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<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Theory of the Earth, Volume 1 (of 4), by
James Hutton</h1>
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re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
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<p>Title: Theory of the Earth, Volume 1 (of 4)</p>
<p>Author: James Hutton</p>
<p>Release Date: July 9, 2004  [eBook #12861]</p>
<p>Language: English</p>
<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THEORY OF THE EARTH, VOLUME 1 (OF 4)***</p>
<br>
<br>
<h4>E-text prepared by Robert Shimmin, Renald Levesque,<br>
    and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team</h4>
<br>
<br>
<hr class="full" noshade>
<br>
<br>
<br>
<h1>THEORY
OF THE
EARTH</h1>

<h4>WITH PROOFS AND ILLUSTRATIONS.</h4><br>

<h2><i>By JAMES HUTTON, M.D. &amp; F.R.S.E.</i></h2><br><br>

<h4>IN FOUR PARTS.</h4>

<h4>EDINBURGH<br>
<br>
1795</h4>

<h2>VOL. I.</h2><br><br>

<h3>CONTENTS.</h3>


<p>PART I.</p>

<p><i>THEORY OF THE EARTH; with the Examination
of different Opinions on that</i>
<i>Subject.</i></p>


<p>CHAP. I.</p>

<p><i>THEORY OF THE EARTH; or an Investigation
of the Laws observable in the
Composition, Dissolution, and Restoration
of Land upon the Globe</i></p>

<p>SECT. I.&mdash;<i>Prospect of the Subject to be
treated of</i>.</p>

<p>SECT. II.&mdash;<i>An Investigation of the Natural
Operations employed in consolidating
the Strata of the Globe</i>.</p>

<p>SECT. III.&mdash;<i>Investigation of the Natural
Operations employed in the Production
of Land above the Surface of the Sea</i>.</p>

<p>SECT. IV.&mdash;<i>System of Decay and Renovation
observed in the Earth</i>.</p>


<p>CHAP. II.</p>

<p><i>An Examination of Mr KIRWAN's Objections
to the Igneous Origin of Stony
Substances</i>.</p>


<p>CHAP. III.</p>

<p><i>Of Physical Systems, and Geological Theories,
in general</i>.</p>


<p>CHAP. IV.</p>

<p><i>The Supposition of Primitive Mountains
refuted</i>.</p>


<p>CHAP. V.</p>

<p><i>Concerning that which may be termed the
Primary Part of the Present Earth</i>.</p>

<p>CHAP. VI.</p>

<p><i>The Theory of interchanging Sea and
Land, illustrated by an Investigation of
the Primary and Secondary Strata</i>.</p>

<p>SECT. I.&mdash;<i>A distinct view of the Primary
and Secondary Strata</i>.</p>

<p>SECT. II.&mdash;<i>The Theory confirmed from
Observations made on purpose to elucidate
the Subject</i>.</p>


<p>CHAP. VII.</p>

<p><i>Opinions examined with regard to Petrifaction,
or Mineral Concretion</i>.</p>


<p>CHAP. VIII.</p>

<p><i>The Nature of Mineral Coal, and the
Formation of Bituminous Strata, investigated</i>.</p>

<p>SECT. I.&mdash;<i>Purpose of this Inquiry</i>.</p>

<p>SECT. II.&mdash;<i>Natural History of Coal Strata,
and Theory of this Geological Operation</i>.</p>

<p>SECT. III.&mdash;<i>The Mineralogical Operations
of the Earth illustrated from the
Theory of Fossil Coal</i>.</p>

<br><br>


<h3>PART I.</h3><br>

<h2>THEORY OF THE EARTH;</h2>

<h3>WITH THE<br>

<i>EXAMINATION</i><br>

OF<br>

<i>DIFFERENT OPINIONS ON THAT SUBJECT</i>.</h3>




<h4>IN EIGHT CHAPTERS.</h4><br><br>


<h3>CHAPTER I.</h3>


<p><i>THEORY of the EARTH; or an Investigation of
the Laws observable in the Composition, Dissolution,
and Restoration, of Land upon the
Globe.</i></p>




<p>SECTION I.</p>


<p><i>Prospect of the Subject to be treated of.</i></p>


<p>When we trace the parts of which this
terrestrial system is composed, and
when we view the general connection of those
several parts, the whole presents a machine of
a peculiar construction by which it is adapted
to a certain end. We perceive a fabric, erected
in wisdom, to obtain a purpose worthy of
the power that is apparent in the production
of it.</p>

<p>We know little of the earth's internal parts,
or of the materials which compose it at any
considerable depth below the surface. But
upon the surface of this globe, the more inert
matter is replenished with plants, and with
animal and intellectual beings.</p>

<p>Where so many living creatures are to ply
their respective powers, in pursuing the end
for which they were intended, we are not to
look for nature in a quiescent state; matter
itself must be in motion, and the scenes of life
a continued or repeated series of agitations and
events.</p>

<p>This globe of the earth is a habitable world;
and on its fitness for this purpose, our sense of
wisdom in its formation must depend. To
judge of this point, we must keep in view, not
only the end, but the means also by which that
end is obtained. These are, the form of the
whole, the materials of which it is composed,
and the several powers which concur, counteract,
or balance one another, in procuring the
general result.</p>

<p>The form and constitution of the mass are
not more evidently calculated for the purpose
of this earth as a habitable world, than are the
various substances of which that complicated
body is composed. Soft and hard parts variously
combine to form a medium consistence,
adapted to the use of plants and animals; wet
and dry are properly mixed for nutrition, or
the support of those growing bodies; and hot
and cold produce a temperature or climate no
less required than a soil: Insomuch, that there
is not any particular, respecting either the qualities
of the materials, or the construction of
the machine, more obvious to our perception,
than are the presence and efficacy of design and
intelligence in the power that conducts the work.</p>

<p>In taking this view of things, where ends
and means are made the object of attention,
we may hope to find a principle upon which
the comparative importance of parts in the system
of nature may be estimated, and also a rule
for selecting the object of our inquiries. Under
this direction, science may find a fit subject
of investigation in every particular, whether
of <i>form</i>, <i>quality</i>, or <i>active power</i>, that presents
itself in this system of motion and of life;
and which, without a proper attention to this
character of the system, might appear anomalous
and incomprehensible.</p>

<p>It is not only by seeing those general operations
of the globe which depend upon its peculiar
construction as a machine, but also by
perceiving how far the particulars, in the construction
of that machine, depend upon the general
operations of the globe, that we are enabled
to understand the constitution of this earth
as a thing formed by design. We shall thus
also be led to acknowledge an order, not unworthy
of Divine wisdom, in a subject which,
in another view, has appeared as the work of
chance, or as absolute disorder and confusion.</p>

<p>To acquire a general or comprehensive view
of this mechanism of the globe, by which it is
adapted to the purpose of being a habitable
world, it is necessary to distinguish three different
bodies which compose the whole. These
are, a solid body of earth, an aqueous body of
sea, and an elastic fluid of air.</p>

<p>It is the proper shape and disposition of these
three bodies that form this globe into a habitable
world; and it is the manner in which
these constituent bodies are adjusted to each
other, and the laws of action by which they
are maintained in their proper qualities and
respective departments, that form the Theory
of the machine which we are now to examine.</p>

<p>Let us begin with some general sketch of
the particulars now mentioned.</p>

<p><i>1st</i>, There is a central body in the globe.
This body supports those parts which come to
be more immediately exposed to our view, or
which may be examined by our sense and observation.
This first part is commonly supposed
to be solid and inert; but such a conclusion
is only mere conjecture; and we shall
afterwards find occasion, perhaps, to form another
judgment in relation to this subject, after
we have examined strictly, upon scientific
principles, what appears upon the surface, and
have formed conclusions concerning that
which must have been transacted in some
more central part.</p>

<p><i>2dly</i>, We find a fluid body of water. This,
by gravitation, is reduced to a spherical form,
and by the centrifugal force of the earth's rotation,
is become oblate. The purpose of this
fluid body is essential in the constitution of the
world; for, besides affording the means of
life and motion to a multifarious race of animals,
it is the source of growth and circulation
to the organized bodies of this earth, in being
the receptacle of the rivers, and the fountain
of our vapours.</p>

<p><i>3dly</i>, We have an irregular body of land
raised above the level of the ocean. This, no
doubt, is the smallest portion of the globe;
but it is the part to us by far most interesting.
It is upon the surface of this part that plants
are made to grow; consequently, it is by virtue
of this land that animal life, as well as
vegetation, is sustained in this world.</p>

<p><i>Lastly</i>, We have a surrounding body of atmosphere,
which completes the globe. This
vital fluid is no less necessary, in the constitution
of the world, than are the other parts;
for there is hardly an operation upon the surface
of the earth, that is not conducted or
promoted by its means. It is a necessary condition
for the sustenance of fire; it is the
breath of life to animals; it is at least an instrument
in vegetation; and, while it contributes
to give fertility and health to things that
grow, it is employed in preventing noxious
effects from such as go into corruption. In
short, it is the proper means of circulation for
the matter of this world, by raising up the
water of the ocean, and pouring it forth upon
the surface of the earth.</p>

<p>Such is the mechanism of the globe: Let
us now mention some of those powers by
which motion is produced, and activity procured
to the mere machine.</p>

<p>First, There is the progressive force, or
moving power, by which this planetary body,
if solely actuated, would depart continually
from the path which it now pursues, and thus
be for ever removed from its end, whether as
a planetary body, or as a globe sustaining
plants and animals, which may be termed a
living world.</p>

<p>But this moving body is also actuated by gravitation,
which inclines it directly to the central
body of the sun. Thus it is made to revolve
about that luminary, and to preserve its path.</p>

<p>It is also upon the same principles, that each
particular part upon the surface of this globe,
is alternately exposed to the influence of light
and darkness, in the diurnal rotation of the
earth, as well as in its annual revolution. In
this manner are produced the vicissitudes of
night and day, so variable in the different latitudes
from the equator to the pole, and so
beautifully calculated to equalise the benefits
of light, so variously distributed in the different
regions of the globe.</p>

<p>Gravitation, and the <i>vis infita</i> of matter, thus
form the first two powers distinguishable in the
operations of our system, and wisely adapted to
the purpose for which they are employed.</p>

<p>We next observe the influence of light and
heat, of cold and condensation. It is by means
of these two powers that the various operations
of this living world are more immediately
transacted; although the other powers
are no less required, in order to produce or
modify these great agents in the economy of
life, and system of our changing things.</p>

<p>We do not now inquire into the nature of
those powers, or investigate the laws of light
and heat, of cold and condemnation, by which
the various purposes of this world are accomplished;
we are only to mention those effects
which are made sensible to the common understanding
of mankind, and which necessarily
imply a power that is employed. Thus, it
is by the operation of those powers that the
varieties of season in spring and autumn are
obtained, that we are blessed with the vicissitudes
of summer's heat and winter's cold, and
that we possess the benefit of artificial light
and culinary fire.</p>

<p>We are thus bountifully provided with the
necessaries of life; we are supplied with things
conducive to the growth and preservation of
our animal nature, and with fit subjects to
employ and to nourish our intellectual powers.</p>

<p>There are other actuating powers employed
in the operations of this globe, which we are
little more than able to enumerate; such are
those of electricity, magnetism, and subterraneous
heat or mineral fire.</p>

<p>Powers of such magnitude or force, are not
to be supposed useless in a machine contrived
surely not without wisdom; but they are
mentioned here chiefly on account of their
general effect; and it is sufficient to have
named powers, of which the actual existence
is well known, but of which the proper use in
the constitution of the world is still obscure.
The laws of electricity and magnetism have
been well examined by philosophers; but the
purposes of those powers in the economy of
the globe have not been discovered. Subterraneous
fire, again, although the most conspicuous
in the operations of this world, and
often examined by philosophers, is a power
which has been still less understood, whether
with regard to its efficient or final cause. It
has hitherto appeared more like the accident
of natural things, than the inherent property
of the mineral region. It is in this last light,
however, that I wish to exhibit it, as a great
power acting a material part in the operations
of the globe, and as an essential part in the
constitution of this world.</p>

<p>We have thus surveyed the machine in general,
with those moving powers, by which
its operations, diversified almost <i>ad infinitum</i>,
are performed. Let us now confine our view,
more particularly, to that part of the machine
on which we dwell, that so we may consider
the natural consequences of those operations
which, being within our view, we are better
qualified to examine.</p>

<p>This subject is important to the human
race, to the possessor of this world, to the intelligent
being Man, who foresees events to
come, and who, in contemplating his future
interest, is led to inquire concerning causes,
in order that he may judge of events which
otherwise he could not know.</p>

<p>If, in pursuing this object, we employ our
skill in research, not in forming vain conjectures;
and if <i>data</i> are to be found, on which
Science may form just conclusions, we should
not long remain in ignorance with respect to
the natural history of this earth, a subject on
which hitherto opinion only, and not evidence,
has decided: For in no subject, perhaps,
is there naturally less defect of evidence,
although philosophers, led by prejudice, or
misguided by false theory, may have neglected
to employ that light by which they should
have seen the system of this world.</p>

<p>But to proceed in pursuing a little farther
our general or preparatory ideas. A solid
body of land could not have answered the
purpose of a habitable world; for, a soil is necessary
to the growth of plants; and a soil is
nothing but the materials collected from the
destruction of the solid land. Therefore, the
surface of this land, inhabited by man, and
covered with plants and animals, is made by nature
to decay, in dissolving from that hard and,
compact state in which it is found below the
soil; and this soil is necessarily washed away,
by the continual circulation of the water, running
from the summits of the mountains towards
the general receptacle of that fluid.
The heights of our land are thus levelled
with the shores; our fertile plains are formed
from the ruins of the mountains; and those
travelling materials are still pursued by the moving
water, and propelled along the inclined
surface of the earth<a id="footnotetag1" name="footnotetag1"></a><a href="#footnote1"><sup>1</sup></a> These moveable materials,
delivered into the sea, cannot, for a long
continuance, rest upon the shore; for, by the
agitation of the winds, the tides and currents,
every moveable thing is carried farther and farther
along the shelving bottom of the sea, towards
the unfathomable regions of the ocean.</p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1" name="footnote1"></a><b>Footnote 1:</b><a href="#footnotetag1"> (return) </a> M. de Luc, in his second letter to me, published in
the Monthly Review for 1790, says, "You ought to
have proved that both gravel and sand are carried from
our continents to the sea; which, on the contrary, I
shall prove not to be the case." He then endeavours
to prove his assertion, by observing, that, in certain places
where there is not either sufficient declivity in the surface,
or force in the running water, gravel and sand are made
to rest, and do not travel to the sea. This surely is a fact
to which I most readily assent; but, on the other hand,
I hope he will acknowledge, that, where there is sufficient
declivity in the surface, or force in the running water,
sand, gravel, and stones, are travelled upon the land, and
are thus carried into the sea&mdash;at last. This is all that my
theory requires, and this is what I believe will be admitted,
without any farther proof on my part.</blockquote>

<p>If the vegetable soil is thus constantly removed
from the surface of the land, and if its
place is thus to be supplied from the dissolution
of the solid earth, as here represented, we
may perceive an end to this beautiful machine;
an end, arising from no error in its
constitution as a world, but from that destructibility
of its land which is so necessary in the
system of the globe, in the economy of life
and vegetation.</p>

<p>The immense time necessarily required for
this total destruction of the land, must not be
opposed to that view of future events, which
is indicated by the surest facts, and most approved
principles. Time, which measures
every thing in our idea, and is often deficient
to our schemes, is to nature endless and as
nothing; it cannot limit that by which alone
it had existence; and, as the natural course of
time, which to us seems infinite, cannot be
bounded by any operation that may have an
end, the progress of things upon this globe,
that is, the course of nature, cannot be limited
by time, which must proceed in a continual
succession. We are, therefore, to consider as
inevitable the deduction of our land, so far
as effected by those operations which are necessary
in the purpose of the globe, considered
as a habitable world; and, so far as we have
not examined any other part of the economy
of nature, in which other operations and a
different intention might appear.</p>

<p>We have now considered the globe of this
earth as a machine, constructed upon chemical
as well as mechanical principles, by which
its different parts are all adapted, in form, in
quality, and in quantity, to a certain end; an
end attained with certainty or success; and an
end from which we may perceive wisdom, in
contemplating the means employed.</p>

<p>But is this world to be considered thus
merely as a machine, to last no longer than
its parts retain their present position, their
proper forms and qualities? Or may it not
be also considered as an organized body?
such as has a constitution in which the necessary
decay of the machine is naturally repaired,
in the exertion of those productive powers
by which it had been formed.</p>

<p>This is the view in which we are now to
examine the globe; to see if there be, in the
constitution of this world, a reproductive operation,
by which a ruined constitution may be
again repaired, and a duration or stability thus
procured to the machine, considered as a world
sustaining plants and animals.</p>

<p>If no such reproductive power, or reforming
operation, after due inquiry, is to be found
in the constitution of this world, we should
have reason to conclude, that the system of
this earth has either been intentionally made
imperfect, or has not been the work of infinite
power and wisdom.</p>

<p>Here is an important question, therefore,
with regard to the constitution of this globe;
a question which, perhaps, it is in the power
of man's sagacity to resolve; and a question
which, if satisfactorily resolved, might add
some lustre to science and the human intellect.</p>

<p>Animated with this great, this interesting
view, let us strictly examine our principles,
in order to avoid fallacy in our reasoning;
and let us endeavour to support our attention,
in developing a subject that is vast in its extent,
as well as intricate in the relation of parts
to be stated.</p>

<p>The globe of this earth is evidently made
for man. He alone, of all the beings which
have life upon this body, enjoys the whole and
every part; he alone is capable of knowing
the nature of this world, which he thus possesses
in virtue of his proper right; and he
alone can make the knowledge of this system
a source of pleasure, and the means of happiness.</p>

<p>Man alone, of all the animated beings which
enjoy the benefits of this earth, employs the
knowledge which he there receives, in leading
him to judge of the intention of things,
as well as of the means by which they are
brought about; and he alone is thus made to
enjoy, in contemplation as well as sensual
pleasure, all the good that may be observed in
the constitution of this world; he, therefore,
should be made the first subject of inquiry.</p>

<p>Now, if we are to take the written history
of man for the rule by which we should judge
of the time when the species first began, that
period would be but little removed from the
present state of things. The Mosaic history
places this beginning of man at no great distance;
and there has not been found, in natural
history, any document by which a high
antiquity might be attributed to the human
race. But this is not the case with regard to
the inferior species of animals, particularly
those which inhabit the ocean and its shores.
We find, in natural history, monuments which
prove that those animals had long existed;
and we thus procure a measure for the computation
of a period of time extremely remote,
though far from being precisely ascertained.</p>

<p>In examining things present, we have data
from which to reason with regard to what has
been; and, from what has actually been, we
have data for concluding with regard to that
which is to happen hereafter. Therefore,
upon the supposition that the operations of
nature are equable and steady, we find, in natural
appearances, means for concluding a certain
portion of time to have necessarily elapsed,
in the production of those events of which
we see the effects.</p>

<p>It is thus that, in finding the relics of sea-animals
of every kind in the solid body of our
earth, a natural history of those animals is
formed, which includes a certain portion of
time; and, for the ascertaining this portion of
time, we must again have recourse to the regular
operations of this world. We shall thus
arrive at facts which indicate a period to
which no other species of chronology is able
to remount.</p>

<p>In what follows, therefore, we are to examine
the construction of the present earth,
in order to understand the natural operations
of time past; to acquire principles, by which
we may conclude with regard to the future
course of things, or judge of those operations,
by which a world, so wisely ordered, goes into
decay; and to learn, by what means such
a decayed world may be renovated, or the
waste of habitable land upon the globe repaired.</p>

<p>This, therefore, is the object which we are
to have in view during this physical investigation;
this is the end to which are to be directed
all the steps in our cosmological pursuit.</p>

<p>The solid parts of the globe are, in general,
composed of sand, of gravel, of argillaceous
and calcareous strata, or of the various compositions
of these with some other substances,
which it is not necessary now to mention.
Sand is separated and sized by streams and
currents; gravel is formed by the mutual attrition
of stones agitated in water; and marly,
or argillaceous strata, have been collected, by
subsiding in water with which those earthy
substances had been floated. Thus, so far as
the earth is formed of these materials, that solid
body would appear to have been the production
of water, winds, and tides.</p>

<p>But that which renders the original of our
land clear and evident, is the immense quantities
of calcareous bodies which had belonged
to animals, and the intimate connection of
these masses of animal production with the
other strata of the land. For it is to be proved,
that all these calcareous bodies, from the collection
of which the strata were formed, have
belonged to the sea, and were produced in it.</p>

<p>We find the marks of marine animals in the
most solid parts of the earth; consequently,
those solid parts have been formed after the
ocean was inhabited by those animals which
are proper to that fluid medium. If, therefore,
we knew the natural history of those
solid parts, and could trace the operations of
the globe, by which they had been formed,
we would have some means for computing
the time through which those species of animals
have continued to live. But how shall
we describe a process which nobody has seen
performed, and of which no written history
gives any account? This is only to be investigated,
<i>first</i>, in examining the nature of those
solid bodies, the history of which we want to
know; and, 2<i>dly</i>, In examining the natural
operations of the globe, in order to see if there
now actually exist such operations, as, from
the nature of the solid bodies, appear to have
been necessary to their formation.</p>

<p>But, before entering more particularly into
those points of discussion, by which the question
is to be resolved, let us take a general
view of the subject, in order to see what it is
which science and observation must decide.</p>

<p>In all the regions of the globe, immense
masses are found, which, though at present in
the most solid state, appear to have been formed
by the collection of the calcareous <i>exuviae</i>
of marine animals. The question at present
is not, in what manner those collections of
calcareous relics have become a perfect solid
body, and have been changed from an animal
to a mineral substance; for this is a subject
that will be afterwards considered; we are
now only inquiring, if such is truly the origin
of those mineral masses.</p>

<p>That all the masses of marble or limestone
are composed of the calcareous matter of marine
bodies, may be concluded from the following
facts:</p>

<p>1<i>st</i>, There are few beds of marble or limestone,
in which may not be found some of
those objects which indicate the marine origin
of the mass. If, for example, in a mass
of marble, taken from a quarry upon the top
of the Alps or Andes<a id="footnotetag2" name="footnotetag2"></a><a href="#footnote2"><sup>2</sup></a>, there shall be found
one cockle-shell, or piece of coral, it must be
concluded, that this bed of stone had been
originally formed at the bottom of the sea, as
much as another bed which is evidently composed
almost altogether of cockle-shells and
coral. If one bed of limestone is thus found
to have been of a marine origin, every concomitant
bed of the same kind must be also
concluded to have been formed in the same
Manner.</p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2" name="footnote2"></a><b>Footnote 2:</b><a href="#footnotetag2"> (return) </a> "Cette sommité élevée de 984 toises au dessus de
notre lac, et par conséquent de 1172 au dessus de la
mer, est remarquable en ce que l'on y voit des fragmens
d'huîtres pétrifiés.&mdash;Cette montagne est dominée par
un rocher escarpé, qui s'il n'est pas inaccessible, est du
moins d'un bien difficile accès; il paroît presqu'entièrement
composé de coquillages pétrifiés, renfermés dans
un roc calcaire, ou marbre grossier noirâtre. Les fragmens
qui s'en détachent, et que l'on rencontre en montant
à la Croix de fer, sont remplis de <i>turbinites</i> de différentes
espèces." M. DE SAUSSURE, <i>Voyage dans les
Alpes</i>, p. 394.</blockquote>

<p>We thus shall find the greatest part of the
calcareous masses upon this globe to have originated
from marine calcareous bodies; for
whether we examine marbles, limestones, or
such solid masses as are perfectly changed from
the state of earth, and are become compact
and hard, or whether we examine the soft,
earthy, chalky or marly strata, of which so
much of this earth is composed, we still find
evident proofs, that those beds had their origin
from materials deposited at the bottom of
the sea; and that they have the calcareous
substance which they contain, from the same
source as the marbles or the limestones.</p>

<p>2<i>dly</i>, In those calcareous strata, which are
evidently of marine origin, there are many
parts that are of a sparry structure, that is to
say, the original texture of those beds, in such
places, has been dissolved, and a new structure
has been assumed, which is peculiar to a
certain state of the calcareous earth. This
change is produced by crystallisation, in consequence
of a previous state of fluidity, which
has so disposed the concreting parts, as to allow
them to assume a regular shape and structure
proper to that substance. A body, whose
external form has been modified by this process,
is called a <i>crystal</i>; one whose internal
arrangement of parts is determined by it, is said
to be of a <i>sparry structure</i>; and this is known
from its fracture.</p>

<p>3<i>dly</i>, There are, in all the regions of the
earth, huge masses of calcareous matter, in
that crystalline form of sparry state, in which
perhaps no vestige can be found of any organised
body, nor any indication that such calcareous
matter had belonged to animals; but
as, in other masses, this sparry structure, or
crystalline state, is evidently assumed by the
marine calcareous substances, in operations
which are natural to the globe, and which are
necessary to the consolidation of the strata, it
does not appear, that the sparry masses, in
which no figured body is formed, have been
originally different from other masses, which,
being only crystallised in part, and in part still
retaining their original form, leave ample
evidence of their marine origin<a id="footnotetag3" name="footnotetag3"></a><a href="#footnote3"><sup>3</sup></a>.</p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3" name="footnote3"></a><b>Footnote 3:</b><a href="#footnotetag3"> (return) </a> M. de Saussure, describing the marble of Aigle,
says, "Les tables polies de ce marbre présentent fréquemment
des coquillages, dont la plupart sont des peignes
striés, et de très-beaux madrépores. Tous ces
corps marins on pris entierement la nature et le grain
même du marbre, on n'y voit presque jamais la coquille
sous sa forme originaire."</blockquote>

<p>We are led, in this manner, to conclude,
that all the strata of the earth, not only those
consisting of such calcareous masses, but others
superincumbent upon these, have had their
origin at the bottom of the sea, by the collection
of sand and gravel, of shells, of coralline
and crustaceous bodies, and of earths and clays,
variously mixed, or separated and accumulated.
Here is a general conclusion, well authenticated
in the appearances of nature, and
highly important in the natural history of the
earth.</p>

<p>The general amount of our reasoning is this,
that nine-tenths, perhaps, or ninety-nine hundredths
of this earth, so far as we see, have
been formed by natural operations of the
globe, in collecting loose materials, and depositing
them at the bottom of the sea; consolidating
those collections in various degrees,
and either elevating those consolidated masses
above the level on which they were formed,
or lowering the level of that sea.</p>

<p>There is a part of the solid earth which we
may at present neglect, not as being persuaded
that this part may not also be found to
come under the general rule of formation with
the rest, but as considering this part to be of
no consequence in forming a general rule,
which shall comprehend almost the whole,
without doing it absolutely. This excluded
part consists of certain mountains and masses
of granite. These are thought to be still older
in their formation, and are said never to
be found superincumbent on strata which
must be acknowledged as the productions of
the sea.</p>

<p>Having thus found the greater part, if not
the whole, of the solid land to have been originally
composed at the bottom of the sea, we
may now, in order to form a proper idea of
these operations, suppose the whole of this seaborn
land to be again dispersed along the bottom
of the ocean, the surface of which would
rise proportionally over the globe. We would
thus have a spheroid of water, with granite
rocks and islands scattered here and there.
But this would not be the world which we
inhabit; therefore, the question now is, how
such continents, as we actually have upon the
globe, could be erected above the level of the
sea.</p>

<p>It must be evident, that no motion of the
sea, caused by this earth revolving in the solar
system, could bring about that end; for
let us suppose the axis of the earth to be
changed from the present poles, and placed in
the equinoctial line, the consequence of this
might, indeed, be the formation of a continent
of land about each new pole, from
whence the sea would run towards the new
equator; but all the rest of the globe would
remain an ocean. Some new points might
be discovered, and others, which before appeared
above the surface of the sea, would be
sunk by the rising of the water; but, on the
whole, land could only be gained substantially
at the poles. Such a supposition, as this, if
applied to the present state of things, would
be destitute of every support, as being incapable
of explaining what appears.</p>

<p>But even allowing that, by the changed axis
of the earth, or any other operation of the
globe, as a planetary body revolving in the
solar system, great continents of land could
have been erected from the place of their formation,
the bottom of the sea, and placed in
a higher elevation, compared with the surface
of that water, yet such a continent as this
could not have continued stationary for many
thousand years; nor could a continent of this
kind have presented to us, every where within
its body, masses of consolidated marble,
and other mineral substances, in a state as different
as possible from that in which they
were, when originally collected together in
the sea.</p>

<p>Consequently, besides an operation, by
which the earth at the bottom of the sea
should be converted into an elevated land, or
placed high above the level of the ocean, there
is required, in the operations of the globe, a
consolidating power, by which the loose materials
that had subsided from water, should
be formed into masses of the most perfect solidity,
having neither water nor vacuity between
their various constituent parts, nor in
the pores of those constituent parts themselves.</p>

<p>Here is an operation of the globe, whether
chemical or mechanical, which is necessarily
connected with the formation of our present
continents: Therefore, had we a proper understanding
of this secret operation, we might
thereby be enabled to form an opinion, with
regard to the nature of that unknown power,
by which the continents have been placed
above the surface of that water wherein they
had their birth.</p>

<p>If this consolidating operation be performed
at the bottom of the ocean, or under great
depths of the earth, of which our continents
are composed, we cannot be witnesses to this
mineral process, or acquire the knowledge of
natural causes, by immediately observing the
changes which they produce; but though we
have not this immediate observation of those
changes of bodies, we have, in science, the
means of reasoning from distant events; consequently,
of discovering, in the general
powers of nature, causes for those events of
which we see the effects.</p>

<p>That the consolidating operation, in general,
lies out of the reach of our immediate observation,
will appear from the following truth:
All the consolidated masses, of which we now
inquire into the cause, are, upon the surface
of the earth, in a state of general decay, although
the various natures of those bodies admit
of that dissolution in very different degrees<a id="footnotetag4" name="footnotetag4"></a><a href="#footnote4"><sup>4</sup></a></p>

<p>From every view of the subject, therefore,
we are directed to look into those consolidated
masses themselves, in order to find principles
from whence to judge of those operations by
which they had attained their hardness or
consolidated state.</p>

<p>It must be evident, that nothing but the
most general acquaintance with the laws of
acting substances, and with those of bodies
changing by the powers of nature, can enable
us to set about this undertaking with any reasonable
prospect of success; and here the science
of Chemistry must be brought particularly
to our aid; for this science, having for
its object the changes produced upon the sensible
qualities, as they are called, of bodies,
by its means we may be enabled to judge of
that which is possible according to the laws of
nature, and of that which, in like manner, we
must consider as impossible.</p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4" name="footnote4"></a><b>Footnote 4:</b><a href="#footnotetag4"> (return) </a> Stalactical and certain ferruginous concretions may seem
to form an exception to the generality of this proposition.
But an objection of this kind could only arise from a partial
view of things; for the concretion here is only temporary;
it is in consequence of a solution, and it is to be followed
by a dissolution, which will be treated of in its proper place.</blockquote>

<p>Whatever conclusions, therefore, by means
of this science, shall be attained, in just reasoning
from natural appearances, this must be
held as evidence, where more immediate proof
cannot be obtained; and, in a physical subject,
where things actual are concerned, and
not the imaginations of the human mind, this
proof will be considered as amounting to a
demonstration.</p>

<h3>SECTION II.</h3>

<p><i>An Investigation of the Natural Operations
employed in consolidating the Strata of the
Globe.</i></p>


<p>We are now about to investigate those mineral
operations of the globe by which the qualities
of hardness and solidity, consequently
of strength and durability, are procured to
great bodies of this earth.</p>

<p>That those qualities are not original to such
bodies, but actually superinduced in the natural
operations of the earth, will appear from
the examination of some of the hardest and
most solid of those mineral bodies. In such
masses, (for example of flint and agate,) we
find included shells and coralline bodies. Consequently,
there must be a natural operation
in the globe for consolidating and hardening
its soft and loose materials. It is concerning
the nature of this consolidating operation that
we are now to inquire.</p>

<p>There are just two ways in which porous
or spongy bodies can be consolidated, and by
which substances may be formed into masses
of a natural shape and regular structure; the
one of these is simple <i>congelation</i> from a fluid
state, by means of cold; the other is <i>accretion</i>;
and this includes a separatory operation, as
well as that by which the solid body is to be
produced. But in whichever of these ways
solidity shall be procured, it must be brought
about by first inducing fluidity, either immediately
by the action of heat, or mediately
with the assistance of a solvent, that is, by the
operation of solution. Therefore, fire and
water may be considered as the general agents
in this operation, which we would explore.</p>

<p>Heat has been already mentioned as a general
power, and as acting in all the different
parts of the globe; I would now wish more
particularly to call the attention of the reader
to subterraneous fire, or heat, as a powerful
agent in the mineral regions, and as a cause
necessarily belonging to the internal constitution
of this earth.</p>

<p>It is not our purpose at present to inquire
into the particular nature of this power of
subterraneous heat, or to trace the proper connection
and analogy of the internal fire with
that which is so necessary to our life, and
which acts so great a part upon the surface of
the earth, this being reserved for the last part.
Our intention in here mentioning it, is only
to dispose the mind to look for active powers
or efficient causes, in that part of the earth
which has been commonly considered as passive
and inert, but which will be found extremely
active, and the source of mighty revolutions
in the fate of land.</p>

<p>There may, indeed, be some difficulty in
conceiving all the modifications of this mineral
power; but as, on the one hand, we are
not arbitrarily to assume an agent, for the purpose
of explaining events, or certain appearances
which are not understood; so, on the
other, we must not refuse to admit the action
of a known power, when this is properly
suggested in the appearances of things; and,
though we may not understand all the modifications,
or the whole capacity and regulation
of this power in bodies, we are not to neglect
the appropriating to it, as a cause, those
effects which are natural to it, and which, so
far as we know, cannot belong to any other.
On all occasions, we are to judge from what
we know; and, we are only to avoid concluding
from our suppositions, in cases where
evidence or real information is necessarily required.
The subject now considered, subterraneous
fire, will afford an example of that
truth; and, a general view of this great natural
power will here find a proper place, before
the application of it for the explanation of
natural appearances.</p>

