Age—Copper and tin—Stonehenge.</i></p> +<br /> +<p>B. 1.—Whatever they were, they vanish from our +ken utterly, these Palaeolithic savages, and are followed, +after what lapse of time we know not, by the users of +polished flint weapons, the tribes of the Neolithic +period. And with them we find ourselves in touch +with the existing development of our island. For an +island it already was, and with substantially the same +area and shores and physical features as we have them +still. Our rivers ran in the same valleys, our hills rose +<span class="newpage"><a name="page28" id="page28">[28]</a></span> +with the same contour, in those far-off days as now. +And while the place of flint in the armoury of Britain +was taken first by bronze and then by iron, these +changes were made by no sudden breaks, but so +gradually that it is impossible to say when one period +ended and the next began.</p> + +<p>B.2.—It is almost certain, however, that the +Neolithic men were not of Aryan blood. They are +commonly spoken of by the name of <i>Ugrians</i>,<a name="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7"><sup>[7]</sup></a> the +"ogres"<a name="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8"><sup>[8]</sup></a> of our folk-lore; which has also handed +down, in the spiteful Brownie of the wood and the +crafty Pixie of the cavern, dimly-remembered traditions +of their physical and mental characteristics. Indeed +it is not impossible that their blood may still be found +in the remoter corners of our land, whither they were +pushed back by the higher civilization of the Aryan +invaders, before whom they disappeared by a process +in which "miscegenation" may well have played no +small part. But disappear they did, leaving behind +them no more traces than their flint arrow-heads and +axes (a few of these being of jadite, which must have +come from China or thereabouts), together with their +oblong sepulchral barrows, from some of which the +earth has weathered away, so that the massive stones +imbedded in it as the last home of the deceased stand +exposed as a "dolmen" or "cromlech." But an +appreciable number of the earthworks which stud our +<span class="newpage"><a name="page29" id="page29">[29]</a></span> +hill-tops, and are popularly called "Roman" or +"British" camps, really belong to this older race. +Such are "Cony Castle" in Dorset, and the fortifications +along the Axe in Devon.</p> + +<p>B. 3.—During the neolithic stage of their development +the Ugrians were acquainted with but one metal, +gold, and some of their stone weapons and implements +are thus ornamented. For gold, being at once the +most beautiful, the most incorruptible, the most easily +recognizable, and the most easily worked of metals, is +everywhere found as used by man long before any +other. But before the Ugrian races vanish they had +learnt to use bronze, which shows them to have discovered +the properties not only of gold, but of both tin +and copper. All three metals were doubtless obtained +from the streams of the West. They had also become +proficients, as their sepulchral urns show, in the +manufacture of pottery. They could weave, moreover, +both linen and woollen being known, and had passed +far beyond the mere savage.</p> + +<p>B. 4.—The race, indeed, which could erect Avebury +and Stonehenge, as we may safely say was done by +this people,<a name="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9"><sup>[9]</sup></a> must have possessed engineering skill of +<span class="newpage"><a name="page30" id="page30">[30]</a></span> +a very high order, and no little accuracy of astronomical +observation. For the mighty "Sarsen" stones have +all been brought from a distance,<a name="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10"><sup>[10]</sup></a> and the whole vast +circles are built on a definite astronomical plan; while +so careful is the orientation that, at the summer solstice, +the disc of the rising sun, as seen from the "altar" +of Stonehenge, appears to be poised exactly on the +summit of one of the chief megaliths (now known as +"The Friar's Heel"). From this it would seem that +the builders were Sun-worshippers; and amongst the +earliest reports of Britain current in the Greek world we +find the fame of the "great round temple" dedicated to +Apollo. But no Latin author mentions it; so that it +is doubtful whether it was ever used by the Aryan, or +at least by the Brythonic, immigrants. These brought +their own worship and their own civilization with +them, and all that was highest in Ugrian civilization +and worship faded before them, such Ugrians as remained +having degenerated to a far lower level when +first we meet with them in history.</p> +<br /> + +<a name="C."></a><h4>SECTION C.</h4> + +<p><i>Aryan immigrants—Gael and Briton—Earliest classical nomenclature—British Isles—Albion—Ierne<br /> +—Cassiterides—Phoenician tin trade viâ Cadiz.</i></p> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page31" id="page31">[31]</a></span> +<br /> +<p>C. 1.—How or when the first swarms of the Aryan +migration reached Britain is quite unknown.<a name="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11"><sup>[11]</sup></a> But they +undoubtedly belonged to the Celtic branch of that +family, and to the Gaelic (Gadhelic or Goidelic) section +of the branch, which still holds the Highlands of +Scotland and forms the bulk of the population of +Ireland. By the 4th century B.C. this section was +already beginning to be pressed northwards and +westwards by the kindred Britons (or Brythons) who +followed on their heels; for Aristotle (or a disciple +of his) knows our islands as "the Britannic<a name="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12"><sup>[12]</sup></a> Isles." +That the Britons were in his day but new comers may +be argued from the fact that he speaks of Great Britain +by the name of <i>Albion</i>, a Gaelic designation +subsequently driven northwards along with those who used +it. In its later form <i>Albyn</i> it long remained as loosely +equivalent to North Britain, and as <i>Albany</i> it still +survives in a like connection. Ireland Aristotle calls +<i>Ierne</i>, the later Ivernia or Hibernia; a word also +found in the Argonautic poems ascribed to the mythical +Orpheus, and composed probably by Onomacritus about +350 B.C., wherein the Argo is warned against approaching +"the Iernian islands, the home of dark and noisome mischief." +This is the passage familiar to the readers of Kingsley's +'Heroes.'<a name="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13"><sup>[13]</sup></a></p> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page32" id="page32">[32]</a></span> +<p>C. 2.—Aristotle's work does no more than mention +our islands, as being, like Ceylon, not pelagic, but +oceanic. To early classical antiquity, it must be +remembered, the Ocean was no mere sea, but a vast and +mysterious river encircling the whole land surface of +the earth. Its mighty waves, its tides, its furious +currents, all made it an object of superstitious horror. +To embark upon it was the height of presumption; +and even so late as the time of Claudius we shall find +the Roman soldiers feeling that to do so, even for the +passage of the Channel, was "to leave the habitable +world."</p> + +<p>C. 3.—But while the ancients dreaded the Ocean, +they knew also that its islands alone were the source of +one of the most precious and rarest of their metals. +Before iron came into general use (and the difficulty of +smelting it has everywhere made it the last metal to +do so), tin had a value all its own. It was the only +known substance capable of making, along with copper, +an alloy hard enough for cutting purposes—the +"bronze" which has given its name to one entire Age +of human development. It was thus all but a necessary +of life, and was eagerly sought for as amongst +the choicest objects of traffic.</p> + +<p>C. 4.—The Phoenicians, the merchant princes of +the dawn of history, succeeded, with true mercantile +instinct, in securing a monopoly of this trade, by being +the first to make their way to the only spots in the +world where tin is found native, the Malay region in +the East, Northern Spain and Cornwall in the West. +That tin was known amongst the Greeks by its Sanscrit +<span class="newpage"><a name="page33" id="page33">[33]</a></span> +name <i>Kastira</i><a name="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14"><sup>[14]</sup></a> κασσιτερός [<b>kassiteros</b>], shows that the Eastern +source was the earliest to be tapped. But the Western +was that whence the supply flowed throughout the +whole of the classical ages; and, as the stream-tin of +the Asturian mountains seems to have been early +exhausted, the name <i>Cassiterides</i>, the Tin Lands, came +to signify exclusively the western peninsula of Britain. +Herodotus, in the 5th century B.C., knew this name, +but, as he frankly confesses, nothing but the name.<a name="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15"><sup>[15]</sup></a> +For the whereabouts of this El Dorado, and the +way to it, was a trade secret most carefully kept by +the Phoenician merchants of Cadiz, who alone held +the clue. So jealous were they of it that long afterwards, +when the alternative route through Gaul had already drawn +away much of its profitableness, we read of a Phoenician +captain purposely wrecking his ship lest a Roman vessel +in sight should follow to the port, and being indemnified +by the state for his loss.</p> +<br /> + +<a name="D."></a><h4>SECTION D.</h4> + +<p><i>Discoveries of Pytheas—Greek tin trade <i>viâ</i> Marseilles—Trade routes—Ingots—Coracles<br /> +—Earliest British coins—Lead-mining.</i></p> +<br /> +<p>D. 1.—But contemporary with Aristotle lived the +great geographer Pytheas; whose works, unfortunately, +we know only by the fragmentary references to them +<span class="newpage"><a name="page34" id="page34">[34]</a></span> +in later, and frequently hostile, authors, such as +Strabo, who dwell largely on his mistakes, and charge +him with misrepresentation. In fact, however, he +seems to have been both an accurate and truthful +observer, and a discoverer of the very first order. +Starting from his native city Massilia (Marseilles), he +passed through the Straits of Gibraltar and traced the +coast-line of Europe to Denmark (visiting Britain on his +way), and perhaps even on into the Baltic.<a name="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16"><sup>[16]</sup></a> The shore +of Norway (which he called, as the natives still call +it, Norgé) he followed till within the Arctic Circle, as +his mention of the midnight sun shows, and then struck +across to Scotland; returning, apparently by the Irish +Sea, to Bordeaux and so home overland. This truly +wonderful voyage he made at the public charge, with +a view to opening new trade routes, and it seems +to have thoroughly answered its purpose. Henceforward +the Phoenician monopoly was broken, and a +constant stream of traffic in the precious tin passed +between Britain and Marseilles.<a name="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17"><sup>[17]</sup></a></p> + +<p>D. 2.—The route was kept as secret as possible; +Polybius tells us that the Massiliots, when interrogated +by one of the Scipios, professed entire ignorance of +Britain; but Pytheas (as quoted by his contemporary +Timaeus, as well as by later writers) states that the metal +was brought by coasters to a tidal island, <i>Ictis</i>, whence +it was shipped for Gaul. This island was six days' sail +from the tin diggings, and can scarcely be any but +<span class="newpage"><a name="page35" id="page35">[35]</a></span> +Thanet. St. Michael's Mount, now the only tidal +island on the south coast, was anciently part of the +mainland; a fact testified to by the forest remains still +seen around it. Nor could it be six days' sail from +the tin mines. The Isle of Wight, again, to which +the name Ictis or Vectis would seem to point, can +never have been tidal at this date. But Thanet +undoubtedly was so in mediaeval times, and may +well have been so for ages, while its nearness to the +Continent would recommend it to the Gallic merchants. +Indeed Pytheas himself probably selected it +on this account for his new emporium.</p> + +<p>D. 3.—In his day, as we have seen, the tin reached +this destination by sea; but in the time of the later +traveller Posidonius<a name="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18"><sup>[18]</sup></a> it came in wagons, probably +by that track along the North Downs now known as +the "Pilgrims' Way." The chalk furnished a dry and +open road, much easier than the swamps and forests +of the lower ground. Further west the route seems +to have been <i>viâ</i> Launceston, Exeter, Honiton, Ilchester, +Salisbury, Winchester, and Alton; an ancient +track often traceable, and to be seen almost in its +original condition near "Alfred's Tower," in Somerset, +where it is known as "The Hardway." And this +long land transit argues a considerable degree of +political solidarity throughout the south of the island. +The tale of Posidonius is confirmed by Caesar's statement +<span class="newpage"><a name="page36" id="page36">[36]</a></span> +that tin reached Kent "from the interior," <i>i.e.</i> +by land. It was obtained at first from the streams of +Dartmoor and Cornwall, where abundant traces of +ancient washings are visible, and afterwards by mining, +as now. And when smelted it was made up into +those peculiar ingots which still meet the eye in +Cornwall, and whose shape seems never to have +varied from the earliest times. Posidonius, who +visited Cornwall, compares them to knuckle-bones<a name="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19"><sup>[19]</sup></a> +αστρηαγαλοι [<b>astrhagaloi</b>]</p> + +<p>D. 4.—The vessels which thus coasted from the +Land's End to the South Foreland are described as on +the pattern of coracles, a very light frame-work covered +with hides. It seems almost incredible that sea-going +craft could have been thus constructed; yet not only +is there overwhelming testimony to the fact throughout +the whole history of Roman Britain, but such +boats are still in use on the wild rollers which beat +upon the west coast of Ireland, and are found able +to live in seas which would be fatal to anything more +rigidly built. For the surf boats in use at Madras a +similar principle is adopted, not a nail entering into +their construction. They can thus face breakers +which would crush an ordinary boat to pieces. This +method of ship-building was common all along the +northern coast of Europe for ages.<a name="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20"><sup>[20]</sup></a> Nor were these +<span class="newpage"><a name="page37" id="page37">[37]</a></span> +coracles only used for coasting. As time went on, +the Britons boldly struck straight across from Cornwall +to the Continent, and both the Seine and the +Loire became inlets for tin into Gaul, thus lessening +the long land journey—not less than thirty days—which +was required, as Polybius tells us, to convey it +from the Straits of Dover to the Rhone. (This journey, +it may be noted, was made not in wagons, as through +Britain, but on pack-horses.)</p> + +<p>D. 5.—Thus it reached Marseilles; and that the +trade was founded by the Massiliot Pytheas is borne +testimony to by the early British coins, which are +all modelled on the classical currency of his age. +The medium in universal circulation then, current +everywhere, like the English sovereign now, was the +Macedonian stater, newly introduced by Philip, a +gold coin weighing 133 grains, bearing on the one +side the laureated head of Apollo, on the other a +figure of Victory in a chariot. Of this all known +Gallic and British coins (before the Roman era) are +more or less accurate copies. The earliest as yet +found in Britain do not date, according to Sir John +Evans, our great authority on this subject,<a name="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21"><sup>[21]</sup></a> from +before the 2nd century B.C. They are all dished +coins, rudely struck, and rapidly growing ruder as +time goes on. The head early becomes a mere +congeries of dots and lines, but one horse of the +chariot team remains recognizable to quite the end of +the series.</p> + +<p>D. 6.—These coins have been found in very large +<span class="newpage"><a name="page38" id="page38">[38]</a></span> +numbers, and of various types, according to the +locality in which they were struck. They occur as +far north as Edinburgh; but all seem to have been +issued by one or other of the tribes in the south and +east of the island, who learnt the idea of minting +from the Gauls. Whence the gold of which the coins +are made came from is a question not yet wholly +solved: surface gold was very probably still obtainable +at that date from the streams of Wales and Cornwall. +But it was long before any other metal was +used in the British mints. Not till after the invasion +of Julius Caesar do we find any coins of silver or +bronze issued, though he testifies to their existence. +The use of silver shows a marked advance in metallurgy, +and is probably connected with the simultaneous +development of the lead-mining in the Mendip Hills, +of which about this time we first begin to find traces.</p> +<br /> + +<a name="E."></a><h4>SECTION E.</h4> + +<p><i>Pytheas trustworthy—His notes on Britain—Agricultural tribes—Barns—Manures—Dene<br /> +Holes—Mead—Beer—Parched corn—Pottery—Mill-stones—Villages—Cattle—Pastoral tribes<br /> +—Savage tribes—Cannibalism—Polyandry—Beasts of chase—Forest trees—British clothing<br /> +and arms—Sussex iron.</i></p> +<br /> +<p>E. 1.—The trustworthiness of Pytheas is further +confirmed by the astronomical observations which he +records. He notices, for example, that the longest +day in Britain contains "nineteen equinoctial hours." +Amongst the ancients, it must be remembered, an +"hour," in common parlance, signified merely the +twelfth part, on any given day, of the time between +<span class="newpage"><a name="page39" id="page39">[39]</a></span> +sunrise and sunset, and thus varied according to the +season. But the standard hour for astronomical +purposes was the twelfth part of the equinoctial +day, when the sun rises 6 a.m. and sets 6 p.m., and +therefore corresponded with our own. Now the longest +day at Greenwich is actually not quite seventeen +hours, but in the north of Britain it comes near +enough to the assertion of Pytheas to bear out his +tale. We are therefore justified in giving credence to +his account of what he saw in our country, the earliest +that we possess. He tells us that, in some parts at +least, the inhabitants were far from being mere savages. +They were corn-growers (wheat, barley, and millet +being amongst their crops), and also cultivated +"roots," fruit trees, and other vegetables. What +specially struck him was that, "for lack of clear +sunshine<a name="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22"><sup>[22]</sup></a>," they threshed out their corn, not in open +threshing-floors, as in Mediterranean lands, but in +barns.</p> + +<p>E. 2.—From other sources we know that these old +British farmers were sufficiently scientific agriculturalists +to have invented <i>wheeled</i> ploughs,<a name="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23"><sup>[23]</sup></a> and to use a +variety of manures; various kinds of mast, loam, and +chalk in particular. This treatment of the soil was, +according to Pliny, a British invention<a name="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24"><sup>[24]</sup></a> (though the +Greeks of Megara had also tried it), and he thinks it +worth his while to give a long description of the +<span class="newpage"><a name="page40" id="page40">[40]</a></span> +different clays in use and the methods of their application. +That most generally employed was chalk dug out from pits +some hundred feet in depth, narrow at the mouth, but +widening towards the bottom. [<i>Petitur ex alto, in +centenos pedes actis plerumque puteis, ore angustatis; +intus spatiante vena</i>.]</p> + +<p>E. 3.—Here we have an exact picture of those +mysterious excavations some of which still survive to +puzzle antiquaries under the name of <i>Dene Holes</i>. +They are found in various localities; Kent, Surrey, +and Essex being the richest. In Hangman's Wood, +near Grays, in Essex, a small copse some four acres +in extent, there are no fewer than seventy-two Dene +Holes, as close together as possible, their entrance +shafts being not above twenty yards apart. These +shafts run vertically downwards, till the floor of the +pit is from eighty to a hundred feet below the surface +of the ground. At the bottom the shaft widens out +into a vaulted chamber some thirty feet across, from +which radiate four, five, or even six lateral crypts, +whose dimensions are usually about thirty feet in +length, by twelve in width and height. When the +shafts are closely clustered, the lateral crypts of +one will extend to within a few feet of those +belonging to its neighbours, but in no case do they +communicate with them (though the recent excavations +of archaeologists have thus connected whole groups of Dene +Holes). Many theories have been elaborated to account +for their existence, but the data are conclusive +against their having been either habitations, tombs, +store-rooms, or hiding-places; and, in 1898, Mr. +<span class="newpage"><a name="page41" id="page41">[41]</a></span> +Charles Dawson, F.S.A., pointed out that, in Sussex, +chalk and limestone are still quarried by means of +identically such pits. The chalk so procured is found +a far more efficacious dressing for the soil than that +which occurs on the surface, and moreover is more +cheaply got than by carting from even a mile's +distance. At the present day, as soon as a pit is +exhausted (that is as soon as the diggers dare make +their chambers no larger for fear of a downfall), +another is sunk hard by, and the first filled up with +the <i>débris</i> from the second. In the case of the +Dene Holes, this <i>débris</i> must have been required +for some other purpose; and to this fact alone we +owe their preservation. It is probable that the celebrated +cave at Royston in Hertfordshire was originally +dug for this purpose, though afterwards used as a +hermitage.</p> + +<p>E. 4.—Pytheas is also our authority for saying that +bee-keeping was known to the Britons of his day;<a name="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25"><sup>[25]</sup></a> a +drink made of wheat and honey being one of their +intoxicants. This method of preparing mead (or +metheglin) is current to this day among our peasantry. +Another drink was made from barley, and this, he +tells us, they called κονρμι [<b>kourmi</b>], the word still used in Erse +for beer, under the form <i>cuirm</i>. Dioscorides the +physician, who records this (and who may perhaps +have tried our national beverage, as he lived shortly +after the Claudian conquest of Britain), pronounces it +<span class="newpage"><a name="page42" id="page42">[42]</a></span> +"head-achy, unwholesome, and injurious to the +nerves": κεφαλαλγές ἐστι καὶ κακόχυμον, +καὶ τοῦ νεύρου βλαπτικόν +[<b>kephalalges esti kai kakhochymon, kai tou neurou</b>].</p> + +<p>E. 5.—Not all the tribes of Britain, however, were +at this level of civilization. Threshing in barns was +only practised by those highest in development, the +true Britons of the south and east. The Gaelic tribes +beyond them, so far as they were agricultural at all, +stored the newly-plucked ears of corn in their underground +dwellings, day by day taking out and dressing +κατεργαζομένους [<b>katergazomenous</b>] what was needed for each meal. The +method here referred to is doubtless that described +as still in use at the end of the 17th century in +the Hebrides.<a name="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26"><sup>[26]</sup></a> "A woman, sitting down, takes a +handful of corn, holding it by the stalks in her left +hand, and then sets fire to the ears, which are presently +in a flame. She has a stick in her right hand, which +she manages very dexterously, beating off the grains +at the very instant when the husk is quite burnt.... +The corn may be thus dressed, winnowed, ground, +and baked, within an hour of reaping."</p> + +<p>When kept, it may usually have been stored, like +that of Robinson Crusoe, in baskets;<a name="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27"><sup>[27]</sup></a> for +basket-making was a peculiarly British industry, and +Posidonius found "British baskets" in use on the +<span class="newpage"><a name="page43" id="page43">[43]</a></span> +Continent. But probably it was also hoarded—again +in Crusoe fashion—in the large jars of coarse pottery +which are occasionally found on British sites. These, +and the smaller British vessels, are sometimes elaborately +ornamented with devices of no small artistic +merit. But all are hand-made, the potter's wheel being +unknown in pre-Roman days.</p> + +<p>E. 6.—Nor does the grinding of corn, even in hand-mills, +seem to have been universal till the Roman era, +the earlier British method being to bruise the grain +in a mortar.<a name="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28"><sup>[28]</sup></a> Without the resources of civilization +it is not easy to deal with stones hard enough for +satisfactory millstones. We find that the Romans, +when they came, mostly selected for this use the +Hertfordshire "pudding-stone," a conglomerate of the +Eocene period crammed with rolled flint pebbles, +sometimes also bringing over Niederendig lava from +the Rhine valley, and burr-stone from the Paris basin +for their querns.</p> + +<p>E. 7.—These tribes are described as living in cheap +εὐτελεῖς [<b>euteleis</b>], dwellings, constructed of reeds or logs, yet +spoken of as subterranean.<a name="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29"><sup>[29]</sup></a> Light has been thrown +on this apparent contradiction by the excavation in +1889 of the site of a British village at Barrington in +Cambridgeshire. Within a space of about sixty yards +each way, bounded by a fosse some six feet wide and +four deep, were a collection of roughly circular pits, +distributed in no recognizable system, from twelve to +<span class="newpage"><a name="page44" id="page44">[44]</a></span> +twenty feet in diameter and from two to four in depth. +They were excavated in the chalky soil, and from each +a small drainage channel ran for a yard or two down +the gentle slope on which the settlement stood. +Obviously a superstructure of thatch and wattle would +convert these pits into quite passable wigwams, +corresponding to the description of Pytheas. This +whole village was covered by several feet of top-soil +in which were found numerous interments of Anglo-Saxon +date. It had seemingly perished by fire, a layer +of incinerated matter lying at the bottom of each pit.</p> + +<p>E. 8.—The domestic cattle of the Britons were a +diminutive breed, smaller than the existing Alderney, +with abnormally developed foreheads (whence their +scientific name <i>Bos Longifrons</i>). Their remains, the +skulls especially, are found in every part of the land, +with no trace, in pre-Roman times, of any other breed. +The gigantic wild ox of the British forests (<i>Bos +Primigenius</i>) seems never to have been tamed by the +Celtic tribes, who, very possibly, like the Romans after +them, may have brought their own cattle with them +into the island. According to Professor Rolleston +the small size of the breed is due to the large +consumption of milk by the breeders. (He notes that +the cattle of Burmah and Hindostan are identically +the same stock, and that in Burmah, where comparatively +little milk is used, they are of large size. In +Hindostan, on the contrary, where milk forms the +staple food of the population, the whole breed is +stunted, no calf having, for ages, been allowed its due +supply of nutriment.) The Professor also holds that +<span class="newpage"><a name="page45" id="page45">[45]</a></span> +these small oxen, together with the goat, sheep, horse, +dog, and swine (of the Asiatic breed), were introduced +into Britain by the Ugrian races in the Neolithic Age; +and that the pre-Roman Britons had no domestic +fowls except geese.<a name="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30"><sup>[30]</sup></a></p> + +<p>E. 9.—If these considerations are of weight they +would point to an excessive dependence on milk even +amongst the agricultural tribes of Britain. And there +were others, as we know, who had not got beyond the +pastoral stage of human development. These, as +Strabo declares, had no idea of husbandry, "nor even +sense enough to make cheese, though milk they have +in plenty."<a name="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31"><sup>[31]</sup></a> And some of the non-Aryan hordes +seem to have been mere brutal savages, practising +cannibalism and having wives in common. Both +practices are mentioned by the latest as well as the +earliest of our classical authorities. Jerome says that +in Gaul he himself saw Attacotti (the primitive inhabitants +of Galloway) devouring human flesh, and refers +to their sexual relations, which more probably imply +some system of polyandry, such as still prevails in +Thibet, than mere promiscuous intercourse. Traces +of this system long remained in the rule of "Mutter-recht," +which amongst several of the more remote septs +traced inheritance invariably through the mother and +not the father.</p> + +<p>E. 10.—These savages knew neither corn nor cattle. +Like the "Children of the Mist" in the pages of +Walter Scott,<a name="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32"><sup>[32]</sup></a> their boast was "to own no lord, receive +<span class="newpage"><a name="page46" id="page46">[46]</a></span> +no land, take no hire, give no stipend, build no hut, +enclose no pasture, sow no grain; to take the deer +of the forest for their flocks and herds," and to eke +out this source of supply by preying upon their less +barbarous neighbours "who value flocks and herds +above honour and freedom." Lack of game, however, +can seldom have driven them to this; for the forests +of ancient Britain seem to have swarmed with animal +life. Red deer, roebuck, wild oxen, and wild swine +were in every brake, beaver and waterfowl in every +stream; while wolf, bear, and wild-cat shared with man +in taking toll of their lives. The trees of these forests, +it may be mentioned, were (as in some portions of +Epping Forest now) almost wholly oak, ash, holly, +and yew; the beech, chestnut, elm, and even the +fir, being probably introduced in later ages.</p> + +<p>E. 11.—Of the British tribes, however, almost none, +even amongst these wild woodlanders, were the naked +savages, clothed only in blue paint, that they are +commonly imagined to have been. On the contrary, they +could both weave and spin; and the tartan, with its +variegated colours, is described by Caesar's contemporary, +Diodorus Siculus, as their distinctive dress, +just as one might speak of Highlanders at the present +day.<a name="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33"><sup>[33]</sup></a> Pliny mentions that all the colours used were +<span class="newpage"><a name="page47" id="page47">[47]</a></span> +obtained from native herbs and lichens,<a name="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34"><sup>[34]</sup></a> as is still the +case in the Hebrides, where sea-weed dyes are mostly +used. Woad was used for tattooing the flesh with blue +patterns, and a decoction of beechen ashes for dyeing +the hair red if necessary, whenever that colour was +fashionable.<a name="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35"><sup>[35]</sup></a> The upper classes wore collars and +bracelets of gold, and necklaces of glass and amber +beads.</p> + +<p>E. 12.—This last item suggests an interesting question +as to whence came the vast quantities of amber +thus used. None is now found upon our shores, +except a very occasional fragment on the East +Anglian beaches. But the British barrows bear abundant +testimony to its having been in prehistoric times +the commonest of all materials for ornamental +purposes—far commoner than in any other country. +Beads are found by the myriad—a single Wiltshire +grave furnished a thousand—mostly of a discoid +shape, and about an inch in diameter. Larger plates +occasionally appear, and in one case (in Sussex) a cup +formed from a solid block of exceptional size. If all +this came from the Baltic, the main existing source of +our amber,<a name="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36"><sup>[36]</sup></a> it argues a considerable trade, of which +<span class="newpage"><a name="page48" id="page48">[48]</a></span> +we find no mention in any extant authority. Pytheas +witnesses to the amber of the Baltic, and says nothing, +so far as we know, of British amber. But, according +to Pliny,<a name="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37"><sup>[37]</sup></a> his contemporary Solinus speaks of it as a +British product; and at the Christian era it was apparently +a British export.<a name="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38"><sup>[38]</sup></a> The supply of amber as a +jetsom is easily exhausted in any given district; miles +of Baltic coast rich in it within mediaeval times are +now quite barren; and the same thing has probably +taken place in Britain. The rapid wearing away of +our amber-bearing Norfolk shore is not unlikely to +have been the cause of this change; the submarine +fir-groves of the ancient littoral, with their resinous +exudations, having become silted over far out at sea.<a name="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39"><sup>[39]</sup></a> +The old British amber sometimes contained flies. +Dioscorides<a name="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40"><sup>[40]</sup></a> applies to it the epithet πτερυγοφόρον [<b>pterugophoron</b>] +["fly-bearing"].</p> + +<p>E. 13.—The chiefs were armed with large brightly-painted +shields,<a name="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41"><sup>[41]</sup></a> plumed (and sometimes crested) helmets, +and cuirasses of leather, bronze, or chain-mail. +The national weapons of offence were darts, pikes +(sometimes with prongs—the origin of Britannia's +trident), and broadswords; bows and arrows being +more rarely used. Both Diodorus Siculus [v. 30] and +Strabo [iv. 197] describe this equipment, and specimens +of all the articles have, at one place or another, +been found in British interments.<a name="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42"><sup>[42]</sup></a> The arms are +<span class="newpage"><a name="page49" id="page49">[49]</a></span> +often richly worked and ornamented, sometimes inlaid +with enamel, sometimes decorated with studs of red +coral from the Mediterranean.<a name="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43"><sup>[43]</sup></a> The shields, being of +wood, have perished, but their circular bosses of iron +still remain. The chariots, which formed so special +a feature of British militarism, were also of wood, +painted, like the shields, and occasionally ironclad.<a name="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44"><sup>[44]</sup></a> +The iron may have been from the Sussex fields. We +know that in Caesar's day rings of this metal were one +of the forms of British currency, so that before his +time the Britons must have attained to the smelting +of this most intractable of metals.</p> +<br /> + +<a name="F."></a><h4>SECTION F.</h4> + +<p><i>Celtic types—"Roy" and "Dhu"—Gael—Silurians—Loegrians—Basque peoples—Shifting of<br /> clans—Constitutional +disturbances—Monarchy—Oligarchy—Demagogues—First inscribed +coins.</i></p> +<br /> +<p>F. 1.—Our earliest records point to the existence +among the Celtic tribes in Britain of the two physical +types still to be found amongst them; the tall, +fair, red-haired, blue-eyed Gael, whom his clansmen +denominate "Roy" (the Red), and the dark complexion, +hair and eyes, usually associated with shorter stature, +which go with the designation "Dhu" (the Black). +Rob Roy and Roderick Dhu are familiar illustrations +of this nomenclature. In classical times these types +were much less intermingled than now, and were +characteristic of separate races. The former prevailed +<span class="newpage"><a name="page50" id="page50">[50]</a></span> +almost exclusively amongst the true Britons of the +south and east, and the Gaelic septs of the north, +while the latter was found throughout the west, in +Devon, Cornwall, and Wales. The Silurians, of Glamorgan, +are specially noted as examples of this "black" +physique, and a connection has been imagined between +them and the Basques of Iberia, an idea originating +with Strabo.</p> + +<p>F. 2.—That a good deal of non-Aryan blood was, +and is, to be found in both regions is fairly certain; +but any closer correlation must be held at any rate not +proven. For though Strabo asserts that the Silurians +differ not only in looks but in language from the +Britons, while in both resembling the Iberians, it is +probable that he derives his information from Pytheas +four centuries earlier. At that date non-Aryan speech +may very possibly still have lingered on in the West, +but there is no trace whatever to be found of anything +of the sort in the nomenclature of the district during +or since the Roman occupation. All is unmitigated +Celtic. We may, however, possibly find a confirmation +of Strabo's view in the word <i>Logris</i> applied to +Southern Britain by the Celtic bards of the Arturian +cycle. The word is said to be akin to <i>Liger</i> (Loire), +and tradition traced the origin of the Loegrians to the +southern banks of that river, which were undoubtedly +held by Iberian (Basque) peoples at least to the date +when Pytheas visited those parts. The name, indeed, +seems to be connected with that of the Ligurians, a +kindred non-Aryan community, surviving, in historical +times, only amongst the Maritime Alps.</p> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page51" id="page51">[51]</a></span> +<p>F. 3.—It is probable that the status of each clan +was continually shifting; and what little we know of +their names and locations, their rise and their fall, +presents an even more kaleidoscopic phantasmagoria +than the mediaeval history of the Scotch Highlands, +or the principalities of Wales, or the ever-changing +septs of ancient Ireland. Tribes absorbed or destroyed +by conquering tribes, tribes confederating with others +under a fresh name, this or that chief becoming a +new eponymous hero,—such is the ceaseless spectacle +of unrest of which the history of ancient Britain gives +us glimpses.</p> + +<p>F. 4.—By the time that these glimpses become anything +like continuous, things were further complicated +by two additional elements of disturbance. One of +these was the continuous influx of new settlers from +Gaul, which was going on throughout the 1st century +B.C. Caesar tells us that the tribes of Kent, Sussex, and +Essex were all of the Belgic stock, and we shall see +that the higher politics of his day were much influenced +by the fact that one and the same tribal chief claimed +territorial rights in Gaul and Britain at once; just +like so many of our mediaeval barons. The other +was the coincidence that just at this period the +British tribes began to be affected by the turbulent +stage of constitutional development connected, in +Greece and Rome, with the abolition of royalty.</p> + +<p>F. 5.—The primitive Aryan community (so far, at +least, as the western branch of the race is concerned) +everywhere presents to us the threefold element of +King, Lords, and Commons. The King is supreme, +<span class="newpage"><a name="page52" id="page52">[52]</a></span> +he reigns by right of birth (though not according to +strict primogeniture), and he not only reigns but +governs. Theoretically he is absolute, but practically +can do little without taking counsel with his Lords, +the aristocracy of the tribe, originally an aristocracy +of birth, but constantly tending to become one of +wealth. The Commons gather to ratify the decrees +of their betters, with a theoretical right to dissent +(though not to discuss), a right which they seldom or +never at once care and dare to exercise.</p> + +<p>F. 6.—In course of time we see that everywhere +the supremacy of the Kings became more and more +distasteful to the Aristocracy, and was everywhere +set aside, sometimes by a process of quiet depletion +of the Royal prerogative, sometimes by a revolution; +the change being, in the former case, often informal, +with the name, and sometimes even the succession, +of the eviscerated office still lingering on. The executive +then passed to the Lords, and the state became +an oligarchical Republic, such as we see in Rome +after the expulsion of the Tarquins. Next came the +rise of the Lower Orders, who insisted with ever-increasing +urgency on claiming a share in the direction +of politics, and in every case with ultimate success. +Almost invariably the leaders who headed this uprising +of the masses grasped for themselves in the end +the supreme power, and as irresponsible "Dictators," +"Tyrants," or "Emperors" took the place of the old +constitutional Kings.</p> + +<p>F. 7.—Such was the cycle of events both in Rome +and in the Greek commonwealths; though in the +<span class="newpage"><a name="page53" id="page53">[53]</a></span> +latter it ran its course within a few generations, whilst +amongst the law-abiding Romans it was a matter of +centuries. And the pages of Caesar bear abundant +testimony to the fact that in his day the Gallic tribes +were all in the state of turmoil which mostly attended +the "<i>Regifugium</i>" period of development. Some +were still under their old Kings; some, like the Nervii, +had developed a Senatorial government; in some the +Commons had set up "Tyrants" of their own. It +was this general unrest which contributed in no small +degree to the Roman conquest of Gaul. And the +same state of things seems to have been begun in +Britain also. The earliest inscribed British coins +bear, some of them the names of Kings and Princes, +others those of peoples, others again designations +which seem to point to Tyrants. To the first class +belong those of Commius, Tincommius, Tasciovan, +Cunobelin, etc.; to the second those of the Iceni +and the Cassi; to the last the northern mintage of +Volisius, a potentate of the Parisii, who calls himself +Domnoverus, which, according to Professor Rhys,<a name="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45"><sup>[45]</sup></a> +literally signifies "Demagogue."</p> +<br /> + +<a name="G."></a><h4>SECTION G.</h4> + +<p><i>Clans at Julian invasion—Permanent natural boundaries—Population—Celtic settlements—"Duns"<br /> +—Maiden Castle.</i></p> +<br /> +<p>G. 1.—The earliest of these inscribed coins, however, +take us no further back than the Julian invasion; +<span class="newpage"><a name="page54" id="page54">[54]</a></span> +and it is to Caesar's Commentaries that we are indebted +for the first recorded names of any British tribes. It +is no part of his design to give any regular list of the +clans or their territories; he merely makes incidental +mention of such as he had to do with. Thus we +learn of the four nameless clans who occupied Kent +(a region which has kept its territorial name unchanged +from the days of Pytheas), and also of the +Atrebates, Cateuchlani, Trinobantes, Cenimagni, +Segontiaci, Ancalites, Bibroci, and Cassi.</p> + +<p>G. 2.—To the localities held by these tribes Caesar +bears no direct evidence; but from his narrative, as +well as from local remains and later references, we +know that the Trinobantes possessed Essex, and the +Cenimagni (i.e. "the Great Iceni" as they were still +called,<a name="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46"><sup>[46]</sup></a> though their power was on the wane), East +Anglia; while the Cateuchlani, already beginning to +be known as the Cassivellauni (or Cattivellauni), +presumably from their heroic chieftain Caswallon (or +Cadwallon),<a name="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47"><sup>[47]</sup></a> corresponded roughly to the later South +Mercians, between the Thames and the Nene. The +Segontiaci, Ancalites, Bibroci, and Cassi were less +considerable, and must evidently have been situated +on the marches between their larger neighbours. The +name of the Cassi may still, perhaps, cling to their +<span class="newpage"><a name="page55" id="page55">[55]</a></span> +old home, in the <i>Cashio</i> Hundred and <i>Cassiobury</i>, +near Watford; while conjecture finds traces of the +Ancalites in <i>Henley</i>, and of the Bibroci in <i>Bray</i>, on +either side of the Thames.</p> + +<p>G. 3.—The Atrebates, who play a not unimportant +part (as will be seen in the next chapter) in Caesar's +connection with Britain, were apparently in possession +of the whole southern bank of the Thames, from its +source right down to London—the river then, as in +Anglo-Saxon times, being a tribal boundary throughout +its entire length. This would make the Bibroci a +sub-tribe of the Atrebatian Name, and also the +Segontiaci, if Henry of Huntingdon (writing in the +12th century with access to various sources of information +now lost) is right in identifying Silchester, +the Roman <i>Calleva</i>, with their local stronghold Caer +Segent.</p> + +<p>G. 4.—But the whole attempt to locate accurately any +but the chiefest tribes found by the Romans in Britain +is too conjectural to be worth the infinite labour that +has been expended upon the subject by antiquaries. +All we can say with certainty is that forest and fen +must have cut up the land into a limited number of +fairly recognizable districts, each so far naturally +separated from the rest as to have been probably a +separate or quasi-separate political entity also. Thus, +not only was the Thames a line of demarcation, only +passable at a few points, from its estuary nearly to the +Severn Sea, but the southern regions cut off by it were +parted by Nature into five main districts. Sussex was +hemmed in by the great forest of Anderida, and that +<span class="newpage"><a name="page56" id="page56">[56]</a></span> +of Selwood continued the line from Southampton to +Bristol. Kent was isolated by the Romney marshes +and the wild country about Tunbridge, while the +western peninsula was a peninsula indeed when the +sea ran up to beyond Glastonbury. In this region, +then, the later Wessex, we find five main tribes; the +men of Kent, the Regni south of the Weald, the +Atrebates along the Thames, the Belgae on the +Wiltshire Avon, and the Damnonii of Devon and +Cornwall, with (perhaps) a sub-tribe of their Name, +the Durotriges, in Dorsetshire.</p> + +<p>G. 5.—Like the south, the eastern, western, and +northern districts of England were cut off from the +centre by natural barriers. The Fens of Cambridgeshire +and the marshes of the Lea valley, together with +the dense forest along the "East Anglian" range, +enclosed the east in a ring fence; within which yet +another belt of woodland divided the Trinobantes of +Essex from the Iceni of Norfolk and Suffolk. The +Severn and the Dee isolated what is now Wales, a +region falling naturally into two sub-divisions; South +Wales being held by the Silurians and their Demetian +subjects, North Wales by the Ordovices. The lands +north of the Humber, again, were barred off from the +south by barriers stretching from sea to sea; the +Humber itself on the one hand, the Mersey estuary +on the other, thrusting up marshes to the very foot of +the wild Pennine moorlands between. And the whole +of this vast region seems to have been under the +Brigantes, who held the great plain of York, and +exercised more or less of a hegemony over the +<span class="newpage"><a name="page57" id="page57">[57]</a></span> +Parisians of the East Riding, the Segontii of +Lancashire, and the Otadini, Damnonii, and Selgovae +between the Tyne and the Forth. Finally, the Midlands, +parcelled up by the forests of Sherwood, Needwood, +Charnwood, and Arden, into quarters, found +space for the Dobuni in the Severn valley (to the +west of the Cateuchlani), for the Coritani east of the +Trent, and for their westward neighbours the Cornavii.<a name="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48"><sup>[48]</sup></a></p> + +<p>G. 6.—All these tribes are given in Ptolemy's +geography, but only a few, such as the Iceni, the +Silurians, and the Brigantes, meet us in actual history; +whilst, of them all, the Damnonian name alone reappears +after the fall of the Roman dominion. Thus +the accepted allotment of tribal territory is largely conjectural. +North of the Forth all is conjecture pure and +simple, so far as the location of the various Caledonian +sub-clans is concerned. We only know that there +were about a dozen of them; the Cornavii, Carini, +Carnonacae, Cerones, Decantae, Epidii, Horestae, Lugi, +Novantae, Smertae, Taexali, Vacomagi, and Vernicomes. +Some of these may be alternative names.</p> + +<p>G. 7.—The practical importance of the above-mentioned +natural divisions of the island is testified +to by the abiding character of the corresponding +political divisions. The resemblance which at once +strikes the eye between the map of Roman and Saxon +Britain is no mere coincidence. Physical considerations +<span class="newpage"><a name="page58" id="page58">[58]</a></span> +brought about the boundaries between the Roman +"provinces" and the Anglo-Saxon principalities +alike. Thus a glance will show that Britannia Prima, +Britannia Secunda, Maxima Caesariensis, and Flavia +Caesariensis correspond to the later Wessex, Wales, +Northumbria, and Mercia (with its dependency East +Anglia).<a name="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49"><sup>[49]</sup></a> And even the sub-divisions remained approximately +the same. In Anglo-Saxon times, for example, +the Midlands were still divided into the same four tribal +territories; the North Mercians holding that of the +British Cornavii, the South Mercians that of the +Dobuni, the Middle Angles that of the Coritani, and +the South Angles that of the Cateuchlani. So also +the Icenian kingdom, with its old boundaries, became +that of the East Angles, and the Trinobantian that of +the East Saxons.</p> + +<p>G. 8.—What the entire population of Britain may +have numbered at the Roman Conquest is, again, +purely a matter of guess-work. But it may well have +been not very different in amount from what it was at +the Norman Conquest, when the entries in Domesday +roughly show that the whole of England (south of the +Humber) was inhabited about as thickly as the Lake +District at the present day, and contained some two +million souls. The primary hills, and the secondary +plateaux, where now we find the richest corn lands of +<span class="newpage"><a name="page59" id="page59">[59]</a></span> +the whole country, were in pre-Roman times covered +with virgin forest. But in the river valleys above the +level of the floods were to be found stretches of good +open plough land, and the chalk downs supplied +excellent grazing. Where both were combined, as in +the valleys of the Avon and Wily near Salisbury, and +that of the Frome near Dorchester, we have the ideal +site for a Celtic settlement. In such places we +accordingly find the most conspicuous traces of the +prehistoric Briton; the round barrows which mark +the burial-places of his chiefs, and the vast earthworks +with which he crowned the most defensible <i>dun</i>, or +height, in his territory.</p> + +<p>G. 9.—These fortified British <i>duns</i> are to be seen all +over England. Sometimes they have become Roman +or mediaeval towns, as at Old Sarum; sometimes they +are still centres of population, as at London, Lincoln, +and Exeter; and sometimes, as at Bath and Dorchester, +they remain still as left by their original +constructors. For they were designed to be usually +untenanted; not places to dwell in, but camps of +refuge, whither the neighbouring farmers and their +cattle might flee when in danger from a hostile raid. +The lack of water in many of them shows that they +could never have been permanently occupied either +in war or peace.<a name="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50"><sup>[50]</sup></a> Perhaps the best remaining +<span class="newpage"><a name="page60" id="page60">[60]</a></span> +example is Maiden<a name="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51"><sup>[51]</sup></a> Castle, which dominates Dorchester, +being at once the largest and the most untouched +by later ages. Here three huge concentric +ramparts, nearly three miles in circuit, gird in a space +of about fifty acres on a gentle swell of the chalk +ridge above the modern town by the river. A single +tortuous entrance, defended by an outwork, gives +access to the levelled interior. All, save the oaken +palisades which once topped each round of the +barrier, remains as it was when first constructed, +looking down, now as then, on the spot where the +population for whose benefit it was made dwelt in +time of peace. For English Dorchester is the British +town whose name the Romans, when they raised the +square ramparts which still encircle it, transliterated +into Durnovaria. Durnovaria in turn became, on +Anglo-Saxon lips, Dornwara-ceaster, Dorn-ceaster, +and finally Dorchester.</p> + +<p>G. 10.—We have already, on physical grounds, +assigned these Durotriges to the Damnonian Name. +There were certainly fewer natural obstacles between +them and the men of Devon to the west than between +them and the Belgae to the northward. Caesar, however, +distinctly states that the Belgic power extended +to the coast line, so the Britons of the Frome valley +may have been conquered by them. Or the Durotriges +may be a Belgic tribe after all. For, as we +have pointed out, our evidence is of the scantiest, and +there is every reason to suppose that the era of the +<span class="newpage"><a name="page61" id="page61">[61]</a></span> +Roman invasion was one of incessant political confusion +in the land.</p> + + + +<a name="H."></a><h4>SECTION H.</h4> + +<p><i>Religious state of Britain—Illustrated by Hindooism—Totemists—Polytheists—Druids—Bards<br /> +—Seers—Druidic Deities—Mistletoe—Sacred herbs—"Ovum Anguinum"—Suppression of<br /> +Druidism—Druidism and Christianity.</i></p> +<br /> + +<p>H. 1.—The religious state of the country seems to +have been in no less confusion than its political condition. +The surviving "Ugrian" inhabitants appear to +have sunk into mere totemists and fetish worshippers, +like the aboriginal races of India; while the Celtic +tribes were at a loose and early stage of polytheism, +with a Pantheon filled by every possible device, by +the adoration of every kind of natural phenomenon, +the sky, the sun, the moon, the stars, the winds and +clouds, the earth and sea, rivers, wells, sacred trees, +by the creation of tribal divinities, gods and goddesses +of war, commerce, healing, and all the congeries of +mutually tolerant devotions which we see in the +Brahmanism of to-day. And, as in Brahmanism, all +these devotions were under the shadow of a sacerdotal +and prophetic caste, wielding vast influence, and +teaching, esoterically at least, a far more spiritual +religion.</p> + +<p>H. 2.—These were the Druids, whose practices and +tenets fortunately excited such attention at Rome that +we know more about them by far than we could +collect concerning either Jews or Christians from +classical authors. And though most of our authorities +<span class="newpage"><a name="page62" id="page62">[62]</a></span> +refer to Druidism as practised in Gaul, yet we have +the authority of Caesar for Britain being the special +home and sanctuary of the faith, to which the Gallic +Druids referred as the standard for their practices.<a name="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52"><sup>[52]</sup></a> +We may safely, therefore, take the pictures given us +by him and others, as supplying a representation of +what took place in our land ere the Romans entered it.</p> + +<p>H. 3.—The earliest testimony is that of Julius +Caesar himself, in his well-known sketch of contemporary +Druidism ('De Bello Gallico,' vi. 14-20). +He tells us that the Druids were the ministers of +religion, the sacrificial priesthood of the nation, the +authorized expounders of the Divine will. All education +and jurisprudence was in their hands, and their +sentences of excommunication were universally enforced. +The Gallic Druids were under the dominion +of a Primate, who presided at the annual Chapter of +the Order, and was chosen by it; a disputed election +occasionally ending in an appeal to arms. As a rule, +however, Druids were supposed not to shed blood, +they were free from all obligation to military service, +and from all taxation of every kind. These privileges +enabled them to recruit their ranks—for they were +not an hereditary caste—from the pick of the national +youth, in spite of the severe discipline of the Druidical +novitiate. So great was the mass of sacred literature +required to be committed to memory that a training +of twenty years was sometimes needed. All had to +be learnt orally, for the matter was too sacred to be +written down, though the Druids were well acquainted +<span class="newpage"><a name="page63" id="page63">[63]</a></span> +with writing, and used the Greek alphabet,<a name="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53"><sup>[53]</sup></a> if not the +Greek language,<a name="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54"><sup>[54]</sup></a> for secular purposes. Caesar's own +view is that this refusal to allow the inditing of their +sacred books was due to two causes: first, the fear +lest the secrets of the Order should thus leak out, and, +secondly, the dread lest reading should weaken +memory, "as, in fact, it generally does." Even so, +amongst the Brahmans there are, to this day, many +who can not only repeat from end to end the gigantic +mass of Vedic literature, but who know by heart also +with absolute accuracy the huge and complicated +works of the Sanscrit grammarians.</p> + +<p>H. 4.—Caesar further tells us that the Druids taught +the doctrine of transmigration of souls, and that their +course of education included astronomy, geography, +physics, and theology. The attributes of their chief +God corresponded, in his view, with those of the +Roman Mercury. Of the minor divinities, one, like +Apollo, was the patron of healing; a second, like +Minerva, presided over craft-work; a third, like +Jupiter, was King of Heaven, and a fourth, like Mars, +was the War-god.<a name="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55"><sup>[55]</sup></a> Their calendar was constructed on +the principle that each night belongs to the day before +it (not to that after it, as was the theory amongst the +Mediterranean nations), and they reckoned all periods +<span class="newpage"><a name="page64" id="page64">[64]</a></span> +of time by nights, not days, as we still do in the +word "fortnight." For this practice they gave the +mystical reason that the Celtic races were the Children +of Darkness. At periods of national or private distress, +human sacrifices were in vogue amongst them, +sometimes on a vast scale. "They have images +[<i>simulacra</i>] of huge size, whose limbs when enclosed +[<i>contexta</i>] with wattles, they fill with living men. +The wattles are fired and the men perish amid the +hedge of flame [<i>circumventi flamma exanimantur +homines</i>]." It is usually supposed that these <i>simulacra</i> +were hollow idols of basket-work. But such would +require to be constructed on an incredible scale for +their limbs to be filled with men; and it is much +more probable that they were spaces traced out upon +the ground (like the Giant on the hill above Cerne +Abbas in Dorset), and hedged in with the wattles to +be fired.</p> + +<p>H. 5.—From the historian Diodorus Siculus, whose +life overlapped Caesar's, we learn that Druid was a +native British name. "There are certain philosophers +and theologians held in great honour whom +they call Druids."<a name="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56"><sup>[56]</sup></a> Whether this designation is +actually of Celtic derivation is, however, uncertain. +Pliny thought it was from the Greek affected by the +Druids and connected with their oak-tree worship. +Professor Rhys mentions that the earliest use of the +word in extant Welsh literature is in the Book of +Taliesin, under the form <i>Derwyddon</i>,<a name="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57"><sup>[57]</sup></a> and that in +Irish is to be found the cognate form <i>Drui</i>. But +<span class="newpage"><a name="page65" id="page65">[65]</a></span> +these are as likely to be derived from the Greek +δρουίδες [<b>drouides</b>], as this from them. Diodorus adds that they +have mighty influence, and preside at all sacred rites, +"as possessing special knowledge of the Gods, yea, +and being of one speech ὁμοφώνων [<b>homophônôn</b>] with them." +This points to some archaic or foreign language, +possibly Greek, being used in the Druidical ritual. +Their influence, he goes on to say, always makes for +peace: "Oft-times, when hosts be arrayed, and +either side charging the one against the other, yea, +when swords are out and spears couched for the +onset, will these men rush between and stay the +warriors, charming them to rest κατεπᾴσαντες [<b>katepasantes</b>], like so +many wild beasts."</p> + +<p>H. 6.—With the Druids Diodorus associates two +other religiously influential classes amongst the +Britons, the Bards (βάρδοι) [<b>bardoi</b>] and the Seers (μάντεις) [<b>manteis</b>]. +The former present the familiar features of the cosmopolitan +minstrel. They sing to harps (ὀργάνων ταῖς λύραις ὁμοίων) [<b>organôn tais +lurais homoiôn</b>], both fame and disfame. The latter +seem to have corresponded with the witch-doctors of +the Kaffir tribes, deriving auguries from the dying +struggles of their victims (frequently human), just as +the Basuto medicine-men tortured oxen to death to +prognosticate the issue of the war between Great +Britain and the Boers in South Africa. Strabo, in +the next generation, also mentions together these +three classes, Bards, Seers, ούάτεις [<b>Ouateis</b>] = Vates and Druids. +The latter study natural science and ethics (πρὸς τῆ φυσιολογίᾳ καὶ τὴν ἠθικὴν φιλοσοφιαν) [<b>pros tê +phusiologia kai tên êthikên philosophian askousin</b>]. They +teach the immortality of the soul, and believe the +<span class="newpage"><a name="page66" id="page66">[66]</a></span> +Universe to be eternal, "yet, at the last, fire and +water shall prevail."</p> + +<p>H. 7.—Pomponius Mela, who wrote shortly before +the Claudian conquest of Britain, says that the Druids +profess to know the shape and size of the world, the +movements of the stars, and the will of the Gods. +They teach many secrets in caves and woods, but +only to the nobles of the land. Of this esoteric +instruction one doctrine alone has been permitted to +leak out to the common people—that of the immortality +of the soul—and this only because that +doctrine was calculated to make them the braver in +battle. In accordance with it, food and the like was +buried with the dead, for the use of the soul. Even a +man's debts were supposed to pass with him to the +shades.</p> + +<p>H. 8.—Our picture of the Druids is completed +by Pliny,<a name="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58"><sup>[58]</sup></a> writing shortly after the Claudian conquest. +Approaching the subject as a naturalist he +does not mention their psychological tenets, but gives +various highly interesting pieces of information as to +their superstitions with regard to natural objects, +especially plants. "The Druids," he says, "(so they +call their Magi) hold nothing so sacred as the mistletoe +and that tree whereon it groweth, if only this be an +oak. Oak-groves, indeed, they choose for their own +sake, neither do they celebrate any sacred rite without +oak-leaves, so that they appear to be called Druids +from the Greek word for this tree. Whatsoever +mistletoe, then, groweth on such a tree they hold it +<span class="newpage"><a name="page67" id="page67">[67]</a></span> +for a heaven-sent sign, and count that tree as chosen by +their God himself. Yet but very rarely is it so found, +and, when found, is sought with no small observance; +above all on the sixth day of the moon (which to +this folk is the beginning of months and years alike),<a name="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59"><sup>[59]</sup></a> +and after the thirtieth year of its age, because it is by +then in full vigour of strength, nor has its half-tide +yet come. Hailing it, in their own tongue, as +'Heal-all,' they make ready beneath the tree, with all +due rites, feast and sacrifice. Then are brought up +two bulls of spotless white, whose horns have never +ere this known the yoke. The priest, in white vestments, +climbeth the tree, and with a golden sickle reapeth the +sacred bough, which is caught as it falls in a white +robe [<i>sagum</i>]. Then, and not till then, slay they +the victims, praying that their God will prosper this +his gift to those on whom he hath bestowed the +same."</p> + +<p>H. 9.—A drink made from mistletoe, or possibly the +mere insertion of the branch into drinking water, was +held by the Druids, Pliny adds, as an antidote to every +kind of poison. Other herbs had like remedial properties +in their eyes. The fumes of burning "<i>selago</i>"<a name="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60"><sup>[60]</sup></a> +were thus held good for affections of the eyesight, +only, however, when the plant was plucked with +<span class="newpage"><a name="page68" id="page68">[68]</a></span> +due ceremonies. The gatherer must be all in white, +with bare and washen feet, and must hallow himself, +ere starting on his quest, with a devotional partaking +of bread and wine [<i>sacro facto ... pane vinoque</i>]. +He must by no means cut the sacred stem with a +knife, but pluck it, and that not with bare fingers, but +through the folds of his tunic, his right hand being +protruded for this purpose beneath his left, "in +thievish wise" [<i>velut a furante</i>]. Another herb, +"<i>samolum</i>," which grew in marshy places, was of +avail in all diseases both of man and beast. It had +to be gathered with the left hand, and fasting, nor +might the gatherer on any account look back till he +reached some runlet [<i>canali</i>] in which he crushed his +prize and drank.</p> + +<p>H. 10.—Pliny's picture has the interest of having +been drawn almost at the final disappearance of Druidism +from the Roman world. For some reason it was +supposed to be, like Christianity, peculiarly opposed +to the genius of Roman civilization, and never came +to be numbered amongst the <i>religiones licitae</i> of the +Empire. Augustus forbade the practice of it to +Roman citizens,<a name="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61"><sup>[61]</sup></a> Tiberius wholly suppressed it in +Gaul,<a name="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62"><sup>[62]</sup></a> and, in conquering Britain, Claudius crushed +it with a hand of iron. Few pictures in the early +history of Britain are more familiar than the final +extirpation of the last of the Druids, when their +sacred island of Mona (Anglesey) was stormed by the +Roman legionaries, and priests and priestesses perished +<span class="newpage"><a name="page69" id="page69">[69]</a></span> +<i>en masse</i> in the flames of their own altars.<a name="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63"><sup>[63]</sup></a> Their +desperate resistance was doubtless due to the fact +that Rome was the declared and mortal enemy of +their faith. So baneful, indeed, did Druidism come +to be considered, that to hold even with the least of +its superstitions was treated at Rome as a capital +offence. Pliny tells us of a Roman knight, of Gallic +birth, who was put to death by Claudius for no other +reason than that of being in possession of a certain +stone called by the Druids a "snake's egg," and +supposed to bring good luck in law-suits.<a name="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64"><sup>[64]</sup></a></p> + +<p>H. 11.—This stone Pliny himself had seen, and +describes it (in his chapter on the use of eggs) +as being like a medium-sized apple, having a +cartilaginous shell covered with small processes like +the discs on the arms of an octopus. This can +scarcely have been, as most commentators suppose, +the shell of an echinus (with which Pliny was +well acquainted), even if fossil. His description +rather seems to point to some fossil covered with +<i>ostrea sigillina</i>, such as are common in British +green-sands. He adds an account of the Druidical view of +its production, how it is the solidified poison of a +number of serpents who put their heads together to +eject it, and how, even when set in gold, it will float, +and that against a stream. This "egg," it will be seen, +was from Gaul. The British variant of the superstition +was that the snakes thus formed a ring of +poison matter, larger or smaller according to the +<span class="newpage"><a name="page70" id="page70">[70]</a></span> +number engaged, which solidified into a gem known +as <i>Glain naidr</i>, "Adder's glass."<a name="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65"><sup>[65]</sup></a> The small rings of +green or blue glass, too thick for wear, which are not +uncommonly found in British burial-places, are +supposed to represent this gem. So also, possibly, +are the much larger rings of roughly-baked clay which +occur throughout the Roman period. For superstitions +die hard, and Gough assures us that even in +1789 such "adder-beads" or "snake-stones" were +considered "lucky" in Wales and Cornwall, and were +still ascribed to the same source as by the Druids +of old.</p> + +<p>H. 12.—After its suppression by Claudius, Druidism +still lingered on in Britain beyond the Roman pale, +and amid the outlaws of the Armorican forests in +Gaul, but in a much lower form. The least worthy +representatives of the Brahmanic caste in India are those +found in the least civilized regions, whose tendency is +to become little better than sorcerers.<a name="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66"><sup>[66]</sup></a> And in like +manner it is as sorcerers that the later Druids of +Scotland and Ireland meet us in their legendary +encounters with St. Patrick and St. Columba. They +are called "The School of Simon the Druid" (<i>i.e.</i> +Simon Magus), and a 9th-century commentary designates +Jannes and Jambres as "Druids." But the +word did not wholly lose its higher associations. It +<span class="newpage"><a name="page71" id="page71">[71]</a></span> +is applied to the Wise Men in an early Welsh hymn +on the Epiphany; and in another, ascribed to +Columba himself, the saint goes so far as to say, +"Christ, the Son of God, is my <i>Druid</i>."<a name="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67"><sup>[67]</sup></a></p> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page72" id="page72">[72]</a></span> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page73" id="page73">[73]</a></span> +<a name="CHAPTER_II"></a><h2>CHAPTER II</h2> + +<h3>THE JULIAN INVASION, B.C. 55, 54</h3> +<br /> + +<a name="AII."></a><h4>SECTION A.</h4> + +<p><i>Caesar and Britain—Breakdown of Roman Republican institutions—Corruption abroad and at<br /> +home—Rise of Caesar—Conquest of Gaul.</i></p> +<br /> +<p>A. 1.—If the connection of Britain with Rome is +the pivot on which the whole history of our island +turns, it is no less true that the first connection of +Rome with Britain is the pivot whereon all Roman +history depends. For its commencement marks the +furthest point reached in his career of conquest by +the man without whom Roman history must needs +have come to a shameful and disastrous end—Julius +Caesar.</p> + +<p>A. 2.—The old Roman constitution and the old +Roman character had alike proved wholly unequal +to meet the strain thrown upon them by the acquisition +of the world-wide empire which they had gained for +their city. Under the stress of the long feud between +its Patrician and Plebeian elements that constitution +had developed into an instrument for the regulation of +public affairs, admirably adapted for a City-state, where +<span class="newpage"><a name="page74" id="page74">[74]</a></span> +each magistrate performs his office under his neighbour's +eye and over his own constituents; constantly amenable +both to public opinion and to the checks provided +by law. But it never contemplated Pro-consuls bearing +sway over the unenfranchised populations of distant +Provinces, whence news filtered through to Rome but +slowly, and where such legal checks as a man had to +reckon with were in the hands of a Court far more +ready to sympathize with the oppression of non-voters +than to resent it.</p> + +<p>A. 3.—And these officials had deteriorated from +the old Roman rectitude, as the Spartan harmosts +deteriorated under conditions exactly similar in the +days of the Lacedaemonian supremacy over Hellas. +And, in both cases, the whole national character was +dragged down by the degradation of what we may call +the Colonial executive. Like the Spartan, the Roman +of "the brave days of old" was often stern, and even +brutal, towards his enemies. But he was a devoted +patriot, he was true to his plighted faith, and above +all he was free from all taint of pecuniary corruption. +The earlier history of both nations is full of legends +illustrating these points, which, whether individually +true or not, bear abundant testimony to the national +ideal. But with irresponsible power, Roman and +Spartan alike, while remaining as brutally indifferent +as ever to the sufferings of others, lost all that was +best in his own ethical equipment. Instead of +patriotism we find unblushing self-interest as the +motive of every action; in place of good faith, the +most shameless dishonesty; and, for the old contempt +<span class="newpage"><a name="page75" id="page75">[75]</a></span> +of ill-gotten gains, a corruption so fathomless +and all-pervading as fairly to stagger us. The tale of +the doings of Verres in a district so near Rome as +Sicily shows us a depth of mire and degeneration to +which no constitution could sink and live.</p> + +<p>A. 4.—Nor could the Roman constitution survive +it. From the Provinces the taint spread with fatal +rapidity to the City itself. The thirst for lucre +became the leading force in the State; for its sake +the Classes more and more trampled down the Masses; +and entrance to the Classes was a matter no longer of +birth, but of money alone. And all history testifies +that the State which becomes a plutocracy is doomed +indeed. Of all possible forms of government—autocracy, +oligarchy, democracy—that is the lowest, that +most surely bears within itself the seeds of its own +inevitable ruin.</p> + +<p>A. 5.—So it was with the Roman Republic. As +soon as this stage was reached it began to "stew in +its own juice" with appalling rapidity. Reformers, +like the Gracchi, were crushed; and the commonwealth +went to pieces under the shocks and counter-shocks +of demagogues like Clodius, conspirators like +Catiline, and military adventurers such as Marius and +Sulla—for whose statue the Senate could find no +more constitutional title than "The Lucky General" +[<i>Sullae Imperatori Felici</i>] Well-meaning individuals, +such as Cicero and Pompey, were still to be found, +and even came to the front, but they all alike proved +unequal to the crisis; which, in fact, threw up one +man, and one only, of force to become a real maker +<span class="newpage"><a name="page76" id="page76">[76]</a></span> +of history—Caius Julius Caesar, the first Roman +invader of Britain.</p> + +<p>A. 6.—Caesar was at the time of this invasion (55 B.C.) +some forty-five years old; but he had not long become +a real power in the political arena. Sprung from the +bluest blood of Rome—the Julian House tracing their +origin to the mythical Iulus, son of Aeneas, and thus +claiming descent from the Goddess Venus—we might +have expected to find him enrolled amongst the aristocratic +conservatives, the champions of the <i>régime</i> of +Sulla. But though a mere boy at the date of the strife +between the partisans of Sulla and Marius (B.C. 88-78), +Caesar was already clear-sighted enough to perceive +that in the "Classes" of that day there was no help +for the tempest-tossed commonwealth. Accordingly +he threw in his lot with the revolutionary Marian +movement, broke off a wealthy matrimonial engagement +arranged for him by his parents to become the +son-in-law of Cinna, and in the very thick of the +Sullan proscriptions, braved the Dictator by openly +glorying in his connection with the defeated reformers. +How he escaped with his life, even at the intercession, +if it was indeed made, of the Vestals, is a +mystery; for Sulla (who had little regard for religious, +or any other, scruples) was deliberately extirpating +every soul whom he thought dangerous to the plutocracy, +and is said to have pronounced "that boy" as +"more to be dreaded than many a Marius." He did, +however, escape; but till the vanquished party +recovered in some degree from this ruthless massacre +of their leaders, he could take no prominent part in +<span class="newpage"><a name="page77" id="page77">[77]</a></span> +politics. The minor offices of Quaestor, Aedile, and +Praetor he filled with credit, and meanwhile seemed +to be giving himself up to shine in Society, which was +not, in Rome, then at its best; and his reputation for +intrigue, his skill at the gaming-table, and his +fashionable swagger were the envy of all the young +bloods of the day.</p> + +<p>A. 7.—The Catiline conspiracy (B.C. 63), and the +irregular executions that followed its suppression, at +length gave him his opportunity. While the Senate +was hailing Cicero as "the Father of his country" for +the stern promptitude which enabled him, as Consul, +to say "<i>Vixere</i>" ["They <i>have</i> lived"] in answer to +the question as to the doom of the conspirators, +Caesar had electrified the assembly by his denunciation +of the view that, in whatsoever extremity, the blood of +Roman citizens might be shed by a Roman Consul, +secretly and without legal warrant. Henceforward he +took his place as the special leader on whom popular +feeling at Rome more and more pinned its hopes. +As Pontifex Maximus he gained (B.C. 63) a shadowy +but far from unreal religious influence; as Pro-praetor +he solidified the Roman dominion in Spain (where he +had already been Quaestor); and on his return (B.C. 60) +reconciled Crassus, the head of the moneyed interest, +with Pompey, the darling of the Army, and by their +united influence was raised next year to the Consulship.</p> + +<p>A. 8.—A Roman Consul invariably, after the expiration +of his year of office, was sent as Pro-consul +to take charge of one of the Provinces, practically +having a good deal of personal say as to which should +<span class="newpage"><a name="page78" id="page78">[78]</a></span> +be assigned to him. Caesar thus chose for his proconsular +government the district of Gaul then under +Roman dominion, <i>i.e.</i> the valley of the Po, and +that of the Rhone. In making this choice Caesar +was actuated by the fact that in Gaul he was more +likely than anywhere else to come in for active service. +Unquiet neighbours on the frontier, Germans and +Helvetians, were threatening invasion, and would +have to be repelled. And this would give the Pro-consul +the chance of doing what Caesar specially +desired, of raising and training an army which he +might make as devoted to himself as were Pompey's +veterans to their brilliant chieftain—the hero "as +beautiful as he was brave, as good as he was beautiful." +Without such a force Caesar foresaw that all +his efforts to redress the abuses of the State would +be in vain. As Consul he had carried certain small +instalments of reform; but they had made him more +hated than ever by the classes at whose corruption +they were aimed, and might any day be overthrown. +And neither Pompey nor Crassus were in any way to +be depended upon for his plans in this direction.</p> + +<p>A. 9.—Events proved kinder to him than he could +have hoped. His ill-wishers at Rome actually aided +his preparations for war; for Caesar had not yet +gained any special military reputation, while the +barbarians whom he was to meet had a very high +one, and might reasonably be expected to destroy +him. And the Helvetian peril proved of such +magnitude that he had every excuse for making a +much larger levy than there was any previous prospect +<span class="newpage"><a name="page79" id="page79">[79]</a></span> +of his securing. On the surpassing genius with which +he manipulated the weapon thus put into his hand +there is no need to dwell. Suffice it to say that +in spite of overwhelming superiority in numbers, +courage yet more signal, a stronger individual +physique, and arms as effective, his foes one after +another vanished before him. Helvetians, Germans, +Belgians, were not merely conquered, but literally +annihilated, as often as they ventured to meet him, and +in less than three years the whole of Gaul was at his feet.</p> +<br /> + +<a name="BII."></a><h4>SECTION B.</h4> + +<p><i>Sea-fight with Veneti and Britons—Pretexts for invading Britain—British dominion of Divitiacus<br /> +—Gallic tribes in Britain—Atrebates—Commius.</i></p> +<br /> +<p>B. 1.—One of the last tribes to be subdued (in +B.C. 56) was that which, as the chief seafaring race +of Gaul, had the most intimate relations with Britain, +the Veneti, or men of Vannes, who dwelt in what +is now Brittany.<a name="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68"><sup>[68]</sup></a> These enterprising mariners had +developed a form of vessel fitted to cope with the +stormy Chops of the Channel on lines exactly +opposite to those of the British "curraghs."<a name="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69"><sup>[69]</sup></a> Instead +of being so light as to rise to every lift of the waves, +and with frames so flexible as to bend rather than break +under their every stress, the Venetian ships were of the +most massive construction, built wholly of the stoutest +oak planking, and with timbers upwards of a foot in +<span class="newpage"><a name="page80" id="page80">[80]</a></span> +thickness. All were bolted together with iron pins +"as thick as a man's thumb." Forecastle and poop +were alike lofty, with a lower waist for the use of +sweeps if needful. But this was only exceptional, +sails being the usual motive power. And these were +constructed chiefly with a view to strength. Instead +of canvas, they were formed of untanned hides. And +instead of hempen cables the Veneti were so far +ahead of their time as to use iron chains with their +anchors; an invention which perished with them, +not to come in again till the 19th century. Their +broad beam and shallow keel enabled these ships to +lie more conveniently in the tidal inlets on either +side of the Channel.<a name="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70"><sup>[70]</sup></a></p> + +<p>B. 2.—Thus equipped, the Veneti had tapped the +tin trade at its source, and established emporia at +Falmouth, Plymouth, and Exmouth; on the sites of +which ancient ingots, Gallic coins of gold, and other +relics of their period have lately been discovered. +Thence they conveyed their freight to the Seine, the +Loire, and even the Garonne. The great Damnonian +clan, which held the whole of Devon and Cornwall, +were in close alliance with them, and sent auxiliaries +to aid in their final struggle against Caesar. Indeed +they may possibly have drawn allies from a yet wider +area, if, as Mr. Elton conjectures, the prehistoric +boats which have at various times been found in the +silt at Glasgow may be connected with their influence.<a name="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71"><sup>[71]</sup></a></p> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page81" id="page81">[81]</a></span> +<p>B. 3.—Caesar describes his struggle with the Veneti +and their British allies as one of the most arduous +in his Gallic campaigns. The Roman war galleys +depended largely upon ramming in their sea-fights, +but the Venetian ships were so solidly built as to +defy this method of attack. At the same time their +lofty prows and sterns enabled them to deliver a +plunging fire of missiles on the Roman decks, and +even to command the wooden turrets which Caesar +had added to his bulwarks. They invariably fought +under sail, and manoeuvred so skilfully that boarding +was impossible. In the end, after several unsuccessful +skirmishes, Caesar armed his marines with long billhooks, +instructing them to strike at the halyards of +the Gallic vessels as they swept past. (These must +have been fastened outboard.) The device succeeded. +One after another, in a great battle off Quiberon, +of which the Roman land force were spectators, the +huge leathern mainsails dropped on to the decks, +doubtless "covering the ship as with a pall," as in +the like misfortune to the Elizabethan <i>Revenge</i> in her +heroic defence against the Spanish fleet, and hopelessly +crippling the vessel, whether for sailing or rowing. +The Romans were at last able to board, and the +whole Venetian fleet fell into their hands. The +strongholds on the coast were now stormed, and the +entire population either slaughtered or sold into +slavery, as an object lesson to the rest of the +confederacy of the fate in store for those who dared +to stand out against the Genius of Rome.</p> + +<p>B. 4.—Caesar had now got a very pretty excuse for +<span class="newpage"><a name="page82" id="page82">[82]</a></span> +extending his operations to Britain, and, as his object +was to pose at Rome as "a Maker of Empire," he +eagerly grasped at the chance. Something of a +handle, moreover, was afforded him by yet another +connection between the two sides of the Channel. +Many people were still alive who remembered the +days when Divitiacus, King of the Suessiones (at +Soissons), had been the great potentate of Northern +Gaul. In Caesar's time this glory was of the past, +and the Suessiones had sunk to a minor position +amongst the Gallic clans. But within the last half-century +the sway of their monarch had been acknowledged +not only over great part of Gaul, but in +Britain also. Caesar's words, indeed, would almost +seem to point to the island as a whole having been +in some sense under him: <i>Etiam Britanniae imperium +obtinuit</i>.<a name="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72"><sup>[72]</sup></a></p> + +<p>B. 5.—And traces of his rule still existed in the +occupation of British districts by colonists from two +tribes, which, as his nearest neighbours, must certainly +have formed part of any North Gallic confederacy +under him—the Atrebates and the Parisii. The +former had their continental seat in Picardy; the +latter, as their name tells us, on the Seine. Their +insular settlements were along the southern bank of +the Thames and the northern bank of the Humber +respectively. How far the two sets of Parisians held +together politically does not appear; but the Atrebates, +<span class="newpage"><a name="page83" id="page83">[83]</a></span> +whether in Britain or Gaul, acknowledged the claim +of a single magnate, named Commius, to be their paramount +Chieftain.<a name="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73"><sup>[73]</sup></a> In this capacity he had led his +followers against Caesar in the great Belgic confederacy +of B.C. 58, and on its collapse, instead of holding +out to the last like the Nervii, had made a timely +submission. If convenient, this submission might be +represented as including that of his British dominions; +especially as we gather that a contingent from over-sea +may have actually fought under his banner +against the Roman eagles. Nay, it is possible that +the old claims of the ruler of Soissons over Britain +may have been revived, now that that ruler was Julius +Caesar. It is even conceivable that his complaint of +British assistance having been given to the enemy +"in all our Gallic wars" may point to his having +heard some form of the legend, whose echoes we +meet with in Welsh Triads, that the Gauls who sacked +Rome three centuries earlier numbered Britons amongst +their ranks.</p> + +<a name="CII."></a><h4>SECTION C.</h4> + +<p><i>Defeat of Germans—Bridge over Rhine—Caesar's army—Dread of ocean—Fleet at Boulogne<br /> +—Commius sent to Britain—Channel crossed—Attempt on Dover—Landing at Deal—Legionary<br /> +sentiment—British army dispersed.</i></p> +<br /> +<p>C. 1.—For making use of these pretexts, however, +Caesar had to wait a while. It was needful to bring +<span class="newpage"><a name="page84" id="page84">[84]</a></span> +home to both supporters and opponents his brilliant +success by showing himself in Rome, during the idle +season when his men were in winter quarters. And +when he got back to his Province with the spring +of A.D. 55, his first attention had to be given to +the Rhine frontier, whence a formidable German +invasion was threatening. With his usual skill and +war-craft—which, on this occasion, in the eyes of his +Roman ill-wishers, seemed indistinguishable from +treachery—he annihilated the Teutonic horde which +had dared to cross the river; and then, by a miracle +of engineering skill, bridged the broad and rapid +stream, and made such a demonstration in Germany +itself as to check the national trek westward for +half a millennium.</p> + +<p>C. 2.—By this time, as this wonderful feat shows, +the Army of Gaul had become one of those perfect +instruments into which only truly great commanders +can weld their forces. Like the Army of the Peninsula, +in the words of Wellington, "it could go anywhere +and do anything." The men who, when first enlisted, +had trembled before the Gauls, and absolutely +shed tears at the prospect of encountering Germans, +now, under the magic of Caesar's genius, had learnt +to dread nothing. Often surprised, always outnumbered, +sometimes contending against tenfold odds, +the legionaries never faltered. Each individual soldier +seems to have learnt to do instinctively the right +thing in every emergency, and every man worshipped +his general. For every man could see that it was +Caesar and Caesar alone to whom every victory was +<span class="newpage"><a name="page85" id="page85">[85]</a></span> +due. The very training of the engineers, the very +devices, such as that of the Rhine bridge, by which +such mighty results were achieved, were all due to +him. Never before had any Roman leader, not even +Pompey "the Great," awakened such devotion amongst +his followers.</p> + +<p>C. 3.—Caesar therefore experienced no such difficulty +as we shall find besetting the Roman commanders +of the next century, in persuading his men to follow +him "beyond the world,"<a name="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74"><sup>[74]</sup></a> and to dare the venture, +hitherto unheard of in the annals of Rome, of crossing +the ocean itself. We must remember that this +crossing was looked upon by the Romans as something +very different from the transits hither and thither +upon the Mediterranean Sea with which they were +familiar. The Ocean to them was an object of +mysterious horror. Untold possibilities of destruction +might lurk in its tides and billows. Whence those +tides came and how far those billows rolled was +known to no man. To dare its passage might well +be to court Heaven knew what of supernatural +vengeance.</p> + +<p>C. 4.—But Caesar's men were ready to brave all +things while he led them. So, after having despatched +his German business, he determined to employ the +short remainder of the summer in a <i>reconnaissance en +force</i> across the Channel, with a view to subsequent +<span class="newpage"><a name="page86" id="page86">[86]</a></span> +invasion of Britain. He had already made inquiries +of all whom he could find connected with the +Britanno-Gallic trade as to the size and military +resources of the island. But they proved unwilling +witnesses, and he could not even get out of them +what they must perfectly well have known, the position +of the best harbours on the southern shores.</p> + +<p>C. 5.—His first act, therefore, was to send out a +galley under Volusenus "to pry along the coast," +and meanwhile to order the fleet which he had built +against the Veneti to rendezvous at Boulogne. Besides +these war-galleys (<i>naves longae</i>) he got together +eighty transports, enough for two legions, besides +eighteen more for the cavalry.<a name="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75"><sup>[75]</sup></a> These last were +detained by a contrary wind at "a further harbour," +eight miles distant—probably Ambleteuse at the +mouth of the Canche.<a name="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76"><sup>[76]</sup></a></p> + +<p>C. 6.—All these preparations, though they seem to +have been carried out with extreme celerity, lasted +long enough to alarm the Britons. Several clans +sent over envoys, to promise submission if only +Caesar would refrain from invading the country. This, +<span class="newpage"><a name="page87" id="page87">[87]</a></span> +however, did not suit Caesar's purpose. Such diplomatic +advantages would be far less impressive in the +eyes of the Roman "gallery" to which he was playing +than his actual presence in Britain. So he merely +told the envoys that it would be all the better for +them if he found them in so excellent and submissive +a frame of mind on his arrival at their shores, and +sent them back, along with Commius, who was to +bring in his own clan, the Atrebates, and as many +more as he could influence. And the Britons on +their part, though ready to make a nominal submission +to "the mighty name of Rome," were resolved not +to tolerate an actual invasion without a fight for it. +In every clan the war party came to the front, all +negotiations were abruptly broken off, Commius was +thrown into chains, and a hastily-summoned levy +lined the coast about Dover, where the enemy were +expected to make their first attempt to land.</p> + +<p>C. 7.—Dover, in fact, was the port that Caesar made +for. It was, at this date, the obvious harbour for +such a fleet as his. All along the coast of Kent the +sea has, for many centuries, been constantly retreating. +Partly by the silting-up of river-mouths, partly by the +great drift of shingle from west to east which is so +striking a feature of our whole southern shore, fresh +land has everywhere been forming. Places like Rye +and Winchelsea, which were well-known havens of the +Cinque Ports even to late mediaeval times, are now +far inland. And though Dover is still our great +south-eastern harbour, this is due entirely to the +artificial extensions which have replaced the naturally +<span class="newpage"><a name="page88" id="page88">[88]</a></span> +enclosed tidal area for which Caesar made. There is +abundant evidence that in his day the site of the +present town was the bed of an estuary winding for a +mile or more inland between steep chalk cliffs,<a name="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77"><sup>[77]</sup></a> not +yet denuded into slopes, whence the beach on either +side was absolutely commanded.</p> + +<p>C. 8.—Caesar saw at a glance that a landing here +was impossible to such a force as he had with him. +He had sailed from Boulogne "in the third watch"—with +the earliest dawn, that is to say—and by 10 a.m. +his leading vessels, with himself on board, were close +under Shakespeare's Cliff. There he saw the British +army in position waiting for him, crowning the heights +above the estuary, and ready to overwhelm his landing-parties +with a plunging fire of missiles. He anchored +for a space till the rest of his fleet came up, and +meanwhile called a council of war of his leading +officers to deliberate on the best way of proceeding +in the difficulty. It was decided to make for the +open shore to the northwards (perhaps for Richborough,<a name="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78"><sup>[78]</sup></a> +the next secure roadstead of those days), and at three +in the afternoon the trumpet sounded, the anchors were +weighed, and the fleet coasted onwards with the flowing +tide.<a name="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79"><sup>[79]</sup></a></p> + +<p>C. 9.—The British army also struck camp, and +<span class="newpage"><a name="page89" id="page89">[89]</a></span> +kept pace by land with the invaders' progress. First +came the cavalry and chariot-men, the mounted +infantry of the day; then followed the main body, +who in the British as in every army, ancient or +modern, fought on foot. We can picture the scene, +the bright harvest afternoon—(according to the +calculations of Napoleon, in his 'Life of Caesar,' it +was St. Bartholomew's Day)—the calm sea, the long +Roman galleys with their rows of sweeps, the heavier +and broader transports with their great mainsails +rounding out to the gentle breeze, and on cliff and +beach the British ranks in their waving tartans—each +clan, probably, distinguished by its own pattern—the +bright armour of the chieftains, the thick array of +weapons, and in front the mounted contingent hurrying +onwards to give the foe a warm greeting ere he +could set foot on shore.</p> + +<p>C. 10.—Thus did invaders and defenders move on, +for some seven miles, passing, as Dio Cassius notes, +beneath the lofty cliffs of the South Foreland,<a name="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80"><sup>[80]</sup></a> till +these died down into the flat shore and open beach +of Deal. By this time it must have been nearly five +o'clock, and if Caesar was to land at all that day it +must be done at once. Anchor was again cast; but +so flat was the shore that the transports, which drew +at least four feet of water, could not come within +some distance of it. Between the legionaries and the +land stretched yards of sea, shoulder-deep to begin +with, and concealing who could say what treacherous +<span class="newpage"><a name="page90" id="page90">[90]</a></span> +holes and quicksands beneath its surface. And their +wading had to be done under heavy fire; for the +British cavalry and chariots had already come up, +and occupied every yard of the beach, greeting with +a shower of missiles every motion of the Romans to +disembark. This was more than even Caesar's soldiers +were quite prepared to face. The men, small shame +to them, hesitated, and did not spring overboard with +the desired alacrity. Caesar's galleys, however, were +of lighter draught, and with them he made a demonstration +on the right flank (the <i>latus apertum</i> of +ancient warfare, the shield being on every man's <i>left</i> +arm) of the British; who, under a severe fire of slings, +arrows, and catapults, drew back, though only a little, +to take up a new formation, and their fire, in turn, +was for the moment silenced. And that moment was +seized for a gallant feat of arms which shows how +every rank of Caesar's army was animated by Caesar's +spirit.</p> + +<p>C. II.—The ensign of every Roman legion was the +Roman Eagle, perched upon the head of the standard-pole, +and regarded with all, and more than all, the feeling +which our own regiments have for their regimental +colours. As with them, the staff which bore the +Eagle of the Legion also bore inscriptions commemorating +the honours and victories the legion had won, and +to lose it to the foe was an even greater disgrace +than with us. For a Roman legion was a much +larger unit than a modern regiment, and corresponded +rather to a Division; indeed, in the completeness of +its separate organization, it might almost be called an +<span class="newpage"><a name="page91" id="page91">[91]</a></span> +Army Corps. Six thousand was its normal force in +infantry, and it had its own squadrons of cavalry +attached, its own engineer corps, its own baggage train, +and its own artillery of catapults and balistae.<a name="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81"><sup>[81]</sup></a> There +was thus even more legionary feeling in the Roman +army than there is regimental feeling in our own.</p> + +<p>C. 12.—At this time, however, this feeling, so potent +in its effects subsequently, was a new development. +Caesar himself would seem to have been the first to see +how great an incentive such divisional sentiment might +prove, and to have done all he could to encourage it. +He had singled out one particular legion, the Tenth, +as his own special favourite, and made its soldiers feel +themselves the objects of his special regard. And this +it was which now saved the day for him. The colour-sergeant +of that legion, seeing the momentary opening +given by the flanking movement of the galleys, after +a solemn prayer that this might be well for his legion, +plunged into the sea, ensign in hand. "Over with you, +comrades," he cried, "if you would not see your +Eagle taken by the enemy." With a universal shout +of "Never, never" the legion followed; the example +spread from ship to ship, and the whole Roman army +was splashing and struggling towards the shore of +Britain.</p> + +<p>C. 13.—At the same time this was no easy task. +As every bather knows, it is not an absolutely +straightforward matter for even an unencumbered man to +<span class="newpage"><a name="page92" id="page92">[92]</a></span> +effect a landing upon a shingle beach, if ever so little +swell is on. And the Roman soldier had to keep his +footing, and use his arms moreover for fighting, with +some half-hundredweight of accoutrements about him. +To form rank was, of course, out of the question. +The men forced their way onward, singly and in little +groups, often having to stand back to back in +rallying-squares, as soon as they came within hand-stroke +of the enemy.<a name="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82"><sup>[82]</sup></a> And this was before they reached dry +land. For the British cavalry and chariots dashed into +the water to meet them, making full use of the advantage +which horsemen have under such circumstances, +able to ply the full swing of their arms unembarrassed +by the waves, not lifted off their feet or rolled over by +the swell, and delivering their blows from above on +foes already in difficulties. And on their side, they +copied the flanking movement of the Romans, and +wheeled round a detachment to fire upon the <i>latus +apertum</i> of such invaders as succeeded in reaching +shallower water.</p> + +<p>C. 14.—Thus the fight, in Caesar's words, was an +exceedingly sharp one. It was not decided till he +sent in the boats of his galleys, and any other light +craft he had, to mingle with the combatants. These +<span class="newpage"><a name="page93" id="page93">[93]</a></span> +could doubtless get right alongside the British chariots; +and now the advantage of position came to be the +other way. A troop of irregular horsemen up to their +girths in water is no match for a boat's crew of +disciplined infantry. Moreover the tide was flowing,<a name="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83"><sup>[83]</sup></a> +and driving the Britons back moment by moment. +For a while they yet resisted bravely, but discipline +had the last word. Yard by yard the Romans +won their way, till at length they set foot ashore, +formed up on the beach in that open order<a name="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84"><sup>[84]</sup></a> which +made the unique strength of the Legions, and delivered +their irresistible charge. The Britons did not wait +for the shock. Their infantry was, probably, already +in retreat, covered by the cavalry and chariots, who +now in their turn gave rein to their ponies and retired +at a gallop.</p> + +<p>C. 15.—Caesar saw them go, and bitterly felt that +his luck had failed him. Had he but cavalry, this +retreat might have been turned into a rout. But his +eighteen transports had failed to arrive, and his +drenched and exhausted infantry were in no case for +effective pursuit of a foe so superior in mobility. +Moreover the sun must have been now fast sinking, +and all speed had to be made to get the camp fortified +<span class="newpage"><a name="page94" id="page94">[94]</a></span> +before nightfall. But the Roman soldier was an adept +at entrenching himself. A rampart was hastily thrown +up, the galleys beached at the top of the tide and run +up high and dry beyond the reach of the surf, the +transports swung to their anchors where the ebb would +not leave them grounded, the quarters of the various +cohorts assigned them, the sentries and patrols duly +set; and under the summer moon, these first of the +Roman invaders lay down for their first night on +British soil.</p> +<br /> + +<a name="DII."></a><h4>SECTION D.</h4> + +<p><i>Wreck of fleet—Fresh British levy—Fight in corn-field—British chariots—Attack on camp—Romans<br /> +driven into sea.</i></p> +<br /> +<p>D. 1.—Meanwhile the defeated Britons had made +off, probably to their camp above Dover, where their +leaders' first act, on rallying, was to send their prisoner, +Commius, under a flag of truce to Caesar, with a +promise of unconditional submission. That his landing +had been opposed, was, they declared, no fault +of theirs; it was all the witlessness of their ignorant +followers, who had insisted on fighting. Would he +overlook it? Yes; Caesar was ready to show this +clemency; but, after conduct so very like treachery, +considering their embassy to him in Gaul, he must +insist on hostages, and plenty of them. A few were +accordingly sent in, and the rest promised in a few +days, being the quota due from more distant clans. +The British forces were disbanded; indeed, as it was +harvest time, they could scarcely have been kept +embodied anyhow; and a great gathering of chieftains +<span class="newpage"><a name="page95" id="page95">[95]</a></span> +was held at which it was resolved that all alike should +acknowledge the suzerainty of Rome.</p> + +<p>D. 2.—This assembly seems to have been held on +the morrow of the battle or the day after, so that it +can only have been attended by the local Kentish +chiefs, unless we are to suppose (as may well have +been the case), that the Army of Dover comprised +levies and captains from other parts of Britain. But +whatever it was, before the resolution could be carried +into effect an unlooked-for accident changed the whole +situation.</p> + +<p>D. 3.—On the fourth day after the Roman landing, +the south-westerly wind which had carried Caesar +across shifted a few points to the southward. The +eighteen cavalry transports were thus enabled to leave +Ambleteuse harbour, and were seen approaching before +a gentle breeze. The wind, however, continued to +back against the sun, and, as usual, to freshen in doing +so. Thus, before they could make the land, it was +blowing hard from the eastward, and there was nothing +for them but to bear up. Some succeeded in getting +back to the shelter of the Gallic shore, others scudded +before the gale and got carried far to the west, probably +rounding-to under the lee of Beachy Head, where they +anchored. For this, however, there was far too much +sea running. Wave after wave dashed over the bows, +they were in imminent danger of swamping, and, +when the tide turned at nightfall, they got under +weigh and shaped the best course they could to the +southern shore of the Channel.</p> + +<p>D. 4.—And this same tide that thus carried away his +<span class="newpage"><a name="page96" id="page96">[96]</a></span> +reinforcements all but wrecked Caesar's whole fleet at +Deal. His mariners had strangely forgotten that with +the full moon the spring tides would come on; a +phenomenon which had been long ago remarked by +Pytheas,<a name="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85"><sup>[85]</sup></a> and with which they themselves must have +been perfectly familiar on the Gallic coast. And this +tide was not only a spring, but was driven by a gale +blowing straight on shore. Thus the sleeping soldiers +were aroused by the spray dashing over them, and +awoke to find the breakers pounding into their galleys +on the beach; while, of the transports, some dragged +their anchors and were driven on shore to become +total wrecks, some cut their cables, and beat, as +best they might, out to sea, and all, when the tide +and wind alike went down, were found next morning +in wretched plight. Not an anchor or cable, says +Caesar, was left amongst them, so that it was impossible +for them to keep their station off the shore by +the camp.</p> + +<p>D. 5.—The army, not unnaturally, was in dismay. +They were merely on a reconnaissance, without any +supply of provisions, without even their usual baggage; +perhaps without tents, certainly without any means of +repairing the damage to the fleet. Get back to Gaul +for the winter they must under pain of starvation, and +where were the ships to take them?</p> + +<p>D. 6.—The Britons, on the other hand, felt that +their foes were now delivered into their hands. Instead +of the submission they were arranging, the Council +of the Chiefs resolved to make the most of the +<span class="newpage"><a name="page97" id="page97">[97]</a></span> +opportunity, and teach the world by a great example that +Britain was not a safe place to invade. Nor need this +cost many British lives. They had only to refuse +the Romans food; what little could be got by foraging +would soon be exhausted; then would come the +winter, and the starving invaders would fall an easy +prey. The annihilation of the entire expedition would +damp Roman ambitions against Britain for many a +long day. A solemn oath bound one and all to this +plan, and every chief secretly began to levy his +clansmen afresh.</p> + +<p>D. 7.—Naturally, hostages ceased to be sent in; +but it did not need this symptom to show Caesar in +how tight a place he now was. His only chance was +to strain every nerve to get his ships refitted; and by +breaking up those most damaged, and ordering what +materials were available from the Continent, he did +in a week or two succeed in rendering some sixty out +of his eighty vessels just seaworthy.</p> + +<p>D. 8.—And while this work was in progress, another +event showed how imperative was his need and how +precarious his situation. He had, in fact, been guilty +of a serious military blunder in going with a mere flying +column into Britain as he had gone into Germany. +The Channel was not the Rhine, and ships were +exposed to risks from which his bridge had been +entirely exempt. Nothing but a crushing defeat +would cut him off from retiring by that; but the +Ocean was not to be so bridled.</p> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page98" id="page98">[98]</a></span> + +<p>D. 9.—It was, as we have said, the season of +harvest, and the corn was not yet cut, though the +men of Kent were busily at work in the fields. With +regard to the crops nearest the camp, the legionaries +spared them the trouble of reaping, by commandeering +the corn themselves, the area of their operations +having, of course, to be continually extended. +Harvesters numbered by the thousand make quick +work; and in a day or two the whole district was +cleared, either by Roman or Briton. Caesar's scouts +could only bring him word of one unreaped field, +bordered by thick woodland, a mile or two from the +camp, and hidden from it by a low swell of the +ground. Mr. Vine, in his able monograph 'Caesar +in Kent,' thinks that the spot may still be identified, +on the way between Deal and Dover, where, by this +time, a considerable British force was once more +gathered. So entirely was the whole country on the +patriot side, that no suspicion of all this reached the +Romans, and still less did they dream that the +unreaped corn-field was an elaborate trap, and that +the woodlands beside it were filled, or ready for +filling, by masses of the enemy. The Seventh legion, +which was that day on duty, sent out a strong fatigue +party to seize the prize; who, on reaching the field, +grounded shields and spears, took off, probably, their +helmets and tunics, and set to work at cutting down +the corn, presumably with their swords.</p> + +<p>D. 10.—Not long afterwards the camp guard reported +to Caesar that a strange cloud of dust was +rising beyond the ridge over which the legion had +disappeared. Seeing at once that something was +amiss, he hastily bade the two cohorts (about a +<span class="newpage"><a name="page99" id="page99">[99]</a></span> +thousand men) of the guard to set off with him +instantly, while the other legion, the Tenth, was to +relieve them, and follow with all the rest of their +force as speedily as possible. Pushing on with all +celerity, he soon could tell by the shouts of his +soldiers and the yells of the enemy that his men +were hard pressed; and, on crowning the ridge, saw +the remnant of the legion huddled together in a half-armed +mass, with the British chariots sweeping round +them, each chariot-crew<a name="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86"><sup>[86]</sup></a> as it came up springing down +to deliver a destructive volley of missiles, then on +board and away to replenish their magazine and +charge in once more.</p> + +<p>D. 11.—Even at this moment Caesar found time to +note and admire the supreme skill which the enemy +showed in this, to him, novel mode of fighting. Their +driving was like that of the best field artillery of +our day; no ground could stop them; up and down +slopes, between and over obstacles, they kept their +horses absolutely in hand; and, out of sheer bravado, +would now and again exhibit such feats of trick-driving +as to run along the pole, and stand on the +yoke, while at full speed. Such skill, as he truly +observed, could not have been acquired without +constant drill, both of men and horses; and his +military genius grasped at once the immense advantages +given by these tactics, combining "the mobility +of cavalry with the stability of infantry."</p> + +<p>D. 12.—We may notice that Caesar says not a word +<span class="newpage"><a name="page100" id="page100">[100]</a></span> +of the scythe-blades with which popular imagination +pictures the wheels of the British chariots to have +been armed. Such devices were in use amongst the +Persians, and figure at Cunaxa and Arbela. But +there the chariots were themselves projectiles, as it +were, to break the hostile ranks; and even for this +purpose the scythes proved quite ineffective, while +they must have made the whole equipment exceedingly +unhandy. In the 'De Re Militari' (an illustrated +treatise of the 5th century A.D. annexed to the +'Notitia') scythed chariots are shown. But the scythes +always have chains attached, to pull them up out of +the way in ordinary manoeuvres. The Britons of this +date, whose chariots were only to bring their crews up +to the foe and carry them off again, had, we may be +sure, no such cumbrous and awkward arrangement.<a name="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_87"><sup>[87]</sup></a></p> + +<p>D. 13.—On this scene of wild onset Caesar arrived +in the nick of time [<i>tempore opportunissimo</i>]. The +Seventh, surprised and demoralized, were on the +point of breaking, when his appearance on the ridge +caused the assailants to draw back. The Tenth came +up and formed; their comrades, possibly regaining +some of their arms, rallied behind them, and the +Britons did not venture to press their advantage home. +But neither did Caesar feel in any case to retaliate the +attack [<i>alienum esse tempus arbitratus</i>], and led his +troops back with all convenient speed. The Britons, +we may well believe, represented the affair as a +<span class="newpage"><a name="page101" id="page101">[101]</a></span> +glorious victory for the patriot arms.<a name="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88"><sup>[88]</sup></a> They employed +several days of bad weather which followed in spreading +the tidings, and calling on all lovers of freedom +or of spoil to join in one great effort for crushing the +presumptuous invader.</p> + +<p>D. 14.—The news spread like wild-fire, and the +Romans found themselves threatened in their very +camp (whence they had taken care not to stir since +their check) by a mighty host both of horse and +footmen. Caesar was compelled to fight, the legions +were drawn up with their backs to the rampart, that +the hostile cavalry might not take them in rear, and, +after a long hand-to-hand struggle, the Roman charge +once more proved irresistible. The Britons turned +their backs and fled; this time cut up, in their +retreat, by a small body of thirty Gallic horsemen +whom Commius had brought over as his escort, and +who had shared his captivity and release. So weak a +force could, of course, inflict no serious loss upon the +enemy, but, before returning to the camp, they made +a destructive raid through the neighbouring farms and +villages, "wasting all with fire and sword far and +wide."</p> + +<p>D. 15.—That same day came fresh envoys to treat +for peace. They were now required to furnish twice +as many hostages as before; but Caesar could not +wait to receive them. They must be sent after him +to the Continent. His position had become utterly +<span class="newpage"><a name="page102" id="page102">[102]</a></span> +untenable; the equinoctial gales might any day +begin; and he was only too glad to find wind and +weather serve that very night for his re-embarkation. +Under cover of the darkness he huddled his troops on +board; and next morning the triumphant Britons beheld +the invaders' fleet far on their flight across the Narrow +Seas.</p> +<br /> + +<a name="EII."></a><h4>SECTION E.</h4> + +<p><i>Caesar worsted—New fleet built—Caesar at Rome—Cicero—Expedition of 54 B.C.—Unopposed<br /> +Landing—Pro-Roman Britons—Trinobantes—Mandubratius—British army surprised—"Old<br /> +England's Hole."</i></p> +<br /> +<p>E. 1.—Caesar too had, on his side, gained what he +wanted, though at a risk quite disproportionate to the +advantage. So much prestige had he lost that on his +disembarkation his force was set upon by the very +Gauls whom he had so signally beaten two years +before. Their attack was crushed with little difficulty +and great slaughter; but that it should have +been made at all shows that he was supposed to be +returning as a beaten man. However, he now knew +enough about Britain and the Britons to estimate +what force would be needful for a real invasion, and +energetically set to work to prepare it. To make +such an invasion, and to succeed in it, had now +become absolutely necessary for his whole future. +At any cost the events of the year 55 must be +"wiped off the slate;" the more so as, out of all +the British clans, two only sent in their promised +hostages. Caesar's dispatches home, we may be sure, +<span class="newpage"><a name="page103" id="page103">[103]</a></span> +were admirably written, and so represented matters +as to gain him a <i>supplicatio</i>, or solemn thanksgiving, +of twenty days from the Senate. But the +unpleasant truth was sure to leak out unless it was +overlaid by something better. It did indeed so far +leak out that Lucan<a name="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89"><sup>[89]</sup></a> was able to write: <i>Territa +quaesitis ostendit terga Britannis</i>.</p> + +<div class="blkquot"> +"He sought the Britons; then, in panic dread,<br /> +Turned his brave back, and from his victory fled."<br /></div> + +<p>E. 2.—Before setting off, therefore, for his usual +winter visit to Rome, he set all his legionaries to work +in their winter quarters, at building ships ready to +carry out his plans next spring. He himself furnished +the drawings, after a design of his own, like our own +Alfred a thousand years later.<a name="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90"><sup>[90]</sup></a> They were to be of +somewhat lower free-board than was customary, and +of broader beam, for Caesar had noted that the choppy +waves of the Channel had not the long run of +Mediterranean or Atlantic rollers. All, moreover, +were to be provided with sweeps; for he did not +intend again to be at the mercy of the wind. And +with such zeal and skill did the soldiers carry out his +instructions, by aid of the material which he ordered +from the dockyards of Spain, that before the winter +was over they had constructed no fewer than six +hundred of these new vessels, besides eighty fresh +war-galleys.</p> + +<p>E. 3.—Caesar meanwhile was also at his winter's +<span class="newpage"><a name="page104" id="page104">[104]</a></span> +work amid the turmoil of Roman politics. His "westward +ho!" movement was causing all the stir he hoped +for. We can see in Cicero's correspondence with +Atticus, with Trebatius, and with his own brother +Quintus (who was attached in some capacity to +Caesar's second expedition), how full Rome was of +gossip and surmise as to the outcome of this daring +adventure. "Take care," he says to Trebatius, "you +who are always preaching caution; mind you don't +get caught by the British chariot-men."<a name="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_91"><sup>[91]</sup></a> "You will +find, I hear, absolutely nothing in Britain—no gold, +no silver. I advise you to capture a chariot and drive +straight home. Anyhow get yourself into Caesar's good +books."<a name="FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92"><sup>[92]</sup></a></p> + +<p>E. 4.—To be in Caesar's good books was, in fact, +Cicero's own great ambition at this time. Despite +his constitutional zeal, he felt "the Dynasts," as he +called the Triumvirate, the only really strong force in +politics, and was ready to go to considerable lengths +in courting their favour—Caesar's in particular. He +not only withdrew all opposition to the additional +five years of command in Gaul which the subservient +Senate had unconstitutionally decreed to the "dynast," +but induced his brother Quintus to volunteer for +service in the coming invasion of Britain. Through +Quintus he invited Caesar's criticisms on his own very +poor verses, and wrote a letter, obviously meant to be +shown, expressing boundless gratification at a favourable +notice: "If <i>he</i> thinks well of my poetry, I shall +know it is no mere one-horse concern, but a real +<span class="newpage"><a name="page105" id="page105">[105]</a></span> +four-in-hand." "Caesar tells me he never read better +Greek. But why does he write ῥαθυμώτερα [<b>rhathumôtera</b>] ['rather +careless'] against one passage? He really does. Do +find out why."</p> + +<p>E. 5.—This gentle criticism seems to have somewhat +damped Cicero's ardour for Caesar and his +British glories. His every subsequent mention of the +expedition is to belittle it. In the spring he had +written to Trebatius: "So our dear Caesar really thinks +well of you as a counsel. You will be glad indeed to +have gone with him to Britain. There at least you +will never meet your match."<a name="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_93"><sup>[93]</sup></a> But in the summer it +is: "I certainly don't blame you for showing yourself +so little of a sight-seer [<i>non nimis</i> φιλοθέωρον [<b>philotheôron</b>]] +in this British matter."<a name="FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94"><sup>[94]</sup></a> "I am truly glad you never went +there. You have missed the trouble, and I the bore +of listening to your tales about it all."<a name="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95"><sup>[95]</sup></a> To Atticus +he writes: "We are all awaiting the issue of this +British war. We hear the approaches [<i>aditus</i>] of the +island are fortified with stupendous ramparts [<i>mirificis +molibus</i>]. Anyhow we know that not one scruple +[<i>scrupulum</i>] of money exists there, nor any other +plunder except slaves—and none of them either +literary or artistic."<a name="FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96"><sup>[96]</sup></a> "I heard (on Oct. 24) from +Caesar and from my brother Quintus that all is over +in Britain. No booty.... They wrote on September +26, just embarking."</p> + +<p>E. 6.—Both Caesar and Quintus seem to have been +excellent correspondents, and between them let Cicero +<span class="newpage"><a name="page106" id="page106">[106]</a></span> +hear from Britain almost every week during their stay +in the island, the letters taking on an average about a +month to reach him. He speaks of receiving on +September 27 one written by Caesar on September 1; +and on September 13 one from Quintus ("your +fourth")<a name="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_97"><sup>[97]</sup></a> written August 10. And apparently they +were very good letters, for which Cicero was duly +grateful. "What pleasant letters," he says to Quintus, +"you do write.... I see you have an extraordinary +turn for writing (ὑπόθεσιν) [<b>hypothesin</b>] <i>scribendi egregiam</i>. +Tell me all about it, the places, the people, the customs, the +clans, the fighting. What are they all like? And +what is your general like?"<a name="FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98"><sup>[98]</sup></a> "Give me Britain, +that I may paint it in your colours with my own +brush [<i>penicillo</i>]."<a name="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_99"><sup>[99]</sup></a> This last sentence refers to a +heroic poem on "The Glories of Caesar," which Cicero +seems to have meditated but never brought into being. +Nor do we know anything of the contents of his +British correspondence, except that it contains some +speculations about our tide-ways; for, in his 'De +Natura Deorum,'<a name="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100"><sup>[100]</sup></a> Cicero pooh-poohs the idea that +such natural phenomena argue the existence of a +God: "Quid? Aestus maritimi ... Britannici ... +sine Deo fieri nonne possunt?"</p> + +<p>E. 7.—Neither can we say what he meant by the +"stupendous ramparts" against Caesar's access to our +island. The Dover cliffs have been suggested, and +the Goodwin Sands; but it seems much more probable +that the Britons were believed to have artificially +<span class="newpage"><a name="page107" id="page107">[107]</a></span> +fortified the most accessible landing-places. Perhaps +they may have actually done so, but if they did it was +to no purpose; for this time Caesar disembarked his +army quite unopposed. On his return from Rome he +had bidden his newly-built fleet, along with what was +left of the old one, rendezvous at Boulogne; whence, +after long delay through a continuous north-westerly +breeze [<i>Corus</i>], he was at length enabled to set sail +with no fewer than eight hundred vessels. Never +throughout history has so large a navy threatened our +shores. The most numerous of the Danish expeditions +contained less than four hundred ships, William the +Conqueror's less than seven hundred;<a name="FNanchor_101_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_101"><sup>[101]</sup></a> the Spanish +Armada not two hundred.</p> + +<p>E. 8.—Caesar was resolved this time to be in sufficient +strength, and no longer despised his enemies. +He brought with him five out of his eight legions, some +thirty thousand infantry, that is, and two thousand +horse. The rest remained under his most trusted +lieutenant, Labienus, to police Gaul and keep open +his communications with Rome. According to Polyaenus<a name="FNanchor_102_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_102"><sup>[102]</sup></a> +(A.D. 180), he even brought over with him a +fighting elephant, to terrify the natives and their +horses. There is nothing impossible about the story; +though it is not likely Caesar would have forgotten to +mention so striking a feature of his campaign. One +particular animal we may be sure he had with him, his +own famous charger with the cloven hoof, which had +been bred in his own stud, and would suffer on its +<span class="newpage"><a name="page108" id="page108">[108]</a></span> +back none but himself. On it, as the rumour went, it +had been prophesied by the family seer that he should +ever ride to victory.</p> + +<p>E. 9.—It was, as the Emperor Napoleon has calculated, +on July 21 that, at sun-set this mighty +armament put out before a gentle south-west air, +which died away at midnight, leaving them becalmed +on a waveless sea. When morning dawned Britain +lay on their left, and they were drifting up the straits +with the tide. By and by it turned, oars were got +out, and every vessel made for the spot which the +events of the previous year had shown to be the best +landing-place.<a name="FNanchor_103_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_103"><sup>[103]</sup></a> Thanks to Caesar's foresight the transports +as well as the galleys could now be thus propelled, +and such was the ardour of the soldiers that both +classes of ships kept pace with one another, in spite +of their different build. The transports, of course, +contained men enough to take turns at the sweeps, +while the galley oarsmen could not be relieved. By +noon they reached Britain, and found not a soul to +resist their landing. There had been, as Caesar learnt +from "prisoners," a large force gathered for that +purpose, but the terrific multitude of his ships had +proved quite too demoralizing, and the patriot army +had retired to "higher ground," to which the prisoners +were able to direct the invader.</p> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page109" id="page109">[109]</a></span> +<p>E. 10.—There is obviously something strange about +this tale. There was no fighting, the shore was +deserted, yet somehow prisoners were taken, and +prisoners singularly well informed as to the defenders' +strategy. The story reads very much as if these +useful individuals were really deserters, or, as the +Britons would call it, traitors. We know that in one +British tribe, at least, there was a pro-Roman party. +Not long before this there had fled to Caesar in Gaul, +Mandubratius, the fugitive prince of the Trinobantes, +who dwelt in Essex. His father Immanuentius had +been slain in battle by Cassivellaunus, or Caswallon<a name="FNanchor_104_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104_104"><sup>[104]</sup></a> +(the king of their westward neighbours the Cateuchlani), +now the most powerful chieftain in Britain, and +he himself driven into exile.</p> + +<p>E. 11.—This episode seems to have formed part of a +general native rising against the over-sea suzerainty +of Divitiacus, which had brought Caswallon to the +front as the national champion. It was Caswallon +who was now in command against Caesar, and if, as is +very probable, there was any Trinobantian contingent +in his army, they may well have furnished these +"prisoners." For Caesar had brought Mandubratius +with him for the express purpose of influencing the +Trinobantes, who were in fact thus induced in a few +weeks to set an example of submission to Rome, as +soon as their fear of Caswallon was removed. And +<span class="newpage"><a name="page110" id="page110">[110]</a></span> +meanwhile nothing is more likely than that a certain +number of ardent loyalists should leave the usurper's +ranks and hasten to greet their hereditary sovereign, +so soon as ever he landed. The later British accounts +develop the transaction into an act of wholesale +treachery; Mandubratius (whose name they discover +to mean <i>The Black Traitor</i>) deserting, in the thick of +a fight, to Caesar, at the head of twenty thousand +clansmen,—an absurd exaggeration which may yet +have the above-mentioned kernel of truth.</p> + +<p>E. 12.—But whoever these "prisoners" were, their +information was so important, and in Caesar's view so +trustworthy, that he proceeded to act upon it that very +night. Before even entrenching his camp, leaving +only ten cohorts and three hundred horse to guard +the vessels, most of which were at anchor on the +smooth sea, he set off at the head of his army "in the +third watch," and after a forced march of twelve +miles, probably along the British trackway afterwards +called Watling Street, found himself at daybreak in +touch with the enemy. The British forces were +stationed on a ridge of rising ground, at the foot of +which flowed a small stream. Napoleon considers +this stream to have been the Lesser Stour (now a +paltry rivulet, dry in summer, but anciently much +larger), and the hill to have been Barham Down, the +camping-ground of so many armies throughout British +history.</p> + +<p>E. 13.—The battle began with a down-hill charge of +the British cavalry and chariots against the Roman +horse who were sent forward to seize the passage of +<span class="newpage"><a name="page111" id="page111">[111]</a></span> +the stream. Beaten back they retreated to its banks, +which were now, doubtless, lined by their infantry. +And here the real struggle took place. The unhappy +Britons, however, were hopelessly outclassed, and very +probably outnumbered, by Caesar's twenty-four thousand +legionaries and seventeen hundred horsemen. +They gave way, some dispersing in confusion, but the +best of their troops retiring in good order to a stronghold +in the neighbouring woods, "well fortified both +by nature and art," which was a legacy from some +local quarrel. Now they had strengthened it with an +abattis of felled trees, which was resolutely defended, +while skirmishers in open order harassed the assailants +from the neighbouring forest [<i>rari propugnabant +e silvis</i>]. It was necessary for the Seventh legion to +throw up trenches, and finally to form a "tortoise" +with their shields, as in the assault on a regularly +fortified town, before the position could be carried. +Then, at last, the Britons were driven from the wood, +and cut up in their flight over the open down beyond. +The spot where they made this last stand is still, in +local legend, associated with the vague memory of +some patriot defeat, and known by the name of "Old +England's Hole." Traces of the rampart, and of the +assailants' trenches, are yet visible.<a name="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_105"><sup>[105]</sup></a></p> +<br /> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page112" id="page112">[112]</a></span> +<a name="FII."></a><h4>SECTION F.</h4> + +<p><i>Fleet again wrecked—Britons rally under Caswallon—Battle of Barham Down—Britons fly to<br /> +London—Origin of London—Patriot army dispersed.</i></p> +<br /> +<p>F. 1.—It was Caesar's intention to give the broken +enemy no chance of rallying. In spite of the dire +fatigue of his men (who had now been without sleep +for two nights, and spent the two succeeding days in +hard rowing and hard fighting), he sent forward the +least exhausted to press the pursuit. But before the +columns thus detailed had got out of sight a message +from the camp at Richborough changed his purpose. +The mishap of the previous year had been repeated. +Once more the gentle breeze had changed to a gale, +and the fleet which he had left so smoothly riding at +anchor was lying battered and broken on the beach. +His own presence was urgently needed on the scene +of the misfortune, and it would have been madness +to let the campaign go on without him. So the pursuers, +horse and foot, were hastily recalled, and, +doubtless, were glad enough to encamp, like their +comrades, on the ground so lately won, where they +took their well-earned repose.