<p>No event is more the object of our notice,
or more interesting as a subject for our study,
than is the burning of a fire: But, the more
that philosophers have studied this subject, the
more they seem to differ as to the manner in
which that conspicuous event is to be explained.
Therefore, being so ignorant with
regard to that fire of which we see the origin
as well as the more immediate effects, how
cautious should we be in judging the nature
of subterraneous fire from the burning of bodies,
a subject which we so little understand.</p>

<p>But, though the cause of fire in general, or
the operations of that power in its extreme
degrees, be for us a subject involved in much
obscurity, this is not the case with regard to
the more common effects of heat; and, tho'
the actual existence of subterraneous fire, as
the cause of light and heat, might be a thing
altogether problematical in our opinion; yet,
as to other effects, there are some of these
from which the action of that liquefying power
may be certainly concluded as having taken
place within the mineral region, although the
cause should be in every other respect a thing
to us unknown. In that case, where the operation
or effect is evident, and cannot be disputed,
to refuse to admit the power in question,
merely because we had not seen it act,
or because we know not every rule which it
may observe in acting, would be only to found
an argument upon our ignorance; it would
be to misunderstand the nature of investigating
physical truths, which must proceed by reasoning
from effect to cause.</p>

<p>Our knowledge is extremely limited with
regard to the effects of heat in bodies, while
acting under different conditions, and in various
degrees. But though our knowledge in
these respects is limited, our judgment with
regard to the efficacy of this power of heat is
in its nature positive, and contains not any
thing that is doubtful or uncertain. All mankind,
who have the opportunity, know that
the hard substance of ice is by heat converted
into water, wherein no hardness remains;
and the profound philosophy of Dr Black, in
relation to the subject of <i>latent heat</i>, as that of
Sir Isaac Newton, in relation to the weight of
bodies, is not necessary to convince the world
that in the one case ice will melt, and in the
other, that heavy bodies will move when unsupported.</p>

<p>But though, in the abstract doctrine of <i>latent
heat</i>, the ingenuity of man has discovered
a certain measure for the quantity of those
commutable effects which are perceived; and
though this be a progress of science far above
the apprehension of the vulgar, yet still, that
solid bodies are changed into fluids, by the
power of heat, is the same unalterable judgment,
which the savage forms as well as the
philosopher. Here, therefore, are evident effects,
which mankind in general attribute to
the power of heat; and it is from those
known effects that we are to investigate subterraneous
fire, or to generalise the power of
heat, as acting in the interior parts, as well as
on the surface of this earth.</p>

<p>If, indeed, there were any other cause for
fluidity besides the operation of fire or the
power of heat, in that case the most evident
proof, with regard to the flowing, or former
fluidity, of mineral bodies, would draw to no
conclusion in proving the existence of mineral
fire; but when we have not the smallest
reason for conjecturing any other cause, or
the least doubt with regard to that which, in
the doctrine of latent heat, has been properly
investigated, the proofs which we shall bring,
of fusion in all the minerals of this earth, must
be held as proofs of mineral fire, in like manner
as the proof of subterraneous fire would
necessarily imply mineral fusion as its natural
effect.</p>

<p>Thus we have, in our physical investigation,
several points in view. First, from the
present state of things, to infer a former state
of fusion among mineral bodies. Secondly,
from that former fusion, to infer the actual
existence of mineral fire in the system of the
earth. And, lastly, from the acknowledged
fact of subterraneous fire as a cause, to reason
with regard to the effects of that power in
mineral bodies.</p>

<p>But besides the power or effect of subterraneous
heat in bodies which are unorganised,
and without system, in the construction of
their different parts, we have to investigate
the proper purpose of this great agent in the
system of this world, which may be considered
as a species of organised body. Here,
therefore, final causes are to be brought into
view, as well as those which are efficient.
Now, in a subject involved with so much obscurity,
as must be for us the internal regions
of the globe, the consideration of efficient and
final causes may contribute mutually to each
others evidence, when separately the investigation
of either might be thought unsatisfactory
or insufficient.</p>

<p>So far it seemed necessary to premise with
regard to the great mineral power which we
are to employ as an agent in the system of
this earth; and it may be now observed, that
it is in the proper relation of this power of heat
and the fluidity or softness of bodies, as cause
and effect, that we are to find a physical principle
or argument for detecting those false
theories of the earth that have been only imagined,
and not properly founded on fact or
observation. It is also by means of this principle,
that we shall be enabled to form a true
theory of the mineral region, in generalising
particular effects to a common cause.</p>

<p>Let us now proceed in endeavouring to decide
this important question, viz. By what
active principle is it, that the present state of
things, which we observe in the strata of the
earth, a state so very different from that in
which those bodies had been formed originally,
has been brought about?</p>

<p>Two causes have been now proposed for
the consolidating of loose materials which had
been in an incoherent state; these are, on the
one hand, fire; or, on the other, water, as
the means of bringing about that event. We
are, therefore, to consider well, what may be
the consequences of consolidation by the one
or other of those agents; and what may be
the respective powers of those agents with respect
to this operation.</p>

<p>If we are not informed in this branch of
science, we may gaze without instruction upon
the most convincing proofs of what we
want to attain. If our knowledge is imperfect,
we may form erroneous principles, and
deceive ourselves in reasoning with regard to
those works of nature, which are wisely calculated
for our instruction.</p>

<p>The strata, formed at the bottom of the sea,
are to be considered as having been consolidated,
either by aqueous solution and crystallization,
or by the effect of heat and fusion.
If it is in the first of these two ways that the
solid strata of the globe have attained to their
present state, there will be a certain uniformity
observable in the effects; and there will be
general laws, by which this operation must
have been conducted. Therefore, knowing
those general laws, and making just observations
with regard to the natural appearances
of those consolidated masses, a philosopher, in
his closet, should be able to determine, what
may, and what may not have been transacted
in the bowels of the earth, or below the bottom
of the ocean.</p>

<p>Let us now endeavour to ascertain what
may have been the power of water, acting
under fixed circumstances, operating upon
known substances, and conducting to a certain
end.</p>

<p>The action of water upon all different substances
is an operation with which we are
familiar.  We have it in our power to apply
water in different degrees of heat for the solution
of bodies, and under various degrees of
compression; consequently, there is no reason
to conclude any thing mysterious in the operations
of the globe, which are to be performed
by means of water, unless an immense
compressing power should alter the nature of
those operations. But compression alters the
relation of evaporation only with regard to
heat, or it changes the degree of heat which
water may be made to sustain; consequently,
we  are to look for no occult quality in
water acting upon bodies at the bottom of
the deepest ocean, more than what can be
observed in experiments which we have it in
our power to try.</p>

<p>With regard again to the effect of time:
Though the continuance of time may do
much in those operations which are extremely
slow, where no change, to our observation,
had appeared to take place, yet, where it is
not in the nature of things to produce the
change in question, the unlimited course of
time would be no more effectual, than the
moment by which we measure events in our
observations.</p>

<p>Water being the general medium in which
bodies collected at the bottom of the sea are
always contained, if those masses of collected
matter are to be consolidated by solution, it
must be by the dissolution of those bodies in
that water as a menstruum, and by the concretion
or crystallization of this dissolved matter,
that the spaces, first occupied by water in
those masses, are afterwards to be filled with
a hard and solid substance; but without some
other power, by which the water contained
in those cavities and endless labyrinths of the
strata, should be separated in proportion as it
had performed its task, it is inconceivable
how those masses, however changed from the
state of their first subsidence, should be absolutely
consolidated, without any visible or
fluid water in their composition.</p>

<p>Besides this difficulty of having the water
separated from the porous masses which are
to be consolidated, there is another with
which, upon this supposition, we have to
struggle. This is, From whence should come
the matter with which the numberless cavities
in those masses are to be filled?</p>

<p>The water in the cavities and interstices of
those bodies composing strata, must be in a
stagnating state; consequently, it can only act
upon the surfaces of those cavities which are
to be filled up. But with what are they to
be filled? Not with water; they are full of
that already: Not with the substance of the
bodies which contain that water; this would
be only to make one cavity in order to fill up
another. If, therefore, the cavities of the
strata are to be filled with solid matter, by
means of water, there must be made to pass
through those porous masses, water impregnated
with some other substances in a dissolved
state; and the aqueous menstruum must
be made to separate from the dissolved substance,
and to deposit the same in those cavities
through which the solution moves.</p>

<p>By such a supposition as this, we might
perhaps explain a partial consolidation of
those strata; but this is a supposition, of
which the case under consideration does not
admit; for in the present case, which is that
of materials accumulated at the bottom of the
ocean, there is not proper means for separating
the dissolved matter from the water included
in those enormous masses; nor are
there any means by which a circulation in
those masses may be formed. In this case,
therefore, where the means are not naturally
in the supposition, a philosopher, who is to
explain the phenomenon by the natural operation
of water in this situation, must not have
recourse to another agent, still more powerful,
to assist his supposition which cannot be
admitted.</p>

<p>Thus, it will appear, that, to consolidate
strata formed at the bottom of the sea, in the
manner now considered, operations are required
unnatural to this place; consequently,
not to be supposed, in order to support a hypothesis.</p>

<p>But now, instead of inquiring how far water
may be supposed instrumental in the consolidation
of strata which were originally of
a loose texture, we are to consider how far
there may be appearances in those consolidated
bodies, by which it might be concluded,
whether or not the present state of their consolidation
has been actually brought about by
means of that agent.</p>

<p>If water had been the menstruum by which
the consolidating matter was introduced into
the interstices of strata, masses of those bodies
could only be found consolidated with such
substances as water is capable of dissolving;
and these substances would be found only in
such a state as the simple separation of the
solvent water might produce.</p>

<p>In this case, the consolidation of strata
would be extremely limited; for we cannot
allow more power to water than we find it
has in nature; nor are we to imagine to ourselves
unlimited powers in bodies, on purpose
to explain those appearances by which we
should be made to know the powers of nature.
Let us, therefore, attend, with every
possible circumspection, to the appearances of
those bodies, by means of which we are to
investigate the principles of mineralogy, and
know the laws of nature.</p>

<p>The question now before us concerns the
consolidating substances of strata. Are these
such as will correspond to the dissolving
power of water, and to the state in which
these substances might be left by the separation
of their menstruum? No; far, far from
this supposition is the conclusion that necessarily
follows from natural appearances.</p>

<p>We have strata consolidated by calcareous
spar, a thing perfectly distinguishable from the
stalactical concretion of calcareous earth, in
consequence of aqueous solution. We have
strata made solid by the formation of fluor,
a substance not soluble, so far as we know, by
water. We have strata consolidated with
sulphureous and bituminous substances, which
do not correspond to the solution of water.
We have strata consolidated with siliceous
matter, in a state different from that under
which it has been observed, on certain occasions,
to be deposited by water. We have
strata consolidated by feld-spar, a substance
insoluble in water. We have strata consolidated
by almost all the various metallic substances,
with their almost endless mixtures
and sulphureous compositions; that is to say,
we find, perhaps, every different substance
introduced into the interstices of strata which
had been formed by subsidence at the bottom
of the sea.</p>

<p>If it is by means of water that those interstices
have been filled with those materials,
water must be, like fire, an universal solvent,
or cause of fluidity, and we must change entirely
our opinion of water in relation to its
chemical character. But there is no necessity
thus to violate our chemical principles, in order
to explain certain natural appearances;
more especially if those appearances may be
explained in another manner, consistently
with the known laws of nature.</p>

<p>If, again, it is by means of heat and fusion
that the loose and porous structure of strata
shall be supposed to have been consolidated,
then every difficulty which had occurred in
reasoning upon the power or agency of water
is at once removed. The loose and discontinuous
body of a stratum may be closed by
means of softness and compression; the porous
structure of the materials may be consolidated,
in a similar manner, by the fusion of
their substance; and foreign matter may be
introduced into the open structure of strata,
in form of steam or exhalation, as well as in
the fluid state of fusion; consequently, heat
is an agent competent for the consolidation of
strata, which water alone is not. If, therefore,
such an agent could be found acting in
the natural place of strata, we must pronounce
it proper to bring about that end.</p>

<p>The examination of nature gives countenance
to this supposition, so far as strata are
found consolidated by every species of substance,
and almost every possible mixture of
those different substances; consequently, however
difficult it may appear to have this application
of heat, for the purpose of consolidating
strata formed at the bottom of the
ocean, we cannot, from natural appearances,
suppose any other cause, as having actually
produced the effects which are now examined.</p>

<p>This question, with regard to the means of
consolidating the strata of the globe, is, to natural
history, of the greatest importance; and
it is essential in the theory now proposed to
be given of the mineral system. It would,
therefore, require to be discussed with some
degree of precision in examining the particulars;
but of these, there is so great a field,
and the subject is so complicated in its nature,
that volumes might be written upon particular
branches only, without exhausting what
might be laid upon the subject; because the
evidence, though strong in many particulars,
is chiefly to be enforced by a multitude of
facts, conspiring, in a diversity of ways, to
point out one truth, and by the impossibility
of reconciling all these facts, except by means
of one supposition.</p>

<p>But, as it is necessary to give some proof
of that which is to be a principle in our reasoning
afterwards, I shall now endeavour to
generalise the subject as much as possible, in
order to answer that end, and, at the same
time, to point out the particular method of
inquiry.</p>

<p>There are to be found, among the various
strata of the globe, bodies formed of two different
kinds of substances, <i>siliceous</i> bodies, and
those which may be termed <i>sulphureous</i> or
<i>phlogistic</i>. With one or other, or both of
those we substances, every different consolidated
stratum of the globe will be found so
intimately mixed, or closely connected, that
it must be concluded, by whatever cause those
bodies of siliceous and sulphureous matter had
been changed from a fluid to a concreted
state, the strata must have been similarly affected
by the same cause.</p>

<p>These two species of bodies, therefore, the
siliceous and the sulphureous, may now be
examined, in relation to the causes of their
concretion, with a view to determine, what
has been the general concreting or consolidating
power, which has operated universally
in the globe; and particularly to show, it has
not been by means of any fluid solution, that
strata in general have been consolidated, or
that those particular substances have been
crystallized and concreted.</p>

<p>Siliceous matter, physically speaking, is not
soluble in water; that is to say, in no manner
of way have we been enabled to learn, that
water has the power of dissolving this matter.</p>

<p>Many other substances, which are so little
soluble in water, that their solubility could
not be otherwise detected of themselves, are
made to appear soluble by means of siliceous
matter; such is feld-spar, one of the component
parts of rock-granite.</p>

<p>Feld-spar is a compound of siliceous, argillaceous,
and calcareous earth, intimately united
together. This compound siliceous body
being, for ages, exposed to the weather, the
calcareous part of it is dissolved, and the siliceous
part is  left in form of a soft white earth.
But whether this dissolution is performed by
pure water, or by means also of an acid, may
perhaps be questioned. This, however, is
certain, that we must consider siliceous substances
as insoluble in water.</p>

<p>The water of Glezer in Iceland undoubtedly
contains this substance in solution; but
there is no reason to believe, that it is here
dissolved by any other than the natural means;
that is, an alkaline substance, by which siliceous
bodies may be rendered soluble in water<a id="footnotetag5" name="footnotetag5"></a><a href="#footnote5"><sup>5</sup></a>.</p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5" name="footnote5"></a><b>Footnote 5:</b><a href="#footnotetag5"> (return) </a> This conjecture, which I had thus formed, has been
fully confirmed by the accurate analysis of those waters.
See vol. 3d. of the Phil. Trans. of Edin.</blockquote>

<p>It may be, therefore, asserted, that no siliceous
body having the hardness of flint, nor
any crystallization of that substance, has ever
been formed, except by fusion. If, by any
art, this substance shall be dissolved in simple
water, or made to crystallise from any solution,
in that case, the assertion which has been here
made may be denied. But where there is not
the vestige of any proof, to authorise the supposition
of flinty matter being dissolved by water,
or crystallized from that solution, such an
hypothesis cannot be admitted, in opposition
to general and evident appearances<a id="footnotetag6" name="footnotetag6"></a><a href="#footnote6"><sup>6</sup></a>.</p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote6" name="footnote6"></a><b>Footnote 6:</b><a href="#footnotetag6"> (return) </a>  The Chevalier de Dolomieu has imagined an ingenious
theory for the solution of siliceous substances in water (Journal de Physique, Mai 1792.).
This theory has not been taken up merely at a
venture, but is founded upon very accurate and interesting
chemical experiments. Hitherto, however, the nature
of the siliceous substance is not sufficiently known, to enable
us to found, upon chemical principles, the mineral
operations of nature. That siliceous substance may be
dissolved, or rendered soluble in water, by means of alkaline
salt, and that it may be also volatilised by means of the
fluor acid, is almost all that we know upon the subject.
But this is saying no more in relation to the mineral operations
employed upon the siliceous substance, than it
would be, in relation to those upon gold, to say that this
metal is dissolved by aqua regia.

<p>It is to be admitted, that every simple substance may
have its menstruum, by means of which it may be retained
with water in a dissolved state; but from this it does
not follow, that it is by the means of aqueous solutions of
all those mineral bodies, that nature operates the consolidation
of bodies, which we find actually accomplished with
all those different substances. It is the business of this
work to show, that from all appearances in the mineral
regions, as well as those upon the surface in the atmosphere,
the supposition, of that manner of consolidating
bodies by solution, is inconsistent both with natural appearances,
and also with chemical principles.</p>

<p>Our ingenious author, who has, with, great diligence as
well as an enlightened mind, observed the operations of
nature upon the surface of the earth, here says, "ce n'est
pas sans étonnement que je remarque depuis long-temps
que jamais aucune eau qui coule à la surface de la terre
n'attaque le quartz, aucune n'en tient en dissolution,
pendant que celles qui circulent intérieurement le corrodent
aussi souvent qu'elles le déposent."&mdash;How dangerous
it is in science for ingenious men to allow themselves
to form conclusions, which the principles on which
they reason do not strictly warrant, we have a remarkable
example in the present case.</p>

<p>M. de Dolomieu sees no corrosion of quartz, or solution
of that substance, upon the surface of the earth;
from this, then, he concludes, that siliceous substance is
not dissolved in that situation of things. On the other
hand, he finds siliceous bodies variously concreted among
the solid strata of the earth; and, from this he concludes,
that siliceous substance has been both dissolved by water
in the strata, and also there again concreted and crystallised
in having been separated from the water. This is
certainly what we all perceive; but we do not all allow
ourselves to draw such inconclusive inferences from our
premises. Notwithstanding the greatest accuracy of our
observations, quartz may be dissolvable in a minute degree
by water, upon the surface of this earth; and, all the appearances
of siliceous bodies, in the mineral regions, where
we cannot immediately see the operation, may be better
explained by fusion than by aqueous solution.</p>

<p>But, from his chemical experiments, our author has
conjectured that there may be a phlogistic substance, by
means of which the siliceous earth is dissolved when in
darkness; and that this solvent loses its power, if exposed
to the light of day. I have one observation to oppose
to this ingenious theory. Under deep black mosses,
through which no ray of light can penetrate, every condition
for dissolving siliceous bodies should be found, according
to the supposition in question; neither will sufficient
time be found wanting, in those deep mosses, upon
the summits of our mountains; yet, examine the matter
of fact? not the smallest solution is to be perceived in the
siliceous parts of the stones which are found under those
mosses, but every particle of iron is dissolved, so that the
surface of every stone is white, and nothing but the siliceous
earth of the feld-spar, and perhaps the argillaceous,
is left.</p>

<p>Here we have in this author an instructive example:
No person, in my opinion, has made such enlightened or
scientific experiments, or such judicious observations with
regard to the nature of siliceous substance, as a compound
thing; no person reasons more distinctly in general, or
sees more clearly the importance of his principles; yet,
with regard to mineral concretions, how often has he been
drawn thus inadvertently into improper generalization!
I appeal to the analogy which, in this treatise, he has
formed, between the stalactical concretions upon the surface
of the earth, and the mineral concretions of siliceous
substance. As an example of the great lights, and penetrating
genius, of this assiduous studier of nature, I refer
to the judicious observations which he has made upon the
subject of aluminous earth, in this dissertation.</p>

<p>I am surprised to find this enlightened naturalist seeking,
in the origin of this globe of our earth, a general
principle of fluidity or solution in water, like the alkahest
of the alchymists, by means of which the different substances
in the chemical constitution of precious stones
might have been united as well as crystallised. One would
have thought, that a philosopher, so conversant in the
operations of subterraneous fire, would have perceived,
that there is but one general principle of fluidity or dissolution,
and that this is heat.</blockquote>

<p>Besides this proof for the fusion of siliceous
bodies, which is indirect, arising from the in
dissolubility of that substance in water, there
is another, which is more direct, being founded
upon appearances which are plainly inconsistent
with any other supposition, except that
of simple fluidity induced by heat. The proof
I mean is, the penetration of many bodies with
a flinty substance, which, according to every
collateral circumstance, must have been performed
by the flinty matter in a simply fluid
state, and not in a state of dissolution by a solvent.</p>

<p>These are flinty bodies perfectly insulated in
strata both of chalk and sand. It requires but
inspection to be convinced. It is not possible
that flinty matter could be conveyed into the
middle of those strata, by a menstruum in
which it was dissolved, and thus deposited in
that place, without the smallest trace of deposition
in the surrounding parts.</p>

<p>But, besides this argument taken from what
does not appear, the actual form in which those
flinty masses are found, demonstrates, <i>first</i>,
That they have been introduced among those
strata in a fluid state, by injection from some
other place. 2<i>dly</i>, That they have been dispersed
in a variety of ways among those strata,
then deeply immersed at the bottom of the
sea; and, <i>lastly</i>, That they have been there congealed
from the state of fusion, and have remained
in that situation, while those strata have
been removed from the bottom of the ocean to
the surface of the present land.</p>

<p>To describe those particular appearances
would draw this paper beyond the bounds of
an essay. We must, therefore, refer those who
would inquire more minutely into the subject,
to examine the chalk-countries of France and
England, in which the flint is found variously
formed; the land-hills interspersed among those
chalk-countries, which have been also injected
by melted flint; and the pudding-stone of England,
which I have not seen in its natural situation.
More particularly, I would recommend
an examination of the insulated masses of stone,
found in the sand-hills by the city of Brussels;
a stone which is formed by an injection of
flint among sand, similar to that which, in a
body of gravel, had formed the pudding-stone
of England<a id="footnotetag7" name="footnotetag7"></a><a href="#footnote7"><sup>7</sup></a>.</p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote7" name="footnote7"></a><b>Footnote 7:</b><a href="#footnotetag7"> (return) </a>  Accurate descriptions of those appearances, with drawings,
would be, to natural history, a valuable acquisition.</blockquote>

<p>All these examples would require to be examined
upon the spot, as a great part of the
proof for the fusion of the flinty substance,
arises, in my opinion, from the form in which
those bodies are found, and the state of the
surrounding parts. But there are specimens
brought from many different places, which
contain, in themselves, the most evident marks
of this injection of the flinty substance in a
fluid state. These are pieces of fossil wood,
penetrated with a siliceous substance, which are
brought from England, Germany, and Lochneagh
in Ireland.</p>

<p>It appears from these specimens, that there
has sometimes been a prior penetration of the
body of wood, either with irony matter, or
calcareous substance. Sometimes, again, which
is the case with that of Lochneagh, there does
not seem to have been any penetration of those
two substances. The injected flint appears to
have penetrated the body of this wood, immersed
at the bottom of the sea, under an immense
compression of water. This appears
from the wood being penetrated partially, some
parts not being penetrated at all.</p>

<p>Now, in the limits between those two parts,
we have the most convincing proofs, that it
had been flint in a simple fluid state which
had penetrated the wood, and not in a state of
solution.</p>

<p><i>First</i>, Because, however little of the wood
is left unpenetrated, the division is always distinct
between the injected part and that which
is not penetrated by the fluid flint. In this
case, the flinty matter has proceeded a certain
length, which is marked, and no farther; and,
beyond this boundary, there is no partial impregnation,
nor a gradation of the flintifying
operation, as must have been the case if siliceous
matter had been deposited from a solution.
2<i>dly</i>, The termination of the flinty impregnation
has assumed such a form, precisely, as
would naturally happen from a fluid flint penetrating
that body.</p>

<p>In other specimens of this mineralising operation,
fossil wood, penetrated, more or less,
with ferruginous and calcareous substances,
has been afterwards penetrated with a flinty
substance. In this case, with whatever different
substances the woody body shall be supposed
to have been penetrated in a state of solution
by water, the regular structure of the
plant would still have remained, with its vacuities,
variously filled with the petrifying substances,
separated from the aqueous menstruum,
and deposited in the vascular structure of the
wood. There cannot be a doubt with regard
to the truth of this proposition; for, as it is, we
frequently find parts of the consolidated wood,
with the vascular structure remaining perfectly
in its natural shape and situation; but if it
had been by aqueous solution that the wood
had been penetrated and consolidated, all the
parts of that body would be found in the same
natural shape and situation.</p>

<p>This, however, is far from being the case;
for while, in some parts, the vascular structure
is preserved entire, it is also evident, that, in
general, the woody structure is variously broken
and dissolved by the fusion and crystallization
of the flint. There are so many and
such various convincing examples of this, that,
to attempt to describe them, would be to exceed
the bounds prescribed for this dissertation;
but such specimens are in my possession, ready
for the inspection of any person who may desire
to study the subject.</p>

<p>We may now proceed to consider sulphureous
substances, with regard to their solubility
in water, and to the part which these bodies
have acted in consolidating the strata of the
globe.</p>

<p>The sulphureous substances here meant to
be considered, are substances not soluble in,
water, so far as we know, but fusible by heat,
and inflammable or combustible by means of
heat and vital air. These substances are of two
kinds; the one more simple, the other more
compound.</p>

<p>The most simple kind is composed of two
different substances, viz. phlogiston, with certain
specific substances; from which result, on
the one hand, sulphur, and, on the other, proper
coal and metals. The more compound
sort, again, is oily matter, produced by vegetables,
and forming bituminous bodies.</p>

<p>The <i>first</i> of these is found naturally combined
with almost all metallic substances, which
are then said to be mineralised with sulphur.
Now, it is well known, that this mineralising
operation is performed by means of heat or fusion;
and there is no person skilled in chemistry
that will pretend to say, this may be done
by aqueous solution. The combination of iron
and sulphur, for example, may easily be performed
by fusion; but, by aqueous solution,
this particular combination is again resolved,
and forms an acido-metallic, that is, a vitriolic
substance, after the phlogiston (by means of
which it is insoluble in water) has been separated
from the composition, by the assistance
of vital air.</p>

<p>The variety of these sulphureo-metallic substances,
in point of composition, is almost indefinite;
but, unless they were all soluble in
water, this could not have happened by the action
of that solvent. If we shall allow any one
of those bodies to have been formed by the
fluidity of heat, they must all have been formed
in the same manner; for there is such a
chain of connection among those bodies in the
mineral regions, that they must all have been
composed, either, on the one hand, by aqueous
solution, or, on the other, by means of heat
and fusion.</p>

<p>Here, for example, are crystallised together
in one mass, 1<i>st, Pyrites</i>, containing sulphur,
iron, copper; 2<i>dly, Blend</i>, a composition of
iron, sulphur, and calamine; 3<i>dly, Galena</i>,
consisting of lead and sulphur; 4<i>thly, Marmor
metallicum</i>, being the terra ponderosa, saturated
with the vitriolic acid; a substance insoluble in
water; 5<i>thly, Fluor</i>, a saturation of calcareous
earth, with a peculiar acid, called the <i>acid of
spar</i>, also insoluble in water; 6<i>thly, Calcareous
spar</i>, of different kinds, being calcareous earth
saturated with fixed air, and something besides,
which forms a variety in this substance; <i>lastly,
Siliceous substance</i>, or <i>Quartz crystals</i>. All these
bodies, each possessing its proper shape, are
mixed in such a manner as it would be endless
to describe, but which may be expressed in general
by saying, that they are mutually contained
in, and contain each other.</p>

<p>Unless, therefore; every one of these different
substances may be dissolved in water, and
crystallised from it, it is in vain to look for the
explanation of these appearances in the operations
of nature, by the means of aqueous solution.</p>

<p>On the other hand, heat being capable of
rendering all these substances fluid, they may
be, with the greatest simplicity, transported
from one place to another; and they may be
made to concrete altogether at the same time,
and distinctly separate in any place. Hence,
for the explanation of those natural appearances,
which are so general, no further conditions
are required, than the supposition of a sufficient
intensity of subterraneous fire or heat, and a
sufficient degree of compression upon those bodies,
which are to be subjected to that violent
heat, without calcination or change. But, so
far as this supposition is not gratuitous, the
appearances of nature will be thus explained.</p>

<p>I shall only mention one specimen, which
must appear most decisive of the question. It
is, I believe, from an Hungarian mine. In this
specimen, petro-silex, pyrites, and cinnabar, are
so mixed together, and crystallised upon each
other, that it is impossible to conceive any one
of those bodies to have had its fluidity and concretion
from a cause which had not affected
the other two. Now, let those who would
deny the fusion of this siliceous body explain
how water could dissolve these three different
bodies, and deposit them in their present shape.
If, on the contrary, they have not the least
shadow of reason for such a gratuitous supposition,
the present argument must be admitted
in its full force.</p>

<p>Sulphur and metals are commonly found
combined in the mineral regions. But this
rule is not universal; for they are also frequently
in a separate state. There is not, perhaps, a
metal, among the great number which are now
discovered, that may not be found native, as
they are called, or in their metallic state.</p>

<p>Metallic substances are also thus found in
some proportion to the disposition of the particular
metals, to resist the mineralising operations,
and to their facility of being metallised
by fire and fusion. Gold, which refuses
to be mineralised with sulphur, is found generally
in its native state. Iron, again, which
is so easily mineralised and scorified, is seldom
found in its malleable state. The other metals
are all found more or less mineralised,
though some of them but rarely in the native
state.</p>

<p>Besides being found with circumstances thus
corresponding to the natural facility, or to the
impediments attending the metallization of
those different calces, the native metals are
also found in such a shape, and with such
marks, as can only agree with the fusion of
those bodies; that is to say, those appearances
are perfectly irreconcilable with any manner
of solution and precipitation.</p>

<p>For the truth of this assertion, among a
thousand other examples, I appeal to that famous
mass of native iron discovered by Mr
Pallas in Siberia. This mass being so well
known to all the mineralists of Europe, any
comment upon its shape and structure will be
unnecessary<a id="footnotetag8" name="footnotetag8"></a><a href="#footnote8"><sup>8</sup></a>.</p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote8" name="footnote8"></a><b>Footnote 8:</b><a href="#footnotetag8"> (return) </a> Since this Dissertation was written, M. de la Peyrouse
has discovered a native manganese. The circumstances
of this mineral are so well adapted for illustrating
the present doctrine, and so well related by M. de la Peyrouse,
that I should be wanting to the interest of mineral
knowledge, were I not to give here that part of his Memoir.