</p> + +<p>F. 2.—But for Caesar there could be no rest. Without +the loss of a moment he rode back to the landing-place, +where he found the state of things fully as bad +as had been reported to him. Forty ships were hopelessly +shattered; but by dint of strenuous efforts he +<span class="newpage"><a name="page113" id="page113">[113]</a></span> +succeeded in saving the rest. All were now drawn on +shore, and tinkered up by artificers from the legions, +while instructions were sent over to Labienus for the +building of a fresh fleet in Gaul. The naval station, +too, was this time thoroughly fortified.</p> + +<p>F. 3.—Ten days sufficed for the work; but meanwhile +much of the fruit of the previous victory had +been lost. The Britons, finding the pursuit checked, +and learning the reason, had rallied their scattered +force; and when Caesar returned to his camp at Barham +Down he found before it a larger patriot army +than ever, with Caswallon (who is now named for +the first time) at its head. This hero, who, as we have +said, may have been brought to the front through the +series of inter-tribal wars which had ruined the foreign +supremacy of Divitiacus in Britain, was by this time +acclaimed his successor in a dignity corresponding in +some degree to the mythical Pendragonship of Welsh +legend.<a name="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_106"><sup>[106]</sup></a> His own immediate dominions included at +least the future districts of South Anglia and Essex, +and his banner was followed by something very like a +national levy from the whole of Britain south of the +Forth. When we read of the extraordinary solidarity +which animated, over a much larger area, the equally +separate clans of Gaul in their rising against the +Roman yoke a year later, there is nothing incredible, +or even improbable, in the Britons having developed +something of a like solidarity in their resistance to its +being laid upon their necks. Burmann's 'Anthology' +contains an epigram which bears witness to the existence +<span class="newpage"><a name="page114" id="page114">[114]</a></span> +amongst us even at that date of the sentiment, +"Britons never shall be slaves." Our island is described +as "<i>Libera non hostem non passa Britannia regem</i>."<a name="FNanchor_107_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107_107"><sup>[107]</sup></a></p> + +<p>F. 4.—Even on his march from the new naval camp +to Barham Down Caesar was harassed by incessant +attacks from flying parties of Caswallon's chariots and +horsemen, who would sweep up, deliver their blow, +and retire, only to take grim advantage of the slightest +imprudence on the part of the Roman cavalry in +pursuit. And when, with a perceptible number of +casualties, the Down was reached, a stronger attack +was delivered on the outposts set to guard the +working parties who were entrenching the position, +and the fighting became very sharp indeed. The +outposts were driven in, even though reinforced by +two cohorts—each the First of its Legion, and thus +consisting of picked men, like the old Grenadier +companies of our own regiments. Though these twelve +hundred regulars, the very flower of the Roman army, +awaited the attack in such a formation that the front +cohort was closely supported by the rear, the Britons +pushed their assault home, and had "the extreme +audacity" to charge clean through the ranks of both, +re-form behind, and charge back again, with great loss +to the Romans (whose leader, Quintus Labienus +Durus, the Tribune, or Divisional General in command +of one of the legions, was slain), and but little +<span class="newpage"><a name="page115" id="page115">[115]</a></span> +to themselves. Not till several more cohorts were +dispatched to the rescue did they at length retire.</p> + +<p>F. 5.—This brilliant little affair speaks well both for +the discipline and the spirit of the patriot army; and +Caesar ungrudgingly recognizes both. He points out +how far superior the British warriors were to his own +men, both in individual and tactical mobility. The +legionaries dare not break their ranks to pursue, +under pain of being cut off by their nimble enemies +before they could re-form; and even the cavalry found +it no safe matter to press British chariots too far or +too closely. At any moment the crews might spring +to earth, and the pursuing horsemen find themselves +confronted, or even surrounded, by infantry in +position. Moreover, the morale of the British army +was so good that it could fight in quite small units, +each of which, by the skilful dispositions of Caswallon, +was within easy reach of one of his series of "stations" +(<i>i.e.</i> block-houses) disposed along the line of march, +where it could rest while the garrison turned out to +take its turn in the combat.</p> + +<p>F. 6.—Against such an enemy it was obviously +Caesar's interest to bring on, as speedily as possible, a +general action, in which he might deliver a crushing +blow. And, happily for him, their success had rendered +the Britons over-confident, so that they were +even deluded enough to imagine that they could face +the full Roman force in open field. Both sides, +therefore, were eager to bring about the same result. +Next morning the small British squads which were +hovering around showed ostentatious reluctance to +<span class="newpage"><a name="page116" id="page116">[116]</a></span> +come to close quarters, so as to draw the Romans out +of their lines. Caesar gladly met their views, and +sent forward all his cavalry and three legions, who, on +their part, ostentatiously broke rank and began to +forage. This was the opportunity the Britons wanted—and +Caesar wanted also. From every side, in front, +flank, and rear, the former "flew upon" their enemies, +so suddenly and so vigorously that ere the legions, +prepared as they were for the onset, could form, the +very standards were all but taken.</p> + +<p>F. 7.—But this time it was with legions and not +with cohorts that the enemy had to do. Their first +desperate charge spent itself before doing any serious +damage to the masses of disciplined valour confronting +them, and the Romans, once in formation, were +able to deliver a counter-charge which proved quite +irresistible. On every side the Britons broke and +fled; the main stream of fugitives unwisely keeping +together, so that the pursuers, cavalry and infantry +alike, were able to press the pursuit vigorously. No +chance was given for a rally; amid the confusion the +chariot-crews could not even spring to earth as usual; +and the slaughter was such as to daunt the stoutest +patriot. The spell of Caswallon's luck was broken, +and his auxiliaries from other clans with one accord +deserted him and dispersed homewards. Never again +throughout all history did the Britons gather a national +levy against Rome.</p> + +<p>F. 8.—This break-up of the patriot confederacy +seems, however, to have been not merely the spontaneous +disintegration of a routed army, but a deliberately +<span class="newpage"><a name="page117" id="page117">[117]</a></span> +adopted resolution of the chiefs. Caesar +speaks of "their counsel." And this brings us to an +interesting consideration. Where did they take this +counsel, and why did the fleeing hosts follow one line +of flight? And how was the line of the Roman +advance so accurately calculated upon by Caswallon +that he was able to place his "stations" along it +beforehand? The answer is that there was an obvious +objective for which the Romans would be sure to +make; indeed there was almost certainly an obvious +track along which they would be sure to march. +There is every reason to believe that most of the later +Roman roads were originally British trackways, broad +green ribands of turf winding through the land (such +as the Icknield Way is still in many parts of its +course), and following the lines most convenient for +trade.</p> + +<p>F. 9.—But, if this is so, then that convergence of +these lines on London, which is as marked a feature +of the map of Roman Britain as it is of our railway +maps now, must have already been noticeable. And +the only possible reason for this must be found in the +fact that already London was a noted passage over the +Thames. That an island in mid-stream was the +original <i>raison d'être</i> of London Bridge is apparent +from the mass of buildings which is shown in every +ancient picture of that structure clustering between +the two central spans. This island must have been a +very striking feature in primaeval days, coming, as it +did, miles below any other eyot on the river, and +must always have suggested and furnished a comparatively +<span class="newpage"><a name="page118" id="page118">[118]</a></span> +easy crossing-place. Possibly even a bridge of +some sort may have existed in 54 B.C.; anyhow this +crossing would have been alike the objective of the +invading, and the <i>point d'appui</i> of the defending +army. And the line both of the Roman advance and +of the British retreat would be along the track +afterwards known as the Kentish Watling Street. For +here again the late British legends which tell us of +councils of war held in London against Caesar, and +fatal resolutions adopted there, with every detail of +proposer and discussion, are probably founded, with +gross exaggeration, upon a real kernel of historic +truth. It was actually on London that the Britons +retired, and from London that the gathering of the +clans broke up, each to its own.</p> +<br /> + +<a name="GII."></a><h4>SECTION G.</h4> + +<p><i>Passage of Thames—Submission of clans—Storm of Verulam—Last patriot effort in Kent<br />—Submission of Caswallon—Romans +leave Britain—"Caesar Divus."</i></p> +<br /> +<p>G. 1.—Caswallon, however, and his immediate realm +still remained to be dealt with. His first act, on resolving +upon continued resistance, would of course be to +make the passage of the London tide-way impossible +for the Roman army; and Caesar, like William the +Conqueror after him, had to search up-stream for a +crossing-place. He did not, however, like William, +have to make his way so far as Wallingford before +finding one. Deserters told him of a ford, though a +difficult one, practicable for infantry, not many miles +<span class="newpage"><a name="page119" id="page119">[119]</a></span> +distant. The traditional spot, near Walton-on-Thames, +anciently called Coway Stakes, may very probably be +the real place. Both name and stakes, however, have +probably, in spite of the guesses of antiquaries, no +connection with Caesar and his passage, but more +prosaically indicate that here was a passage for cattle +(Coway = Cow Way) marked out by crossing stakes.</p> + +<p>G. 2.—The forces of Caswallon were accompanying +the Roman march on the northern bank of the stream, +and when Caesar came to the ford he found them +already in position [<i>instructas</i>] to dispute his passage +behind a <i>chevaux de frise</i> of sharpened stakes, more +of which, he was told, were concealed by the water. +If the Britons had shown their wonted resolution this +position must have been impregnable. But Caswallon's +men were disheartened and shaken by the +slaughter on the Kentish Downs and the desertion of +their allies. Caesar rightly calculated that a bold +demonstration would complete their demoralization. +So it proved. The sight of the Roman cavalry +plunging into the steam, and the legionaries eagerly +pressing on neck-deep in water, proved altogether too +much for their nerves. With one accord, and without +a blow, they broke and fled.<a name="FNanchor_108_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108_108"><sup>[108]</sup></a></p> + +<p>G. 3.—Nor did Caswallon think it wise again to +gather them. He had no further hope of facing +Caesar in pitched battle, and contented himself with +keeping in touch with the enemy with a flying column +of chariot-men some two thousand strong. His practice +<span class="newpage"><a name="page120" id="page120">[120]</a></span> +was to keep his men a little off the road—there +was still, be it noted, a <i>road</i> along which the Romans +were marching—and drive off the flocks and herds +into the woods before the Roman advance. He made +no attempt to attack the legions, but if any foragers +were bold enough to follow up the booty thus reft +from them, he was upon them in a moment. Such +serious loss was thus inflicted that Caesar had to +forbid any such excursions, and to content himself +with laying waste the fields and farms in immediate +proximity to his route.</p> + +<p>G. 4.—He was now in Caswallon's own country, +and his presence there encouraged the Trinobantian +loyalists openly to throw off allegiance to their +conqueror and raise Mandubratius to his father's throne +under the protection of Rome; sending to Caesar at +the same time provisions for his men, and forty +hostages whom he demanded of them. Caesar in +return gave strict orders to his soldiers against +plundering or raiding in their territory. This mingled +firmness and clemency made so favourable an impression +that the submission of the Trinobantes was +followed by that of various adjoining clans, small and +great, from the Iceni of East Anglia to the little riverside +septs of the Bibroci and Ancalites, whose names +may or may not be echoed in the modern Bray and +Henley. The Cassi (of Cassiobury) not only submitted, +but guided the Romans to Caswallon's own +neighbouring stronghold in the forests near St. Alban's. +It was found to be a position of considerable natural +strength (probably on the site of the later Verulam), +<span class="newpage"><a name="page121" id="page121">[121]</a></span> +and well fortified; but all the heart was out of the +Cateuchlanians. When the assailing columns approached +to storm the place on two sides at once, +they hesitated, broke, and flung themselves over the +ramparts on the other sides in headlong flight. Caesar, +however, was able to head them, and his troops killed +and captured large numbers, besides getting possession +of all the flocks and herds, which, as usual, had been +gathered for refuge within the stockade.</p> + +<p>G. 5.—Caswallon himself, however, escaped, and +now made one last bid for victory. So great was still +the influence of his prestige that, broken as he was, +he was able to prevail upon the clans of Kent to +make a sudden and desperate onset upon the Naval +Station at Richborough. All four of the chieftains +beneath whose sway the county was divided (Cingetorix, +Canilius, Taximagulus, and Segonax) rose with +one accord at his summons. The attack, however, +proved a mere flash in the pan. Even before it was +delivered, the garrison sallied out vigorously, captured +one of the British leaders, Lugotorix, slaughtered the +assailants wholesale, and crushed the whole movement +without the loss of a man. This final defeat of his +last hopes broke even Caswallon's sturdy heart. His +followers slain, his lands wasted, his allies in revolt, +he bowed to the inevitable. Even now, however, he +did not surrender unconditionally, but besought +Caesar's <i>protégé</i>, the Atrebatian chieftain Commius, +to negotiate terms with the conqueror.</p> + +<p>G. 6.—To Caesar this was no small relief. The +autumn was coming on, and Caswallon's guerrilla +<span class="newpage"><a name="page122" id="page122">[122]</a></span> +warfare might easily eat up all the remainder of the +summer, when he must needs be left alone, conquered +or unconquered, that the Roman army might get +back to its winter quarters on the Continent; more +especially as ominous signs in Gaul already predicted +the fearful tempest of revolt which, that winter, was +to burst. Easy conditions were therefore imposed. +Caswallon pledged himself, as Lord Paramount, that +Britain should pay an annual tribute to the Roman +treasury, and, as Chief of the Cateuchlani, that he +would leave Mandubratius on the Trinobantian +throne. Hostages were given, and the Roman forces +returned with all convenient speed to the coast; this +time, presumably, crossing the Thames in the regular +way at London.</p> + +<p>G. 7.—After a short wait, in vain expectation of +the sixty ships which Labienus had built in Gaul and +which could not beat across the Channel, Caesar +crowded his troops and the hordes of British captives +on board as best he could, and being favoured by the +weather, found himself and them safe across, having +worked out his great purpose, and leaving a nominally +conquered and tributary Britain behind him. This, +as we have seen from Cicero's letter, was on September +26, B.C. 54.</p> + +<p>G. 8.—We have seen, too, that Cicero's cue was to +belittle the business. But this was far from being +the view taken by the Roman "in the street." To +him Caesar's exploit was like those of the gods and +heroes of old; Hercules and Bacchus had done less, +for neither had passed the Ocean. The popular +<span class="newpage"><a name="page123" id="page123">[123]</a></span> +feeling of exultation in this new glory added to Roman +fame may be summed up in the words of the +Anthologist already quoted:</p> + +<blockquote><p>Libera non hostem, non passa Britannia regem,<br /> + Aeternum nostro quae procul orbe jacet;<br /> +Felix adversis, et sorte oppressa secunda,<br /> + Communis nobis et tibi Caesar erit.<br /> +<br /> +["Free Britain, neither foe nor king that bears,<br /> +That from our world lies far and far away,<br /> +Lucky to lose, crushed by a happy doom,<br /> +Henceforth, O Caesar, ours—and yours—will be."]</p></blockquote> + +<p>G. 9.—Caesar never set foot in Britain again, though +he once saved himself from imminent destruction by +utilizing his British experiences and passing his +troops over a river in coracles of British build.<a name="FNanchor_109_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109_109"><sup>[109]</sup></a> He +went his way to the desperate fighting, first of the +great Gallic revolt, then of the Civil War (with his +own Labienus for the most ferocious of his opponents), +till he found himself the undisputed master of the +Roman world. But when he fell, upon the Ides of +March B.C. 44, it was mainly through the superhuman +reputation won by his invasion of Britain that he +received the hitherto unheard of distinction of a +popular apotheosis, and handed down to his successors +for many a generation the title not only of +Caesar, but of "Divus."</p> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page124" id="page124">[124]</a></span> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<a name="CHAPTER_III"></a><h2>CHAPTER III</h2> + +<h3>THE ROMAN CONQUEST, B.C. 54—A.D. 85</h3> +<br /> + +<a name="AIII."></a><h4>SECTION A.</h4> + +<p><i>Britain after Julius Caesar—House of Commius—Inscribed coins—House of Cymbeline—Tasciovan<br /> +—Commians overthrown—Vain appeal to Augustus—Ancyran Tablet—Romano-British trade<br /> +—Lead-mining—British fashions in Rome—Adminius banished by Cymbeline—Appeal to Caligula<br /> +—Futile demonstration—Icenian civil war—Vericus banished—Appeal to Claudius—Invasion prepared.</i></p> +<br /> +<p>A. 1.—With the departure of Caesar from its shores +our knowledge of the affairs of Britain becomes only +less fragmentary than before he reached them. We do +not even learn how far the tribute he had imposed +continued to be paid. Most probably during the confusion +of the Gallic revolt and the Civil Wars it ceased +altogether. In that confusion Commius finally lost +his continental principality of Arras, and had to fly +for his life into his British dominions. He only saved +himself, indeed, by an ingenious stratagem. When he +reached the shore of Gaul he found his ship aground +in the tide-way. Nevertheless, by hoisting all sail, he +deceived the pursuing Romans into thinking themselves +too late till the rising tide permitted him really +<span class="newpage"><a name="page125" id="page125">[125]</a></span> +to put to sea.<a name="FNanchor_110_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110_110"><sup>[110]</sup></a> The effect of the extinction of Atrebatian +power in Gaul was doubtless to consolidate it +in Britain, as when our English sovereigns lost their +hold on Normandy and Anjou, for we find that Commius +reigned at least over the eastern counties of +Wessex, and transmitted his power to his sons, Verica, +Eppillus, and Tincommius, who seem to have shared +the kingdom between them. Tincommius, however, +may possibly be, as Professor Rhys suggests, merely a +title, signifying the <i>Tanist</i> (or Heir) of Commius. In +this case it would be that of Verica, who was king +after his father.<a name="FNanchor_111_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111_111"><sup>[111]</sup></a></p> + +<p>A. 2.—The evidence for this is that in the district +mentioned British coins are found bearing these +names. For now appears the first inscribed British +coinage; the inscriptions being all in Latin, a sign of +the abiding influence of the work of Caesar. And it is +by that light mainly that we know the little we do +know of British history for the next century. The +coins are very numerous, and preserve for us the +names of no fewer than thirty several rulers (or states). +They are mostly of gold (though both silver and +bronze also occur), and are found over the greater +part of the island, the southern and the eastern +counties being the richest. The inscriptions indicate, +as has already been mentioned,<a name="FNanchor_112_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112_112"><sup>[112]</sup></a> a state of great +political confusion throughout the country. But they +<span class="newpage"><a name="page126" id="page126">[126]</a></span> +also bear testimony not only to the dynasty of Commius, +but to the rise of a much stronger power north +of the Thames.</p> + +<p>A. 3.—That power was the House of Cunobelin, or +Cinobellinus<a name="FNanchor_113_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113_113"><sup>[113]</sup></a> (Shakespeare's Cymbeline), who figures +in the pages of Suetonius as King of all Britain, insomuch +that his fugitive son, Adminius, posed before +Caligula as the rightful sovereign of the whole island. +His coins were undoubtedly current everywhere south +of Trent and east of Severn, if not beyond those rivers. +They are found in large numbers, and of most varied +devices, all showing the influence of classical art. A +head (probably his own portrait) is often on the obverse, +and on the reverse Apollo playing the lyre, or a +Centaur, or a Victory, or Medusa, or Pegasus, or +Hercules. Other types show a warrior on horse or +foot, or a lion,<a name="FNanchor_114_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114_114"><sup>[114]</sup></a> or a bull, or a wolf, or a wild boar; +others again a vine-leaf, or an ear of bearded wheat. +On a very few is found the horse, surviving from the +old Macedonian mintage.<a name="FNanchor_115_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115_115"><sup>[115]</sup></a> And all bear his own name, +sometimes in full, CVNOBELINVS REX, oftener abbreviated +in various ways.</p> + +<p>A. 4.—But the coins do more than testify to the +widespread power of Cymbeline himself. They show +<span class="newpage"><a name="page127" id="page127">[127]</a></span> +us that he inherited much of it from his father. This +prince, whose name was Tasciovan, is often associated +with his son in the inscriptions, and the son is often +described as TASCIIOVANI F. (<i>Filius</i>) or TASCIOVANTIS. +There are besides a large number of coins belonging +to Tasciovan alone. And these tell us where he +reigned. They are struck (where the mint is recorded) +either at Segontium<a name="FNanchor_116_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116_116"><sup>[116]</sup></a> or at Verulam. The latter is +pretty certainly the town which had sprung up on the +site of Caswallon's stronghold, so that we may reasonably +conclude that Tasciovan was the successor of the +patriot hero on the Cateuchlanian throne—very probably +his son. But Cymbeline's coins are struck at +the <i>Trinobantian</i> capital, Camelodune,<a name="FNanchor_117_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_117_117"><sup>[117]</sup></a> which we +know to have been the royal city of his son Caratac +(or Caradoc) at the Claudian conquest.</p> + +<p>A. 5.—It would seem, therefore, that, Caesar's mandate +to the contrary notwithstanding, Caswallon's clan, +who were now called (perhaps from his name), +Cattivellauni, had again conquered the Trinobantes, +deposing, and probably slaying, Mandubratius.<a name="FNanchor_118_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_118_118"><sup>[118]</sup></a> This +would be under Tasciovan, who gave the land to his +son Cymbeline, and, at a later date, must have subdued +the Atrebatian power in the south. The sons of +Commius were, as is shown by Sir John Evans, +contemporary with Tasciovan. But, by and by, we find +Epaticcus, <i>his</i> son, and Adminius, apparently his +grandson, reigning in their realm, the latter taking +Kent, the former the western districts. The previous +<span class="newpage"><a name="page128" id="page128">[128]</a></span> +Kentish monarch was named Dumnovellanus, and +appears as DAMNO BELLA on the Ancyran Tablet. +This wonderful record of the glories of Augustus +mentions, <i>inter alia</i>, that certain British kings, of +whom this prince was one, fled to his protection. +The tablet is, unhappily, mutilated at the point where +their names occur, but that of another begins with +TIM—probably, as Sir John Evans suggests, Tin-Commius. +Adminius also was afterwards exiled by his +own father, Cymbeline, and in like manner appealed +to Caesar—Caligula—in 40 A.D.</p> + +<p>A. 6.—Nothing came of either appeal. Augustus +did indeed, according to Dio Cassius, meditate completing +his "father's" work, and (in B.C. 34) entered +Gaul with a view to invading Britain. But the political +troubles which were to culminate at Actium called him +back, and he contented himself with laying a small +duty on the trade between Britain and Gaul. Tin, as +before, formed the staple export of our island, and +other metals seem now to have been added—iron +from Sussex and lead from Somerset. Doubtless also +the pearls from our native oysters (of which Caesar +had already dedicated a breastplate to his ancestral +Venus) found their way to Rome, though of far less +value than the Oriental jewel, being of a less pure +white.<a name="FNanchor_119_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_119_119"><sup>[119]</sup></a> Besides these we read of "ivory bracelets and +necklets, amber and glass ornaments, and such-like +rubbish,"<a name="FNanchor_120_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_120_120"><sup>[120]</sup></a> which doubtless found a sale amongst the +<span class="newpage"><a name="page129" id="page129">[129]</a></span> +<i>virtuosi</i> of Rome, as like products of savage industry +from Africa or Polynesia find a sale amongst our +<i>virtuosi</i> nowadays. Meanwhile, Roman dignity was +saved by considering these duties to be in lieu of the +unpaid tribute imposed by Caesar, and the island was +declared by courtly writers to be already in practical +subjection. "Some of the chiefs (δυνάσται) [<b>dunastai</b>] have +gained the friendship of Augustus, and dedicated +offerings in the Capitol.... The island would not +be worth holding, and could never pay the expenses +of a garrison."<a name="FNanchor_121_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121_121"><sup>[121]</sup></a></p> + +<p>A. 7.—At the same time the Romans of the day +evidently took a very special interest in everything +connected with Britain. The leaders of Roman +society, like Maecenas, drove about in British chariots,<a name="FNanchor_122_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_122_122"><sup>[122]</sup></a> +smart ladies dyed their hair red in imitation of British +warriors,<a name="FNanchor_123_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_123_123"><sup>[123]</sup></a> tapestry inwoven with British figures was +all the fashion,<a name="FNanchor_124_124"></a><a href="#Footnote_124_124"><sup>[124]</sup></a> and constant hopes were expressed +by the poets that, before long, so interesting a land +might be finally incorporated in the Roman Empire.<a name="FNanchor_125_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_125_125"><sup>[125]</sup></a></p> + +<p>A. 8.—Augustus was too prudent to be stirred up +by this "forward" policy; which, indeed, he had +<span class="newpage"><a name="page130" id="page130">[130]</a></span> +sanctioned once too often in the fatal invasion of +Germany by Varus. But the diseased brain of +Caligula <i>was</i> for a moment fired with the ambition of +so vast an enterprise. He professed that the fugitive +Adminius had ceded to him the kingship of the whole +island, and sent home high-flown dispatches to that +effect. He had no fleet, but drew up his army in line +of battle on the Gallic shore, while all wondered what +mad freak he was purposing; then suddenly bade +every man fill his helmet with shells as "spoils of the +Ocean" to be dedicated in the Capitol. Finally he +commemorated this glorious victory by the erection +of a lofty lighthouse,<a name="FNanchor_126_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_126_126"><sup>[126]</sup></a> probably at the entrance of +Boulogne harbour.</p> + +<p>A. 9.—It was clear, however, that sooner or later +Britain must be drawn into the great system so near +her, and the next reign furnished the needful occasion. +Yet another exiled British pretender appealed to the +Emperor to see him righted—this time one Vericus. +His name suggests that he may have been Verica son +of Commius; but the theory of Professor Rhys and +Sir John Evans seems more probable—that he was a +Prince of the Iceni. The earliest name found on the +coins of that clan is Addeomarus (Aedd Mawr, or +Eth the Great, of British legend), who was contemporary +with Tasciovan. After this the tribe probably +became subject to Cymbeline, at whose death<a name="FNanchor_127_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_127_127"><sup>[127]</sup></a> the +chieftainship seems to have been disputed between +<span class="newpage"><a name="page131" id="page131">[131]</a></span> +two pretenders, Vericus and Antedrigus; and on the +success of the latter (presumably by Cateuchlanian +favour) the former fled to Rome. Claudius, who now +sat on the Imperial throne, eagerly seized the opportunity +for the renown he was always coveting, and in +A.D. 44 set in motion the forces of the Empire to +subdue our island.</p> +<br /> + +<a name="BIII."></a><h4>SECTION B.</h4> + +<p><i>Aulus Plautius—Reluctance to embark—Narcissus—Passage of Channel—Landing at Portchester<br /> +—Strength of expedition—Vespasian's legion—British defeats—Line of Thames held—Arrival<br /> +of Claudius—Camelodune taken—General submission of island.</i></p> +<br /> +<p>B. 1.—The command of the expedition was entrusted +to Aulus Plautius Laelianus, a distinguished Senator, +of Consular rank. But the reluctance of the soldiery to +advance "beyond the limits of this mortal world" +(ἐξω τῆς οὶκουμένης) [<i>exô tas ohikoumenês</i>], and entrust themselves +to the mysterious tides of the ocean which was held to +bound it, caused him weeks of delay on the shores +of Gaul. Nor could anything move them, till they +found this malingering likely to expose them to the +degradation of a quasi-imperial scolding from Narcissus, +the freed-man favourite of Claudius, who came +down express from Rome as the Emperor's mouthpiece.<a name="FNanchor_128_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_128_128"><sup>[128]</sup></a> +To bear reproof from one who had been +born a slave was too much for Roman soldiers. When +Narcissus mounted the tribune to address them in +the Emperor's name, his very first words were at once +<span class="newpage"><a name="page132" id="page132">[132]</a></span> +drowned by a derisive shout from every mouth of "<i>Io +Saturnalia</i>!" the well-known cry with which Roman +slaves inaugurated their annual Yule-tide licence of +aping for the day the characters of their masters. +The parade tumultuously broke off, and the troops +hurried down to the beach to carry out the commands +of their General—who was at least free-born.</p> + +<p>B, 2.—The passage of the Channel was effected in +three separate fleets, possibly at three separate points, +and the landing on our shores was unopposed. The +Britons, doubtless, had been lulled to security by the +tidings of the mutinous temper in the camp of the +invaders, and were quite unprepared for the very +unexpected result of the mission of Narcissus. It +seems likely, moreover, that the disembarkation was +made much further to the west than they would have +looked for. The voyage is spoken of as long, and +amid its discomforts the drooping spirits of the +soldiery were signally cheered by a meteor of special +brilliance which one night darted westwards as their +harbinger. Moreover we find that when the Romans +did land, their first success was a defeat of the +Dobuni, subject allies of the House of Cymbeline, +who, as we gather from Ptolemy, dwelt in what is +now Southern Gloucestershire.<a name="FNanchor_129_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_129_129"><sup>[129]</sup></a> This objective rather +<span class="newpage"><a name="page133" id="page133">[133]</a></span> +points to their landing-place having been in Portsmouth +harbour<a name="FNanchor_130_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_130_130"><sup>[130]</sup></a> (<i>the</i> Port, as its name still reminds +us, of Roman Britain), where the undoubtedly Roman +site of Portchester may well mark the exact spot where +the expedition first set foot on shore.</p> + +<p>B. 3.—Besides an unknown force of Gallic auxiliaries, +its strength comprised four veteran legions, one (the +Ninth <i>Hispanica</i>)<a name="FNanchor_131_131"></a><a href="#Footnote_131_131"><sup>[131]</sup></a> from the Danube frontier, the rest +(Twentieth, Fourteenth, and Second) from the Rhine. +This last, an "Augustan"<a name="FNanchor_132_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_132_132"><sup>[132]</sup></a> legion, was commanded by +the future Emperor Vespasian—a connection destined +to have an important influence on the <i>pronunciamento</i> +which, twenty-five years later, placed him on the throne.<a name="FNanchor_133_133"></a><a href="#Footnote_133_133"><sup>[133]</sup></a> +As yet he was only a man of low family, whom +favouritism was held to have hurried up the ladder of +promotion more rapidly than his birth warranted.<a name="FNanchor_134_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_134_134"><sup>[134]</sup></a> +Serving under him as Military Tribunes were his +brother Sabinus and his son Titus; and in this +British campaign all three Flavii are said to have +distinguished themselves,<a name="FNanchor_135_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_135_135"><sup>[135]</sup></a> especially at the passage of +an unnamed river, where the Britons made an obstinate +stand. The ford was not passed till after three days' +continuous fighting, of which the issue was finally +<span class="newpage"><a name="page134" id="page134">[134]</a></span> +decided by the "Celtic" auxiliaries swimming the +stream higher up, and stampeding the chariot-horses +tethered behind the British lines.</p> + +<p>B. 4.—What this stream may have been is a +puzzle.<a name="FNanchor_136_136"></a><a href="#Footnote_136_136"><sup>[136]</sup></a> Dion Cassius brings it in after a victory over +the sons of Cymbeline, Caradoc (or Caractacus, as +historians commonly call him) and Togodumnus, +wherein the latter was slain. And he adds that +from its banks the Britons fell back upon their next +line of defence, the <i>tide-way</i> on the Thames. He +tells us that, though tidal, the river was, at this +point, fordable at low water for those who knew the +shallows; and incidentally mentions that at no great +distance there was even a bridge over it. But it +was bordered by almost impassable<a name="FNanchor_137_137"></a><a href="#Footnote_137_137"><sup>[137]</sup></a> swamps. It must +be remembered that before the canalizing of the +Thames the influence of the tide was perceptible at +least as high as Staines, where was also a crossing-place +of immemorial antiquity. And hereabouts may very +probably have been the key of the British position, a +position so strong that it brought Plautius altogether +to a standstill. Not till overwhelming reinforcements, +including even an elephant corps, were summoned +from Rome, with Claudius in person at their head, +was a passage forced. The defence then, however, +collapsed utterly, and within a fortnight of his landing, +<span class="newpage"><a name="page135" id="page135">[135]</a></span> +Claudius was able to re-embark for Rome, after +taking Camelodune, and securing for the moment, +without the loss of a man,<a name="FNanchor_138_138"></a><a href="#Footnote_138_138"><sup>[138]</sup></a> as it would seem, the +nominal submission of the whole island, including +even the Orkneys.<a name="FNanchor_139_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_139_139"><sup>[139]</sup></a></p> +<br /> + +<a name="CIII."></a><h4>SECTION C.</h4> + +<p><i>Claudius triumphs—Gladiatorial shows—Last stand of Britons—Gallantry of Titus—Ovation<br /> +of Plautius—Distinctions bestowed—Triumphal arch—Commemorative coinage—Conciliatory<br /> +policy—British worship of Claudius—Cogidubnus—Attitude of clans—Britain made Imperial<br /> +Province.</i></p> +<br /> +<p>C. 1.—The success thus achieved was evidently +felt to be something quite exceptionally brilliant and +important. Not once, as was usual, but four several +times was Claudius acclaimed "Imperator"<a name="FNanchor_140_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_140_140"><sup>[140]</sup></a> even +before he left our shores; and in after years these +acclamations were renewed at Rome as often as good +news of the British war arrived there, till, ere +Claudius died, he had received no fewer than twenty-one +such distinctions, each signalized by an issue of +commemorative coinage. His "Britannic triumph" was +celebrated on a scale of exceptional magnificence. +In addition to the usual display, he gave his people +the unique spectacle of their Emperor climbing the +ascent to the Capitol not in his triumphal car, nor +even on foot, but on his knees (as pilgrims yet mount +the steps of the Ara Coeli), in token of special +<span class="newpage"><a name="page136" id="page136">[136]</a></span> +gratitude to the gods for so signal an extension of the +glory and the Empire of Rome. In the gladiatorial +shows which followed, he presided in full uniform +[<i>paludatus</i>],<a name="FNanchor_141_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_141_141"><sup>[141]</sup></a> with his son (whose name, like his own, +a <i>Senatus consultum</i> had declared to be <i>Britannicus</i>)<a name="FNanchor_142_142"></a><a href="#Footnote_142_142"><sup>[142]</sup></a> +on his knee.<a name="FNanchor_143_143"></a><a href="#Footnote_143_143"><sup>[143]</sup></a> One of the spectacles represented the +storm of a British <i>oppidum</i> and the surrender of +British kings. The kings were probably real British +chieftains, and the storm was certainly real, with real +Britons, real blood, real slaughter, for Claudius went +to every length in this direction.</p> + +<p>C. 2.—The narrative of Suetonius<a name="FNanchor_144_144"></a><a href="#Footnote_144_144"><sup>[144]</sup></a> connects these +shows with the well-known tale of the unhappy +gladiators who fondly hoped that a kind word from +the Emperor meant a reprieve of their doom. He +had determined to surpass all his predecessors in his +exhibition of a sea-fight, and had provided a sheet of +water large enough for the manoeuvres of real war-galleys, +carrying some five hundred men apiece.<a name="FNanchor_145_145"></a><a href="#Footnote_145_145"><sup>[145]</sup></a> +The crews, eleven thousand in all, made their usual +preliminary march past his throne, with the usual +mournful acclaim, "<i>Ave Caesar! Salutant te morituri</i>!" +Claudius responded, "<i>Aut non</i>:" and these +two words were enough to inspire the doomed ranks +with hopes of mercy. With one accord they refused +to play their part, and he had to come down in +person and solemnly assure them that if his show was +spoilt he would exterminate every man of them "with +<span class="newpage"><a name="page137" id="page137">[137]</a></span> +fire and sword," before they would embark. Once +entered upon the combat, however, they fought +desperately; so well, indeed, that at its close the +survivors were declared exempt from any further +performance. Such was the fate which awaited those +who dared to defend their freedom against the Fortune +of Rome, and such the death died by many a brave +Briton for the glory of his subjugators. Dion Cassius<a name="FNanchor_146_146"></a><a href="#Footnote_146_146"><sup>[146]</sup></a> +tells us that Aulus Plautius made a special boast of +the numbers so butchered in connection with his own +"Ovation."</p> + +<p>C. 3.—This ceremony was celebrated A.D. 47, two +years after that of Claudius. Plautius had remained +behind in Britain to stamp out the last embers of +resistance,—a task which all but proved fatal to +Vespasian, who got hemmed in by the enemy. He +was only saved by the personal heroism and devotion +of Titus, who valiantly made in to his father's rescue, +and succeeded in cutting him out. This seems to +have been in the last desperate stand made by the +Britons during this campaign. After this, with +Togodumnus slain, Caradoc probably a fugitive in hiding, +and the best and bravest of the land slaughtered +either in the field or in the circus at Rome, British +resistance was for the moment utterly crushed out. +Claudius continued his demonstrations of delight; +when Plautius neared Rome he went out in person to +meet him,<a name="FNanchor_147_147"></a><a href="#Footnote_147_147"><sup>[147]</sup></a> raised him when he bent the knee in +homage, and warmly shook hands with him<a name="FNanchor_148_148"></a><a href="#Footnote_148_148"><sup>[148]</sup></a> (καλῶς διαχείσας) [<b>kalos +diacheirisas</b>]; afterwards himself walking on his left +<span class="newpage"><a name="page138" id="page138">[138]</a></span> +hand in the triumphal procession along the Via +Sacra.<a name="FNanchor_149_149"></a><a href="#Footnote_149_149"><sup>[149]</sup></a></p> + +<p>C. 4.—Rewards were at the same time showered +on the inferior officers. Cnaeus Ostorius Geta, the +hero of the first riverside fight in Britain, was allowed +to triumph in consular fashion, though not yet of +consular rank; and an inscription found at Turin +speaks of collars, gauntlets and phalera bestowed on +one Caius Gavius, along with a golden wreath for +Distinguished Service. Another, found in Switzerland,<a name="FNanchor_150_150"></a><a href="#Footnote_150_150"><sup>[150]</sup></a> +records the like wreath assigned to Julius +Camillus, a Military Tribune of the Fourth Legion, +together with the decoration of the <i>Hasta Pura</i> +(something, it would seem, in the nature of the +Victoria Cross); which was also, according to +Suetonius,<a name="FNanchor_151_151"></a><a href="#Footnote_151_151"><sup>[151]</sup></a> given to Posides, one of the Emperor's +favourite freedmen.</p> + +<p>C. 5.—To Claudius himself, besides his triumph, the +Senate voted two triumphal arches,<a name="FNanchor_152_152"></a><a href="#Footnote_152_152"><sup>[152]</sup></a> one in Rome, the +other in the Gallic port whence he had embarked for +Britain. Part of the inscription on the former of +these was found in 1650 on the site where it stood +(near the Palazzo Sciarra), and is still to be seen in +the gardens of the Barberini Palace. It runs as +follows (the conjectural restoration of the lost +portions which have been added being enclosed in +brackets):</p> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page139" id="page139">[139]</a></span> +<div class="blkquot"><p>TI CLAVD [IO. CAES.]<br /> +AVG [VSTO]<br /> +PONTIFIC [I. MAX. TR. P. IX]<br /> +COS. VI. IM [P. XVI. PP]<br /> +SENATVS. PO [PVL. Q.R. QVOD]<br /> +REGES. BRIT [ANNIAE. ABSQ]<br /> +VLLA. JACTV [RA. DOMVERIT]<br /> +GENTES QVE [BARBARAS]<br /> +PRIMVS. INDI [CIO. SVBEGERIT]</p></div> + + +<div class="blkquot"><p>"To Tiberius Claudius Caesar, Augustus, Pontifex<br /> +Maximus, holding for the 9th time the authority of<br /> +Tribune, Consul for the 6th time, acclaimed Imperator<br /> +for the 16th, the Senate and People of Rome [have<br /> +dedicated this arch]. Because that without the loss<br /> +of a man he hath subdued the Kings of Britain, and<br /> +hath been the first to bring under her barbarous clans<br /> +under our sway."</p></div> + +<p>Claudius also affixed to the walls of +the imperial house on the Palatine (which was destined +to give the name of "palace" to royal abodes for all +time),<a name="FNanchor_153_153"></a><a href="#Footnote_153_153"><sup>[153]</sup></a> a "<i>corona navalis</i>"—a circlet in which the +usual radiations were made to resemble the sails, etc. +of ships—in support of his proud claim to have tamed +the Ocean itself [<i>quasi domiti oceani</i>] and brought it +under Roman sway:</p> +<div class="blkquot"> +<p>"<i>Et jam Romano cingimur +Oceano</i>."<a name="FNanchor_154_154"></a><a href="#Footnote_154_154"><sup>[154]</sup></a></p> +</div> +<p>C. 6.—As usual, coins were struck to commemorate +the occasion, the earliest of the long series of Roman +coins relating to Britain. They bear on the obverse +<span class="newpage"><a name="page140" id="page140">[140]</a></span> +the laureated head of Claudius to the right, with the +superscription TI. CLAVD. CAESAR. AVG. P.M. TR. P. +VIIII. IMP. XVI. On the reverse is an equestrian figure, +between two trophies, surmounting a triumphal arch, +over which is inscribed the legend DE. BRITAN. This +coin, being of gold, was struck not by the Senate (who +regulated the bronze issue), but by the Imperial mint, +and dates from the year 46, when Claudius was clothed +for the ninth time with the authority of Tribune. By +that time the arch was doubtless completed, and the +coin may well show what it was actually like. Another +coin, also bearing the words DE. BRITAN., shows +Claudius in his triumphal chariot with an eagle on his +sceptre. Even poor little Britannicus, who never +came to his father's throne, being set aside through +the intrigues of his stepmother Agrippina and finally +poisoned (A.D. 55) by Nero, had a coin of his own on +this occasion issued by the Senate and inscribed TI. +CLAVD. CAESAR. AVG. F. [<i>Augusti Filius</i>] BRITANNICVS.</p> + +<p>C.7.—Seneca, whose own connection with Britain +was that of a grinding usurer,<a name="FNanchor_155_155"></a><a href="#Footnote_155_155"><sup>[155]</sup></a> speaks with intense +disgust of the conciliatory attitude of Claudius towards +the populations, or more probably the kinglets, who +had submitted to his sway. He purposed, it seems, +even to see some of them raised to Roman citizenship +[<i>Britannos togatos videre</i>]. That the grateful +provincials should have raised a temple to him at +Camelodune, and rendered him worship as an incarnate +deity, adds to the offence. And, writing on the +Emperor's death, the philosopher points with evident +<span class="newpage"><a name="page141" id="page141">[141]</a></span> +satisfaction to the wretched fate of the man who +triumphed over Britain and the Ocean, only to fall at +last a victim to the machinations of his own wife.</p> + +<p>C. 8.—An interesting confirmation of this information +as to the relations between Claudius and his +British subjects is to be found in a marble tablet<a name="FNanchor_156_156"></a><a href="#Footnote_156_156"><sup>[156]</sup></a> +discovered at Chichester, which commemorates the +erection of a temple (dedicated to Neptune and +Minerva) for the welfare of the Divine [<i>i.e.</i> Imperial] +Household by a Guild of Craftsmen [<i>collegium fabrorum</i>] +on a site given by Pudens the son of Pudentinus;<a name="FNanchor_157_157"></a><a href="#Footnote_157_157"><sup>[157]</sup></a> +all under the authority of Tiberius Claudius Cogidubnus, +at once a native British kinglet and Imperial +Legate in Britain. This office would imply Roman +citizenship, as would also the form of his name. +That (doubtless on his enfranchisement) he should +have been allowed to take such a distinguished <i>nomen</i> +and <i>praenomen</i> as Tiberius Claudius marks the special +favour in which he was held by the Emperor.<a name="FNanchor_158_158"></a><a href="#Footnote_158_158"><sup>[158]</sup></a> To +this witness is also borne by Tacitus, who says that +<span class="newpage"><a name="page142" id="page142">[142]</a></span> +certain states in Britain were placed under Cogidubnus +not as a tributary Kingdom but as a Roman Province. +Hence his title of Imperial Legate. These states +were doubtless those of the Cantii and Regni in Kent, +Surrey and Sussex.</p> +<br /> + +<p>C. 9.—The Iceni, on the other hand, were subject +allies of Rome, with Vericus, in all probability, on the +throne.<a name="FNanchor_159_159"></a><a href="#Footnote_159_159"><sup>[159]</sup></a> The Atrebates would seem also to have +been "friendlies." But the great mass of the British +clans were chafing under the humiliation and suffering +which the invaders had wrought for them, and evidently +needed a strong hand to keep them down. Under +the Empire provinces requiring military occupation +were committed not to Pro-consuls chosen by the +Senate, but to Pro-praetors nominated by the Emperor, +and were called "Imperial" as opposed to "Senatorial" +governments.<a name="FNanchor_160_160"></a><a href="#Footnote_160_160"><sup>[160]</sup></a> Britain was now accordingly declared +an Imperial Province, and Ostorius Scapula sent by +Claudius to administer it as Pro-praetor.</p> +<br /> + +<a name="DIII."></a><h4>SECTION D.</h4> + +<p><i>Ostorius Pro-praetor—Pacification of Midlands—Icenian revolt—Camb's dykes—Iceni crushed<br />—Cangi—Brigantes—Silurian +war—Storm of Caer Caradoc—Treachery of Cartismandua—Caradoc<br /> +at Rome—Death of Ostorius—Uriconium and Caerleon—Britain quieted—Death of Claudius.</i></p> +<br /> +<p>D. 1.—When Ostorius, in A.D. 50, reached Britain +he found things in a very disturbed state. The clans +<span class="newpage"><a name="page143" id="page143">[143]</a></span> +which had submitted to the Romans were being raided +by their independent neighbours, who calculated that +this new governor would not venture on risking his +untried levies in a winter campaign against them. +Ostorius, however, was astute enough to realize that +such a first impression of his rule would be fatal, and, +by a sudden dash with a flying column (<i>citas cohortes</i>), +cut the raiders to pieces. As usual the Britons hoisted +the white flag in their familiar manner, making a +surrender which they had no intention whatever of +keeping to longer than suited their plans; and they +were proportionately disgusted when Ostorius set to +work at a real pacification of the Midlands, constructing +forts at strategic points along the Trent and +Severn, and requiring all natives whatsoever within +this Roman Pale to give up their arms.</p> + +<p>D. 2.—This demand the Britons looked upon as +an intolerable dishonour, even as it seemed to the +Highlanders two centuries ago. The first to resent +it were the chieftain and clan whose alliance with Rome +had been the <i>raison d'être</i> of the Conquest, Vericus +and his Iceni.<a name="FNanchor_161_161"></a><a href="#Footnote_161_161"><sup>[161]</sup></a> Was this brand of shame to be their +reward for bringing in the invaders? They received +the mandate of Ostorius with a burst of defiance, and +hastily organized a league of the neighbouring tribes +to resist so intolerable a degradation. Before their +allies could come in, however, Ostorius was upon +them, and it became a matter of defending their own +borders.</p> + +<p>D. 3.—The spot they selected for resistance was a +<span class="newpage"><a name="page144" id="page144">[144]</a></span> +space shut in by earthworks <i>(agresti aggere)</i> accessible +only by one narrow entrance. This description exactly +applies to the locality where we should look for +an Icenian Thermopylae. The clan dwelt, as we have +said, in East Anglia, their borders to the south +being the marshy course of the Stour, running +from the primaeval forest that capped the "East +Anglian Heights," and, to the west, the Cambridgeshire +Fens. They thus lived within a ring fence almost +unassailable. Only in one spot was there an entrance. +Between the Fen and the Forest stretched a narrow +strip of open turf, some three or four miles across, +affording easy marching. And along it ran their own +great war-path, the Icknield Street, extending from the +heart of their realm right away to the Thames at +Goring. It never became a Roman road, though +a few miles are now metalled. Along most of its +course it remains what it was in British days, a broad, +green track seamed with scores of rut-marks. And +even where it has been obliterated, its course may be +traced by the names of Ickborough in Norfolk, Iclingham +in Suffolk, Ickleton in Cambridgeshire, and +Ickleford in Hertfordshire.<a name="FNanchor_162_162"></a><a href="#Footnote_162_162"><sup>[162]</sup></a></p> + +<p>D. 4.—The Iceni had long ago taken care to fortify +this approach to their land. The whole space between +fen and forest in the Cam valley was cut across by +four (or five) great dykes which may still be traced, +constructed for defence against invaders from the +westward. Of these, the two innermost are far more +formidable than the rest, the "Fleam Dyke" near +<span class="newpage"><a name="page145" id="page145">[145]</a></span> +Cambridge, and the "Devil's Ditch" by Newmarket. +The outer fosse of each is from twenty to thirty feet +deep; and the rampart, when topped by a stockade, +must have constituted an obstacle to troops unprovided +with artillery which the Iceni might justifiably +think insuperable. The "one narrow entrance" along +the whole length of the dykes (five miles and ten +miles respectively) is where the Icknield Way cuts +through them.</p> + +<p>D. 5.—Here then, probably, the Icenian levies confidently +awaited the onslaught of Ostorius—the more +confidently inasmuch as he had not waited to call up +his legionaries from their winter quarters, but attacked +only with the irregulars whom he had been employing +against the marauders in the midlands. The Iceni, +doubtless, imagined that such troops would be unequal +to assaulting their dyke at all. But Ostorius +was no ordinary leader. Such was the enthusiasm +which he inspired in his troops that they surprised the +revolters by attacking along the whole line of the +Fleam Dyke at once, and that with such impetuosity +that in a moment they were over it. The hapless +Iceni were now caught in a death-trap. Behind them +the Devil's Ditch barred all retreat save through its +one narrow entrance, and those who failed to force +their way through the mad crush there could only +fight and die with the courage of despair. "Many a +deed of desperate valour did they," says Tacitus +[<i>multa et clara facinora</i>], and the Romans displayed +like courage; the son of Ostorius winning in the fray +<span class="newpage"><a name="page146" id="page146">[146]</a></span> +the "civic crown"<a name="FNanchor_163_163"></a><a href="#Footnote_163_163"><sup>[163]</sup></a> awarded for the rescue of a +Roman citizen. But no quarter seems to have been +given, and the flower of the Icenian tribe perished +there to a man.</p> + +<p>D. 6.—This slaughter effectually scotched the +rising which the Icenians were hoping to organize. +All Central Britain submitted, and, we may presume, +was quietly disarmed; though the work cannot have +been very effectually done, as these same tribes were +able to rise under Boadicea twelve years later. The +indefatigable Ostorius next led his men against the +Cangi in North Wales<a name="FNanchor_164_164"></a><a href="#Footnote_164_164"><sup>[164]</sup></a> (who seem to have been +stirred to revolt by the Icenian Prince Antedrigus), +and gained much booty, for the Britons dared not +venture upon a battle, and had no luck in their various +attempts at surprise. But before he quite reached the +Irish Sea he was recalled by a disturbance amongst +the Brigantes, which by a judicious mixture of firmness +and clemency he speedily suppressed. And all this +he did without employing a single legionary.</p> + +<p>D. 7.—But neither firmness nor clemency availed to +put an end to the desperate struggle for freedom +maintained by the one clan in Britain which still held +out against the Roman yoke. The Silurians of South +Wales were not to be subdued without a regular campaign +<span class="newpage"><a name="page147" id="page147">[147]</a></span> +which was to tax the Legions themselves to the +utmost. Naturally brave, stubborn, and with a passionate +love of liberty, they had at this juncture a +worthy leader, for Caradoc was at their head. We +hear nothing of his doings between the first battle +against Aulus Plautius, when his brother Togodumnus +fell, leaving him the sole heir of Cymbeline, until we +find him here. But we may be pretty sure that he +was the animating spirit of the resistance which so +long checked the conquerors on the banks of the +Thames, and that he took no part in the general submission +to Claudius. Probably he led an outlaw life +in the forest, stirring up all possible resistance to the +Roman arms, till finally he found himself left with this +one clan of all his father's subjects still remaining +faithful.</p> + +<p>D. 8.—But he never thought of surrender. He was +everywhere amongst his followers, says Tacitus, exhorting +them to resist to the death, reminding them +how Caswallon had "driven out" the great Julius, and +binding one and all by a solemn national covenant +[<i>gentili religione</i>] never to yield "either for wound or +weapon." Ostorius had to bring against him the +whole force he could muster, even calling out the +veterans newly settled at the Colony<a name="FNanchor_165_165"></a><a href="#Footnote_165_165"><sup>[165]</sup></a> of Camelodune. +Caradoc and his Silurians, on their part, did not wait +at home for the attack, but moved northwards into +the territory of the Ordovices, who at least sympathized +<span class="newpage"><a name="page148" id="page148">[148]</a></span> +if they did not actually aid. Here he entrenched himself +upon a mountain, very probably that Caer Caradoc, +near Shrewsbury, which still bears his name. Those +who know the ground will not wonder that Ostorius +hesitated at assaulting so impregnable a position. His +men, however, were eager for the attack. "Nothing," +they cried, "is impregnable to the brave." The legionaries +stormed the hill on one side, the auxiliaries on +the other; and once hand to hand, the mail-clad +Romans had a fearful advantage against defenders +who wore no defensive armour, nor even helmets. +The Britons broke and fled, Caradoc himself seeking +refuge amongst the Brigantes of the north.</p> + +<p>D. 9.—At this time the chief power in this tribe +was in the hands of a woman, Cartismandua, the +heiress to the throne, with whose name and that of +her Prince Consort scandal was already busy. The +disturbances amongst the clan which Ostorius had +lately suppressed were probably connected with her +intrigues. Anyhow she posed as the favourite and +friend of the Romans; and now showed her loyalty +by arresting the national hero and handing him over +to the enemy. With his family and fellow-captives +he was [A.D. 52] deported to Rome, and publicly +exhibited by the Emperor in his chains, as the last +of the Britons, while the Praetorian Guards stood to +their arms as he passed.</p> + +<p>D. 10.—According to Roman precedent the scene +should have closed with a massacre of the prisoners. +But while the executioners awaited the order to strike, +Caradoc stepped forward with a spirited appeal, the +<span class="newpage"><a name="page149" id="page149">[149]</a></span> +substance of which there is every reason to believe is +truthfully recorded by Tacitus. Disdaining to make +the usual pitiful petitions for mercy, he boldly justified +his struggle for his land and crown, and reminded +Claudius that he had now an exceptional opportunity +for winning renown. "Kill me, as all expect, and +this affair will soon be forgotten; spare me, and men +will talk of your clemency from age to age." Claudius +was touched; and even the fierce Agrippina, who, +to the scandal of old Roman sentiment, was seated +beside him at the saluting-point "as if she had been +herself a General," and who must have reminded +Caradoc of Cartismandua, was moved to mercy. Caradoc +was spared, and assigned a residence in Italy; +and the Senate, believing the war at an end with his +capture, voted to Ostorius "triumphal insignia"<a name="FNanchor_166_166"></a><a href="#Footnote_166_166"><sup>[166]</sup></a>—the +highest honour attainable by any Roman below +Imperial rank.<a name="FNanchor_167_167"></a><a href="#Footnote_167_167"><sup>[167]</sup></a></p> + +<p>D. 11.—But even without their King the stubborn +clan still stood desperately at bay. Their pertinacious +resistance in every pass and on every hill-top of their +country at length fairly wore Ostorius out. The +incessant fatigues of the campaign broke down his +health, and he died [A.D. 54] on the march; to the +ferocious joy of the Silurians, who boasted that their +valour had made an end of the brave enemy who had +vowed to "extinguish their very name,"<a name="FNanchor_168_168"></a><a href="#Footnote_168_168"><sup>[168]</sup></a> no less than +if they had slain him upon the field of battle.</p> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page150" id="page150">[150]</a></span> +<p>D. 12.—Before he died, however, he had curbed +them both to north and south by the establishment +of strong Roman towns at Uriconium on the Severn +(named after the neighbouring Wrekin), and Isca +Silurum at the mouth of the Usk. The British name +of the latter place, Caerleon [Castra Legionum], still +reminds us that it was one of the great legionary +stations of the island, while the abundant inscriptions +unearthed upon the site, tell us that here the Second +Legion had its head-quarters till the last days of the +Roman occupation.<a name="FNanchor_169_169"></a><a href="#Footnote_169_169"><sup>[169]</sup></a></p> + +<p>D. 13.—The unremitting pressure of these two +garrisons crushed out at last the Silurian resistance. +The fighting men of the clan must indeed have been +almost wholly killed off during these four years of +murderous warfare. Thus Avitus Didius Gallus, the +successor of Ostorius, though himself too old to take +the field, was able to announce to Claudius that he +had completed the subjugation of Britain. The +Silurians after one last effort, in which they signally +defeated an entire Legion, lay in the quietude of utter +exhaustion; and though Cartismandua caused some +little trouble by putting away her husband Venusius +and raising a favourite to the throne, the matter was +compromised by Roman intervention; and Claudius +lived to hear that the island was, at last, peacefully +submissive to his sway. Then Agrippina showed +herself once more the Cartismandua of Rome, and +<span class="newpage"><a name="page151" id="page151">[151]</a></span> +her son Nero sat upon the throne of her poisoned +husband [A.D. 55].</p> +<br /> + +<a name="EIII."></a><h4>SECTION E.</h4> + +<p><i>Neronian misgovernment—Seneca—Prasutagus—Boadicea's revolt—Sack of Camelodune<br /> +—Suetonius in Mona—"Druidesses"—Sack of London and Verulam—Boadicea crushed at<br /> Battle +Bridge—Peace of Petronius.</i></p> + +<p>E. 1.—Under Nero the unhappy Britons first +realized what it was to be Roman provincials. Though +Julius Caesar and Augustus had checked the grossest +abuses of the Republican proconsulates, yet enough +of the evil tradition remained to make those abuses +flourish with renewed vigour under such a ruler as +Nero. The state of things which ensued can only be +paralleled with that so vividly described by Macaulay +in his lurid picture of the oppression of Bengal under +Warren Hastings. The one object of every provincial +governor was to exploit his province in his own +pecuniary interest and that of his friends at Rome. +Requisitions and taxes were heaped on the miserable +inhabitants utterly beyond their means, with the +express object of forcing them into the clutches of the +Roman money-lenders, whose frightful terms were, in +turn, enforced by military licence.</p> + +<p>E. 2.—The most virtuous and enlightened citizens +were not ashamed thus to wring exorbitant interest +from their victims. Cicero tells us<a name="FNanchor_170_170"></a><a href="#Footnote_170_170"><sup>[170]</sup></a> how no less +austere a patriot than Brutus thus exacted from the +town of Salamis in Cyprus, 48 per cent. compound +interest, and, after starving five members of the +<span class="newpage"><a name="page152" id="page152">[152]</a></span> +municipality to death in default of payment, was mortally +offended because he, Cicero, as proconsul, would not +exercise further military pressure for his ends.</p> + +<p>E. 3.—The part thus played in Cyprus by Brutus +was played in Britain by Seneca, another of the choice +examples of the highest Roman virtue. By a series +of blood-sucking transactions<a name="FNanchor_171_171"></a><a href="#Footnote_171_171"><sup>[171]</sup></a> he drove the +Britons to absolute despair, his special victim being +Prasutagus, now Chief of the Iceni, presumably set up by +the Romans on the suppression of the revolt under +Vericus. As a last chance of saving any of his wealth +for his children, Prasutagus, by will, made the +Emperor his co-heir. This, however, only hastened +the ruin of his family. His property was pounced +upon by the harpies of Seneca and Nero, with the +Procurator<a name="FNanchor_172_172"></a><a href="#Footnote_172_172"><sup>[172]</sup></a> of the Province, Catus Decimus, +at their head, his kin sold into slavery, his daughters +outraged, and his wife Boadicea, or, more correctly, +<i>Boudicca</i>, brutally scourged. This was in A.D. 61.</p> + +<p>E. 4.—A convulsive outburst of popular rage and +despair followed. The wrongs of Boadicea kindled +the Britons to madness, and she found herself at once +at the head of a rising comprising all the clans of the +east and the Midlands. Half-armed as they were, +their desperate onset carried all before it. The first +attack was made upon the hated Colony at Camelodune, +where the great Temple of "the God" Claudius, +rising high above the town, bore an ever-visible testimony +<span class="newpage"><a name="page153" id="page153">[153]</a></span> +to Rome's enslavement of Britain,<a name="FNanchor_173_173"></a><a href="#Footnote_173_173"><sup>[173]</sup></a> and whence +the lately-established veterans were wont, by the connivance +of the Procurator, to treat the neighbourhood +with utterly illegal military licence, sacking houses, +ravaging fields, and abusing their British fellow-subjects +as "caitiff slaves."<a name="FNanchor_174_174"></a><a href="#Footnote_174_174"><sup>[174]</sup></a></p> + +<p>E. 5.