<p>"Lorsque je fis insérer dans le journal de physique de
l'année 1780, au mois de Janvier, une Dissertation contenant
la classification des mines de manganèse, je ne connoissois
point, à cette époque, la mine de manganèse native.
Elle a la couleur de son régule: Elle salit les doigts
de la même teinte. Son tissu parait aussi lamelleux, et les
lames semblent affecter une sorte de divergence. Elle a
ainsi que lui, l'éclat métallique; comme lui elle se laisse
aplatir sous le marteau, et s'exfolie si l'on redouble les
coups; mais une circonstance qui est trop frappante
pour que je l'omette, c'est la figure de la manganèse
native, si prodigieusement conforme à celle du régule,
qu'on s'y laisseroit tromper, si la mine n'étoit encore
dans sa gangue: figure très-essentielle à observer ici,
parce qu'elle est due à la nature même de la manganèse.
En effet, pour réduire toutes les mines en général, il
faut employer divers flux appropriés. Pour la réduction
de la manganèse, bien loin d'user de ce moyen,
il faut, au contraire, éloigner tout flux, produire la fusion,
par la seule violence et la promptitude du feu.
Et telle est la propension naturelle et prodigieuse de la
manganèse à la vitrification, qu'on n'a pu parvenir encore
à réduire son régule en un seul culot; on trouve
dans le creuset plusieurs petits boutons, qui forment
autant de culots séparés. Dans la mine de manganèse
native, elle n'est point en une seule masse; elle est disposée
également en plusieurs culots séparés, et un peu
aplatis, comme ceux que l'art produit; beaucoup plus
gros, à la vérité, parce que les agens de la nature
doivent avoir une autre énergie, que ceux de nos laboratoires;
et cette ressemblance si exacte, semble devoir
vous faire penser que la mine native à été produite par
le feu, tout comme son régule. La présence de la
chaux argentée de la manganèse, me permettroit de
croire que la nature n'a fait que réduire cette chaux.
Du reste, cette mine native est très-pure, et ne contient
aucune partie attirable à l'aimant. Cette mine, unique
jusqu'à ce moment, vient, tout comme les autres manganèse
que j'ai décrites, des mines de fer de <i>Sem</i>, dans
la vallée de <i>Viedersos</i>, en Comté de Foix."&mdash;<i>Journal de
Physique, Janvier 1786</i>.</blockquote>

<p>We come now to the <i>second</i> species of inflammable
bodies called oily or bituminous.
These substances are also found variously mixed
with mineral bodies, as well as forming
strata of themselves; they are, therefore, a
proper subject for a particular examination.</p>

<p>In the process of vegetation, there are produced
oily and resinous substances; and, from
the collection of these substances at the bottom
of the ocean, there are formed strata, which
have afterwards undergone various degrees of
beat, and have been variously changed, in consequence
of the effects of that heat, according
as the distillation of the more volatile parts of
those bodies has been suffered to proceed.</p>

<p>In order to understand this, it must be considered,
that, while immersed in water, and
under insuperable compression, the vegetable,
oily, and resinous substances, would appear to
be unalterable by heat; and it is only in proportion
as certain chemical separations take
place, that these inflammable bodies are changed
in their substance by the application of
heat. Now, the most general change of this
kind is in consequence of evaporation, or the
distillation of their more volatile parts, by
which oily substances become bituminous, and
bituminous substances become coaly.</p>

<p>There is here a gradation which may be
best understood, by comparing the extremes.</p>

<p>On the one hand, we know by experiment,
that oily and bituminous substances can be
melted and partly changed into vapour by
heat, and that they become harder and denser,
in  proportion as the more volatile parts have
evaporated from them. On the other hand,
coaly substances are destitute of fusibility and
volatility, in proportion as they have been
exposed to greater degrees of heat, and to
other circumstances favourable to the dissipation
of their more volatile and fluid parts.</p>

<p>If, therefore, in mineral bodies, we find the
two extreme states of this combustible substance,
and also the intermediate states, we
must either conclude, that this particular operation
of heat has been thus actually employed in
nature, or we must explain those appearances
by some other means, in as satisfactory a manner,
and so as shall be consistent with other
appearances.</p>

<p>In this case, it will avail nothing to have
recourse to the false analogy of water dissolving
and crystallising salts, which has been so
much employed for the explanation of other
mineral appearances. The operation here in
question is of a different nature, and necessarily
requires both the powers of heat and proper
conditions for evaporation.</p>

<p>Therefore, in order to decide the point,
with regard to what is the power in nature
by which mineral bodies have become solid,
we have but to find bituminous substance in
the most complete state of coal, intimately connected
with some other substance, which is
more generally found consolidating the strata,
and assisting in the concretion of mineral substances.
But I have in my possession the most
undoubted proof of this kind. It is a mineral
vein, or cavity, in which are blended together
coal of the most fixed kind, quartz and marmor
metallicum. Nor is this all; for the specimen
now referred to is contained in a rock
of this kind, which every naturalist now-a-days
will allow to have congealed from a fluid
state of fusion. I have also similar specimens
from the same place, in which the coal is not
of that fixed and infusible kind which burns
without flame or smoke, but is bituminous or
inflammable coal.</p>

<p>We have hitherto been resting the argument
upon a single point, for the sake of simplicity
or clearness, not for want of those circumstances
which shall be found to corroborate
the theory. The strata of fossil coal are found
in almost every intermediate state, as well as
in those of bitumen and charcoal. Of the one
kind is that fossil coal which melts or becomes
fluid upon receiving heat; of the other, is that
species of coal, found both in Wales and Scotland,
which is perfectly infusible in the fire,
and burns like coals, without flame or smoke.
The one species abounds in oily matter, the
other has been distilled by heat, until it has
become a <i>caput mortuum</i>, or perfect coal.</p>

<p>The more volatile parts of these bituminous
bodies are found in their separate state on
some occasions. There is a stratum of limestone
in Fifeshire, near Raith, which, though
but slightly tinged with a black colour, contains
bituminous matter, like pitch, in many
cavities, which are lined with calcareous spar
crystallised. I have a specimen of such a
cavity, in which the bitumen is in sphericles,
or rounded drops, immersed in the calcareous
spar.</p>

<p>Now, it is to be observed, that, if the cavity
in the solid limestone or marble, which is lined
with calcareous crystals containing pyrites,
had been thus encrusted by means of the filtration
of water, this water must have dissolved
calcareous spar, pyrites, and bitumen. But
these natural appearances would not even be
explained by this dissolution and supposed filtration
of those substances. There is also required,
<i>first</i>, A cause for the separation of
those different substances from the aqueous
menstruum in which they had been dissolved;
<i>2dly</i>, An explanation of the way in which a
dissolved bitumen should be formed into round
hard bodies of the most solid structure; and,
<i>lastly</i>, Some probable means for this complicated
operation being performed, below the
bottom of the ocean, in the close cavity of a
marble stratum.</p>

<p>Thus, the additional proof, from the facts
relating to the bituminous substances, conspiring
with that from the phenomena of other
bodies, affords the strongest corroboration of
this opinion, that the various concretions found
in the internal parts of strata have not been
occasioned by means of aqueous solution, but
by the power of heat and operation of simple
fusion, preparing those different substances to
concrete and crystallise in cooling.</p>

<p>The arguments which have been now employed
for proving that strata have been consolidated
by the power of heat, or by the
means of fusion, have been drawn chiefly
from the insoluble nature of those consolidating
substances in relation to water, which is
the only general menstruum that can be allowed
for the mineral regions. But there are
found, in the mineral kingdom, many solid
masses of saltgem, which is a soluble substance.
It may be now inquired, How far these masses,
which are not infrequent in the earth, tend
either to confirm the present theory, or, on
the contrary, to give countenance to that
which supposes water the chief instrument in
consolidating strata.</p>

<p>The formation of salt at the bottom of the
sea, without the assistance of subterranean fire,
is not a thing unsupposable, as at first sight it
might appear. Let us but suppose a rock
placed across the gut of Gibraltar, (a case nowise
unnatural), and the bottom of the Mediterranean
would be certainly filled with salt,
because the evaporation from the surface of
that sea exceeds the measure of its supply.</p>

<p>But strata of salt, formed in this manner at
the bottom of the sea, are as far from being
consolidated by means of aqueous solution, as
a bed of sand in the same situation; and we
cannot explain the consolidation of such a
stratum of salt by means of water, without
supposing subterranean heat employed, to evaporate
the brine which would successively occupy
the interstices of the saline crystals. But
this, it may be observed, is equally departing
from the natural operation of water, as the
means for consolidating the sediment of the
ocean, as if we were to suppose the same thing
done by heat and fusion. For the question is
not, If subterranean heat be of sufficient intensity
for the purpose of consolidating strata
by the fusion of their substances; the question
is, Whether it be by means of this agent, subterranean
heat, or by water alone, without the
operation of a melting heat, that those materials
have been variously consolidated.</p>

<p>The example now under consideration,
consolidated mineral salt, will serve to throw
some light upon the subject; for, as it is to
be shown, that this body of salt had been consolidated
by perfect fusion, and not by means
of aqueous solution, the consolidation of strata
of indissoluble substances, by the operation of
a melting heat, will meet with all that confirmation
which the consistency of natural appearances
can give.</p>

<p>The salt rock in Cheshire lies in strata of
red marl. It is horizontal in its direction.
I do not know its thickness, but it is dug
thirty or forty feet deep. The body of
this rock is perfectly solid, and the salt, in
many places, pure, colourless, and transparent,
breaking with a sparry cubical structure. But
the greatest part is tinged by the admixture of
the marl, and that in various degrees, from
the slightest tinge of red, to the most perfect
opacity. Thus, the rock appears as if it had
been a mass of fluid salt, in which had been
floating a quantity of marly substance, not
uniformly mixed, but every where separating
and subsiding from the pure saline substance.</p>

<p>There is also to be observed a certain regularity
in this separation of the tinging from
the colourless substance, which, at a proper
distance, gives to the perpendicular section of
the rock a distinguishable figure in its structure.
When looking at this appearance near
the bottom of the rock, it, at first, presented
me with the figure of regular stratification;
but, upon examining the whole mass of rock,
I found, that it was only towards the bottom
that this stratified appearance took place; and
that, at the top of the rock, the most beautiful
and regular figure was to be observed; but a
figure the most opposite to that of stratification.
It was all composed of concentric circles;
and these appeared to be the section of
a mass, composed altogether of concentric
spheres, like those beautiful systems of configuration
which agates so frequently present
us with in miniature. In about eight or ten
feet from the top, the circles growing large,
were blended together, and gradually lost their
regular appearance, until, at a greater depth,
they again appeared in resemblance of a stratification.</p>

<p>This regular arrangement of the floating
marly substance in the body of salt, which is
that of the structure of a coated pebble, or that
of concentric spheres, is altogether inexplicable
upon any other supposition, than the
perfect fluidity or fusion of the salt, and the
attractions and repulsions of the contained substances.
It is in vain to look, in the operations
of solution and evaporation, for that
which nothing but perfect fluidity or fusion
can explain.</p>

<p>This example of a mineral salt congealed
from a melted state, may be confirmed from
another which I have from Dr Black, who
suggested it to me. It is an alkaline salt,
found in a mineral state, and described in the
Philosophical Transactions, <i>anno</i> 1771. But
to understand this specimen, something must
be premised with regard to the nature of fossil
alkali.</p>

<p>The fossil alkali crystallises from a dissolved
state, in combining itself with a large portion
of the water, in the manner of alum; and, in
this case, the water is essential to the constitution
of that transparent crystalline body; for,
upon the evaporation of the water, the transparent
salt loses its solidity, and becomes a
white powder. If, instead of being gently
dried, the crystalline salt is suddenly exposed
to a sufficient degree of heat, that is, somewhat
more than boiling water, it enters into
the state of aqueous fusion, and it boils, in
emitting the water by means of which it had
been crystallised in the cold, and rendered
fluid in that heated state. It is not possible to
crystallise this alkaline salt from a dissolved
state, without the combination of that quantity
of water, nor to separate that water without
destroying its crystalline state.</p>

<p>But in this mineral specimen, we have a
solid crystalline salt, with a structure which,
upon fracture, appears to be sparry and radiated,
something resembling that of zeolite. It
contains no water in its crystallization, but
melts in a sufficient heat, without any aqueous
fusion. Therefore, this salt must have
been in a fluid state of fusion, immediately
before its congelation and crystallization.</p>

<p>It would be endless to give examples of
particular facts, so many are the different natural
appearances that occur, attended with a
variety of different circumstances.</p>

<p>There is one, however, which is peculiarly
distinct, admits of sufficiently accurate description,
and contains circumstances from
which conclusions may be drawn with clearness.
This is the ironstone, which is commonly
found among the argillaceous strata,
attendant upon fossil coal, both in Scotland
and in England.</p>

<p>This stone is generally found among the
bituminous schistus, or black argillaceous strata,
either in separate masses of various shapes
and sizes, or forming of itself strata which are
more or less continuous in their direction
among the schistus or argillaceous beds.</p>

<p>This mineral contains, in general, from 40
to 50 <i>per cent.</i> of iron, and it loses near one
third of its weight in calcination. Before calcination
it is of a grey colour, is not penetrable
by water, and takes a polish. In this
state, therefore, it is perfectly solid; but being
calcined, it becomes red, porous, and tender.</p>

<p>The fact to be proved with regard to these
iron-stones is this, That they have acquired
their solid state from fusion, and not in concreting
from any aqueous solution.</p>

<p>To abridge this disquisition, no argument
is to be taken from contingent circumstances,
(which, however, are often found here as well
as in the case of marbles); such only are to
be employed as are general to the subject, and
arise necessarily from the nature of the operation.</p>

<p>It will be proper to describe a species of
these stones, which is remarkably regular in
its form. It is that found at Aberlady, in
East Lothian.</p>

<p>The form of these iron-stones is that of an
oblate or much compressed sphere, and the
size from two or three inches diameter to
more than a foot. In the circular or horizontal
section, they present the most elegant
septarium<a id="footnotetag9" name="footnotetag9"></a><a href="#footnote9"><sup>9</sup></a>; and, from the examination of
this particular structure, the following conclusions
may be drawn.</p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote9" name="footnote9">
</a><b>Footnote 9:</b><a href="#footnotetag9"> (return) </a>
See <a href="#p1">Plate I.</a></blockquote>

<p><i>First</i>, That, the septa have been formed by
the uniform contraction of the internal parts
of the stone, the volume of the central parts
diminishing more than that of the circumference;
by this means, the separations of the
stone diminish, in a progression from the
center towards the circumference.</p>

<p><i>2d</i>, That there are only two ways in which
the septa must have received the spar or spatthose
ore with which they are filled, more or
less, either, <i>first</i> By insinuation into the cavity
of the septa after these were formed; or,
<i>2dly</i>, By separation from the substance of the
stone, at the same time that the septa were
forming.</p>



<p>Were the first supposition true, appearances
would be observable, showing that the sparry
substance had been admitted, either through
the porous structure of the stone, or through
proper apertures communicating from without.
Now, if either one or other of these
had been the case, and that the stone had been
consolidated from no other cause than concretion
from a dissolved state, that particular
structure of the stone, by means of which the
spar had been admitted, must appear at present
upon an accurate examination.</p>

<p>This, however, is not the case, and we may
rest the argument here. The septa reach not
the circumference; the surface of the stone
is solid and uniform in every part; and there
is not any appearance of the spar in the argillaceous
bed around the stone.</p>

<p>It, therefore, necessarily follows, that the
contraction of the iron-stone, in order to form
septa, and the filling of these cavities with
spar, had proceeded<i>pari passu</i>; and that this
operation must have been brought about by
means of fusion, or by congelation from a
state of simple fluidity and expansion.</p>

<p>It is only further to be observed, that all
the arguments which have been already employed,
concerning mineral concretions from
a simply fluid state, or that of fusion, here
take place. I have septaria of this kind, in
which, besides pyrites, iron-ore, calcareous
spar, and another that is ferruginous and compound,
there is contained siliceous crystals; a
case which is not so common. I have them
also attended with circumstances of concretion
and crystallization, which, besides being extremely
rare, are equally curious and interesting.</p>

<p>There is one fact more which is well worth
our attention, being one of those which are
so general in the mineral regions. It is the
crystallizations which are found in close cavities
of the most solid bodies.</p>

<p>Nothing is more common than this appearance.
Cavities are every where found closely
lined with crystallizations, of every different
substance which may be supposed in those
places. These concretions are well known to
naturalists, and form part of the beautiful specimens
which are preserved in the cabinets of
collectors, and which the German mineralists
have termed <i>Drusen</i>. I shall only particularise
one species, which may be described upon
principle, and therefore may be a proper subject
on which to reason, for ascertaining the
order of production in certain bodies. This
body, which we are now to examine, is of
the agate species.</p>

<p>We have now been considering the means
employed by nature in consolidating strata
which were originally of an open structure;
but in perfectly solid strata we find bodies of
agate, which have evidently been formed in
that place where they now are found. This
fact, however, is not still that of which we
are now particularly to inquire; for this, of
which we are to treat, concerns only a cavity
within this agate; now, whatever may have
been the origin of the agate itself, we are to
show, from what appears within its cavity,
that the crystallizations which are found in
this place had arisen from a simply fluid state,
and not from that of any manner of solution.</p>

<p>The agates now in question are those of
the coated kind, so frequent in this country,
called pebbles. Many of these are filled with
a siliceous crystallization, which evidently
proceeds from the circumference towards the
centre. Many of them, again, are hollow.
Those cavities are variously lined with crystallized
substances; and these are the object
of the present examination.</p>

<p>But before describing what is found within,
it is necessary to attend to this particular
circumstance, that the cavity is perfectly inclosed
with many solid coats, impervious to
air or water, but particularly with the external
cortical part, which is extremely hard,
takes the highest polish, and is of the most
perfect solidity, admitting the passage of nothing
but light and heat.</p>

<p>Within these cavities, we find, <i>1st</i>, The
coat of crystals with which this cavity is always
lined; and this is general to all substances
concreting, in similar circumstances,
from a state of fusion; for when thus at liberty
they naturally crystallise. <i>2dly</i>, We
have frequently a subsequent crystallization,
resting on the first, and more or less immersed
in it. <i>3dly</i>, There is also sometimes a
third crystallization, superincumbent on the
second, in like manner as the second was on
the first. I shall mention some particulars.</p>

<p>I have one specimen, in which the primary
crystals are siliceous, the secondary thin foliaceous
crystals of deep red but transparent iron-ore,
forming elegant figures, that have the
form of roses. The tertiary crystallization is
a frosting of small siliceous crystals upon the
edges of the foliaceous crystals.</p>

<p>In other specimens, there is first a lining of
colourless siliceous crystals, then another lining
of amethystine crystals, and sometimes
within that, fuliginous crystals. Upon these
fuliginous and amethystine crystals are many
sphericles or hemispheres of red compact iron-ore,
like haematites.</p>

<p>In others, again, the primary crystals are
siliceous, and the secondary calcareous. Of
this kind, I have one which has, upon the
calcareous crystals, beautiful transparent siliceous
crystals, and iron sphericles both upon
all these crystals, and within them.</p>

<p><i>Lastly</i>, I have an agate formed of various
red and white coats, and beautifully figured.
The cavity within the coated part of the pebble
is filled up without vacuity, first, with colourless
siliceous crystals; secondly, with fuliginous
crystals; and, lastly, with white or
colourless calcareous spar. But between the
spar and crystals there are many sphericles,
seemingly of iron, half sunk into each of
these two different substances.</p>

<p>From these facts, I may now be allowed to
draw the following conclusions:</p>

<p>1<i>st</i>, That concretion had proceeded from the
surface of the agate body inwards. This necessarily
follows from the nature of those figured
bodies, the figures of the external coats always
determining the shape of those within, and
never, contrarily, those within affecting those
without.</p>

<p>2<i>dly</i>, That when the agate was formed,
the cavity then contained every thing which
now is found within it, and nothing more.</p>

<p>3<i>dly</i>, That the contained substances must
have been in a fluid state, in order to their
crystallizing.</p>

<p><i>Lastly</i>, That as this fluid state had not been
the effect of solution in a menstruum, it must
have been fluidity from heat and fusion.</p>

<p>Let us now make one general observation
and argument with regard to the formation
of those various coated, concreted, crystallized,
and configured bodies. Were the crystallization
and configuration found to proceed
from a central body, and to be directed from
that centre outwards, then, without inquiring
into collateral appearances, and other proofs
with regard to the natural concretion of those
substances, we might suppose that these concretions
might have proceeded from that central
body gradually by accretion, and that the
concreting and crystallizing substances might
have been supplied from a fluid which had
before retained the concreting substance in solution;
in like manner as the crystallizations
of sugar, which are formed in the solution of
that saccharine substance, and are termed candies,
are formed upon the threads which are
extended in the crystallizing vessel for that
purpose. But if, on the contrary, we are to
consider those mineral bodies as spheres of
alternate coats, composed of agate, crystal,
spars, etc.; and if all those crystallizations
have their <i>bases</i> upon the uncrystallized coat
which is immediately external to it, and their
<i>apices</i> turned inwards into the next internal
solid coat, it is not possible to conceive that a
structure of this kind could have been formed
in any manner from a solution. But this
last manner is the way without exception in
which those mineral bodies are found; therefore
we are to conclude, that the concretion
of those bodies had proceeded immediately
from a state of fusion or simple fluidity.</p>

<p>In granite these cavities are commonly lined
with the crystal corresponding to the constituent
substances of the stone, viz. quartz,
feld-spar, and mica or talk. M. de Saussure,
(Voyages dans les Alpes, tom. ii. §722.),
says, "On trouve fréquemment des amas
considérables de spath calcaire, crystallisé
dans les grottes ou se forme le crystal de
roche; quoique ces grottes soient renfermées
dans le coeur des montagnes d'un
granit vif, &amp; qu'on ne voie aucun roc calcaire
au dessus de ces montagnes."</p>

<p>So accurate an observer, and so complete a
naturalist, must have observed how the extraneous
substance had been introduced into this
cavity, had they not been formed together
the cavity and the calcareous crystals. That
M. de Saussure perceived no means for that
introduction, will appear from what immediately
follows in that paragraph. "Ces rocs
auroient-ils été détruits, ou bien ce spath
n'est il que le produit d'une sécrétion des
parties calcaires que l'on fait êtres dispersées
entre les divers élémens du granit?"</p>

<p>Had M. de Saussure allowed himself to
suppose all those substances in fusion, of which
there cannot be a doubt, he would soon have
resolved both this difficulty, and also that of
finding molybdena crystallized along with
feld-spar, in a cavity of this kind. §718.</p>

<p>To this argument, taken from the close cavities
in our agates, I am now to add another
demonstration. It is the case of the calcedony
agate, containing a body of calcareous
spar; here it is to be shown, that, while the
calcareous body was altogether inclosed within
the calcedony nodular body, these two
substances had been perfectly soft, and had
mutually affected each others shape, in concreting
from a fluid state. In order to see
this, we are to consider that both those substances
have specific shapes in which they
concrete from the third state; the sparry
structure of the one is well known; the spherical
or mammelated crystallization of the calcedony,
is no less conspicuous; this last is,
in the present case, spherical figures, which
are some of them hemispheres, or even more.
The figures which we have now in contemplation
are so distinctly different as cannot be
mistaken; the one is a rhombic figure bounded
by planes; the other is a most perfect
spherical form; and both these are specific figures,
belonging respectively to the crystallization
of those two substances.</p>

<p>The argument now to be employed for
proving that those two bodies had concreted
from the fluid state of fusion, and not from
any manner of solution, is this: That, were
the one of those bodies to be found impressing
the other with its specific figure, we must
conclude that the impressing body had concreted
or crystallized while the impressed body
was in a soft or fluid state; and that, if
they are both found mutually impressing and
impressed by each other, they must have both
been in the fluid and concreting state together.
Now the fact is, that the calcareous
body is perfectly inclosed within the solid calcedony,
and that they are mutually impressed
by each others specific figure, the sparry
structure of the calcareous body impressing
the calcedony with its type of planes and angles,
at the same time that, in other parts, the
spherical figures of the calcedony enter the
solid body of the spar, and thus impress their
mammelated figures into that part which is
contiguous. It is therefore inconceivable,
that these appearances could have been produced
in any other manner than by those two
bodies concreting from a simply fluid state.</p>

<p>There are in jaspers and agates many other
appearances, from whence the fusion of those
substances may be concluded with great certainty
and precision; but it is hoped, that
what has been now given may suffice for
establishing that proposition without any
doubt.</p>

<p>It must not be here objected, That there
are frequently found siliceous crystals and amethysts
containing water; and that it is impossible
to confine water even in melted glass.
It is true, that here, at the surface of the
earth, melted glass cannot, in ordinary circumstances,
be made to receive and inclose
condensed water; but let us only suppose a
sufficient degree of compression in the body
of melted glass, and we can easily imagine it
to receive and confine water as well as any
other substance. But if, even in our operations,
water, by means of compression, may
be made to endure the heat of red hot iron
without being converted into vapour, what
may not the power of nature be able to perform?
The place of mineral operations is not
on the surface of the earth; and we are not
to limit nature with our imbecility, or estimate
the powers of nature by the measure of
our own.<a id="footnotetag10" name="footnotetag10"></a><a href="#footnote10"><sup>10</sup></a></p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote10" name="footnote10"></a><b>Footnote 10:</b><a href="#footnotetag10"> (return) </a> This is so material a principle in the theory of consolidating
the strata of the earth by the fusion of mineral
substances, that I beg the particular attention of the reader
to that subject. The effect of compression upon
compound substances, submitted to increased degrees of
heat, is not a matter of supposition, it is an established
principle in natural philosophy. This, like every other
physical principle, is founded upon matter of fact or experience;
we find, that many compound substances may
with heat be easily changed, by having their more volatile
parts separated when under a small compression; but
these substances are preserved without change when sufficiently
compressed. Our experiments of this kind are
necessarily extremely limited; they are not, however, for
that reason, the less conclusive. The effects of increasing
degrees of heat are certainly prevented by increasing degrees
of compression; but the rate at which the different
effects of those powers proceed, or the measure of those
different degrees of increase that may be made without
changing the constitution of the compound substance, are
not known; nor is there any limit to be set to that operation,
so far as we know. Consequently, it is a physical
principle, That the evaporation of volatile substances by
heat, or the reparation of them from a compound substance,
consequently the effect of fire in changing that
compound substance, may be absolutely prevented by
means of compression.

<p>It now remains to be considered, how far there is reason
to conclude that there had been sufficient degrees of
compression in the mineral regions, for the purpose of
melting the various substances with which we find strata
consolidated, without changing the chemical constitution
of those compound substances.</p>

<p>Had I, in reasoning <i>a priori</i>, asserted, That all mineral
bodies might have been melted without change, when under
sufficient compression, there might have arisen, in the
minds of reasoning men, some doubt with regard to the
certainty of that proposition, however probable it were to
be esteemed: But when, in reasoning <i>a posteriori</i>, it is
found that all mineral bodies have been actually melted,
then, all that is required to establish the proposition on
which I have founded my theory, is to see that there must
have been immense degrees of compression upon the subjects
in question; for we neither know the degree of heat
which had been employed, nor that of compression by
which the effect of the heat must have been modified.</p>

<p>Now, in order to see that there had been immense compression,
we have but to consider that the formation of
the strata, which are to be consolidated, was at the bottom
of the ocean, and that this place is to us unfathomable.
If it be farther necessary to show that it had been
at such unfathomable depth strata were consolidated, it
will be sufficient to observe, it is not upon the surface of
the earth, or above the level of the sea, that this mineral
operation can take place; for, it is there that those consolidated
bodies are redissolved, or necessarily going into
decay, which is the opposite to that operation which we
are now inquiring after; therefore, if they were consolidated
in any other place than at the bottom of the sea, it
must have been between that place of their formation and
the surface of the sea; but that is a supposition which we
have not any reason to make; therefore, we must conclude
that it was at the bottom of the ocean those stratified
bodies had been consolidated.</blockquote>

<p>To conclude this long chemico-mineral disquisition,
I have specimens in which the mixture
of calcareous, siliceous, and metallic substances,
in almost every species of concretion
which is to be found in mineral bodies, may
be observed, and in which there is exhibited,
in miniature, almost every species of mineral
transaction, which, in nature, is found upon
a scale of grandeur and magnificence. They
are nodules contained in the whin-stone, porphyry,
or basaltes of the Calton-hill, by Edinburgh;
a body which is to be afterwards
examined, when it will be found to have
flowed, and to have been in fusion, by the
operation of subterraneous heat.</p>

<p>This evidence, though most conclusive with
regard to the application of subterraneous heat,
as the means employed in bringing into fusion
all the different substances with which strata
may be found consolidated, is not directly a
proof that strata had been consolidated by the
fusion of their proper substance. It was necessary
to see the general nature of the evidence,
for the universal application of subterraneous
heat, in the fusion of every kind of
mineral body. Now, that this has been done,
we may give examples of strata consolidated
without the introduction of foreign matter,
merely by the softening or fusion of their own
materials.</p>

<p>For this purpose, we may consider two different
species of strata, such as are perfectly
simple in their nature, of the most distinct substances,
and whose origin is perfectly understood,
consequently, whose subsequent changes
may be reasoned upon with certainty and clearness.
These are the siliceous and calcareous
strata; and these are the two prevailing substances
of the globe, all the rest being, in comparison
of these, as nothing; for unless it be
the bituminous or coal strata, there is hardly
any other which does not necessarily contain
more or less of one or other of these two substances.
If, therefore, it can be shown, that
both of those two general strata have been
consolidated by the simple fusion of their substance,
no <i>desideratum</i> or doubt will remain,
with regard to the nature of that operation
which has been transacted at great depths of
the earth, places to which all access is denied
to mortal eyes.</p>

<p>We are now to prove, <i>first</i>, That those strata
have been consolidated by simple fusion;
and, <i>2dly</i>, That this operation is universal, in
relation to the strata of the earth, as having
produced the various degrees of solidity or
hardness in these bodies.</p>

<p>I shall first remark, that a fortuitous collection
of hard bodies, such as gravel and sand,
can only touch in points, and cannot, while
in that hard state, be made to correspond so
precisely to each others shape as to consolidate
the mass. But if these hard bodies should be
softened in their substance, or brought into a
certain degree of fusion, they might be adapted
mutually to each other, and thus consolidate
the open structure of the mass. Therefore,
to prove the present point, we have but
to exhibit specimens of siliceous and calcareous
strata which have been evidently consolidated
in this manner.</p>

<p>Of the first kind, great varieties occur in
this country. It is, therefore, needless to describe
these particularly. They are the consolidated
strata of gravel and sand, often containing
abundance of feld-spar, and thus graduating
into granite; a body, in this respect,
perfectly similar to the more regular strata
which we now examine.</p>

<p>The second kind, again, are not so common
in this country, unless we consider the shells
and coralline bodies in our lime-stones, as exhibiting
the same example, which indeed they
do. But I have a specimen of marble from
Spain, which may be described, and which
will afford the most satisfactory evidence of
the fact in question.</p>

<p>This Spanish marble may be considered as
a species of pudding-stone, being formed of
calcareous gravel; a species of marble which,
from Mr Bowles' Natural History, appears to
be very common in Spain. The gravel of
which this marble is composed, consists of
fragments of other marbles of different kinds.
Among these, are different species of <i>oolites</i>
marble, some shell marbles, and some composed
of a chalky substance, or of undistinguishable
parts. But it appears, that all these
different marbles had been consolidated or
made hard, then broken into fragments, rolled
and worn by attrition, and thus collected together,
along with some sand or small siliceous
bodies, into one mass. Lastly, This compound
body is consolidated in such a manner
as to give the most distinct evidence, that this
had been executed by the operation of heat or
simple fusion.</p>

<p>The proof I give is this, That besides the
general conformation of those hard bodies, so
as to be perfectly adapted to each other's
shape, there is, in some places, a mutual indentation
of the different pieces of gravel into
each other; an indentation which resembles
perfectly that junction of the different bones
of the <i>cranium</i>, called sutures, and which must
have necessarily required a mixture of those
bodies while in a soft or fluid state.</p>

<p>This appearance of indentation is by no
means singular, or limited to one particular
specimen. I have several specimens of different
marbles, in which fine examples of this
species of mixture may be perceived. But in
this particular case of the Spanish pudding-stone,
where the mutual indentation is made
between two pieces of hard stone, worn round
by attrition, the softening or fusion of these
two bodies is not simply rendered probable,
but demonstrated.</p>

<p>Having thus proved, that those strata had
been consolidated by simple fusion, as proposed,
we now proceed to show, that this mineral
operation had been not only general, as being
found in all the regions of the globe, but
universal, in consolidating our earth in all the
various degrees, from loose and incoherent
shells and sand, to the most solid bodies of the
siliceous and calcareous substances.</p>

<p>To exemplify this in the various collections
and mixtures of sands, gravels, shells, and corals,
were endless and superfluous. I shall only
take, for an example, one simple homogeneous
body, in order to exhibit it in the various
degrees of consolidation, from the state of
simple incoherent earth to that of the most solid
marble. It must be evident that this is
chalk; naturally a soft calcareous earth, but
which may be also found consolidated in every
different degree.</p>

<p>Through the middle of the Isle of Wight,
there runs a ridge of hills of indurated chalk.
This ridge runs from the Isle of Wight directly
west into Dorsetshire, and goes by Corscastle
towards Dorchester, perhaps beyond that
place. The sea has broke through this ridge
at the west end of the Isle of Wight, where
columns of the indurated chalk remain, called
the Needles; the same appearance being found
upon the opposite shore in Dorsetshire.</p>

<p>In this field of chalk, we find every gradation
of that soft earthy substance to the most
consolidated body of this indurated ridge,
which is not solid marble, but which has lost
its chalky property, and has acquired a kind
of stony hardness.</p>

<p>We want only further to see this cretaceous
substance in its most indurated and consolidated
state; and this we have in the north of
Ireland, not far from the Giants Causeway.
I have examined cargoes of this lime-stone
brought to the west of Scotland, and find the
most perfect evidence of this body having
been once a mass of chalk, which is now a
solid marble.</p>

<p>Thus, if it is by means of fusion that the
strata of the earth have been, in many places,
consolidated, we must conclude, that all the
degrees of consolidation, which are indefinite,
have been brought about by the same means.</p>

<p>Now, that all the strata of the mineral regions,
which are those only now examined,
have been consolidated in some degree, is a
fact for which no proof can be offered here,
but must be submitted to experience and inquiry;
so far, however, as they shall be considered
as consolidated in any degree, which
they certainly are in general, we have investigated
the means which had been employed in
that mineral operation.</p>

<p>We have now considered the concretions of
particular bodies, and the general consolidation
of strata; but it may be alleged, that there is
a great part of the solid mass of this earth not
properly comprehended among those bodies
which have been thus proved to be consolidated
by means of fusion. The body here alluded
to is granite; a mass which is not generally
stratified, and which, being a body perfectly
solid, and forming some part in the
structure of this earth, deserves to be considered.</p>

<p>The nature of granite, as a part of the structure
of the earth, is too intricate a subject to
be here considered, where we only seek to
prove the fusion of a substance from the evident
marks which are to be observed in a body.
We shall, therefore, only now consider
one particular species of granite; and if this
shall appear to have been in a fluid state of fusion,
we may be allowed to extend this property
to all the kind.</p>

<p>The species now to be examined comes from
the north country, about four or five miles west
from Portfoy, on the road to Huntly. I have
not been upon the spot, but am informed that
this rock is immediately connected or continuous
with the common granite of the country.
This indeed appears in the specimens
which I have got; for, in some of these, there
is to be perceived a gradation from the regular
to the irregular sort.</p>

<p>This rock may indeed be considered, in
some respects, as a porphyry; for it has an
evident ground, which is feld-spar, in its sparry
state; and it is, in one view, distinctly maculated
with quartz, which is transparent, but
somewhat dark-coloured<a id="footnotetag11" name="footnotetag11"></a><a href="#footnote11"><sup>11</sup></a>.</p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote11" name="footnote11">
</a><b>Footnote 11:</b><a href="#footnotetag11"> (return) </a>
See: <a href="#p2">Plate II. fig. 1. 2. 3.</a>*</blockquote>

<p>Considered as a porphyry, this specimen is
no less singular than as a granite. For, instead
of a siliceous ground, maculated with the
rhombic feld-spar, which is the common state
of porphyry, the ground is uniformly crystallised,
or a homogeneous regular feld-spar, maculated
with the transparent siliceous substance.
But as, besides the feld-spar and quartz, which
are the constituent parts of the stone, there is
also mica, in some places, it may, with propriety,
be termed a granite.

<p>The singularity of this specimen consists,
not in the nature or proportions of its constituent
parts, but in the uniformity of the sparry
ground, and the regular shape of the quartz
mixture. This siliceous substance, viewed in
one direction, or longitudinally, may be considered
as columnar, prismatical, or continued
in lines running nearly parallel. These columnar
bodies of quartz are beautifully impressed
with a figure on the sides, where they are in
contact with the spar. This figure is that of
furrows or channels, which are perfectly parallel,
and run across the longitudinal direction
of the quartz. This is represented in fig. 4.
This striated figure is only seen when, by
fracture, the quartz is separated from the contiguous
spar.</p>

<p>But what I would here more particularly
represent is, the transverse section of those
longitudinal siliceous bodies These are seen
in fig. 1. 2. and 3. They have not only separately
the forms of certain typographic
characters, but collectively give the regular
lineal appearance of types set in writing.</p>

<p>It is evident from the inspection of this fossil,
that the sparry and siliceous substances had
been mixed together in a fluid state; and that
the crystallization of the sparry substance,
which is rhombic, had determined the regular
structure of the quartz, at least in some directions.</p>

<p>Thus, the siliceous substance is to be considered
as included in the spar, and as figured,
according to the laws of crystallization proper
to the sparry ground; but the spar is also to
be found included in the quartz. It is not,
indeed, always perfectly included or inclosed
on all sides; but this is sometimes the case, or
it appears so in the section. Fig. 5. 6. 7. 8.
9. and 10. are those cases magnified, and represent
the different figured quartz inclosing
the feld-spar. In one of them, the feld-spar,
which is contained within the quartz, contains
also a small triangle of quartz, which it
incloses. Now, it is not possible to conceive
any other way in which those two substances,
quartz and feld-spar, could be thus concreted,
except by congelation from a fluid
state, in which they had been mixed.</p>

<p>There is one thing more to be observed
with regard to this curious species of granite.
It is the different order or arrangement of the
crystallization or internal structure of the feld-spar
ground, in two contiguous parts of the
same mass. This is to be perceived in the
polished surface of the stone, by means of the
reflection of light.</p>

<p>There is a certain direction in which, viewing
the stone, when the light falls with a proper
obliquity, we see a luminous reflection
from the internal parts of the stone. This
arises from the reflecting surfaces of the sparry
structure or minute cracks, all turned in
one direction, consequently, giving that luminous
appearance only in one point of view.</p>

<p>Now, all the parts of the stone in which
the figured quartz is directed in the same
manner, or regularly placed in relation to each
other, present that shining appearance to the
eye at one time, or in the same point of direction.
But there are parts of the mass, which,
though immediately contiguous and properly
continuous, have a different disposition
of the figured quartz; and these two distinguished
masses, in the same surface of the polished
stone, give to the eye their shining appearance
in very different directions. Fig. 3.
shows two of those figured and shining masses,
in the same plane or polished surface.</p>

<p>It must be evident, that, as the crystallization
of the sparry structure is the figuring
cause of the quartz bodies, there must be observed
a certain correspondency between those
two things, the alinement (if I may be allowed
the expression) of the quartz, and the shining
of the sparry ground. It must also appear,
that at the time of congelation of the
fluid spar, those two contiguous portions had
been differently disposed in the crystallization
of their substance. This is an observation
which I have had frequent opportunities of
making, with respect to masses of calcareous
spar.</p>

<p>Upon the whole, therefore, whether we
shall consider granite as a stratum or as an irregular
mass, whether as a collection of several
materials, or as the separation of substances
which had been mixed, there is sufficient
evidence of this body having been consolidated
by means of fusion, and in no other
manner.</p>

<p>We are thus led to suppose, that the power
of heat and operation of fusion must have been
employed in consolidating strata of loose materials,
which had been collected together and
amassed at the bottom of the ocean. It will,
therefore, be proper to consider, what are the
appearances in consolidated strata that naturally
should follow, on the one hand, from fluidity
having been, in this manner, introduced
by means of heat, and, on the other, from the
interstices being filled by means of solution;
that so we may compare appearances with the
one and other of those two suppositions, in
order to know that with which they may be
only found consistent.</p>

<p>The consolidation of strata with every different
kind of substance was found to be inconsistent
with the supposition, that aqueous
solution had been the means employed for this
purpose. This appearance, on the contrary,
is perfectly consistent with the idea, that the
fluidity of these bodies had been the effect of
heat; for, whether we suppose the introduction
of foreign matter into the porous mass of
a stratum for its consolidation, or whether we
shall suppose the materials of the mass acquiring
a degree of softness, by means of which,
together with an immense compression, the
porous body might be rendered solid; the
power of heat, as the cause of fluidity and vapour,
is equally proper and perfectly competent.
Here, therefore, appearances are as decidedly
in favour of the last supposition, as
they had been inconsistent with the first.</p>

<p>But if strata have been consolidated by
means of aqueous solution, these masses should
be found precisely in the same state as when
they were originally deposited from the water.
The perpendicular section of those masses
might show the compression of the bodies included
in them, or of which they are composed;
but the horizontal section could not
contain any separation of the parts of the stratum
from one another.</p>

<p>If, again, strata have been consolidated by
means of heat, acting in such a manner as to
soften their substance, then, in cooling, they
must have formed rents or separations of their
substance, by the unequal degrees of contraction
which the contiguous strata may have
suffered. Here is a most decisive mark by
which the present question must be determined.</p>

<p>There is not in nature any appearance more
distinct than this of the perpendicular fissures
and separations in strata. These are generally
known to workmen by the terms of veins
or backs and cutters; and there is no consolidated
stratum that wants these appearances.
Here is, therefore, a clear decision of the
question, Whether it has been by means of
heat, or by means of aqueous solution, that
collections of loose bodies at the bottom of
the sea have been consolidated into the hardest
rocks and most perfect marbles<a id="footnotetag12" name="footnotetag12"></a><a href="#footnote12"><sup>12</sup></a>.</p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote12" name="footnote12"></a><b>Footnote 12:</b><a href="#footnotetag12"> (return) </a> This subject is extremely interesting, both to the
theory of the earth, and to the science cf the mining art;
I will now illustrate that theory, with an authority which I
received after giving this dissertation to the Royal Society.
It is in the second volume of M. de Saussure's <i>voyages dans
les Alpes</i>. Here I find proper examples for illustrating that
subject of mineralogy; and I am happy to have this opportunity
of giving the reasoning of a man of science upon
the subject, and the opinion of a person who is in every
respect so well qualified to judge upon a point of this
kind.

<p>The first example is of a marble in the Alps, (<i>voyages
dans les Alpes.</i>) tom. 2. page 271.</p>

<p>"La pâte de ces brèches est tantôt blanche, tantôt
grise, et les fragmens qui y font renfermés font, les
uns blancs, les autres gris, d'autres roux, et presque toujours
d'une couleur différente de celle de la pâte qui
les lit. Ils sont tous de nature calcaire; tels étaient au
moins tous ceux que j'ai pus observer; et ce qu'il-y-a de
remarquable, c'est qu'ils sont tous posés dans le sens des
feuillets de la pierre; on diroit en les voyant, qu'ils
ont tous été comprimés et écrasés dans le même sens.
Cette même pierre est mêlée de mica, sur-tout dans les
interstices des couches et entre les fragmens et la pâte
qui les réunit; mais on ne voit point de mica dans les
fragmens eux-mêmes. On trouve aussi dans ces brèches
des infiltrations de quartz. Cette pierre est coupée
par des fréquentes fissures perpendiculaires aux plans
des couches. On voit clairement que ces fentes out
été formées par l'inégal affaissement des couches, et
non par une retraite spontanée: car les morceaux ou
fragmens étrangers sont tous partagés et coupés net par
ces fissures au lieu que dans les divisions naturelles des
couches, ces mêmes fragmens sont entiers et saillans au
dehors de la surface. Les noeuds de quartz et les divers
crystaux, que renferment les roches feuilletées,
présentent le même phénomène, et l'on peut en tirer
la même conséquence; ils font partagés dans les fentes,
et entiers dans les séparations des couches."</p>

<p>He finds those particular strata in the other side of the
mountain <i>col de la Seigne</i>, and gives us the following observations:</p>

<p>"Plus bas on passe entre deux bancs de ces mêmes
brèches, entre lesquels sont interposées des couches d'ardoises
noires et de grès feuilletés micacés, dont la situation
est la même.</p>

<p>"On retrouve encore ces brèches vers le has de la descente,
au pied de pyramides calcaires dont j'ai parlé
plus haut. Je trouvai en 1774 de très-jolis crystaux de
roche qui s'étaient formés dans les fentes de cette
brèche. Il y avoit même un mélange de quartz et de
mica qui s'étoit moulé dans quelques-une de ces fentes.
C'étoit donc une roche semblable aux primitives, et
pourtant d'une formation postérieure à celle de la pierre
calcaire. Et quel système pourroit nous persuader que
la nature ne puisse encore produire ce qu'elle a produit
autrefois!"</p>

<p>M. de Saussure has here given us an example of a calcareous
Braccia, as he calls it, but which is rather a pudding
stone, with veins or contractions of the mass. He
does not seem to understand these as consequences of the
consolidation of those strata; this, however, is the only
light in which these appearances may be explained, when
those bodies are thus divided without any other separation
in the mass.</p>

<p>The second example is found in the vertical strata of
those mountains through which the Rhône has made its
way in running from the great valley of the <i>Vallais</i> towards
the lake of Geneva. (Chapitre xlviii.)</p>

<p>"C'est une espèce de pétrosilex gris, dur, sonore, un
peu transparent, qui se débite en feuillets minces parfaitement
plans et réguliers. Ces feuillets, ou plutôt
ces couches, courent à 35 degrés du nord par est, en
montant du coté de l'ouest sous un angle de 80 degrés.
Ces couches sont coupées par des fentes qui leur sont à-peu-près
perpendiculaires et qui le sont aussi à l'horizon.
Cette pierre s'emploie aux mêmes usage que l'ardoise,
mais elle est beaucoup plus forte et plus durable, parce
qu'elle est plus dure et moins accessible aux impressions
de l'eau et de l'air.</p>

<p>§ 1047. "Ces pétrosilex feuilletés changent peu-à-peu
de nature, en admettant dans les interstices de leurs
feuillets des parties de feldspath. Ils out alors l'apparence
d'une roche feuilletée, quartzeuse et micacée,
(<i>quartzum fornacum W.</i>). Mais cette apparence est
trompeuse; car on n'y trouve pas un atome de quartz:
toutes les parties blanches qui donnent du feu contre
l'acier, font du feldspath; et les parties grise écailleuses
ne font point du mica, ce sont de lames minces du pétrosilex
dont j'ai déjà parlé."</p>

<p>Here is evidently what I would call petuntze strata, or
porcelane stone, that is, strata formed by the deposits of
such materials as might come from the <i>detritus</i> of granite,
arranged at the bottom of the sea, and consolidated by
heat in the mineral regions. We have precisely such stratified
masses in the Pentland hills near Edinburgh. I have
also a specimen of the same kind, brought from the East
Indies, in which there is the print of an organized body.
I believe it to be of some coralline or zoophite.</p>

<p>§ 1048. "Cette roche mélangée continue jusqu'à ce
que le rocher s'éloigne un peu du grand chemin. Là,
ce rocher se présente coupé à pic dans une grande étendue,
et divisé par de grandes fentes obliques, à-peu-près
parallèles entr'elles. Ces fentes partagent la montagne
en grandes tranches de 50 à 60 pieds d'épaisseur,
que de loin semblent être des couches. Mais lorsqu'on
s'en approche, on voit, par le tissu même de la pierre
feuilletée, que ses vraies couches font avec l'horizon des
angles de 70 à 75 degré, et que ces grandes divisions
sont de vraies fentes par lesquelles un grand nombre de
couches consécutives sont coupées presque perpendiculairement
à leurs plans. Les masses de rocher, comprises
entre ces grandes fentes, sont encore divisées par
d'autres fentes plus petites, dont la plupart sont paralleles
aux grandes, d'autres leur sont obliques; mais
toutes sont à très-peu-près perpendiculaires aux plans
des couchés dont la montagne est composée."</p>

<p>Here is a distinct view of that which may be found to
take place in all consolidated strata, whatever be the composition
of the stratum; and it is this appearance which is
here maintained to be a physical demonstration, that those
strata had been consolidated by means of heat softening
their materials. In that case, those stratified bodies, contracting
in cooling, form veins and fissures traversing perpendicularly
their planes; and these veins are afterwards
filled with mineral substances. These are what I have
here distinguished as the <i>particular</i> veins of mineral masses;
things perfectly different from proper mineral or metallic
veins, which are more general, as belonging to immense
masses of those strata; and which had been formed,
not from the contraction, but from the disrupture of those
masses, and by the forcible injection of fluid mineral substances
from below. Now these two species of veins, the
particular and the general, although occasionally connected,
must be in science carefully distinguished; in the one,
we see the means which had been employed for the
consolidation of the strata; in the other, we see that
power by which the strata have been raised from the bottom
of the sea and placed in the atmosphere.</blockquote>

<p>Error never can be consistent, nor can truth
fail of having support from the accurate examination
of every circumstance. It is not
enough to have found appearances decisive of
the question, with regard to the two suppositions
which have been now considered, we
may farther seek confirmation of that supposition
which has been found alone consistent
with appearances.</p>

<p>If it be by means of heat and fusion that
strata have been consolidated, then, in proportion
to the degree of consolidation they have
undergone from their original state, they
should, <i>caeteris paribus</i>, abound more with
separations in their mass. But this conclusion
is found consistent with appearances. A stratum
of porous sand-stone does not abound so
much with veins and cutters as a similar stratum
of marble, or even a similar stratum of
sand-stone that is more consolidated. In proportion,
therefore, as strata have been consolidated,
they are in general intersected with
veins and cutters; and in proportion as strata
are deep in their perpendicular section, the
veins are wide, and placed at greater distances.
In like manner, when strata are thin, the veins
are many, but proportionally narrow.</p>

<p>It is thus, upon chemical principles, to be
demonstrated, That all the solid strata of the
globe have been condensed by means of heat,
and hardened from a state of fusion. But this
proposition is equally to be maintained from
principles which are mechanical. The strata
of the globe, besides being formed of earths,
are composed of sand, of gravel, and fragments
of hard bodies, all which may be considered
as, in their nature, simple; but these
strata are also found composed of bodies which
are not simple, but are fragments of former
strata, which had been consolidated, and afterwards
were broken and worn by attrition, so
as to be made gravel. Strata composed in
this manner have been again consolidated;
and now the question is, By what means?</p>

<p>If strata composed of such various bodies
had been consolidated, by any manner of concretion,
from the fluidity of a dissolution, the
hard and solid bodies must be found in their
entire state, while the interstices between those
constituent parts of the stratum are filled up.
No partial fracture can be conceived as introduced
into the middle of a solid mass of hard
matter, without having been communicated
from the surrounding parts. But such partial
separations are found in the middle of those
hard and solid masses; therefore, this compound
body must have been consolidated by
other means than that of concretion from a
state of a solution.</p>

<p>The Spanish marble already described, as
well as many consolidated strata of siliceous
gravel, of which I have specimens, afford the
clearest evidence of this fact. These hard
bodies are perfectly united together, in forming
the most solid mass; the contiguous parts
of some of the rounded fragments are interlaced
together, as has already been observed;
and there are partial shrinkings of the mass
forming veins, traversing several fragments,
but perfectly filled with the sparry substance
of the mass, and sometimes with parts of the
stone distinctly floating in the transparent body
of spar. Now, there is not, besides heat or
fusion, any known power in nature by which
these effects might be produced. But such
effects are general to all consolidated masses,
although not always so well illustrated in a
cabinet specimen.</p>

<p>Thus we have discovered a truth that is
confirmed by every appearance, so far as the
nature of the subject now examined admits.
We now return to the general operation, of
forming continents of those materials which
had been deposited at the bottom of the sea.</p>




<h3>SECTION III.</h3>

<p><i>Investigation of the Natural Operations employed
in the Production of Land above the
Surface of the Sea.</i></p>


<p>We seek to know that operation by means of
which masses of loose materials, collected at
the bottom of the sea, were raised above its
surface, and transformed into solid land.</p>

<p>We have found, that there is not in this
globe (as a planet revolving in the solar system)
any power or motion adapted to the
purpose now in view; nor, were there such
a power, could a mass of simply collected
materials have continued any considerable
time to resist the waves and currents natural to
the sea, but must have been quickly carried
away, and again deposited at the bottom of
the ocean. But we have found, that there
had been operations, natural to the bowels of
this earth; by which those loose and unconnected
materials have been cemented together,
and consolidated into masses of great strength
and hardness; those bodies are thus enabled
to resist the force of waves and currents, and
to preserve themselves, for a sufficient time,
in their proper shape and place, as land above
the general surface of the ocean.</p>

<p>We now desire to know, how far those internal
operations of the globe, by which solidity
and stability are procured to the beds of
loose materials, may have been also employed
in raising up a continent of land, to remain
above the surface of the sea.</p>

<p>There is nothing so proper for the erection
of land above the level of the ocean, as an expansive
power of sufficient force, applied directly
under materials in the bottom of the
sea, under a mass that is proper for the formation
of land when thus erected. The
question is not, how such a power may be
procured; such a power has probably been
employed. If, therefore, such a power should
be consistent with that which we found had
actually been employed in preparing the erected
mass; or, if such a power is to be reasonably
concluded as accompanying those operations
which we have found natural to the
globe, and situated in the very place where
this expansive power appears to be required,
we should thus be led to perceive, in the natural
operations of the globe, a power as efficacious
for the elevation of what had been at
the bottom of the sea into the place of land,
as it is perfect for the preparation of those
materials to serve the purpose of their elevation.</p>

<p>In opposition to this conclusion, it will not
be allowed to allege; that we are ignorant
how such a power might be exerted under
the bottom of the ocean; for, the present
question is not, what had been the cause of
heat, which has appeared to have been produced
in that place, but if this power of heat,
which has certainly been exerted at the bottom
of the ocean for consolidating strata, had
been employed also for another purpose, that
is, for raising those strata into the place of
land.</p>

<p>We may, perhaps, account for the elevation
of land, by the same cause with that of
the consolidation of strata, already investigated,
without explaining the means employed
by nature in procuring the power of heat, or
showing from what general source of action
this particular power had been derived; but,
by finding in subterranean heat a cause for
any other change, besides the consolidation of
porous or incoherent bodies, we shall generalise
a fact, or extend our knowledge in the
explanation of natural appearances.</p>

<p>The power of heat for the expansion of
bodies, is, so far as we know, unlimited; but,
by the expansion of bodies placed under the
strata at the bottom of the sea, the elevation
of those strata may be effected; and the question
now to be resolved regards the actual exertion
of this power of expansion. How far
it is to be concluded as having been employed
in the production of this earth above the level
of the sea.</p>

<p>Before attempting to resolve that question,
it may be proper to observe, there has been
exerted an extreme degree of heat below the
strata formed at the bottom of the sea; and
this is precisely the action of a power required
for the elevation of those heated bodies into a
higher place. Therefore, if there is no other
way in which we may conceive this event to
have been brought about, consistent with the
present state of things, or what actually appears,
we shall have a right to conclude, that
such had been the order of procedure in natural
things, and that the strata formed at the
bottom of the sea had been elevated, as well as
consolidated, by means of subterraneous heat.</p>

<p>The consolidation of strata by means of
fusion or the power of heat, has been concluded
from the examination of nature, and from
finding, that the present state of things is inconsistent
with any other supposition. Now,
again, we are considering the only power that
may be conceived as capable of elevating strata
from the bottom of the sea, and placing such
a mass above the surface of the water. It is
a truth unquestionable, that what had been
originally at the bottom of the sea, is at present
the highest of our land. In explaining
this appearance, therefore, no other alternative
is left, but either to suppose strata elevated by
the power of heat above the level of the present
sea, or the surface of the ocean reduced
many miles below the height at which it had
subsisted during the collection and induration
of the land which we inhabit.</p>

<p>Now, if, on the one hand, we are to suppose
no general power of subterraneous fire
or heat, we leave to our theory no means for
the retreat of the sea, or the lowering of its
surface; if, on the other hand, we are to allow
the general power of subterraneous heat,
we cannot have much difficulty in supposing,
either the surface of the sea to have subsided,
or the bottom of the ocean, in certain parts,
to have been raised by a subterranean power
above the level of its surface, according as appearances
shall be found to require the one or
other of those conclusions. Here, therefore,
we are again remitted to the history of nature,
in order to find matter of fact by which this
question may be properly decided.</p>

<p>If the present land had been discovered by
the subsiding of the waters, there has not been
a former land, from whence materials had
been procured for the construction of the present,
when at the bottom of the sea; for, there
is no vestige remaining of that land, the whole
land of the present earth having been formed
evidently at the bottom of the sea. Neither
could the natural productions of the sea have
been accumulated, in the shape in which we
now find them, on the surface of this earth;
for, How should the Alps and Andes have
been formed within the sea from the natural
productions of the water? Consequently, this
is a supposition inconsistent with every natural
appearance.</p>

<p>The supposition, therefore, of the subsidence
of the former ocean, for the purpose of discovering
the present land, is beset with more
difficulty than the simple erection of the bottom
of the former ocean; for, <i>first</i>, There is
a place to provide for the retirement of the
waters of the ocean; and, <i>2dly</i>, There is required
a work of equal magnitude; this is,
the swallowing up of that former continent,
which had procured the materials of the present
land.</p>

<p>On the one hand, the subsiding of the surface
of the ocean would but make the former
land appear the higher; and, on the other,
the sinking the body of the former land into
the solid globe, so as to swallow up the greater
part of the ocean after it, if not a natural impossibility,
would be at least a superfluous exertion
of the power of nature. Such an operation
as this would discover as little wisdom
in the end elected, as in the means appropriated
to that end; for, if the land be not wasted
and worn away in the natural operations of
the globe, Why make such a convulsion in the
world in order to renew the land? If, again,
the land naturally decays, Why employ so extraordinary
a power, in order to hide a former
continent of land, and puzzle man?</p>

<p>Let us now consider how far the other proposition,
of strata being elevated by the power
of heat above the level of the sea, may be confirmed
from the examination of natural appearances.</p>

<p>The strata formed at the bottom of the
ocean are necessarily horizontal in their position,
or nearly so, and continuous in their horizontal
direction or extent. They may change,
and gradually assume the nature of each other,
so far as concerns the materials of which they
are formed; but there cannot be any sudden
change, fracture, or displacement, naturally in
the body of a stratum. But, if these strata are
cemented by the heat of fusion, and erected
with an expansive power acting below, we
may expect to find every species of fracture,
dislocation, and contortion, in those bodies,
and every degree of departure from a horizontal
towards a vertical position.</p>

<p>The strata of the globe are actually found
in every possible position: For, from horizontal,
they are frequently found vertical; from
continuous, they are broken and separated in
every possible direction; and, from a plane,
they are bent and doubled. It is impossible
that they could have originally been formed,
by the known laws of nature, in their present
state and position; and the power that has
been necessarily required for their change, has
not been inferior to that which might have
been required for their elevation from the
place in which they had been formed.</p>

<p>In this cafe, natural appearances are not
anomalous. They are, indeed, infinitely various,
as they ought to be, according to the
rule; but all those varieties in appearances
conspire to prove one general truth, viz. That
all which we see had been originally composed
according to certain principles, established
in the constitution of the terraqueous globe;
and that those regular compositions had been
afterwards greatly changed by the operations
of another power, which had introduced apparent
confusion among things first formed in
order and by rule.</p>

<p>It is concerning the operation of this second
power that we are now inquiring; and here
the apparent irregularity and disorder of the
mineral regions are as instructive, with regard
to what had been transacted in a former period
of time, as the order and regularity of those
same regions are conclusive, in relation to the
place in which a former state of things had
produced that which, in its changed state, we
now perceive.</p>

<p>We are now to conclude, that the land on
which we dwell had been elevated from a
lower situation by the same agent which had
been employed in consolidating the strata, in
giving them stability, and preparing them for
the purpose of the living world. This agent
is matter actuated by extreme heat, and expanded
with amazing force.</p>

<p>If this has been the case, it will be reasonable
to expect, that some of the expanded
matter might be found condensed in the bodies
which have been heated by that igneous
vapour; and that matter, foreign to the strata,
may have been thus introduced into the fractures
and separations of those indurated masses.</p>

<p>We have but to open our eyes to be convinced
of this truth. Look into the sources
of our mineral treasures; ask the miner, from
whence has come the metal into his vein?
Not from the earth or air above,&mdash;not from
the strata which the vein traverses; these do
not contain one atom of the minerals now
considered. There is but one place from
whence these minerals may have come; this
is the bowels of the earth, the place of power
and expansion, the place from whence must
have proceeded that intense heat by which loose
materials have been consolidated into rocks,
as well as that enormous force by which the
regular strata have been broken and displaced.</p>

<p>Our attention is here peculiarly called upon,
where we have the opportunity of examining
those mineral bodies, which have
immediately proceeded from the unknown
region, that place of power and energy which
we want to explore; for, if such is the system
of the earth, that materials are first deposited
at the bottom of the ocean, there to be prepared
in a certain manner, in order to acquire
solidity, and then to be elevated into the proper
place of land, these mineral veins, which
contain matter absolutely foreign to the surface
of the earth, afford the most authentic information
with regard to the operations which
we want to understand. It is these veins
which we are to consider as, in some measure,
the continuation of that mineral region, which
lies necessarily out of all possible reach of our
examination. It is, therefore, peculiarly interesting
to know the state in which things
are to be found in this place, which may be
considered as intermediate between the solid
land, upon the one hand, and the unknown
regions of the earth, upon the other.</p>

<p>We are now to examine those mineral
veins; and these may be considered, first, in
relation to their form, independent of their
substance or particular contents; and, secondly,
in relation to the contained bodies, independent
of their form.</p>

<p>In examining consolidated strata, we remarked
veins and cutters as a proof of the means
by which those bodies had been consolidated.
In that case, the formation of these veins is
a regulated process, determined by the degree
of fusion, and the circumstances of condensation
or refrigeration. In respect of these, the
mineral veins now to be examined are anomalous.
They are; but we know not why
or how. We see the effect; but, in that effect,
we do not see the cause. We can say,
negatively, that the cause of mineral veins is
not that by which the veins and fissures of
consolidated strata have been formed; consequently,
that it is not the measured contraction
and regulated condensation of the consolidated
land which has formed those general
mineral veins; however, veins, similar in
many respects, have been formed by the cooperation
of this cause.</p>

<p>Having thus taken a view of the evident
distinction between the veins or contractions
that are particular to the consolidated body in
which they are found, and those more general
veins which are not limited to that cause, we
may now consider what is general in the subject,
or what is universal in these effects of
which we wish to investigate the cause.</p>

<p>The event of highest generalization or universality,
in the form of those mineral veins,
is fracture and dislocation. It is not, like that
of the veins of strata, simple separation and
measured contraction; it is violent fracture
and unlimited dislocation. In the one case,
the forming cause is in the body which is separated;
for, after the body had been actuated
by heat, it is by the reaction of the proper
matter of the body, that the chasm which
constitutes the vein is formed. In the other
case, again, the cause is extrinsic in relation to
the body in which the chasm is formed.
There has been the most violent fracture and
divulsion; but the cause is still to seek; and
it appears not in the vein; for it is not every
fracture and dislocation of the solid body of
our earth, in which minerals, or the proper
substances of mineral veins, are found.</p>

<p>We are now examining matter of fact, real
effects, from whence we would investigate the
nature of certain events which do not now
appear. Of these, two kinds occur; one
which has relation to the hardness and solidity,
or the natural constitution of the body;
the other, to its shape or local situation. The
first has been already considered; the last is
now the subject of inquiry.</p>

<p>But, in examining those natural appearances,
we find two different kinds of veins;
the one necessarily connected with the consolidating
cause; the other with that cause of
which we now particularly inquire. For, in
those great mineral veins, violent fracture and
dislocation is the principle; but there is no
other principle upon which strata, or masses
formed at the bottom of the sea, can be placed
at a height above its surface. Hence, in those
two different operations, of forming mineral
veins, and erecting strata from a lower to a
higher place, the principle is the same; for,
neither can be done without violent fracture
and dislocation.</p>

<p>We now only want to know, how far it is
by the same power, as well as upon the same
principle, that these two operations have been
made. An expansive force, acting from below,
is the power most proper for erecting
masses; but whether it is a power of the same
nature with that which has been employed in
forming mineral veins, will best appear in
knowing the nature of their contents. These,
therefore, may be now considered.</p>

<p>Every species of fracture, and every degree
of dislocation and contortion, may be perceived
in the form of mineral veins; and there is
no other general principle to be observed in
examining their form. But, in examining
their contents, some other principle may appear,
so far as, to the dislocating power or
force, there may be superadded matter, by
which something in relation to the nature of
the power may be known. If, for example,
a tree or a rock shall be found simply split
asunder, although there be no doubt with regard
to some power having been applied in
order to produce the effect, yet we are left
merely to conjecture at the power. But when
wedges of wood or iron, or frozen water,
should be found lodged in the cleft, we might
be enabled, from this appearance, to form a
certain judgment with regard to the nature of
the power which had been applied. This is
the case with mineral veins. We find them
containing matter, which indicates a cause;
and every information in this case is interesting
to the theory.</p>

<p>The substances contained in mineral veins
are precisely the same with those which, in
the former section, we have considered as being
made instrumental in the consolidation of
strata; and they are found mixed and concreted
in every manner possible.</p>

<p>But, besides this evidence for the exertion
of extreme heat, in that process by which
those veins were filled, there is another important
observation to be gathered from the
inspection of this subject. There appears to
have been a great mechanical power employed
in the filling of these veins, as well as that
necessarily required in making the first fracture
and divulsion.</p>

<p>This appears from the order of the contents,
or filling of these veins, which is a
thing often observed to be various and successive.
But what it is chiefly now in view
to illustrate, is that immense force which is
manifested in the fracture and dispersion of
the solid contents which had formerly filled
those veins. Here we find fragments of rock
and spar floating in the body of a vein filled
with metallic substances; there, again, we see
the various fragments of metallic masses floating
in the sparry and siliceous contents.</p>

<p>One thing is demonstrable from the inspection
of the veins and their contents; this is,
the successive irruptions of those fluid substances
breaking the solid bodies which they
meet, and floating those fragments of the broken
bodies in the vein. It is very common
to see three successive series of those operations;
and all this may be perceived in a
small fragment of stone, which a man of
science may examine in his closet, often better
than descending to the mine, where all
the examples are found on an enlarged scale.</p>

<p>Let us now consider what power would be
required to force up, from the most unfathomable
depth of the ocean, to the Andes
or the Alps, a column of fluid metal and of
stone. This power cannot be much less than
that required to elevate the highest land upon
the globe. Whether, therefore, we shall consider
the general veins as having been filled
by mineral steams, or by fluid minerals, an
elevating power of immense force is still required,
in order to form as well as fill those
veins. But such a power acting under the
consolidated masses at the bottom of the sea,
is the only natural means for making those
masses land.</p>

<p>If such have been the operations that are
necessary for the production of this land;
and if these operations are natural to the
globe of this earth, as being the effect of wisdom
in its contrivance, we shall have reason
to look for the actual manifestation of this
truth in the phaenomena of nature, or those
appearances which more immediately discover
the actual cause in the perceived effect.</p>

<p>To see the evidence of marble, a body that
is solid, having been formed of loose materials
collected at the bottom of the sea, is not
always easy, although it may be made abundantly
plain; and to be convinced that this
calcareous stone, which calcines so easily in
our fires, should have been brought into fusion
by subterraneous heat, without suffering
calcination, must require a chain of reasoning
which every one is not able to attain<a id="footnotetag13" name="footnotetag13"></a><a href="#footnote13"><sup>13</sup></a>. But
when fire bursts forth from the bottom of the
sea, and when the land is heaved up and down,
so as to demolish cities in an instant, and split
asunder rocks and solid mountains, there is
nobody but must see in this a power, which
may be sufficient to accomplish every view of
nature in erecting land, as it is situated in the
place most advantageous for that purpose.</p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote13" name="footnote13"></a><b>Footnote 13:</b><a href="#footnotetag13"> (return) </a> Mr le Chevalier de Dolomieu, in considering the different
effects of heat, has made the following observation;
Journal de Physique, Mai 1792.