—These marauders were, however, as great +cowards as bullies, and were now trembling before the +approach of vengeance. How completely they were +cowed is shown by the gloomy auguries which passed +from lip to lip as foreshadowing the coming woe. The +statue of Victory had fallen on its face, women +frantic with fear rushed about wildly shrieking +"Ruin!", strange moans and wailings were heard +in Courthouse and Theatre, on the Thames estuary +the ruddy glow of sunset looked like blood and +flame, the sand-ripples and sea-wrack left by the ebb +suggested corpses; everything ministered to their +craven fear.</p> + +<p>E. 6.—So hopeless was the demoralization that the +very commonest precautions were neglected. The town +was unfortified, yet these old soldiers made no +attempt at entrenchment; even the women and children +were not sent away while the roads were yet open. +And when the storm burst on the town the hapless +non-combatants were simply abandoned to massacre, +while the veterans, along with some two hundred +badly-armed recruits (the only help furnished by their +precious Procurator, who himself fled incontinently +<span class="newpage"><a name="page154" id="page154">[154]</a></span> +to Gaul), shut themselves up in the Temple, in +hopes of thus saving their own skins till the Ninth +Legion, which was hastening to their aid, should +arrive.</p> + +<p>E. 7.—It is a satisfaction to read that in this they +were disappointed. Next day their refuge was stormed, +and every soul within put to the sword. The Temple +itself, and all else at Camelodune, was burnt to the +ground, and the wicked Colony blotted off the face of +the earth. The approaching Legion scarcely fared +better. The victorious Britons swept down upon it on +the march, cut to pieces the entire infantry, and sent +the cavalry in headlong flight to London, where +Suetonius Paulinus, the Governor of Britain, was now +mustering such force as he could make to meet the +overwhelming onslaught.</p> + +<p>E. 8.—When the outbreak took place he had been +far away, putting down the last relics of the now +illicit Druidism in the island of Mona or Anglesey. +The enterprise was one which demanded a considerable +display of force, for the defenders of the island +fought with fanatical frenzy, the priests and priestesses +alike taking part in the fray, and perishing at last in +their own sacrificial fires, when the passage over the +Menai Straits was made good.</p> + +<p>E. 9—It is noticeable that in Mona alone do we +meet with "Druidesses." Female ministers of religion, +whether priestesses or prophetesses, are always +exceptional, and usually mark a survival from some +very primitive cult. The Pythoness at Delphi, and +the Vestals at Rome, obviously do so. And amongst +<span class="newpage"><a name="page155" id="page155">[155]</a></span> +the races of Gaul and Britain the same fact is +testified to by such female ministrations being invariably +confined to far western islands. Pytheas, as he +passed Cape Finisterre (in Spain) by night, heard a +choir of women worshipping "Mother Earth and her +Daughter"<a name="FNanchor_175_175"></a><a href="#Footnote_175_175"><sup>[175]</sup></a> with shrill yells and music. A little +further he tells of the barbarous rites observed by the +<i>Samnitae</i> or <i>Amnitae</i><a name="FNanchor_176_176"></a><a href="#Footnote_176_176"><sup>[176]</sup></a> in an island near the mouth of +the Loire, on which no male person might ever set +foot; and of another island at the extreme point of +Gaul, already known as Uxisana (Ushant), where +nine virgin sorceresses kept alight the undying fire +on their sacred hearth and gave oracular responses. +These cults clearly represented a much older worship +than Druidism, though the latter may very probably +have taken them under its shadow (as in India +so many aboriginal rites are recognized and adopted +by modern Brahmanism). And the priestesses in +Mona were, in like manner, not "Druidesses" at all, +but representatives of some more primitive cult, +already driven from the mainland of Britain and +finding a last foothold in this remote island.</p> + +<p>E. 10.—The stamping out of the desperate fanaticism +of Mona was barely accomplished, when tidings +<span class="newpage"><a name="page156" id="page156">[156]</a></span> +were brought to Suetonius of Boadicea's revolt. +By forced marches he reached London before her, +only to find himself too weak, after the loss of the +Ninth Legion, to hold it. London, though no Colony, +was already the largest and most thriving of the +Roman settlements in Britain, and piteous was the +dismay of the citizens when Suetonius bade the city +be evacuated. But neither tears nor prayers could +postpone his march, and such non-combatants as +from age or infirmity could not retire with his column, +were massacred by the furious Britons even as those +at Camelodune. Next came the turn of Verulam, +the Roman town on the site of Tasciovan's stronghold,<a name="FNanchor_177_177"></a><a href="#Footnote_177_177"><sup>[177]</sup></a> +where like atrocities marked the British triumph. +Every other consideration was lost in the mad lust of +slaughter. No prisoners were taken, no spoil was +made, no ransom was accepted; all was fire, sword, +and hideous torturing. Tacitus declares that, to his +own knowledge,<a name="FNanchor_178_178"></a><a href="#Footnote_178_178"><sup>[178]</sup></a> no fewer than seventy thousand +Romans and pro-Romans thus perished in this fearful +day of vengeance; the spirit of which has been +caught by Tennyson, with such true poetic genius, +in his 'Boadicea.'</p> + +<p>E. 11.—Suetonius, however, now felt strong enough +to risk a battle. The odds were enormous, for the +British forces were estimated at two hundred and +thirty thousand, while his own were barely ten +thousand—only one legion (the Fourteenth) with the +<span class="newpage"><a name="page157" id="page157">[157]</a></span> +cavalry of the Twentieth. (Where its infantry was +does not appear: it may have been left behind in +the west.) The Ninth had ceased to exist, and +the Second did not arrive from far-off Caerleon till +too late for the fight. The strength of legionary +sentiment is shown by the fact that its commander +actually slew himself for vexation that the Fourteenth +had won without his men.</p> + +<p>E. 12.—Where the armies met is quite uncertain, +though tradition fixes on a not unlikely spot near +London, whose name of "Battle Bridge" has but +lately been overlaid by the modern designation of +"King's Cross."<a name="FNanchor_179_179"></a><a href="#Footnote_179_179"><sup>[179]</sup></a> We only know that Suetonius +drew up his line across a glade in the forest, which +thus protected his flanks, and awaited the foe as they +came pouring back from Verulam. In front of the +British line Boadicea, arrayed in the Icenian tartan, +her plaid fastened by a golden brooch, and a spear in +her hand, was seen passing along "loftily-charioted" +from clan to clan, as she exhorted each in turn to +conquer or die. Suetonius is said to have given the +like exhortation to the Romans; but every man in +their ranks must already have been well aware that +defeat would spell death for him. The one chance +was in steadiness and disciplined valour; and the +legionaries stood firm under a storm of missiles, withholding +their own fire till the foe came within close +range. Then, and not till then, they delivered a +<span class="newpage"><a name="page158" id="page158">[158]</a></span> +simultaneous discharge of their terrible <i>pila</i><a name="FNanchor_180_180"></a><a href="#Footnote_180_180"><sup>[180]</sup></a> on the +British centre. The front gave with the volley, and +the Romans, at once wheeling into wedge-shape +formation, charged sword in hand into the gap, and +cut the British line clean in two. Behind it was a +laager of wagons, containing their families and spoil, +and there the Britons made a last attempt to rally. +But the furious Romans entered the enclosure with +them, and the fight became a simple massacre. No +fewer than eighty thousand fell, and the very horses +and oxen were slaughtered by the maddened soldiery +to swell the heaps of slain. Boadicea, broken-hearted, +died by poison; and (being reinforced by troops from +Germany) Suetonius proceeded "to make a desert +and call it Peace."<a name="FNanchor_181_181"></a><a href="#Footnote_181_181"><sup>[181]</sup></a></p> + +<p>E. 13.—The punishment he dealt out to the revolted +districts was so remorseless that the new Procurator, +Julius Classicianus, sent a formal complaint to Rome +on the suicidal impolicy of his superior's measures. +Nero, however, did not mend matters by sending +(like Claudius) a freed-man favourite as Royal +Commissioner to supersede Suetonius. Polycletus was +received with derision both by Roman and Briton, +and Suetonius remained acting Governor till the wreck +of some warships afforded an excuse for a peremptory +order to "hand over the command" to Petronius +Turpilianus. Fighting now ceased by mutual consent; +and this disgraceful slackness was called by the +<span class="newpage"><a name="page159" id="page159">[159]</a></span> +new Governor "Peace with Honour" [<i>honestum pacis +nomen segni otio imposuit</i>].</p> +<br /> + +<a name="FIII."></a><h4>SECTION F.</h4> + +<p><i>Civil war—Otho and Vitellius—Army of Britain—Priscus—Agricola—Vespasian Emperor—Cerealis<br /> +—Brigantes put down—Frontinus—Silurians put down—Agricola Pro-praetor—Ordovices put down<br /> +—Pacification of South Britain—Roman civilization introduced—Caledonian campaign—Galgacus<br /> +—Agricola's rampart—Domitian—Resignation and death of Agricola.</i></p> +<br /> +<p>F. 1.—Disgraceful as the policy of Petronius seemed +to Tacitus (under the inspiration probably of his +father-in-law Agricola), it did actually secure for +Britain several years of much-needed peace. Not +till the months of confusion which followed the death +of Nero [June 10, A.D. 68] did any native rising +take place, and then only in Wales and the north. +The Roman Army of Britain was thus free to take +sides in the contest for the throne between Otho and +Vitellius, of which all that could be predicted was +that the victor would be the worse of the two +[<i>deteriorem fore quisquis vicisset</i>]. They were, however, +so much ahead of their date that, before accepting +this alternative, they actually thought of setting +up an Emperor of their own, after the fashion so +freely followed in later centuries. Fortunately the +popular subaltern (ὑποστράτηγος) [<b>hupostratêgos</b>] on whom their choice +fell, one Priscus, had the sense to see that the time +was not yet come for such action, and sarcastically +refused the crown. "I am no more fit," he said, +"to be an Emperor (αὐτοκράτωρ) [<b>autokrator</b>] than you to be +<span class="newpage"><a name="page160" id="page160">[160]</a></span> +soldiers." The army now proceeded to "sit on the +fence"; some legions, notably the famous Fourteenth, +slightly inclined to Otho, others to Vitellius, till +their hesitation was ended by their own special hero, +Vespasian, fresh from his Judaean victories,<a name="FNanchor_182_182"></a><a href="#Footnote_182_182"><sup>[182]</sup></a> coming +forward as Pretender. Agricola, now in command +of the Twentieth, at once declared for him, and the +other legions followed suit—the Fourteenth being +gratified by the title "<i>Victores Britannici</i>," officially +conferred upon them by the Emperor's new Pro-praetor, +Petilius Cerealis.</p> + +<p>F. 2.—We now enter upon the last stage of the fifty +years' struggle made by British patriots before they +finally bowed to the Roman yoke. The glory of +ending the long conflict is due to Agricola, whose +praises are chronicled by his son-in-law Tacitus, and +who does actually seem to have been a very choice +example of Roman virtue and ability. The Army of +Britain had been his training school in military life, +and successive commanders had recognized his merits +by promotion. Now his superiors gave him an almost +independent command, in which he showed himself +as modest as he was able. Thanks to him, Cerealis +was able in A.D. 70 to end a Brigantian war (of which +the inevitable Cartismandua was the "<i>teterrima causa</i>" +<span class="newpage"><a name="page161" id="page161">[161]</a></span> +now no less than twenty years earlier), and the next +Pro-praetor, Frontinus, to put down, in 75, the very last +effort of the indomitable Silurians. Yet another year, +and he himself was made Military Governor of the +island, and set about the task of permanently consolidating +it as a Roman Province, with an insight all his own.</p> + +<p>F. 3.—The only Britons yet in arms south of the +Tyne were the Ordovices of North Wales, who had +lately cut to pieces a troop of Roman cavalry. +Agricola marched against them, and, by swimming +his horsemen across the Menai Straits, surprised their +stronghold, Anglesey, thus bringing about the same +instant submission of the whole clan which through +the same tactics he had seen won, seventeen years +earlier, by Suetonius.</p> + +<p>F. 4.—But Agricola was not, like Suetonius, +a mere military conqueror. He saw that Britons +would never unfeignedly submit so long as they were +treated as slaves; and he set himself to remedy the +grievances under which the provincials so long had +suffered. Military licence, therefore, and civil +corruption alike, he put down with a resolute hand, never +acting through intermediaries, but himself investigating +every complaint, rewarding merit, and punishing +offences. The vexatious monopolies which previous +governors had granted, he did away with; and, while +he firmly dealt with every symptom of disloyalty, his +aim was "not penalty but penitence" [<i>nom paena sed +saepius paenitentia</i>]—penitence shown in a frank +acceptance of Roman civilization. Under his influence +<span class="newpage"><a name="page162" id="page162">[162]</a></span> +Roman temples, Roman forums, Roman dwelling-houses, +Roman baths and porticoes, rose all over +the land, and, above all, Roman schools, where the +youth of the upper classes learnt with pride to adopt +the tongue<a name="FNanchor_183_183"></a><a href="#Footnote_183_183"><sup>[183]</sup></a> and dress of their conquerors. It is +appropriate that the only inscription relating to him +as yet found in Britain should be on two of the lead +water-pipes (discovered in 1899 and 1902) which +supplied his new Roman city (<i>Deva</i>) at Chester.<a name="FNanchor_184_184"></a><a href="#Footnote_184_184"><sup>[184]</sup></a></p> + +<p>F. 5.—This proved a far more effectual method of +conquest than any yet adopted, and Southern Britain +became so quiet and contented that Agricola could +meditate an extension of the Roman sway over the +wilder regions to the north, and even over Ireland.<a name="FNanchor_185_185"></a><a href="#Footnote_185_185"><sup>[185]</sup></a> +He did not, indeed, actually accomplish either design, +but he extended the Roman frontier to the Forth, and +carried the Roman arms beyond the Tay. The +game, however, proved not worth the candle. The +regions penetrated were wild and barren, the inhabitants +ferocious savages, who defended themselves with +such fury that it was not worth while to subdue them.</p> +<br /> + +<p>F. 6.—The final battle [A.D. 84], somewhere near +Inverness, is described in minute and picturesque +<span class="newpage"><a name="page163" id="page163">[163]</a></span> +detail by Tacitus, who was present. He shows us +the slopes of the Grampians alive with the Highland +host, some on foot, some in chariots, armed with +claymore, dirk, and targe as in later ages. He puts +into the mouth of the leader, Galgacus, an eloquent +summary of the motives which did really actuate +them, and he reports the exhortation to close the +fifty years of British warfare with a glorious victory +which Agricola, no doubt, actually addressed to his +soldiers. He paints for us the wild charge of the +clans, the varying fortunes of the conflict (which at +one point was so doubtful that Agricola dismounted +to fight on foot with his men), and the final hopeless +rout of the Caledonian army, with the slaughter of +ten thousand men; the Roman loss being under four +hundred—including one unlucky colonel [<i>praefectus +cohortis</i>] whose horse ran away with him into the +enemy's ranks.</p> + +<p>F. 7.—Agricola had now the prudence to draw his +stakes while the game was still in his favour. He +sent his fleet north-about (thus, for the first time, +<i>proving</i> Britain to be an island),<a name="FNanchor_186_186"></a><a href="#Footnote_186_186"><sup>[186]</sup></a> and marched his +army across to meet it on the Clyde, whence he +had already drawn his famous rampart to the Forth, +henceforward to be the extreme limit of Roman +Britain.<a name="FNanchor_187_187"></a><a href="#Footnote_187_187"><sup>[187]</sup></a> His work was now done, and well done. +He resigned his Province, and returned to Rome, in +time to avoid dismissal by Domitian, to whom +<span class="newpage"><a name="page164" id="page164">[164]</a></span> +preeminent merit in any subject was matter for jealous +hatred,<a name="FNanchor_188_188"></a><a href="#Footnote_188_188"><sup>[188]</sup></a> and who now made Agricola report himself +by night, and received him without one word of +commendation. Had his life been prolonged he +would undoubtedly have perished, like so many of +the best of the Roman aristocracy, by the despot's +hands; but just before the unrestrained outbreak of +tyranny, he suddenly died—"<i>felix opportunitate +mortis</i>"—to be immortalized by the love and genius +of his daughter's husband. And he left Britain, as it +had never been before, truly within the comity of the +Roman Empire.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page165" id="page165">[165]</a></span> +<a name="CHAPTER_IV"></a><h2>CHAPTER IV</h2> + +<h3>THE ROMAN OCCUPATION, A.D. 85-211</h3> +<br /> + +<a name="AIV."></a><h4>SECTION A.</h4> + +<p><i>Pacification of Britain—Roman roads—London their centre—Authority for names—Watling<br /> +Street—Ermine Street—Icknield Way.</i></p> +<br /> +<p>A. 1.—The work of Agricola inaugurated in Britain +that wonderful <i>Pax Romana</i> which is so unique a +phenomenon in the history of the world. That +Peace was not indeed in our island so long continued +or so unbroken as in the Mediterranean lands, where, +for centuries on end, no weapon was used in anger. +But even here swords were beaten into ploughshares +and spears into pruning-hooks to an extent never +known before or since in our annals. So profound +was the quiet that for a whole generation Britain +vanishes from history altogether. All through the +Golden Age of Rome, the reigns of Nerva and +Trajan, no writer even names her; and not till A.D. +120 do we find so much as a passing mention of our +country. But we may be sure that under such rulers +the good work of Agricola was developing itself upon +the lines he had laid down, and that Roman civilization +<span class="newpage"><a name="page166" id="page166">[166]</a></span> +was getting an ever firmer hold. The population +was recovering from the frightful drain of the Conquest, +the waste cities were rebuilt, and new towns +sprang up all over the land, for the most part probably +on old British sites, connected by a network of roads, +no longer the mere trackways of the Britons, but +"streets" elaborately constructed and metalled.</p> + +<p>A. 2.—All are familiar with the Roman roads of +Britain as they figure on our maps. Like our present +lines of railway, the main routes radiate in all directions +from London, and for a like reason; London +having been, in Roman days as now, the great commercial +centre of the country. The reason for this, +that it was the lowest place where the Thames could +be bridged, we have already referred to.<a name="FNanchor_189_189"></a><a href="#Footnote_189_189"><sup>[189]</sup></a> +We see the <i>Watling Street</i> roughly corresponding to +the North-Western Railway on one side of the metropolis, +and to the South-Eastern on the other; the <i>Ermine +Street</i> corresponding to the Great Northern Railway; +while the Great Western, the South-Western, the +Great Eastern, and the Portsmouth branch of the +South Coast system are all represented in like manner. +We notice, perhaps, that, except the Watling Street +and the Ermine Street, all these routes are nameless; +though we find four minor roads with names crossing +England from north-east to south-west, and one from +north-west to south-east. The former are the <i>Fosse +Way</i> (from Grimsby on the Humber to Seaton on the +Axe), the <i>Ryknield Street</i> (from Newcastle-on-Tyne +to Caerleon-upon-Usk), the <i>Akeman Street</i> (from Wells +<span class="newpage"><a name="page167" id="page167">[167]</a></span> +on the Wash to Aust on the Severn), and the <i>Icknield +Way</i> (from Norfolk to Dorset). The latter is the <i>Via +Devana</i> (from Chester to Colchester).</p> + +<p>A. 3.—It comes as a surprise to most when we learn +that all these names (except the Watling Street, the +Fosse, and the Icknield Way only) are merely affixed +to their respective roads by the conjectures of +17th-century antiquarianism, Gale being their special +identifier. The names themselves (except in the case +of the Via Devana) are old, and three of them, the +Ermine Street, the Icknield Street, and the Fosse +Way, figure in the inquisition of 1070 as being, +together with the Watling Street, those of the Four +Royal Roads (<i>quatuor chimini</i>) of England, the King's +Highways, exempt from local jurisdiction and under +the special guard of the King's Peace. Two are said +to cross the length of the land, two its breadth. But +their identification (except in the case of the main +course of Watling Street) has been matter of antiquarian +dispute from the 12th century downwards.<a name="FNanchor_190_190"></a><a href="#Footnote_190_190"><sup>[190]</sup></a> +The very first chronicler who mentions them, Geoffrey +of Monmouth, makes Ermine Street run from St. +David's to Southampton, Icknield Street from St. +David's to Newcastle, and the Fosse Way from Totnes +in Devon to far Caithness; and his error has misled +many succeeding authorities. That it <i>is</i> an error, at +least with regard to the Icknield Way and the Fosse +Way, is sufficiently proved by the various mediaeval +<span class="newpage"><a name="page168" id="page168">[168]</a></span> +charters which mention these roads in connection +with localities along their course as assigned by our +received geography.</p> + +<p>As to the main Watling Street there is no dispute. +Running right across the island from the Irish Sea<a name="FNanchor_191_191"></a><a href="#Footnote_191_191"><sup>[191]</sup></a> +to the Straits of Dover, it suggested to the minds of +our English ancestors the shining track of the Milky +Way from end to end of the heavens. Even so +Chaucer, in his 'House of Fame,' sings:</p> + +<div class="blkquot"> +"Lo there!" quod he, "cast up your eye,<br /> +Se yonder, lo! the Galaxie,<br /> +The whiche men clepe the Milky Way,<br /> +For it is white, and some, parfay,<br /> +Y-callen han it Watlinge-strete."<br /></div> + +<p>At Dover it still retains its name, and so it does in one +part of its course through London (which it enters as +the Edgware Road, and leaves as the Old Kent Road).<a name="FNanchor_192_192"></a><a href="#Footnote_192_192"><sup>[192]</sup></a></p> + +<p>A. 4.—This name, like that of the Ermine Street, +is most probably derived from Teutonic mythology; +the "Watlings" being the patrons of handicraft in the +Anglo-Saxon Pantheon, and "Irmin" the War-god from +whom "Germany" is called.<a name="FNanchor_193_193"></a><a href="#Footnote_193_193"><sup>[193]</sup></a> There is no reason to +<span class="newpage"><a name="page169" id="page169">[169]</a></span> +suppose that the roads of Britain had any Roman name, +like those of Italy. The designations given them by +our English forefathers show how deeply these mighty +works impressed their imagination. The term "street" +which they adopted for them shows, as Professor +Freeman has pointed out, that such engineering ability +was something quite new to their experience.<a name="FNanchor_194_194"></a><a href="#Footnote_194_194"><sup>[194]</sup></a> It is +the Latin "Via <i>strata</i>" Anglicized, and describes no +mere track, but the elaborately constructed Roman +causeway, along which the soft alluvium was first dug +away, and its place taken by layers of graduated road +metal, with the surface frequently an actual pavement.<a name="FNanchor_195_195"></a><a href="#Footnote_195_195"><sup>[195]</sup></a></p> + +<p>A. 5.—For the assignment of the name Ermine +Street to the Great North Road there is no ancient +authority.<a name="FNanchor_196_196"></a><a href="#Footnote_196_196"><sup>[196]</sup></a> All we can say is that this theory is more +probable than that set forth by Geoffrey of Monmouth. +That the road existed in Roman times is certain, as +London and York were the two chief towns in the +island; and direct communication between them must +have been of the first importance, both for military +and economical reasons. Indeed it is probably +older yet. (See p. 117.) But, with the exceptions +<span class="newpage"><a name="page170" id="page170">[170]</a></span> +already pointed out, the nomenclature of the +Romano-British roads is almost wholly guess-work. Some +archaeological maps show additional Watling Streets +and Ermine Streets branching in all directions over +the land,<a name="FNanchor_197_197"></a><a href="#Footnote_197_197"><sup>[197]</sup></a> presumably on the authority of local +tradition. And these traditions may be not wholly +unfounded; for the same motives which made the +English immigrants of one district ascribe the handiwork +of by-gone days to mythological powers might operate +to the like end in another.</p> + +<p>A. 6.—The origin of the names Ryknield Street +and Akeman Street is beyond discovery;<a name="FNanchor_198_198"></a><a href="#Footnote_198_198"><sup>[198]</sup></a> but that of +the Icknield Street is almost undoubtedly due to its +connection with the great Icenian tribe, to whose +territory it formed the only outlet.<a name="FNanchor_199_199"></a><a href="#Footnote_199_199"><sup>[199]</sup></a> By them, in the +days of their greatness, it was probably driven to the +Thames, the more southerly extension being perhaps +later. It was never, as its present condition abundantly +testifies, made into a regular Roman "Street." +The final syllable may possibly, as Guest suggests, be +the A.S. <i>hild</i> = war.</p> + +<p>A. 7.—Besides these main routes, a whole network +of minor roads must have connected the multitudinous +villages and towns of Roman Britain, a fact which is +borne witness to by the very roundabout route often +<span class="newpage"><a name="page171" id="page171">[171]</a></span> +given in the 'Itinerary' of Antoninus between places +which we know were directly connected.<a name="FNanchor_200_200"></a><a href="#Footnote_200_200"><sup>[200]</sup></a> Moreover +this network must have been at least as close as that +of our present railways, and probably approximated to +that of our present roads.</p> + +<br /> + +<a name="BIV."></a><h4>SECTION B.</h4> + +<p><i>Romano-British towns—Ancient lists—Methods of identification—Dense rural population<br /> +—Remains in Cam valley—Coins—Thimbles—Horseshoes.</i></p> +<br /> +<p>B. 1.—Of these many Romano-British towns we +have five contemporary lists; those of Ptolemy in the +2nd century, of the Antonine 'Itinerary' in the 3rd, of +the 'Notitia'<a name="FNanchor_201_201"></a><a href="#Footnote_201_201"><sup>[201]</sup></a> in the 5th, and those of Nennius and of +the Ravenna Geographer, composed while the memory +of the Roman occupation was still fresh. Ptolemy +and Nennius profess to give complete catalogues; the +'Itinerary' and 'Notitia' contain only incidental +references; while the Ravenna list, though far the +most copious, is expressly stated to be composed only +of selected names. Of these it has no fewer than +236, while the 'Notitia' gives 118, Ptolemy 60, and +<span class="newpage"><a name="page172" id="page172">[172]</a></span> +Nennius 28 (to which Marcus Anchoreta adds 5 more).</p> + +<p>B. 2.—With this mass of material<a name="FNanchor_202_202"></a><a href="#Footnote_202_202"><sup>[202]</sup></a> it might seem +to be an easy task to locate every Roman site in +Britain; especially as Ptolemy gives the latitude (and +sometimes the longitude<a name="FNanchor_203_203"></a><a href="#Footnote_203_203"><sup>[203]</sup></a> also) of every place he +mentions, and the 'Itinerary' the distances between its +stations. Unfortunately it is quite otherwise; and of +the whole number barely fifty can be at all certainly +identified, while more than half cannot even be +guessed at with anything like reasonable probability. +To begin with, the text of every one of these authorities +is corrupt to a degree incredible; in Ptolemy we +find <i>Nalkua</i>, for example, where the 'Itinerary' and +Ravenna lists give <i>Calleva</i>; <i>Simeni</i> figures for +<i>Iceni</i>, <i>Imensa</i> for <i>Tamesis</i>. The 'Itinerary' +itself reads indiscriminately <i>Segeloco</i> and <i>Ageloco</i>, +<i>Lagecio</i> and <i>Legeolio</i>; and examples might be multiplied +indefinitely. In Nennius, particularly, the names are so +disguised that, with two or three exceptions, their +identification is the merest guess-work; <i>Lunden</i> is +unmistakable, and <i>Ebroauc</i> is obviously York; but +who shall say what places lie hid under <i>Meguaid</i>, +<i>Urnath</i>, <i>Guasmoric</i>, and <i>Celemon</i>? And +if this corruption is bad amongst the names, it absolutely +runs riot amongst the numbers, both in Ptolemy and the +<span class="newpage"><a name="page173" id="page173">[173]</a></span> +'Itinerary,' so that the degrees of the former and +the distances of the latter are alike grievously +untrustworthy guides. Ptolemy, for example, says that +the longest day in London is 18 hours, an obvious mistake +for 17, as the context clearly shows. There is further +the actual equation of error in each authority: +Ptolemy, for all his care, has confused Exeter (<i>Isca +Damnoniorum</i>) with the more famous <i>Isca Silurum</i> +(Caerleon-on-Usk); and there are blunders in his +latitude and longitude which cannot wholly be +ascribed to textual corruption. Still another difficulty +is that then, as now, towns quite remote from each +other bore the same name, or names very similar. +Not only were two called <i>Isca</i>, but three were <i>Venta</i>, +two <i>Calleva</i>, two <i>Segontium</i>, and no fewer than seven +<i>Magna</i>; while <i>Durobrivae</i> is only too like to +<i>Durocobrivae</i>, <i>Margiodunum</i> to <i>Moridunum</i>, +<i>Durnovaria</i> to <i>Durovernum</i>, etc. The last name even +gets confounded with <i>Dubris</i> by transcribers.</p> + +<p>B. 3.—In all the lists we are struck by the extraordinary +preponderance of northern names. Half the sites given by +Ptolemy lie north of the Humber, and this is also the case +with the Ravenna list, while in the 'Notitia' the proportion +is far greater. In the last case this is due to the fact +that the military garrisons, with which the catalogue is +concerned, were mainly quartered in the north, and a +like explanation probably holds good for the earlier +and later lists also. Nennius, as is to be expected, +draws most of his names from the districts which the Saxons +had not yet reached; all being given with the Celtic prefix +<i>Caer</i> (=city).</p> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page174" id="page174">[174]</a></span> +<p>B. 4.—Amid all these snares the most certain identification +of a Roman site is furnished by the discovery +of inscriptions relating to the special troops with which +the name is associated in historical documents. When, +for example, we find in the Roman station at Birdoswald, +on the Wall of Hadrian, an inscription recording +the occupation of the spot by a Dacian cohort, and +read in the 'Notitia' that such a cohort was posted at +<i>Amboglanna per lineam Valli</i>, we are sure that +Amboglanna and Birdoswald are identical. This method, +unfortunately, helps us very little except on the Wall, +for the legionary inscriptions elsewhere are found in +many places with which history does not particularly +associate the individual legions thus commemorated.<a name="FNanchor_204_204"></a><a href="#Footnote_204_204"><sup>[204]</sup></a> +However, the special number of such traces of the +Second Legion at Caerleon, the Twentieth at Chester, +and the Sixth at York, would alone justify us in certainly +determining those places to be the Isca, Deva, +and Eboracum given as their respective head-quarters +in our documentary and historical evidence.</p> + +<p>B. 5.—In the case of York another proof is available; +for the name, different as it sounds, can be +traced, by a continuous stream of linguistic development, +through the Old English Eorfowic to the Roman <i>Eboracum</i>. +In the same way the name of <i>Dubris</i> has unmistakably +survived in Dover, <i>Lemannae</i> in Lympne, <i>Regulbium</i> +in Reculver. <i>Colonia, Glevum</i>, <i>Venta, Corinium,</i> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page175" id="page175">[175]</a></span> +<i>Danum</i>, and <i>Mancunium</i>, with the suffix "chester,"<a name="FNanchor_205_205"></a><a href="#Footnote_205_205"><sup>[205]</sup></a> +have become Colchester, Gloucester, Winchester, Cirencester, +Doncaster, and Manchester. Lincoln is <i>Lindum Colonia</i>, +Richborough, <i>Ritupis</i>; while the phonetic value of the +word London has remained absolutely unaltered from the very +first, and varies but slightly even in its historical orthography.</p> + +<p>B. 6.—With names of this class, of which there are +about thirty, for a starting-point, we can next, by the +aid of our various lists (especially Ptolemy's, which +gives the tribe in which each town lies, and the +'Itinerary'), assign, with a very high degree of +probability, some thirty more—similarity of name being +still more or less of a guide. For example, when +midway between <i>Venta</i> (Winchester) and <i>Sorbiodunum</i> +(Sarum) the 'Itinerary' places <i>Brige</i>, and the name +<i>Broughton</i> now occupies this midway spot, <i>Brige</i> and +<i>Broughton</i> may be safely assumed to be the same. +This method shows Leicester to be the Roman <i>Ratae</i>, +Carlisle to be <i>Luguvallum</i>, Newcastle <i>Pons Aelii</i>, etc., +with so much probability that none of these identifications +have been seriously disputed amongst antiquaries; +while few are found to deny that Cambridge +represents <i>Camboricum</i>,<a name="FNanchor_206_206"></a><a href="#Footnote_206_206"><sup>[206]</sup></a> Huntingdon (or Godmanchester) +<i>Durolipons</i>, Silchester <i>Calleva</i>, etc. A list of +<span class="newpage"><a name="page176" id="page176">[176]</a></span> +all the sites which may be said to be fairly certified +will be found at the end of this chapter.</p> + +<p>B. 7.—Beyond them we come to about as many more +names in our ancient catalogues of which all we can +say is that we know the district to which they belong, +and may safely apply them to one or other of the +existing Roman sites in that district; the particular +application being disputed with all the heat of the +<i>odium archaeologicum</i>. Thus <i>Bremetonacum</i> was +certainly in Lancashire; but whether it is now Lancaster, +or Overborough, or Ribchester, we will not say; +<i>Caesaromagum</i> was certainly in Essex; but was it +Burghstead, Widford, or Chelmsford? And was the original +<i>Camalodunum</i> at Colchester, Lexden, or Maldon?</p> + +<p>B. 8.—And, yet further, we find, especially in the +Ravenna list, multitudes of names with nothing whatever +to tell us of their whereabouts; though nearly all +have been seized upon by rival antiquaries, and ascribed +to this, that, and the other of the endless Roman sites +which meet us all over the country.<a name="FNanchor_207_207"></a><a href="#Footnote_207_207"><sup>[207]</sup></a></p> + +<p>B. 9.—For it must be remembered that there are +very few old towns in England where Roman remains +have not been found, often in profusion; and even +amongst the villages such finds are exceedingly common +wherever excavations on any large scale have +been undertaken. Thus in the Cam valley, where +the "coprolite" digging<a name="FNanchor_208_208"></a><a href="#Footnote_208_208"><sup>[208]</sup></a> resulted in the systematic +<span class="newpage"><a name="page177" id="page177">[177]</a></span> +turning over of a considerable area, their number +is astounding, proving the existence of a teeming +population. Many thousands of coins were turned up, +scarcely ever in hordes, but scattered singly all over +the land, testifying to the amount of petty traffic which +must have gone on generation after generation. For +these coins are very rarely of gold or silver, and +amongst them are found the issues of every Roman +Emperor from Augustus to Valentinian III. And, +besides the coins, the soil was found to teem with +fragments of Roman pottery; while the many "ashpits" +discovered—as many as thirty in a single not +very large field—have furnished other articles of +domestic use, such as thimbles.<a name="FNanchor_209_209"></a><a href="#Footnote_209_209"><sup>[209]</sup></a> Even horseshoes +have been found, though their use only came in with +the 5th century of our era.<a name="FNanchor_210_210"></a><a href="#Footnote_210_210"><sup>[210]</sup></a></p> + +<p>B. 10.—Now there is no reason for supposing that +the Cam valley was in any way an exceptionally +prosperous or populous district in the Roman period. +<span class="newpage"><a name="page178" id="page178">[178]</a></span> +It contained but one Roman town of even third-class +importance, Cambridge, and very few of the "villas" +in which the great landed proprietors resided. The +wealth of remains which it has furnished is merely a +by-product of the "coprolite" digging, and it is +probable that equally systematic digging would have +like results in almost any alluvial district in the island. +We may therefore regard it as fairly established that +these districts were as thickly peopled under the +Romans as at any other period of history, and that +the agricultural population of our island has never +been larger than in the 3rd and 4th centuries, till its +great development in the 19th.</p> +<br /> + +<a name="CIV."></a><h4>SECTION C.</h4> + +<p><i>Fortification of towns late—Chief Roman centres—London—York—Chester—Bath—Silchester<br /> +—Remains there found—Romano-British handicrafts—Pottery—Basket work—Mining—Rural<br /> +life—Villas—Forests—Hunting dogs—Husbandry—Britain under the Pax Romana</i>.</p> +<br /> +<p>C. 1.—The profound peace which reigned in these +rural districts is shown by the fact that Roman +weapons are the rarest of all finds, far less common +than the earlier British or the ensuing Saxon.<a name="FNanchor_211_211"></a><a href="#Footnote_211_211"><sup>[211]</sup></a> At +the same time it is worthy of note that every Roman +<span class="newpage"><a name="page179" id="page179">[179]</a></span> +town which has been excavated has been found to be +fortified, often on a most formidable scale. Thus at +London there still remains visible a sufficiently large +fragment of the wall to show that it must have been +at least thirty feet high, while that of Silchester was nine +feet thick, with a fosse of no less than thirty yards in +width. And at Cirencester the river Churn or Corin +(from which the town took its name <i>Corinium</i>) was +made to flow round the ramparts, which consisted +first of an outer facing of stone, then of a core of +concrete, and finally an earthen embankment within, +the whole reaching a width of at least four yards. It +is probable, however, that these defences, like those +of so many of the Gallic cities, and like the Aurelian +walls of Rome itself; belong to the decadent period of +Roman power, and did not exist (except in the +northern garrisons and the great legionary stations, +York, Chester, and Caerleon) during the golden age of +Roman Britain.<a name="FNanchor_212_212"></a><a href="#Footnote_212_212"><sup>[212]</sup></a></p> + +<p>C. 2.—Their circuit, where it has been traced, +furnishes a rough gauge of the comparative importance +of the Roman towns of Britain. Far at the +head stands London, where the names of Ludgate, +Newgate, Aldersgate, Moorgate, Bishopsgate, and Aldgate +still mark the ancient boundary line, five miles +in extent (including the river-front), nearly twice +that of any other town.<a name="FNanchor_213_213"></a><a href="#Footnote_213_213"><sup>[213]</sup></a> And abundant traces of +<span class="newpage"><a name="page180" id="page180">[180]</a></span> +the existence of a flourishing suburb have been +discovered on the southern bank of the river. To +London ran nearly all the chief Roman roads, and +the shapeless block now called London Stone was +once the <i>Milliarium</i> from which the distances were +reckoned along their course throughout the land.<a name="FNanchor_214_214"></a><a href="#Footnote_214_214"><sup>[214]</sup></a></p> + +<p>C. 3.—The many relics of the Roman occupation +to be seen in the Museum at the Guildhall bear +further testimony to the commercial importance of +the City in those early days, an importance primarily +due, as we have already seen, to the natural facilities +for crossing the Thames at London Bridge.<a name="FNanchor_215_215"></a><a href="#Footnote_215_215"><sup>[215]</sup></a> The +greatness of Roman London seems, however, to +have been purely commercial. We do not even +know that it was the seat of government for its +own division of Britain. It was not a Colony, nor +(in spite of the exceptional strength of the site, surrounded, +as it was, by natural moats)<a name="FNanchor_216_216"></a><a href="#Footnote_216_216"><sup>[216]</sup></a> does it ever +appear as of military importance till the campaign of +Theodosius at the very end of the chapter.<a name="FNanchor_217_217"></a><a href="#Footnote_217_217"><sup>[217]</sup></a> In the +'Notitia' it figures as the head-quarters of the +Imperial Treasury, and about the same date we learn +that the name Augusta had been bestowed upon the +<span class="newpage"><a name="page181" id="page181">[181]</a></span> +town, as on Caerleon and on so many others throughout +the Empire, though the older "London" still +remained unforgotten.<a name="FNanchor_218_218"></a><a href="#Footnote_218_218"><sup>[218]</sup></a></p> + +<p>C. 4.—But, so far as Britain had a recognized +capital at all, York and not London best deserved +that name. For here was the chief military nerve-centre +of the land, the head-quarters of the Army, +where the Commander-in-Chief found himself in ready +touch with the thick array of garrisons holding every +strategic point along the various routes by which any +invader who succeeded in forcing the Wall would +penetrate into the land. At York, accordingly, the +Emperors who visited Britain mostly held their court; +beginning with Hadrian, who here established the +Sixth Legion which he had brought over with him, +possibly incorporating with it the remains of the +Ninth, traces of which are here found. And here +it remained permanently quartered to the very end of +the Roman occupation, as abundant inscriptions, etc. +testify. One of these, found in the excavations for +the railway station, is a brass tablet with a dedication +(in Greek) to <i>The Gods of the Head Praetorium</i> (θεοῖς τοῖς τοῦ ἡγεμονικοῦ πραιτωρίου) [<b>theois +tois tou haegemonikou praitoriou</b>], bearing witness to the +essential militarism of the city.</p> + +<p>C. 5.—A Praetorium, moreover, was not merely a +military centre. It was also, as at Jerusalem, a +Judgment Hall; and here, probably, the <i>Juridicus +Britanniae</i><a name="FNanchor_219_219"></a><a href="#Footnote_219_219"><sup>[219]</sup></a> exercised his functions, which would seem +<span class="newpage"><a name="page182" id="page182">[182]</a></span> +to have been something resembling those of a Lord +Chief Justice. Precedents laid down by his Court +are quoted as still in force even by the Codex of +Justinian (555). One of these incidentally lets us +know that the Romans kept up not only a British +Army, but a British Fleet in being.<a name="FNanchor_220_220"></a><a href="#Footnote_220_220"><sup>[220]</sup></a> The latter, +probably, as well as the former, had its head-quarters +at York, where the Ouse of old furnished a far more +available waterway than now. Even so late as 1066 +the great fleet of Harold Hardrada could anchor only +a few miles off, at Riccall: and there is good evidence +that in the Roman day the river formed an extensive +"broad" under the walls of York itself. As at +Portsmouth and Plymouth to-day, the presence of +officers and seamen of the Imperial Navy must have +added to the military bustle in the streets of Eboracum; +while tesselated pavements, unknown in the ruder +fortresses of the Wall, testify to the softer side of +social life in a garrison town.</p> + +<p>C. 6.—Chester [Deva] was also a garrison town, +the head-quarters of the Twentieth Legion; so was +Caerleon-upon-Usk [Isca], with the Second. A detachment +was almost certainly detailed from one or other +of these to hold Wroxeter [Uriconium], midway +<span class="newpage"><a name="page183" id="page183">[183]</a></span> +between them;<a name="FNanchor_221_221"></a><a href="#Footnote_221_221"><sup>[221]</sup></a> thus securing the line of the Marches +between the wild districts of Wales and the more +fertile and settled regions eastward. And the name of +Leicester records the fact (not otherwise known to us) +that here too was a military centre; probably sufficient +to police the rest of the island.<a name="FNanchor_222_222"></a><a href="#Footnote_222_222"><sup>[222]</sup></a></p> + +<p>C. 7.—Gloucester, Colchester, and Lincoln, as +being Colonies, may have been also, perhaps, always +fortified, and possibly garrisoned. But in the ordinary +Romano-British town, such as London, Silchester, or +Bath,<a name="FNanchor_223_223"></a><a href="#Footnote_223_223"><sup>[223]</sup></a> the life was probably wholly civilian. The +fortifications, if the place ever had any, were left to +decay or removed, the soldiery were withdrawn or +converted into a mere <i>gendarmerie</i>, and under the +shield of the <i>Pax Romana</i>, the towns were as open as +now. And as little as now did they look forward to +<span class="newpage"><a name="page184" id="page184">[184]</a></span> +a time when each would have to become a strongly-held +place of arms girded in by massive ramparts, +yet destined to prove all too weak against the sweep +of barbarian invasion.</p> + +<p>C. 8.—On most of these sites continuous occupation +for many subsequent ages has blotted out the vestiges +of their Roman day. Every town has a tendency +literally to bury its past; and the larger the town +the deeper the burial. Thus at London the Roman +pavements, etc. found are some twenty feet below +the present surface, at Lincoln some six or seven, and +so forth. To learn how a Roman town was actually +laid out we must have recourse to those places which +for some reason have not been resettled since their +destruction at the Anglo-Saxon conquest, such as +Wroxeter and Silchester, where the remains accordingly +lie only a foot or two below the ground. The +former has been little explored, but the latter has for +the last ten years been systematically excavated under +the auspices of the Society of Antiquaries, the portions +unearthed being reburied year by year, after careful +examination and record.<a name="FNanchor_224_224"></a><a href="#Footnote_224_224"><sup>[224]</sup></a></p> + +<p>C. 9.—The greater part of the site has thus been +already (1903) dealt with; proving the town to have +been laid out on a regular plan, with straight streets +dividing it, like an American city, into rectangular +blocks. Twenty-eight of these have, so far, been +excavated. They are from 100 to 150 yards in length +<span class="newpage"><a name="page185" id="page185">[185]</a></span> +and breadth, arranged, like the blocks in a modern +town, with houses all round, and a central space +for gardens, back-yards, etc. The remains found +(including coins from Caligula to Arcadius) prove that +the site was occupied during the whole of the Roman +period. Originally it was, in all probability, one of +the towns built for the Britons by Agricola<a name="FNanchor_225_225"></a><a href="#Footnote_225_225"><sup>[225]</sup></a> on the +distinctive Roman pattern, with a central forum, town +hall, baths, temples, and an amphitheatre outside the +city limits.</p> + +<p>C. 10.—The forum was flanked by a vast basilica, no +less than 325 feet in length by 125 in breadth, with +apses of 39 feet radius.<a name="FNanchor_226_226"></a><a href="#Footnote_226_226"><sup>[226]</sup></a> A smaller edifice of basilican +type is generally supposed to have been a Christian +church. It stands east and west, and consists of a +nave 30 feet long by 10 broad, flanked by 5-feet +aisles, with a narthex of 7 feet (extending right across +the building) at the east end, and at the west an apse +of 10 feet radius, having in the centre a tesselated +pavement 6 feet square, presumably for the Altar.<a name="FNanchor_227_227"></a><a href="#Footnote_227_227"><sup>[227]</sup></a></p> + +<p>C. 11.—The main street of Silchester ran east +and west, and <i>may</i> have been the main road from +<span class="newpage"><a name="page186" id="page186">[186]</a></span> +London to Bath; while that which crosses it at the +forum was perhaps an extension of the Icknield Way +from Wallingford to Winchester. A third road led +straight to Old Sarum,<a name="FNanchor_228_228"></a><a href="#Footnote_228_228"><sup>[228]</sup></a> and there may have been +others. Silchester lies about half-way between +Reading and Basingstoke.</p> + +<p>C. 12.—The relics of domestic life found indicate +a high order of peaceful civilization. Abundance +of domestic pottery (some of it the glazed ware +manufactured at Caistor on the Nen), many bones of +domestic animals (amongst them the cat),<a name="FNanchor_229_229"></a><a href="#Footnote_229_229"><sup>[229]</sup></a> finger-rings +with engraved gems, and the like, have been +discovered in the old wells<a name="FNanchor_230_230"></a><a href="#Footnote_230_230"><sup>[230]</sup></a> and ashpits. More +remarkable was the unearthing (in 1899) of the plant +of a silver refinery,<a name="FNanchor_231_231"></a><a href="#Footnote_231_231"><sup>[231]</sup></a> showing that the method employed +was analogous to that in vogue amongst the Japanese +to-day, and that bone-ash was used in the construction +of the hearths.<a name="FNanchor_232_232"></a><a href="#Footnote_232_232"><sup>[232]</sup></a> The houses were mainly built of red +<span class="newpage"><a name="page187" id="page187">[187]</a></span> +clay (on a foundation wall of flint and mortar) filled +into a timber frame-work and supported by lath or +wattle. The exterior was stamped with ornamental +patterns, as in modern "parjetting" (which may thus +very possibly be an actual survival from Roman days). +This clay has in most cases soaked away into a mere +layer of red mud overlying the pavements; but in +1901 there was unearthed a house in which a fortunate +fire had calcined it into permanent brick, still +retaining the parjetting and the impress of wattle and +timber. But the whole site has not provided a single +weapon of any sort or kind, and the construction of +the defences clearly shows that they formed no part +of the original plan on which the place was laid out.<a name="FNanchor_233_233"></a><a href="#Footnote_233_233"><sup>[233]</sup></a> +They were probably, as we have said, added at the +break up of the Pax Romana.</p> + +<p>C. 13.—With the exception of the silver refinery +above mentioned, nothing has appeared to tell us +what handicrafts were practised at Silchester; but +such industries formed a noteworthy feature of +Romano-British life. Naturally the largest traces have +been left in connection with that most imperishable of +all commodities, pottery. The kilns where it was made +are frequently met with in excavations; and individual +vases, jugs,<a name="FNanchor_234_234"></a><a href="#Footnote_234_234"><sup>[234]</sup></a> cups, and amphorae (often of very large +dimensions) constantly appear. Many of these are +<span class="newpage"><a name="page188" id="page188">[188]</a></span> +beautifully modelled and finished, and not unseldom +glazed in various ways. But there is no evidence +that the delicate "Samian" ware<a name="FNanchor_235_235"></a><a href="#Footnote_235_235"><sup>[235]</sup></a> was ever manufactured +in Britain, though every house of any pretensions +possessed a certain store of it. The indigenous +art of basket-making<a name="FNanchor_236_236"></a><a href="#Footnote_236_236"><sup>[236]</sup></a> also continued as a speciality +of Britain under the Romans, and the indigenous +mining for tin, lead, iron, and copper was developed +by them on the largest scale. In every district where +these metals are found, in Cornwall, in Somerset, in +Wales, in Derbyshire, and in Sussex, traces of Roman +work are apparent, dating from the very beginning of +the occupation to the very end. The earliest known +Roman inscription found in Britain is one of A.D. 49 +(the year before Ostorius subdued the Iceni) on a pig +of lead from the Mendips,<a name="FNanchor_237_237"></a><a href="#Footnote_237_237"><sup>[237]</sup></a> and similar pigs bearing +the Labarum, <i>i.e.</i> not earlier than Constantine +presumably, have been dredged up in the Thames below +London.<a name="FNanchor_238_238"></a><a href="#Footnote_238_238"><sup>[238]</sup></a> Inscriptions also survive to tell us of a +few amongst the many other trades which must have +figured in Romano-British life,—goldsmiths, silversmiths, +iron-workers, stone-cutters, sculptors, architects, +eye-doctors, are all thus commemorated.<a name="FNanchor_239_239"></a><a href="#Footnote_239_239"><sup>[239]</sup></a></p> + +<p>C. 14.—But then, as always, the life of Britain was +mainly rural. The evidence for this unearthed in the +Cam valley has already been spoken of, and in every +part of England the "villas" of the great Roman +<span class="newpage"><a name="page189" id="page189">[189]</a></span> +landowners are constantly found. Hundreds have +already been discovered, and year by year the list is +added to. One of the most recent of the finds is that +at Greenwich in 1901, and the best known, perhaps, +that at Brading in the Isle of Wight. Here, as elsewhere, +the tesselated pavements, the elaborate arrangements +for warming (by hypocausts conveying +hot air to every room), the careful laying out of the +apartments, all testify to the luxury in which these old +landlords lived. For the "villa" was the Squire's +Hall of the period, and was provided, like the great +country houses of to-day, with all the best that +contemporary life could give.<a name="FNanchor_240_240"></a><a href="#Footnote_240_240"><sup>[240]</sup></a> And, like these +also, it was the centre of a large circle of humbler +dependencies wherein resided the peasantry of the estate +and the domestics of the mansion.<a name="FNanchor_241_241"></a><a href="#Footnote_241_241"><sup>[241]</sup></a> The existence +amongst these of huntsmen (as inscriptions tell) +reminds us that not only was the chase, then as now, +popular amongst the squirearchy, but that there was +a far larger scope for its exercise. Great forests still +covered a notable proportion of the soil (the largest +being that which spread over the whole Weald of +<span class="newpage"><a name="page190" id="page190">[190]</a></span> +Sussex)<a name="FNanchor_242_242"></a><a href="#Footnote_242_242"><sup>[242]</sup></a>, and were tenanted by numberless deer and +wild swine, along with the wolves, and, perhaps, +bears,<a name="FNanchor_243_243"></a><a href="#Footnote_243_243"><sup>[243]</sup></a> that fed upon them.</p> + +<p>C. 15.—Hence it came about that during the +Roman occupation the British products we find +most spoken of by classical authors are the famous +breeds of hunting-dogs produced by our island. +Oppian<a name="FNanchor_244_244"></a><a href="#Footnote_244_244"><sup>[244]</sup></a> [A.D. 140] gives a long description of one +sort, which he describes as small βαιον [<b>baion</b>], +awkward γυρον [<b>guron</b>], long-bodied, rough-haired, +not much to look at, but excellent at scenting out their +game and tackling it when found—like our present +otter-hounds. The native name for this strain was Agasseus. +Nemesianus<a name="FNanchor_245_245"></a><a href="#Footnote_245_245"><sup>[245]</sup></a> [A.D. 280] sings the swiftness of British +hounds; and Claudian<a name="FNanchor_246_246"></a><a href="#Footnote_246_246"><sup>[246]</sup></a> refers to a more, formidable +kind, used for larger game, equal indeed to pulling +down a bull. He is commonly supposed to mean +some species of mastiff; but, according to Mr. Elton<a name="FNanchor_247_247"></a><a href="#Footnote_247_247"><sup>[247]</sup></a> +mastiffs are a comparatively recent importation from +Central Asia, so that a boarhound of some sort is +more probably intended, such as may be seen depicted +(along with its smaller companion) on the fine +tesselated pavement preserved in the Corinium +<span class="newpage"><a name="page191" id="page191">[191]</a></span> +Museum at Cirencester.<a name="FNanchor_248_248"></a><a href="#Footnote_248_248"><sup>[248]</sup></a> Whatever the creature was, +it is probably the same as the Scotch "fighting dog," +which figures in the 4th century polemics as a huge +massive brute of savage temper<a name="FNanchor_249_249"></a><a href="#Footnote_249_249"><sup>[249]</sup></a> and evil odour,<a name="FNanchor_250_250"></a><a href="#Footnote_250_250"><sup>[250]</sup></a> +to which accordingly controversialists rejoice in likening +their ecclesiastical opponents.<a name="FNanchor_251_251"></a><a href="#Footnote_251_251"><sup>[251]</sup></a> Jerome incidentally +tells us that "Alpine" dogs were of this Scotch +breed, which thus may possibly be the original strain +now developed into the St. Bernard.</p> + +<p>C. 16.—But the existence of such tracts of forest, +even when very extensive, is quite compatible (as the +present state of France shows us) with a highly +developed civilization, and a population thick upon +the ground. And that a very large area of our soil +came to be under the plough at least before the +Roman occupation ended is proved by the fact that +eight hundred wheat-ships were dispatched from this +island by Julian the Apostate for the support of his +garrisons in Gaul. The terms in which this transaction +is recorded suggest that wheat was habitually exported +(on a smaller scale, doubtless) from Britain to the +Continent. At all events enough was produced for +home consumption, and under the shadow of the +Pax Romana the wild and warlike Briton became a +quiet cultivator of the ground, a peaceful and not +discontented dependent of the all-conquering Power +which ruled the whole civilized world.</p> + +<span class="newpage"><a name="page192" id="page192">[192]</a></span> +<p>C. 17.—In the country the husbandman ploughed +and sowed and reaped and garnered,<a name="FNanchor_252_252"></a><a href="#Footnote_252_252"><sup>[252]</sup></a> sometimes as a +freeholder, oftener as a tenant; the miller was found +upon every stream; the fisher baited his hook and +cast his net in fen and mere; the Squire hunted and +feasted amid his retainers (who were usually slaves); +his wife and daughters occupied themselves in the +management of the house. The language of Rome +was everywhere spoken, the literature of Rome was +read amongst the educated classes; while amongst +the peasantry the old Celtic tongue, and with it, we +may be sure, the old Celtic legends and songs, held +its own. Intercourse was easy between the various +districts; for along every great road a series of posting-stations, +each with its stud of relays, was available for +the service of travellers. In the towns were to be +found schools, theatres, and courts of justice, with +shops of every sort and kind, while travelling pedlars +supplied the needs of the rural districts. No one, +except actual soldiers, dreamt of bearing arms, or +indeed was allowed to do so,<a name="FNanchor_253_253"></a><a href="#Footnote_253_253"><sup>[253]</sup></a> and the general aspect +of the land was as wholly peaceful as now. But +every one had to pay a substantial proportion of his +income in taxes, in the collection of which there was +not seldom a notable amount of corruption, as +amongst the publicans of Judaea. In the bad days +of the decadence this became almost intolerable;<a name="FNanchor_254_254"></a><a href="#Footnote_254_254"><sup>[254]</sup></a> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page193" id="page193">[193]</a></span> +but so long as the central administration retained its +integrity the amount exacted was no more than left to +every class a fair margin for the needs, and even the +enjoyments, of life.</p> +<br /> + +<a name="DIV."></a><h4>SECTION D.</h4> + +<p><i>The unconquered North—Hadrian's Wall—Upper and Lower Britain—Romano-British coinage—Wall<br /> +of Antoninus—Britain Pro-consular.</i></p> +<br /> +<p>D. 1.—The weak point of all this peaceful development +was that the northern regions of the island +remained unsubdued. It was all very well for the +Roman Treasury, with true departmental shortsightedness, +to declare (as Appian<a name="FNanchor_255_255"></a><a href="#Footnote_255_255"><sup>[255]</sup></a> reports) that North Britain +was a worthless district, which could never be profitable +ευπηορον [<b>euphoron</b>] to hold. The cost +would have been cheap in the end. All through +the Roman occupation it was from the north that +trouble was liable to arise, and ultimately it was +the ferocious independence of the Highland clans +that brought Roman Britain to its doom. The +Saxons, as tradition tells us, would never have been +invited into the land but for the ravages of these Picts; +and, in sober history, it may well be doubted whether +they could ever have effected a permanent settlement +here had not the Britons, in defending our shores, +been constantly exposed to Pictish attacks from the +rear.</p> + +<p>D. 2.—Thus our earliest notice of Britain in this +<span class="newpage"><a name="page194" id="page194">[194]</a></span> +period tells us that Hadrian (A.D. 120), our first +Imperial visitor since Claudius (A.D. 44), found it +needful (after a revolt which cost many lives, and +involved, as it seems, the final destruction of the +unlucky Ninth Legion, which had already fared so +badly in Boadicea's rebellion<a name="FNanchor_256_256"></a><a href="#Footnote_256_256"><sup>[256]</sup></a>) to supplement Agricola's +rampart, between Forth and Clyde, with another +from sea to sea, between Tynemouth and Solway, +"dividing the Romans from the barbarians."<a name="FNanchor_257_257"></a><a href="#Footnote_257_257"><sup>[257]</sup></a> This +does not mean that the district thus isolated was +definitely abandoned,<a name="FNanchor_258_258"></a><a href="#Footnote_258_258"><sup>[258]</sup></a> but that its inhabitants were +so imperfectly Romanized that the temptation to raid +the more civilized lands to the south had better be +obviated. The Wall of Hadrian marked the real +limit of Roman Britain: beyond it was a "march," +sometimes strongly, more often feebly, garrisoned, but +never effectually occupied, much less civilized. The +inhabitants, indeed, seem to have rapidly lost what +civilization they had. Dion Cassius describes them, +in the next generation, as far below the Caledonians +who opposed Agricola, a mere horde of squalid and +ferocious cannibals,<a name="FNanchor_259_259"></a><a href="#Footnote_259_259"><sup>[259]</sup></a> going into battle stark-naked +(like their descendants the Galwegians a thousand +years later),<a name="FNanchor_260_260"></a><a href="#Footnote_260_260"><sup>[260]</sup></a> having neither chief nor law, fields nor +houses. The name Attacotti, by which they came +<span class="newpage"><a name="page195" id="page195">[195]</a></span> +finally to be known, probably means <i>Tributary</i>, and +describes their nominal status towards Rome.</p> + +<p>D. 3.—How hopeless the task of effectually +incorporating these barbarians within the Empire +appeared to Hadrian is shown by the extraordinary +massiveness of the Wall which he built<a name="FNanchor_261_261"></a><a href="#Footnote_261_261"><sup>[261]</sup></a> to keep them +out from the civilized Provinces<a name="FNanchor_262_262"></a><a href="#Footnote_262_262"><sup>[262]</sup></a> to the southwards. +"Uniting the estuaries of Tyne and Solway it chose +the strongest line of defence available. Availing +itself of a series of bold heights, which slope steadily +to the south, but are craggy precipices to the north, +as if designed by Nature for this very purpose, it +pursued its mighty course across the isthmus with +a pertinacious, undeviating determination which makes +its remains unique in Europe, and one of the most +inspiriting scenes in Britain."<a name="FNanchor_263_263"></a><a href="#Footnote_263_263"><sup>[263]</sup></a> Its outer fosse +(where the nature of the ground permits) is from 30 +to 40 feet wide and some 20 deep, so sloped that the +whole was exposed to direct fire from the Wall, from +which it is separated by a small glacis [<i>linea</i>] 10 or 12 +feet across. Beyond it the upcast earth is so disposed +<span class="newpage"><a name="page196" id="page196">[196]</a></span> +as to form the glacis proper, for about 50 feet before +dipping to the general ground level. The Wall itself +is usually 8 feet thick, the outer and inner faces +formed of large blocks of freestone, with an interior +core of carefully-filled-in rubble. The whole thus +formed a defence of the most formidable character, +testifying strongly to the respect in which the valour +of the Borderers against whom it was constructed was +held by Hadrian and his soldiers.<a name="FNanchor_264_264"></a><a href="#Footnote_264_264"><sup>[264]</sup></a></p> + +<p>D. 4.—This expedition of Hadrian is cited by his +biographer, Aelius Spartianus, as the most noteworthy +example of that invincible activity which led him to +take personal cognizance of every region in his +Empire: "<i>Ante omnes enitebatur ne quid otiosum vel +emeret aliquando vel pasceret."</i> His contempt for +slothful self-indulgence finds vent in his reply to the +doggerel verses of Florus, who had written:</p> + +<table> +<tr><td><i>Ego nolo Caesar esse,</i></td> <td> ["To be Caesar I'd not care,</td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Ambulare per Britannos,</i></td> <td> Through the Britons far to fare,</td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Scythicas pati pruinas</i>.</td> <td> Scythian frost and cold to bear."]</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Hadrian made answer:</p> + +<table> +<tr><td><i>Ego nolo Florus esse,</i></td> <td> ["To be Florus I'd not care,</td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Ambulare per tabernas,</i></td> <td> Through the tavern-bars to fare,</td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Cimices pati rotundas</i>.</td> <td> Noxious insect-bites to bear."]</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>To us its special interest (besides the Wall) is +<span class="newpage"><a name="page197" id="page197">[197]</a></span> +found in the bronze coins commemorating the occasion, +the first struck with special reference to Britain +since those of Claudius. These are of various types, +but all of the year 120 (the third Consulate of Hadrian); +and the reverse mostly represents the figure so familiar +on our present bronze coinage, Britannia, spear in +hand, on her island rock, with her shield beside her.