<p>"Je dis <i>le feu tel que nous l'employons</i> pour distinguer
le feu naturel des volcans, du feu de nos fourneaux et
de celui de nos chalumeaux. Nous sommes obligés de
donner une grande activité à son action pour suppléer
et au volume qui ne seroit pas à notre disposition et au
tems que nous sommes forcés de ménager, et cette manière
d'appliquer une chaleur très-active, communique
le mouvement et le désordre jusques dans les molécules
constituantes. Agrégation et composition, tout est
troublé. Dans les volcans la grand masse du feu supplée
à son intensité, le tems remplace son activité, de
manière qu'il tourmente moins les corps fournis à son
action; il ménage leur composition en relâchant leur
agrégation, et les pierres qui eut été rendues fluides par
l'embrasement volcanique peuvent reprendre leur état
primitif; la plupart des substances qu'un feu plus actif
auroit expulsées y restent encore. Voilà pourquoi les
laves ressemblent tellement aux pierres naturelles des
espèces analogues, qu'elles ne peuvent en être distinguées;
voilà également pourquoi les verres volcaniques
eux-même renferment encore des substances élastiques
qui les font boursoufler lorsque nous les fondons de
nouveau, et pourquoi ces verres blanchissent aussi, pour
lors, par la dissipation, d'une substance grasse qui a résisté
à la chaleur des volcans, et que volatilise la chaleur
par laquelle nous obtenons leur second fusion."</p>

<p>No doubt, the long application of heat may produce
changes in bodies very different from those which are
occasioned by the sudden application of a more intense
heat; but still there must be sufficient intensity in that
power, so as to cause fluidity, without which no chemical
change can be produced in bodies. The essential difference,
however, between the natural heat of the mineral
regions, and that which we excite upon the surface of the
earth, consists in this; that nature applies heat under circumstances
which we are not able to imitate, that is, under
such compression as shall prevent the decomposition of
the constituent substances, by the separation of the more
volatile from the more fixed parts. This is a circumstance
which, so far as I know, no chemist or naturalist
has hitherto considered; and it is that by which the operations
of the mineral regions must certainly be explained.
Without attending to this great principle in the mineralizing
operations of subterraneous fire, it is impossible
to conceive the fusion and concretion of those various bodies,
which we examine when brought up to the surface
of the earth.</blockquote>

<p>The only question, therefore, which it concerns
us to decide at present, is, Whether those
operations of extreme heat, and violent mechanic
force, be only in the system as a matter
of accident; or if, on the contrary, they are
operations natural to the globe, and necessary
in the production of such land as this which
we inhabit? The answer to this is plain:
These operations of the globe remain at present
with undiminished activity, or in the fullness
of their power.</p>

<p>A stream of melted lava flows from the sides
of Mount Aetna. Here is a column of weighty
matter raised from a great depth below, to
an immense height above, the level of the sea,
and rocks of an enormous size are projected
from its orifice some miles into the air. Every
one acknowledges that here is the liquefying
power and expansive force of subterranean
fire, or violent heat. But, that Sicily itself had
been raised from the bottom of the ocean, and
that the marble called Sicilian Jasper, had its
solidity upon the same principle with the lava,
would stumble many a naturalist to acknowledge.
Nevertheless, I have in my possession
a table of this marble, from which it is demonstrable,
that this calcareous stone had flowed,
and been in such a state of fusion and fluidity
as lava.</p>

<p>Here is a comparison formed of two mineral
substances, to which it is of the highest importance
to attend. The solidity and present
state of the one of these is commonly thought
to be the operation of fire; of the other, again,
it is thought to be that of water. This, however,
is not the case. The immediate state and
condition of both these bodies is now to be
considered as equally the effect of fire or heat.
The reason of our forming such a different
judgment with regard to these two subjects is
this; we see, in the one case, the more immediate
connection of the cause and the effect,
while, in the other, we have only the effects
from whence we are in science to investigate
the cause.</p>

<p>But, if it were necessary always to see this
immediate connection, in order to acknowledge
the operation of a power which, at present, is
extinguished in the effect, we should lose the
benefit of science, or general principles, from
whence particulars may be deduced, and we
should be able to reason no better than the
brute. Man is made for science; he reasons
from effects to causes, and from causes to effects;
but he does not always reason without
error. In reasoning, therefore, from appearances
which are particular, care must be taken
how we generalise; we should be cautious not
to attribute to nature, laws which may perhaps
be only of our own invention.</p>

<p>The immediate question now before us is
not, If the subterraneous fire, or elevating
power, which we perceive sometimes as operating
with such energy, be the consolidating
cause of strata formed at the bottom of the
sea; nor, if that power be the means of making
land appear above the general surface of
the water? for, though this be the end we want
to arrive at ultimately, the question at present
in agitation respects the laws of nature, or the
generality of particular appearances.</p>

<p>Has the globe within it such an active power
as fits it for the renovation of that part of its
constitution which may be subject to decay?
Are those powerful operations of fire, or subterraneous
heat, which so often have filled us
with terror and astonishment, to be considered
as having always been? Are they to be concluded
as proper to every part upon the globe,
and as continual in the system of this earth?
If these points in question shall be decided in
the affirmative, we can be at no loss in ascertaining
the power which has consolidated strata,
nor in explaining the present situation of
those bodies, which had their origin at the bottom
of the sea. This, therefore, should be the
object of our pursuit; and in order to have demonstration
in a case of physical inquiry, we
must again have recourse to the book of nature.</p>

<p>The general tendency of heat is to produce
fluidity and softness; as that of cold is, on the
contrary, to harden soft and fluid bodies. But
this softening power of heat is not uniform in
its nature; it is made to act with very different
effect, according to the nature of the substance
to which it is applied. We are but limited in
the art of increasing the heat or the cold of
bodies; we find, however, extreme difference
in their substances with respect to fusibility.</p>

<p>A fusible substance, or mineral composition
in a fluid state, is emitted from those places of
the earth at which subterraneous fire and expansive
force are manifested in those eruptive
operations. In examining these emitted bodies,
men of science find a character for such
productions, in generalising the substance, and
understanding the natural constitution of those
bodies. It is in this manner that such a person,
finding a piece of lava in any place of
the earth, says with certainty, Here is a stone
which had congealed from a melted state.</p>

<p>Having thus found a distinguishing character
for those fused substances called, in general,
Lavas, and having the most visible marks for
that which had been actually a volcano, naturalists,
in examining different countries, have
discovered the most undoubted proofs of many
ancient volcanos, which had not been before
suspected. Thus, volcanos will appear to be
not a matter of accident, or as only happening
in a particular place, they are general to the
globe, so far as there is no place upon the earth
that may not have an eruption of this kind;
although it is by no means necessary for every
place to have had those eruptions.</p>

<p>Volcanos are natural to the globe, as general
operations; but we are not to consider nature
as having a burning mountain for an end
in her intention, or as a principal purpose in
the general system of this world. The end of
nature in placing an internal fire or power of
heat, and a force of irresistible expansion, in
the body of this earth, is to consolidate the
sediment collected at the bottom of the sea,
and to form thereof a mass of permanent land
above the level of the ocean, for the purpose
of maintaining plants and animals. The power
appointed for this purpose is, as on all other
occasions, where the operation is important,
and where there is any danger of a shortcoming,
wisely provided in abundance; and
there are contrived means for disposing of the
redundancy. These, in the present case, are
our volcanos.</p>

<p>A volcano is not made on purpose to frighten
superstitious people into fits of piety and
devotion, nor to overwhelm devoted cities
with destruction; a volcano should be considered
as a spiracle to the subterranean furnace,
in order to prevent the unnecessary elevation
of land, and fatal effects of earthquakes; and
we may rest assured, that they, in general,
wisely answer the end of their intention, without
being in themselves an end, for which nature
had exerted such amazing power and excellent
contrivance.</p>

<p>Let us take a view of the most elevated
places of the earth; if the present theory is
just, it is there that we should find volcanos.
But is not this the case? There are volcanos
in the Andes; and round the Alps we find
many volcanos, which are in France upon the
one side, and in Germany upon the other, as
well as upon the Italian side, where Vesuvius
still continues to exhibit violent eruptions.</p>

<p>It is not meant to allege, that it is only upon
the summit of a continent volcanos should
appear. Subterraneous fire has sometimes made
its appearance in bursting from the bottom of
the sea. But, even in this last case, land was
raised from the bottom of the sea, before the
eruption made its exit into the atmosphere. It
must also be evident, that, in this case of the
new island near Santorini, had the expansive
power been retained, instead of being discharged,
much more land might have been raised
above the level of the ocean.</p>

<p>Now, the eruption of that elastic force
through the bottom of the sea, may be considered
as a waste of power in the operations
of the globe, where the elevation of indurated
strata is an object in the exertion of that power;
whereas, in the centre of a continent sufficiently
elevated above the level of the sea, the eruption
of that fiery vapour calculated to elevate
the land, while it may occasionally destroy
the habitations of a few, provides for the security
and quiet possession of the many.</p>

<p>In order to see the wisdom of this contrivance,
let us consider the two extreme places
at which this eruption of ignited matter may
be performed. These are, on the one hand,
within a continent of land, and, on the other,
at the bottom of the ocean. In the one case,
the free eruption of the expanding power
should be permitted; because the purpose for
which it had been calculated to exist has been
accomplished. In the other, again, the free
eruption of that powerful matter should be
repressed; because there is reserved for that
power much of another operation in that place.
But, according to the wise constitution of
things, this must necessarily happen. The
eruption of the fiery vapour from volcanos
on the continent or land, is interrupted only
occasionally, by the melted bodies flowing in
the subterraneous chimney; whereas, at the
bottom of the ocean, the contact of the water
necessarily tends to close the orifice, by accumulating
condensed matter upon the weakest
place.</p>

<p>If this be a just theory of the natural operations
of the globe, we shall have reason to
expect, that great quantities of this melted
matter, or fusible substance, may be found in
form of lava, among the strata of the earth,
where there are no visible marks of any volcano,
or burning mountain, having existed.
Here, therefore, is an important point to be
determined; for, if it shall appear that much
of this melted matter, analogous to lava, has
been forced to flow among the strata which
had been formed at the bottom of the sea, and
now are found forming dry land above its surface,
it will be allowed, that we have discovered
the secret operations of nature concocting
future land, as well as those by which the present
habitable earth had been produced from
the bottom of the abyss. Here, therefore, we
shall at present rest the argument, with endeavouring
to show that such is actually the case.</p>

<p>It appears from Cronstedt's Mineralogy,
that the rock-stone, called trap by the Swedes,
the amygdaloides and the schwarts-stein of
the Germans, are the same with the whin-stone
of this country. This is also fully confirmed
by specimens from Sweden, sent me
by my friend Dr Gahn. Whatever, therefore,
shall be ascertained with regard to our
whin-stone, may be so far generalized or extended
to the countries of Norway, Sweden,
and Germany.</p>

<p>The whin-stone of Scotland is also the same
with the toad-stone of Derbyshire, which is of
the amygdaloides species; it is also the same
with the flagstone of the south of Staffordshire,
which is a simple whin-stone, or perfect trap.
England, therefore, must be included in this
great space of land, the mineral operations of
which we explore; and also Ireland, of which
the Giant's Causeway, and many others, are
sufficient proof.</p>

<p>In the south of Scotland, there is a ridge of
hills, which extends from the west side of the
island in Galloway to the east side in Berwickshire,
composed of granite, of schistus,
and of siliceous strata. The Grampians on
the north, again, form another range of
mountains of the same kind; and between
these two great fields of broken, tumbled, and
distorted strata, there lies a field of lesser hardness
and consolidation, in general; but a field
in which there is a great manifestation of subterraneous
fire, and of exerted force.</p>

<p>The strata in this space consist, in general,
of sand-stone, coal, lime-stone or marble, iron-stone,
and marl or argillaceous strata, with
strata of analogous bodies, and the various
compositions of these. But what is to the
present purpose is this, that, through all this
space, there are interspersed immense quantities
of whinstone; a body which is to be distinguished
as very different from lava; and
now the disposition of this whin-stone is to be
considered.</p>

<p>Sometimes it is found in an irregular mass
or mountain, as Mr Cronstedt has properly observed;
but he has also said, that this is not
the case in general. His words are: "It is
oftener found in form of veins in mountains
of another kind, running commonly
in a serpentine manner, contrary or across
to the direction of the rock itself."</p>

<p>The origin of this form, in which the trap
or whin-stone appears, is most evident to inspection,
when we consider that this solid
body had been in a fluid state, and introduced,
in that state, among strata, which preserved
their proper form. The strata appear to have
been broken, and the two correspondent parts
of those strata are separated to admit the flowing
mass of whin-stone.</p>

<p>A fine example of this kind may be seen
upon the south side of the Earn, on the road
to Crief. It is twenty-four yards wide, stands
perpendicular, and appears many feet above
the surface of the ground. It runs from that
eastward, and would seem to be the same with
that which crosses the river Tay, in forming
Campsy-lin above Stanley, as a lesser one of
the same kind does below it. I have seen it
at Lednoc upon the Ammon, where it forms
a cascade in that river, about five or six miles
west of Campsy-lin. It appears to run from
the Tay east through Strathmore, so that it
may be considered as having been traced for
twenty or thirty miles, and westwards to
Drummond castle, perhaps much farther.</p>

<p>Two small veins of the same kind, only
two or three feet wide, may be seen in the
bed of the Water of Leith, traversing the
horizontal strata, the one is above St Bernard's
well, the other immediately below it. But,
more particularly, in the shire of Ayr, to the
north of Irvine, there are to be seen upon the
coast, between that and Scarmorly, in the
space of about twenty miles, more than twenty
or thirty such dykes (as they are called) of
whin-stone. Some of them are of a great
thickness; and, in some places, there is perceived
a short one, running at right angles,
and communicating with other two that run
parallel.</p>

<p>There is in this country, and in Derbyshire<a id="footnotetag14" name="footnotetag14"></a><a href="#footnote14"><sup>14</sup></a>,
another regular appearance of this stone,
which Cronstedt has not mentioned. In this
case, the strata are not broken in order to have
the whin-stone introduced, they are separated,
and the whin-stone is interjected in form of
strata, having various degrees of regularity,
and being of different thickness. On the
south side of Edinburgh, I have seen, in little
more than the space of a mile from east to
west, nine or ten masses of whin-stone interjected
among the strata. These masses of whin-stone
are from three or four to an hundred feet
thick, running parallel in planes inclined to
the horizon, and forming with it an angle of
about twenty or thirty degrees, as may be
seen at all times in the hill of Salisbury
Craggs.</p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote14" name="footnote14"></a><b>Footnote 14:</b><a href="#footnotetag14"> (return) </a> See Mr Whitehurst's Theory of the Earth.</blockquote>

<p>Having thus described these masses, which
have flowed by means of heat among the strata
of the globe, strata which had been formed
by subsidence at the bottom of the sea, it will
now be proper to examine the difference that
subsists between these subterraneous lavas, as
they may be termed, and the analogous bodies
which are proper lavas, in having issued out
of a volcano.<a id="footnotetag15" name="footnotetag15"></a><a href="#footnote15"><sup>15</sup></a></p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote15" name="footnote15"></a><b>Footnote 15:</b><a href="#footnotetag15"> (return) </a> The Chevalier de Dolomieu, in his accurate examination
of Aetna and the Lipari islands, has very well observed
the distinction of these two different species of lavas;
but without seeming to know the principle upon
which this essential difference depends. No bias of system,
therefore, can here be supposed as perverting the Chevalier's
view, in taking those observations; and these are interesting
to the present theory, as corresponding perfectly
with the facts from whence it has been formed. It will
be proper to give the account of these in his own words.

<p>La zéolite est très-commune dans certains laves de
l'Ethna; il seroit peut-être possible d'y en rencontrer des
morceaux aussi gros que ceux que fournit l'isle de Ferroé.
Quoique cette substance semble ici appartenir aux laves, je
ne dirai cependant point que toutes les zéolites soient volcaniques,
ou unies à des matières volcaniques; celles que
l'on trouve en Allemagne sont, dit-on, dans des circonstances
différentes; mais je doit annoncer que je n'ai
trouvé cette substance en Sicile, que dans les seules laves
qui évidemment ont coulé dans la mer, et qui out été recouvertes
par ses eaux. La zéolite des laves n'est point une
déjection volcanique, ni une production du feu, ni même
un matière que les laves aient enveloppée lorsqu'elles
étoient fluides; elle est le résultat d'une opération et d'une
combinaison postérieure, auxquelles les eaux de la mer ont
concouru. Les laves qui n'ont pas été submergées, n'en
contiennent jamais. J'ai trouvé ces observations si constantes,
que par-tout où je rencontrois de la zéolite, j'étois
sûr de trouver d'autres preuves de submersion, et partout
où je voyois des laves recouvertes des dépôts de l'eau, j'étois
sûr de trouver de la zéolite, et un de ces faits m'a
toujours indiqué l'autre. Je me suis servi avec succès de
cette observation pour diriger mes recherches, et pour
connoître l'antiquité des laves. <i>Minéralogie de Volcans,
par M. Faujas de Saint-Fond</i>. Here would appear to be
the distinction of subterraneous lava, in which zeolite and
calcareous spar may be found, and that which has flowed
from a volcano, in which neither of these are ever observed.</blockquote>

<p>There can be no doubt that these two different
species of bodies have had the same
origin, and that they are composed of the
same materials nearly; but from the different
circumstances Of their production, there is
formed a character to these bodies, by which,
they may be perfectly distinguished. The
difference of those circumstances consists in
this; the one has been emitted to the atmosphere
in its fluid state the other only came to
be exposed to the light in a long course of
time, after it had congealed under the compression
of an immense load of earth, and after
certain operations, proper to the mineral regions,
had been exercised upon the indurated
mass. This is the cause of the difference between
those erupted lavas, and our whin-stone,
toad-stone, and the Swedish trap, which may
be termed subterraneous lava. The visible effects
of those different operations may now
be mentioned.</p>

<p>In the erupted lavas, those substances which
are subject to calcine and vitrify in our fires,
suffer similar changes, when delivered from a
compression which had rendered them fixed,
though in an extremely heated state. Thus,
a lava in which there is much calcareous spar,
when it comes to be exposed to the atmosphere,
or delivered from the compressing force
of its confinement, effervesces by the explosion
of its fixed air; the calcareous earth, at
the same time, vitrifies with the other substances.
Hence such violent ebullition in volcanos,
and hence the emission of so much pumice-stone
and ashes, which are of the same
nature.</p>

<p>In the body of our whin-stone, on the contrary,
there is no mark of calcination or vitrification.
We frequently find in it much calcareous
spar, or the <i>terra calcarea aerata</i>,
which had been in a melted state by heat, and
had been crystallized by congelation into a
sparry form. Such is the <i>lapis amygdaloides</i>,
and many of our whin-stone rocks, which
contain pebbles crystallized and variously figured,
both calcareous, siliceous, and of a mixture
in which both these substances form distinct
parts. The specimens of this kind,
which I have from the whin-stone or porphyry
rock of the Calton-hill, exhibit every
species of mineral operation, in forming jasper,
figured agate, and marble; and they demonstrate,
that this had been performed by
heat or fusion.</p>

<p>I do not mean to say, that this demonstration
is direct; it is conditional, and proceeds
upon the supposition, that the basaltic or porphyry
rock, in which those specimens are
found, is a body which had been in a melted
state. Now, this is a supposition for which I
have abundance of evidence, were it required;
but naturalists are now sufficiently disposed to
admit that proposition; they even draw conclusions
from this fact, which, I think, they
are not sufficiently warranted in doing; that
is, from this appearance, they infer the former
existence of volcanos in those places. For my
part, though I have made the most strict examination,
I never saw any vestige of such an
event. That there are, in other countries,
evident marks of volcanos which have been
long extinguished, is unquestionably true; but
naturalists, imagining that there are no other
marks of subterraneous fire and fusion, except
in the production of a lava, attribute to a volcano,
as a cause, these effects, which only indicate
the exertion of that power which might
have been the cause of a volcano.</p>

<p>If the theory now given be just, a rock of
marble is no less a mark of subterraneous fire
and fusion, than that of the basaltes; and the
flowing of basaltic streams among strata broken
and displaced, affords the most satisfactory
evidence of those operations by which the
body of our land had been elevated above the
surface of the sea; but it gives no proof that
the eruptive force of mineral vapours had
been discharged in a burning mountain. Now,
this discharge is essential in the proper idea of
a volcano.</p>

<p>Besides this internal mark of an unerupted
lava in the substance of the stone or body of
the flowing mass, there are others which belong
to it in common with all other mineral
strata, consolidated by subterraneous fire, and
changed from the place of their original formation;
this is, the being broken and dislocated,
and having veins of foreign matter
formed in their separations and contractions.</p>

<p>If these are mineral operations, proper to
the lower regions of the earth, and exerted
upon bodies under immense compression, such
things will be sometimes found in the unerupted
lavas, as well as in the contiguous
bodies with which they are associated. If,
on the contrary, these are operations proper
to the surface of the earth, where the dissolving
power of water and air take place, and
where certain stalactical and ferruginous concretions
are produced by these means; then,
in erupted lavas, we should find mineral concretions,
which concretions should be denied
to bodies which had been consolidated at the
bottom of the sea; that is to say, where, without
the operation of subterraneous fire, no
changes of that kind could have taken place,
as has already been observed. But in the
unerupted species of lava, that is to say, in our
whin-stone, every species of mineral appearance
is occasionally to be found. Let those
who have the opportunity to examine, say,
what arc to be found in proper lavas, that is,
those of the erupted kind. Sir William Hamilton
informed me, when I showed him those
mineral veins and spars in our whin-stone,
that he had never observed the like, in lavas
We have now formed some conclusions
with regard to the nature and production of
those parts of the land of this globe which we
have had the means of examining perfectly;
but; from the accounts of travellers, and from,
the specimens which are brought to us from
distant parts, we have reason to believe, that
all the rest of the earth is of the same nature
with that which has been now considered.
The great masses of the earth are the same
every where; and all the different species of
earths, of rocks or stone, which have as yet
appeared, are to be found in the little space
of this our island.</p>

<p>It is true, that there are peculiar productions
in the mineral kingdom which are rare,
as being found only in few places; but these
things are merely accidental in relation to the
land, for they belong in property to those
parts of the mineral region which we never
see. Such are, the diamond of the east, the
platina of the west, and the tin of Cornwall,
Germany, and Sumatra. Gold and silver,
though found in many countries, do not appear
to be immediately necessary in the production
of a habitable country. Iron, again,
is universal in the operations of the globe, and
is found often in that profusion which equals
its utility. Between these two extremes, we
find all other minerals, that is to say, here and
there in moderate quantity, and apparently in
some proportion to their use. But all these
substances are to be considered as the vapours
of the mineral regions, condensed occasionally
in the crevices of the land; and it is only the
rocks and strata (in which those mineral veins
are found) that are now examined with regard
to their original composition, at the bottom
of the sea, as well as to that, operation by
which those bodies had been indurated in their
substance, and elevated from the place in which
they had been formed.</p>

<p>Thus, we have sufficient reason to believe,
that, in knowing the construction of the land
in Europe, we know the constitution of the
land in every part of the globe. Therefore,
we may proceed to form general conclusions,
from the knowledge of the mineral region,
thus acquired in studying those parts which
are seen.</p>

<p>Having thus found, <i>first</i>, That the consolidated
and indurated masses of our strata had
suffered the effects of violent heat and fusion;
<i>2dly</i>, That those strata, which had been formed
in a regular manner at the bottom of the
sea, have been violently bended, broken, and
removed from their original place and situation;
and, <i>lastly</i>, Having now found the most
indubitable proof, that the melting, breaking,
and removing power of subterraneous fire, has
been actually exerted upon this land which
we examine, we cannot hesitate in ascribing
these operations as a cause to those effects
which are exposed to our view. Now, these
may be considered as consisting in the solid
state and present situation of those stratified
bodies, originally formed by subsidence in the
ocean; appearances which cannot, in reason,
be ascribed to any other cause, and which,
upon this principle, are perfectly explained.</p>

<p>It is not meant to specify every particular
in the means employed by nature for the elevation
of our land. It is sufficient to have
shown, that there is, in nature, means employed
for the consolidating of strata, formed
originally of loose and incoherent materials;
and that those same means have also been
employed in changing the place and situation
of those strata. But how describe an operation
which man cannot have any opportunity of
perceiving? Or how imagine that, for which,
perhaps, there are not proper data to be found?
We only know, that the land is raised by a
power which has for principle subterraneous
heat; but, how that land is preserved in its
elevated station, is a subject in which we have
not even the means to form conjecture; at
least, we ought to be cautious how we indulge
conjecture in a subject where no means occur
for trying that which is but supposition.</p>

<p>We now proceed, from the facts which
have been properly established, to reason with
regard to the duration of this globe, or the
general view of its operations, as a living
world, maintaining plants and animals.</p>

<h3>SECTION IV.</h3>

<p><i>System of Decay and Renovation observed in
the Earth</i>.</p>


<p>Philosophers observing an apparent disorder
and confusion in the solid parts of this
globe, have been led to conclude, that there
formerly existed a more regular and uniform
state, in the constitution of this earth; that
there had happened some destructive change;
and that the original structure of the earth had
been broken and disturbed by some violent
operation, whether natural, or from a super-natural
cause. Now, all these appearances,
from which conclusions of this kind have been
formed, find the most perfect explanation in
the theory which we have been endeavouring
to establish; for they are the facts from whence
we have reasoned, in discovering the nature
and constitution of this earth: Therefore,
there is no occasion for having recourse to
any unnatural supposition of evil, to any destructive
accident in nature, or to the agency
of any preternatural cause, in explaining that
which actually appears.</p>

<p>It is necessary for a living or inhabited
world, that this should consist of land and
water. It is also necessary, that the land
should be solid and stable, refilling, with great
power, the violent efforts of the ocean; and,
at the same time, that this solid land should be
resolved by the influence of the sun and atmosphere,
so as to decay, and thus become a soil
for vegetation. But these general intentions
are perfectly fulfilled in the constitution of our
earth, which has been now investigated. This
great body being formed of different mixed
masses, having various degrees of hardness
and solubility, proper soil for plants is supplied
from the gradual resolution of the solid parts;
fertility in those soils arises from the mixture
of different elementary substances; and stability
is procured to that vegetable world, by the
induration of certain bodies, those rocks and
stones, which protect the softer masses of clay
and soil.</p>

<p>In this manner, also, will easily be explained
those natural appearances which diversify
the surface of the earth for the use of plants
and animals, and those objects which beautify
the face of nature for the contemplation of
mankind. Such are, the distinctions of mountains
and valleys, of lakes and rivers, of dry
barren deserts and rich watered plains, of
rocks which stand apparently unimpaired by
the lapse of time, and sands which fluctuate
with the winds and tides. All these are the
effects of steady causes; each of these has its
proper purpose in the system of the earth;
and in that system is contained another, which
is that of living growing bodies, and of animated
beings.</p>

<p>But, besides this, man, the intellectual being,
has, in this subject of the mineral kingdom,
the means of gratifying the desire of
knowledge, a faculty by which he is distinguished
from the animal, and by which he
improves his mind in knowing causes. Man
is not satisfied, like the brute, in seeing things
which are; he seeks to know how things
have been, and what they are to be. It is
with pleasure that he observes order and regularity
in the works of nature, instead of being
disgusted with disorder and confusion;
and he is made happy from the appearance of
wisdom and benevolence in the design, instead
of being left to suspect in the Author of nature,
any of that imperfection which he finds
in himself.</p>

<p>Let us now take a view of that system of
mineral economy, in which may be perceived
every mark of order and design, of provident
wisdom and benevolence.</p>

<p>We have been endeavouring to prove, that
all the continents and islands of this globe
had been raised above the surface of the ocean;
we have also aimed at pointing out the cause
of this translation of matter, as well as of the
general solidity of that which is raised to our
view; but however this theory shall be received,
no person of observation can entertain
a doubt, that all, or almost all we see of
this earth, had been originally formed at the
bottom of the sea. We have now another
object in our view; this is to investigate the
operations of the globe, at the time that the
foundation of this land was laying in the
waters of the ocean, and to trace the existence
and the nature of things, before the present
land appeared above the surface of the waters.
We should thus acquire some knowledge of
the system according to which this world is
ruled, both in its preservation and production;
and we might be thus enabled to judge, how
far the mineral system of the world shall appear
to be contrived with all the wisdom,
which is so manifest in what are termed the
animal and vegetable kingdoms.</p>

<p>It must not be imagined that this undertaking
is a thing unreasonable in its nature; or
that it is a work necessarily beset with any unsurmountable
difficulty; for, however imperfectly
we may fulfil this end proposed, yet, so
far as it is to natural causes that are to be ascribed
the operations of former time, and so
far as, from the present state of things, or
knowledge of natural history, we have it in
our power to reason from effect to cause, there
are, in the constitution of the world, which
we now examine, certain means to read the
annals of a former earth.</p>

<p>The object of inquiry being the operations
of the globe, during the time that the present
earth was forming at the bottom of the sea,
we are now to take a very general view of
nature, without descending into those particulars
which so often occupy the speculations
of naturalists, about the present state of things.
We are not at present to enter into any discussion
with regard to what are the primary
and secondary mountains of the earth; we
are not to consider what is the first, and what
the last, in those things which now are seen;
whatever is most ancient in the strata which
we now examine, is supposed to be collecting
at the bottom of the sea, during the period
concerning which we are now to inquire.</p>

<p>We have already considered those operations
which had been necessary in forming
our solid land, a body consisting of materials
originally deposited at the bottom of the ocean;
we are now to investigate the source from
whence had come all those materials, from the
collection of which the present land is formed;
and from knowing the state in which
those materials had existed, previously to their
entering the composition of our strata, we
shall learn something concerning the natural
history of this world, while the present earth
was forming in the sea.</p>

<p>We have already observed, that all the strata
of the earth are composed either from the
calcareous relicts of sea animals, or from the
collection of such materials as we find upon
our shores. At a gross computation, there
may perhaps be a fourth part of our solid land,
which is composed from the matter that had
belonged to those animals. Now, what a
multitude of living creatures, what a quantity
of animal economy must have been required
for producing a body of calcareous matter
which is interspersed throughout all the land
of the globe, and which certainly forms a very
considerable part of that mass! Therefore,
in knowing how those animals had lived, or
with what they had been fed, we shall have
learned a most interesting part of the natural
history of this earth; a part which it is necessary
to have ascertained, in order to see the
former operations of the globe, while preparing
the materials of the present land. But,
before entering upon this subject, let us examine
the other materials of which our land is
formed.</p>

<p>Gravel forms a part of those materials
which compose our solid land; but gravel is
no other than a collection of the fragments of
solid stones worn round, or having their angular
form destroyed by agitation in water,
and the attrition upon each other, or upon similar
hard bodies. Consequently, in finding
masses of gravel in the composition of our
land, we must conclude, that there had existed
a former land, on which there had been
transacted certain operations of wind and water,
similar to those which are natural to the
globe at present, and by which new gravel is
continually prepared, as well as old gravel consumed
or diminished by attrition upon our
shores.</p>

<p>Sand is the material which enters, perhaps
in greatest quantity, the composition of our
land. But sand, in general, is no other than
small fragments of hard and solid bodies, worn
or rounded more or less by attrition; consequently,
the same natural history of the earth,
which is investigated from the masses of gravel,
is also applicable to those masses of sand
which we find forming so large a portion of
our present land throughout all the earth<a id="footnotetag16" name="footnotetag16"></a><a href="#footnote16"><sup>16</sup></a>.</p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote16" name="footnote16"></a><b>Footnote 16:</b><a href="#footnotetag16"> (return) </a> Sand is a term that denotes no particular substance;
although by it is commonly meant a siliceous substance, as
being by far the most prevalent. Sand is one of the modifications,
of size and shape, in a hard body or solid substance,
which may be infinitely diversified. The next
modification to be distinguished in mineral bodies is that
of gravel; and this differs in no respect from sand, except
in point of size. Next after gravel, in the order of
ascent, come stones; and these bear nearly the same relation
to gravel as gravel does to sand. Now, by stones is
to be understood the fragments of rocks or solid mineral
bodies; and there is a perfect gradation from those stones
to sand. I have already endeavoured to explain the formation
of those stony substances; and now I am treating
of a certain system of circulation, which is to be found
among minerals.

<p>M. de Luc censures me for not giving the origin of
sand, of which I form the strata of the earth. He seems
to have misunderstood my treatise. I do not pretend, as
he does in his theory, to describe the beginning of things;
I take things such as I find them at present, and from
these I reason with regard to that which must have been.
When, from a thing which is well known, we explain
another which is less so, we then investigate nature; but
when we imagine things without a pattern or example in
nature, then, instead of natural history, we write only
fable.</p>

<p>M. de Luc, in the letter already mentioned, says, "that
sand may be, and I think it is, a substance which has
formed <i>strata</i> by <i>precipitation in a liquid</i>." This is but an
opinion, which may be either true or false. If it be true,
it is an operation of the mineral kingdom of which I am
ignorant. In all the sand which I have ever examined, I
have never seen any that might not be referred to the
species of mineral substance from which it had been formed.
When this author shall have given us any kind of
information with regard to the production of sand <i>by precipitation
in a liquid</i>, it will then be time enough to think
of forming the strata of the earth with that sand.*</blockquote>

<p>Clay is now to be considered as the last of
those materials of which our strata are composed;
but, in order to understand the nature
of this ingredient, something must be premised.</p>

<p>Clay is a mixture of different earths or
hard substances, in an impalpable state. Those
substances are chiefly the siliceous and aluminous
earths. Other earths are occasionally
mixed in clays, or perhaps always to be found
in some small portion. But this does not affect
the general character of clay; it only
forms a special variety in the subject. A sensible
or considerable portion of calcareous
earth, in the composition of clay, constitutes
a marl, and a sufficient admixture of sand, a
loam.</p>

<p>An indefinite variety of those compositions
of clay form a large portion of the present
strata, all indurated and consolidated in various
degrees; but this great quantity of siliceous,
argillaceous, and other compound substances,
in form of earth or impalpable sediment, corresponds
perfectly with that quantity of those
same substances which must have been prepared
in the formation of so much gravel and
sand, by the attrition of those bodies in the
moving waters.</p>

<p>Therefore, from the consideration of those
materials which compose the present land, we
have reason to conclude, that, during the time
this land was forming, by the collection of its
materials at the bottom of the sea, there had
been a former land containing materials similar
to those which we find at present in examining
the earth. We may also conclude,
that there had been operations similar to those
which we now find natural to the globe, and
necessarily exerted in the actual formation of
gravel, sand, and clay. But what we have now
chiefly in view to illustrate is this, that there
had then been in the ocean a system of animated
beings, which propagated their species,
and which have thus continued their several
races to this day.</p>

<p>In order to be convinced of that truth, we
have but to examine the strata of our earth,
in which we find the remains of animals. In
this examination, we not only discover every
genus of animal which at present exists in the
sea, but probably every species, and perhaps
some species with which at present we are not
acquainted. There are, indeed, varieties in
those species, compared with the present animals
which we examine, but no greater varieties
than may perhaps be found among the
same species in the different quarters of the
globe. Therefore, the system of animal life,
which had been maintained in the ancient sea,
had not been different from that which now
subsists, and of which it belongs to naturalists
to know the history.</p>

<p>It is the nature of animal life to be ultimately
supported from matter of vegetable
production. Inflammable matter may be considered
as the <i>pabulum</i> of life. This is prepared
in the bodies of living plants, particularly
in their leaves exposed to the sun and
light. This inflammable matter, on the contrary,
is consumed in animal bodies, where it
produces heat or light, or both. Therefore,
however animal matter, or the pabulum of
life, may circulate through a series of digesting
powers, it is constantly impaired or diminishing
in the course of this economy, and,
without the productive power of plants, it
would finally be extinguished.<a id="footnotetag17" name="footnotetag17"></a><a href="#footnote17"><sup>17</sup></a></p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote17" name="footnote17"></a><b>Footnote 17:</b><a href="#footnotetag17"> (return) </a> See Dissertations on different subjects of Natural Philosophy,
part II.</blockquote>

<p>The animals of the former world must
have been sustained during indefinite successions
of ages. The mean quantity of animal
matter, therefore, must have been preserved
by vegetable production, and the natural waste
of inflammable substance repaired with continual
addition; that is to say, the quantity of
inflammable matter necessary to the animal
consumption, must have been provided by
means of vegetation. Hence we must conclude,
that there had been a world of plants,
as well as an ocean replenished with living
animals.</p>

<p>We are now, in reasoning from principles,
come to a point decisive of the question, and
which will either confirm the theory, if it be
just, or confute our reasoning, if we have erred.
Let us, therefore, open the book of Nature,
and read in her records, if there had been
a world bearing plants, at the time when this
present world was forming at the bottom of
the sea.</p>

<p>Here the cabinets of the curious are to be
examined; but here some caution is required,
in order to distinguish things perfectly different,
which sometimes are confounded.</p>

<p>Fossil wood, to naturalists in general, is
wood dug up from under ground, without
inquiring whether this had been the production
of the present earth, or that which had
preceded it in the circulation of land and water.
The question is important, and the solution
of it is, in general, easy. The vegetable
productions of the present earth, however
deep they may be found buried beneath
its surface, and however ancient they may appear,
compared with the records of our known
times, are new, compared with the solid land
on which they grew; and they are only covered
with the produce of a vegetable soil, or
the alluvion of the present land on which we
dwell, and on which they had grown. But
the fossil bodies which form the present subject
of inquiry, belonged to former land, and
are found only in the sea-born strata of our
present earth. It is to these alone that we
appeal, in order to prove the certainty of former
events.</p>

<p>Mineralised wood, therefore, is the object
now inquired after; that wood which had
been lodged in the bottom of the sea, and
there composed part of a stratum, which hitherto
we have considered as only formed of
the materials proper to the ocean. Now, what
a profusion of this species of fossil wood is
to be found in the cabinets of collectors, and
even in the hands of lapidaries, and such artificers
of polished stones! In some places, it
would seem to be as common as the agate.</p>

<p>I shall only mention a specimen in my own
collection. It is wood petrified with calcareous
earth, and mineralised with pyrites.
This specimen of wood contains in itself, even
without the stratum of stone in which it is
embedded, the most perfect record of its genealogy.
It had been eaten or perforated by
those sea worms which destroy the bottoms of
our ships. There is the clearest evidence of
this truth. Therefore, this wood had grown
upon land which flood above the level of
sea, while the present land was only forming
at the bottom of the ocean.</p>

<p>Wood is the most substantial part of plants,
as shells are the more permanent part of marine
animals. It is not, however, the woody
part alone of the ancient vegetable world that
is transmitted to us in the record of our mineral
pages. We have the type of many species
of foliage, and even of the most delicate
flower; for, in this way, naturalists have determined,
according to the Linnaean system,
the species, or at least the genus, of the plant.
Thus, the existence of a vegetable system at
the period now in contemplation, so far from
being doubtful, is a matter of physical demonstration.</p>

<p>The profusion of this vegetable matter, delivered
into the ocean, which then generated
land, is also evidenced in the amazing quantities
of mineral coal which is to be found in
perhaps every region of the earth.</p>

<p>Nothing can be more certain, than that all
the coaly or bituminous strata have had their
origin from the substance of vegetable bodies
that grew upon the land. Those strata, tho',
in general, perfectly consolidated, often separate
horizontally in certain places; and there
we find the fibrous or vascular structure of
the vegetable bodies. Consequently, there is
no doubt of fossil coal being a substance of
vegetable production, however animal substances
also may have contributed in forming
this collection of oleaginous or inflammable
matter.</p>

<p>Having thus ascertained the state of a former
earth, in which plants and animals had
lived, as well as the gradual production of the
present earth, composed from the materials
of a former world, it must be evident, that
here are two operations which are necessarily
consecutive. The formation of the present
earth necessarily involves the destruction of
continents in the ancient world; and, by pursuing
in our mind the natural operations of a
former earth, we clearly see the origin of that
land, by the fertility of which, we, and all
the animated bodies of the sea, are fed. It is
in like manner, that, contemplating the present
operations of the globe, we may perceive
the actual existence of those productive causes,
which are now laying the foundation of land
in the unfathomable regions of the sea, and
which will, in time, give birth to future continents.</p>

<p>But though, in generalising the operations
of nature, we have arrived at those great
events, which, at first sight, may fill the mind
with wonder and with doubt, we are not to
suppose, that there is any violent exertion of
power, such as is required in order to produce
a great event in little time; in nature, we find
no deficiency in respect of time, nor any limitation
with regard to power. But time is not
made to flow in vain; nor does there ever
appear the exertion of superfluous power, or
the manifestation of design, not calculated in
wisdom to effect some general end.</p>

<p>The events now under consideration may
be examined with a view to see this truth;
for it may be inquired, Why destroy one
continent in order to erect another? The
answer is plain; Nature does not destroy a
continent from having wearied of a subject
which had given pleasure, or changed her
purpose, whether for a better or a worse;
neither does she erect a continent of land
among the clouds, to show her power, or to
amaze the vulgar man; Nature has contrived
the productions of vegetable bodies, and the
sustenance of animal life, to depend upon the
gradual but sure destruction of a continent;
that is to say, these two operations necessarily
go hand in hand. But with such wisdom has
nature ordered things in the economy of this
world, that the destruction of one continent is
not brought about without the renovation of
the earth in the production of another; and
the animal and vegetable bodies, for which
the world above the surface of the sea is levelled
with its bottom, are among the means
employed in those operations, as well as the
sustenance of those living beings is the proper
end in view.</p>

<p>Thus, in understanding the proper constitution
of the present earth, we are led to
know the source from whence had come all
the materials which nature had employed in
the construction of the world which appears;
a world contrived in consummate wisdom for
the growth and habitation of a great diversity
of plants and animals; and a world peculiarly
adapted to the purposes of man, who inhabits
all its climates, who measures its extent,
and determines its productions at his pleasure.</p>

<p>The whole of a great object or event fills
us with wonder and astonishment, when all
the particulars, in the succession of which the
whole had been produced, may be considered
without the least emotion. When, for example,
we behold the pyramids of Egypt, our
mind is agitated with a crowd of ideas that
highly entertains the person who understands
the subject; but the carrying a heavy stone
up to the top of a hill or mountain would
give that person little pleasure or concern.
We wonder at the whole operation of the pyramid,
but not at any one particular part.</p>

<p>The raising up of a continent of land from
the bottom of the sea, is an idea that is too
great to be conceived easily in all the parts of
its operations, many of which are perhaps unknown
to us; and, without being properly
understood, so great an idea may appear like
a thing that is imaginary. In like manner,
the co-relative, or corresponding operation,
the destruction of the land, is an idea that
does not easily enter into the mind of man in
its totality, although he is daily witness to
part of the operation. We never see a river
in a flood, but we must acknowledge the carrying
away of part of our land, to be sunk at
the bottom of the sea; we never see a storm
upon the coast, but we are informed of a hostile
attack of the sea upon our country; attacks
which must, in time, wear away the
bulwarks of our soil, and sap the foundations
of our dwellings. Thus, great things are not
understood without the analysing of many
operations, and the combination of time with
many events happening in succession.</p>

<p>Let us now consider what is to be the subject
of examination, and where it is that we
are to observe those operations which must
determine either the stability or the instability
of this land on which we live.</p>

<p>Our land has two extremities; the tops of
the mountains, on the one hand, and the sea-shores,
on the other: It is the intermediate
space between these two, that forms the habitation
of plants and animals. While there is
a sea-shore and a higher ground there is that
which is required in the system of the world:
Take these away, and there would remain an
aqueous globe, in which the world would
perish. But, in the natural operations of the
world, the land is perishing continually; and
this is that which now we want to understand.</p>

<p>Upon the one extremity of our land, there
is no increase, or there is no accession of any
mineral substance. That place is the mountain-top,
on which nothing is observed but
continual decay. The fragments of the mountain
are removed in a gradual succession from
the highest station to the lowest. Being arrived
at the shore, and having entered the dominion
of the waves, in which they find perpetual
agitation, these hard fragments, which
had eluded the resolving powers natural to
the surface of the earth, are incapable of resisting
the powers here employed for the destruction
of the land. By the attrition of one
hard body upon another, the moving stones
and rocky shore, are mutually impaired. And
that solid mass, which of itself had potential
liability against the violence of the waves, affords
the instruments of its own destruction,
and thus gives occasion to its actual instability.</p>

<p>In order to understand the system of the
heavens, it is necessary to connect together
periods of measured time, and the distinguished
places of revolving bodies. It is thus that
system may be observed, or wisdom, in the
proper adapting of powers to an intention.
In like manner, we cannot understand the
system of the globe, without seeing that progress
of things which is brought about in
time, thus measuring the natural operations of
the earth with those of the heavens. This is
properly the business of the present undertaking.</p>

<p>Our object is to know the time which had
elapsed since the foundation of the present
continent had been laid at the bottom of the
ocean, to the present moment in which we
speculate on these operations. The space is
long; the data for the calculations are, perhaps,
deficient: No matter; so far as we know our
error, or the deficiency in our operation, we
proceed in science, and shall conclude in reason.
It is not given to man to know what
things are truly in themselves, but only what
those things are in his thought. We seek not
to know the precise measure of any thing; we
only understand the limits of a thing, in knowing
what it is not, either on the one side or
the other.</p>

<p>We are investigating the age of the present
earth, from the beginning of that body which
was in the bottom of the sea, to the perfection
of its nature, which we consider as in the moment
of our existence; and we have necessarily
another aera, which is collateral, or correspondent,
in the progress of those natural
events. This is the time required, in the natural
operations of this globe, for the destruction
of a former earth; an earth equally perfect
with the present and an earth equally
productive of growing plants and living animals.
Now, it must appear, that, if we had a
measure for the one of those corresponding
operations, we would have an equal knowledge
of the other.</p>

<p>The formation of a future earth being in
the bottom of the ocean, at depths unfathomable
to man, and in regions far beyond the
reach of his observation, here is a part of the
process which cannot be taken as a principle
in forming an estimate of the whole. But, in
the destruction of the present earth, we have
a process that is performed within the limits of
our observation; therefore, in knowing the
measure of this operation, we shall find the
means of calculating what had passed on a former
occasion, as well as what will happen in
the composition of a future earth. Let us,
therefore, now attempt to make this estimate
of time and labour.</p>

<p>The highest mountain may be levelled with
the plain from whence it springs, without the
loss of real territory in the land; but when
the ocean makes encroachment on the basis of
our earth, the mountain, unsupported, tumbles
with its weight; and with the accession of
hard bodies, moveable with the agitation of
the waves, gives to the sea the power of undermining
farther and farther into the solid
basis of our land. This is the operation which
is to be measured; this is the mean proportional
by which we are to estimate the age of
worlds that have terminated, and the duration
of those that are but beginning.</p>

<p>But how shall we measure the decrease of
our land? Every revolution of the globe wears
away some part of some rock upon some coast;
but the quantity of that decrease, in that measured
time, is not a measurable thing. Instead
of a revolution of the globe, let us take an age.
The age of man does no more in this estimate
than a single year. He sees, that the natural
course of things is to wear away the coast,
with the attrition of the sand and stones upon
the shore; but he cannot find a measure for
this quantity which shall correspond to time,
in order to form an estimate of the rate of this
decrease.</p>

<p>But man is not confined to what he sees;
he has the experience of former men. Let us
then go to the Romans and the Greeks in
search of a measure of our coasts, which we
may compare with the present state of things.
Here, again, we are disappointed; their descriptions
of the shores of Greece and of Italy,
and their works upon the coast, either give
no measure of a decrease, or are not accurate
enough for such a purpose.</p>

<p>It is in vain to attempt to measure a quantity
which escapes our notice, and which history
cannot ascertain; and we might just as
well attempt to measure the distance of the
stars without a parallax, as to calculate the destruction
of the solid land without a measure
corresponding to the whole.</p>

<p>The description which Polybius has given
of the Pontus Euxinus, with the two opposite
Bosphori, the Meotis, the Propontis, and the
Port of Byzantium, are as applicable to the
present state of things as they were at the writing
of that history. The filling up of the bed
of the Meotis, an event which, to Polybius,
appeared not far off, must also be considered
as removed to a very distant period, though
the causes still continue to operate as before.</p>

<p>But there is a thing in which history and
the present state of things do not agree. It is
upon the coast of Spain, where Polybius says
there was an island in the mouth of the harbour
of New Carthage. At present, in place
of the island, there is only a rock under the
surface of the water. It must be evident, however,
that the loss of this small island affords no
proper ground of calculation for the measure
or rate of wasting which could correspond to
the coast in general; as neither the quantity
of what is now lost had been measured, nor
its quality ascertained.</p>

<p>Let us examine places much more exposed
to the fury of the waves and currents than the
coast of Carthagena, the narrow fretum, for
example, between Italy and Sicily. It does
not appear, that this passage is sensibly wider
than when the Romans first had known it.
The Isthmus of Corinth is also apparently the
same at present as it had been two or three
thousand years ago. Scilla and Charibdis remain
now, as they had been in ancient times,
rocks hazardous for coasting vessels which had
to pass that strait.</p>

<p>It is not meant by this to say, these rocks
have not been wasted by the sea, and worn
by the attrition of moving bodies, during that
space of time; were this true, and that those
rocks, the bulwarks of the land upon those
coasts, had not been at all impaired from that
period, they might remain for ever, and thus
the system of interchanging the place of sea
and land upon this globe might be frustrated.
It is only meant to affirm, that the quantity
which those rocks, or that coast, have diminished
from the period of our history, has either
been too small a thing for human observation,
or, which is more probable, that no
accurate measurement of the subject, by which
this quantity of decrease might have been ascertained,
had been taken and recorded. It
must be also evident, that a very small operation
of an earthquake would be sufficient to
render every means of information, in this
manner of mensuration, unsatisfactory or precarious.</p>

<p>Pliny says Italy was distant from Sicily a
mile and a half; but we cannot suppose that
this measure was taken any otherwise than by
computation, and such a measure is but little
calculated to afford us the just means of a comparison
with the present distance. He also
says, indeed, that Sicily had been once joined
with Italy. His words are: "Quondam Brutio
agro cohaerens, mox interfuso mari avulsa.<a id="footnotetag18" name="footnotetag18"></a><a href="#footnote18"><sup>18</sup></a>"
But all that we can conclude from
this history of Pliny is, that, in all times, to
people considering the appearances of those
two approached coasts, it had seemed probable,
that the sea formed a passage between the two
countries which had been once united; in like
manner as is still more immediately perceived,
in that smaller disjunction which is made between
the island of Anglesey and the continent
of Wales.</p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote18" name="footnote18"></a><b>Footnote 18:</b><a href="#footnotetag18"> (return) </a> Lib. 3. cap. 8.</blockquote>

<p>The port of Syracuse, with the island which
forms the greater and lesser, and the fountain
of Arethusa, the water of which the ancients
divided from the sea with a wall, do not seem
to be altered. From Sicily to the coast of
Egypt, there is an uninterrupted course of sea
for a thousand miles; consequently, the wind,
in such a stretch of sea, should bring powerful
waves against those coasts: But, on this coast
of Egypt, we find the rock on which was formerly
built the famous tower of Pharos; and
also, at the eastern extremity of the port Eunoste,
the sea-bath, cut in the solid rock upon
the shore. Both those rocks, buffeted immediately
with the waves of the Mediterranean
sea, are, to all appearance, the same at this day
as they were in ancient times.<a id="footnotetag19" name="footnotetag19"></a><a href="#footnote19"><sup>19</sup></a></p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote19" name="footnote19"></a><b>Footnote 19:</b><a href="#footnotetag19"> (return) </a> Lettres sur l'Egypte, M. Savary.</blockquote>

<p>Many other such proofs will certainly occur,
where the different parts of those coasts
are examined by people of observation and intelligence.
But it is enough for our present
purpose, that this decrease of the coasts in general
has not been observed; and that it is as
generally thought, that the land is gaining upon
the sea, as that the sea is gaining upon the
land.</p>

<p>To sum up the argument, we are certain,
that all the coasts of the present continents are
wasted by the sea, and constantly wearing
away upon the whole; but this operation is so
extremely slow, that we cannot find a measure
of the quantity in order to form an estimate:
Therefore, the present continents of the earth,
which we consider as in a state of perfection,
would, in the natural operations of the globe,
require a time indefinite for their destruction.</p>

<p>But, in order to produce the present continents,
the destruction of a former vegetable
world was necessary; consequently, the production
of our present continents must have
required a time which is indefinite. In like
manner, if the former continents were of the
same nature as the present, it must have required
another space of time, which also is
indefinite, before they had come to their perfection
as a vegetable world.</p>

<p>We have been representing the system of
this earth as proceeding with a certain regularity,
which is not perhaps in nature, but
which is necessary for our clear conception of
the system of nature. The system of nature is
certainly in rule, although we may not know
every circumstance of its regulation. We are
under a necessity, therefore, of making regular
suppositions, in order to come at certain
conclusions which may be compared with the
present state of things.</p>

<p>It is not necessary that the present land
should be worn away and wasted, exactly in
proportion as new land shall appear; or, conversely,
that an equal proportion of new land
should always be produced as the old is made
to disappear. It is only required, that at all
times, there should be a just proportion of
land and water upon the surface of the globe,
for the purpose of a habitable world.</p>

<p>Neither is it required in the actual system
of this earth, that every part of the land
should be dissolved in its structure, and worn
away by attrition, so as to be floated in the
sea. Parts of the land may often sink in a
body below the level of the sea, and parts
again may be restored, without waiting for
the general circulation of land and water,
which proceeds with all the certainty of nature,
but which advances with an imperceptible
progression. Many of such apparent irregularities
may appear without the least infringement
on the general system. That system
is comprehended in the preparation of future
land at the bottom of the ocean, from
those materials which the dissolution and attrition
of the present land may have provided,
and from those which the natural operations
of the sea afford.</p>

<p>In thus accomplishing a certain end, we are
not to limit nature with the uniformity of an
equable progression, although it be necessary
in our computations to proceed upon equalities.
Thus also, in the use of means, we are
not to prescribe to nature those alone which
we think suitable for the purpose, in our narrow
view. It is our business to learn of nature
(that is by observation) the ways and
means, which in her wisdom are adopted;
and we are to imagine these only in order to
find means for further information, and to increase
our knowledge from the examination
of things which actually have been. It is in
this manner, that intention may be found in
nature; but this intention is not to be supposed,
or vainly imagined, from what we may
conceive to be.</p>

<p>We have been now supposing, that the beginning
of our present earth had been laid in
the bottom of the ocean, at the completion of
the former land; but this was only for the
sake of distinctness. The just view is this,
that when the former land of the globe had
been complete, so as to begin to waste and be
impaired by the encroachment of the sea, the
present land began to appear above the surface
of the ocean. In this manner we suppose a
due proportion to be always preserved of land
and water upon the surface of the globe, for
the purpose of a habitable world, such as this
which we possess. We thus, also, allow time
and opportunity for the translation of animals
and plants to occupy the earth.</p>

<p>But, if the earth on which we live, began
to appear in the ocean at the time when the
last began to be resolved, it could not be from
the materials of the continent immediately preceding
this which we examine, that the present
earth had been constructed; for the bottom
of the ocean must have been filled with
materials before land could be made to appear
above its surface.</p>

<p>Let us suppose that the continent, which is
to succeed our land, is at present beginning to
appear above the water in the middle of the
Pacific Ocean, it must be evident, that the materials
of this great body, which is formed and
ready to be brought forth, must have been
collected from the destruction of an earth,
which does not now appear. Consequently,
in this true statement of the case, there is necessarily
required the destruction of an animal
and vegetable earth prior to the former land;
and the materials of that earth which is first
in our account, must have been collected at
the bottom of the ocean, and begun to be concocted
for the production of the present earth,
when the land immediately preceding the present
had arrived at its full extent.</p>

<p>This, however, alters nothing with regard
to the nature of those operations of the globe.
The system is still the same. It only protracts
the indefinite space of time in its existence,
while it gives us a view of another
distinct period of the living world; that is to
say, the world which we inhabit is composed
of the materials, not of the earth which was
the immediate predecessor of the present, but
of the earth which, in ascending from the present,
we consider as the third, and which had
preceded the land that was above the surface
of the sea, while our present land was yet beneath
the water of the ocean. Here are three
distinct successive periods of existence, and
each of these is, in our measurement of time,
a thing of indefinite duration.</p>

<p>We have now got to the end of our reasoning;
we have no data further to conclude immediately
from that which actually is: But
we have got enough; we have the satisfaction
to find, that in nature there is wisdom,
system, and consistency. For having, in the
natural history of this earth, seen a succession
of worlds, we may from this conclude that
there is a system in nature; in like manner as,
from seeing revolutions of the planets, it is
concluded, that there is a system by which
they are intended to continue those revolutions.
But if the succession of worlds is
established in the system of nature, it is in
vain to look for any thing higher in the origin
of the earth. The result, therefore, of this
physical inquiry is, that we find no vestige of
a beginning,&mdash;no prospect of an end.</p>

<br>
<h3>CHAPTER II.</h3>

<p><i>An Examination of Mr KIRWAN'S Objections
to the Igneous Origin of Stony Substances</i>.</p>


<p>A theory which is founded on a new
principle, a theory which has to make
its way in the public mind by overturning the
opinions commonly received by philosophising
men, and one which has nothing to recommend
it but the truth of its principles,
and the view of wisdom or design to which it
leads, neither of which may perhaps be perceived
by the generality of people, such a
theory, I say, must meet with the strongest
opposition from the prejudices of the learned,
and from the superstition of those who judge
not for themselves in forming their notions,
but look up to men of science for authority.
Such is the case with some part of the Theory
of the Earth, which I have given, and
which will probably give offence to naturalists
who have espoused an opposite opinion.
In order, then, to obtain the approbation of
the public, it may not be enough to give a
theory that should be true, or altogether unexceptionable
it may be necessary to defend
every point that shall be thought exceptionable
by other theorists, and to show the fallacy
of every learned objection that may be made
against it. It is thus, in general, that truth
and error are forced to struggle together, in
the progress of science; and it is only in proportion
as science removes erroneous conceptions,
which are necessarily in the constitution
of human knowledge, that truth will find itself
established in natural philosophy.</p>

<p>Mr Kirwan has written a dissertation, entitled,
<i>Examination of the Supposed Igneous
Origin of Stony Substances</i>, which was read in
the Royal Irish Academy. The object of that
dissertation is to state certain objections, which
have occurred to him, against the Theory of
the Earth published in the Transactions of the
Edinburgh Royal Society; and he has attacked
that theory in all the points where it appears
to him to be vulnerable. It is to these
objections that I am now to give an answer.
The authority given to this dissertation, by
the Royal Irish Academy, as well as the reputation
of the author, make it necessary for
me to endeavour to put in their true light
the facts alleged in that performance, and
to analyse the arguments employed, in order
to judge of the reasoning by which the
theory of mineral fusion is refuted in this
Examination.</p>

<p>A theory founded on truth, and formed
according to the proper rules of science, can
ever suffer from a strict examination, by
which it would be but the more and more
confirmed. But, where causes are to be traced
through a chain of various complicated
effects, an examination not properly conducted
upon accurate analytical principles, instead
of giving light upon a subject in which there
had been obscurity and doubt, may only serve
to perplex the understanding, and bring confusion
into a subject which was before sufficiently
distinct. To redress that evil, then,
must require more labour and some address;
and this is an inconveniency that may be looked
for, more or less, in every controversial
discussion.</p>

<p>I do not mean to enter any farther into the
defence of my theory in this chapter, than
what is necessary to answer a man of science
and respectability, who has stated his objections.
The observations which he has made
appear to me to be founded on nothing more
than common prejudice, and misconceived
notions of the subject. I am therefore to point
out that erroneous train of reasoning, into
which a hasty superficial view of things, perhaps,
has led the patron of an opposite opinion
to see my theory in an unfavourable
light.  This, however, is not all; for, that
train of inconsequential reasoning is so congenial
with the crude and inconsiderate notion
generally entertained, of solid mineral bodies
having been formed by the infiltration of water
into the earth, that no opportunity should
be lost of exposing an erroneous manner of
reasoning, which is employed in supporting a
hypothesis founded upon certain operations of
the surface of this earth that cannot be properly
applied to the formation of mineral bodies.
This object, therefore, so far as it may
come in the way, will be attended to in this
discussion, although I shall have another opportunity
of farther enlarging upon that subject.</p>

<p>Our author begins by examining a geological
operation, the very opposite to that of
mineral consolidation, and which would seem
to have little connection with the subject of
this dissertation. In my theory, I advanced
two propositions with regard to the economy
of this world: First, That the solid masses
of this earth, when exposed to the atmosphere,
decay, and are resolved into loose materials,
of which the vegetable soil upon the
surface is in part composed; and, secondly,
That these loose materials are washed away
by the currents of water, and thus carried at
last into the sea. Our author says "Here are
two suppositions, neither of which is grounded
on facts;" and yet he has but the moment
before made the following confession:
"That the soil, however, receives an increase
from some species of stones that moulder by
exposition to the air cannot be denied, but
there is no proof that all soil has arisen from
decomposition."&mdash;Surely <i>all soil</i>, that is
made from the <i>hard and compact</i> body of the
land, which is my proposition, must have
arisen from <i>decomposition</i>; and I have no where
said, that <i>all</i> the soil of this earth is made from
the decomposition or detritus of those stony
substances; for, masses of looser sand and softer
substances contribute still more to the formation
of vegetable soils.</p>

<p>With regard to the other proposition, our
author says, "Soil is not constantly carried
away by the water, even from mountains."&mdash;I
have not said that it is <i>constantly</i> washed
away; for, while it is soil in which plants
grow, it is not travelling to the sea, although
it be on the road, and must there arrive in
time. I have said, that it is <i>necessarily</i> washed
away, that is, occasionally. M. de Luc's authority
is then referred to, as refuting this
operation of water and time upon the soil.
Now, I cannot help here observing, that our
author seems to have as much misapprehended
M. de Luc's argument as he has done
mine. That philosopher, in his letters to the
Queen, has described most accurately the decay
of the rocks and solid mountains of the
Alps and Jura, and the travelling of their materials
by water, although he does not carry
them to the sea. It is true, indeed, that this
author, who supposes the present earth on
which we dwell very young, is anxious to
make an earth, <i>in time</i>, that shall not decay
nor be washed away at all; but that time is
not come yet; therefore the authority, here
given against my theory, is the speculative
supposition, or mere opinion, of a natural philosopher,
with regard to an event which may
never come to pass, and which I shall have
occasion to consider fully in another place.</p>

<p>Our author had just now said, that I have
advanced two suppositions, <i>neither of which
is grounded on facts</i>: Now, with regard to the
one, he has acknowledged, that the mouldering
of stones takes place, which is the fact on
which that proposition is grounded; and with
regard to the other, the only authority given
against it is founded expressly upon the moving
of soil by means of the rain water, in
order to make sloping plains of mountains.
Here, therefore, I have grounded my propositions
upon facts; and our author has founded
his objections, first, upon a difficulty which
he has himself removed; and, secondly, upon
nothing but a visionary opinion, with regard
to an earth which is not yet made, and which,
when once made, is never more to change.</p>

<p>After making some unimportant observations,&mdash;of
all water not flowing into the sea,&mdash;and
of the travelled materials being also deposited
upon the plains, etc. our author thus
proceeds: "Hence the conclusion of our author
relative to the imperfect constitution
of the globe falls to the ground; and the
pains he takes to learn, <i>by what means a
decayed world may be renovated</i>, are superfluous."&mdash;The
object of my theory is to
show, that this decaying nature of the solid
earth is the very <i>perfection</i> of its constitution,
as a living world; therefore, it was most proper
that I should <i>take pains to learn</i> by what
means the decayed parts might be renovated.
It is true, indeed, that this will be superfluous,
when once that constitution of the earth, which
M. de Luc thinks is preparing, shall be finished;
but, in the mean time, while rivers carry
the materials of our land, and while the sea
impairs the coast, I may be allowed to suppose
that this is the actual constitution of the
earth.</p>

<p>I cannot help here animadverting upon
what seems to be our author's plan, in making
these objections, which have nothing to do
with his examination. He accuses me of
giving this world a false or imperfect constitution,
(in which the solid land is considered
as resolvable, and the materials of that land
as being washed away into the sea,) for no
other reason, that I can see, but because this
may imply the formation of a future earth,
which he is not disposed to allow; and, he is
now to deny the stratified construction of this
present earth to have been made by the deposits
of materials at the bottom of the sea, because
that would prove the existence of a former
earth, which is repugnant to his notion
of the origin of things, and is contrary, as he
says, to reason, and the tenor of the Mosaic
history. Let me observe, in passing, that M.
de Luc, of whose opinions our author expresses
much approbation, thinks that he proves,
from the express words and tenor of the Mosaic
history, that the present earth was at the
bottom of the sea not many years ago, and
that the former earth had then disappeared.</p>

<p>But, what does our author propose to himself,
in refusing to admit my view of the operations
which are daily transacting upon the
surface of this earth, where there is nothing
dark or in the least mysterious, as there may
be in the mineral regions? Does he mean to
say, that it is not the purpose of this world to
provide soil for plants to grow in? Does he
suppose that this soil is not moveable with the
running water of the surface? and, Does he
think that it is not necessary to replace that
soil which is removed? This is all that I required
in that constitution of the world which
he has thus attacked; and I wish that he or
any person would point out, in what respect
I had demanded any thing unreasonable, or
any thing that is not actually to be observed
every day.</p>

<p>Thus I have endeavoured to show, that our
author has attacked my theory in a part where
I believe it must be thought invulnerable;
but this is only, I presume, in order that he
may make an attack with more advantage
upon another part, viz. the composition of
strata from the materials of an earth thus worn
out in the service of vegetation,&mdash;materials
which are necessarily removed in order to
make way for that change of things in which
consists the active and living system of this
world. If he succeed in this attempt to refute
my theory of the original formation of
strata, he would then doubtless find it more
easy to persuade philosophers that the means
which I employ in bringing those materials
again to light, when transformed into such
solid masses as the system of this earth requires,
are extravagant, unnatural, and unnecessary.
Let us then see how he sets about
this undertaking.</p>

<p>With regard to the composition of the earth,
it is quoted from my theory, that <i>the solid
parts of the globe are in general composed of
sand, gravel, argillaceous and calcareous strata,
or of various compositions of these with other
substances</i>; our author then adds, "This certainly
cannot be affirmed as a fact, but rather
the contrary; it holds only true of the
surface, the basis of the greater part of
Scotland is evidently a granitic rock, to say
nothing of the continents, both of the Old
and New World, according to the testimony
of all mineralogists." This proposition,
with regard to the general composition of the
earth, I have certainly not assumed, I have
maintained it as a fact, after the most scrupulous
examination of all that, with the most diligent
search, I have been able to see, and
of all that authors have wrote intelligibly upon
the subject. If, therefore, I have so misrepresented
this great geological fact on which
my theory is absolutely founded, I must have
erred with open eyes; and my theory of the
earth, like others which have gone before it,
will, upon close examination, appear to be unfounded,
as the dissertation now before us is
endeavouring to represent it.</p>

<p>Our author here, I think, alleges that the
contrary to this, my fundamental proposition,
is the truth; and he has given us Scotland as
an example in which his assertion (founded
upon the testimony of all mineralogists),
is illustrated. Now my geological proposition
should certainly be applicable to Scotland,
which is the country that I ought to be best
acquainted with; consequently, if what our
author here asserts be true, I would have deserved
that blame which he is willing to
throw on me. Let me then beg the readers
attention for a moment, that I may justify
myself from that charge, and place in its proper
light this authority, upon so material a
point in geology.</p>

<p>I had examined Scotland from the one end
to the other before I saw one stone of granite
in its native place, I have moreover examined
almost all England and Wales, (excepting Devonshire
and Cornwall) without seeing more
of granite than one spot, not many hundred
yards of extent; this is at Chap; and I know,
from information, that there is another small
spot in the middle of England where it is
just seen. But, let me be more particular with
regard to Scotland, the example given in
proof.</p>

<p>I had travelled every road from the borders
of Northumberland and Westmoreland to
Edinburgh; from Edinburgh, I had travelled
to Port-Patrick, and from that along the coast
of Galloway and Airshire to Inverary in Argyleshire,
and I had examined every spot between
the Grampians and the Tweedale mountains
from sea to sea, without seeing granite
in its place. I had also travelled from Edinburgh
by Grief, Rannock, Dalwhiny, Fort Augustus,
Inverness, through east Ross and
Caithness, to the Pentland-Frith or Orkney
islands, without seeing one block of granite in
its place. It is true, I met with it on my
return by the east coast, when I just saw it,
and no more, at Peterhead and Aberdeen;
but that was all the granite I had ever seen
when I wrote my Theory of the Earth. I
have, since that time, seen it in different places;
because I went on purpose to examine it, as I
shall have occasion to describe in the course
of this work.</p>

<p>I may now with some confidence affirm,
from my own observation, and from good information
with regard to those places where I
have not been, except the northwest corner,
I may affirm, I say, that instead of the basis of
the greatest part of Scotland being a granitic
rock, which our author has maintained as an
evident thing, there is very little of it that is
so; not perhaps one five hundred part. So
far also as I am to judge from my knowledge
of the mineral construction of England and
Wales, which I have examined with the greatest
care, and from the mineral chart which
my friend Mr Watt made for me from his
knowledge of Cornwall, I would say that there
is scarcely one five hundred part of Britain
that has granite for its basis. All the rest,
except the porphyry and basaltes, consists of
stratified bodies, which are composed more or
less of the materials which I mentioned, generally,
in the above quotation, and which our
author would dispute.</p>