<a name="FNanchor_265_265"></a><a href="#Footnote_265_265"><sup>[265]</sup></a> +This type was constantly repeated with slight variations +in the coinage of the next hundred years; and +thus, when, after an interval of twelve centuries, the +British mint began once more, in the reign of Charles +the Second, to issue copper, this device was again +adopted, and still abides with us. The very large +number of types (approaching a hundred) of the +Romano-British coinage, from this reign to that of +Caracalla, shows that Hadrian inaugurated the system +of minting coins not only with reference to Britain, +but for special local use. They were doubtless struck +within the island; but we can only conjecture where +the earliest mints were situated.</p> + +<p>D. 5.—Twenty years after Hadrian's visit we again +find (A.D. 139) some little trouble in the north, +owing to a feud between the Brigantes and Genuini, +a clan of whom nothing is known but the name. +The former seem to have been the aggressors, and +were punished by the confiscation of a section of their +territory by Lollius Urbicus, the Legate of Antoninus +Pius; who further "shut off the excluded barbarians +<span class="newpage"><a name="page198" id="page198">[198]</a></span> +by a turf wall" (<i>muro cespitio submotis<a name="FNanchor_266_266"></a><a href="#Footnote_266_266"><sup>[266]</sup></a> barbaris +ducto</i>). The context connects this operation with the +Brigantian troubles; but it is certain that Lollius +repaired and strengthened Agricola's rampart between +Forth and Clyde. His name is found in inscriptions +along that line,<a name="FNanchor_267_267"></a><a href="#Footnote_267_267"><sup>[267]</sup></a> and that of Antoninus is frequent. +This work consisted of a <i>vallum</i> some 40 miles in +length, from Carriden to Dumbarton, with fortified +posts at frequent intervals. It is locally known as +"Graham's Dyke," and, since 1890, has been systematically +explored by the Glasgow Archaeological Society. It is in +the strictest sense "a turf wall"—no mere grass-grown +earthwork, but regularly built of squared sods in place +of stones (sometimes on a stone base). Roman engineers +looked upon such a rampart as being the hardest of all +to construct.</p> + +<a name="EIV."></a><h4>SECTION E.</h4> + +<p><i>Commodus Britannicus—Ulpius Marcellus—Murder of Perennis—Era of military turbulence<br /> +—Pertinax—Albinus—British Army defeated at Lyons—Severus—Caledonian war—Severus<br /> +overruns Highlands.</i></p> +<br /> +<p>E. 1.—It may very probably be owing to the +energy of Lollius that Britain, "Upper" and "Lower" +together as it seems, as inscriptions tell us, was about +this date ranked amongst the Senatorial Provinces of +the Empire, the Pro-consul being C. Valerius Pansa. +<span class="newpage"><a name="page199" id="page199">[199]</a></span> +That it should have been made a Pro-consulate +shows (as is pointed out on p. 142) that they were +now considered amongst the more peaceful governorships. +In fact, though some slight disturbances +threatened at the death of Antoninus (A.D. 161), the +country remained quiet till Commodus came to the +throne (A.D. 180). Then, however, we hear of a +serious inroad of the northern barbarians, who burst +over the Roman Wall and were not repulsed without +a hard campaign. The Roman commander was +Ulpius Marcellus, a harsh but devoted officer, who +fared like a common soldier, and insisted on the +strictest vigilance, being himself "the most sleepless +of generals."<a name="FNanchor_268_268"></a><a href="#Footnote_268_268"><sup>[268]</sup></a> The British Army, accordingly, swore +by him, and were minded to proclaim him Emperor,[2] +a matter which all but cost him his life at the hands +of Commodus; who, however, contented himself with +assuming, like Claudius, the title of Britannicus, in +virtue of this success.[2] The further precaution was +taken of cashiering not only Ulpius but all the +superior officers of this dangerous army; men of +lower rank and less influence being substituted. The +soldiers, however, defeated the design by breaking +out into open mutiny, and tearing to pieces the +"enemy of the Army," Perennis, Praefect of the +Praetorian Guards, who had been sent from Rome +(A.D. 185) to carry out the reform.<a name="FNanchor_269_269"></a><a href="#Footnote_269_269"><sup>[269]</sup></a></p> + +<p>E. 2.—This episode shows us how great a solidarity +the Army of Britain had by this time developed. It +<span class="newpage"><a name="page200" id="page200">[200]</a></span> +was always the policy of Imperial Rome to recruit +the forces stationed throughout the Provinces not +from the natives around them, but from those of +distant regions. Inscriptions tell that the British +Legions were chiefly composed of Spaniards, Aquitanians, +Gauls, Frisians, Dalmatians, and Dacians; while from +the 'Notitia' we know that, in the 5th century, such +distant countries as Mauretania, Libya, and even Assyria,<a name="FNanchor_270_270"></a><a href="#Footnote_270_270"><sup>[270]</sup></a> +furnished contingents. Britons, in turn, served in Gaul, +Spain, Illyria, Egypt, and Armenia, as well as in Rome itself.</p> + +<p>E. 3.—The outburst which led to the slaughter of +Perennis was but the dawn of a long era of military +turbulence in Britain. First came the suppression of +the revolt A.D. 187 by the new Legate,<a name="FNanchor_271_271"></a><a href="#Footnote_271_271"><sup>[271]</sup></a> Pertinax, +who, at the peril of his life, refused the purple offered +him by the mutineers,<a name="FNanchor_272_272"></a><a href="#Footnote_272_272"><sup>[272]</sup></a> and drafted fifteen hundred of +the ringleaders into the Italian service of Commodus;<a name="FNanchor_273_273"></a><a href="#Footnote_273_273"><sup>[273]</sup></a> +then Commodus died (A.D. 192), and Pertinax +became one of the various pretenders to the Imperial +throne; then followed his murder by Julianus, while +Albinus succeeded to his pretensions as well as +to his British government; then that of Julianus by +Severus; then the desperate struggle between Albinus +and Severus for the Empire; the crushing defeat +(A.D. 197) of the British Army at Lyons, the death +of Albinus,<a name="FNanchor_274_274"></a><a href="#Footnote_274_274"><sup>[274]</sup></a> and the final recognition of Severus<a name="FNanchor_275_275"></a><a href="#Footnote_275_275"><sup>[275]</sup></a> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page201" id="page201">[201]</a></span> +as the acknowledged ruler of the whole Roman +world.</p> + +<p>E. 4.—Of all the Roman Emperors Severus is the +most closely connected with Britain. The long-continued +political and military confusion amongst +the conquerors had naturally excited the independent +tribes of the north. In A.D. 201 the Caledonians +beyond Agricola's rampart threatened it so seriously +that Vinius Lupus, the Praetor, was fain to buy off +their attack; and, a few years later, they actually +joined hands with the nominally subject Meatae within +the Pale, who thereupon broke out into open rebellion, +and, along with them, poured down upon the civilized +districts to the south. So extreme was the danger +that the Prefect of Britain sent urgent dispatches to +Rome, invoking the Emperor's own presence with the +whole force of the Empire.</p> + +<p>E. 5.—Severus, in spite of age and infirmity,<a name="FNanchor_276_276"></a><a href="#Footnote_276_276"><sup>[276]</sup></a> responded +to the call, and, in a marvellously short time, +appeared in Britain, bringing with him his worthless +sons, Caracalla<a name="FNanchor_277_277"></a><a href="#Footnote_277_277"><sup>[277]</sup></a> and Geta<a name="FNanchor_278_278"></a><a href="#Footnote_278_278"><sup>[278]</sup></a>—"my Antonines," as he +fondly called them,<a name="FNanchor_279_279"></a><a href="#Footnote_279_279"><sup>[279]</sup></a> though his life was already +embittered by their wickedness,—and Geta's yet more +worthless mother, Julia Domna. Leaving her and +her son in charge south of Hadrian's Wall, Severus and +Caracalla undertook a punitive expedition<a name="FNanchor_280_280"></a><a href="#Footnote_280_280"><sup>[280]</sup></a> beyond it, +<span class="newpage"><a name="page202" id="page202">[202]</a></span> +characterized by ferocity so exceptional<a name="FNanchor_281_281"></a><a href="#Footnote_281_281"><sup>[281]</sup></a> that the names +both of Caledonians and Meatae henceforward disappear +from history. The Romans on this occasion +penetrated further than even Agricola had gone, and +reached Cape Wrath, where Severus made careful +astronomical observations.<a name="FNanchor_282_282"></a><a href="#Footnote_282_282"><sup>[282]</sup></a></p> + +<p>E. 6.—But the cost was fearful. Fifty thousand +Roman soldiers perished through the rigour of the +climate and the wiles of the desperate barbarians; and +Severus felt the north so untenable that he devoted +all his energies to strengthening Hadrian's Wall,<a name="FNanchor_283_283"></a><a href="#Footnote_283_283"><sup>[283]</sup></a> so as +to render it an impregnable barrier beyond which the +savages might be allowed to range as they pleased.<a name="FNanchor_284_284"></a><a href="#Footnote_284_284"><sup>[284]</sup></a></p> + +<p>E. 7.—In what, exactly, his additions consisted we +do not know, but they were so extensive that his name +is no less indissolubly connected with the Wall than +that of Hadrian. The inscriptions of the latter found +in the "Mile Castles" show that the line was his +work, and that he did not merely, as some have +thought, build the series of "stations" to support the +"Vallum." But it is highly probable that Severus so +strengthened the Wall both in height and thickness as +to make it<a name="FNanchor_285_285"></a><a href="#Footnote_285_285"><sup>[285]</sup></a> far more formidable than Hadrian had +<span class="newpage"><a name="page203" id="page203">[203]</a></span> +left it. For now it was intended to be the actual <i>limes</i> +of the Empire.</p> +<br /> + +<a name="FIV."></a><h4>SECTION F.</h4> + +<p><i>Severus completes Hadrian's Wall—Mile Castles—Stations—Garrison—Vallum—Rival theories<br /> +—Evidence—Remains—Coins—Altars—Mithraism—Inscription to Julia Domna—"Written Rock"<br /> +on Gelt—Cilurnum aqueduct.</i></p> +<br /> +<p>F. 1.—It is to Severus, therefore, that we owe the +final development of this magnificent rampart, the +mere remains of which are impressive so far beyond +all that description or drawing can tell. Only those +who have stood upon the heights by Peel Crag and +seen the long line of fortification crowning ridge after +ridge in endless succession as far as the eye can reach, +can realize the sense of the vastness and majesty of +Roman Imperialism thus borne in upon the mind. +And if this is so now that the Wall is a ruin scarcely +four feet high, and, but for its greater breadth, +indistinguishable from the ordinary local field-walls, +what must it have been when its solid masonry rose to a +height of over twenty feet; with its twenty-three strong +fortresses<a name="FNanchor_286_286"></a><a href="#Footnote_286_286"><sup>[286]</sup></a> for the permanent quarters of the garrison, +<span class="newpage"><a name="page204" id="page204">[204]</a></span> +its great gate-towers<a name="FNanchor_287_287"></a><a href="#Footnote_287_287"><sup>[287]</sup></a> at every mile for the accommodation +of the detachments on duty, and its series of +watch-turrets which, at every three or four hundred +yards, placed sentinels within sight and call of each +other along the whole line from sea to sea?</p> + +<p>F. 2.—Of all this swarming life no trace now +remains. So entirely did it cease to be that the very +names of the stations have left no shadow of memories +on their sites. Luguvallum at the one end, and Pons +Aelii at the other, have revived into importance as +Carlisle and Newcastle,<a name="FNanchor_288_288"></a><a href="#Footnote_288_288"><sup>[288]</sup></a> but of the rest few indeed +remain save as solitary ruins on the bare Northumbrian +fells tenanted only by the flock and the curlew. +But this very solitude in which their names have +perished has preserved to us the means of recovering +them. Thanks to it there is no part of Britain so +rich in Roman remains and Roman inscriptions. At no +fewer than twelve of these "stations" such have been +already found relating to troops whom we know from +the 'Notitia' to have been quartered at given spots +<i>per lineam valli</i>. A Dacian cohort (for example) has +thus left its mark at Birdoswald, and an Asturian at +Chesters, thereby stamping these sites as respectively +the <i>Amboglanna</i> and <i>Cilurnum</i>, whose Dacian and +Asturian garrisons the 'Notitia' records. The old walls +of Cilurnum, moreover, are still clothed with a pretty +little Pyrenaean creeper, <i>Erinus Hispanicus</i>, which these +<span class="newpage"><a name="page205" id="page205">[205]</a></span> +Asturian exiles must have brought with them as a +memorial of their far-off home.</p> + +<p>F. 3.—Many such small but vivid touches of the +past meet those who visit the Wall. At "King Arthur's +Well," for example, near Thirlwall, the tiny chives +growing in the crevices of the rock are presumably +descendants of those acclimatized there by Roman +gastronomy. At Borcovicus ("House-steads") the +wheel-ruts still score the pavement; at Cilurnum the +hypocaust of the bath is still blackened with smoke, +and at various points the decay of Roman prestige is +testified to by the walling up of one half or the other +in the wide double gates which originally facilitated +the sorties of the garrisons.</p> + +<p>F. 4.—- The same decay is probably the key to the +problem of the "Vallum," that standing crux to all +archaeological students of the Wall. Along the whole +line this mysterious earthwork keeps company with +the Wall on the south, sometimes in close contact, +sometimes nearly a mile distant. It has been diversely +explained as an earlier British work, as put up by the +Romans to cover the fatigue-parties engaged in building +the Wall, and as a later erection intended to +defend the garrison against attacks from the rear. +Each of these views has been keenly debated; the +last having the support of the late Dr. Bruce, the +highest of all authorities on the mural antiquities. +And excavations, even the very latest, have produced +results which are claimed by each of the rival theories.<a name="FNanchor_289_289"></a><a href="#Footnote_289_289"><sup>[289]</sup></a></p> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page206" id="page206">[206]</a></span> +<p>F. 5.—Quite possibly all are in measure true. The +"Vallum" as we now see it is obviously meant for +defence against a southern foe. But the spade has +given abundant evidence that the rampart has been +altered, and that, in many places at least, it at one +time faced northwards. Though not an entirely +satisfactory solution of the problem, the following +sequence of events would seem, on the whole, best +to explain the phenomena with which we are confronted. +Originally a British earthwork<a name="FNanchor_290_290"></a><a href="#Footnote_290_290"><sup>[290]</sup></a> defending the +Brigantes against the cattle-lifting raids of their restless +northern neighbours, the "Vallum" was adapted<a name="FNanchor_291_291"></a><a href="#Footnote_291_291"><sup>[291]</sup></a> +for like purposes by the Romans, and that more than +once. After being thus utilized, first, perhaps, by +Agricola, and afterwards by Hadrian (for the protection +of his working-parties engaged in quarrying +stone for the outer fortifications), it became useless +when the Wall was finally completed,<a name="FNanchor_292_292"></a><a href="#Footnote_292_292"><sup>[292]</sup></a> and remained +a mere unfortified mound so long as the Roman +power in Southern Britain continued undisturbed.</p> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page207" id="page207">[207]</a></span> +<p>But when the garrison of the Wall became liable to +attacks from the rear, the "Vallum" was once more +repaired, very probably by Theodosius,<a name="FNanchor_293_293"></a><a href="#Footnote_293_293"><sup>[293]</sup></a> and this time +with a ditch to the south, to enable the soldiers to +meet, if needful, a simultaneous assault of Picts in +front and Scots<a name="FNanchor_294_294"></a><a href="#Footnote_294_294"><sup>[294]</sup></a> or Saxons behind. Weak though +it was as compared to the Wall, it would still +take a good deal of storming, if stoutly held, and +would effectually guard against any mere raid both +the small parties marching along the Military Way<a name="FNanchor_295_295"></a><a href="#Footnote_295_295"><sup>[295]</sup></a> +from post to post, and the cattle grazing along the +rich meadows which frequently lie between the two +lines of fortification.</p> + +<p>F.6.—As we have said, the line of country thus +occupied teems with relics of the occupation. Coins +by the thousand, ornaments, fragments of statuary, +inscriptions to the Emperors, to the old Roman gods, +to the strange Pantheistic syncretisms of the later +Mithraism<a name="FNanchor_296_296"></a><a href="#Footnote_296_296"><sup>[296]</sup></a>, to unknown (perhaps local) deities such +<span class="newpage"><a name="page208" id="page208">[208]</a></span> +as Coventina, records of this, that, and the other body +of troops in the garrison, personal dedications and +memorials—all have been found, and are still constantly +being found, in rich abundance. Of the whole number of +Romano-British inscriptions known, nearly half belong +to the Wall.<a name="FNanchor_297_297"></a><a href="#Footnote_297_297"><sup>[297]</sup></a></p> + +<p>F.7.—As an example of these inscriptions we +may give one discovered at Caervoran (the Roman +<i>Magna</i>), and now in the Newcastle Antiquarian +Museum,<a name="FNanchor_298_298"></a><a href="#Footnote_298_298"><sup>[298]</sup></a> the interpretation of which has been a +matter of considerable discussion amongst antiquaries. +It is written in letters of the 3rd century and runs +as follows:—</p> + +<div class="blkquot"> +IMMINET · LEONIVIRGO · CAELES<br /> +TI · SITV SPICIFERA · IVSTI · IN<br /> +VENTRIXVRBIVM · CONDITRIX<br /> +EXQVISMVNERIBVS · NOSSECON<br /></div> + +<span class="newpage"><a name="page209" id="page209">[209]</a></span> +<div class="blkquot">TIGITDEOS · ERGOEADEMMATERDIVVM<br /> +PAX · VIRTVS · CERES · DEA · SYRIA<br /> +LANCEVITAMETIVRAPENSITANS<br /> +IN · CAELOVISVMSYRIASIDVSEDI<br /> +DIT · LIBYAE · COLENDVMINDE<br /> + CVNCTIDIDICIMVS<br /> +ITAINTELLEXITNVMINEINDVCTVS<br /> +TVO · MARCVSCAECILIVSDO<br /> +NATIANVS · MILITANS · TRIBVNVS<br /> +INPRAEFECTODONO · PRINCIPIS.<br /></div> + +<p>Here we have ten very rough trochaic lines:</p> + +<div class="blkquot">Imminet Leoni Virgo caelesti situ<br /> +Spicifera, justi inventrix, urbium conditrix;<br /> +Ex quis muneribus nosse contigit Deos.<br /> +Ergo eadem Mater Divum, Pax, Virtus, Ceres,<br /> +Dea Syria, lance vitam et jura pensitans.<br /> +In caelo visum Syria sidus edidit<br /> +Libyae colendum: inde cuncti didicimus.<br /> +Ita intellexit, numine inductus tuo,<br /> +Marcus Caecilius Donatianus, militans<br /> +Tribunus in Praefecto, dono Principis.<br /></div> + +<p>This may be thus rendered:</p> + +<div class="blkquot">O'er the Lion hangs the Virgin, in her place in heaven,<br /> +With her corn-ear;—justice-finder, city-foundress, she:<br /> +And in them that do such office Gods may still be known.<br /> +She, then, is the Gods' own Mother, Peace, Strength, Ceres, all;<br /> +Syria's Goddess, in her Balance weighing life and Law.<br /> +Syria sent this Constellation shining in her sky<br /> +Forth for Libya's worship:—thence we all have learnt the lore.<br /> +Thus hath come to understanding, by the Godhead led,<br /> +Marcus Caecilius Donatianus<br /> +Serving now as Tribune-Prefect, by the Prince's grace.<br /></div> + +<p>F. 8.—These obscure lines Dr. Hodgkin refers to +Julia Domna, the wife of Severus, the one Emperor +that Africa gave to the Roman world. He was an +able astrologer, and from early youth considered +himself destined by his horoscope for the throne. He +<span class="newpage"><a name="page210" id="page210">[210]</a></span> +was thus guided by astrological considerations to take +for his second wife a Syrian virgin, whose nativity he +found to forecast queenship. As his Empress she +shared in the aureole of divinity which rested upon all +members of the Imperial family. This theory explains +the references in the inscription to the constellation +Virgo, with its chief star Spica, having Leo on the one +hand and Libra on the other, also to the Syrian origin +of Julia and her connection with Libya, the home of +Severus. It may be added that Dr. Hodgkin's view is +confirmed by the fact that this Empress figures, on +coins found in Britain, as the Mother of the Gods, and +also as Ceres. The first line may possibly have special +reference to her influence in Britain during the reign +of Severus and her stepson<a name="FNanchor_299_299"></a><a href="#Footnote_299_299"><sup>[299]</sup></a> Caracalla (who was also her +second husband), Leo being a noted astrological sign +of Britain.<a name="FNanchor_300_300"></a><a href="#Footnote_300_300"><sup>[300]</sup></a> The inscription was evidently put up in +recognition of promotion gained by her favour, though +the exact interpretation of <i>Tribunus in praefecto</i> requires +a greater knowledge of Roman military nomenclature +than we possess. Dr. Hodgkin's "Tribune instead of +Prefect" seems scarcely admissible grammatically.</p> + +<p>F. 9.—Another inscription which may be mentioned +is that referred to by Tennyson in 'Gareth and +Lynette' (l. 172), which</p> + +<span style="margin-left: 21em;">"the vexillary</span><br /> +<center>Hath left crag-carven over the streaming Gelt."<a name="FNanchor_301_301"></a><a href="#Footnote_301_301"><sup>[301]</sup></a></center><br /> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page211" id="page211">[211]</a></span> +<p>This is one of the many such records in the quarries +south of the Wall telling of the labours of the +fatigue-parties sent out by Severus to hew stones for +his mighty work, and cut on rocks overhanging the river. +It sets forth how a <i>vexillatio</i><a name="FNanchor_302_302"></a><a href="#Footnote_302_302"><sup>[302]</sup></a> of the Second Legion +was here engaged, under a lieutenant [<i>optio</i>] named +Agricola, in the consulship of Aper and Maximus (A.D. +207);<a name="FNanchor_303_303"></a><a href="#Footnote_303_303"><sup>[303]</sup></a> perhaps as a guard over the actual workers, +who were probably a <i>corvée</i> of impressed natives.</p> + +<p>F. 10.—Yet another inscription worth notice was +unearthed in 1897, and tells how a water supply to +Cilurnum was brought from a source in the neighbourhood +through a subterraneous conduit by Asturian +engineers under Ulpius Marcellus (A.D. 160). That +this should have been done brings home to us the +magnificent thoroughness with which Rome did her +work. Cilurnum stood on a pure and perennial stream, +the North Tyne, with a massively-fortified bridge, and +thus could never be cut off from water; it was only +some six acres in total area; yet in addition to the +river it received a water supply which would now be +thought sufficient for a fair-sized town.<a name="FNanchor_304_304"></a><a href="#Footnote_304_304"><sup>[304]</sup></a> Well may +Dr. Hodgkin say that "not even the Coliseum of +<span class="newpage"><a name="page212" id="page212">[212]</a></span> +Vespasian or the Pantheon of Agrippa impresses the +mind with a sense of the majestic strength of Rome so +forcibly" as works like this, merely to secure the +passage of a "little British stream, unknown to the +majority even of Englishmen."</p> +<br /> + +<a name="GIV."></a><h4>SECTION G.</h4> + +<p><i>Death of Severus—Caracalla and Geta—Roman citizenship—Extended to veterans—<i>Tabulae<br /> +honestae, missionis</i>—Bestowed on all British provincials.</i></p> +<br /> +<p>G.I.—This mighty work kept Severus in Britain +for the rest of his life. He incessantly watched over +its progress, and not till it was completed turned his +steps once more (A.D. 211) towards Rome. But he +was not to reach the Imperial city alive. Scarcely had +he completed the first stage of the journey than, at +York, omens of fatal import foretold his speedy death. +A negro soldier presented him with a cypress crown, +exclaiming, "<i>Totum vicisti, totum fuisti. Nunc Deus +esto victor</i>."<a name="FNanchor_305_305"></a><a href="#Footnote_305_305"><sup>[305]</sup></a> When he would fain offer a sacrifice of +thanksgiving, he found himself by mistake at the dark +temple of Bellona; and her black victims were led in +his train even to the very door of his palace, which he +never left again. Dark rumours were circulated that +Caracalla, who had already once attempted his father's +<span class="newpage"><a name="page213" id="page213">[213]</a></span> +life, and was already intriguing with his stepmother, +was at the bottom of all this, and took good care that +the auguries should be fulfilled. Anyhow, Severus +never left York till his corpse was carried forth and +sent off for burial at Rome. With his last breath he +is said solemnly to have warned "my Antonines" +that upon their own conduct depended the peace and +well-being of the Empire which he had so ably won +for them.<a name="FNanchor_306_306"></a><a href="#Footnote_306_306"><sup>[306]</sup></a></p> + +<p>G. 2.—The warning was, as usual, in vain. Caracalla +and Julia were now free to work their will, and, +having speedily got rid of her son Geta, entered upon +an incestuous marriage. The very Caledonians, whose +conjugal system was of the loosest,<a name="FNanchor_307_307"></a><a href="#Footnote_307_307"><sup>[307]</sup></a> cried shame;<a name="FNanchor_308_308"></a><a href="#Footnote_308_308"><sup>[308]</sup></a> +but the garrison of the Wall which kept them off was, +as we have seen, officered by Julia's creatures, and all +beyond it was definitely abandoned,<a name="FNanchor_309_309"></a><a href="#Footnote_309_309"><sup>[309]</sup></a> not to be recovered +for two centuries.<a name="FNanchor_310_310"></a><a href="#Footnote_310_310"><sup>[310]</sup></a> The guilty pair returned to +Rome, and a hundred and thirty years elapsed before +another Augustus visited Britain.<a name="FNanchor_311_311"></a><a href="#Footnote_311_311"><sup>[311]</sup></a></p> + +<p>G. 3.—They left behind them no longer a subject +race of mere provincials, but a nation of full Roman +citizens. For it was Caracalla, seemingly, who, by +extending it to the whole Roman world, put the final +stroke to the expansion, which had long been in +progress, of this once priceless privilege; with its right +of appeal to Caesar, of exemption from torture, of +recognized marriage, and of eligibility to public office. +<span class="newpage"><a name="page214" id="page214">[214]</a></span> +Originally confined strictly to natives of Rome and of +Roman Colonies, it was early bestowed <i>ipso facto</i> on +enfranchised slaves, and sometimes given as a compliment +to distinguished strangers. After the Social +War (B.C. 90) it was extended to all Italians, and +Claudius (A.D. 50) allowed Messalina to make it +purchasable ("for a great sum," as both the Acts +of the Apostles and Dion Cassius inform us) by +provincials.</p> + +<p>G. 4.—And they could also earn it by service in +the Imperial armies. A bronze tablet, found at +Cilurnum,<a name="FNanchor_312_312"></a><a href="#Footnote_312_312"><sup>[312]</sup></a> sets forth that Antoninus Pius confers +upon the <i>emeriti</i>, or time-expired veterans, of the +Gallic, Asturian, Celtiberian, Spanish, and Dacian +cohorts in Britain, who have completed twenty-five +years' service with the colours, the right of Roman +citizenship, and legalizes their marriages, whether +existing or future.<a name="FNanchor_313_313"></a><a href="#Footnote_313_313"><sup>[313]</sup></a> As there is no reason to suppose +that such discharged soldiers commonly returned to +their native land, this system must have leavened the +population of Britain with a considerable proportion +of Roman citizens, even before Caracalla's edict. +Besides its privileges, this freedom brought with it +certain liabilities, pecuniary and other; and it was to +extend the area of these that Caracalla took this +apparently liberal step, which had been at least +<span class="newpage"><a name="page215" id="page215">[215]</a></span> +contemplated by more worthy predecessors<a name="FNanchor_314_314"></a><a href="#Footnote_314_314"><sup>[314]</sup></a> on +philanthropic grounds. Any way, Britain was, by now, +in the fullest sense Roman.</p> +<br /> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page216" id="page216">[216]</a></span> +<p><b><font size="4">ROMANO-BRITISH PLACE-NAMES.</font></b><a name="FNanchor_315_315"></a><a href="#Footnote_315_315"><sup>[315]</sup></a></p> +<br /> +<p><b>TOWNS, ETC.</b></p> + +<p>Aballaba = Watch-cross<br /> +AESICA = GREAT CHESTERS<br /> +AMBOGLANNA = BIRDOSWALD<br /> +AQUAE (SULIS) = BATH<br /> +BORCOVICUS = HOUSE-STEADS<br /> +Branodunum = Brancaster<br /> +<i>Braboniacum</i> = Ribchester<br /> +Brige = Broughton<br /> +<i>Caesaromagum = Chelmsford</i><br /> +Calcaria = Tadcaster<br /> +Calleva = Silchester<br /> +Camboricum = Cambridge<br /> +Cataractonis = Catterick<br /> +<i>Clausentum = Southampton</i><br /> +CILURNUM = CHESTERS<br /> +Colonia = Colchester<br /> +Concangium = Kendal<br /> +CORINIUM = CIRENCESTER<br /> +DANUM = DONCASTER<br /> +DEVA = CHESTER<br /> +<i>Devonis = Devonport</i><br /> +Dictis = Ambleside<br /> +DUBRIS = DOVER<br /> +DURNOVARIA = DORCHESTER<br /> +Durobrivis = Rochester<br /> +Durolipons = Godmanchester<br /> +Durnovernum = Canterbury<br /> +EBORACUM = YORK<br /> +<i>Etocetum = Uttoxeter</i><br /> +GLEVUM = GLOUCESTER<br /> +Gobannium = Abergavenny<br /> +ISCA SILURUM = CAERLEON<br /> +Isca Damnoniorum = Exeter<br /> +Isurium = Aldborough (York)<br /> +LEMANNAE = LYMPNE<br /> +LINDUM COLONIA = LINCOLN<br /> +<i>Longovicum = Lancaster</i><br /> +LONDINIUM = LONDON<br /> +Lugovallum = Carlisle<br /> +Magna = Caervoran<br /> +Mancunium = Manchester<br /> +<i>Moridunum = Seaton<br /> +Muridunum = Caermarthen<br /> +Olikana = Ilkley</i><br /> +Pons Aelii = Newcastle<br /> +Pontes = Staines<br /> +PORTUS = PORTCHESTER<br /> +<i>Procolitia = Carrawburgh</i><br /> +RATAE = LEICESTER<br /> +<i>Regnum = Chichester</i><br /> +REGULBIUM = RECULVER<br /> +RITUPIS = RICHBOROUGH<br /> +Segedunum = Wall's End<br /> +SORBIODUNUM = SARUM<br /> +Spinae = Speen (Berks)<br /> +URICONUM = WROXETER<br /> +VENTA BELGARUM = WINCHESTER<br /> +VENTA ICENONUM = CAISTOR-BY-NORWICH<br /> +VENTA SILURUM = CAER GWENT<br /> +VERULAMIUM = VERULAM<br /> +Vindoballa = Rutchester<br /> +Vindomara = Ebchester<br /> +Vindolana = Little Chesters</p> +<br /> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page217" id="page217">[217]</a></span> +<p><b>RIVERS AND ESTUARIES.</b></p> + +<p>Alaunus Fl. = Tweed<br /> +Belisama Est. = Mouth of Mersey<br /> +CLOTA EST. = FIRTH OF CLYDE<br /> +<i>Cunio Fl. = Conway</i><br /> +TUNA EST. = SOLWAY<br /> +MORICAMBE EST. = MORCAMBE BAY<br /> +SABRINA FL. = SEVERN<br /> +Setantion Est. = Mouth of Ribble<br /> +Seteia Est. = Mouth of Dee<br /> +TAMARIS FL. = TAMAR<br /> +TAMESIS FL. = THAMES<br /> +Tava Est. = Firth of Tay<br /> +<i>Tuerobis Fl. = Tavy</i> +VARAR EST. = MORAY FIRTH<br /> +Vedra Fl. = Wear</p> +<br /> + + +<p><b>CAPES AND ISLANDS.</b></p> +<p>BOLERIUM PR. = LAND'S END<br /> +CANTIUM PR. = N. FORELAND<br /> +Epidium Pr. = Mull of Cantire<br /> +Herculis Pr. = Hartland Point<br /> +MANNA I. = MAN<br /> +MONA I. = ANGLESEY<br /> +Noranton Pr. = Mull of Galloway<br /> +OCRINUM PR. = THE LIZARD<br /> +OCTAPITARUM PR. = ST. DAVID'S HEAD<br /> +Orcas Pr. = Dunnet Head<br /> +Taexalum Pr. = Kinnaird Head<br /> +TANATOS I. = THANET<br /> +VECTIS I. = I. OF WIGHT<br /> +VIRVEDRUM PR. = CAPE WRATH</p> +<br /> + +<p>N.B.—Many of these names vary notably in our several +authorities: e.g. Manna is also written Mona, Monaoida, Monapia, +Mevania.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page218" id="page218">[218]</a></span> +<a name="CHAPTER_V"></a><h2>CHAPTER. V</h2> + +<h3>THE END OF ROMAN BRITAIN, A.D. 211-455</h3> +<br /> + +<a name="AV."></a><h4>SECTION A.</h4> + +<p><i>Era of Pretenders—Probus—Vandlebury—First notice of Saxons—Origin of name—Count of the<br /> +Saxon Shore—Carausius—Allectus—Last Romano-British coinage—Britain Mistress of the Sea<br /> +—Reforms of Diocletian—Constantius Chlorus—Re-conquest of Britain—Diocletian provinces<br /> +—Diocletian persecution—The last "Divus"—General scramble for Empire—British Army wins<br /> +for Constantine—Christianity established.</i></p> +<br /> +<p>A. 1.—After the death of Severus in A.D. 211, +Roman historians tell us nothing more concerning +Britain till we come to the rise of the only other +Emperor who died at York, Constantius Chlorus. +During the miserable period which the wickedness of +Caracalla brought upon the Roman world, when +Pretender after Pretender flits across the scene, most +to fail, some for a moment to succeed, but all alike +to end their brief course in blood, our island remained +fairly quiet. The Army of Britain made one or two +futile pronunciamentos (the least unsuccessful being +those for Postumus in A.D. 258, and Victorinus in +A.D. 265), and in 277 the Emperor Probus, probably +to keep it in check, leavened it with a large force +<span class="newpage"><a name="page219" id="page219">[219]</a></span> +recruited from amongst his Vandal prisoners,<a name="FNanchor_316_316"></a><a href="#Footnote_316_316"><sup>[316]</sup></a> whose +name may, perhaps, still survive in Vandlebury +Camp, on the Gog-Magog<a name="FNanchor_317_317"></a><a href="#Footnote_317_317"><sup>[317]</sup></a> Hills, near Cambridge. +But not till the energy and genius of Diocletian +began to bring back to order the chaos into which +the Roman world had fallen does Britain play any +real part in the higher politics.</p> + +<p>A. 2.—Then, however, we suddenly find ourselves +confronted with names destined to exert a supreme +influence on the future of our land. The Saxons +from the Elbe, and the Franks from the Rhine had +already begun their pirate raids along the coasts to +the westwards.<a name="FNanchor_318_318"></a><a href="#Footnote_318_318"><sup>[318]</sup></a> Each tribe derived its name from +its peculiar national weapon (the Franks from their +throwing-axe (<i>franca</i>),<a name="FNanchor_319_319"></a><a href="#Footnote_319_319"><sup>[319]</sup></a> the Saxons from the <i>saexes</i>, +long murderous knives, snouted like a Norwegian +knife of the present day, which they used with such +deadly effect);<a name="FNanchor_320_320"></a><a href="#Footnote_320_320"><sup>[320]</sup></a> and their appearance constituted a +<span class="newpage"><a name="page220" id="page220">[220]</a></span> +new and fearful danger to the Roman Empire. +Never, since the Mediterranean pirates were crushed +by Pompey (B.C. 66) had it been exposed to attacks +by sea. A special effort was needed to meet this new +situation, and we find, accordingly, a new officer now +added to the Imperial muster,—the Count of the +Saxon Shore. His jurisdiction extended over the +northern coast of Gaul and the southern and eastern +shores of Britain, the head-quarters of his fleet being +at Boulogne.</p> + +<p>A. 3.—The first man to be placed in this position +was Carausius,<a name="FNanchor_321_321"></a><a href="#Footnote_321_321"><sup>[321]</sup></a> a Frisian adventurer of low birth, but +great military reputation, to which unfortunately he +proved unequal. When his command was not followed +by the looked-for putting-down of the pirate raiders, +he was suspected, probably with truth, of a secret +understanding with them. The Government accordingly +sent down orders for his execution, to which he +replied (A.D. 286) by open rebellion, took the pirate +fleets into his pay, and having thus got the undisputed +command of the sea, succeeded in maintaining +himself as Emperor in Britain for the rest of +his life.</p> + +<p>A. 4.—His reign and that of his successor (and +murderer) Allectus are marked by the last and most +extraordinary development of Romano-British coinage. +Since the time of Caracalla no coins which can +be definitely proved to deserve this name are found; +but now, in less than ten years, our mints struck no +fewer than five hundred several issues, all of different +<span class="newpage"><a name="page221" id="page221">[221]</a></span> +types. Nearly all are of bronze, with the radiated +head of the Emperor on the obverse, and on the +reverse devices of every imaginable kind. The +British Lion once more figures, as in the days of +Cymbeline; and we have also the Roman Wolf, the +Sea-horse, the Cow (as a symbol of Prosperity), +Plenty, Peace, Victory, Prudence, Health, Safety, +Might, Good Luck, Glory, all symbolized in various +ways. But the favourite type of all is the British +warship; for now Britannia, for the first time, ruled +the waves, and was, indeed, so entirely Mistress of +the Sea that her fleet appeared even in Mediterranean +waters.<a name="FNanchor_322_322"></a><a href="#Footnote_322_322"><sup>[322]</sup></a> The vessels figured are invariably not +Saxon "keels," but classical galleys, with their rams +and outboard rowing galleries, and are always represented +as cleared for action (when the great mainsail +and its yard were left on shore).</p> + +<p>A. 5.—The usurpation of Carausius, "the pirate," +as the Imperial panegyrists called him,<a name="FNanchor_323_323"></a><a href="#Footnote_323_323"><sup>[323]</sup></a> brought +Diocletian's great reform of the Roman administration +within the scope of practical politics in Britain. The old +system of Provinces, some Imperial, some Senatorial, +with each Pro-praetor or Pro-consul responsible only and +immediately to the central government at Rome, had +obviously become outgrown. And the Provinces +themselves were much too large. Diocletian accordingly +began by dividing the Empire into four "Prefectures," +two in the east and two in the west. Each +<span class="newpage"><a name="page222" id="page222">[222]</a></span> +pair was to be under one of the co-Augusti, who +again was to entrust one of his Prefectures to the +"Caesar"<a name="FNanchor_324_324"></a><a href="#Footnote_324_324"><sup>[324]</sup></a> or heir-apparent of his choice. Thus +Diocletian held the East, while Galerius, his "Caesar," +took the Prefecture of Illyricum. His colleague Maximian, +as Augustus of the West, ruled in Italy; and the +remaining Prefecture, that of "the Gauls," fell to the +Western Caesar, Constantius Chlorus. Each Prefecture, +again, was divided into "Dioceses" (that of +Constantius containing those of Britain, Gaul, Spain, +and Mauretania), each under a "Vicar," and comprising +a certain number of "Provinces" (that of +Britain having four). Thus a regular hierarchy with +rank above rank of responsibility was established, +and so firmly that Diocletian's system lasted (so far +as provincial government was concerned) till the very +latest days of the Roman dominion.</p> + +<p>A. 6.—When Constantius thus became Caesar of +the West, his first task was to restore Britain to the +Imperial system. He was already, it seems, connected +with the island, and had married a British lady named +Helen.<a name="FNanchor_325_325"></a><a href="#Footnote_325_325"><sup>[325]</sup></a> Their son Constantine, a youth of special +promise (according to the panegyrists), had been born +at York, about A.D. 274, and now appeared on the scene +to aid his father's operations with supernatural speed, +<span class="newpage"><a name="page223" id="page223">[223]</a></span> +"<i>quasi divino quodam curriculo</i>."<a name="FNanchor_326_326"></a><a href="#Footnote_326_326"><sup>[326]</sup></a> Extraordinary +celerity, indeed, marked all these operations. Allectus +was on his guard, with one squadron at Boulogne to +sweep the coast of Gaul, and another cruising in the +Channel. By a sudden dash Constantius [in A.D. +296] seized the mouth of Boulogne harbour, threw +a boom across it, "<i>defixis in aditu trabibus</i>," and +effectually barred the pirates from access to the sea.<a name="FNanchor_327_327"></a><a href="#Footnote_327_327"><sup>[327]</sup></a> +Meanwhile the fleet which he had been building +simultaneously in various Gallic ports was able to +rendezvous undisturbed at Havre.</p> + +<p>A. 7.—His men were no expert mariners like their +adversaries; and, for this very reason, were ready, +with their Caesar at their head, to put to sea in +threatening weather, which made their better-skilled +pilots hesitate. "What can we fear?" was the cry, +"Caesar is with us." Dropping down the Seine with +the tide on a wild and rainy morning, they set sail +with a cross wind, probably from the north-east, a +rare thing with ancient ships. As they neared the +British coast the breeze sank to a dead calm, with a +heavy mist lying on the waveless sea, in which the +fleet found it impossible to keep together. One +division, with Constantius himself on board, made +their land-fall somewhere in the west, perhaps at +Exeter, the other far to the east, possibly at +Richborough.</p> + +<p>A. 8.—But the wonderful luck which attended +Constantius, and on which his panegyrists specially +<span class="newpage"><a name="page224" id="page224">[224]</a></span> +dwell, made all turn out for the best. The mist +enabled both his divisions to escape the notice of +the British fleet, which was lying off the Isle of +Wight on the watch for him; and the unexpected +landing at two such distant points utterly demoralized +the usurper. Of the large force which had been +mustered for land defence, only the Frankish auxiliaries +could be got together in time to meet Constantius—who, +having burnt his ships (for his only +hope now lay in victory), was marching, with his +wonted speed, straight on London. One battle,<a name="FNanchor_328_328"></a><a href="#Footnote_328_328"><sup>[328]</sup></a> in +which scarcely a single Roman fell on the British +side, was enough; the corpse of Allectus [<i>ipse vexillarius +latrocinii</i>] was found, stripped of the Imperial +insignia, amongst the heaps of slain barbarians, and +the routed Franks fled to London. Here, while they +were engaged in sacking the city before evacuating +it, they were set upon by the eastern division of the +Roman army (under Asclepiodotus the Praetorian +Prefect)<a name="FNanchor_329_329"></a><a href="#Footnote_329_329"><sup>[329]</sup></a> and slaughtered almost to a man. The +rescued metropolis eagerly welcomed its deliverers, +and the example was followed by the rest of Britain; +the more readily that the few surviving Franks were +distributed throughout the land to perish in the +provincial amphitheatres.</p> + +<p>A. 9.—The Diocletian system was now introduced; +<span class="newpage"><a name="page225" id="page225">[225]</a></span> +and, instead of Hadrian's old divisions of Upper and +Lower Britain, the island south of his Wall was +distributed into four Provinces, "Britannia Prima," +"Britannia Secunda," "Maxima Caesariensis," and +"Flavia Caesariensis." That the Thames, the Severn, +and the Humber formed the frontier lines between +these new divisions is probable. But their identification, +in the current maps of Roman Britain, with the +later Wessex, Wales, Northumbria, and Mercia (with +East Anglia), respectively, is purely conjectural.<a name="FNanchor_330_330"></a><a href="#Footnote_330_330"><sup>[330]</sup></a> All +that we know is that when the district between +Hadrian's Wall and Agricola's Rampart was reconquered +in 369, it was made a fifth British Province +under the name Valentia. The Governor of each +Province exercised his functions under the "Vicar" +of the "Diocese," an official of "Respectable" +rank—the second in precedence of the Diocletian +hierarchy (exclusive of the Imperial Family).</p> + +<p>A. 10.—With the Diocletian administration necessarily +came the Diocletian Persecution—an essential +feature of the situation. There is no reason to imagine +that the great reforming Emperor had, like his colleague +Maximian, any personal hatred for Christianity. But +Christianity was not among the <i>religiones licitae</i> +of the Empire. Over and over again it had been pronounced +<span class="newpage"><a name="page226" id="page226">[226]</a></span> +by Imperial Rescript unlawful. This being so, Diocletian +saw in its toleration merely one of those corruptions +of lax government which it was his special mission to +sweep away, and proceeded to deal with it as with any +other abuse,—to be put down with whole-hearted vigour +and rigour.</p> + +<p>A. 11.—The Faith had by this time everywhere +become so widespread that the good-will of its +professors was a political power to be reckoned with. +Few of the passing Pretenders of the Era of Confusion +had dared to despise it, some had even courted +it; and thus throughout the Empire the Christian +hierarchy had been established, and Christian churches +been built everywhere; while Christians swarmed in +every department of the Imperial service,—their +neglect of the official worship winked at, while they, +in turn, were not vigorous in rebuking the idolatry +of their heathen fellow-servants. Now all was changed. +The sacred edifices were thrown down, or (as in the +famous case of St. Clement's at Rome) made over +for heathen worship, the sacred books and vessels +destroyed, and every citizen, however humble, had to +produce a <i>libellus</i>,<a name="FNanchor_331_331"></a><a href="#Footnote_331_331"><sup>[331]</sup></a> or magisterial certificate, +testifying that he had formally done homage to the Gods of +the State, by burning incense at their shrines, by +pouring libations in their name, and by partaking of +the victims sacrificed upon their altars. Torture and +death were the lot of all recusants; and to the noble +army of martyrs who now sealed their testimony with +<span class="newpage"><a name="page227" id="page227">[227]</a></span> +their blood Britain is said (by Gildas) to have +contributed a contingent of no fewer than seventeen +thousand, headed by St. Alban at Verulam.</p> + +<p>A. 12.—So thorough-going a persecution the Church +had never known. But it came too late for Diocletian's +purpose; and it was probably the latent consciousness +of his failure that impelled him, in 305, to resign the +purple and retire to his cabbage-garden at Dyrrhachium. +Maximian found himself unwillingly obliged to retire +likewise; and the two Caesars, Galerius and Constantius, +became, by the operation of the new constitution, +<i>ipso facto</i> Augusti.</p> + +<p>A. 13.—But already the mutual jealousy and +distrust in which that constitution was so soon to +perish began to manifest themselves. Galerius, though +properly only Emperor of the East, seized on Rome, +and with it on the person of the young Constantine, +whom he hoped to keep as hostage for his father's +submission. The youth, however, contrived to flee, +and post down to join Constantius in Gaul, slaughtering +every stud of relays along the entire road to delay +his pursuers. Both father and son at once sailed for +Britain, where the former shortly died, like Severus, +at York. With their arrival the persecution promptly +ceased;<a name="FNanchor_332_332"></a><a href="#Footnote_332_332"><sup>[332]</sup></a> for Helena, at least, was an ardent Christian, +and her husband well-affected to the Faith. Yet, on +his death, he was, like his predecessors, proclaimed +<i>Divus</i>; the last formal bestowal of that title being +thus, like the first,<a name="FNanchor_333_333"></a><a href="#Footnote_333_333"><sup>[333]</sup></a> specially connected with Britain. +<span class="newpage"><a name="page228" id="page228">[228]</a></span> +Constantius was buried, according to Nennius,<a name="FNanchor_334_334"></a><a href="#Footnote_334_334"><sup>[334]</sup></a> at +Segontium, wherever that may have been; and +Constantine, though not yet even a Caesar, was at +once proclaimed by the soldiers (at his native York) +Augustus in his father's room.</p> + +<p>A. 14.—This was the signal for a whole outburst of +similar proclamations all over the Roman world, +Licinius, Constantine's brother-in-law, declared himself +Emperor at Carnutum, Maxentius, son of Maximian +and son-in-law of Galerius, in Rome, Severus in the +Illyrian provinces, and Maximin (who had been a +Caesar) in Syria. Galerius still reigned, and even +Maximian revoked his resignation and appeared once +more as Augustus. But one by one this medley of +Pretenders swept each other away, and the survival +of the fittest was exemplified by the final victory of +Constantine over them all. For a few years he bided +his time, and then, at the head of the British army, +marched on Rome. Clear-sighted enough to perceive +that events were irresistibly tending to the triumph of +Christianity, he declared himself the champion of the +Faith; and it was not under the Roman Eagle, but +the Banner of Christ,<a name="FNanchor_335_335"></a><a href="#Footnote_335_335"><sup>[335]</sup></a> that his soldiers fought and +<span class="newpage"><a name="page229" id="page229">[229]</a></span> +won. Coins of his found in Britain, bearing the +Sacred Monogram which led his men to the crowning +victory of 312 at the Milvian Bridge (the intertwined +letters Χ [<b>Chi</b>] and Ρ [<b>Rho</b>] between Α [<b>Alpha</b>] and +Ω [<b>Omega</b>], the whole forming the word ΧΡΑΩ [<b>ARChÔ</b>], "I reign"), +with the motto <i>Hoc Signo Victor Eris</i>, testify to the special +part taken by our country in the establishment of our Faith as the +officially recognized religion of Rome,—that is to say, of the whole +civilized world. And henceforward, as long as Britain remained Roman +at all, it was a monarch of British connection who occupied the +Imperial throne. The dynasties of Constantius, Valentinian, and +Theodosius, who between them (with the brief interlude of the reign +of Julian) fill the next 150 years (300-450), were all markedly +associated with our island. So, indeed, was Julian also.</p> +<br /> + +<a name="BV."></a><h4>SECTION B.</h4> + +<p><i>Spread of Gospel—Arianism—Britain orthodox—Last Imperial visit—Heathen temples stripped<br /> +—British Emperors—Magnentius—Gratian—Julian—British corn-trade—First inroad of Picts and<br /> +Scots—Valentinian—Saxon raids—Campaign of Theodosius—Re-conquest of Valentia.</i></p> + +<p>B. 1.—For a whole generation after the triumph +of Constantine tranquillity reigned in Britain. The +ruined Christian churches were everywhere restored, +and new ones built; and in Britain, as elsewhere, the +Gospel spread rapidly and widely—the more so that +the Church here was but little troubled<a name="FNanchor_336_336"></a><a href="#Footnote_336_336"><sup>[336]</sup></a> by the +<span class="newpage"><a name="page230" id="page230">[230]</a></span> +desperate struggle with Arianism which was convulsing +the East. Britain, as Athanasius tells us, gave an +assenting vote to the decisions of Nicaea (σύμψηφος ἐτύγχανε) [<b>sumpsêphos +etunchane</b>], and British Bishops actually sat in the +Councils of Arles (314) and of Ariminum (360).</p> + +<p>B. 2.—The old heathen worship still continued side +by side with the new Faith; but signs soon appeared +that the Church would tolerate no such rivalry when +once her power was equal to its suppression. Julius +Firmicus (who wrote against "Profane Religions" +in 343) implores the sons of Constantine to continue +their good work of stripping the temples and melting +down the images;—in special connection with a visit +paid by them that year to Britain<a name="FNanchor_337_337"></a><a href="#Footnote_337_337"><sup>[337]</sup></a> (our last Imperial +visit), when they had actually been permitted to cross +the Channel in winter-time; an irrefragable proof of +Heaven's approval of their iconoclasm. It is highly +probable that they pursued here also a course at once +so pious and so profitable, and that the fanes of the +ancient deities but lingered on in poverty and neglect +till finally suppressed by Theodosius (A.D. 390).</p> + +<p>B. 3.—And now Britain resumed her <i>rôle</i> of +Emperor-maker.<a name="FNanchor_338_338"></a><a href="#Footnote_338_338"><sup>[338]</sup></a> After the death of Constans, +(A.D. 350), Magnentius, an officer in the Gallic army +of British birth, set up as Augustus, and was supported +by Gratian, the leader of the Army of Britain, and by +his son Valentinian. Magnentius himself had his +<span class="newpage"><a name="page231" id="page231">[231]</a></span> +capital at Treves, and for three years reigned over the +whole Prefecture of the Gauls. He professed a +special zeal for orthodoxy, and was the first to +introduce burning, as the appropriate punishment for +heresy, into the penal code of Christendom. Meanwhile +his colleague Decentius advanced against +Constantius, and was defeated, at Nursa on the +Drave, with such awful slaughter that the old Roman +Legions never recovered from the shock. Henceforward +the name signifies a more or less numerous +body, more or less promiscuously armed, such as we +find so many of in the 'Notitia.' Magnentius, in turn, +was slain (A.D. 353), and the supreme command in +Britain passed to the new Caesar of the West, Julian +"the Apostate."</p> + +<p>B. 4.—Under him we first find our island mentioned +as one of the great corn-growing districts of +the Empire, on which Gaul was able to draw to a +very large extent for the supply of her garrisons. No +fewer than eight hundred wheat-ships sailed from our +shores on this errand; a number which shows how +large an area of the island must have been brought +under cultivation, and how much the country had +prospered during the sixty years of unbroken internal +peace which had followed on the suppression of +Allectus.</p> + +<p>B. 5.—That peace was now to be broken up. The +northern tribes had by this recovered from the awful +chastisement inflicted upon them by Severus,<a name="FNanchor_339_339"></a><a href="#Footnote_339_339"><sup>[339]</sup></a> and, +after an interval of 150 years, once more (A.D. 362) +<span class="newpage"><a name="page232" id="page232">[232]</a></span> +appeared south of Hadrian's Wall. Whether as yet +they <i>burst through</i> it is uncertain; for now we find a +new confederacy of barbarians. It is no longer that +of Caledonians and Meatae, but of Picts and Scots. +And these last were seafarers. Their home was not +in Britain at all, but in the north of Ireland. In their +"skiffs"<a name="FNanchor_340_340"></a><a href="#Footnote_340_340"><sup>[340]</sup></a> they were able to turn the flank of the +Roman defences, and may well have thus introduced +their allies from beyond Solway also. Anyhow, +penetrate the united hordes did into the quiet cornfields +of Roman Britain, repeating their raids ever more frequently +and extending them ever more widely, till their spearmen +were cut [Errata: to] pieces in 450 at Stamford by the +swords of the newly-arrived English.<a name="FNanchor_341_341"></a><a href="#Footnote_341_341"><sup>[341]</sup></a></p> + +<p>B. 6.—For the moment they were driven back +without much difficulty, by Lupicinus, Julian's Legate +(the first Legate we hear of in Britain since Lollius +Urbicus), who, when the death of Constantius II. (in +361) had extinguished that royal line, aided his master +to become "<i>Dominus totius orbis</i>"—as he is called in +an inscription<a name="FNanchor_342_342"></a><a href="#Footnote_342_342"><sup>[342]</sup></a> describing his triumphant campaigns +"<i>ex oceano Britannico</i>." And after "the victory of the +Galilaean" (363) had ended Julian's brief and futile +<span class="newpage"><a name="page233" id="page233">[233]</a></span> +attempt to restore the Higher Paganism (to which +several British inscriptions testify),<a name="FNanchor_343_343"></a><a href="#Footnote_343_343"><sup>[343]</sup></a> it was again to +an Emperor from Britain that there fell the Lordship +of the World—Valentinian, son of Gratian, whose +dynasty lasted out the remaining century of Romano-British +history.</p> + +<p>B. 7.—His reign was marked in our land by a life-and-death +struggle with the inrushing barbarians. The +Picts and Scots were now joined by yet another tribe, +the cannibal<a name="FNanchor_344_344"></a><a href="#Footnote_344_344"><sup>[344]</sup></a> Attacotti<a name="FNanchor_345_345"></a><a href="#Footnote_345_345"><sup>[345]</sup></a> of Valentia, and their invasions +were facilitated by the simultaneous raids of the +Saxon pirates (with whom they may perhaps have +been actually in concert) along the coast. The whole +land had been wasted, and more than one Roman +general defeated, when Theodosius, father of the Great +Emperor, was sent, in 368, to the rescue. Crossing +from Boulogne to Richborough in a lucky calm,<a name="FNanchor_346_346"></a><a href="#Footnote_346_346"><sup>[346]</sup></a> and +fixing his head-quarters at London, or Augusta, as +it was now called [<i>Londinium vetus oppidum, quod +Augustam posteritas apellavit</i>], he first, by a +skilful combination of flying columns, cut to pieces +the scattered hordes of the savages as they were making off +with their booty, and finally not only drove them back +beyond the Wall, which he repaired and re-garrisoned,<a name="FNanchor_347_347"></a><a href="#Footnote_347_347"><sup>[347]</sup></a> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page234" id="page234">[234]</a></span> +but actually recovered the district right up to Agricola's +rampart, which had been barbarian soil ever since the +days of Severus.<a name="FNanchor_348_348"></a><a href="#Footnote_348_348"><sup>[348]</sup></a> It was now (369) formed into a +fifth British province, and named Valentia in honour +of Valens, the brother and colleague of the Emperor.</p> + +<p>B. 8.—The Twentieth Legion, whose head-quarters +had so long been at Chester, seems to have been +moved to guard this new province. Forty years later +Claudian speaks of it as holding the furthest outposts +in Britain, in his well-known description of the dying +Pict:</p> +<div class="blkquot"> +"Venit et extremis legio praetenta Britannis,<br /> +Quae Scoto dat frena truci, ferroque notatas<br /> +Perlegit exsangues Picto moriente figuras."<br /> +<br /> +["From Britain's bound the outpost legion came,<br /> +Which curbs the savage Scot, and fading sees<br /> +The steel-wrought figures on the dying Pict."]<br /> +</div> + +<p>The same poet makes Theodosius fight and conquer +even in the Orkneys and in Ireland;</p> + +<div class="blkquot"> +"—maduerunt Saxone fuso<br /> +Orcades; incaluit Pictorum sanguine Thule;<br /> +Scotorum cumulos flevit glacialis Ierne."<a name="FNanchor_349_349"></a><a href="#Footnote_349_349"><sup>[349]</sup></a><br /> +<br /> +["With Saxon slaughter flowed the Orkney strand,<br /> +With Pictish blood cold Thule warmer grew;<br /> +And icy Erin wept her Scotchmen slain."]<br /> +</div> + +<p>The relief, however, was but momentary. Five years +later (374) another great Saxon raid is recorded; yet +eight years more and the Picts and Scots have again +to be driven from the land; and in the next decade +their attacks became incessant.</p> +<br /> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page235" id="page235">[235]</a></span> +<a name="CV."></a><h4>SECTION C.</h4> + +<p><i>Roman evacuation of Britain begun—Maximus—Settlement of Brittany—Stilicho restores the Wall<br /> +—Radagaisus invades Italy—Twentieth Legion leaves Britain—Britain in the 'Notitia'—Final<br /> +effort of British Army—The last Constantine—Last Imperial Rescript to Britain—Sack of Rome by<br /> +Alaric—Collapse of Roman rule in Britain.</i></p> + +<p>C. 1.—By this time the evacuation of Britain +by the Roman soldiery had fairly begun. Maximus, +the last victor over the Scots, the "Pirate of +Richborough," as Ausonius calls him, set up as Emperor +(A.D. 383); and the Army of Britain again marched on +Rome, and again, as under Constantine, brought its +leader in triumph to the Capitol (A.D. 387). But this +time it did not return. When Maximus was defeated +and slain (A.D. 388) at Aquileia by the Imperial +brothers-in-law Valentinian II. and Theodosius the +Great<a name="FNanchor_350_350"></a><a href="#Footnote_350_350"><sup>[350]</sup></a> (sons of the so-named leaders connected with +Britain), his soldiers, as they retreated homewards, +straggled on the march; settling, amid the general +confusion, here and there, mostly in Armorica, which +now first began to be called Brittany.<a name="FNanchor_351_351"></a><a href="#Footnote_351_351"><sup>[351]</sup></a> This tale rests +only on the authority of Nennius, but it is far from +improbable, especially as his sequel—that a fresh +legion dispatched to Britain by Stilicho (in 396) once +more repelled the Picts and Scots, and re-secured the +Wall—is confirmed by Claudian, who makes Britain +<span class="newpage"><a name="page236" id="page236">[236]</a></span> +(in a sea-coloured cloak and bearskin head-gear) hail +Stilicho as her deliverer:</p> + +<div class="blkquot"><p>Inde Caledonio velata Britannia monstro, +Ferro picta genas, cujus vestigia verrit +Coerulus, Oceanique aestum mentitur, amictus: +"Me quoque vicinis percuntem gentibus," inquit, +"Munivit Stilichon, totam quum Scotus Iernen +Movit, et infesto spumavit remige Tethys. +Illius effectum curis, ne tela timerem +Scotica, ne Pictum tremerem, ne litore toto +Prospicerem dubiis venturum Saxona ventis."<a name="FNanchor_352_352"></a><a href="#Footnote_352_352"><sup>[352]</sup></a></p> + +<p>[Then next, with Caledonian bearskin cowled, +Her cheek steel-tinctured, and her trailing robe +Of green-shot blue, like her own Ocean's tide, +Britannia spake: "Me too," she cried, "in act +To perish 'mid the shock of neighbouring hordes, +Did Stilicho defend, when the wild Scot +All Erin raised against me, and the wave +Foamed 'neath the stroke of many a foeman's oar. +So wrought his pains that now I fear no more +Those Scottish darts, nor tremble at the Pict, +Nor mark, where'er to sea mine eyes I turn, +The Saxon coming on each shifting wind."]</p></div> + +<p>C. 2.—Which legion it was which Stilicho sent to +Britain is much more questionable. The Roman +legions were seldom moved from province to province, +and it is perhaps more probable that he +filled up the three quartered in the island to something +like their proper strength. But a crisis was +now at hand which broke down all ordinary rules. +Rome was threatened with such a danger as she had +not known since Marius, five hundred years before, +had destroyed the Cimbri and Teutones (B.C. 101). +A like horde of Teutonic invaders, nearly half a +<span class="newpage"><a name="page237" id="page237">[237]</a></span> +million strong, came pouring over the Alps, under +"Radagaisus the Goth," as contemporary historians +call him, though his claim, to Gothic lineage is not +undisputed. And these were not, like Alaric and +his Visigoths, who were to reap the fruits of this +effort, semi-civilized Christians, but heathen savages +of the most ferocious type. Every nerve had to be +strained to crush them; and Stilicho did crush them. +But it was at a fearful cost. Every Roman soldier +within reach had to be swept to the rescue, and thus +the Rhine frontier was left defenceless against the +barbarian hordes pressing upon it. Vandals, Sueves, +Alans, Franks, Burgundians, rushed tumultuously +over the peaceful and fertile fields of Gaul, never to +be driven forth again.</p> + +<p>C. 3.—Of the three British legions one only seems +to have been thus withdrawn,—the Twentieth, whose +head-quarters had been so long at Chester, and whose +more recent duty had been to garrison the outlying +province of Valentia, which may now perhaps have +been again abandoned. It seems to have been +actually on the march towards Italy<a name="FNanchor_353_353"></a><a href="#Footnote_353_353"><sup>[353]</sup></a> when there was +drawn up that wonderful document which gives us +our last and completest glimpse of Roman Britain—the +<i>Notitia Dignitatum Utriusque Imperii</i>.</p> + +<p>C. 4.—This invaluable work sets forth in detail the +whole machinery of the Imperial Government, its +official hierarchy, both civil and military, in every +land, and a summary of the forces under the authority +<span class="newpage"><a name="page238" id="page238">[238]</a></span> +of each commander. A reference in Claudian would +seem to show that it was compiled by the industry of +Celerinus, the <i>Primicerius Notariorum</i> or Head Clerk +of the Treasury. The poet tells us how this indefatigable +statistician—</p> + +<div class="blkquot">"Cunctorum tabulas assignat honorum,<br /> +Regnorum tractat numeros, constringit in unum<br /> +Sparsas Imperii vires, cuneosque recenset<br /> +Dispositos; quae Sarmaticis custodia ripis,<br /> +Quae saevis objecta Getis, quae Saxona frenat<br /> +Vel Scotum legio; quantae cinxere cohortes<br /> +Oceanum, quanto pacatur milite Rhenus."<a name="FNanchor_354_354"></a><a href="#Footnote_354_354"><sup>[354]</sup></a><br /> +<br /> +["Each rank, each office in his lists he shows,<br /> +Tells every subject realm, together draws<br /> +The Empire's scattered force, recounts the hosts<br /> +In order meet;—which Legion is on guard<br /> +By Danube's banks, which fronts the savage Goth,<br /> +Which curbs the Saxon, which the Scot; what bands<br /> +Begird the Ocean, what keep watch on Rhine."]</div><br /> + +<p>To us the 'Notitia' is only known by the 16th-century +copies of a 10th-century MS. which has now disappeared.<a name="FNanchor_355_355"></a><a href="#Footnote_355_355"><sup>[355]</sup></a> +But these were made with exceptional care, +and are as nearly as may be facsimiles of the original, +even preserving its illuminated illustrations, including +the distinctive insignia of every corps in the Roman +Army.</p> + +<p>C. 5.—The number of these corps had, we find, +grown erormously since the days of Hadrian, when, +as Dion Cassius tells us, there were 19 "Civic Legions" +(of which three were quartered in Britain). No +fewer than 132 are now enumerated, together with +<span class="newpage"><a name="page239" id="page239">[239]</a></span> +108 auxiliary bodies. But we may be sure that each +of these "legions" was not the complete Army +Corps of old,<a name="FNanchor_356_356"></a><a href="#Footnote_356_356"><sup>[356]</sup></a> though possibly the 25 of the First +Class, the <i>Legiones Palatinae</i>, may have kept something +of their ancient effectiveness. Indeed it is not +wholly improbable that these alone represent the old +"civil" army; the Second and Third Class "legions," +with their extraordinary names ("Comitatenses" and +"Pseudo-Comitatenses"), being indeed merely so +called by "courtesy," or even "sham courtesy."</p> + +<p>C. 6.