<p>But do not let me take the advantage of
this error of our author with regard to the
mineralogy of Scotland, and thus draw what
may be thought an undue conclusion in favour
of my general theory; let us go over
and examine the continent of Europe, and see
if it is any otherwise there than in Britain.
From the granite of the Ural mountains, to
that which we find in the Pyrenees, there is
no reason, so far as I have been able to learn,
to conclude that things are formed either upon
any other principle, or upon a different scale.
But, instead of one five hundred part, let us
suppose there to be one fiftieth part of the
earth in general resting upon granite, I could
not have expressed myself otherwise than I
have done; for, when I maintained that the
earth in general consisted of stratified bodies,
I said that this was only <i>nine tenths, or perhaps
ninety-nine hundredths</i> of the whole, and
I mentioned that there were other masses of a
different origin, which should be considered
separately. Our author, on the contrary, asserts
that the Old and New Worlds, as well as
Scotland, are placed upon granite as a basis,
which he says is according to the testimony of
all mineralogists. I shall have occasion to
examine this opinion of mineralogists, in comparing
it with those masses of granite which
appear to us; and I hope fully to refute the
geological, as well as mineralogical notions
with regard to that body. In the mean time,
let me make the following reflection, which
here naturally occurs.</p>

<p>My Theory of the Earth is here examined,&mdash;not
with the system of nature, or actual
state of things, to which it certainly should
have corresponded,&mdash;but with the systematic
views of a person, who has formed his notions
of geology from the vague opinion of
others, and not from what he has seen. Had
the question been, How far my theory agreed
with other theories, our author might very
properly have informed his readers that it was
diametrically opposite to the opinions of mineralogists;
but, this was no reason for concluding
it to be erroneous; on the contrary,
it is rather a presumption that I may have
corrected the error of mineralogists who have
gone before me, in like manner as it is most
reasonable to presume that our author may
have corrected mine. Let us then proceed
to examine how far this shall appear to be the
case.</p>

<p>Our author has stated very fairly from the
Theory, viz. <i>That all the strata of the earth,
not only those consisting of calcareous masses, but
others superincumbent on these, have had their
origin at the bottom of the sea, by the collection
of sand, gravel, shells, coralline, and crustaceous
bodies, and of earths and clays variously
mixed, separated, and accumulated.</i> He then
adds, "Various geological observations contradict
this conclusion. There are many
stratified mountains of argillaceous slate,
gneiss, serpentine, jasper, and even marble,
in which either sand, gravel, shells, coralline,
or crustaceous bodies are never, or
scarce ever found."</p>

<p>Here our author seems to have deceived
himself, by taking a very partial view of
things which should be fully examined, and
well understood, before general conclusions
are to be drawn from those appearances; for,
although those particular objects may not be
visible in the strata which he has enumerated,
or many others, they are found in those strata
which are either immediately connected and
alternated with them, or with similar strata;
something to that purpose I think I have said;
and, if I had not, it certainly requires no deep
penetration to have seen this clear solution of
that appearance of those objects not being found
in every particular stratum. He says that
those marks of known materials are never or
scarce ever found;&mdash;by <i>scarce ever</i> he surely
means that they are sometimes found; but if
they shall only <i>once</i> be found, his argument
is lost. I have not drawn my geological
conclusion from every particle in strata being
distinguishable, but from there being certain
distinguishable particles in strata, and from our
knowing what had been the former state and
circumstances of those distinguished parts.</p>

<p>If every stone or part of a stratum, in which
those known objects are not immediately visible,
must be considered as so <i>many geological
observations that contradict my theory</i>, (of strata
being formed from the materials of a former
earth), then, surely every stone and every
stratum which visibly contains any of those
materials, must prove my theory. But if
every stratum, where these are found in any
part of it, is to be concluded as having had
its origin at the bottom of the sea; and, if
every concomitant stratum, though not having
those objects visible or sufficiently distinct,
must be considered as having had the same or
a similar origin, that pretended contradiction
of my theory comes to no more than this, that
every individual stone does not bear in it the
same or equal evidence of that general proposition
which necessarily results from the attentive
consideration of the whole, including
every part.</p>

<p>But to see how necessary it is to judge in
this manner, not partially, but upon the whole,
we may observe, that there are two ways by
which the visible materials or distinguishable
bodies of a former earth, not only <i>may</i> be rendered
invisible in the composition of our present
earth, but <i>must</i> be so upon many occasions.
These are, <i>first</i>, by mechanical comminution,
which necessarily happens, more or
less, in that operation by which bodies are
moved against one another, and thus transported
from the land to the bottom of the
deepest seas; <i>secondly</i>, by chemical operations,
(whatever these may be, whether the
action of water or of fire, or both), which are
also necessarily employed for consolidating
those loose materials, that are to form the
rocks and stones of this earth, and by means
of which those materials are to have their distinguishable
shapes affected in all degrees and
obliterated. Therefore, to demand the visible
appearance of those materials in every stratum
of the earth, or in every part of a stratum,
is no other than to misunderstand the
subject altogether. The geological observations,
which have been thus alleged as contradicting
my theory, are stratified bodies,
containing proofs of the general origin which
I attribute to the earth, but proofs which may
not always be seen with equal facility as those
which even convince the vulgar.</p>

<p>Our author has surely perplexed himself
with what writers of late have said concerning
primitive mountains as they are called, a
subject of deeper search, than is commonly
imagined, as I hope to show in the course of
this work. It is an interesting subject of investigation,
as giving us the actual view of
those operations of nature which, in forming
my Theory of the Earth, more general principles
had led me to conclude <i>might be</i>. But,
it is a subject which, I am afraid, will lead me
to give farther offence to our author, however
innocent I may be in giving nothing but what
I have from nature.</p>

<p>The reason for saying so is this; I am
blamed for having endeavoured to trace back
the operations of this world to a remote period,
by the examination of that which actually
appears, contrary, as is alleged, "to
reason, and the tenor of the Mosaic history,
thus leading to an abyss, from which human
reason recoils, etc." In a word, (says
our author), "to make use of his own expression,
<i>We find no vestige of a beginning.</i>
Then this system of successive worlds must
have been eternal." Such is the logic by
which, I suppose, I am to be accused of atheism.
Our author might have added, that I have
also said&mdash;<i>we see no prospect of an end</i>; but what
has all this to do with the idea of eternity?
Are we, with our ideas of <i>time</i>, (or mere succession),
to measure that of eternity, which
never succeeded any thing, and which will
never be succeeded? Are we thus to measure
eternity, that boundless thought, with
those physical notions of ours which necessarily
limit both space and time? and, because
we see not the beginning of created things,
Are we to conclude that those things which
we see have always been, or been without a
cause? Our author would thus, inadvertently
indeed, lead himself into that gulf of irreligion
and absurdity into which, he alleges,
I have <i>boldly plunged</i>.</p>

<p>In examining this present earth, we find
that it must have had its origin at the bottom
of the sea, although our author seems willing
to deny that proposition. Farther, in examining
the internal construction of this stratified
and sea-born mass, we find that it had
been composed of the moved materials of
a former earth; and, from the most accurate
and extensive examination of those materials,
which in many places are indeed much disguised,
we are led necessarily to conclude,
that there had been a world existing, and
containing an animal, a vegetable, and a mineral
system. But, in thus tracing back the
natural operations which have succeeded each
other, and mark to us the course of time past,
we come to a period in which we cannot see
any farther. This, however, is not the beginning
of those operations which proceed in
time and according to the wise economy of
this world; nor is it the establishing of that,
which, in the course of time, had no beginning;
it is only the limit of our retrospective
view of those operations which have come to
pass in time, and have been conducted by supreme
intelligence.</p>

<p>My principal anxiety was to show how the
constitution of this world had been wisely
contrived; and this I endeavoured to do, not
from supposition or conjecture, but from its
answering so effectually the end of its intention,
viz. the preserving of animal life, which
we cannot doubt of being its purpose. Here
then is a world that is not eternal, but which
has been the effect of wisdom or design.</p>

<p>With regard again to the prospective view of
the creation, How are we to see the end of
that wise system of things which so properly
fulfils the benevolent intention of its maker,&mdash;in
giving sustenance to the animal part,
and information to intellectual beings, who,
in these works of nature, read what much
concerns their peace of mind,&mdash;their intellectual
happiness? What then does our author
mean, in condemning that comprehensive view
which I have endeavoured to take of nature?
Would he deny that there is to be perceived
wisdom in the system of this world, or that a
philosopher, who looks into the operations of
nature, may not plainly read the power and
wisdom of the Creator, without recoiling, as he
says, from the abyss? The abyss, from which
a man of science should recoil, is that of ignorance
and error.</p>

<p>I have thus shown, that, from not perceiving
the wise disposition of things upon the
surface of this earth for the preservation of
vegetable bodies, our author has been led to
deny the necessary waste of the present earth,
and the consequent preparation of materials
for the construction of another; I have also
shown, that he denies the origin which I had
attributed to the stratified parts of this earth,
as having been the collection of moving materials
from a former earth; and now I am
come to consider the professed purpose of this
paper, viz. the examination of solid stony
substances which we find in those strata of our
earth, as well as in more irregular masses.
Here, no doubt, my theory would have been
attacked with greater success, had our author
succeeded in pointing out its error with regard
to the original composition of those indurated
bodies, to which I ascribe fusion as
the cause of their solidity. For, if we should,
according to our author's proposition, consider
those consolidated bodies as having been originally
formed in that solid state, here the
door might be shut against any farther investigation;&mdash;But
to what purpose?&mdash;Surely not
to refute my theory, but to explode every
physical inquiry farther on the subject, and
thus to lead us back into the science of darkness
and of scepticism. But let us proceed to
see our author's sentiments on this subject.</p>

<p>As I had proved from matter of fact, or
the actual appearances of nature, that all the
strata of the earth had been formed at the bottom
of the sea, by the subsidence of those materials
which either come from the decaying
land, or are formed in the sea itself, it was necessary
that I should consider in what manner
those spongy or porous bodies of loose materials,
gathered together at the bottom of the
sea, could have acquired that consolidated
state in which we find them, now that they
are brought up to our examination. Upon
this occasion, our author says, "The particles
which now form the solid parts of the globe
need not be supposed to have originally
been either spongy or porous, the interior
parts at the depth of a few miles might
have been originally, as at present, a solid
mass." If, indeed, we shall make that supposition,
we may then save ourselves the
trouble of considering either how the strata
of the earth have been formed or consolidated;
for, they might have been so originally.
But, how can a naturalist who had ever seen
a piece of Derbyshire marble, or any other
shell limestone, make that supposition? Here
are, to the satisfaction of every body of common
understanding who looks at them, bodies
which are perfectly consolidated, bodies which
have evidently been formed at the bottom of
the sea, and therefore which were not originally
a solid mass. Mr Bertrand, it is true,
wrote a book to prove that those appearances
were nothing but a <i>lusus naturae</i>; and, I suppose
he meant, with our author, that those
strata had been also originally, as at present, a
solid mass.</p>

<p>With regard to the consolidation of strata,
that cardinal point for discussion, our author
gives the following answer: "Abstracting
from his own gratuitous hypothesis, it is very
easy to satisfy our author on this head; the
concreting and consolidating power in most
cases arises from the mutual attraction of
the component particles of stones to each
other." This is an answer with regard to
the <i>concreting power</i>, a subject about which
we certainly are not here inquiring. Our
author, indeed, has mentioned a <i>consolidating
power</i>; but that is an improper expression; we
are here inquiring, How the interstices, between
the collected materials of strata, deposited at
the bottom of the sea, have been filled
with a hard substance, instead of the fluid water
which had originally occupied those spaces.
Our author then continues; "If these
particles leave any interstices, these are filled
with water, which no ways obstructs
their solidity when the points of contact
are numerous; hence the decrepitation of
many species of stones when heated."</p>

<p>If I understand our author's argument, the
particles of stone are, by their mutual attractions,
to leave those hard and solid bodies
which compose the strata, that is to say, those
hard bodies are to dissolve themselves; but, To
what purpose? This must be to fill up the interstices,
which we must suppose occupied by
the water. In that case, we should find the
original interstices filled with the substances
which had composed the strata, and we should
find the water translated into the places of
those bodies; here would be properly a transmutation,
but no consolidation of the strata,
such as we are here to look for, and such as we
actually find among those strata. It may be
very easy for our author to form those explanations
of natural phenomena; it costs no tedious
observation of facts, which are to be
gathered with labour, patience, and attention;
he has but to look into his own fancy, as philosophers
did in former times, when they saw
the abhorrence of a vacuum and explained
the pump. It is thus that we are here told
the consolidation of strata <i>arises from the mutual
attraction of the component particles of
stones to each other</i>; the power, by which the
particles of solid stony bodies retain their
places in relation to each other, and resist separation
from the mass, may, no doubt, be
properly enough termed their mutual attractions;
but we are not here inquiring after that
power; we are to investigate the power by
which the particles of hard and stony bodies
had been separated, contrary to their mutual
attractions, in order to form new concretions,
by being again brought within the spheres of
action in which their mutual attractions might
take place, and make them one solid body.
Now, to say that this is by their mutual attraction,
is either to misunderstand the proper question,
or to give a most preposterous answer.</p>

<p>It is not every one who is fit to reason with
regard to abstract general propositions; I will
now, therefore, state a particular case, in illustration
of that proposition which has been
here so improperly answered. The strata of
Derbyshire marbles were originally immense
collections at the bottom of the sea, of calcareous
bodies consisting almost wholly of various
fragments of the <i>entrochi</i>; and they were
then covered with an indefinite number of
other strata under which these <i>entrochi</i> must
have been buried. In this original state of
those strata, I suppose the interstices between
the fragments of the coralline bodies to have
been left full of sea-water; at present we find
those interstices completely filled with a most
perfectly solid body of marble; and the
question is, whether that consolidating operation
has been the work of water and solution,
by our naturalist's termed infiltration; or if it
has been performed, as I have maintained, by
the softening power or heat, or introduction
of matter in the fluid state of fusion. Our
author does not propose any other method for
the consolidation of those loose and incoherent
bodies, but he speaks of the <i>mutual attraction
of the component particles of stone to
each other</i>; Will that fill the interstices between
the coralline bodies with solid marble,
as well as consolidate the coralline bodies
themselves? or, if it should, How are those
interstices to be thus filled with a substance
perfectly different from the deposited bodies,
which is also frequently the case? But, how
reason with a person who, with this consolidation
of strata, confounds the well known
operation by which the mortar, made with
caustic lime and sand, becomes a hard body!
One would imagine that he were writing to
people of the last age, and not to chemical
philosophers who know so well how that
mortar is concreted.</p>

<p>To my argument, That these porous strata
are found <i>consolidated with every different species
of mineral substance</i>, our author makes the
following observation: "Here the difficulties
to the supposition of an aqueous solution
are placed in the strongest light; yet
it must be owned that they partly arise from
the author's own gratuitous supposition,
that strata existed at the bottom of the sea
previous to their consolidation;"&mdash;gratuitous
supposition!&mdash;so far from being a supposition
of any kind, it is a self evident proposition;
the terms necessarily imply the conclusion.
I beg the readers attention for a
moment to this part of our author's animadversion,
before proceeding to consider the
whole; for, this is a point so essential in my
theory, that if it be a gratuitous supposition,
as is here asserted, it would certainly be in
vain to attempt to build upon it the system of
a world.</p>

<p>That strata may exist, whether at the bottom
of the sea, or any other where, without
being consolidated, will hardly be disputed;
for, they are actually found consolidated in
every different degree. But, when strata are
found consolidated, at what time is it that we
are to suppose this event to have taken place,
or this accident to have happened to them?
&mdash;Strata are formed at the bottom of water,
by the subsidence or successive deposits of certain
materials; it could not therefore be
during their formation that such strata had
been consolidated; consequently, we must necessarily
<i>conclude</i>, without any degree of <i>supposition</i>,
that <i>strata had existed at the bottom of
the sea previous to their consolidation</i>, unless
our author can show how they may have been
consolidated previous to their existing.</p>

<p>This then is what our author has termed a
gratuitous supposition of mine, and which, he
adds, "is a circumstance which will not be
allowed by the patrons of the aqueous origin
of stony substances, as we have already
seen."&mdash;I am perfectly at a loss to guess at
what is here alluded to <i>by having been already
seen</i>, unless it be that which I have already
quoted, concerning things which have been
never seen, that is, <i>those interior parts of the
earth which were originally a solid mass</i>.&mdash;I
have hardly patience to answer such reasoning;&mdash;a
reasoning which is not founded upon
any principle, which holds up nothing but
chimera to our view, and which ends in nothing
that is intelligible;&mdash;but, others, perhaps,
may see this dissertation of our author's
in a different light; therefore, it is my duty
to analyse the argument, however insignificant
it may seem to me.</p>

<p>I have minutely examined all the stratified
bodies which I have been able, during a lifetime,
to procure, both in this country of Britain,
and from all the quarters of the globe;
and the result of my inquiry has been to
conclude, that there is nothing among them
in an original state, as the reader will see in
the preceding chapter. With regard again to
the masses which are not stratified, I have also
given proof that they are not in their original
state, such as granite, porphyry, serpentine,
and basaltes; and I shall give farther satisfaction,
I hope, upon that head, in the course of
this work. I have therefore concluded, That
there is nothing to be found in an original
state, so far as we see, in the construction of
this earth. But, our author answers, That
the interior parts <i>might have been in an original
state of solidity</i>.&mdash;So might they have
been upon the surface of the earth, or on the
summits of our mountains; but, we are not
inquiring What they <i>might have been</i>, but
What they truly <i>are</i>. It is from this actual
state in which the solid parts of the earth are
found, that I have endeavoured to trace back
the different states in which they must have
been; and, by generalising facts, I have formed
a theory of the earth. If this be a
wrong principle or manner of proceeding in
a physical investigation, or if, proceeding upon
that principle, I have made the induction by
reasoning improperly on any occasion, let this
be corrected by philosophers, who may reason
more accurately upon the subject. But to
oppose a physical investigation with this proposition,
<i>that things might have been otherwise</i>,
is to proceed upon a very different principle,&mdash;a
principle which, instead of tending to
bring light out of darkness, is only calculated
to extinguish that light which we may have
acquired.</p>

<p>I shall afterwards have occasion to examine
how far the philosophers, who attribute to
aqueous solution the origin of stony substances,
have proceeded in the same inductive
manner of reasoning from effect to cause, as
they ought to do in physical subjects, and not
by feigning causes, or following a false analogy;
in the mean time, I am to answer the
objections which have been made to the
theory of the earth.</p>

<p>In opposition to the theory of consolidating
bodies by fusion, our author has taken great
pains to show, that I cannot provide materials
for such a fire as would be necessary, nor find
the means to make it burn had I those materials.
Had our author read attentively my
theory he would have observed, that I give
myself little or no trouble about that fire, or
take no charge with regard to the procuring
of that power, as I have not founded my
theory on the <i>supposition</i> of subterraneous fire,
however that fire properly follows as a conclusion
from those appearances on which the
theory is founded. My theory is founded
upon the general appearances of mineral bodies,
and upon this, that mineral bodies must
necessarily have been in a state of fusion. I
do not pretend to prove, demonstratively, that
they had been even hot, however that conclusion
also naturally follows from their having
been in fusion. It is sufficient for me to demonstrate,
That those bodies must have been,
more or less, in a state of softness and fluidity,
without any species of solution. I do not say
that this fluidity had been without heat; but,
if that had been the case, it would have answered
equally well the purpose of my theory,
so far as this went to explain the consolidation
of strata or mineral bodies, which, I still
repeat, must have been by simple fluidity, and
not by any species of solution, or any other
solvent than that universal one which permeates
all bodies, and which makes them
fluid.</p>

<p>Our author has justly remarked the difficulty
of fire burning below the earth and sea.
It is not my purpose here to endeavour to remove
those difficulties, which perhaps only
exist in those suppositions which are made on
this occasion; my purpose is to show, that he
had no immediate concern with that question,
in discussing the subject of the consolidation
which we actually find in the strata of the
earth, unless my theory, with regard to the
igneous origin of stony substances, had proceeded
upon the supposition of a subterraneous
fire. It is surely one thing to employ
fire and heat to melt mineral bodies, in supposing
this to be the cause of their consolidation,
and another thing to acknowledge fire
or heat as having been exerted upon mineral
bodies, when it is clearly proved, from actual
appearances, that those bodies had been in a
melted state, or that of simple fluidity. Here
are distinctions which would be thrown away
upon the vulgar; but, to a man of science,
who analyses arguments, and reasons strictly
from effect to cause, this is, I believe, the proper
way of coming at the truth. If the patrons
of the aqueous origin of stony substances
can give us any manner of scientifical, <i>i.e.</i>
intelligible investigation of that process, it shall
be attended to with the most rigid impartiality,
even by a patron of the igneous origin of
those substances, as he wishes above all things
to distinguish, in the mineral operations, those
which, on the one hand, had been the effect
of water, from those which, on the other hand,
had been the immediate effect of fire or fusion;&mdash;this
has been my greatest study. But,
while mineralists or geologists give us only
mere opinions, What is science profited by
such inconsequential observations, as are founded
upon nothing but our vulgar notions? Is
the figure of the earth, <i>e.g.</i> to be doubted,
because, according to the common notion of
mankind, the existence of an antipod is certainly
to be denied?</p>

<p>I am not avoiding to meet that question
with regard to the providing of materials for
such a mineral fire as may be required; no
question I desire more to be asked to resolve;
but it must not be in the manner that our author
has put that question. He has included
this supposed difficulty among a string of
other arguments by which he would refute
my theory with regard to the igneous origin
of stony substances, as if I had made that fire
a necessary condition or a principle in forming
my theory of consolidation. Now, it is precisely
the reverse; and this is what I beg that
mineral philosophers will particularly attend
to, and not give themselves so much unnecessary
trouble, and me so disagreeable a talk. I
have proved that those stony substances have
been in the fluid state of fusion; and from
this, I have inferred the former existence of
an internal heat, a subterraneous fire, or a certain
cause of fusion by whatever name it shall
be called, and by whatever means it shall
have been procured. The nature of that operation
by which strata had been consolidated,
like that by which they had been composed,
must, according to my philosophy, be decided
by ocular demonstration; from examining the
internal evidence which is to be found in those
bodies as we see them in the earth; because
the consolidating operation is not performed
in our sight, no more than their stratification
which our author has also denied to have been
made, as I have said, by the deposits of materials
at the bottom of the sea. Now, with
regard to the means of procuring subterraneous
fire, if the consolidating operation shall
be thus decided to have been that of fusion,
as I think I have fully shown, and for which
I have as many witnesses, perhaps as there are
mineral bodies, then our author's question,
(how I am to procure a fire) in the way that
he has put it, as an argument against the fusion,
would be at least useless; for, though I
should here confess my ignorance with regard
to the means of procuring fire, the evidence
of the melting operation, or former fluidity of
those mineral bodies, would not be thereby in
the least diminished. If again no such evidence
for the fusion of those bodies shall appear,
and it be concluded that they had been
consolidated by the action of water alone, as
our author seems inclined to maintain, he
would have no occasion to start difficulties
about the procuring of fire, in order to refute
a theory which then would fall of itself as
having no foundation.</p>

<p>But in order to see this author's notion of
the theory which he is here examining, it
may be proper to give a specimen of his
reasoning upon this subject of heat. He says,
"That my supposition of heat necessary for
consolidating strata is <i>gratuitous</i>, not only
because it is unnecessary, as we have already
shown, but also because it is inconsistent
with our author's own theory." Let
us now consider those two propositions. <i>First</i>,
it is unnecessary, <i>as we have already shown</i>;&mdash;
I have already taken particular notice of what
we have been shown on this occasion, viz.
That the earth at a certain depth <i>may have
been originally in a solid state</i>; and, that,
where it is to be consolidated, this is done by
the <i>mutual attraction of the stony particles</i>.
Here is all that we have been shown to make
subterraneous heat, for the consolidation of
strata, unnecessary; and now I humbly submit,
if this is sufficient evidence, that mineral
heat is a gratuitous supposition.</p>

<p>Secondly, "<i>it is inconsistent with our author's
own theory.</i>" Here I would beg the
readers attention to the reasoning employed
on this occasion. He says, "according to
him these strata, which were consolidated
by heat, were composed of materials gradually
worn from a preceding continent, casually
and successively deposited in the sea;
Where then will he find, and how will he
suppose, to have been formed those enormous
masses of sulphur, coal, or bitumen,
necessary to produce that immense heat necessary
for the fusion of those vast mountains
of stone now existing? All the coal,
sulphur, and bitumen, now known, does
not form the 100,000 part of the materials
deposited within one quarter of a mile under
the surface of the earth; if, therefore,
they were, as his hypothesis demands, carried
off and mixed with the other materials,
and not formed in vast and separate collections,
they could never occasion, by their
combustion, a heat capable of producing
the smallest effect, much less those gigantic
effects which he requires."</p>

<p>Here is a comparative estimate formed between
two things which have not any necessary
relation; these are, the quantity of combustible
materials found in the earth, on the
one hand, and the quantity which is supposed
necessary for hardening and consolidating strata,
on the other. If this earth has been consolidated
by the burning of combustible materials,
there must have been a superfluity, so
far as there is a certain quantity of these actually
found unconsumed in the strata of the
earth. Our author's conclusion is the very
opposite; let us then see how he is to form
his argument, by which he proves that the
supposition of subterraneous heat for hardening
bodies is gratuitous and unnecessary, as
being inconsistent with my theory.</p>

<p>According to my theory, the strata of this
earth are composed of the materials which
came from a former earth; particularly these
combustible strata that contain plants which
must have grown upon the land. Let us then
suppose the subterraneous fire supplied with
its combustible materials from this source,
the vegetable bodies growing upon the surface
of the land. Here is a source provided
for the supplying of mineral fire, a source
which is inexhaustible or unlimited, unless we
are to circumscribe it with regard to time, and
the necessary ingredients; such as the matter
of light, carbonic matter, and the hydrogenous
principle. But it is not upon any deficiency
of this kind that our author founds his estimate;
it is upon the superfluity of combustible
materials which is actually found in this
earth, after it had been properly consolidated
and raised above the surface of the sea. This is
a method of reasoning calculated to convince
only those who do not understand it; it is as
if we should conclude that a person had died
of want, because he had left provision behind
him. Our author certainly means to employ
nothing but the combustible minerals of the
present earth, in feeding the subterraneous fire
which is to concoct a future earth; in that
case, I will allow that his provision is deficient;
but this is not my theory.</p>

<p>I am not here to enter into any argument
concerning subterraneous fire; the reader will
find, in the foregoing theory, my reasons for
concluding, That subterraneous fire had existed
previous to, and ever since, the formation
of this earth,&mdash;that it exists in all its vigour
at this day,&mdash;that there is, in the constitution
of this earth, a superfluity of subterranean
heat,&mdash;and that there is wisely provided
a proper remedy against any destructive effect
to the system, that might arise from that
superabundant provision of this necessary
agent. Had our author attended to the ocular
proof that we have of the actual existence
of subterraneous fire, and to the physical demonstrations
which I have given of the effects
of heat in melting mineral bodies, he must
have seen that those arguments of his, with
regard to the difficulty or impossibility of procuring
that fire, can only show the error of
his reasoning. I am far from supposing that
my theory may be free from inconsistency or
error; I am only maintaining that, in all his
confident assertions, this author has not hitherto
pointed any of these out.</p>

<p>So far I have answered our author's objections
as to consolidation, and I have given
a specimen of his reasoning upon that subject;
but with regard to my Theory of the Earth,
although simple fluidity, without heat, would
have answered the purpose of consolidating
strata that had been formed at the bottom of
the sea, it was necessary to provide a power
for raising those consolidated strata from that
low place to the summits of the continents;
now, in supposing heat to be the cause of that
fluidity which had been employed in the consolidation
of those submarine masses, we find
a power capable of erecting continents, and
the only power, so far as I see, which natural
philosophy can employ for that purpose. Thus
I was led, from the consolidation of strata,
to understand the nature of the elevating
power, and, from the nature of that power,
again to understand the cause of fluidity by
which the rocks and stones of this earth had
been consolidated.</p>

<p>Having thus, without employing the evidence
of any fire or <i>burning</i>, been necessarily
led to conclude an extreme degree of heat
exerted in the mineral regions, I next inquire
how far there are any appearances from
whence we might conclude whether that active
subterraneous power still subsists, and
what may be the nature of that power.
When first I conceived my theory, naturalists
were far from suspecting that basaltic rocks
were of volcanic origin; I could not then
have employed an argument from these rocks
as I may do now, for proving that the fires,
which we see almost daily issuing with such
force from volcanos, are a continuation of
that active cause which has so evidently been
exerted in all times, and in all places, so far
as have been examined of this earth.</p>

<p>With regard to the degree of heat in that
subterraneous fire, our author, after proving
that combustible materials would not burn in
the mineral regions, then says, that suppose
they were to burn, this would be "incapable
of forming a heat even equal to that of our
common furnaces, as Mr Dolomieu has
clearly shown to be the case with respect to
volcanic heat." The place to which he
alludes, I believe to be that which I have
quoted from the Journal de Physique (Part I.
page 139) to which I here beg leave to refer
the reader. After what I have already said,
this subject will appear to be of little concern
to me; but, it must be considered, that my
object, in these answers, is not so much to
justify the theory which I have given, as it
is to remove that prejudice which, to those
who are not master of chemical and mineral
subjects, will naturally arise from the opinion
or authority of a scientific man, and a chemist;
therefore, I think it my business to show
how much he has misconceived the matter
which he treats of, and how much he misunderstands
the subject of my theory.</p>

<p>Mr Dolomieu alleges that the volcanic
fire operates in the melting of bodies, not by
the intensity of its heat, which is the means
employed by us in our operations, but in the
long continuance of its action. But in that
proposition, this philosopher is merely giving
us his opinion; and, this opinion our author
mistakes, I suppose, for the fact on which that
opinion had been (perhaps reasonably) founded.
The reader will see, in the place quoted,
or in the <i>avant-propos</i> to his <i>Mémoire sur les
Iles Ponces</i>, the fact to be this; That the Chevalier
Dolomieu finds those bodies which we
either cannot melt in our fires, or which we
cannot melt without changing them by calcination
and vitrification, he finds, I say, these
substances had actually been melted with his
lavas; he also finds those substances, which
are necessarily dissipated in our fires, to have
been retained in those melted mineral substances.
Had our author quoted the text, instead
of giving us his own interpretation, he could
not have offered a stronger confirmation of
my theory; which certainly is not concerned
with the particular intensity of volcanic fire,
and far less with what may be the opinion of
any naturalist with regard to that intensity,
but only with the efficacy of that volcanic
heat for the melting of mineral substances.
Now this efficacy of volcanic fire, so far as we
are to found upon the authority given on this
occasion, is clearly confirmed by the observations
of a most intelligent mineralist, and one
who is actually a patron of the opposite theory
to that which I have given. This being the
state of the case, Must I not conclude, that
our author has misunderstood the subject, and
that he has been led to give a mutilated opinion
of Mr Dolomieu, in order to refute my
theory, when either the entire opinion, or the
facts on which the opinion had been founded,
would have confirmed it?</p>

<p>I have thus endeavoured to put in its true
light a species of reasoning, which, while it
assumes the air and form of that inductive
train of thought employed by men of science
for the investigation of nature, is only fit to
mislead the unwary, and, when closely examined,
will appear to be inconsequential or
unfounded. How mortifying then to find,
that one may be employed almost a lifetime
in generalising the phenomena of nature, or
in gathering an infinity of evidence for the
forming of a theory, and that the consequence
of this shall only be to give offence, and to
receive reproach from those who see not things
in the same light!&mdash;While man has to learn,
mankind must have different opinions. It is
the prerogative of man to form opinions;
these indeed are often, commonly I may say,
erroneous; but they are commonly corrected,
and it is thus that truth in general is made to
appear.</p>

<p>I wrote a general Theory for the inspection
of philosophers, who doubtless will point out
its errors; but this requires the study of nature,
which is not the work of a day; and, in
this political age, the study of nature seems to
be but little pursued by our philosophers. In
the mean time, there are, on the one hand,
sceptical philosophers, who think there is nothing
certain in nature, because there is misconception
in the mind of man; on the other
hand, there are many credulous amateurs,
who go to nature to be entertained as we go
to see a pantomime: But there are also superficial
reasoning men, who think themselves
qualified to write on subjects on which they
may have read in books,&mdash;subjects which they
may have seen in cabinets, and which, perhaps,
they have just learned to name; without
truly knowing what they see, they think
they know those regions of the earth which
never can be seen; and they judge of the
great operations of the mineral kingdom, from
having kindled a fire, and looked into the bottom
of a little crucible.</p>

<p>In the Theory of the Earth which was
published, I was anxious to warn the reader
against the notion that subterraneous heat and
fusion could be compared with that which we
induce by our chemical operations on mineral
substances here upon the surface of the
earth; yet, notwithstanding all the precaution
I had taken, our author has bestowed four
quarto pages in proving to me, that our fires
have an effect upon mineral substances different
from that of the subterraneous power
which I would employ.</p>

<p>He then sets about combining metals with
sulphur in the moist way, as if that were any
more to his purpose than is the making of a
stalactite for the explanation of marble. Silver
and lead may be sulphurated, as he says, with
hepatic gas; but, Has the sulphurated solid
ores of those metals, and that of iron, been
formed in the moist way, as in some measure
they may be by the fusion of our fires?
But, even suppose that this were the case,
Could that explain a thousand other appearances
which are inconsistent with the operation
of water? We see aerated lead dissolved
in the excavations of our mines, and again
concreted by the separation of the evaporated
solvent, in like manner as stalactical concretions
are made of calcareous earth; but, so far
from explaining mineral appearances, as having
had their concretions formed in the same
manner, here is the most convincing argument
against it; for, among the infinite variety
of mineral productions which we find in
nature, Why does no other example of aqueous
concretion ever occur upon the surface of
the earth except those which we understand
so well, and which we therefore know cannot
be performed in the bodies of strata not exposed
to the evaporation of the solvent, a circumstance
which is necessary.</p>