—In Britain we find the two remaining legions +of the old garrison, the Second, now quartered not at +Caerleon but at Richborough, under the Count of the +Saxon Shore, and the Sixth under the "Duke of the +Britains," holding the north (with its head-quarters +doubtless, as of yore, at York, though this is not +mentioned). Along with each legion are named ten +"squads" [<i>numeri</i>], which may perhaps represent +the ten cohorts into which legions were of old divided. +The word cohort seems to have changed its meaning, +and now to signify an independent military unit under +a "Tribune." Eighteen of these, together with six +squadrons [<i>alae</i>] of cavalry, each commanded by a +"Praefect," form the garrison of the Wall;—a separate +organization, though, like the rest of the northern +forces, under the Duke of the Britains. The ten +squads belonging to the Sixth Legion (each under a +Prefect) are distributed in garrison throughout Yorkshire, +Lancashire, and Westmoreland. Those of the +Second (each commanded by a "Praepositus") are +<span class="newpage"><a name="page240" id="page240">[240]</a></span> +partly under the Count of the Saxon Shore, holding +the coast from the Wash to Arundel,<a name="FNanchor_357_357"></a><a href="#Footnote_357_357"><sup>[357]</sup></a> partly under +the "Count of Britain," who was probably the senior +officer in the island<a name="FNanchor_358_358"></a><a href="#Footnote_358_358"><sup>[358]</sup></a> and responsible for its defence +in general. Besides these bodies of infantry the +British Army comprised eighteen cavalry units; three, +besides the six on the Wall, being in the north, three +on the Saxon Shore, and the remaining six under the +immediate command of the Count of Britain, to +whose troops no special quarters are assigned. Not +a single station is mentioned beyond the Wall, which +supports the theory that the withdrawal of the Twentieth +Legion had involved the practical abandonment of +Valentia.<a name="FNanchor_359_359"></a><a href="#Footnote_359_359"><sup>[359]</sup></a></p> + +<p>C. 7.—The two Counts and the Duke were the +military leaders of Britain. The chief civil officer was +the "respectable" Vicar of the Diocese of Britain, one +of the six Vicars under the "illustrious" Pro-consul of +Africa. Under him were the Governors of the five +Provinces, two of these being "Consulars" of +"Right Renowned" rank [<i>clarissimi</i>,] the other three +"Right Perfect" [<i>perfectissimi</i>] "Presidents." The +Vicar was assisted by a staff of Civil Servants, nine +<span class="newpage"><a name="page241" id="page241">[241]</a></span> +heads of departments being enumerated. Their +names, however, have become so wholly obsolete as +to tell us nothing of their respective functions.</p> + +<p>C. 8.—Whatever these may have been they did not +include the financial administration of the Diocese, +the general management of which was in the hands of +two officers, the "Accountant of Britain" [<i>Rationalis +Summarum Britanniarum</i>] and the "Provost of the +London Treasury" [<i>Praepositus thesaurorum Augustensium</i>].<a name="FNanchor_360_360"></a><a href="#Footnote_360_360"><sup>[360]</sup></a> +Both these were subordinates of the "Count +of the Sacred Largesses" [<i>Comes Sacrarum Largitionum</i>], +one of the greatest officers of State, corresponding +to our First Lord of the Treasury, whose name +reminds us that all public expenditure was supposed +to be the personal benevolence of His Sacred Majesty +the Emperor, and all sources of public revenue his +personal property. The Emperor, however, had +actually in every province domains of his own, managed +by the Count of the Privy Purse [<i>Comes Rei +Privatae</i>], whose subordinate in Britain was entitled +the "Accountant of the Privy Purse for Britain" +[<i>Rationalis Rei Privatae per Britanniam</i>]. Both these +Counts were "Illustrious" [<i>illustres</i>]; that is, of the +highest order of the Imperial peerage below the +"Right Noble" [<i>nobilissimi</i>] members of the Imperial +Family.</p> + +<p>C. 9.—Such and so complete was the system of +civil and military government in Roman Britain up to +the very point of its sudden and utter collapse. When +<span class="newpage"><a name="page242" id="page242">[242]</a></span> +the 'Notitia' was compiled, neither Celerinus, as he +wrote, nor the officials whose functions and ranks he +noted, could have dreamt that within ten short years +the whole elaborate fabric would, so far as Britain was +concerned, be swept away utterly and for ever. Yet +so it was.</p> + +<p>C. 10.—For what was left of the British Army now +made a last effort to save the West for Rome, and +once more set up Imperial Pretenders of its own.<a name="FNanchor_361_361"></a><a href="#Footnote_361_361"><sup>[361]</sup></a> +The first two of these, Marcus and Gratian, were +speedily found unequal to the post, and paid the +usual penalty of such incompetence; but the third, a +private soldier named Constantine, all but succeeded +in emulating the triumph of his great namesake. For +four years (407-411) he was able to hold not only +Britain, but Gaul and Spain also under his sceptre; +and the wretched Honorius, the unworthy son and +successor of Theodosius, who was cowering amid the +marshes of Ravenna, and had murdered his champion +Stilicho, was fain to recognize the usurper as a legitimate +Augustus. Only by treachery was he put down +at last, the traitor being the commander of his British +forces, Gerontius. Both names continued for many +an age favourites in British nomenclature, and both +have been swept into the cycle of Arturian romance, +the latter as "Geraint."</p> + +<p>C. 11.—Neither Gerontius nor his soldiers ever got +back to their old homes in Britain. What became of +them we do not know. But Zosimus<a name="FNanchor_362_362"></a><a href="#Footnote_362_362"><sup>[362]</sup></a> tells us that +<span class="newpage"><a name="page243" id="page243">[243]</a></span> +Honorius now sent a formal rescript to the British +cities abrogating the Lex Julia, which forbade +civilians to carry arms, and bidding them look to their +own safety. For now the end had really come, and +the Eternal City itself had been sacked by barbarian +hands. Never before and never since does history +record a sacked city so mildly treated by the conquerors. +Heretics as the Visi-goths were, they never +forgot that the vanquished Catholics were their fellow-Christians, +and, barbarians as they were, they left an +example of mercy in victory which puts to the blush +much more recent Christian and civilized warfare.</p> + +<p>C. 12.—But, for all that, the moral effect of +Alaric's capture of Rome was portentous, and shook +the very foundations of civilization throughout the +world. To Jerome, in his cell at Bethlehem, the +tidings came like the shock of an earthquake. +Augustine, as he penned his 'De Civitate Dei,' felt +the old world ended indeed, and the Kingdom of +Heaven indeed at hand. And in Britain the whole +elaborate system of Imperial civil and military +government seems to have crumbled to the ground +almost at once. It is noticeable that the rescript of +Honorius is addressed simply to "the cities" of +Britain, the local municipal officers of each several +place. No higher authority remained. The Vicar of +Britain, with his staff, the Count and Duke of the +Britains with their soldiery, the Count of the Saxon +Shore with his coastguard,—all were gone. It is possible +that, as the deserted provincials learnt to combine +for defence, the Dictators they chose from time to +<span class="newpage"><a name="page244" id="page244">[244]</a></span> +time to lead the national forces may have derived +some of their authority from the remembrance of these +old dignities. "The dragon of the great Pendragonship,"<a name="FNanchor_363_363"></a><a href="#Footnote_363_363"><sup>[363]</sup></a> +the tufa of Caswallon (633), and the purple of +Cunedda<a name="FNanchor_364_364"></a><a href="#Footnote_364_364"><sup>[364]</sup></a> may well have been derived (as Professor +Rhys suggests) from this source. But practically the +history of Roman Britain ends with a crash at the Fall +of Rome.</p> +<br /> + +<a name="DV."></a><h4>SECTION D.</h4> + +<p><i>Beginning of English Conquest—Vortigern—Jutes in Thanet—Battle of Stamford—Massacre of<br /> +Britons—Valentinian III.—Latest Roman coin found in Britain—Progress of Conquest—The<br /> +Cymry—Survival of Romano-British titles—Arturian Romances—Procopius—Belisarius—Roman<br /> +claims revived by Charlemagne—The British Empire.</i></p> +<br /> +<p>D. 1.—Little remains to be told, and that little rests +upon no contemporary authority known to us. In +Gildas, the nearest, writing in the next century, we +find little more than a monotonous threnody over the +awful visitation of the English Conquest, the wholesale +and utter destruction of cities, the desecration of +churches, the massacre of clergy and people. Nennius +(as, for the sake of convenience, modern writers mostly +agree to call the unknown author of the 'Historia +<span class="newpage"><a name="page245" id="page245">[245]</a></span> +Britonum') gives us legends of British incompetence +and Saxon treachery which doubtless represent the +substantial features of the break-up, and preserve, +quite possibly, even some of the details. Bede and +the 'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle' assign actual dates to the +various events, but we have no means of testing their +accuracy.</p> + +<p>D. 2.—Broadly we know that the unhappy civilians, +who were not only without military experience, but +had up to this moment been actually forbidden to +carry arms, naturally proved unable to face the +ferocious enemies who swarmed in upon them. They +could neither hold the Wall against the Picts nor the +coast against the Saxons. It may well be true that +they chose a <i>Dux Britannorum</i>,<a name="FNanchor_365_365"></a><a href="#Footnote_365_365"><sup>[365]</sup></a> and that his name +may have been something like Vortigern, and that he +(when a final appeal for Roman aid proved vain)<a name="FNanchor_366_366"></a><a href="#Footnote_366_366"><sup>[366]</sup></a> +may have taken into his pay (as Carausius did) the +crews of certain pirate "keels" [<i>chiulae</i>],<a name="FNanchor_367_367"></a><a href="#Footnote_367_367"><sup>[367]</sup></a> and settled +them in Thanet. The very names of their English +captains, "Hengist and Horsa," may not be so mythical</p> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page246" id="page246">[246]</a></span> +<p>as critics commonly assume.<a name="FNanchor_368_368"></a><a href="#Footnote_368_368"><sup>[368]</sup></a> And the tale of the +victory at Stamford, when the spears of the Scottish +invaders were cut to pieces by the swords of the +English mercenaries,<a name="FNanchor_369_369"></a><a href="#Footnote_369_369"><sup>[369]</sup></a> has a very true ring about it. +So has also the sequel, which tells how, when the +inevitable quarrel arose between employers and employed, +the Saxon leader gave the signal for the fray +by suddenly shouting to his men, <i>Nimed eure saxes</i><a name="FNanchor_370_370"></a><a href="#Footnote_370_370"><sup>[370]</sup></a> +(<i>i.e.</i> "Draw your knives!"), and massacred the hapless +Britons of Kent almost without resistance.</p> + +<p>D. 3.—The date of this first English settlement is +doubtful. Bede fixes it as 449, which agrees with the +order of events in Gildas, and with the notice in +Nennius that it was forty years after the end of Roman +rule in Britain [<i>transacto Romanorum in Britannia +imperio</i>]. But Nennius also declares that this was in +the fourth year of Vortigern, and that his accession +coincided with that of the nephew and successor of +Honorius, Valentinian III., son of Galla Placidia, +which would bring in the Saxons 428. It may perhaps +be some very slight confirmation of the later date, that +Valentinian is the last Emperor whose coins have been +found in Britain.<a name="FNanchor_371_371"></a><a href="#Footnote_371_371"><sup>[371]</sup></a></p> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page247" id="page247">[247]</a></span> +<p>D. 4.—Anyhow, the arrival of the successive swarms +of Anglo-Saxons from the mouth of the Elbe, and their +hard-won conquest of Eastern Britain during the 5th +century, is certain. The western half of the island, +from Clydesdale southwards, resisted much longer, +and, in spite of its long and straggling frontier, held +together for more than a century. Not till the decisive +victory of the Northumbrians at Chester (A.D. +607), and that of the West Saxons at Beandune (A.D. +614) was this Cymrian federation finally broken into +three fragments, each destined shortly to disintegrate +into an ever-shifting medley of petty principalities. Yet +in each the ideal of national and racial unity embodied +in the word Cymry<a name="FNanchor_372_372"></a><a href="#Footnote_372_372"><sup>[372]</sup></a> long survived; and titles borne +to this day by our Royal House, "Duke of Cornwall," +"Prince of Wales," "Duke of Albany," are the far-off +echoes, lingering in each, of the Roman "Comes +Britanniae" and "Dux Britanniarum." The three +feathers of the Principality may in like manner be +traced to the <i>tufa</i>, or plume, borne before the supreme +authority amongst the Romans of old, as the like are +borne before the Supreme Head of the Roman Church +to this day. And age after age the Cymric harpers +sang of the days when British armies had marched in +triumph to Rome, and the Empire had been won +by British princes, till the exploits of their mystical +"Arthur"<a name="FNanchor_373_373"></a><a href="#Footnote_373_373"><sup>[373]</sup></a> became the nucleus of a whole cycle of +<span class="newpage"><a name="page248" id="page248">[248]</a></span> +mediaeval romance, and even, for a while, a real force +in practical politics.<a name="FNanchor_374_374"></a><a href="#Footnote_374_374"><sup>[374]</sup></a></p> + +<p>D. 5.—And as the Britons never quite forgot their +claims on the Empire, so the Empire never quite +forgot its claims on Britain. How entirely the island +was cut off from Rome we can best appreciate by the +references to it in Procopius. This learned author, +writing under Justinian, scarcely 150 years since the +day when the land was fully Roman, conceives of +Britannia and Brittia as two widely distant islands—the +one off the coast of Spain, the other off the mouth +of the Rhine.<a name="FNanchor_375_375"></a><a href="#Footnote_375_375"><sup>[375]</sup></a> The latter is shared between the +Angili, Phrissones,<a name="FNanchor_376_376"></a><a href="#Footnote_376_376"><sup>[376]</sup></a> and Britons, and is divided <i>from +North to South</i><a name="FNanchor_377_377"></a><a href="#Footnote_377_377"><sup>[377]</sup></a> by a mighty Wall, beyond which +no mortal man can breathe. Hither are ferried over +from Gaul by night the souls of the departed;<a name="FNanchor_378_378"></a><a href="#Footnote_378_378"><sup>[378]</sup></a> the +fishermen, whom a mysterious voice summons to the +work, seeing no one, but perceiving their barks to +<span class="newpage"><a name="page249" id="page249">[249]</a></span> +be heavily sunk in the water, yet accomplishing the +voyage with supernatural celerity.</p> + +<p>D. 6.—About the same date Belisarius offered to +the Goths,<a name="FNanchor_379_379"></a><a href="#Footnote_379_379"><sup>[379]</sup></a> in exchange for their claim to Sicily, +which his victories had already rendered practically +nugatory, the Roman claims to Britain, "a much +larger island," which were equally outside the scope +of practical politics for the moment, but might at any +favourable opportunity be once more brought forward. +And, when the Western Empire was revived under +Charlemagne, they were in fact brought forward, and +actually submitted to by half the island. The Celtic +princes of Scotland, the Anglians of Northumbria, +and the Jutes of Kent alike owned the new Caesar as +their Suzerain. And the claim was only abrogated +by the triumph of the counter-claim first made by +Egbert, emphasized by Edward the Elder, and repeated +again and again by our monarchs their descendants, +that the British Crown owes no allegiance to any +potentate on earth, being itself not only Royal, but in +the fullest sense Imperial.<a name="FNanchor_380_380"></a><a href="#Footnote_380_380"><sup>[380]</sup></a></p> +<br /> + +<a name="EV."></a><h4>SECTION E.</h4> + +<p><i>Survivals of Romano-British civilization—Romano-British Church—Legends of its origin—St.<br /> +Paul—St. Peter—Joseph of Arimathaea—Glastonbury—Historical notices—Claudia and Pudens<br /> +—Pomponia—Church of St. Pudentiana—Patristic references to Britain—Tertullian—Origen<br /> +—Legend of Lucius—Native Christianity—British Bishops at Councils—Testimony of +Chrysostom<br /> and Jerome.</i></p> +<br /> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page250" id="page250">[250]</a></span> +<p>E. 1.—Few questions have been more keenly debated +than the extent to which Roman civilization +in Britain survived the English Conquest. On the +one hand we have such high authorities as Professor +Freeman assuring us that our forefathers swept it away +as ruthlessly and as thoroughly as the Saracens in +Africa; on the other, those who consider that little +more disturbance was wrought than by the Danish +invasions. The truth probably lies between the two, +but much nearer to the former than the latter. The +substitution of an English for the Roman name of +almost every Roman site in the country<a name="FNanchor_381_381"></a><a href="#Footnote_381_381"><sup>[381]</sup></a> could scarcely +have taken place had there been anything like continuity +in their inhabitants. Even the Roman roads, as +we have seen,<a name="FNanchor_382_382"></a><a href="#Footnote_382_382"><sup>[382]</sup></a> received English designations. We may +well believe that most Romano-British towns shared +the fate of Anderida (the one recorded instance of +destruction),<a name="FNanchor_383_383"></a><a href="#Footnote_383_383"><sup>[383]</sup></a> and that the word "chester" was only +applied to the Roman <i>ruins</i> by their destroyers.<a name="FNanchor_384_384"></a><a href="#Footnote_384_384"><sup>[384]</sup></a> +But such places as London, York, and Lincoln +may well have lived on through the first generation +of mere savage onslaught, after which the English +gradually began to tolerate even for themselves a +town life.</p> + +<p>E. 2.—And though in the country districts the +agricultural population were swept away pitilessly to +<span class="newpage"><a name="page251" id="page251">[251]</a></span> +make room for the invaders,<a name="FNanchor_385_385"></a><a href="#Footnote_385_385"><sup>[385]</sup></a> till the fens of Ely<a name="FNanchor_386_386"></a><a href="#Footnote_386_386"><sup>[386]</sup></a> +and the caves of Ribblesdale<a name="FNanchor_387_387"></a><a href="#Footnote_387_387"><sup>[387]</sup></a> became the only refuge +of the vanquished, yet, undoubtedly, many must have +been retained as slaves, especially amongst the women, +to leaven the language of the conquerors with many a +Latin word, and their ferocity with many a recollection +of the gentler Roman past.</p> + +<p>E. 3.—And there was one link with that past which +not all the massacres and fire-raisings of the Conquest +availed to break. The Romano-British populations +might be slaughtered, the Romano-British towns +destroyed, but the Romano-British Church lived on; +the most precious and most abiding legacy bestowed +by Rome upon our island.</p> + +<p>E. 4.—The origin of that Church has been assigned +by tradition to directly Apostolic sources. The often-quoted +passage from Theodoret,<a name="FNanchor_388_388"></a><a href="#Footnote_388_388"><sup>[388]</sup></a> of St. Paul having +"brought help" to "the isles of the sea" (ταῖς ἐν τῷ πελάγει διακειμέναις νήσοις) [<b>tais en to +pelagei diakeimenais nêsois</b>], can scarcely, however, refer +to this island. No classical author ever uses the +word πέλαγος [<b>pelagos</b>] of the Oceanic waters; and the epithet +diakeime/nais [<b>diakeimenais</b>], coming, as it does, in connection with the +Apostle's preaching in Italy and Spain, seems rather to +point to the islands between these peninsulas—Sardinia, +Corsica, and the Balearic Islands. But the well-known +<span class="newpage"><a name="page252" id="page252">[252]</a></span> +words of St. Clement of Rome,<a name="FNanchor_389_389"></a><a href="#Footnote_389_389"><sup>[389]</sup></a> that St. Paul's +missionary journeys extended to "the End of the +West" τό τέρμα τῆς δύσεως [<b>to terma tês duseôs</b>], were, as early as the 6th +century, held to imply a visit to Britain (for our island +was popularly supposed by the ancients to lie west of +Spain).<a name="FNanchor_390_390"></a><a href="#Footnote_390_390"><sup>[390]</sup></a> The lines of Venantius (A.D. 580) even seem +to contain a reference to the tradition that he landed +at Portsmouth:</p> + +<div class="blkquot">"Transit et Oceanum, vel qua facit insula portum,<br /> + Quasque Britannus habet terras atque ultima Thule."<br /> + + ["Yea, through the ocean he passed,<br /> + where the Port is made by an island,<br /> + And through each British realm,<br /> + and where the world endeth at Thule."]<br /></div> + +<p>E. 5.—The Menology of the Greek Church (6th +century) ascribes the organization of the British Church +to the visitation, not of St. Paul, but of St. Peter in +person.</p> +<br /> + +<div class="blkquot"> +Ο Πέτρος ... εἰς Βρεταννίαν παραγίνεται. Ενθα δὴ<br /> +χειροτριβήσας [<i>sic</i>] καὶ πολλὰ τῶν ἀκατανομάτων ἐθνῶν<br /> +εὶς τὴν τοῦ Χριστοῦ πίστιν έπισπασάμενος ... καί πολούς<br /> +τῷ λόγῳ φωτίσας τῆς χάριτος, ἐκκλησιάς τε συστησάμενος,<br /> +ἐπισκοπούς τε καὶ πρεσβυτέρους καὶ διακόνους<br /> +χειροτονησας, δωδεκάτῳ ἔτει τοῦ Καίσαρος αὖθις Πώμην<br /> +παραγίνεται.<br /> +<br /> +[<b>O Petros ... ehis Bretannian paraginetai. Entha dô<br /> +cheirotribôsas [<i>sic</i>] kai polla tôn hakatanomatôn hethnôn<br /> +eis tôn tou Christou pistin epispasamenos ... kai pollous<br /> +toi logoi photisas tôs charitos, ekklaesias te sustêsamenos,<br /> +episkopous te kai presbuterous kai diakonous<br /> +cheipotonhêsas, dôdekatôi etei tou Kaisaros authis eis Rômên<br /> +paraginetai.</b>]<a name="FNanchor_391_391"></a><a href="#Footnote_391_391"><sup>[391]</sup></a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page253" id="page253">[253]</a></span> +["Peter ... cometh even unto Britain. Yea,<br /> +there abode he long, and many of the lawless folk did<br /> +he draw to the Faith of Christ ... and many did he<br /> +enlighten with the Word of Grace. Churches, too,<br /> +did he set up, and ordained bishops and priests and<br /> +deacons. And in the twelfth year of Caesar<a name="FNanchor_392_392"></a><a href="#Footnote_392_392"><sup>[392]</sup></a> came he<br /> +again unto Rome."]<br /></div> + +<p>The 'Acta Sanctorum' also mentions this tradition +(filtered through Simeon Metaphrastes), and adds +that St. Peter was in Britain during Boadicea's rebellion, +when he incurred great danger.</p> + +<p>E. 6—The 'Synopsis Apostolorum,' ascribed to +Dorotheus (A.D. 180), but really a 6th-century compilation, +gives us yet another Apostolic preacher, St. Simon +Zelotes. This is probably due to a mere confusion +between Μαβριτανία [<b>Mabritania</b>] [Mauretania] and Βρεταννία [<b>Bretannia</b>]. +But it is impossible to deny that the Princes of the +Apostles <i>may</i> both have visited Britain, nor indeed is +there anything essentially improbable in their doing so. +We know that Britain was an object of special interest +at Rome during the period of the Conquest, and it +would be quite likely that the idea of simultaneously +conquering this new Roman dominion for Christ should +suggest itself to the two Apostles so specially connected +with the Roman Church.<a name="FNanchor_393_393"></a><a href="#Footnote_393_393"><sup>[393]</sup></a></p> + +<p>E. 7.—But while we may <i>possibly</i> accept this legend, +it is otherwise with the famous and beautiful story +which ascribes the foundation of our earliest church +<span class="newpage"><a name="page254" id="page254">[254]</a></span> +at Glastonbury to the pilgrimage of St. Joseph of +Arimathaea, whose staff, while he rested on Weary-all +Hill, took root, and became the famous winter thorn, +which</p> + +<div class="blkquot">"Blossoms at Christmas, mindful of our Lord,"<a name="FNanchor_394_394"></a><a href="#Footnote_394_394"><sup>[394]</sup></a></div> + +<p>and who, accordingly, set up, hard by, a little church +of wattle to be the centre of local Christianity.</p> + +<p>E. 8.—Such was the tale which accounted for the +fact that this humble edifice developed into the +stateliest sanctuary of all Britain. We first find it, in +its final shape, in Geoffrey of Monmouth (1150); but +already in the 10th century the special sanctity of the +shrine was ascribed to a supernatural origin,<a name="FNanchor_395_395"></a><a href="#Footnote_395_395"><sup>[395]</sup></a> as a +contemporary Life of St. Dunstan assures us; and it +is declared, in an undisputed Charter of Edgar, to be +"the first church in the Kingdom built by the disciples +of Christ." But no earlier reference is known; +for the passages cited from Gildas and Melkinus are +quite untrustworthy. So striking a phenomenon as +the winter thorn would be certain to become an +object of heathen devotion;<a name="FNanchor_396_396"></a><a href="#Footnote_396_396"><sup>[396]</sup></a> and, as usual, the early +preachers would Christianize the local cult, as they +Christianized the Druidical figment of a Holy Cup +(perhaps also local in its origin), into the sublime +<span class="newpage"><a name="page255" id="page255">[255]</a></span> +mysticism of the Sangreal legend, connected likewise +with Joseph of Arimathaea.<a name="FNanchor_397_397"></a><a href="#Footnote_397_397"><sup>[397]</sup></a></p> + +<p>E. 9.—That the original church of Glaston was +really of wattle is more than probable, for the remains +of British buildings thus constructed have been found +abundantly in the neighbouring peat. The Arimathaean +theory of its consecration became so generally accepted +that at the Council of Constance (1419) precedence +was actually accorded to our Bishops as representing +the senior Church of Christendom. But the oldest +variant of the legend says nothing about Arimathaea, +but speaks only of an undetermined "Joseph" as the +leader [<i>decurio</i>]<a name="FNanchor_398_398"></a><a href="#Footnote_398_398"><sup>[398]</sup></a> of twelve missionary comrades who +with him settled down at Glastonbury. And this +may well be true. Such bands (as we see in the Life +of Columba) were the regular system in Celtic mission +work, and survived in that of the Preaching Friars:</p> + +<div class="blkquot">"For thirteen is a Covent, as I guess."<a name="FNanchor_399_399"></a><a href="#Footnote_399_399"><sup>[399]</sup></a></div> +<br /> + +<p>E. 10.—And though such high authorities as Mr. +Haddan have come to the conclusion that Christianity +in Britain was confined to a small minority even +amongst the Roman inhabitants of the island, and +almost vanished with them, yet the catena of references +to British converts can scarcely be thus set aside. +They begin in Apostolic times and in special connection +with St. Paul. Martial tells us of a British princess +<span class="newpage"><a name="page256" id="page256">[256]</a></span> +named Claudia Rufina<a name="FNanchor_400_400"></a><a href="#Footnote_400_400"><sup>[400]</sup></a> (very probably the +daughter of that Claudius Cogidubnus whom we meet +in Tacitus as at once a British King and an Imperial +Legate),<a name="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2"><sup>[2]</sup></a> whose beauty and wit made no little sensation +in Rome; whither she had doubtless been sent at +once for education and as a hostage for her father's +fidelity. And one of the most beautiful of his Epigrams +speaks of the marriage of this foreigner to a Roman +of high family named Pudens, belonging to the Gens +Aemilia (of which the Pauline family formed a part):</p> + +<div class="blkquot"> +"Claudia, Rufe, meo nubet peregrina Pudenti,<br /> +Macte esto taedis, O Hymenaee, suis.<br /> +Diligat illa senem quondam; sed et ipsa marito,<br /> +Tunc quoque cum fuerit, non videatur anus."<a name="FNanchor_401_401"></a><a href="#Footnote_401_401"><sup>[401]</sup></a><br /> +<br /> +[To RUFUS.<br /> +Claudia, from far-off climes, my Pudens weds:<br /> +With choicest bliss, O Hymen, crown their heads!<br /> +May she still love her spouse when gray and old,<br /> +He in her age unfaded charms behold.]<br /> +</div> + +<p>It may have been in consequence of this marriage +that Pudens joined with Claudius Cogidubnus in +setting up the Imperial Temple at Chichester.<a name="FNanchor_402_402"></a><a href="#Footnote_402_402"><sup>[402]</sup></a> And +the fact that Claudia was an adopted member of the +Rufine family shows that she was connected with the +Gens Pomponia to which this family belonged.</p> + +<p>E. 11.—Now Aulus Plautius, the conqueror of +Britain, had married a Pomponia, who in A.D. 57 was +accused of practising an illicit religion, and, though +pronounced guiltless by her husband (to whose +<span class="newpage"><a name="page257" id="page257">[257]</a></span> +domestic tribunal she was left, as Roman Law permitted), +passed the rest of her life in retirement.<a name="FNanchor_403_403"></a><a href="#Footnote_403_403"><sup>[403]</sup></a> +When we read of an illicit religion in connection with +Britain, our first thought is, naturally, that Druidism is +intended.<a name="FNanchor_404_404"></a><a href="#Footnote_404_404"><sup>[404]</sup></a> But there are strong reasons for supposing +that Pomponia was actually a Christian. The names +of her family are found in one of the earliest Christian +catacombs in Rome, that of Calixtus; and that Christianity +had its converts in very high quarters we know +from the case of Clemens and Domitilla, closely related +to the Imperial throne.</p> + +<p>E. 12.—Turning next to St. Paul's Second Epistle +to Timothy, we find, in close connection, the names +of Pudens and Claudia (along with that of the future +Pope Linus) amongst the salutations from Roman +Christians. And recent excavations have established +the fact that the house of Pudens was used for Christian +worship at this date, and is now represented by +the church known as St. Pudentiana.<a name="FNanchor_405_405"></a><a href="#Footnote_405_405"><sup>[405]</sup></a> That this +should have been so proves that this Pudens was no +slave going under his master's name (as was sometimes +done), but a man of good position in Rome. Short +of actual proof it would be hard to imagine a series of +evidences more morally convincing that the Pudens +and Claudia of Martial are the Pudens and Claudia +of St. Paul, and that they, as well as Pomponia, were +<span class="newpage"><a name="page258" id="page258">[258]</a></span> +Christians. Whether, then, St. Paul did or did not actually +visit Britain, the earliest British Christianity is, at least, +closely connected with his name.</p> + +<p>E. 13.—Neither legendary nor historical sources tell +us of any further development of British Christianity +till the latter days of the 2nd century. Then, however, +it had become sufficiently widespread to furnish +a common-place for ecclesiastical declamation on the +all-conquering influence of the Gospel. Both Tertullian +and Origen<a name="FNanchor_406_406"></a><a href="#Footnote_406_406"><sup>[406]</sup></a> thus use it. The former numbers in +his catalogue of believing countries even the districts +of Britain beyond the Roman pale, <i>Britannorum +inaccessa Romanis loca, Christo vero subdita</i><a name="FNanchor_407_407"></a><a href="#Footnote_407_407"><sup>[407]</sup></a>. And +in this lies the interest of his reference, as pointing to +the native rather than the Roman element being the +predominant factor in the British Church. For just +at this period comes in the legend preserved by Bede,<a name="FNanchor_408_408"></a><a href="#Footnote_408_408"><sup>[408]</sup></a> +that a mission was sent to Britain by Pope Eleutherius<a name="FNanchor_409_409"></a><a href="#Footnote_409_409"><sup>[409]</sup></a> +in response to an appeal from "Lucius Britanniae +Rex." The story, which Bede probably got from the +'Catalogus Pontificum,'<a name="FNanchor_410_410"></a><a href="#Footnote_410_410"><sup>[410]</sup></a> may be apocryphal; but it +would never have been invented had British Christianity +been found merely or mainly in the Roman +veneer of the population. Modern criticism finds in +it this kernel of truth, that the persecution which gave +the Gallican Church the martyrs of Lyons, also sent +her scattered refugees as missionaries into the less +<span class="newpage"><a name="page259" id="page259">[259]</a></span> +dangerous regions of Britain;—those remoter parts, in +especial, where even the long arm of the Imperial +Government could not reach them.</p> + +<p>E. 14.—The Picts, however, as a nation, remained +savage heathens even to the 7th century, and the +bulk of our Christian population must have been +within the Roman pale; but little vexed, it would +seem, by persecution, till it came into conflict with +the thorough-going Imperialism of Diocletian.<a name="FNanchor_411_411"></a><a href="#Footnote_411_411"><sup>[411]</sup></a> Its +martyrs were then numbered, according to Gildas, by +thousands, according to Bede by hundreds; and their +chief, St. Alban, at least, is a fairly established historical +entity.<a name="FNanchor_412_412"></a><a href="#Footnote_412_412"><sup>[412]</sup></a> Nor is there any reason to doubt that +after Constantine South Britain was as fully Christian +as any country in Europe. In the earliest days of his +reign (A.D. 314) we find three bishops,<a name="FNanchor_413_413"></a><a href="#Footnote_413_413"><sup>[413]</sup></a> together with a +priest and a deacon, representing<a name="FNanchor_414_414"></a><a href="#Footnote_414_414"><sup>[414]</sup></a> the British Church +at the Council of Arles (which, amongst other things, +condemned the marriage of the "innocent divorcee"<a name="FNanchor_415_415"></a><a href="#Footnote_415_415"><sup>[415]</sup></a>). +<span class="newpage"><a name="page260" id="page260">[260]</a></span> +And the same number figure in the Council of Ariminum +(360), as the only prelates (out of the 400) +who deigned to accept from the Emperor the expenses +of their journey and attendance.</p> + +<p>E. 15.—This Council was called by Constantius II. +in the semi-Arian interest, and not allowed to break +up till after repudiating the Nicene formula. But the +lapse was only for a moment. Before the decade was +out Athanasius could write of Britain as notoriously +orthodox,<a name="FNanchor_416_416"></a><a href="#Footnote_416_416"><sup>[416]</sup></a> and before the century closes we have +frequent references to our island as a fully Christian +and Catholic land. Chrysostom speaks of its churches +and its altars and "the power of the Word" in its +pulpits,<a name="FNanchor_417_417"></a><a href="#Footnote_417_417"><sup>[417]</sup></a> of its diligent study of Scripture and Catholic +doctrine,<a name="FNanchor_418_418"></a><a href="#Footnote_418_418"><sup>[418]</sup></a> of its acceptance of Catholic discipline,<a name="FNanchor_419_419"></a><a href="#Footnote_419_419"><sup>[419]</sup></a> +of its use of Catholic formulae: "Whithersoever thou +goest," he says, "throughout the whole world, be it to +India, to Africa, or to Britain, thou wilt find <i>In the +beginning was the Word</i>."<a name="FNanchor_420_420"></a><a href="#Footnote_420_420"><sup>[420]</sup></a> Jerome, in turn, tells of +British pilgrimages to Jerusalem<a name="FNanchor_421_421"></a><a href="#Footnote_421_421"><sup>[421]</sup></a> and to Rome;<a name="FNanchor_422_422"></a><a href="#Footnote_422_422"><sup>[422]</sup></a> and, +in his famous passage on the world-wide Communion +of the Roman See, mentions Britain by name: "Nec +<span class="newpage"><a name="page261" id="page261">[261]</a></span> +altera Romanae Urbis Ecclesia, altera totius orbis +existimanda est. Et Galliae, et Britanniae, et Africa, +et Persis, et Oriens, et Indio, et omnes barbarae +nationes, unum Christum adorant, unam observant +regulam veritatis."<a name="FNanchor_423_423"></a><a href="#Footnote_423_423"><sup>[423]</sup></a></p> + +<p>["Neither is the Church of the City of Rome to +be held one, and that of the whole world another. +Both Gaul and Britain and Africa and Persia and the +East and India, and all the barbarian nations, adore +one Christ, observe one Rule of Truth."]</p> +<br /> + +<a name="FV."></a><h4>SECTION F.</h4> + +<p><i>British Missionaries—Ninias—Patrick—Beatus—Heresiarchs—Pelagius +Fastidius—Pelagianism<br /> stamped out by Germanus—The +Alleluia Battle—Romano-British churches—Why so +seldom<br /> found—Conclusion.</i></p> + +<p>F. 1.—The fruits of all this vigorous Christian life +soon showed themselves in the Church of Britain by +the evolution of noteworthy individual Christians. +First in order comes Ninias, the Apostle of the +Southern Picts, commissioned to the work, after years +of training at Rome, by Pope Siricius (A.D. 394), and +fired by the example of St. Martin, the great prelate +of Gaul. To this saint (or, to speak more exactly, +under his invocation) Ninias, on hearing of his death +in A.D. 400, dedicated his newly-built church at Whithern<a name="FNanchor_424_424"></a><a href="#Footnote_424_424"><sup>[424]</sup></a> +in Galloway, the earliest recorded example of +<span class="newpage"><a name="page262" id="page262">[262]</a></span> +this kind of dedication in Britain.<a name="FNanchor_425_425"></a><a href="#Footnote_425_425"><sup>[425]</sup></a> Galloway may +have been the native home of Ninias, and was certainly +the head-quarters of his ministry.</p> + +<p>F. 2.—The work of Ninias amongst the Picts was +followed in the next generation by the more abiding +work of St. Patrick amongst the Scots of Ireland. +Nay, even the Continent was indebted to British +piety; though few British visitors to the Swiss Oberland +remember that the Christianity they see around +them is due to the zeal of a British Mission. Yet +there seems no solid reason for doubting that so it is. +Somewhere about the time of St. Patrick, two British +priests, Beatus and Justus, entered the district by the +Brunig Pass, and set up their first church at Einigen, +near Thun. There Justus abode as the settled Missioner +of the neighbourhood, while Beatus made his +home in the ivy-clad cave above the lake which still +bears his name,<a name="FNanchor_426_426"></a><a href="#Footnote_426_426"><sup>[426]</sup></a> sailing up and down with the Gospel +message, and evangelizing the valleys and uplands +now so familiar to his fellow-countrymen—Grindelwald, +Lauterbrunnen, Mürren, Kandersteg.</p> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page263" id="page263">[263]</a></span> +<p>F. 3.—And while the light of the Gospel was thus +spreading on every side from our land, Britain was +also becoming all too famous as the nurse of error. +The British Pelagius,<a name="FNanchor_427_427"></a><a href="#Footnote_427_427"><sup>[427]</sup></a> who erred concerning the doctrine +of free-will, grew to be a heresiarch of the first +order;<a name="FNanchor_428_428"></a><a href="#Footnote_428_428"><sup>[428]</sup></a> and his follower Fastidius, or Faustus, the +saintly Abbot of Lerins in the Hyères, the friend of +Sidonius Apollinaris,<a name="FNanchor_429_429"></a><a href="#Footnote_429_429"><sup>[429]</sup></a> was, in his day, only less +renowned. He asserted the materiality of the soul. +Both were able writers; and Pelagius was the first +to adopt the plan of promulgating his heresies not as +his own, but as the tenets of supposititious individuals +of his acquaintance.</p> + +<p>F. 4.—Pelagianism spread so widely in Britain that +the Catholics implored for aid from over-sea. St. +Germanus of Auxerre, and St. Lupus, Bishop of Troyes +(whose sanctity had disarmed the ferocity even of +Attila), came<a name="FNanchor_430_430"></a><a href="#Footnote_430_430"><sup>[430]</sup></a> accordingly (in 429) and vindicated +the faith in a synod held at Verulam so successfully +that the neighbouring shrine of St. Alban was the +scene of a special service of thanksgiving. In a second +Mission, fifteen years later, Germanus set the seal to +his work, stamping out throughout all the land both +this new heresy and such remains of heathenism as +<span class="newpage"><a name="page264" id="page264">[264]</a></span> +were still to be found in Southern Britain. While thus +engaged on the Border he found his work endangered +by a raiding host of Picts or Saxons, or both. The +Saint, who had been a military chieftain in his youth, +promptly took the field at the head of his flock, many +of whom were but newly baptized. It was Easter Eve, +and he took advantage of the sacred ceremonies of +that holy season, which were then actually performed +by night. From the New Fire, the "Lumen Christi," +was kindled a line of beacons along the Christian lines, +and when Germanus intoned the threefold Easter +Alleluia, the familiar strain was echoed from lip to lip +throughout the host. Stricken with panic at the +sudden outburst of light and song, the enemy, without +a blow, broke and fled.<a name="FNanchor_431_431"></a><a href="#Footnote_431_431"><sup>[431]</sup></a></p> + +<p>F. 5.—This story, as told by Constantius, and confirmed +by both Nennius and Bede, incidentally furnishes +us with something of a key to the main difficulty +in accepting the widely-spread Romano-British Christianity +to which the foregoing citations testify. What, +it is asked, has become of all the Romano-British +churches? Why are no traces of them found amongst +the abundant Roman remains all over the land? That +they were the special objects of destruction at the +Saxon invasion we learn from Gildas. But this does +not account for their very foundations having disappeared; +yet at Silchester<a name="FNanchor_432_432"></a><a href="#Footnote_432_432"><sup>[432]</sup></a> alone have modern excavations +<span class="newpage"><a name="page265" id="page265">[265]</a></span> +unearthed any even approximately certain +example of them. Where are all the rest?</p> + +<p>F. 6.—The question is partly answered when we +read that the soldiers of Germanus had erected in +their camp a church of wattle, and that such was the +usual material of which, even as late as 446, British +churches were built (as at Glastonbury). Seldom +indeed would such leave any trace behind them; and +thus the country churches of Roman Britain would be +sought in vain by excavators. In the towns, however, +stone or brick would assuredly be used, and to account +for the paucity of ecclesiastical ruins three answers +may be suggested.</p> + +<p>F. 7.—First, the number of continuously unoccupied +Romano-British cities is very small indeed. Except +at Silchester, Anderida, and Uriconium, almost every +one has become an English town. But when this +took place early in the English settlement of the land, +the ruins of the Romano-British churches would still +be clearly traceable at the conversion of the English, +and would be rebuilt (as St. Martin's at Canterbury +was in all probability rebuilt)<a name="FNanchor_433_433"></a><a href="#Footnote_433_433"><sup>[433]</sup></a> for the use of English +Christianity, the old material<a name="FNanchor_434_434"></a><a href="#Footnote_434_434"><sup>[434]</sup></a> being worked up into +the new edifices. It is probable that many of our +churches thus stand on the very spot where the +Romano-British churches stood of old. But this +<span class="newpage"><a name="page266" id="page266">[266]</a></span> +very fact would obliterate the remains of these +churches.</p> + +<p>F. 8.—Secondly, it is very possible that many of the +heathen temples may, after the edict of Theodosius +(A.D. 392), have been turned into churches (like the +Pantheon at Rome), so that <i>their</i> remains may mark +ecclesiastical sites. There are reasons for believing +that in various places, such as St. Paul's, London, +St. Peter's, Cambridge, and St. Mary's, Ribchester, +Christian worship did actually thus succeed Pagan on +the same site.</p> + +<p>F. 9.—Thirdly, as Lanciani points out, the earliest +Christian churches were simply the ordinary dwelling-houses +of such wealthier converts as were willing to +permit meetings for worship beneath their roof, which +in time became formally consecrated to that purpose. +Such a dwelling-house usually consisted of an oblong +central hall, with a pillared colonnade, opening into a +roofed cloister or peristyle on either side, at one end +into a smaller guest-room [<i>tablinum</i>], at the other +into the porch of entry. The whole was arranged +thus:</p> + +<br /> + +<div class="blkquot"> + + Small<br /> + Guest<br /> + Room.<br /> + P P<br /> + e e<br /> + r r<br /> + i Central Hall, i<br /> + s with pillars s<br /> + t on each side t<br /> + y (often roofless). y<br /> + l l<br /> + e e<br /> + Porch<br /> + of<br /> + Entry.<br /> + +</div> + +<p>It will be readily seen that we have here a building on +<span class="newpage"><a name="page267" id="page267">[267]</a></span> +the lines of an ordinary church. The small original +congregation would meet, like other guests, in the +reception-room. As numbers increased, the hall and +adjoining cloisters would have to be used (the former +being roofed in); the reception-room being reserved +for the most honoured members, and ultimately +becoming the chancel of a fully-developed church, +with nave and aisles complete.<a name="FNanchor_435_435"></a><a href="#Footnote_435_435"><sup>[435]</sup></a> It <i>may</i> be, therefore, +that some of the Roman villas found in Britain were +really churches.<a name="FNanchor_436_436"></a><a href="#Footnote_436_436"><sup>[436]</sup></a></p> + +<p>F. 10.—This, however, is a less probable explanation +of the absence of ecclesiastical remains; and the large +majority of Romano-British church sites are, as I +believe, still in actual use amongst us for their original +purpose. And it may be considered as fairly proved, +that before Britain was cut off from the Empire the +Romano-British Church had a rite<a name="FNanchor_437_437"></a><a href="#Footnote_437_437"><sup>[437]</sup></a> and a vigorous +corporate life of its own, which the wave of heathen +invasion could not wholly submerge. It lived on, +shattered, perhaps, and disorganized, but not utterly +crushed, to be strengthened in due time by a closer +union with its parent stem, through the Mission of +<span class="newpage"><a name="page268" id="page268">[268]</a></span> +Augustine, to feel the reflex glow of its own missionary +efforts in the fervour of Columba and his followers,<a name="FNanchor_438_438"></a><a href="#Footnote_438_438"><sup>[438]</sup></a> +and, finally, to form an integral part of that Ecclesia +Anglicana whose influence knit our country into one, +and inspired the Great Charter of our constitutional +liberties.<a name="FNanchor_439_439"></a><a href="#Footnote_439_439"><sup>[439]</sup></a> Her faith and her freedom are the abiding +debt which Britain owes to her connection with +Rome.</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page269" id="page269">[269]</a></span> +<br /> +<a name="INDEX"></a><h3>INDEX.</h3> + +<br /> +Aaron of Caerleon, <a href="#page259">259</a><br /> +Addeomarus, <a href="#page130">130</a><br /> +Adder-beads, <a href="#page71">71</a><br /> +Adelfius, <a href="#page259">259</a><br /> +Adminius, <a href="#page126">126</a>, <a href="#page128">128</a>, <a href="#page130">130</a><br /> +Aetius, <a href="#page245">245</a><br /> +Agricola, <a href="#page156">156</a>, <a href="#page160">160</a>, <a href="#page161">161</a>, <a href="#page162">162</a>, +<a href="#page163">163</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a>, <a href="#page165">165</a><br /> +Agriculture, <a href="#page40">40</a>, <a href="#page41">41</a>, <a href="#page42">42</a>, <a href="#page43">43</a>, +<a href="#page44">44</a>, <a href="#page191">191</a>, <a href="#page231">231</a><br /> +Agrippina, <a href="#page140">140</a>, <a href="#page149">149</a>, <a href="#page150">150</a><br /> +Akeman Street, <a href="#page166">166</a><br /> +Alaric, <a href="#page237">237</a>, <a href="#page243">243</a><br /> +Alban, St., <a href="#page227">227</a>, <a href="#page259">259</a><br /> +Albany, <a href="#page247">247</a><br /> +Albinus, <a href="#page200">200</a><br /> +Albion, <a href="#page32">32</a><br /> +Alexander Severus, <a href="#page71">71</a><br /> +Allectus, <a href="#page220">220</a>, <a href="#page223">223</a>, <a href="#page224">224</a>, <a href="#page231">231</a><br /> +Alleluia Battle, <a href="#page264">264</a><br /> +Alpine dogs, <a href="#page191">191</a><br /> +Amber, <a href="#page48">48</a>, <a href="#page49">49</a><br /> +Ambleteuse, <a href="#page86">86</a>, <a href="#page95">95</a><br /> +Amboglanna, <a href="#page174">174</a>, <a href="#page204">204</a><br /> +Aminus. <i>See</i> Adminius<br /> +Amphitheatres, <a href="#page185">185</a>, <a href="#page224">224</a><br /> +Ancalites, <a href="#page55">55</a>, <a href="#page120">120</a><br /> +Ancyran Tablet, <a href="#page128">128</a><br /> +Anderida, <a href="#page56">56</a>, <a href="#page240">240</a>, <a href="#page250">250</a>, <a href="#page265">265</a><br /> +Anglesey, <a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page161">161</a><br /> +Antedrigus, <a href="#page131">131</a>, <a href="#page146">146</a><br /> +Antonines, <a href="#page213">213</a><br /> +Antoninus Pius, <a href="#page171">171</a>, <a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page214">214</a><br /> +Aquae Sulis, <a href="#page183">183</a>. <i>See</i> Bath<br /> +Aquila, <a href="#page257">257</a><br /> +Arianism, <a href="#page230">230</a><br /> +Arms, <a href="#page49">49</a>, <a href="#page178">178</a><br /> +Army of Britain, <a href="#page159">159</a>, <a href="#page160">160</a>, <a href="#page199">199</a>, <a href="#page200">200</a>, +<a href="#page200">218</a>, <a href="#page228">228</a>, <a href="#page230">230</a>, <a href="#page235">235</a>, <a href="#page242">242</a><br /> +Army of Church, <a href="#page268">268</a><br /> +Arthur, <a href="#page247">247</a><br /> +Arthur's Well, <a href="#page205">205</a><br /> +Asclepiodotus, <a href="#page224">224</a><br /> +Ash-pits, <a href="#page177">177</a>, <a href="#page186">186</a><br /> +Asturians, <a href="#page204">204</a>, <a href="#page205">205</a><br /> +Atrebates, <a href="#page55">55</a>, <a href="#page56">56</a>, <a href="#page82">82</a>, <a href="#page87">87</a>, +<a href="#page125">125</a>, <a href="#page127">127</a>, <a href="#page142">142</a><br /> +Attacotti, <a href="#page46">46</a>, <a href="#page194">194</a>, <a href="#page233">233</a><br /> +Augusta, <a href="#page180">180</a>, <a href="#page233">233</a><br /> +Augustine, <a href="#page243">243</a><br /> +Augustus, <a href="#page128">128</a>, <a href="#page129">129</a><br /> +Avebury, <a href="#page30">30</a><br /> +<br /> +Bards, <a href="#page66">66</a><br /> +Barham Down, <a href="#page110">110</a>, <a href="#page114">114</a><br /> +Barns, British, <a href="#page40">40</a><br /> +Barrows, <a href="#page29">29</a>, <a href="#page60">60</a><br /> +Basilicas, <a href="#page185">185</a><br /> +Baskets, <a href="#page43">43</a><br /> +Basques, <a href="#page51">51</a><br /> +Bath, <a href="#page60">60</a>, <a href="#page170">170</a>, <a href="#page174">174</a>, <a href="#page183">183</a><br /> +Battle Bridge, <a href="#page157">157</a><br /> +Beads, <a href="#page48">48</a>, <a href="#page128">128</a><br /> +Beatus, St., <a href="#page262">262</a><br /> +Bee-keeping, <a href="#page42">42</a><br /> +Beer, <a href="#page42">42</a><br /> +Belgae, <a href="#page52">52</a>, <a href="#page57">57</a>, <a href="#page61">61</a><br /> +Belisarius, <a href="#page249">249</a><br /> +Bericus. <i>See</i> Vericus<br /> +Bibroci, <a href="#page55">55</a>, <a href="#page56">56</a>, <a href="#page120">120</a><br /> +Birdoswald, <a href="#page174">174</a>, <a href="#page203">203</a>, <a href="#page204">204</a><br /> +Bishops, British, <a href="#page230">230</a>, <a href="#page255">255</a>, <a href="#page259">259</a><br /> +Boadicea, <a href="#page152">152</a>, <a href="#page157">157</a>, <a href="#page158">158</a>, <a href="#page253">253</a><br /> +Borcovicus, <a href="#page205">205</a><br /> +Boulogne, <a href="#page86">86</a>, <a href="#page220">220</a>, <a href="#page223">223</a>, <a href="#page233">233</a><br /> +Breeches, <a href="#page47">47</a><br /> +Brigantes, <a href="#page49">49</a>, <a href="#page57">57</a>, <a href="#page146">146</a>, <a href="#page148">148</a>, +<a href="#page160">160</a>, <a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page206">206</a><br /> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page270" id="page270">[270]</a></span> +Brige, <a href="#page175">175</a><br /> +Britain, "Upper" and "Lower," <a href="#page195">195</a><br /> +Britannia coins, <a href="#page197">197</a><br /> +Britannia I. and II., <a href="#page59">59</a>, <a href="#page225">225</a><br /> +Britannicus, <a href="#page136">136</a>, <a href="#page140">140</a>, <a href="#page199">199</a><br /> +British coins, <a href="#page38">38</a>, <a href="#page125">125</a>, <a href="#page126">126</a>, <a href="#page127">127</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lion, <a href="#page126">126</a>, <a href="#page210">210</a>, <a href="#page221">221</a></span><br /> +Britons, Origin of, <a href="#page32">32</a><br /> +Brittany, <a href="#page235">235</a><br /> +Bronze, <a href="#page30">30</a>30, <a href="#page33">33</a><br /> +Brownies, <a href="#page29">29</a><br /> +Brutus, <a href="#page151">151</a><br /> +<br /> +Cadiz, <a href="#page34">34</a><br /> +Cadwallon. <i>See</i> Cassivellaunus<br /> +Caer Caradoc, <a href="#page148">148</a><br /> +Caergwent, <a href="#page184">184</a><br /> +Caerleon, <a href="#page150">150</a>, <a href="#page166">166</a>, <a href="#page179">179</a>, <a href="#page182">182</a>, +<a href="#page195">195</a>, <a href="#page239">239</a>, <a href="#page259">259</a><br /> +Caer Segent, <a href="#page56">56</a><br /> +Caesar, Julius:<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Earlier career, <a href="#page73">73</a>-<a href="#page83">83</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">First invasion, <a href="#page83">83</a>-<a href="#page101">101</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Second invasion, <a href="#page102">102</a>-<a href="#page123">123</a></span><br /> +Caesar (as title), <a href="#page222">222</a><br /> +Caesar's horse, <a href="#page107">107</a><br /> +Caledonians, <a href="#page163">163</a>, <a href="#page194">194</a>, <a href="#page201">201</a>, <a href="#page202">202</a>, +<a href="#page213">213</a>, <a href="#page232">232</a><br /> +Caligula, <a href="#page126">126</a>, <a href="#page130">130</a><br /> +Calleva, <a href="#page56">56</a>, <a href="#page172">172</a>, etc. <i>See</i> Silchester<br /> +Cambridge, <a href="#page171">171</a>, <a href="#page175">175</a>, <a href="#page178">178</a>, <a href="#page266">266</a><br /> +Camelodune, <a href="#page127">127</a>, <a href="#page135">135</a>, <a href="#page147">147</a>, <a href="#page152">152</a>, +<a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page176">176</a><br /> +Cangi, <a href="#page146">146</a><br /> +Cannibalism, <a href="#page46">46</a>, <a href="#page233">233</a><br /> +Canterbury, <a href="#page265">265</a><br /> +Caracalla, <a href="#page171">171</a>, <a href="#page201">201</a>, <a href="#page212">212</a>-<a href="#page214">214</a><br /> +Caractacus (Caradoc, Caratac), <a href="#page127">127</a>, <a href="#page134">134</a>, <a href="#page137">137</a>, +<a href="#page147">147</a>, <a href="#page148">148</a>, <a href="#page149">149</a><br /> +Carausius, <a href="#page180">180</a>, <a href="#page220">220</a>, <a href="#page221">221</a>, <a href="#page245">245</a><br /> +Carlisle, <a href="#page175">175</a>, <a href="#page204">204</a><br /> +Cartismandua, <a href="#page148">148</a>, <a href="#page150">150</a>, <a href="#page160">160</a><br /> +Cassi, <a href="#page54">54</a>, <a href="#page55">55</a>, <a href="#page120">120</a><br /> +Cassiterides, <a href="#page34">34</a><br /> +Cassivellaunus (Caswallon), <a href="#page109">109</a>, <a href="#page113">113</a>-<a href="#page122">122</a>, <a href="#page127">127</a><br /> +Cateuchlani (Cattivellauni), <a href="#page55">55</a>, <a href="#page58">58</a>, <a href="#page59">59</a>, <a href="#page109">109</a>, +<a href="#page121">121</a>, <a href="#page127">127</a><br /> +Cattle, British, <a href="#page45">45</a><br /> +Celestine, Pope, <a href="#page263">263</a><br /> +Celtic types, <a href="#page50">50</a><br /> +Cerealis, <a href="#page160">160</a><br /> +Cerne Abbas, <a href="#page65">65</a><br /> +Chariots, British, <a href="#page50">50</a>, <a href="#page92">92</a>, <a href="#page99">99</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a>, +<a href="#page129">129</a>, <a href="#page134">134</a>, <a href="#page163">163</a><br /> +Charnwood, <a href="#page190">190</a><br /> +Chedworth, <a href="#page58">58</a>, <a href="#page267">267</a><br /> +Chester, <a href="#page162">162</a>, <a href="#page167">167</a>, <a href="#page174">174</a>, <a href="#page179">179</a>, <a href="#page182">182</a>, +<a href="#page195">195</a>, <a href="#page247">247</a>, <a href="#page250">250</a><br /> +"Chester" (suffix), <a href="#page175">175</a>, <a href="#page183">183</a>, <a href="#page250">250</a><br /> +Chesters. <i>See</i> Cilurnum<br /> +Chichester, <a href="#page141">141</a><br /> +Chives, <a href="#page205">205</a><br /> +Christianity, British, <a href="#page225">225</a>-<a href="#page230">230</a>, <a href="#page251">251</a>-<a href="#page268">268</a><br /> +Churches, British, <a href="#page185">185</a>, <a href="#page264">264</a>-<a href="#page267">267</a><br /> +Cicero, <a href="#page36">36</a>, <a href="#page75">75</a>, <a href="#page77">77</a>, <a href="#page104">104</a>-<a href="#page106">106</a>, +<a href="#page122">122</a>, <a href="#page151">151</a><br /> +Cilurnum, <a href="#page204">204</a>, <a href="#page205">205</a>, <a href="#page211">211</a><br /> +Cirencester, <a href="#page255">255</a>. <i>See</i> Corinium<br /> +Citizenship, Roman, <a href="#page140">140</a>, <a href="#page141">141</a>, <a href="#page213">213</a>, <a href="#page214">214</a><br /> +Clans, British, <a href="#page52">52</a>, <a href="#page55">55</a>-<a href="#page59">59</a><br /> +Claudia Rufina, <a href="#page141">141</a>, <a href="#page256">256</a>, <a href="#page257">257</a><br /> +Claudius, <a href="#page131">131</a>, <a href="#page134">134</a>-<a href="#page143">143</a>, <a href="#page147">147</a>, +<a href="#page149">149</a>, <a href="#page150">150</a><br /> +Clement, St., <a href="#page252">252</a><br /> +Climate, British, <a href="#page40">40</a>, <a href="#page185">185</a><br /> +Cogidubnus, <a href="#page141">141</a>, <a href="#page256">256</a><br /> +Cohorts, <a href="#page86">86</a>, <a href="#page114">114</a>, <a href="#page239">239</a><br /> +Coins, British, <a href="#page38">38</a>, <a href="#page54">54</a>, <a href="#page125">125</a>-<a href="#page127">127</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Romano-British, <a href="#page139">139</a>, <a href="#page177">177</a>, <a href="#page197">197</a>, +<a href="#page221">221</a>, <a href="#page246">246</a></span><br /> +Colchester (Colonia), <a href="#page167">167</a>, <a href="#page171">171</a>, <a href="#page175">175</a>, <a href="#page176">176</a>, <a href="#page222">222</a>. <i>See</i> Camelodune<br /> +Colonies, <a href="#page147">147</a>, <a href="#page152">152</a>-<a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page175">175</a><br /> +Columba, <a href="#page71">71</a>, <a href="#page72">72</a>, <a href="#page268">268</a><br /> +Comitatenses, <a href="#page239">239</a><br /> +Commius, <a href="#page54">54</a>, <a href="#page83">83</a>, <a href="#page87">87</a>, <a href="#page94">94</a>, +<a href="#page101">101</a>, <a href="#page121">121</a>, <a href="#page124">124</a>-<a href="#page127">127</a>, <a href="#page130">130</a><br /> +Commodus, <a href="#page199">199</a>, <a href="#page200">200</a><br /> +Constans, <a href="#page230">230</a><br /> +Constantine I., <a href="#page222">222</a>, <a href="#page227">227</a>-<a href="#page229">229</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III., <a href="#page242">242</a></span><br /> +Constantius I., <a href="#page180">180</a>, <a href="#page222">222</a>-<a href="#page224">224</a>, +<a href="#page227">227</a>-<a href="#page229">229</a><br /> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page271" id="page271">[271]</a></span> +Constantius II., <a href="#page231">231</a>, <a href="#page260">260</a><br /> +Cony Castle, <a href="#page30">30</a><br /> +Coracles, <a href="#page37">37</a>, <a href="#page245">245</a><br /> +Corinium <a href="#page179">179</a>, <a href="#page189">189</a>-<a href="#page191">191</a>. <i>See</i> Cirencester<br /> +Corn-growing, <a href="#page40">40</a>, <a href="#page191">191</a>, <a href="#page231">231</a><br /> +Coronation Oath, <a href="#page260">260</a><br /> +Council of Ariminum, <a href="#page230">230</a>, <a href="#page260">260</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arles, <a href="#page230">230</a>, <a href="#page259">259</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cloveshoo, <a href="#page267">267</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Constance, <a href="#page255">255</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nice, <a href="#page230">230</a></span><br /> +Count of Britain, <a href="#page240">240</a>, <a href="#page243">243</a>, <a href="#page247">247</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Saxon Shore, <a href="#page220">220</a>, <a href="#page240">240</a>, <a href="#page243">243</a></span><br /> +Counts of the Empire, <a href="#page240">240</a><br /> +Coway Stakes, <a href="#page119">119</a><br /> +Cromlechs, <a href="#page29">29</a><br /> +Cymbeline (Cunobelin), <a href="#page54">54</a>, <a href="#page126">126</a>-<a href="#page128">128</a><br /> +Cymry, <a href="#page247">247</a><br /> +<br /> +Damnonii, <a href="#page57">57</a>, <a href="#page58">58</a>, <a href="#page61">61</a>, <a href="#page80">80</a>, <a href="#page247">247</a><br /> +Deal, <a href="#page89">89</a>, <a href="#page108">108</a><br /> +Decangi, <a href="#page146">146</a><br /> +Decentius, <a href="#page231">231</a><br /> +Decurions, <a href="#page182">182</a><br /> +Dedication of churches, <a href="#page261">261</a><br /> +Dene Holes, <a href="#page41">41</a><br /> +"Dioceses," <a href="#page222">222</a><br /> +Diocletian, <a href="#page59">59</a>, <a href="#page71">71</a>, <a href="#page219">219</a>, <a href="#page221">221</a>, +<a href="#page222">222</a>, <a href="#page224">224</a>-<a href="#page227">227</a><br /> +Divitiacus, <a href="#page82">82</a>, <a href="#page109">109</a><br /> +Divorce, <a href="#page259">259</a><br /> +"Divus," <a href="#page123">123</a>, <a href="#page227">227</a><br /> +Dobuni, <a href="#page57">57</a>, <a href="#page132">132</a><br /> +Dogs, British, <a href="#page190">190</a><br /> +Dol, <a href="#page235">235</a><br /> +Dolmens, <a href="#page29">29</a><br /> +Domestic animals, <a href="#page45">45</a>, <a href="#page46">46</a><br /> +Domitian, <a href="#page163">163</a><br /> +Domitilla, <a href="#page257">257</a><br /> +Dorchester, <a href="#page61">61</a><br /> +Dover, <a href="#page87">87</a><br /> +Dragon standard, <a href="#page244">244</a><br /> +"Druidesses," <a href="#page71">71</a>, <a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page155">155</a><br /> +Druidism, <a href="#page62">62</a>-<a href="#page72">72</a><br /> +Duke of the Britains, <a href="#page239">239</a>, <a href="#page243">243</a>, <a href="#page247">247</a><br /> +Duke of the Britons, <a href="#page245">245</a><br /> +Duns, <a href="#page60">60</a><br /> +Durotriges, <a href="#page57">57</a>, <a href="#page61">61</a><br /> +<br /> +Eagles, Legionary, <a href="#page90">90</a>, <a href="#page91">91</a>, <a href="#page228">228</a><br /> +Eboracum, <a href="#page174">174</a><br /> +Eborius, <a href="#page259">259</a><br /> +Elephants, <a href="#page107">107</a>, <a href="#page119">119</a>, <a href="#page134">134</a><br /> +Eleutherius, <a href="#page258">258</a><br /> +Emeriti, <a href="#page214">214</a><br /> +English, <a href="#page232">232</a>, <a href="#page245">245</a>, <a href="#page246">246</a><br /> +Epping Forest, <a href="#page47">47</a>, <a href="#page190">190</a><br /> +Equinoctial hours, <a href="#page39">39</a>, <a href="#page40">40</a><br /> +Erinus Hispanicus, <a href="#page204">204</a><br /> +Ermine Street, <a href="#page166">166</a>-<a href="#page170">170</a><br /> +Exports, British, <a href="#page128">128</a>, <a href="#page129">129</a><br /> +<br /> +Fastidius, Faustus, <a href="#page263">263</a><br /> +Flavians, <a href="#page133">133</a><br /> +Fleam Dyke, <a href="#page144">144</a>, <a href="#page145">145</a><br /> +Fleet, British, <a href="#page182">182</a>, <a href="#page221">221</a><br /> +Forests, <a href="#page47">47</a>, <a href="#page56">56</a>-<a href="#page58">58</a>, <a href="#page189">189</a><br /> +Fosse Way, <a href="#page166">166</a>, <a href="#page167">167</a>, <a href="#page169">169</a><br /> +Frampton, <a href="#page267">267</a><br /> +Franks, <a href="#page219">219</a>, <a href="#page224">224</a>, <a href="#page237">237</a><br /> +Frisians, <a href="#page200">200</a>, <a href="#page220">220</a>, <a href="#page248">248</a><br /> +Fruit-trees, <a href="#page186">186</a><br /> +<br /> +Gael, <a href="#page32">32</a>, <a href="#page50">50</a><br /> +Galerius, <a href="#page222">222</a>, <a href="#page227">227</a>, <a href="#page228">228</a><br /> +Galgacus, <a href="#page163">163</a><br /> +Galloway, <a href="#page46">46</a>, <a href="#page194">194</a>, <a href="#page233">233</a>, <a href="#page248">248</a>, +<a href="#page261">261</a><br /> +Gates of London, <a href="#page179">179</a><br /> +Geese, <a href="#page46">46</a><br /> +Gelt, R., <a href="#page210">210</a><br /> +Genuini, <a href="#page197">197</a><br /> +Germanus, <a href="#page263">263</a>-<a href="#page265">265</a><br /> +Gerontius (Geraint), <a href="#page242">242</a><br /> +Geta, <a href="#page201">201</a>, <a href="#page213">213</a><br /> +Gladiators, <a href="#page136">136</a>, <a href="#page137">137</a>, <a href="#page224">224</a><br /> +Glass, <a href="#page48">48</a>, <a href="#page129">129</a><br /> +Glastonbury, <a href="#page27">27</a>, <a href="#page57">57</a>, <a href="#page254">254</a>, <a href="#page255">255</a><br /> +Glazed ware, <a href="#page188">188</a><br /> +Gnossus, <a href="#page37">37</a><br /> +Gog-Magog Hills, <a href="#page219">219</a><br /> +Gold, <a href="#page30">30</a>, <a href="#page39">39</a>, <a href="#page48">48</a><br /> +Goths, <a href="#page249">249</a><br /> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page272" id="page272">[272]</a></span> +Grindelwald, <a href="#page262">262</a><br /> +Gulf Stream, <a href="#page40">40</a><br /> +<br /> +Hadrian, <a href="#page181">181</a>, <a href="#page194">194</a>-<a href="#page197">197</a><br /> +Hair-dye, <a href="#page48">48</a>, <a href="#page129">129</a><br /> +Handicrafts, <a href="#page187">187</a>, <a href="#page188">188</a><br /> +Hardway, <a href="#page36">36</a><br /> +Hasta Pura, <a href="#page138">138</a><br /> +Havre, <a href="#page223">223</a><br /> +Helena, <a href="#page222">222</a>, <a href="#page227">227</a><br /> +"Hengist and Horsa," <a href="#page245">245</a><br /> +Heretics, <a href="#page263">263</a><br /> +Honorius, <a href="#page242">242</a>, <a href="#page243">243</a><br /> +Horseshoes, <a href="#page177">177</a><br /> +Hounds, <a href="#page190">190</a><br /> +Hugh, St., <a href="#page185">185</a><br /> +Huntingdon, <a href="#page171">171</a><br /> +Hypocausts, <a href="#page189">189</a>, <a href="#page205">205</a><br /> +<br /> +Iberians, <a href="#page251">251</a><br /> +Iceni, <a href="#page54">54</a>, <a href="#page57">57</a>, <a href="#page58">58</a>, <a href="#page59">59</a>, +<a href="#page120">120</a>, <a href="#page130">130</a>, <a href="#page142">142</a>-<a href="#page146">146</a>, +<a href="#page152">152</a>, <a href="#page157">157</a>, <a href="#page170">170</a><br /> +Icknield Street, <a href="#page144">144</a>, <a href="#page145">145</a>, <a href="#page167">167</a>, +<a href="#page170">170</a>, <a href="#page186">186</a><br /> +Ictis, <a href="#page35">35</a><br /> +Ierne, <a href="#page32">32</a>, <a href="#page234">234</a>, <a href="#page236">236</a>. <i>See</i> Ireland<br /> +Immanuentius, <a href="#page109">109</a><br /> +Imperial visits, <a href="#page134">134</a>, <a href="#page194">194</a>, <a href="#page201">201</a>, <a href="#page223">223</a>, +<a href="#page230">230</a><br /> +Ireland, <a href="#page162">162</a>, <a href="#page232">232</a>, <a href="#page262">262</a>, <a href="#page268">268</a>. <i>See</i> Ierne<br /> +Iron, <a href="#page33">33</a>, <a href="#page50">50</a><br /> +Itinerary, <a href="#page171">171</a>, <a href="#page172">172</a>, <a href="#page173">173</a>, <a href="#page175">175</a><br /> +<br /> +Jadite, <a href="#page29">29</a><br /> +Jerome, St., <a href="#page46">46</a>, <a href="#page191">191</a>, <a href="#page233">233</a>, <a href="#page260">260</a><br /> +Jerusalem, <a href="#page160">160</a>, <a href="#page181">181</a>, <a href="#page260">260</a><br /> +Joseph of Arimathaea, <a href="#page254">254</a><br /> +Julia Domna, <a href="#page209">209</a>, <a href="#page210">210</a>, <a href="#page213">213</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lex, <a href="#page192">192</a>, <a href="#page243">243</a></span><br /> +Julian, <a href="#page191">191</a>, <a href="#page225">225</a>, <a href="#page231">231</a>, <a href="#page232">232</a><br /> +Julianus, <a href="#page200">200</a><br /> +Julius Caesar. <i>See</i> Caesar<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Classicianus, <a href="#page158">158</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Firmicus, <a href="#page230">230</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Caerleon, <a href="#page259">259</a></span><br /> +Juridicus Britanniae, <a href="#page181">181</a><br /> +Justinian, <a href="#page181">181</a>, <a href="#page248">248</a><br /> +Justus, <a href="#page262">262</a><br /> +<br /> +Kalendar of Druids, <a href="#page64">64</a><br /> +"Keels," Saxon, <a href="#page221">221</a>, <a href="#page245">245</a><br /> +Kent, <a href="#page55">55</a>, <a href="#page121">121</a>, <a href="#page127">127</a>, <a href="#page142">142</a>, +<a href="#page247">247</a>-<a href="#page249">249</a><br /> +Kilns, <a href="#page187">187</a><br /> +King's Cross, <a href="#page157">157</a><br /> +Koridwen, <a href="#page155">155</a><br /> +<br /> +Labarum, <a href="#page188">188</a>, <a href="#page228">228</a>, <a href="#page229">229</a>, <a href="#page267">267</a><br /> +Labienus, <a href="#page107">107</a>, <a href="#page122">122</a>, <a href="#page123">123</a><br /> +Lambeth, <a href="#page168">168</a><br /> +Lead-mining, <a href="#page39">39</a>, <a href="#page146">146</a>, <a href="#page188">188</a><br /> +Legates, <a href="#page141">141</a>, <a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page200">200</a>, <a href="#page232">232</a><br /> +Legion II., <a href="#page133">133</a>, <a href="#page150">150</a>, <a href="#page157">157</a>, <a href="#page174">174</a>, +<a href="#page182">182</a>, <a href="#page239">239</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">VI., <a href="#page174">174</a>, <a href="#page182">182</a>, <a href="#page239">239</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">VII., <a href="#page99">99</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">IX., <a href="#page133">133</a>, <a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page157">157</a>, +<a href="#page178">178</a>, <a href="#page181">181</a>, <a href="#page194">194</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">X., <a href="#page91">91</a>, <a href="#page99">99</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">XIV., <a href="#page133">133</a>, <a href="#page150">150</a>, <a href="#page156">156</a>, +<a href="#page160">160</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">XX., <a href="#page133">133</a>, <a href="#page150">150</a>, <a href="#page157">157</a>, +<a href="#page160">160</a>, <a href="#page174">174</a>, <a href="#page182">182</a>, <a href="#page234">234</a>, +<a href="#page237">237</a>, <a href="#page240">240</a></span><br /> +Legionary feeling, <a href="#page91">91</a>, <a href="#page157">157</a><br /> +Legions, Roman, <a href="#page86">86</a>, <a href="#page90">90</a>, <a href="#page91">91</a>, +<a href="#page231">231</a>, <a href="#page238">238</a>, <a href="#page239">239</a><br /> +Leicester, <a href="#page183">183</a><br /> +Libelli, <a href="#page226">226</a><br /> +Liber Landavensis, <a href="#page259">259</a><br /> +Licinius, <a href="#page228">228</a><br /> +Ligurians, <a href="#page51">51</a><br /> +Lincoln, <a href="#page171">171</a>, <a href="#page175">175</a>, <a href="#page185">185</a>, <a href="#page250">250</a>, +<a href="#page259">259</a><br /> +Linus, <a href="#page257">257</a><br /> +Lion, British, <a href="#page126">126</a>, <a href="#page210">210</a>, <a href="#page221">221</a><br /> +Loddon, R., <a href="#page134">134</a><br /> +Logris, <a href="#page51">51</a><br /> +Lollius Urbicus, <a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page198">198</a><br /> +London, <a href="#page60">60</a>, <a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page118">118</a>, <a href="#page122">122</a>, <a href="#page154">154</a>, +<a href="#page156">156</a>, <a href="#page157">157</a>, <a href="#page166">166</a>, +<a href="#page168">168</a>, <a href="#page169">169</a>, <a href="#page171">171</a>,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><a href="#page179">179</a>-<a href="#page183">183</a>, <a href="#page224">224</a>, <a href="#page233">233</a>, +<a href="#page241">241</a>, <a href="#page250">250</a>, <a href="#page259">259</a></span><br /> +Lupicinus, <a href="#page232">232</a><br /> +Lupus, <a href="#page263">263</a><br /> +Lyminge, <a href="#page265">265</a><br /> +Lyons, <a href="#page200">200</a>, <a href="#page258">258</a><br /> +<br /> +Magna, <a href="#page208">208</a><br /> +Magnentius, <a href="#page230">230</a>, <a href="#page231">231</a><br /> +Maiden Castle, <a href="#page61">61</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Way, <a href="#page169">169</a></span><br /> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page273" id="page273">[273]</a></span> +Mandubratius, <a href="#page109">109</a>, <a href="#page122">122</a>, <a href="#page127">127</a><br /> +Mansions, <a href="#page189">189</a><br /> +Manures, <a href="#page40">40</a><br /> +Marcus Aurelius, <a href="#page215">215</a><br /> +Marseilles, <a href="#page35">35</a>, <a href="#page38">38</a><br /> +Martial, <a href="#page43">43</a>, <a href="#page141">141</a>, <a href="#page255">255</a>-<a href="#page257">257</a><br /> +Martin, St., <a href="#page261">261</a>, <a href="#page262">262</a><br /> +Martyrs, British, <a href="#page227">227</a>, <a href="#page259">259</a><br /> +Mastiffs, <a href="#page190">190</a><br /> +Mater Deum, <a href="#page209">209</a>, <a href="#page210">210</a><br /> +Maxentius, <a href="#page228">228</a><br /> +Maximian, <a href="#page222">222</a>, <a href="#page225">225</a>, <a href="#page227">227</a>, <a href="#page228">228</a><br /> +Maximin, <a href="#page228">228</a><br /> +Maximus, <a href="#page235">235</a><br /> +Mead, <a href="#page42">42</a><br /> +Meatae, <a href="#page201">201</a>, <a href="#page202">202</a>, <a href="#page232">232</a><br /> +Mendips, <a href="#page39">39</a>, <a href="#page188">188</a><br /> +Mile Castles, <a href="#page195">195</a>, <a href="#page204">204</a><br /> +Milestones, <a href="#page180">180</a><br /> +Millstones, <a href="#page44">44</a><br /> +Missionaries, British, <a href="#page261">261</a>, <a href="#page262">262</a><br /> +Mistletoe, <a href="#page67">67</a>, <a href="#page68">68</a><br /> +Mithraism, <a href="#page207">207</a>, <a href="#page208">208</a>, <a href="#page228">228</a><br /> +Mona, <a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page155">155</a>, <a href="#page161">161</a><br /> +Money-box, <a href="#page184">184</a><br /> +Morgan, <a href="#page263">263</a><br /> +Mutter-recht, <a href="#page46">46</a><br /> +<br /> +Narcissus, <a href="#page131">131</a><br /> +Needwood, <a href="#page58">58</a>, <a href="#page190">190</a><br /> +Nennius, <a href="#page171">171</a>-<a href="#page173">173</a>, <a href="#page244">244</a>-<a href="#page247">247</a><br /> +Neolithic Age, <a href="#page28">28</a>-<a href="#page30">30</a><br /> +Nero, <a href="#page151">151</a>, <a href="#page158">158</a>, <a href="#page159">159</a><br /> +Nervii, <a href="#page54">54</a><br /> +Newcastle, <a href="#page204">204</a><br /> +Ninias, <a href="#page261">261</a>, <a href="#page262">262</a>, <a href="#page264">264</a><br /> +North Tyne R., <a href="#page211">211</a><br /> +Notitia, <a href="#page171">171</a>, <a href="#page173">173</a>, <a href="#page174">174</a>, +<a href="#page237">237</a>-<a href="#page242">242</a><br /> +<br /> +Oberland, <a href="#page262">262</a><br /> +Ocean, <a href="#page33">33</a>, <a href="#page85">85</a>, <a href="#page97">97</a>, <a href="#page122">122</a>, +<a href="#page131">131</a>, <a href="#page236">236</a>, <a href="#page238">238</a>, <a href="#page256">256</a><br /> +Ogre, <a href="#page29">29</a><br /> +"Old England's Hole," <a href="#page111">111</a><br /> +Optio, <a href="#page211">211</a><br /> +Ordovices, <a href="#page57">57</a>, <a href="#page147">147</a><br /> +Ostorius, <a href="#page142">142</a>-<a href="#page149">149</a><br /> +Otho, <a href="#page159">159</a>, <a href="#page160">160</a><br /> +<br /> +Paganism suppressed, <a href="#page230">230</a><br /> +Palaeolithic period, <a href="#page26">26</a>-<a href="#page28">28</a><br /> +Pansa, <a href="#page198">198</a><br /> +Pantheon, Druidic, <a href="#page62">62</a>, <a href="#page64">64</a><br /> +Parisii, <a href="#page54">54</a>, <a href="#page58">58</a>, <a href="#page82">82</a><br /> +Parjetting, <a href="#page187">187</a><br /> +Patrick, St., <a href="#page71">71</a>, <a href="#page262">262</a><br /> +Paul, St., <a href="#page251">251</a>-<a href="#page257">257</a><br /> +Pax Romana, <a href="#page165">165</a>, <a href="#page178">178</a>, <a href="#page187">187</a><br /> +Pearls, British, <a href="#page128">128</a><br /> +Peel Crag, <a href="#page203">203</a><br /> +Pelagius, <a href="#page263">263</a><br /> +Perennis, <a href="#page199">199</a><br /> +Pertinax, <a href="#page200">200</a><br /> +Peter, St., <a href="#page252">252</a>, <a href="#page253">253</a><br /> +Petronius, <a href="#page158">158</a><br /> +Phoenicians, <a href="#page33">33</a>-<a href="#page37">37</a><br /> +Picts, <a href="#page193">193</a>, <a href="#page207">207</a>, <a href="#page232">232</a>-<a href="#page236">236</a>, <a href="#page245">245</a>, +<a href="#page259">259</a>, <a href="#page261">261</a>, <a href="#page264">264</a><br /> +Pilgrims, British, <a href="#page260">260</a><br /> +Pilgrims' Way, <a href="#page36">36</a><br /> +Pillars, multiple, <a href="#page185">185</a><br /> +Pilum, <a href="#page158">158</a><br /> +Pirates, <a href="#page219">219</a>-<a href="#page221">221</a>, <a href="#page235">235</a>, <a href="#page245">245</a><br /> +Plautius, <a href="#page131">131</a>, <a href="#page134">134</a>, <a href="#page137">137</a>, <a href="#page147">147</a>, +<a href="#page256">256</a><br /> +Plough, British, <a href="#page40">40</a><br /> +Pomponia, <a href="#page256">256</a><br /> +Population, <a href="#page59">59</a>, <a href="#page178">178</a><br /> +Portsmouth Harbour, <a href="#page132">132</a>, <a href="#page240">240</a>, <a href="#page252">252</a><br /> +Port Way, <a href="#page186">186</a><br /> +Posidonius, <a href="#page36">36</a>, <a href="#page82">82</a><br /> +Posting, <a href="#page189">189</a>, <a href="#page227">227</a><br /> +Postumus, <a href="#page218">218</a><br /> +Pottery, <a href="#page30">30</a>, <a href="#page187">187</a><br /> +Praetorium, <a href="#page181">181</a><br /> +Prasutagus, <a href="#page152">152</a><br /> +Precedents, British, <a href="#page182">182</a><br /> +Prefectures, <a href="#page221">221</a><br /> +Prince of Wales, <a href="#page247">247</a><br /> +Priscilla, <a href="#page257">257</a><br /> +Priscus, <a href="#page159">159</a><br /> +Probus, <a href="#page192">192</a>, <a href="#page218">218</a><br /> +Pro-consuls, <a href="#page74">74</a>, <a href="#page77">77</a>, <a href="#page142">142</a>, <a href="#page198">198</a><br /> +Procurator of Britain, <a href="#page152">152</a>, <a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page158">158</a><br /> +Prosper, <a href="#page263">263</a><br /> +Provinces, <a href="#page59">59</a>, <a href="#page74">74</a>, <a href="#page77">77</a>, <a href="#page195">195</a>, +<a href="#page198">198</a>, <a href="#page222">222</a>, <a href="#page225">225</a>, <a href="#page230">230</a>, <a href="#page240">240</a><br /> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page274" id="page274">[274]</a></span> +Ptolemy, <a href="#page171">171</a>-<a href="#page175">175</a><br /> +Pudens, <a href="#page141">141</a>, <a href="#page256">256</a>, <a href="#page257">257</a><br /> +Pytheas, <a href="#page34">34</a>-<a href="#page36">36</a>, <a href="#page38">38</a>-<a href="#page40">40</a>, <a href="#page42">42</a>, +<a href="#page45">45</a>, <a href="#page49">49</a>, <a href="#page51">51</a>, <a href="#page55">55</a><br /> +<br /> +Querns, <a href="#page44">44</a><br /> +Quiberon, Battle off, <a href="#page81">81</a><br /> +Quintus Cicero, <a href="#page104">104</a>, <a href="#page105">105</a>, <a href="#page106">106</a><br /> +<br /> +Radagaisus, <a href="#page237">237</a><br /> +Rampart of Agricola, <a href="#page163">163</a>, <a href="#page194">194</a>, <a href="#page198">198</a>, <a href="#page201">201</a>, <a href="#page234">234</a><br /> +Rationalis Britanniarum, <a href="#page241">241</a><br /> +Regni, <a href="#page57">57</a>, <a href="#page142">142</a><br /> +Ribchester, <a href="#page176">176</a>, <a href="#page266">266</a><br /> +Richborough, <a href="#page88">88</a>, <a href="#page108">108</a>, <a href="#page121">121</a>, <a href="#page175">175</a>, <a href="#page223">223</a>, +<a href="#page233">233</a>, <a href="#page235">235</a>, <a href="#page239">239</a><br /> +Rings, <a href="#page186">186</a><br /> +Rite, British, <a href="#page267">267</a><br /> +River-bed men, <a href="#page26">26</a>, <a href="#page27">27</a><br /> +Rogation Days, <a href="#page267">267</a><br /> +Roman citizenship, <a href="#page140">140</a>, <a href="#page141">141</a>, <a href="#page213">213</a>, <a href="#page214">214</a><br /> +Roman roads, <a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page166">166</a>-<a href="#page171">171</a><br /> +Royal roads, <a href="#page167">167</a><br /> +Rycknield Street, <a href="#page166">166</a>, <a href="#page170">170</a><br /> +<br /> +Saexe, <a href="#page219">219</a>, <a href="#page245">246</a><br /> +Sallustius Lucullus, <a href="#page164">164</a><br /> +Samian pottery, <a href="#page188">188</a><br /> +"Sarsen," <a href="#page30">30</a>, <a href="#page31">31</a><br /> +Sarum, <a href="#page175">175</a><br /> +Saturnalia, <a href="#page132">132</a><br /> +Saxons, <a href="#page193">193</a>, <a href="#page206">206</a>, <a href="#page219">219</a>, <a href="#page233">233</a>, <a href="#page234">234</a>, +<a href="#page236">236</a>, <a href="#page238">238</a>, <a href="#page244">244</a>, <a href="#page245">245</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> English</span><br /> +Saxon Shore, <a href="#page219">219</a><br /> +Scotch dogs, <a href="#page191">191</a><br /> +Scots, <a href="#page232">232</a>-<a href="#page238">238</a>, <a href="#page246">246</a>, <a href="#page262">262</a><br /> +Scythed chariots, <a href="#page100">100</a><br /> +Seers, <a href="#page66">66</a><br /> +Segontium, <a href="#page127">127</a>, <a href="#page172">172</a>, <a href="#page228">228</a><br /> +Selwood, <a href="#page38">38</a>, <a href="#page190">190</a><br /> +Seneca, <a href="#page140">140</a>, <a href="#page152">152</a><br /> +Settle, <a href="#page251">251</a><br /> +Severus, <a href="#page200">200</a>-<a href="#page203">203</a>, <a href="#page209">209</a>-<a href="#page213">213</a>, <a href="#page231">231</a><br /> +Sherwood, <a href="#page58">58</a>, <a href="#page190">190</a><br /> +Shields, British, <a href="#page49">49</a>, <a href="#page50">50</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Roman, <a href="#page178">178</a></span><br /> +Ships, British, <a href="#page37">37</a>, <a href="#page80">80</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Venetian, <a href="#page79">79</a>, <a href="#page80">80</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Caesar's, <a href="#page81">81</a>, <a href="#page103">103</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Scotch, <a href="#page232">232</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Saxon, <a href="#page245">245</a></span><br /> +Silchester, <a href="#page56">56</a>, <a href="#page162">162</a>, <a href="#page175">175</a>, <a href="#page179">179</a>, +<a href="#page183">183</a>-<a href="#page188">188</a>, <a href="#page264">264</a>, <a href="#page265">265</a><br /> +Silurians, <a href="#page51">51</a>, <a href="#page57">57</a>, <a href="#page146">146</a>-<a href="#page150">150</a>, +<a href="#page161">161</a><br /> +Silver, <a href="#page39">39</a>, <a href="#page186">186</a><br /> +Simon Magus, <a href="#page71">71</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Zelotes, <a href="#page253">253</a></span><br /> +"Snake's Egg," <a href="#page70">70</a>, <a href="#page71">71</a><br /> +South Foreland, <a href="#page89">89</a><br /> +Spain, <a href="#page77">77</a>, <a href="#page103">103</a>, <a href="#page155">155</a>, <a href="#page200">200</a>, +<a href="#page222">222</a>, <a href="#page242">242</a><br /> +Squads, <a href="#page239">239</a><br /> +Squared word, <a href="#page189">189</a><br /> +Stamford, Battle of, <a href="#page232">232</a>, <a href="#page246">246</a><br /> +Staters, <a href="#page38">38</a><br /> +"Stations," <a href="#page202">202</a>, <a href="#page203">203</a><br /> +Stilicho, <a href="#page235">235</a>-<a href="#page237">237</a>, <a href="#page242">242</a><br /> +Stoke-by-Nayland, <a href="#page265">265</a><br /> +Stonehenge, <a href="#page30">30</a>, <a href="#page31">31</a><br /> +"Streets," <a href="#page169">169</a><br /> +Suetonius Paulinus, <a href="#page154">154</a>-<a href="#page158">158</a>, <a href="#page161">161</a><br /> +Sul, <a href="#page183">183</a><br /> +Sussex, <a href="#page50">50</a>, <a href="#page128">128</a>, <a href="#page142">142</a><br /> +Sylla, <a href="#page75">75</a><br /> +Syracuse, <a href="#page219">219</a><br /> +<br /> +Tabulae Missionis, <a href="#page214">214</a><br /> +Tartan, <a href="#page47">47</a><br /> +Tasciovan, <a href="#page54">54</a>, <a href="#page127">127</a>, <a href="#page128">128</a>, +<a href="#page130">130</a>, <a href="#page156">156</a><br /> +Tattooing, <a href="#page48">48</a><br /> +Taxation, <a href="#page192">192</a><br /> +Thames, <a href="#page56">56</a>, <a href="#page117">117</a>-<a href="#page119">119</a>, <a href="#page122">122</a>, <a href="#page134">134</a><br /> +Thanet, <a href="#page36">36</a>, <a href="#page108">108</a>, <a href="#page245">245</a><br /> +Theatres, <a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page184">184</a><br /> +Theodosius the Elder, <a href="#page233">233</a>, <a href="#page234">234</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Great, <a href="#page230">230</a>, <a href="#page235">235</a>, <a href="#page242">242</a>, <a href="#page268">268</a></span><br /> +Thimbles, Roman, <a href="#page177">177</a><br /> +Tides, <a href="#page88">88</a>, <a href="#page93">93</a>, <a href="#page96">96</a>, <a href="#page108">108</a>, +<a href="#page124">124</a>, <a href="#page233">233</a><br /> +Tin, <a href="#page33">33</a>-<a href="#page38">38</a>, <a href="#page128">128</a><br /> +Tincommius, <a href="#page54">54</a>, <a href="#page125">125</a>, <a href="#page128">128</a><br /> +Titus, <a href="#page133">133</a>, <a href="#page137">137</a><br /> +Togodumnus, <a href="#page134">134</a>, <a href="#page147">147</a><br /> +Tonsure, Druidic, <a href="#page72">72</a><br /> +Treasury, <a href="#page180">180</a>, <a href="#page241">241</a><br /> +Trebatius, <a href="#page104">104</a><br /> +Trees, <a href="#page47">47</a><br /> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page275" id="page275">[275]</a></span> +Tribal boundaries, <a href="#page56">56</a>-<a href="#page58">58</a><br /> +Tribune, <a href="#page114">114</a>, <a href="#page138">138</a>, <a href="#page209">209</a>, <a href="#page239">239</a><br /> +Trident, <a href="#page49">49</a><br /> +Trinobantes, <a href="#page55">55</a>, <a href="#page57">57</a>, <a href="#page59">59</a>, <a href="#page109">109</a>, +<a href="#page122">122</a>, <a href="#page127">127</a><br /> +Triumphs, <a href="#page135">135</a>, <a href="#page149">149</a><br /> +Tufa, <a href="#page244">244</a>, <a href="#page247">247</a><br /> +Turf wall, <a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page198">198</a>, <a href="#page206">206</a><br /> +Tyrants, <a href="#page53">53</a>, <a href="#page54">54</a>, <a href="#page247">247</a><br /> +<br /> +"Ugrians," <a href="#page29">29</a>-<a href="#page31">31</a>, <a href="#page62">62</a><br /> +Ulpius Marcellus, <a href="#page199">199</a>, <a href="#page211">211</a><br /> +Ulysses, <a href="#page64">64</a>, <a href="#page248">248</a><br /> +Uriconium, <a href="#page150">150</a>, <a href="#page179">179</a>, <a href="#page184">184</a><br /> +Ushant, <a href="#page155">155</a><br /> +Uther, <a href="#page244">244</a><br /> +<br /> +Valens, <a href="#page234">234</a><br /> +Valentia, <a href="#page225">225</a>, <a href="#page234">234</a>, <a href="#page237">237</a>, <a href="#page240">240</a><br /> +Valentinian I., <a href="#page230">230</a>, <a href="#page233">233</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II., <a href="#page235">235</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III., <a href="#page177">177</a>, <a href="#page246">246</a></span><br /> +Vallum, <a href="#page205">205</a>-<a href="#page207">207</a>, <a href="#page233">233</a><br /> +Vandals, <a href="#page219">219</a>, <a href="#page237">237</a><br /> +Varus, <a href="#page130">130</a><br /> +Veneti, <a href="#page79">79</a>-<a href="#page81">81</a><br /> +Verica, <a href="#page125">125</a><br /> +Vericus, <a href="#page130">130</a>, <a href="#page142">142</a>, <a href="#page143">143</a>, <a href="#page152">152</a><br /> +Verulam, <a href="#page120">120</a>, <a href="#page127">127</a>, <a href="#page156">156</a>, <a href="#page157">157</a>, +<a href="#page168">168</a>, <a href="#page227">227</a>, <a href="#page263">263</a><br /> +Vespasian, <a href="#page133">133</a>, <a href="#page137">137</a>, <a href="#page159">159</a><br /> +Vexillatio, <a href="#page210">210</a><br /> +Via Devana, <a href="#page166">166</a>, <a href="#page167">167</a><br /> +Vicar of Britain, <a href="#page240">240</a>, <a href="#page243">243</a><br /> +Victorinus, <a href="#page218">218</a><br /> +Villages, <a href="#page27">27</a>, <a href="#page44">44</a>, <a href="#page45">45</a>, <a href="#page129">129</a><br /> +Villas, <a href="#page188">188</a>, <a href="#page189">189</a>, <a href="#page267">267</a><br /> +Vine-growing, <a href="#page192">192</a><br /> +Visi-goths, <a href="#page243">243</a><br /> +Volisius, <a href="#page54">54</a><br /> +Vortigern, <a href="#page245">245</a><br /> +<br /> +Wagons, <a href="#page36">36</a><br /> +Wall (of Hadrian), <a href="#page174">174</a>, <a href="#page195">195</a>, <a href="#page196">196</a>, +<a href="#page202">202</a>-<a href="#page212">212</a><br /> +Wall (of London, etc.), <a href="#page179">179</a><br /> +Water-supply, <a href="#page60">60</a>, <a href="#page162">162</a>, <a href="#page211">211</a><br /> +Watling Street, <a href="#page118">118</a>, <a href="#page166">166</a>-<a href="#page170">170</a><br /> +Wattle churches, <a href="#page254">254</a>, <a href="#page255">255</a>, <a href="#page265">265</a><br /> +Weald, <a href="#page57">57</a>, <a href="#page189">189</a><br /> +Wells, <a href="#page186">186</a><br /> +West Saxons, <a href="#page248">248</a><br /> +Whitherne, <a href="#page261">261</a>, <a href="#page262">262</a><br /> +Wight, I. of, <a href="#page36">36</a>, <a href="#page133">133</a>, <a href="#page189">189</a>, <a href="#page224">224</a><br /> +Winchester, <a href="#page175">175</a><br /> +Winter thorn, <a href="#page254">254</a><br /> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<a name="FOOTNOTES"></a><h2>FOOTNOTES:</h2> + +<a name="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1">[1]</a><div class="note"><p> Published by the Record Office, 1848.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2">[2]</a><div class="note"><p> Published by the Royal Academy of Berlin. Vol. VII. +contains the Romano-British Inscriptions.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3">[3]</a><div class="note"><p> His later books only survive in the epitome of Xiphilinus, a +Byzantine writer of the 13th century.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4">[4]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 171.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5">[5]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 256.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6">[6]</a><div class="note"><p> In the British (?) village near Glastonbury the +bases of shed antlers are found hafted for mallets.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7">[7]</a><div class="note"><p> This name is simply given for archaeological +convenience, to indicate that these aborigines were non-Aryan, +and perhaps of Turanian affinity.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8">[8]</a><div class="note"><p> Skeat, however, traces "ogre" (the Spanish "ogro") to +the Latin <i>Orcus</i>.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9">[9]</a><div class="note"><p> The latest excavations (1902) prove Stonehenge to be a +Neolithic erection. No metal was found, but quantities of flint +implements, broken in the arduous task of dressing the great +Sarsen monoliths. The process seems to have been that still +used for granite, viz. to cut parallel channels on the rough surface, +and then break and rub down the ridges between. This was +done by the use of conical lumps of Sarsen stone, weighing from +20 to 60 lbs., several of which were discovered bearing traces of +usage, both in pounding and rubbing. The monoliths examined +were found to be thus tooled accurately down to the very bottom, +8 or 9 feet below ground. At Avebury the stones are not dressed.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10">[10]</a><div class="note"><p> <i>Sarsen</i> is the same word as <i>Saracen</i>, +which in mediaeval English simply means <i>foreign</i> (though +originally derived from the Arabic <i>sharq</i> = Eastern). Whence +the stones came is still disputed. They <i>may</i> have been +boulders deposited in the district by the ice-drift of the +Glacial Epoch.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11">[11]</a><div class="note"><p> Professor Rhys assigns 600 B.C. as the approximate date +of the first Gadhelic arrivals, and 200 B.C. as that of the first +Brythonic.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12">[12]</a><div class="note"><p> Whether or no this word is (as some authorities hold) +derived from the Welsh <i>Prutinach</i> (=Picts) rather than from +the Brythons, it must have reached Aristotle through Brythonic +channels, for the Gadhelic form is <i>Cruitanach</i>.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13">[13]</a><div class="note"><p> A certain amount of British folk-lore was brought back to +Greece, according to Plutarch ('De defect. orac.' 2), by the +geographer Demetrias of Tarsus about this time. He refers to +the cavern of sleeping heroes, so familiar in our mediaeval legends.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14">[14]</a><div class="note"><p> The word is said to be derived from the root +<i>kâsh</i>, "shine." Some authorities, however, maintain +that it came into Sanscrit from the Greek.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15">[15]</a><div class="note"><p> 'Hist.' III. 112.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16">[16]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 48.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17">[17]</a><div class="note"><p> For a full notice of Pytheas see Elton, 'Origins of English +History,' pp. 13-75. See also Tozer's 'Ancient Geography,' +chap. viii.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18">[18]</a><div class="note"><p> Posidonius of Rhodes, the tutor of Cicero, visited +Britain about 100 B.C., and wrote a History of his travels in +fifty volumes, only known to us by extracts in Strabo (iii. 217, +iv. 287, vii. 293), Diodorus Siculus (v. 28, 30), Athenaeus, and +others. See Bake's 'Posidonius' (Leyden, 1810).</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19">[19]</a><div class="note"><p> The ingots of bronze found in the recent [1900] +excavations at Gnossus, in Crete, which date approximately from 2000 +B.C., are of this shape. Presumably the Britons learnt it from +Phoenician sources.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20">[20]</a><div class="note"><p> <i>Saxon</i> coracles are spoken of even in +the 5th century A.D. See p. 245.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21">[21]</a><div class="note"><p> 'Coins of the Ancient Britons,' p. 24.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22">[22]</a><div class="note"><p> This familiar feature of our climate is often touched +on by classical authors. Minucius Felix (A.D. 210) is observant +enough to connect it with our warm seas, "its compensation," +due to the Gulf Stream.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23">[23]</a><div class="note"><p> 'Nat. Hist.' xviii. 18.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24">[24]</a><div class="note"><p> <i>Ibid</i>. xvii. 4.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25">[25]</a><div class="note"><p> Solinus (A.D. 80) adds that bees, like snakes, were unknown +in Ireland, and states that bees will even desert a hive if Irish +earth be brought near it!</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26">[26]</a><div class="note"><p> Matthew Martin, 'Western Isles,' published 1673. Quoted +by Elton ('Origins of English Hist.,' p. 16), who gives Martin's +date as 1703.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27">[27]</a><div class="note"><p> Strabo, iv. 277. The word <i>basket</i> is itself of +Celtic origin, and passed into Latin as it has passed into English. +Martial ('Epig.' xiv. 299) says: "Barbara de pictis veni +<i>bascauda</i> Britannis." Strabo wrote shortly before, Martial +shortly after, the Roman Conquest of Britain.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28">[28]</a><div class="note"><p> One of these primitive mortars, a rudely-hollowed +block of oolite, with a flint pestle weighing about 6 lbs., was +found near Cambridge in 1885.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29">[29]</a><div class="note"><p> Diod. Siculus, 'Hist.' v. 21.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30">[30]</a><div class="note"><p> 'British Barrows,' p. 750.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31">[31]</a><div class="note"><p> 'Geog.' IV.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32">[32]</a><div class="note"><p> 'Legend of Montrose,' ch. xxii.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33">[33]</a><div class="note"><p> Diod. Sic. v. 30: "Saga crebris tessellis florum instar +distincta." This <i>sagum</i> was obviously a tartan plaid such as are +now in use. The kilt, however, was not worn. It is indeed +a comparatively quite modern adaptation of the belted plaid. +Ancient Britons wore trousers, drawn tight above the ankles, +after the fashion still current amongst agricultural labourers. +They were already called "breeches." Martial (Ep. x. 22) +satirizes a life "as loose as the old breeches of a British pauper."</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34">[34]</a><div class="note"><p> Pliny, 'Nat. Hist.' viii. 48.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35">[35]</a><div class="note"><p> <i>Id</i>. xxviii. 2. Fashions about hair seem to +have changed as rapidly amongst Britons (throughout the whole +period of this work) as in later times. The hair was sometimes +worn short, sometimes long, sometimes strained back from the +forehead; sometimes moustaches were in vogue, sometimes a +clean shave, more rarely a full beard; but whiskers were quite +unknown.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36">[36]</a><div class="note"><p> Tozer ('Ancient Geog.' p. 164) states that amber is also +exported from the islands fringing the west coast of Schleswig, +and considers that these rather than the Baltic shores were the +"Amber Islands" of Pytheas.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37">[37]</a><div class="note"><p> 'Nat. Hist.' xxxvii. 1.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38">[38]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 128.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39">[39]</a><div class="note"><p> A lump weighing nearly 12 lbs. was dredged up off +Lowestoft in 1902.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40">[40]</a><div class="note"><p> A.D. 50.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41">[41]</a><div class="note"><p> Seneca speaks of the blue shields of the Yorkshire +Brigantes.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42">[42]</a><div class="note"><p> See Elton, 'Origins of English History,' p. 116.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43">[43]</a><div class="note"><p> Thurnam, 'British Barrows' (Archaeol. xliii. 474).</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44">[44]</a><div class="note"><p> Propertius, iv. 3, 7.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45">[45]</a><div class="note"><p> 'Celtic Britain,' p. 40.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46">[46]</a><div class="note"><p> This seems the least difficult explanation of this strange +name. An alternative theory is that it = <i>Cenomanni</i> (a Gallic +tribe-name also found in Lombardy). But with this name +(which must have been well known to Caesar) we never again +meet in Britain. And it is hard to believe that he would not +mention a clan so important and so near the sphere of his +campaign as the Iceni.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47">[47]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 109.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48">[48]</a><div class="note"><p> These tribes are described by Vitruvius, at the +Christian era, as of huge stature, fair, and red-haired. Skeletons +of this race, over six feet in height, have been discovered in +Yorkshire buried in "monoxylic" coffins; i.e. each formed of the +hollowed trunk of an oak tree. See Elton's 'Origins,' p. 168.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49">[49]</a><div class="note"><p> This correspondence, however, is wholly an antiquarian +guess, and rests on no evidence. It is first found in the forged +chronicle of "Richard of Cirencester." The <i>names</i> are genuine, +being found in the 'Notitia,' though dating only from the time of +Diocletian (A.D. 296). But, on our theory, the same administrative +divisions must have existed all along. See p. 225.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50">[50]</a><div class="note"><p> General Pitt Rivers, however, in his 'Excavations +in Cranborne Chase' (vol. ii. p. 237), proves that the ancient +water level in the chalk was fifty feet higher than at present, +presumably owing to the greater forest area. "Dew ponds" may also +have existed in these camps. But these can scarcely have provided +any large supply of water.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51">[51]</a><div class="note"><p> The word is commonly supposed to represent a +Celtic form <i>Mai-dun</i>. But this is not unquestionable.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52">[52]</a><div class="note"><p> 'De Bello Gall.' vi. 13.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53">[53]</a><div class="note"><p> 'De Bell. Gall.' vi. 14.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54">[54]</a><div class="note"><p> Jerome ('Quaest. in Gen.' ii.) says that Varro, +Phlegon, and all learned authors testify to the spread of +Greek [at the Christian era] "from Taurus to Britain." And +Solinus (A.D. 80) tells of a Greek inscription in Caledonia, +"ara Graecis literis scripta"—as a proof that Ulysses (!) had +wandered thither (Solinus, 'Polyhistoria,' c. 22). See p. 248.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55">[55]</a><div class="note"><p> 'De Bell, Gall.' vi. 16.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56">[56]</a><div class="note"><p> 'Hist.' v. 31.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57">[57]</a><div class="note"><p> 'Celtic Britain,' p. 69.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58">[58]</a><div class="note"><p> 'Nat. Hist.' xvi. 95.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59">[59]</a><div class="note"><p> So Caesar, 'De Bell. Gall.' vi. 17.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60">[60]</a><div class="note"><p> Pliny, 'Nat. Hist.' xxiv. 62. Linnaeus has taken +<i>selago</i> as his name for club-moss, but Pliny here compares +the herb to <i>savin</i>, which grows to the height of several feet. +<i>Samolum</i> is water-pimpernel in the Linnaean classification. +Others identify it with the <i>pasch-flower</i>, which, however, is +far from being a marsh plant.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61">[61]</a><div class="note"><p> Suetonius (A.D. 110), 'De xii. Caes.' v. 25.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62">[62]</a><div class="note"><p> Pliny, 'Nat. Hist.' xxx. 3.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63">[63]</a><div class="note"><p> Tacitus, 'Annals,' xiv. 30. See p. 154.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64">[64]</a><div class="note"><p> Pliny, 'Nat. Hist.' xxix. 12.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65">[65]</a><div class="note"><p> See Brand, 'Popular Antiquities,' under +<i>Ovum Anguinum</i>. He adds that <i>Glune</i> is the +Irish for glass.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66">[66]</a><div class="note"><p> Lampridius, in his life of Alexander Severus, +tells us of a "Druid" sorceress who warned the Emperor of +his approaching doom. Another such "Druidess" is said to +have foretold Diocletian's rise. See Coulanges, '<i>Comme +le Druidisme a disparu</i>,' in the <i>Revue Celtique</i>, +iv. 37.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67">[67]</a><div class="note"><p> See Professor Rhys, 'Celtic Britain,' p. 70. +The Professor's view that the "schismatical" tonsure of the +Celtic clergy, which caused such a stir during the evangelization +of England, was a Druidical survival, does not, however, seem +probable in face of the very pronounced antagonism between those +clergy and the Druids. That tonsure was indeed ascribed by its +Roman denouncers to Simon Magus [see above], but this is scarcely a +sufficient foundation for the theory.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68">[68]</a><div class="note"><p> They may very possibly have been connected with the +Veneti of Venice at the other extremity of "the Gauls."</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69">[69]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 37.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70">[70]</a><div class="note"><p> Caesar, 'Bell. Gall.' iii. 9, 13.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71">[71]</a><div class="note"><p> Elton, 'Origins of English Hist.,' p. 237. Though less +massive, these vessels are built much as the Venetian. But it is +just as probable they may really be "picts." See p. 232.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72">[72]</a><div class="note"><p> This opening of Britain to continental influences may +perhaps account for Posidonius having been able to make so +thorough a survey of the islands. See p. 36.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73">[73]</a><div class="note"><p> Elton ('Origins of English Hist.') conjectures +that these tribes did not migrate to Britain till after Caesar's +day. But there is no evidence for this, and my view seems better +to explain the situation.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74">[74]</a><div class="note"><p> Solinus (A.D. 80) says of Britain, "<i>alterius +orbis nomen mereretur</i>." This passage is probably the origin +of the Pope's well-known reference to St. Anselm, when Archbishop +of Canterbury, as "<i>quasi alterius orbis antistes</i>."</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75">[75]</a><div class="note"><p> A Roman legion at this date comprised ten "cohorts," +<i>i.e.</i> some six thousand heavy-armed infantry, besides a +small light-armed contingent, and an attached squadron of three +hundred cavalry. Each of Caesar's transports must thus have carried +from one hundred and fifty to two hundred men, and at this +rate the eighteen cavalry vessels (reckoning a horse as equivalent +to five men, the usual proportion for purposes of military transport) +would suffice for his two squadrons.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76">[76]</a><div class="note"><p> An ancient ship could not sail within eight points of the +wind (see Smith, 'Voyage of St. Paul'). Thus a S.W. breeze, +while permitting Caesar to leave Boulogne, would effectually +prevent these vessels from working out of Ambleteuse.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77">[77]</a><div class="note"><p> Hence the name Dubris = "the rivers."</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78">[78]</a><div class="note"><p> The claims of Richborough [Ritupis] to be Caesar's actual +landing-place have been advocated by Archdeacon Baddeley, +Mr. G. Bowker, and others. But it is almost impossible to +make this place square with Caesar's narrative.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79">[79]</a><div class="note"><p> This was four days before the full moon, so that the tide +would be high at Dover about 6 p.m.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80">[80]</a><div class="note"><p> The "lofty promontory" rounded is specially noticed by +Dio Cassius.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81">[81]</a><div class="note"><p> The principle of the balista that of the sling, of +the catapult that of the bow. Ammianus Marcellinus (xv. 12) +speaks of "the snowy arms" of the Celtic women dealing blows +"like the stroke of a catapult."</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82">[82]</a><div class="note"><p> Valerius Maximus (A.D. 30) has recorded one such act of +daring on the part of a soldier named Scaeva, who with four +comrades held an isolated rock against all comers till he alone +was left, when he plunged into the sea and swam off, with the +loss of his shield. In spite of this disgrace Caesar that evening +promoted him on the field. The story has a suspicious number +of variants, but off Deal there <i>is</i> such a patch of rocks, +locally called the Malms; so that it may possibly be true +('Memorabilia,' III. 2, 23).</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83">[83]</a><div class="note"><p> Valerius Maximus (A.D. 30) states that the Romans landed +on a <i>falling</i> tide, which cannot be reconciled with Caesar's own +narrative (see p. 88). The idea may have originated in the fact +that it was probably the approaching turn of the tide which forced +him to land at Deal. He could not have reached Richborough +before the ebb began.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84">[84]</a><div class="note"><p> Every soldier was four feet from his nearest neighbour to +give scope for effective sword-play. No other troops in history +have ever had the morale thus to fight at close quarters.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85">[85]</a><div class="note"><p> See Plutarch, 'De placitis philosophorum.'</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86">[86]</a><div class="note"><p> Each chariot may have carried six or seven men, like +those of the Indian King Porus. See Dodge, 'Alexander,' p. 554.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_87">[87]</a><div class="note"><p> Pomponius Mela ('De Situ Orbis,' I) tells us that +by his date (50 A.D.) it had come in: "Covinos vocant, quorum falcatis +axîbus utuntur."</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88">[88]</a><div class="note"><p> It is thus represented by Giraldus Cambrensis, who gives +us the story of Caesar's campaigns from the British point of view, +as it survived (of course with gross exaggerations) in the Cymric +legends of his day.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89">[89]</a><div class="note"><p> Lucan, the last champion of anti-Caesarism, sung, two +generations after its overthrow, the praises and the dirge of the +Oligarchy.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_90">[90]</a><div class="note"><p> See my 'Alfred in the Chroniclers,' p. 44.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_91">[91]</a><div class="note"><p>'Ad Treb.' Ep. VI.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_92">[92]</a><div class="note"><p> 'Ad Treb.' Ep. VII.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_93">[93]</a><div class="note"><p> Ep. 10.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_94">[94]</a><div class="note"><p> Ep. 16.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_95">[95]</a><div class="note"><p> Ep. 17.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_96">[96]</a><div class="note"><p> IV. 15.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97">[97]</a><div class="note"><p> III. 1.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98">[98]</a><div class="note"><p> II. 16.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99">[99]</a><div class="note"><p> II. 15.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_100">[100]</a><div class="note"><p> III. 10.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_101_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101_101">[101]</a><div class="note"><p> Wace ('Roman de Ron,' 11,567) gives 696 as the exact total.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_102">[102]</a><div class="note"><p> 'Strategemata,' viii. 23.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_103">[103]</a><div class="note"><p> This was probably not Deal, which had not proved a +satisfactory station, but Richborough, where the Wantsum, then a +broad arm of the sea between Kent and Thanet, provided an +excellent harbour for a large fleet. It was, moreover, the regular +emporium of the tin trade (see p. 36), and a British trackway +thus led to it.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_104">[104]</a><div class="note"><p> Otherwise <i>Cadwallon</i>, which, according to +Professor Rhys, signifies War King, and may possibly have been +a title rather than a personal name. But it remained in use as +the latter for many centuries of British history.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_105">[105]</a><div class="note"><p> Vine, 'Caesar in Kent,' p. 171. The spot is "in Bourne +Park, not far from the road leading up to Bridge Hill."</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_106_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106_106">[106]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 244.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_107_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107_107">[107]</a><div class="note"><p> See II. G. 8. The tradition of this sentiment +long survived. Hegesippus (A.D. 150) says: "Britanni ... quidesse +servitus ignorabant; soli sibi nati, semper sibi liberi" ('De Bello +Judiaco,' II. 9).</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_108_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108_108">[108]</a><div class="note"><p> Polyaenus (A.D. 180) in his 'Strategemata' (viii. 23) +ascribes their panic to Caesar's elephant. See p. 107.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_109_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109_109">[109]</a><div class="note"><p> At Ilerda. See Dodge, 'Caesar,' xxviii.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_110_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110_110">[110]</a><div class="note"><p> Frontinus (A.D. 90), 'Strategemata II.' xiii. II.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_111_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111_111">[111]</a><div class="note"><p> Coins of all three bear the words COMMI. F. (<i>Commii +Filius</i>), but Verica alone calls himself REX. Those of Eppillus +were struck at Calleva (Silchester?).</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_112_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112_112">[112]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 54.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_113_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113_113">[113]</a><div class="note"><p> This is the spelling adopted by Suetonius.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_114_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114_114">[114]</a><div class="note"><p> The lion was already a specially British emblem. Ptolemy +('de Judiciis II.' 3) ascribes the special courage of Britons to the +fact that they are astrologically influenced by Leo and Mars. It +is interesting to remember that our success in the Crimean War +was prognosticated from Mars being in Leo at its commencement +(March 1854). Tennyson, in 'Maud,' has referred to this—"And +pointed to Mars, As he hung like a ruddy shield on +the Lion's breast."</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_115_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115_115">[115]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 38.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_116_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116_116">[116]</a><div class="note"><p> The site of this town is quite unknown. Caesar mentions +the Segontiaci amongst the clans of S.E. Britain.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_117_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117_117">[117]</a><div class="note"><p> In S.E. Essex, near Colchester. See p. 176.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_118_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118_118">[118]</a><div class="note"><p> See pp. 109, 122.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_119_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119_119">[119]</a><div class="note"><p> Aelian (A.D. 220), 'De Nat. Animal.' xv. 8.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_120_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120_120">[120]</a><div class="note"><p> +Ελεφάντινα ψάλια καὶ, περιαυχένια, καὶ νιγγούρια καὶ ὑαλᾶ σκεύη ὑαλᾶ σκεύη, +καὶ ῥῶπος τοίουτος [<b>Elephantina psalia, kai periauchenia, kai +lingouria kai huala skeuê, kai rhôpos toioutos</b>]. Strabo is commonly +supposed to mean that these were the <i>imports</i> from Gaul. But +his words are quite ambiguous, and such of the articles he mentions +as are found in Britain are clearly of native manufacture. British +graves are fertile (see p. 48) in the "amber and glass ornaments" +(the former being small roughly-shaped fragments pierced for +threading, the latter coarse blue or green beads), and produce +occasional armlets of narwhal ivory. Glass beads have been found +(1898) in the British village near Glastonbury, and elsewhere.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_121_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121_121">[121]</a><div class="note"><p> Strabo, v. 278.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_122_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122_122">[122]</a><div class="note"><p> Propertius, II. 1. 73: Esseda caelatis siste Britanna jugis.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_123_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_123_123">[123]</a><div class="note"><p> <i>Ibid</i>. II. 18. 23. See p. 47.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_124_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_124_124">[124]</a><div class="note"><p> Virgil, 'Georg.' III. 24.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_125_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_125_125">[125]</a><div class="note"><p> Virgil, 'Eccl.' I. 65; Horace, 'Od.' I. 21. 13, 35. 30, III. +5. 3; Tibullus, IV. 1. 147; Propertius, IV. 3. 7.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_126_126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_126_126">[126]</a><div class="note"><p> Suetonius, 'De XII. Caes.' IV. 19.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_127_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_127_127">[127]</a><div class="note"><p> The lofty spur of the Chiltern Hills which overhangs the +church of Ellsborough is traditionally the site of his tomb.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_128_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_128_128">[128]</a><div class="note"><p> This whole episode is from 'Dio Cassius' +(lib. xxxix. Section 50).</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_129_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129_129">[129]</a><div class="note"><p> He places Cirencester in their territory, while both Bath +and Winchester belonged to the Belgae. To secure Winchester, +where they would be on the line of the tin-trade road (see p. +36), would be the first object of the Romans if they did land +at Portsmouth. Their further steps would depend upon the +disposition of the British armies advancing to meet them,—the +final objective of the campaign being Camelodune, the capital +of the sons of Cymbeline.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_130_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_130_130">[130]</a><div class="note"><p> This is stated by both Geoffrey of Monmouth and +Matthew of Westminster.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_131_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_131_131">[131]</a><div class="note"><p> For three centuries this legion was quartered at +Caerleon-upon-Usk, and the Twentieth at Chester. See Mommsen, +'Roman Provinces,' p. 174.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_132_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_132_132">[132]</a><div class="note"><p> This was the honorary title of several legions; as +there are several "Royal" regiments.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_133_133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_133_133">[133]</a><div class="note"><p> Tac, 'Hist.' III. 44.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_134_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_134_134">[134]</a><div class="note"><p> The Flavian family was of very humble origin.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_135_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_135_135">[135]</a><div class="note"><p> Bede, from Suetonius, tells us that Vespasian with +his legion fought in Britain thirty-two battles and took twenty +towns, besides subduing the Isle of Wight ('Sex. Aet.' A.D. 80).</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_136_136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_136_136">[136]</a><div class="note"><p> If the Romans were advancing eastward from the Dobunian +territory it may have been the Loddon. Mommsen cuts the +knot in true German fashion by refusing to identify the Dobuni +of Ptolemy with those of Dion, and placing the latter in Kent +on his own sole authority. ('Roman Provinces,' p. 175.)</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_137_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_137_137">[137]</a><div class="note"><p> δυσδιέξοδα [<b>dusdiexoda.</b>]</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_138_138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_138_138">[138]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 139.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_139_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_139_139">[139]</a><div class="note"><p> 'Orosius,' VII. 5.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_140_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_140_140">[140]</a><div class="note"><p> A victorious Roman general was commonly thus +hailed by his troops after any signal victory. But by custom +this could only be done once in the same campaign.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_141_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_141_141">[141]</a><div class="note"><p> Suet. v. 21.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_142_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_142_142">[142]</a><div class="note"><p> Dio Cassius, lx. 23. The boy, who was the +child of Messalina, had previously been named <i>Germanicus</i>.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_143_143"></a><a href="#FNanchor_143_143">[143]</a><div class="note"><p> Suet. v. 28.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_144_144"></a><a href="#FNanchor_144_144">[144]</a><div class="note"><p> Suet. v. 21.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_145_145"></a><a href="#FNanchor_145_145">[145]</a><div class="note"><p> Tac., 'Ann.' xii. 56.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_146_146"></a><a href="#FNanchor_146_146">[146]</a><div class="note"><p> Dio Cassius, lx. 30.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_147_147"></a><a href="#FNanchor_147_147">[147]</a><div class="note"><p> Suet. v. 24.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_148_148"></a><a href="#FNanchor_148_148">[148]</a><div class="note"><p> Dio Cassius, lx. 30.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_149_149"></a><a href="#FNanchor_149_149">[149]</a><div class="note"><p> Eutropius, vii. 13.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_150_150"></a><a href="#FNanchor_150_150">[150]</a><div class="note"><p> Muratori, Thes. mcii. 6.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_151_151"></a><a href="#FNanchor_151_151">[151]</a><div class="note"><p> 'De XII. Caesaribus,' v. 28.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_152_152"></a><a href="#FNanchor_152_152">[152]</a><div class="note"><p> Dio Cassius, lx. 23.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_153_153"></a><a href="#FNanchor_153_153">[153]</a><div class="note"><p> See Haverfield in 'Authority and Archaeology,' p. 319</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_154_154"></a><a href="#FNanchor_154_154">[154]</a><div class="note"><p> 'Laus Claudii' (Burmann, 'Anthol.' ii. 8).</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_155_155"></a><a href="#FNanchor_155_155">[155]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 152.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_156_156"></a><a href="#FNanchor_156_156">[156]</a><div class="note"><p> The inscription runs thus: +</p> +<blockquote> +<p>NEPTVNO. ET. MINERVAE<br /> + TEMPLVM<br /> + <i>pro</i> SALVTE. DO <i>mus</i> DIVINAE<br /> + <i>ex</i> AVCTORITATE. <i>Ti</i>. CLAVD<br /> +<i>Co</i> GIDVBNI. R. LEGATI. AVG. IN. BRIT.<br /> + <i>Colle</i> GIVM. FABRO. ET. QVI. IN. E.<br /> + . . . . . D.S.D. DONANTE. AREAM.<br /> + <i>Pud</i> ENTE. PVDENTINI. FIL<i>iae</i></p></blockquote> + +<p>(The italics are almost certain restoration of illegible letters.)</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_157_157"></a><a href="#FNanchor_157_157">[157]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 256.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_158_158"></a><a href="#FNanchor_158_158">[158]</a><div class="note"><p> Claudia, the British Princess mentioned by Martial as +making a distinguished Roman marriage, may very probably be +his daughter.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_159_159"></a><a href="#FNanchor_159_159">[159]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 130.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_160_160"></a><a href="#FNanchor_160_160">[160]</a><div class="note"><p> Thus in St. Luke ii. we find Cyrenius <i>Pro-praetor</i> +(ἡγεμων [<b>hêgemôn</b>]) of Syria, but in Acts xviii. Gallio +<i>Pro-consul</i> (ὰνθύπατος [<b>hanthupatos</b>]) of Achaia.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_161_161"></a><a href="#FNanchor_161_161">[161]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 131.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_162_162"></a><a href="#FNanchor_162_162">[162]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 170.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_163_163"></a><a href="#FNanchor_163_163">[163]</a><div class="note"><p> His reputation for strength, skill, and daring cost +him his life a few years later, under Nero (Tac, 'Ann.' xvi. 15).</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_164_164"></a><a href="#FNanchor_164_164">[164]</a><div class="note"><p> Pigs of lead have been found in Denbighshire stamped +CANGI or DECANGI. Mr. Elton, however, locates the tribe +in Somerset. Coins testify to Antedrigus, the Icenian, being +somehow connected with this tribe.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_165_165"></a><a href="#FNanchor_165_165">[165]</a><div class="note"><p> A Roman "Colony" was a town peopled by citizens of +Rome (old soldiers being preferred) sent out in the first instance +to dominate the subject population amid whom they were settled. +Such was Philippi.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_166_166"></a><a href="#FNanchor_166_166">[166]</a><div class="note"><p> Tacitus, 'Annals,' xii. 38.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_167_167"></a><a href="#FNanchor_167_167">[167]</a><div class="note"><p> The distinction of an actual triumph was reserved for +Emperors alone.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_168_168"></a><a href="#FNanchor_168_168">[168]</a><div class="note"><p> Tacitus, 'Annals,' xii. 39.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_169_169"></a><a href="#FNanchor_169_169">[169]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 239. Uriconium alone has as yet furnished +inscriptions of the famous Fourteenth Legion, <i>"Victores +Britannici."</i> (See p. 160.)</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_170_170"></a><a href="#FNanchor_170_170">[170]</a><div class="note"><p> 'Ep. ad Atticum,' vi. 1.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_171_171"></a><a href="#FNanchor_171_171">[171]</a><div class="note"><p> See Dio Cassius, xii. 2.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_172_172"></a><a href="#FNanchor_172_172">[172]</a><div class="note"><p> The Procurator of a Province was the Imperial Finance +Administrator. (See Haverfield, 'Authority and Archaeology,' +p. 310.)</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_173_173"></a><a href="#FNanchor_173_173">[173]</a><div class="note"><p> An inscription calls the place <i>Colonia +Victricensis</i>.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_174_174"></a><a href="#FNanchor_174_174">[174]</a><div class="note"><p> Tacitus, 'Ann.' xiv. 32.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_175_175"></a><a href="#FNanchor_175_175">[175]</a><div class="note"><p> Demeter and Kore. M. Martin ('Hist. France,' i. 63) thinks +there is here a confusion between the Greek Kore (Proserpine) +and Koridwen, the White Fairy, the Celtic Goddess of the +Moon and also (as amongst the Greeks) of maidenhood. But +this is not proven.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_176_176"></a><a href="#FNanchor_176_176">[176]</a><div class="note"><p> The former is Strabo's variant of the name (which may +possibly be connected with σεμνός [<b>semnos</b>]), the latter that of +Dionysius Periegetes ('De Orbe,' 57). In Caesar we find a third form +<i>Namnitae</i>, which Professor Rhys connects with the modern Nantes.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_177_177"></a><a href="#FNanchor_177_177">[177]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 127.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_178_178"></a><a href="#FNanchor_178_178">[178]</a><div class="note"><p> As Agricola, his father-in-law, was actually with Suetonius, +Tacitus had exceptional opportunities for knowing the truth.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_179_179"></a><a href="#FNanchor_179_179">[179]</a><div class="note"><p> Suetonius probably retreated southward when he left London, +and reoccupied its ruins when the Britons, instead of following +him, turned northwards to Verulam.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_180_180"></a><a href="#FNanchor_180_180">[180]</a><div class="note"><p> The Roman <i>pilum</i> was a casting spear with a heavy steel +head, nine inches long.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_181_181"></a><a href="#FNanchor_181_181">[181]</a><div class="note"><p> Tac., 'Agricola,' c. 12.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_182_182"></a><a href="#FNanchor_182_182">[182]</a><div class="note"><p> That the well-known coins commemorating these victories +and bearing the legend IVDAEA CAPTA are not infrequently +found in Britain, indicates the special connection between +Vespasian and our island. The great argument used by Titus +and Agrippa to convince the Jews that even the walls of +Jerusalem would fail to resist the onset of Romans was that no +earthly rampart could compare with the ocean wall of Britain +(Josephus, D.B.J., II. 16, vi, 6).</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_183_183"></a><a href="#FNanchor_183_183">[183]</a><div class="note"><p> The spread of Latin oratory and literature in +Britain is spoken of at this date by Juvenal (Sat. xv. 112), +and Martial (Epig. xi. 3), who mentions that his own works +were current here: "Dicitur et nostros cantare Britannia +versus."</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_184_184"></a><a href="#FNanchor_184_184">[184]</a><div class="note"><p> Mr. Haverfield suggests that Silchester may also +be an Agricolan city (see p. 184).</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_185_185"></a><a href="#FNanchor_185_185">[185]</a><div class="note"><p> Juvenal mentions these designs (II. 159): +</p><p> +</p><p><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"—Arma quidem ultra</span><br /> +Litora Juvernae promovimus, et modo captas<br /> +Orcadas, et minima contentos nocte Britannos" (i.e. those furthest north).<br /> +</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_186_186"></a><a href="#FNanchor_186_186">[186]</a><div class="note"><p> According to Dio Cassius this voyage of discovery +was first made by some deserters ('Hist. Rom.' lxix. 20).</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_187_187"></a><a href="#FNanchor_187_187">[187]</a><div class="note"><p> The little that is known of this rampart will be +found in the next chapter (see p. 198).</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_188_188"></a><a href="#FNanchor_188_188">[188]</a><div class="note"><p> Sallustius Lucullus, who succeeded Agricola as +Pro-praetor, was slain by Domitian only for the invention of +an improved lance, known by his name (as rifles now are called +Mausers, etc.).</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_189_189"></a><a href="#FNanchor_189_189">[189]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 117.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_190_190"></a><a href="#FNanchor_190_190">[190]</a><div class="note"><p> All highways were made Royal Roads before the +end of the 12th century, so that the course of the original +four became matter of purely antiquarian interest.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_191_191"></a><a href="#FNanchor_191_191">[191]</a><div class="note"><p> Where it struck that sea is disputed, but Henry +of Huntingdon's assertion that it ran straight from London to +Chester seems the most probable.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_192_192"></a><a href="#FNanchor_192_192">[192]</a><div class="note"><p> The lines of these roads, if produced, strike the +Thames not at London Bridge, but at the old "Horse Ferry" to Lambeth. +This <i>may</i> point to an alternative (perhaps the very earliest) +route.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_193_193"></a><a href="#FNanchor_193_193">[193]</a><div class="note"><p> Guest ('Origines Celticae') derives "Ermine" from A.S. +<i>eorm</i>=fen, and "Watling" from the Welsh Gwyddel=Goidhel=Irish. +The Ermine Street, however, nowhere touches the +fenland; nor did any Gaelic population, so far as is known, +abut upon the Watling Street, at any rate after the English +Conquest. Verulam was sometimes called Watling-chester, +probably as the first town on the road.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_194_194"></a><a href="#FNanchor_194_194">[194]</a><div class="note"><p> The distinction between "Street" and "Way" must not, +however, be pressed, as is done by some writers. The Fosse Way +is never called a Street, though its name [<i>fossa</i>] shows it +to have been constructed as such; and the Icknield Way is frequently +so called, though it was certainly a mere track—often a series +of parallel tracks (<i>e.g.</i> at Kemble-in-the-Street in +Oxfordshire)—as it mostly remains to this day.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_195_195"></a><a href="#FNanchor_195_195">[195]</a><div class="note"><p> This may still be seen in places; <i>e.g.</i> on the +"Hardway" in Somerset and the "Maiden Way" in Cumberland. See +Codrington, 'Roman Roads in Britain.'</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_196_196"></a><a href="#FNanchor_196_196">[196]</a><div class="note"><p> Camden, however, speaks of a Saxon charter so +designating it near Stilton ('Britannia,' II. 249).</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_197_197"></a><a href="#FNanchor_197_197">[197]</a><div class="note"><p> The whole evidence on this confused subject is well +set out by Mr. Codrington ('Roman Roads in Britain').</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_198_198"></a><a href="#FNanchor_198_198">[198]</a><div class="note"><p> It is, however, possible that the latter is named from +Ake-manchester, which is found as A.S. for Bath, to which it must +have formed the chief route from the N. East.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_199_199"></a><a href="#FNanchor_199_199">[199]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 144. Bradley, however, controverts this, pointing +out that the pre-Norman authorities for the name only refer to +Berkshire.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_200_200"></a><a href="#FNanchor_200_200">[200]</a><div class="note"><p> Thus Iter V. takes the traveller from London to Lincoln +<i>viâ</i> Colchester, Cambridge, and Huntingdon, though the Ermine +Street runs direct between the two. The 'Itinerary' is a Roadbook +of the Empire, giving the stages on each route set forth, +assigned by commentators to widely differing dates, from the +2nd century to the 5th. In my own view Caracalla is probably +the Antoninus from whom it is called. But after Antoninus +Pius (138 A.D.) the name was borne (or assumed) by almost +every Emperor for a century and more.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_201_201"></a><a href="#FNanchor_201_201">[201]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 237.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_202_202"></a><a href="#FNanchor_202_202">[202]</a><div class="note"><p> Ptolemy also marks, in his map of Britain, some fifty +capes, rivers, etc., and the Ravenna list names over forty.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_203_203"></a><a href="#FNanchor_203_203">[203]</a><div class="note"><p> The longitude is reckoned from the "Fortunate Isles," the +most western land known to Ptolemy, now the Canary Islands. +Ferro, the westernmost of these, is still sometimes found as the +Prime Meridian in German maps.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_204_204"></a><a href="#FNanchor_204_204">[204]</a><div class="note"><p> Thus the north supplies not only inscriptions relating +to its own legion (the Sixth), but no fewer than 32 of the Second, +and 22 of the Twentieth; while at London and Bath indications of +all three are found.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_205_205"></a><a href="#FNanchor_205_205">[205]</a><div class="note"><p> The Latin word <i>castra</i>, originally meaning "camp," +came (in Britain) to signify a fortified town, and was adopted into +the various dialects of English as <i>caster, Chester</i>, or +<i>cester</i>; the first being the distinctively N. Eastern, the +last the S. Western form.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_206_206"></a><a href="#FNanchor_206_206">[206]</a><div class="note"><p> Amongst these, however, must be named the high +authority of Professor Skeat. See 'Cambs. Place-Names.'</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_207_207"></a><a href="#FNanchor_207_207">[207]</a><div class="note"><p> Pearson's 'Historical Maps of England' gives a complete +list of these.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_208_208"></a><a href="#FNanchor_208_208">[208]</a><div class="note"><p> This industry flourished throughout the last half +of the 19th century. The "coprolites" were phosphatic nodules found +in the greensand and dug for use as manure.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_209_209"></a><a href="#FNanchor_209_209">[209]</a><div class="note"><p> These are of bronze, with closed ends, pitted for +the needle as now, but of size for wearing upon the <i>thumb</i>.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_210_210"></a><a href="#FNanchor_210_210">[210]</a><div class="note"><p> There seems no valid reason for doubting that the +horseshoes found associated with Roman pottery, etc., in the ashpits +of the Cam valley, Dorchester, etc., are actually of Romano-British +date. Gesner maintains that our method of shoeing +horses was introduced by Vegetius under Valentinian II. The +earlier shoes seem to have been rather such slippers as are now +used by horses drawing mowing-machines on college lawns. +They were sometimes of rope: <i>Solea sparta pes bovis induitur</i> +(Columella), sometimes of iron: <i>Et supinam animam gravido +derelinquere caeno Ferream ut solam tenaci in voragine mula</i> +(Catullus, xvii. 25). Even gold was used: <i>Poppaea jumentis suis +soleas ex auro induebat</i> (Suet., 'Nero,' xxx.). The Romano-British +horseshoes are thin broad bands of iron, fastened on by +three nails, and without heels. See also Beckmann's 'History +of Inventions' (ed. Bohn).</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_211_211"></a><a href="#FNanchor_211_211">[211]</a><div class="note"><p> This is true of the whole of Britain, even along the +Wall, as a glance at the cases in the British Museum will show. There +may be seen the most interesting relic of this class yet discovered, +a bronze shield-boss, dredged out of the Tyne in 1893 [see +'Lapid. Sept.' p. 58], bearing the name of the owner, Junius +Dubitatus, and his Centurion, Julius Magnus, of the Ninth +Legion.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_212_212"></a><a href="#FNanchor_212_212">[212]</a><div class="note"><p> The wall of London is demonstrably later than the town, +old material being found built into it. So is that of Silchester.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_213_213"></a><a href="#FNanchor_213_213">[213]</a><div class="note"><p> York was not three miles in circumference, Uriconium the +same, Cirencester and Lincoln about two, Silchester and Bath +somewhat smaller.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_214_214"></a><a href="#FNanchor_214_214">[214]</a><div class="note"><p> Roman milestones have been found in various places, +amongst the latest and most interesting being one of Carausius +discovered in 1895, at Carlisle. It had been reversed to substitute +the name of Constantius (see p. 222.). It may be noted that +the earliest of post-Roman date are those still existing on the +road between Cambridge and London, set up in 1729.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_215_215"></a><a href="#FNanchor_215_215">[215]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 117. When the existing bridge was built, Roman +remains were found in the river-bed.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_216_216"></a><a href="#FNanchor_216_216">[216]</a><div class="note"><p> The Thames to the south, the Fleet to the west, and the +Wall Brook to the east and north.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_217_217"></a><a href="#FNanchor_217_217">[217]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 233. The city wall may well be due to him.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_218_218"></a><a href="#FNanchor_218_218">[218]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 233.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_219_219"></a><a href="#FNanchor_219_219">[219]</a><div class="note"><p> On this functionary, see article by Domaszewski in +the 'Rheinisches Review,' 1891. His appointment was part of the +pacificatory system promoted by Agricola.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_220_220"></a><a href="#FNanchor_220_220">[220]</a><div class="note"><p> An <i>archigubernus</i> (master pilot) of this fleet +left his property to one of his subordinates in trust for his infant +son. The son died before coming of age, whereupon the estate was +claimed by the next of kin, while the trustee contended that it +had now passed to him absolutely. He was upheld by the Court. +Another York decision established the principle that any money +made by a slave belonged to his <i>bonâ fide</i> owner. And another +settled that a <i>Decurio</i> (a functionary answering to a village +Mayor in France) was responsible only for his own <i>Curia</i>.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_221_221"></a><a href="#FNanchor_221_221">[221]</a><div class="note"><p> Inscriptions of the Twentieth have been found here.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_222_222"></a><a href="#FNanchor_222_222">[222]</a><div class="note"><p> <i>Legra-ceaster</i>, the earliest known form of the +name, signifies Camp-chester <i>(Legra = Laager)</i>. In Anglo-Saxon +writings the name is often applied to Chester. This, however, was +<i>the</i> Chester, <i>par excellence</i>, as having remained so long +unoccupied. In the days of Alfred it is still a "waste Chester" in +the A.S. Chronicle. The word <i>Chester</i> is only associated with +Roman fortifications in Southern Britain. But north of the wall, +as Mr. Haverfield points out, we find it applied to earthworks +which cannot possibly have ever been Roman. (See 'Antiquary' +for 1895, p. 37.)</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_223_223"></a><a href="#FNanchor_223_223">[223]</a><div class="note"><p> Bath was frequented by Romano-British society for its +medicinal waters, as it has been since. The name <i>Aquae</i> (like +the various <i>Aix</i> in Western Europe) records this fact. Bath +was differentiated as <i>Aquae Solis</i>; the last word having less +reference to Apollo the Healer, than to a local deity <i>Sul</i> or +<i>Sulis</i>. Traces of an elaborate pump-room system, including +baths and cisterns still retaining their leaden lining, have here +been discovered; and even the stock-in-trade of one of the +small shops, where, as now at such resorts, trinkets were sold to +the visitors.(See 'Antiquary,' 1895, p. 201.)</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_224_224"></a><a href="#FNanchor_224_224">[224]</a><div class="note"><p> Similar excavations are in progress at Caergwent, but, +as yet, with less interesting results. Amongst the objects found is +a money-box of pottery, with a slit for the coins. A theatre [?] +is now (1903) being uncovered.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_225_225"></a><a href="#FNanchor_225_225">[225]</a><div class="note"><p> See II. F. 4; also Mr. Haverfield's articles in the +'Athenaeum' (115, Dec. 1894), and in the 'Antiquary' +(1899, p. 71).</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_226_226"></a><a href="#FNanchor_226_226">[226]</a><div class="note"><p> Mr. Haverfield notes ('Antiquary,' 1898, p. 235) that +British basilicas are larger than those on the Continent, probably +because more protection from weather was here necessary. +Almost as large as this basilica must have been that at Lincoln, +where sections of the curious multiple pillars (which perhaps +suggested to St. Hugh the development from Norman to Gothic +in English architecture) may be seen studding the concrete pavement +of Ball Gate.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_227_227"></a><a href="#FNanchor_227_227">[227]</a><div class="note"><p> A plan of this "church" is given by Mr. Haverfield +in the 'English Hist. Review,' July 1896.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_228_228"></a><a href="#FNanchor_228_228">[228]</a><div class="note"><p> An inspection of the Ordnance Map (1 in.) shows this +clearly. It is the road called (near Andover) the <i>Port Way</i>.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_229_229"></a><a href="#FNanchor_229_229">[229]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 46.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_230_230"></a><a href="#FNanchor_230_230">[230]</a><div class="note"><p> The water supply of Silchester seems to have been wholly +derived from these wells, which are from 25 to 30 feet in depth, +and were usually lined with wood. In one of them there were +found (in 1900) stones of various fruit trees (cherry, plum, etc.), +the introduction of which into Britain has long been attributed +to the Romans, (See Earle, 'English Plant Names.') But this +find is not beyond suspicion of being merely a mouse's hoard of +recent date.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_231_231"></a><a href="#FNanchor_231_231">[231]</a><div class="note"><p> Roman refineries for extracting silver existed in the +lead-mining districts both of the Mendips and of Derbyshire, which +were worked continuously throughout the occupation. But the +Silchester plant was adapted for dealing with far more refractory +ores; for what purpose we cannot tell.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_232_232"></a><a href="#FNanchor_232_232">[232]</a><div class="note"><p> See paper by W. Gowland in Silchester Report (Society of +Antiquaries) for 1899.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_233_233"></a><a href="#FNanchor_233_233">[233]</a><div class="note"><p> A glance at the maps issued by the Society of Antiquaries +will show this. The massive rampart, forming an irregular +hexagon, cuts off the corners of various blocks in the ground +plan.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_234_234"></a><a href="#FNanchor_234_234">[234]</a><div class="note"><p> The well-known Cambridge jug of Messrs. Hattersley is a +typical example.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_235_235"></a><a href="#FNanchor_235_235">[235]</a><div class="note"><p> "Samian" factories existed in Gaul.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_236_236"></a><a href="#FNanchor_236_236">[236]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 43.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_237_237"></a><a href="#FNanchor_237_237">[237]</a><div class="note"><p> TI. CLAVDIVS CAESAR AVG. P.M. TRIB. P. VIIII. IMP, XVI. +DE BRITAN. This was found at Wokey Hole, near Wells.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_238_238"></a><a href="#FNanchor_238_238">[238]</a><div class="note"><p> Haverfield, 'Ant.' p. 147.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_239_239"></a><a href="#FNanchor_239_239">[239]</a><div class="note"><p> See 'Corpus Inscript. Lat.' Vol. VII.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_240_240"></a><a href="#FNanchor_240_240">[240]</a><div class="note"><p> A specially interesting touch of this old country house life +is to be seen in the Corinium Museum at Cirencester—a mural +painting whereon has been scratched a squared word (the only +known classical example of this amusement):</p> + +<blockquote><p>ROTAS<br /> +OPERA<br /> +TENET<br /> +AREPO<br /> +SATOR</p></blockquote> +</div> + +<a name="Footnote_241_241"></a><a href="#FNanchor_241_241">[241]</a><div class="note"><p> The word <i>mansio</i>, however, at this period signified +merely a posting-station on one or other of the great roads.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_242_242"></a><a href="#FNanchor_242_242">[242]</a><div class="note"><p> Selwood, Sherwood, Needwood, Charnwood, and Epping +Forest are all shrunken relics of these wide-stretching woodlands, +with which most of the hill ranges seem to have been +clothed. See Pearson's 'Historical Maps of England.'</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_243_243"></a><a href="#FNanchor_243_243">[243]</a><div class="note"><p> Classical authorities only speak of bears in Scotland. +See P. 236.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_244_244"></a><a href="#FNanchor_244_244">[244]</a><div class="note"><p> Cyneget., I. 468.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_245_245"></a><a href="#FNanchor_245_245">[245]</a><div class="note"><p> <i>Ibid</i>. 69.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_246_246"></a><a href="#FNanchor_246_246">[246]</a><div class="note"><p> In II. Cons. Stilicho, III. 299: <i>Magnaque taurorum +fracturae colla Britannae</i>.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_247_247"></a><a href="#FNanchor_247_247">[247]</a><div class="note"><p> 'Origins of English History,' p. 294.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_248_248"></a><a href="#FNanchor_248_248">[248]</a><div class="note"><p> A brooch found at Silchester also represents this dog.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_249_249"></a><a href="#FNanchor_249_249">[249]</a><div class="note"><p> Symmachus (A.D. 390) represents them as so fierce as to +require iron kennels (Ep. II. 77).</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_250_250"></a><a href="#FNanchor_250_250">[250]</a><div class="note"><p> Prudentius (contra Sab. 39): <i>Semifer, et Scoto +sentit cane milite pejor</i>.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_251_251"></a><a href="#FNanchor_251_251">[251]</a><div class="note"><p> Proleg. to Jeremiah, lib. III.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_252_252"></a><a href="#FNanchor_252_252">[252]</a><div class="note"><p> Flavius Vopiscus (A.D. 300) tells us that vine-growing +was also attempted, by special permission of the Emperor Probus.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_253_253"></a><a href="#FNanchor_253_253">[253]</a><div class="note"><p> The Lex Julia forbade the carrying of arms by civilians.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_254_254"></a><a href="#FNanchor_254_254">[254]</a><div class="note"><p> See Elton's 'Origins,' p. 347.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_255_255"></a><a href="#FNanchor_255_255">[255]</a><div class="note"><p> Proem, v.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_256_256"></a><a href="#FNanchor_256_256">[256]</a><div class="note"><p> See Fronto,'De Bello Parthico', I. 217. The latest +known inscription relating to this Legion is of A.D. 109 [C.I.L. +vii. 241].</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_257_257"></a><a href="#FNanchor_257_257">[257]</a><div class="note"><p> Spartianus (A.D. 300), 'Hist. Rom.'</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_258_258"></a><a href="#FNanchor_258_258">[258]</a><div class="note"><p> About a fifth of the known legionary inscriptions of +Britain have been found in Scotland.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_259_259"></a><a href="#FNanchor_259_259">[259]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 233.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_260_260"></a><a href="#FNanchor_260_260">[260]</a><div class="note"><p> At the Battle of the Standard, 1138.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_261_261"></a><a href="#FNanchor_261_261">[261]</a><div class="note"><p> That Hadrian and not Severus (by whose name it is often +called) was the builder of the Wall as well as of the adjoining +fortresses is proved by his inscriptions being found not only in +them, but in the "mile-castles" [see C.I.L. vii. 660-663]. Out +of the 14 known British inscriptions of this Emperor, 8 are on +the Wall; out of the 57 of Severus, 3 only.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_262_262"></a><a href="#FNanchor_262_262">[262]</a><div class="note"><p> Hadrian divided the Province of Britain [see p. 142] +into "Upper" and "Lower"; but by what boundary is +wholly conjectural. All we know is that Dion Cassius [Xiph. +lv.] places Chester and Caerleon in the former and York in the +latter. The boundary <i>may</i> thus have been the line from Mersey +to Humber; "Upper" meaning "nearer to Rome."</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_263_263"></a><a href="#FNanchor_263_263">[263]</a><div class="note"><p> Neilson, 'Per Lineam Valli,' p.I.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_264_264"></a><a href="#FNanchor_264_264">[264]</a><div class="note"><p> See further pp. 203-212.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_265_265"></a><a href="#FNanchor_265_265">[265]</a><div class="note"><p> The figure has been supposed to represent Rome +seated on Britain. But the shield is not the oblong buckler +of the Romans, but a round barbaric target.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_266_266"></a><a href="#FNanchor_266_266">[266]</a><div class="note"><p> So Tacitus speaks of "<i>Submotis velut in aliam +insulam hostibus</i>" by Agricola's rampart. And Pliny says, +"<i>Alpes Gcrmaniam ab Italia submovent</i>."</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_267_267"></a><a href="#FNanchor_267_267">[267]</a><div class="note"><p> Corpus Inscript. Lat, vii. 1125.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_268_268"></a><a href="#FNanchor_268_268">[268]</a><div class="note"><p> Dio Cassius, lxxii. 8.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_269_269"></a><a href="#FNanchor_269_269">[269]</a><div class="note"><p> Aelius Lampridius, 'De Commodo,' c. 8.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_270_270"></a><a href="#FNanchor_270_270">[270]</a><div class="note"><p> Inscriptions in the Newcastle Museum show that bargemen +from the Tigris were quartered on the Tyne.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_271_271"></a><a href="#FNanchor_271_271">[271]</a><div class="note"><p> Dio Cassius, lxxii. 9.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_272_272"></a><a href="#FNanchor_272_272">[272]</a><div class="note"><p> Julius Capitolinus, 'Pertinax,' c. 3.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_273_273"></a><a href="#FNanchor_273_273">[273]</a><div class="note"><p> Orosius, 'Hist' 17.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_274_274"></a><a href="#FNanchor_274_274">[274]</a><div class="note"><p> Herodian, 'Hist.' iii. 20.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_275_275"></a><a href="#FNanchor_275_275">[275]</a><div class="note"><p> Lucius Septimus Severus.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_276_276"></a><a href="#FNanchor_276_276">[276]</a><div class="note"><p> Herodian, 'Hist. III.' 46. He is a contemporary +authority.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_277_277"></a><a href="#FNanchor_277_277">[277]</a><div class="note"><p> Also called Bassianus. His throne name was Marcus +Aurelius Antoninus Pius.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_278_278"></a><a href="#FNanchor_278_278">[278]</a><div class="note"><p> Publius Septimus Geta Antoninus Pius.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_279_279"></a><a href="#FNanchor_279_279">[279]</a><div class="note"><p> Aelius Spartianus, 'Severus,' c. 23.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_280_280"></a><a href="#FNanchor_280_280">[280]</a><div class="note"><p> Dion Cassius, lxxvi. 12.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_281_281"></a><a href="#FNanchor_281_281">[281]</a><div class="note"><p> Severus gave as a <i>mot d'ordre</i> to his soldiers +the "No quarter" proclamation of Agamemnon. ('Iliad,' vi. 57): +τῶν μήτις κφύγοι αἰπὺν ὄλεθρον [<b>ton mêtis hupekphugoi aipun olethron</b>].</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_282_282"></a><a href="#FNanchor_282_282">[282]</a><div class="note"><p> Dion Cassius, lxxvi. 12.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_283_283"></a><a href="#FNanchor_283_283">[283]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 195.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_284_284"></a><a href="#FNanchor_284_284">[284]</a><div class="note"><p> Aurelius Victor (20) makes him (as Mommsen and others +think) restore <i>Antonine's</i> rampart: "<i>vallum per</i> xxxii. +<i>passuum millia a mari ad mare</i>." But more probably xxxii. is a +misreading for lxxii.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_285_285"></a><a href="#FNanchor_285_285">[285]</a><div class="note"><p> The very latest spade-work on the Wall (undertaken by +Messrs. Haverfield and Bosanquet in 1901) shows that the +original wall and ditch ran through the midst of the great +fortresses of Chesters and Birdoswald, which are now astride, so +to speak, of the Wall; pointing to the conclusion that Severus +rebuilt and enlarged them. In various places along the Wall +itself the stones bear traces of mortar on their exterior face, +showing that they have been used in some earlier work.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_286_286"></a><a href="#FNanchor_286_286">[286]</a><div class="note"><p> This is the number <i>per lineam valli</i> given in +the 'Notitia.' Only twelve have been certainly identified. They +are commonly known as "stations."</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_287_287"></a><a href="#FNanchor_287_287">[287]</a><div class="note"><p> Antiquaries have given these structures the name of +"mile-castles." They are usually some fifty feet square.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_288_288"></a><a href="#FNanchor_288_288">[288]</a><div class="note"><p> The familiar name of "Wallsend" coals reminds us of +this connection between the Tynemouth colliery district and the +Wall's end.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_289_289"></a><a href="#FNanchor_289_289">[289]</a><div class="note"><p> So puzzling is the situation that high authorities +on the subject are found to contend that the work was perfunctorily +thrown up, in obedience to mistaken orders issued by the departmental +stupidity of the Roman War Office, that in reality it was never +either needed or used, and was obsolete from the very outset. +But this suggestion can scarcely be taken as more than an +elaborate confession of inability to solve the <i>nodus</i>.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_290_290"></a><a href="#FNanchor_290_290">[290]</a><div class="note"><p> It should be noted that the "Vallum" is no regular Roman +<i>muris caespitius</i> like the Rampart of Antoninus, though traces +have been found here and there along the line of some intention +to construct such a work (see 'Antiquary,' 1899, p. 71).</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_291_291"></a><a href="#FNanchor_291_291">[291]</a><div class="note"><p> In more than one place the line of fortification swerves +from its course to sweep round a station.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_292_292"></a><a href="#FNanchor_292_292">[292]</a><div class="note"><p> Near Cilurnum the fosse was used as a receptacle for +shooting the rubbish of the station, and contains Roman pottery +of quite early date.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_293_293"></a><a href="#FNanchor_293_293">[293]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 233.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_294_294"></a><a href="#FNanchor_294_294">[294]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 232.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_295_295"></a><a href="#FNanchor_295_295">[295]</a><div class="note"><p> The existing military road along the line of the +Wall does not follow the track of its Roman predecessor. It was +constructed after the rebellion of 1745, when the Scots were able +to invade England by Carlisle before our very superior forces at +Newcastle could get across the pathless waste between to intercept +them.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_296_296"></a><a href="#FNanchor_296_296">[296]</a><div class="note"><p> Mithraism is first heard of in the 2nd century A.D., +as an eccentric cult having many of the features of Christianity, +especially the sense of Sin and the doctrine that the vicarious +blood-shedding essential to remission must be connected with a +New Baptismal Birth unto Righteousness. The Mithraists +carried out this idea by the highly realistic ceremonies of the +<i>Taurobolium</i>; the penitent neophyte standing beneath a grating +on which the victim was slain, and thus being literally bathed +in the atoning blood, afterwards being considered as born again +[<i>renatus</i>]. It thus evolved a real and heartfelt devotion to the +Supreme Being, whom, however (unlike Christianity), it was +willing to worship under the names of the old Pagan Deities; +frequently combining their various attributes in joint Personalities +of unlimited complexity. One figure has the head of Jupiter, +the rays of Phoebus, and the trident of Neptune; another is +furnished with the wings of Cupid, the wand of Mercury, the +club of Hercules, and the spear of Mars; and so forth. +Mithraism thus escaped the persecution which the essential +exclusiveness of their Faith drew down upon Christians; +gradually transforming by its deeper spirituality the more frigid +cults of earlier Paganism, and making them its own. The little +band of truly noble men and women who in the latter half of +the 4th century made the last stand against the triumph of +Christianity over the Roman world were almost all Mithraists. +For a good sketch of this interesting development see Dill, +'Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire.'</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_297_297"></a><a href="#FNanchor_297_297">[297]</a><div class="note"><p> Of the 1200 in the 'Corpus Inscript. Lat.' (vol. vii.), +500 are in the section <i>Per Lineam Valli</i>.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_298_298"></a><a href="#FNanchor_298_298">[298]</a><div class="note"><p> 'Corpus Inscript. Lat.' vol. vii., No. 759.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_299_299"></a><a href="#FNanchor_299_299">[299]</a><div class="note"><p> Some authorities consider him to have been her own son.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_300_300"></a><a href="#FNanchor_300_300">[300]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 126.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_301_301"></a><a href="#FNanchor_301_301">[301]</a><div class="note"><p> The Gelt is a small tributary joining the Irthing shortly +before the latter falls into the Eden.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_302_302"></a><a href="#FNanchor_302_302">[302]</a><div class="note"><p> Polybius (vi. 24) tells us that in the Roman army of +his day a <i>vexillum</i> or <i>manipulum</i> consisted of 200 men +under two centurions, each of whom had his <i>optio</i>. Vegetius +(II. 1) confines the word <i>vexillatio</i> to the cavalry, but +gives no clue as to its strength.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_303_303"></a><a href="#FNanchor_303_303">[303]</a><div class="note"><p> On this inscription see Huebner, C.I.L. vii. 1. A +drawing will be found in Bruce's 'Handbook to the Wall' (ed. 1895), +p. 23.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_304_304"></a><a href="#FNanchor_304_304">[304]</a><div class="note"><p> The name <i>Cilurnum</i> may be connected with this +wealth of water. In modern Welsh <i>celurn</i> = caldron.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_305_305"></a><a href="#FNanchor_305_305">[305]</a><div class="note"><p> "All hast thou won, all hast thou been. Now be God the +winner." (These final words are equivocal, in both Latin and +English. They might signify, "Now let God be your conqueror," +and "Now, thou conqueror, be God," <i>i. e</i>. "die"; for +a Roman Emperor was deified at his decease.) Spartianus, 'De +Severo,' 22.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_306_306"></a><a href="#FNanchor_306_306">[306]</a><div class="note"><p> Aelius Spartianus, 'Severus,' c. 22.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_307_307"></a><a href="#FNanchor_307_307">[307]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 46.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_308_308"></a><a href="#FNanchor_308_308">[308]</a><div class="note"><p> Dio Cassius, lxxvi. 16.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_309_309"></a><a href="#FNanchor_309_309">[309]</a><div class="note"><p> <i>Ibid</i>. lxxvii. I.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_310_310"></a><a href="#FNanchor_310_310">[310]</a><div class="note"><p> In 369. See p. 230.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_311_311"></a><a href="#FNanchor_311_311">[311]</a><div class="note"><p> Constans in 343. See p. 230.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_312_312"></a><a href="#FNanchor_312_312">[312]</a><div class="note"><p> See Bruce, 'Handbook to Wall' (ed. 1895), p. 267.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_313_313"></a><a href="#FNanchor_313_313">[313]</a><div class="note"><p> Such tablets, called <i>tabulae honestae missionis</i> +("certificates of honourable discharge"), were given to every +enfranchised veteran, and were small enough to be carried easily +on the person. Four others, besides that at Cilurnum, have been +found in Britain.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_314_314"></a><a href="#FNanchor_314_314">[314]</a><div class="note"><p> None of the above-mentioned <i>tabulae</i> found are +later than A.D. 146, which, so far as it goes, supports the contention +that Marcus Aurelius was the real extender of the citizenship; +Caracalla merely insisting on the liabilities which every Roman +subject had incurred by his rise to this status.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_315_315"></a><a href="#FNanchor_315_315">[315]</a><div class="note"><p> See pp. 175, 176. Only those fairly identifiable are +given; the certain in capitals, the highly probable in ordinary type, +and the reasonably probable in italics. For a full list of +Romano-British place-names, see Pearson, 'Historical Maps of +England.'</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_316_316"></a><a href="#FNanchor_316_316">[316]</a><div class="note"><p> Probus was fond of thus dealing with his captives. He +settled certain Franks on the Black Sea, where they seized +shipping and sailed triumphantly back to the Rhine, raiding on +their way the shores of Asia Minor, Greece, and Africa, and +even storming Syracuse. They ultimately took service under +Carausius. [See Eumenius, Panegyric on Constantius.] The +Vandals he had captured on the Rhine, after their great defeat +by Aurelius on the Danube.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_317_317"></a><a href="#FNanchor_317_317">[317]</a><div class="note"><p> This name may also echo some tradition of barbarians from +afar having camped there.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_318_318"></a><a href="#FNanchor_318_318">[318]</a><div class="note"><p> Eutropius (A.D. 360), 'Breviarium,' x. 21.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_319_319"></a><a href="#FNanchor_319_319">[319]</a><div class="note"><p> By the analogy of Saxon and of Lombard (<i>Lango-bardi</i> += "Long-spears"), this seems the most probable original +derivation of the name. In later ages it was, doubtless, supposed to +have to do with <i>frank</i> = free. The franca is described by +Procopius ('De Bell. Goth.' ii. 25.), and figures in the Song of Maldon.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_320_320"></a><a href="#FNanchor_320_320">[320]</a><div class="note"><p> See Florence of Worcester (A.D. 1138); also the Song of +Beowulf.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_321_321"></a><a href="#FNanchor_321_321">[321]</a><div class="note"><p> Eutropius, ix. 21.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_322_322"></a><a href="#FNanchor_322_322">[322]</a><div class="note"><p> The Franks of Carausius had already swept that sea +(see p. 219).</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_323_323"></a><a href="#FNanchor_323_323">[323]</a><div class="note"><p> Mamertinus, 'Paneg. in Maximian.'</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_324_324"></a><a href="#FNanchor_324_324">[324]</a><div class="note"><p> Caesar, originally a mere family name, was adapted +first as an Imperial title by the Flavian Emperors.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_325_325"></a><a href="#FNanchor_325_325">[325]</a><div class="note"><p> Henry of Huntingdon makes her the daughter of Coel, +King of Colchester; the "old King Cole" of our nursery +rhyme, and as mythical as other eponymous heroes. Bede calls +her a concubine, a slur derived from Eutropius (A.D. 360), who +calls the connection <i>obscurius matrimonium</i> (Brev. x. 1).</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_326_326"></a><a href="#FNanchor_326_326">[326]</a><div class="note"><p> Eumenius, 'Panegyric on Constantine,' c. 8.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_327_327"></a><a href="#FNanchor_327_327">[327]</a><div class="note"><p> Eumenius, 'Panegyric on Constantius,' c. 6.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_328_328"></a><a href="#FNanchor_328_328">[328]</a><div class="note"><p> Salisbury Plain has been suggested as the field.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_329_329"></a><a href="#FNanchor_329_329">[329]</a><div class="note"><p> The historian Victor, writing about 360 A.D., ascribes +the recovery of Britain to this officer rather than to the personal +efforts of Constantius. The suggestion in the text is an endeavour +to reconcile his statement with the earlier panegyrics +of Eumenius.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_330_330"></a><a href="#FNanchor_330_330">[330]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 59. An inscription found near Cirencester proves +that place to have been in Britannia Prima. It is figured by +Haverfield ('Eng. Hist. Rev.' July 1896), and runs as follows: +<i>Septimius renovat Primae Provinciae Rector Signum et +erectam prisca religione columnam</i>. This is meant for two +hexameter lines, and refers to Julian's revival of Paganism +(see p. 233).</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_331_331"></a><a href="#FNanchor_331_331">[331]</a><div class="note"><p> Specimens of these are given by Harnack in the +'Theologische Literaturzeitung' of January 20 and March 17, 1894.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_332_332"></a><a href="#FNanchor_332_332">[332]</a><div class="note"><p> See Sozomen, 'Hist. Eccl.' I, 6.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_333_333"></a><a href="#FNanchor_333_333">[333]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 123.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_334_334"></a><a href="#FNanchor_334_334">[334]</a><div class="note"><p> The name commonly given to the really unknown author of +the 'History of the Britons.' He states that the tombstone of +Constantius was still to be seen in his day, and gives Mirmantum +or Miniamantum as an alternative name for Segontium. Bangor +and Silchester are rival claimants for the name, and one 13th-century +MS. declares York to be signified.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_335_335"></a><a href="#FNanchor_335_335">[335]</a><div class="note"><p> The Sacred Monogram known as <i>Labarum</i>. Both name +and emblem were very possibly adapted from the primitive cult +of the Labrys, or Double Axe, filtered through Mithraism. The +figure is never found as a Christian emblem before Constantine, +though it appears as a Heathen symbol upon the coinage of +Decius (A.D. 250). See Parsons, 'Non-Christian Cross,' p. 148.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_336_336"></a><a href="#FNanchor_336_336">[336]</a><div class="note"><p> Hilary (A.D. 358), 'De Synodis,' § 2.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_337_337"></a><a href="#FNanchor_337_337">[337]</a><div class="note"><p> Ammianus Marcellinus, 'Hist.' XX. I.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_338_338"></a><a href="#FNanchor_338_338">[338]</a><div class="note"><p> Jerome calls her "fertilis tyrannorum provincia." ['Ad +Ctesiph.' xliii.] It is noteworthy that in all ecclesiastical notices +of this period Britain is always spoken of as a single province, in +spite of Diocletian's reforms.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_339_339"></a><a href="#FNanchor_339_339">[339]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 202.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_340_340"></a><a href="#FNanchor_340_340">[340]</a><div class="note"><p> These Scotch pirate craft (as it would seem) are +described by Vegetius (A.D. 380) as skiffs (<i>scaphae</i>), +which, the better to escape observation, were painted a neutral +tint all over, ropes and all, and were thus known as <i>Picts</i>. +The crews were dressed in the same colour—like our present khaki. +These vessels were large open boats rowing twenty oars a side, and +also used sails. The very scientifically constructed vessels which +have been found in the silt of the Clyde estuary may have been +<i>Picts</i>. See p. 80.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_341_341"></a><a href="#FNanchor_341_341">[341]</a><div class="note"><p> Henry of Huntingdon, 'History of the English,' ii. I.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_342_342"></a><a href="#FNanchor_342_342">[342]</a><div class="note"><p> Murat, CCLXIII. 4.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_343_343"></a><a href="#FNanchor_343_343">[343]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 225.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_344_344"></a><a href="#FNanchor_344_344">[344]</a><div class="note"><p> Jerome, in his treatise against Jovian, declares +that he could bear personal testimony to this.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_345_345"></a><a href="#FNanchor_345_345">[345]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 194.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_346_346"></a><a href="#FNanchor_346_346">[346]</a><div class="note"><p> Marcellinus dwells upon the chopping seas which usually +prevailed in the Straits; and of the rapid tide, which is also +referred to by Ausonius (380), "Quum virides algas et rubra +corallia nudat Aestus," etc.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_347_347"></a><a href="#FNanchor_347_347">[347]</a><div class="note"><p> To him is probably due the reconstruction of the +"Vallum" as a defence against attacks from the south, such as +the Scots were now able to deliver. See p. 207.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_348_348"></a><a href="#FNanchor_348_348">[348]</a><div class="note"><p> Marcellinus, 'Hist.' XXVIII. 3. See p. 202.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_349_349"></a><a href="#FNanchor_349_349">[349]</a><div class="note"><p> 'De Quarto Consulatu Honorii,' I. 31.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_350_350"></a><a href="#FNanchor_350_350">[350]</a><div class="note"><p> Theodosius married Galla, daughter of Valentinian I.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_351_351"></a><a href="#FNanchor_351_351">[351]</a><div class="note"><p> For the later migrations to Brittany see Elton's +'Origins,' p. 350. Samson, Archbishop of York, is said to have fled +thither in 500, and settled at Dol. Sidonius Apollinaris speaks +of Britons settled by the Loire.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_352_352"></a><a href="#FNanchor_352_352">[352]</a><div class="note"><p> 'In Primum Consulatum Stilichonis,' II. 247.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_353_353"></a><a href="#FNanchor_353_353">[353]</a><div class="note"><p> Alone amongst the legions it is not mentioned +in the 'Notitia' as attached to any province.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_354_354"></a><a href="#FNanchor_354_354">[354]</a><div class="note"><p> 'Epithalamium Paladii,' 85.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_355_355"></a><a href="#FNanchor_355_355">[355]</a><div class="note"><p> The first printed edition was published 1552.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_356_356"></a><a href="#FNanchor_356_356">[356]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 90.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_357_357"></a><a href="#FNanchor_357_357">[357]</a><div class="note"><p> <i>Portus Adurni</i>. Some authorities, however, +hold this to be Shoreham, others Portsmouth, others Aldrington. +The remaining posts are less disputed. They were Branodunum +(Brancaster), Garianonum (Yarmouth), Othona (Althorne[?] in +Essex), Regulbium (Reculver), Rutupiae (Richborough), Lemanni +(Lyminge), Dubris (Dover), and Anderida.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_358_358"></a><a href="#FNanchor_358_358">[358]</a><div class="note"><p> There were six "Counts" altogether in the Western +Empire, and twelve "Dukes." Both Counts and Dukes were +of "Respectable" rank, the second in the Diocletian hierarchy.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_359_359"></a><a href="#FNanchor_359_359">[359]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 237.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_360_360"></a><a href="#FNanchor_360_360">[360]</a><div class="note"><p> This word, however, may perhaps signify <i>Imperial</i> +rather than <i>London</i>.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_361_361"></a><a href="#FNanchor_361_361">[361]</a><div class="note"><p> Olympiodorus (A.D. 425).</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_362_362"></a><a href="#FNanchor_362_362">[362]</a><div class="note"><p> 'Hist. Nov.' vi. 10. He is a contemporary authority.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_363_363"></a><a href="#FNanchor_363_363">[363]</a><div class="note"><p> Tennyson, 'Guinevere,' 594. The dragon standard first +came into use amongst the Imperial insignia under Augustus, +and the red dragon is mentioned by Nennius as already the +emblem of Briton as opposed to Saxon. The mediaeval Welsh +poems speak of the legendary Uther, father of Arthur, as "Pendragon," +equivalent to Head-Prince, of Britain.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_364_364"></a><a href="#FNanchor_364_364">[364]</a><div class="note"><p> See Rhys, 'Celtic Britain,' pp. 116, 136.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_365_365"></a><a href="#FNanchor_365_365">[365]</a><div class="note"><p> Gildas (xxiii,) so calls him.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_366_366"></a><a href="#FNanchor_366_366">[366]</a><div class="note"><p> "The groans of the Britons" are said by Bede to have been +forwarded to Aetius "thrice Consul," <i>i.e.</i> in 446, on the eve +of the great struggle with Attila.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_367_367"></a><a href="#FNanchor_367_367">[367]</a><div class="note"><p> Nennius (xxviii.) so calls them, and they are commonly +supposed to have been clinker-built like the later Viking ships. +But Sidonius Apollinaris (455) speaks of them as a kind of +coracle. See p. 37.</p></div> + + +<div class="blkquot">"Quin et Armorici piratam Saxona tractus<br /> + Sperabant, cui <i>pelle</i> salum sulcare Britannum<br /> + Ludus, et <i>assuto</i> glaucum mare findere lembo."<br /> +<br /> + ('Carm.' vii. 86.)<br /></div> + + +<a name="Footnote_368_368"></a><a href="#FNanchor_368_368">[368]</a><div class="note"><p> See Elton, 'Origins,' ch. xii.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_369_369"></a><a href="#FNanchor_369_369">[369]</a><div class="note"><p> Henry of Huntingdon, 'Hist. of the English,' ii. 1.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_370_370"></a><a href="#FNanchor_370_370">[370]</a><div class="note"><p> Nennius, xlix. This is the reading of the oldest MSS.; +others are <i>Nimader sexa</i> and <i>Enimith saxas</i>. The regular +form would be <i>Nimap eowre seaxas</i>.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_371_371"></a><a href="#FNanchor_371_371">[371]</a><div class="note"><p> A coin of Valentinian was discovered in the Cam valley +in 1890. On the reverse is a Latin Cross surrounded by a laurel +wreath.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_372_372"></a><a href="#FNanchor_372_372">[372]</a><div class="note"><p> <i>Cymry</i> signifies <i>confederate</i>, and was +the name (quite probably an older racial appellation revived) +adopted by the Western Britons in their resistance to the Saxon +advance.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_373_373"></a><a href="#FNanchor_373_373">[373]</a><div class="note"><p> Arthur is first mentioned (in Nennius and the +'Life of Gildas') as a Damnonian "tyrant" (i.e. a popular leader +with no constitutional status), fighting against "the kings of +Kent." This notice must be very early—before the West Saxons came in +between Devon and the Kentish Jutes. His early date is confirmed +by his mythical exploits being located in every Cymric +region—Cornwall, Wales, Strathclyde, and even Brittany.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_374_374"></a><a href="#FNanchor_374_374">[374]</a><div class="note"><p> The ambition of Henry V. for Continental dominion was +undoubtedly thus quickened.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_375_375"></a><a href="#FNanchor_375_375">[375]</a><div class="note"><p> Procopius, 'De Bello Gothico,' iv. 20.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_376_376"></a><a href="#FNanchor_376_376">[376]</a><div class="note"><p> These presumably represent the Saxons, who were next-door +neighbours to the Frisians of Holland. But Mr. Haverfield's +latest (1902) map makes Frisians by name occupy Lothian.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_377_377"></a><a href="#FNanchor_377_377">[377]</a><div class="note"><p> Ptolemy's map shows how this error arose; Scotland, by +some extraordinary blunder, being therein represented as an +<i>eastward</i> extension at right angles to England, with the Mull of +Galloway as its northernmost point.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_378_378"></a><a href="#FNanchor_378_378">[378]</a><div class="note"><p> This fable probably arose from the mythical visit of +Ulysses (see p. 64 <i>n</i>.), who, as Claudian ('In Rut.' i. 123) +tells, here found the Mouth of Hades.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_379_379"></a><a href="#FNanchor_379_379">[379]</a><div class="note"><p> Procopius, 'De Bello Gothico,' ii. 6.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_380_380"></a><a href="#FNanchor_380_380">[380]</a><div class="note"><p> See my 'Alfred in the Chroniclers,' p. 6.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_381_381"></a><a href="#FNanchor_381_381">[381]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 175.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_382_382"></a><a href="#FNanchor_382_382">[382]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 168.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_383_383"></a><a href="#FNanchor_383_383">[383]</a><div class="note"><p> 'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle,' A. 491: "This year Ella and +Cissa stormed Anderida and slew all that dwelt therein, so that +not one Briton was there left."</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_384_384"></a><a href="#FNanchor_384_384">[384]</a><div class="note"><p> Chester itself, one of the last cities to fall, is +called "a waste chester" as late as the days of Alfred ('A.-S. +Chron.,' A. 894).</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_385_385"></a><a href="#FNanchor_385_385">[385]</a><div class="note"><p> In the districts conquered after the Conversion of +the English there was no such extermination, the vanquished Britons +being fellow-Christians.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_386_386"></a><a href="#FNanchor_386_386">[386]</a><div class="note"><p> For the British survival in the Fenland see my +'History of Cambs.,' III., § 11.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_387_387"></a><a href="#FNanchor_387_387">[387]</a><div class="note"><p> Romano-British relics have been found in the Victoria +Cave, Settle.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_388_388"></a><a href="#FNanchor_388_388">[388]</a><div class="note"><p> 'Comm. on Ps. CXVI.' written about 420 A.D.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_389_389"></a><a href="#FNanchor_389_389">[389]</a><div class="note"><p> 'Epist. ad. Corinth.' 5.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_390_390"></a><a href="#FNanchor_390_390">[390]</a><div class="note"><p> Catullus, in the Augustan Age, refers to Britain as +the "extremam Occidentis," and Aristides (A.D. 160) speaks of it +as "that great island opposite Iberia."</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_391_391"></a><a href="#FNanchor_391_391">[391]</a><div class="note"><p> 'Menol. Graec.,' June 29. A suspiciously similar passage +(on March 15) speaks of British ordinations by Aristobulus, the +disciple of St. Paul.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_392_392"></a><a href="#FNanchor_392_392">[392]</a><div class="note"><p> Nero. This would be A.D. 66.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_393_393"></a><a href="#FNanchor_393_393">[393]</a><div class="note"><p> It is less generally known than it should be that the +head of St. Paul as well as of St. Peter has always figured on the +leaden seal attached to a Papal Bull.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_394_394"></a><a href="#FNanchor_394_394">[394]</a><div class="note"><p> Tennyson, 'Holy Grail,' 53. This thorn, a patriarchal +tree of vast dimensions, was destroyed during the Reformation. +But many of its descendants exist about England (propagated +from cuttings brought by pilgrims), and still retain its unique +season for flowering. In all other respects they are indistinguishable +from common thorns.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_395_395"></a><a href="#FNanchor_395_395">[395]</a><div class="note"><p> See also William of Malmesbury, 'Hist. Regum,' § 20.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_396_396"></a><a href="#FNanchor_396_396">[396]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 62.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_397_397"></a><a href="#FNanchor_397_397">[397]</a><div class="note"><p> See Introduction to Tennyson's 'Holy Grail' (G.C. +Macaulay), p. xxix.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_398_398"></a><a href="#FNanchor_398_398">[398]</a><div class="note"><p> See Bp. Browne, 'Church before Augustine,' p. 46.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_399_399"></a><a href="#FNanchor_399_399">[399]</a><div class="note"><p> Chaucer, 'Sumpnour's Tale.'</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_400_400"></a><a href="#FNanchor_400_400">[400]</a><div class="note"><p> Epig. xi. 54: "Claudia coeruleis ... Rufina +Britannis Edita."</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_401_401"></a><a href="#FNanchor_401_401">[401]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 141.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_402_402"></a><a href="#FNanchor_402_402">[402]</a><div class="note"><p> Epig. v. 13.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_403_403"></a><a href="#FNanchor_403_403">[403]</a><div class="note"><p> Tacitus, 'Ann.' xiii. 32.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_404_404"></a><a href="#FNanchor_404_404">[404]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 69.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_405_405"></a><a href="#FNanchor_405_405">[405]</a><div class="note"><p> Lanciani, 'Pagan and Christian Rome,' p. 110. The house +was bought by Pudens from Aquila and Priscilla, and made a +titular church by Pius I.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_406_406"></a><a href="#FNanchor_406_406">[406]</a><div class="note"><p> Homily 4 on Ezechiel, 6 on St. Luke.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_407_407"></a><a href="#FNanchor_407_407">[407]</a><div class="note"><p> 'Adversus Judaeos,' c. 7.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_408_408"></a><a href="#FNanchor_408_408">[408]</a><div class="note"><p> 'Eccl. Hist.' iv.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_409_409"></a><a href="#FNanchor_409_409">[409]</a><div class="note"><p> Pope from 177-191.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_410_410"></a><a href="#FNanchor_410_410">[410]</a><div class="note"><p> Haddan and Stubbs, i. 25. The 'Catalogus' was composed +early in the 4th century, but the incident is a later insertion.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_411_411"></a><a href="#FNanchor_411_411">[411]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 225.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_412_412"></a><a href="#FNanchor_412_412">[412]</a><div class="note"><p> He is mentioned by Gildas, along with Julius and Aaron of +Caerleon. These last were already locally canonized in the 9th +century, as the 'Liber Landavensis' testifies; and the sites of their +respective churches could still be traced, according to Bishop +Godwin, in the 17th century.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_413_413"></a><a href="#FNanchor_413_413">[413]</a><div class="note"><p> Eborius of York, Restitutus of London, and Adelfius of +"Colonia Londinensium." The last word is an obvious misreading. +Haddan and Stubbs ('Concilia,' p. 7) suggest <i>Legionensium</i>, +i.e. Caerleon.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_414_414"></a><a href="#FNanchor_414_414">[414]</a><div class="note"><p> It is more reasonable to assume this than to imagine, +with Mr. French, that these three formed the entire British +episcopate. And there is reason to suppose that York, London, and +Caerleon were metropolitan sees.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_415_415"></a><a href="#FNanchor_415_415">[415]</a><div class="note"><p> Canon x.: De his qui conjuges suas in adulterio +deprehendunt, et iidem sunt fideles, et prohibentur nubere; +Placuit ... ne viventibus uxoribus suis, licet adulteris, alias +accipiant. [Haddan, 'Concilia,' p. 7.]</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_416_416"></a><a href="#FNanchor_416_416">[416]</a><div class="note"><p> 'Ad Jovian' (A.D. 363).</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_417_417"></a><a href="#FNanchor_417_417">[417]</a><div class="note"><p> 'Contra Judaeos' (A.D. 387).</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_418_418"></a><a href="#FNanchor_418_418">[418]</a><div class="note"><p> 'Serm. de Util. Lect. Script.'</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_419_419"></a><a href="#FNanchor_419_419">[419]</a><div class="note"><p> Hom. xxviii., in II. Corinth.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_420_420"></a><a href="#FNanchor_420_420">[420]</a><div class="note"><p> This text seems from very early days to have been a +sort of Christian watchword (being, as it were, an epitome of the +Faith). The Coronation Oath of our English Kings is still, by ancient +precedent, administered on this passage, <i>i.e.</i> the Book is +opened for the King's kiss at this point. In mediaeval romance we +find the words considered a charm against ghostly foes; and to this +day the text is in use as a phylactery amongst the peasantry of +Ireland.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_421_421"></a><a href="#FNanchor_421_421">[421]</a><div class="note"><p> Ep. xlix. ad Paulinum. These pilgrimages are also +mentioned by Palladius (420) and Theodoret (423).</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_422_422"></a><a href="#FNanchor_422_422">[422]</a><div class="note"><p> Ep. lxxxiv. ad Oceanum.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_423_423"></a><a href="#FNanchor_423_423">[423]</a><div class="note"><p> Ep. ci. ad Evang.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_424_424"></a><a href="#FNanchor_424_424">[424]</a><div class="note"><p> Whithern (in Latin <i>Casa Candida</i>) probably +derived its name from the white rough-casting with which the dark +stone walls of this church were covered, a strange sight to Pictish +eyes, accustomed only to wooden buildings.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_425_425"></a><a href="#FNanchor_425_425">[425]</a><div class="note"><p> The practice, now so general, of dedicating a church to a +saint unconnected with the locality, was already current at +Rome. But hitherto Britain had retained the more primitive +habit, by which (if a church was associated with any particular +name) it was called after the saint who first built or used it, or, +like St. Alban's, the martyr who suffered on the spot. Besides +Whithern, the church of Canterbury was dedicated about this +time to St. Martin, showing the close ecclesiastical sympathy +between Gaul and Britain.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_426_426"></a><a href="#FNanchor_426_426">[426]</a><div class="note"><p> The cave is on the northern shore of the Thuner-See, near +Sundlauenen. Beatus is said to have introduced sailing into the +Oberland by spreading his mantle to the steady breeze which +blows down the lake by night and up it during the day. The +name of Justus is preserved in the Justis-thal near Merlingen.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_427_427"></a><a href="#FNanchor_427_427">[427]</a><div class="note"><p> This name is merely the familiar Welsh <i>Morgan</i>, +which signifies <i>sea-born</i>, done into Greek.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_428_428"></a><a href="#FNanchor_428_428">[428]</a><div class="note"><p> See Orosius, 'De Arbit. Lib.,' and other authorities in +Haddan and Stubbs.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_429_429"></a><a href="#FNanchor_429_429">[429]</a><div class="note"><p> Sidonius, Ep. ix. 3.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_430_430"></a><a href="#FNanchor_430_430">[430]</a><div class="note"><p> Constantius, the biographer of Germanus, says they were +sent by a Council of Gallican Bishops; but Prosper of Aquitaine +(who was in Rome at the time) declares they were commissioned +by Pope Celestine. Both statements are probably true.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_431_431"></a><a href="#FNanchor_431_431">[431]</a><div class="note"><p> The lives of Germanus, Patrick, and Ninias will be found +in a trustworthy and well-told form in Miss Arnold-Foster's 'Studies +in Church Dedication.'</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_432_432"></a><a href="#FNanchor_432_432">[432]</a><div class="note"><p> See p. 185.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_433_433"></a><a href="#FNanchor_433_433">[433]</a><div class="note"><p> Bede, 'Eccl. Hist.' I. xxvi.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_434_434"></a><a href="#FNanchor_434_434">[434]</a><div class="note"><p> Many existing churches are more or less built of Roman +material. The tower of St. Albans is a notable example, and +that of Stoke-by-Nayland, near Colchester. At Lyminge, near +Folkestone, so much of the church is thus constructed that many +antiquaries have believed it to be a veritable Roman edifice.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_435_435"></a><a href="#FNanchor_435_435">[435]</a><div class="note"><p> See Lanciani, 'Pagan and Christian Rome,' p. 115.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_436_436"></a><a href="#FNanchor_436_436">[436]</a><div class="note"><p> At Frampton, near Dorchester, and Chedworth, near +Cirencester, stones bearing the Sacred Monogram have been found +amongst the ruins of Roman "villas."</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_437_437"></a><a href="#FNanchor_437_437">[437]</a><div class="note"><p> The British rite was founded chiefly on the Gallican, and +differed from the Roman in the mode of administering baptism, +in certain minutiae of the Mass, in making Wednesday as well as +Friday a weekly fast, in the shape of the sacerdotal tonsure, in +the Kalendar (especially with regard to the calculation of Easter), +and in the recitation of the Psalter. From Canon XVI. of the +Council of Cloveshoo (749) it appears that the observance of the +Rogation Days constituted another difference.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_438_438"></a><a href="#FNanchor_438_438">[438]</a><div class="note"><p> The Mission of St. Columba the Irishman to Britain was a +direct result of the Mission of St. Patrick the Briton to Ireland.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_439_439"></a><a href="#FNanchor_439_439">[439]</a><div class="note"><p> Magna Charta opens with the words <i>Ecclesia Anglicana +libera sit</i>; and the Barons who won it called themselves "The +Army of the Church."</p></div> + +<br /> +<br /> +<hr class="full" /> +<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EARLY BRITAIN--ROMAN BRITAIN***</p> +<p>******* This file should be named 12910-h.txt or 12910-h.zip *******</p> +<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br /> +<a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/1/2/9/1/12910">https://www.gutenberg.org/1/2/9/1/12910</a></p> +<p>Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed.</p> + +<p>Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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