<p>I have given a very remarkable example of
mineral fusion, in reguline manganese, (as the
reader will see in page 68.) It is not that this
example is more to the purpose of my theory
than what may be found in every species of
stone; but this example speaks so immediately
to the common sense of mankind, (who are
often convinced by a general resemblance of
things, when they may not see the force of
demonstration from an abstract principle) that
I thought it deserved a place on that account,
as well as being a curious example, But more
particularly to my antagonist, who has been
pleased (very improperly indeed) to try some
part of my theory in the fire, here is an example
which should have been absolutely in
point, and without any manner of exception:&mdash;Has
he acknowledged this?&mdash;No; he has,
on the contrary, endeavoured to set this very
example aside.</p>

<p>On this occasion, he says, "Manganese has
been found in a reguline state by M. de la
Peyrouse, and in small grains, as when produced
by fire. True; but it was mixed
with a large quantity of iron, which is often,
found in that form without any suspicion of
fusion. A fire capable of melting quartz
might surely produce it in larger masses."
We have here a kind of two arguments, for
removing the effect of this example; and I
shall consider them separately.</p>

<p>The first of these is, the not being suspected
of having been in fusion; now, if this
were to be admitted as an argument against
the igneous origin of stony substances, it might
have superseded the adducing of any other,
for it is applicable perhaps to every mineral;
but we must here examine the case more minutely.</p>

<p>This argument, of the manganese being in
a mine of iron, if I understand it rightly,
amounts to this, that, as iron ore is not suspected
of having been melted, therefore, we
should doubt the manganese having been so.
If this be our author's meaning, it is not the
fair conclusion which the case admits of; for,
so far as the manganese appears evidently to
have been in a melted state, the iron ore should
be <i>suspected</i> of having been also in fusion, were
there no other evidence of that fact. In science,
however, it is not suspicion that should
be employed in physical investigation; the
question at present is; If the phenomena of the
case correspond to the conclusion which the
intelligent mineralist, who examined them,
has formed? and, to this question, our author
gives no direct answer. He says, <i>iron is often
found in that form without any suspicion of fusion</i>.
This is what I am now to answer.</p>

<p>The form in which the manganese appears
is one of the strongest proofs of those masses
having been in fusion; and, if iron should
ever be found in that form, it must give the
same proof of mineral fusion as this example
of manganese; let us then see the nature of
this evidence. The form of the manganese is
that of a fluid body collecting itself into a
spherical figure by the cohesion or attraction
of its particles, so far as may be admitted by
other circumstances; but, being here refilled
by the solid part on which it rests, this spherical
body is flattened by the gravitation of its
substance. Now here is a regular form, which
demonstrates the masses to have been in the
state of fusion; for, there is no other way in
which that form of those reguline masses could
have been induced.</p>

<p>There now remains to be considered what
our author has observed respecting the intensity
of the fire and size of the masses. "A
fire capable of melting quartz might surely
produce it (meaning the manganese) in larger
masses." M. de la Peyrouse says, that
those masses were in all respects as if formed
by art, only much larger, as the powers of nature
exceed those of our laboratories. What
then is it that is here meant to be disputed?
We are comparing the operation of nature
and that of art, and these are to be judged of
by the product which we examine; but the
quantity, in this case, or the size of the masses,
makes no part of the evidence, and therefore
is here most improperly mentioned by our author.
With regard again to the nature of the
fire by which the fusion had been produced,
he is much mistaken if he imagines that the
reduction of the reguline or metallic manganese
depends upon the intensity of the heat;
it depends upon circumstances proper for the
separation of the oxygenating principle from
the calx, in like manner as the calcination of
calcareous spar must depend upon circumstances
proper for allowing the separation of the
carbonic acid or fixed air.</p>

<p>But do not let us lose sight of our proper
subject, by examining things foreign or not
so immediately to the purpose. We are only
inquiring if those flattened spheres of native
manganese had been formed by water, or if it
were by fusion; for, our author agrees that
there is no other way. Why then does he
endeavour to evade giving a direct answer,
and fly away to consider the quantity of the
product, as if that had any thing to do with,
the question, or as if that quantity were not
sufficient, neither of which is the case. In
short, our author's whole observation, on this
occasion, looks as if he were willing to destroy,
by insinuation, the force of an argument
which proves the theory of mineral fusion;
and that he wishes to render doubtful,
by a species of sophistry, what in fair reasoning
he cannot deny.</p>

<p>Our author has written upon the subject of
phlogiston; one would suppose that he should
be well acquainted with inflammable bodies at
least; let us see then what he has to observe
upon that subject. He quotes from my Theory,
that spar, quartz, pyrites, crystallised upon
or near each other, and adhering to coal, or
mixed with bitumen, etc. are found; circumstances
that cannot be explained in the
hypothesis of solution in the moist way.&mdash;He
then answers;&mdash;"Not exactly, nor with certainty;
which is not wonderful: But they
are still less explicable in the hypothesis of
dry solution, as must be apparent from what
has been already said.  How coal, an infusible
substance, could be spread into strata
by mere heat, is to me incomprehensible."&mdash;It
is only upon the last sentence that I am
here to remark: This, I believe, will be a sufficient
specimen of our author's understanding,
with regard at least to my Theory which
he is here examining.</p>

<p>The reader will see what I have said upon
the subject of coal, by turning back to the second
section of the preceding chapter. I had
given almost three quarto pages upon that
subject, endeavouring to explain how all the
different degrees of <i>infusibility</i> were produced,
by means of heat and distillation, in strata
which had been originally more or less oily,
bituminous, and <i>fusible</i>; and now our author
says, that it is incomprehensible to him, how
coal, <i>an infusible substance</i>, could be spread into
strata by mere heat.&mdash;So it truly may, either
to him or to any other person; but, it
appears to me almost as incomprehensible,
how a person of common understanding should
read my Dissertation, and impute to it a thing
so contrary to its doctrine.</p>

<p>Nothing can better illustrate the misconceived
view that our author seems to have taken
of the two opposite theories, (<i>i. e</i>. of consolidation
by means of heat, and by means of
water alone,) than his observation upon the
case of mineral alkali. To that irrefragable argument
(which Dr Black suggested) in proof
of this substance having been in a state of fusion
in the mineral regions, our author makes
the following reply; "What then will our
author say of the vast masses of this salt
which are found with their full quantity of
water of crystallization?"&mdash;There is in this
proposition, insignificant as it may seem, a
confusion of ideas, which it certainly cannot
be thought worth while to investigate; but,
so far as the doctrine of the aqueous theory
may be considered as here concerned, it will
be proper that I should give some answer to
the question so triumphantly put to me.</p>

<p>Our author is in a mistake in supposing that
Dr Black had written any thing upon the subject;
he had only suggested the argument of
this example of mineral alkali to me, as I have
mentioned; and, the use I made of that argument
was to corroborate the example I had
given of sal gem. If, therefore, our author
does not deny the inference from the state of
that mineral alkali, his observation upon it
must refer to something which this other example
of his is to prove on the opposite side,
or to support the aqueous instead of the igneous
theory; and, this is a subject which I am
always willing to examine in the most impartial
manner, having a desire to know the true
effect of aqueous solution in the consolidation
of mineral bodies, and having no objection to
allow it any thing which it can possibly produce,
although denying that it can do every
thing, as many mineralists seem to think.</p>

<p>The question, with regard to this example
of our author's of a mineral alkali with its water
of crystallization, must be this, Whether
those saline bodies had been concreted by the
evaporation of the aqueous solvent with which
they had been introduced, or by the congelation
of that saline substance from a fluid state
of fusion; for, surely, we are not to suppose
those bodies to have been created in the place
and state in which we find them. With regard
to the evaporation or separation of the
aqueous solvent, this may be easily conceived
according to the igneous theory; but, the
aqueous theory has not any means for the
producing of that effect in the mineral regions,
which is the only place we are here concerned
with. Therefore, this example of a concreted
body of salt, whatever it may prove in other
respects, can neither diminish the evidence of
my Theory with regard to the igneous origin
of stony substances, nor can it contribute to
support the opposite supposition of an aqueous
origin to them.</p>

<p>But to show how little reason our author
had for exulting in that question which he so
confidently proposed in order to defeat my
argument, let us consider this matter a little
farther. I will for a moment allow the aqueous
theory to have the means for separating
the water from the saline solution, and thus
to concrete the saline substance in the bowels
of the earth; this concretion then is to be examined
with a view to investigate the last state
of this body, which is to inform us with regard
to those mineral operations. But, our
author has not mentioned whether those masses
appear to have been crystallised from the
aqueous solution, or if they appear to have
been congealed from the melted state of their
<i>aqueous fusion</i>.&mdash;Has he ever thought of
this? Now this is so material a point in the
view with which that example has been held
out to us, that, without showing that this
salt had crystallised from the solution, he
has no right to employ it as an example; and
if, on the other hand, it should appear to have
simply congealed from the state of aqueous
fusion, then, instead of answering the purpose
for which our author gave it, it would refute
his supposition, as certainly as the example
which I have given.</p>

<p>So far I have reasoned upon the supposition
of this alkali, with its water of crystallization,
being truly a mineral concretion; but, I see
no authority for such a supposition: It certainly
may be otherwise; and, in that case,
our author would have no more right to give
it as an example in opposition to Dr Black's
argument, than he would have to give the
crystallization of sea-salt, on Turk's Island, in
opposition to the example which I had given,
of the salt rock, at Northwych in Cheshire,
having been in the state of fusion.</p>

<p>It certainly was incumbent on our author
to have informed us, if those masses of salt
were found in, what may be properly termed,
their mineral state; or, if the state in which
they are found at present had been produced
by the influences of the atmosphere, transforming
that saline substance from its mineral
state, as happens upon so many other occasions;
I am inclined to suspect that this last
is truly the case. It may be thought illiberal
in me to suppose a natural philosopher thus
holding out an example that could only serve
to lead us into error, or to mislead our judgment
with regard to those two theories which
is the subject of consideration. This certainly
would be the case, almost on any other occasion;
but, when I find every argument and
example, employed in this dissertation, to be
either unfounded or misjudged, Whether am
I to conclude our author, on this occasion, to
be consistent with himself, or not?</p>

<p>I have but one article more to observe upon.
I had given, as I thought, a kind of demonstration,
from the internal evidence of the
stone, that granite had been in the fluid state
of fusion, and had concreted by crystallization
and congelation from that melted state.
This no doubt must be a stumbling block to
those who maintain that granite mountains
are the primitive parts of our earth; and who,
like our author, suppose that "things may
have been originally, as at present, in a
solid state." It must also be a great, if not
an invincible obstacle in the way of the aqueous
theory, which thus endeavours to explain
those granite veins that are found traversing
strata, and therefore necessarily of a posterior
formation.</p>

<p>To remove that obstacle in the way of the
aqueous theory, or to carry that theory over
the obstacle which he cannot remove, our author
undertakes to refute my theory with regard
to the igneous origin of stony substances,
by giving an example of granite formed upon
the surface of the earth by means of water, or
in what is called the moist way; and he
closes his Dissertation with this example as an
<i>experimentum crucis</i>. It is therefore necessary
that I take this demonstration of our author
into particular consideration; for, surely, independent
of our controversy, which is perhaps
of little moment, here is the most interesting
experiment, as it is announced, that
mineralogy could be enriched with.</p>

<p>"To close this controversy," says our author,
"I shall only add, that granite, recently
formed in the moist way, has been frequently
found."&mdash;Of that remarkable event,
however, he has selected only one example.
This is to be found upon the Oder; and the
authority upon which our author has given
it, is that of Lasius Hartz.</p>

<p>The formation of a granite stone, from granite
sand, by means of water, is inconsistent
with our chemical knowledge of those mineral
substances which constitute that stone; it
is repugnant to the phenomena which appear
from the inspection of the natural bodies of
this kind; and it is directly contrary to the
universal experience in granite countries,
where, instead of any thing concreting, every
thing is going into decay, from the loose
stones and sand of granite, to the solid rock
and mountains which are always in a state of
degradation. Therefore, to have any credit
given to such a story, would require the most
scientific evidence in its favour. Now, in order
that others may judge whether this has
been the case in this example, I will transcribe
what our author has said upon the subject;
and then I will give the view in which it appears
to me.</p>

<p>He says, "a mole having been constructed
in the Oder in the year 1723, 350 feet
long, 54 feet in height, 144 feet broad at
bottom, and 54 at the top, its sides only
were granite, without any other cement
than moss; the middle space was entirely
filled with granite sand. In a short time
this concreted into a substance so compact
as to be impenetrable by water."&mdash;Here is
an example, according to our author, of <i>granite
formed in the moist way</i>. But now, I
must ask to see the evidence of that fact; for,
from what our author has told us, I do not
even see reason to conclude that there was the
least concretion, or any stone formed at all.
A body of sand will be <i>so compacted as to be
impenetrable by water</i>, with the introduction
of a very little mud, and without any degree
of concretion; muddy water, indeed, cannot
be made to pass through such a body without
compacting it so; and this every body finds,
to their cost, who have attempted to make a
filter of that kind.</p>

<p>But I shall suppose Lasius has informed our
author that there had been a petrifaction in
this case; and, before I admit this example
of the formation of granite, I must ask what
sort of a granite it was;&mdash;whether of two,
three, or four ingredients; and, how these
were disposed. If, again, it were not properly
a granite, but a stone formed of granite
sand, What is the cementing substance?&mdash;Is
it quartz, felt-spar, mica, or schorl?&mdash;or, Was
it calcareous? If our author knows any thing
about these necessary questions, Why has
he not informed us, as minutely as he
has done with regard to the dimensions of
the mole, with which we certainly are less
concerned? If, again, he knows no more
about the matter than what he has informed
us of, he must have strangely imposed upon
himself, to suppose that he was giving us an
example of the <i>formation of granite in the
moist way</i>, when he has only described an effectual
way of retaining water, by means of
sand and mud.</p>

<br>
<h3>CHAP. III.</h3>

<p><i>Of Physical Systems, and Geological Theories,
in general</i>.</p>


<p>In the first chapter I have given a general
theory of the earth, with such proofs as I
thought were sufficient for the information of
intelligent men, who might satisfy themselves
by examining the facts on which the reasoning
in that theory had been founded.</p>

<p>In the second chapter, I have endeavoured
to remove the objections which have been
made to that theory, by a strenuous patron of
the commonly received opinion of mineralogists
and geologists,&mdash;an opinion which, if not
diametrically opposite, differs essentially from
mine. But now I am to examine nature
more particularly, in order to compare those
different opinions with the actual state of
things, on which every physical theory must
be founded. Therefore, the opinions of other
geologists should be clearly stated, that so a
fair comparison may be made of theories
which are to represent the system of this
earth.</p>

<p>Now, if I am to compare that which I
have given as a theory of the earth, with the
theories given by others under that denomination,
I find so little similarity, in the things
to be compared, that no other judgment could
hence be formed, perhaps, than that they had
little or no resemblance. I see certain treatises
named Theories of the Earth; but, I find not
any thing that entitles them to be considered
as such, unless it be their endeavouring to
explain certain appearances which are observed
in the earth. That a proper theory of
the earth should explain all those appearances
is true; but, it does not hold, conversely, that
the explanation of an appearance should constitute
a theory of the earth. So far as the
theory of the earth shall be considered as the
philosophy or physical knowledge of this
world, that is to say, a general view of the
means by which the end or purpose is attained,
nothing can be properly esteemed such a
theory unless it lead, in some degree, to the
forming of that general view of things. But
now, let us see what we have to examine in
that respect.</p>

<p>We have, first, Burnet's Theory of the
Earth. This surely cannot be considered in
any other light than as a dream, formed upon
the poetic fiction of a golden age, and that of
iron which had succeeded it; at the same
time, there are certain appearances in the
earth which would, in a partial view of things,
seem to justify that imagination. In Telliamed,
again, we have a very ingenious theory,
with regard to the production of the earth
above the surface of the sea, and of the origin
of those land animals which now inhabit
that earth. This is a theory which has something
in it like a regular system, such as we
might expect to find in nature; but, it is only
a physical romance, and cannot be considered
in a serious view, although apparently
better founded than most of that which has
been wrote upon the subject.</p>

<p>We have then a theory of a very different
kind; this is that of the Count de Buffon.
Here is a theory, not founded on any regular
system, but upon an irregularity of nature, or
an accident supposed to have happened to the
sun. But, are we to consider as a theory of
the earth, an accident by which a planetary
body had been made to increase the number
of these in the solar system? The circumvolution
of a planetary body (allowing it to have
happened in that manner) cannot form the
system of a world, such as our earth exhibits;
and, in forming a theory of the earth, it is required
to see the aptitude of every part of
this complicated machine to fulfil the purpose
of its intention, and not to suppose the
wise system of this world to have arisen from,
the cooling of a lump of melted matter which
had belonged to another body. When we
consider the power and wisdom that must
have been exerted in the contriving, creating,
and maintaining this living world which sustains
such a variety of plants and animals, the
revolution of a mass of dead matter according
to the laws of projectiles, although in perfect
wisdom, is but like a unite among an infinite
series of ascending numbers.</p>

<p>After the theory of that eloquent writer,
founded on a mere accident, or rather the error
of a comet which produced the beautiful
system of this world, M. de Luc, in his Theory
of the earth, has given us the history of a
disaster which befell this well contrived world;&mdash;a
disaster which caused the general deluge,
and which, without a miracle, must have undone
a system of living beings that are so
well adapted to the present state of things.
But, surely, general deluges form no part of
the theory of the earth; for, the purpose of
this earth is evidently to maintain vegetable
and animal life, and not to destroy them.</p>

<p>Besides these imaginary great operations in
the natural history of this earth, we have also
certain suppositions of geologists and mineralists
with regard to the effect of water, for explaining
to us the consolidation of the loose
materials of which the strata of the earth had
been composed, and also for producing every
other appearance, or any which shall happen
to occur in the examination of the earth, and
require to be explained. That this is no exaggerated
representation, and that this is all
we have as a theory, in the suppositions of
those geologists, will appear from the following
state of the case.</p>

<p>They suppose water the agent employed in
forming the solid bodies of the earth, and in
producing those crystallised bodies which appear
in the mineral kingdom. That this is a
mere supposition will appear by considering;
first, that they do not know how this agent
water is to operate in producing those effects;
nor have they any direct proof of the fact
which is alleged, from a very fallaceous analogy;
and, secondly, that they cannot tell us
where this operation is to be performed. They
cannot say that it is in the earth above the
level of the sea: for, the same appearances
are found as deep as we can examine below
that level; besides, we see that water has the
opposite effect upon the surface of the earth,
through which it percolates dissolving soluble
substances, and thus resolving solid bodies in
preparing soil for plants. If, again, it be below
the level of the sea, that strata of the earth
are supposed to be consolidated by the infiltration
of that water which falls from the
heavens; this cannot be allowed, so far as
whatever of the earth is bibulous, in that
place, must have been always full of water,
consequently cannot admit of that supposed
infiltration.</p>

<p>But allowing those suppositions to be true,
there is nothing in them like a theory of the
earth,&mdash;a theory that should bring the operations
of the world into the regularity of ends
and means, and, by generalizing these regular
events, show us the operation of perfect intelligence
forming a design; they are only an
attempt to show how certain things, which we
see, have happened without any perceivable
design, or without any farther design than this
particular effect which we perceive. If we
believe that there is almighty power, and supreme
wisdom employed for sustaining that
beautiful system of plants and animals which
is so interesting to us, we must certainly conclude,
that the earth, on which this system of
living things depends, has been constructed
on principles that are adequate to the end proposed,
and procure it a perfection which it is
our business to explore. Therefore, a proper
system of the earth should lead us to see that
wise contraction, by which this earth is made
to answer the purpose of its intention and to
preserve itself from every accident by which
the design of this living world might be frustrated
as this world is an active scene.
or a material machine moving in all its parts,
we must see how this machine is so contrived,
as either to have those parts to move without
wearing and decay, or to have those parts,
which are wasting and decaying, again repaired.</p>

<p>A rock or stone is not a subject that, of itself,
may interest a philosopher to study; but,
when he comes to see the necessity of those
hard bodies, in the constitution of this earth,
or for the permanency of the land on which
we dwell, and when he finds that there are
means wisely provided for the renovation of
this necessary decaying part, as well as that of
every other, he then, with pleasure, contemplates
this manifestation of design, and thus
connects the mineral system of this earth with
that by which the heavenly bodies are made
to move perpetually in their orbits. It is not,
therefore, simply by seeing the concretion of
mineral bodies that a philosopher is to be gratified
in his his intellectual pursuit, but by the
contemplation of that system in which the
necessary resolution of this earth, while at
present it serves the purpose of vegetation,
or the fertility of our soil, is the very means
employed in furnishing the materials of future
land.</p>

<p>It is such a view as this that I have endeavoured
to represent in the theory which
I have given. I have there stated the present
situation of things, by which we are led to
perceive a former state; and, from that necessary
progress of actual things, I have concluded
a certain system according to which
things will be changed, without any accident
or error. It is by tracing this regular system
in nature that a philosopher is to perceive the
wisdom with which this world has been contrived;
but, he must see that wisdom founded
upon the aptitude of all the parts to fulfil
the intention of the design; and that intention
is to be deduced from the end which is
known to be attained. Thus we are first to
reason from effect to cause, in seeing the order
of that which has already happened; and
then, from those known causes, to reason forwards,
so as to conceive that which is to come
to pass in time. Such would be the philosophy
of this earth, formed by the highest generalisation
of phenomena, a generalisation
which had required the particular investigation
of inductive reasoning.</p>

<p>That no such theory as this, founded upon
water as an agent operating in the changes of
this earth, has yet appeared, will, I believe
be easily allowed. With regard again to fire
as an agent in the mineral operations of this
earth, geologists have formed no consistent
theory. They see volcanoes in all the quarters
of the globe, and from those burning
mountains, they conjecture other mountains
have been formed. But a burning mountain
is only a matter of fact; and, they have not
on this formed any general principle, for establishing
what may be called a theory of the
earth. Those who have considered subterraneous
fires as producing certain effects, neither
know how these have been procured, nor do
they see the proper purpose for which they
are employed in the system of this world.
In this case, the agent fire is only seen as a
destructive element, in like manner as deluges
of water have been attributed by others to
changes which have happened in the natural
state of things. These operations are seen only
as the accidents of nature, and not as part
of that design by which the earth, which is
necessarily wasted in the operations of the
world, is to be repaired.</p>

<p>So far from employing heat or subterraneous
fire as an agent in the mineral operations
of the earth, the volcanic philosophers do not
even attempt to explain upon that principle
the frequent nodules of calcareous, zeolite,
and other spatose and agaty substances, in those
basaltic bodies which they consider as lavas.
Instead then of learning to see the operation
of heat as a general principle of mineral consolidation
and crystallization, the volcanic philosophers
endeavour to explain those particular
appearances, which they think inconsistent
with fusion, by aqueous infiltration, no otherwise
than other mineralists who do not admit
the igneous origin of those basaltic bodies.
Thus, that great agent, subterraneous heat, has
never been employed by geologists, as a general
principle in the theory of the earth; it
has been only considered as an occasional circumstance,
or as the accident of having certain
mineral bodies, which are inflammable,
kindled in the earth, without so much as seeing
how that may be done.</p>

<p>This agent heat, then, is a new principle
to be employed in forming a theory of the
earth; a principle that must have been in the
constitution of this globe, when contrived to
subsist as a world, and to maintain a system of
living bodies perpetuating their species. It is
therefore necessary to connect this great mineral
principle, subterraneous fire or heat,
with the other operations of the world, in
forming a general theory. For, whether we
are to consider those great and constant explosions
of mineral fire as a principal agent in
the design, or only as a casual event depending
upon circumstances which give occasion
to an operation of such magnitude, here is an
object that must surely have its place in every
general theory of the earth.</p>

<p>In examining things which actually exist,
and which have proceeded in a certain order,
it is natural to look for that which had been
first; man desires to know what had been the
beginning of those things which now appear.
But when, in forming a theory of the earth,
a geologist shall indulge his fancy in framing,
without evidence, that which had preceded
the present order of things, he then either
misleads himself, or writes a fable for the
amusement of his reader. A theory of the
earth, which has for object truth, can have no
retrospect to that which had preceded the present
order of this world; for, this order alone
is what we have to reason upon; and to reason
without data is nothing but delusion. A
theory, therefore, which is limited to the actual
constitution of this earth, cannot be allowed
to proceed one step beyond the present
order of things.</p>

<p>But, having surveyed the order of this living
world, and having investigated the progress
of this active scene of life, death and circulation,
we find ample data on which to
found a train of the most conclusive reasoning
with regard to a general design. It is thus
that there is to be perceived another system.
of active things for the contemplation of our
mind;&mdash;things which, though not immediately
within our view, are not the less certain
in being out of our sight; and things which
must necessarily be comprehended in the
theory of the earth, if we are to give stability
to it as a world sustaining plants and animals.
This is a mineral system, by which the decayed
constitution of an earth, or fruitful surface
of habitable land, may be continually renewed
in proportion as it is wasted in the operations
of this world.</p>

<p>It is in this mineral system that I have occasion
to compare the explanations, which I
give of certain natural appearances, with the
theories or explanations which have been
given by others, and which are generally received
as the proper theory of those mineral
operations. I am, therefore, to examine those
different opinions, respecting the means employed
by nature for producing particular appearances
in the construction of our land, appearances
which must be explained in some
consistent mineral theory.</p>

<p>These appearances may all be comprehended
under two heads, which are now to be
mentioned, in order to see the importance of
their explanation, or purpose which such an
explanation is to serve in a theory of the earth.
The first kind of these appearances is that of
known bodies which we find composing part
of the masses of our land, bodies whose natural
history we know, as having existed in
another state previous to the composition of
this earth where they now are found; these
are the relicts or parts of animal and vegetable
bodies, and various stony substances broken
and worn by attrition, all which had belonged
to a former earth. By means of these known
objects, we are to learn a great deal of the
natural history of this earth; and, it is in
tracing that history, from where we first perceive
it, to the present state of things, that
forms the subject of a geological and mineralogical
theory of this earth. But, we are
more especially enabled to trace those operations
of the earth, by means of the second
kind of appearances, which are now to be
mentioned.</p>

<p>These again are the evident changes which
those known bodies have undergone, and
which have been induced upon such collected
masses of which those bodies constitute a
part. These changes are of three sorts; <i>first</i>,
the solid state, and various degrees of it, in
which we now find those masses which had
been originally formed by the collection of
loose and incoherent materials; <i>secondly</i>, the
subsequent changes which have evidently
happened to those consolidated masses which
have been broken and displaced, and which
have had other mineral substances introduced
into those broken and disordered parts; and,
<i>lastly</i>, that great change of situation which has
happened to this compound mass formed originally
at the bottom of the sea, a mass which,
after being consolidated in the mineral region,
is now situated in the atmosphere above the
surface of the sea.</p>

<p>In this manner we are led to the system of
the world, or theory of the earth in general;
for, that great change of situation, which our
land has undergone, cannot be considered as
the work of accident, or any other than an
essential part in the system of this world. It
is therefore a proper view of the necessary
connection and mutual dependence of all those
different systems of changing things that forms
the theory of this earth as a world, or as that
active part of nature which the philosophy of
this earth has to explore. The animal system
is the first or last of these; next comes the
vegetable system, on which the life of animals
depends; then comes the system of this earth,
composed of atmosphere, sea, and land, and
comprehending the various chemical, mechanical,
and meteorologically operations which
take place upon that surface where vegetation
must proceed; and, lastly, we have the mineral
system to contemplate, a system in which
the wasting surface of the earth is employed
in laying the foundation of future land within
the sea, and a system in which the mineral
operations are employed in concocting that
future land.</p>

<p>Now, such must surely be the theory of this
earth, if the land is continually wasting in the
operations of this world; for, to acknowledge
the perfection of those systems of plants and
animals perpetuating their species, and to suppose
the system of this earth on which they must
depend, to be imperfect, and in time to perish,
would be to reason inconsistently or absurdly.
This is the view of nature that I would wish
philosophers to take; but, there are certain
prejudices of education or prepossession of
opinion among them to be overcome, before
they can be brought to see those fundamental
propositions,&mdash;the wasting of the land, and
the necessity of its renovation by the co-operation
of the mineral system. Let us then
consider how men of science, in examining
the mineral state of things, and reasoning from
those appearances by which we are to learn
the physiology of this earth, have misled themselves
with regard to physical causes, and formed
certain mineralogical and geological theories,
by which their judgment is so perverted,
in examining nature, as to exclude them from
the proper means of correcting their first erroneous
notions, or render them blind to the
clearest evidence of any other theory that is
proposed.</p>

<p>When men of science reason upon subjects
where the ideas are distinct and definite, with
terms appropriated to the ideas, they come to
conclusions in which there is no difference of
opinion. It is otherwise in physical subjects,
where things are to be assimilated, in being
properly compared; there, things are not
always compared in similar and equal circumstances
or conditions; and there, philosophers
often draw conclusions beyond the analogy of
the things compared, and thus judge without
data. When, for example, they would form
the physical induction, with regard to the effect
of fire or water upon certain substances
in the mineral regions, from the analogy of
such events as may be observed upon the surface
of the earth, they are apt to judge of
things acting under different circumstances or
conditions, consequently not producing similar
effects; in which case, they are judging without
reason, that is, instead of inductive reasoning
from actual data or physical truth, they
are forming data to themselves purely by supposition,
consequently, so far as these, imagined
data may be wrong, the physical conclusion,
of these philosophers may be erroneous.</p>

<p>It is thus that philosophers have judged,
with regard to the effects of fire and water
upon mineral substances below the bottom of
the sea, from what their chemistry had taught
them to believe concerning bodies exposed to
those agents in the atmosphere or on the surface
of the earth. If in those two cases the
circumstances were the same, or similar, consequently
the conditions of the action not
changed, then, the inductive reasoning, which
they employ in that comparison, would be just;
but, so far as it is evidently otherwise, to have
employed that inductive conclusion for the explanation
of mineral appearances, without having
reason to believe that those changed circumstances
of the case should not make any
difference in the action or effect, is plainly to
have transgressed the rules of scientific reasoning;
consequently, instead of being a proper
physical conclusion, it is only that imperfect
reasoning of the vulgar which, by comparing
things not properly analysed or distinguished,
is so subject to be erroneous. This vague reasoning,
therefore, cannot be admitted as a part
of any geological or mineral theory. Now I
here maintain, that philosophers have judged
in no other manner than by this false analogy,
when they conclude that water is the agent by
which mineral concretions have been formed.
But it will be proper to state more particularly
the case of that misunderstanding among mineral
philosophers.</p>

<p>In forming a geological theory, the general
construction of this earth, and the materials of
which it is composed, are such visible objects,
and so evident to those who will take the pains
to examine nature, that here is a subject in
which there cannot be any doubt or difference
of opinion. Neither can there be any dispute
concerning the place and situation of
mass when it was first formed or composed;
for, this is clearly proved, from every concomitant
circumstance, to have been at the bottom
of the sea. The only question in this
case, that can be made, is, How that mass
comes now to be a solid body, and above the
surface of the sea in which it had been formed?</p>

<p>With regard to the last, the opinions of philosophers
have been so dissonant, so vague, and
so unreasonable, as to draw to no conclusion.
Some suppose the land to be discovered by the
gradual retreat of the ocean, without proposing
to explain to us from whence had come the
known materials of a former earth, which
compose the highest summits of the mountains
in the highest continents of the earth.
Others suppose the whole of a former earth to
have subsided below the bottom even of the
present sea, and together with it all the water
of the former sea, from above the summits of
the present mountains, which had then been
at the bottom of the former sea. The placing
of the bottom of the sea, or any part of it, in
the atmosphere so as to be dry land, is no
doubt a great operation to be performed, and
a difficult task to be explained; but this is only
an argument the more for philosophers to
agree in adopting the most reasonable means.</p>

<p>But though philosophers differ so widely in
that point, this is not the case with regard to
the concretion of mineral bodies; here mineralists
seem to be almost all of one mind, at
the same time without any reason, at least,
without any other reason than that false analogy
which they have inconsiderately formed
from the operations of the surface of this earth.
This great misunderstanding of mineralists has
such an extensive and baneful effect in the
judging of geological theories, that it will be
proper here to explain how that has happened,
and to show the necessity of correcting that
erroneous principle before any just opinion
can be formed upon the subject.</p>

<p>Fire and water are two great agents in the
system of this earth; it is therefore most natural
to look for the operation of those agents
in the changes which are made on bodies in
the mineral regions; and as the consolidated
state of those bodies, which had been collected
at the bottom of the sea, may have been
supposed to be induced either by fusion, or by
the concretion from a solution, we are to consider
how far natural appearance lead to the
conclusion of the one or other of those two
different operations. Here, no doubt, we are
to reason analogically from the known power
and effects of those great agents; but, we must
take care not to reason from a false analogy,
by misunderstanding the circumstances of the
case, or not attending to the necessary conditions
in which those agents act.&mdash;We must not
conclude that fire cannot burn in the mineral
regions because our fires require the ventilation
of the atmosphere; for, besides the actual
exigence of mineral fire being a notorious matter
of fact, we know that much more powerful
means <i>may</i> be employed by nature, for that
mineral purpose of exciting heat, than those
which we practise.&mdash;We must not conclude
that mineral marble is formed in the same manner
as we see a similar stony substance produced
upon the surface of the earth, unless we
should have reason to suppose the analogy to
be complete. But, this is the very error into
which mineral philosophers have fallen; and
this is the subject which I am now to endeavour
to illustrate.</p>

<p>The manner in which those philosophers
have deceived themselves when reasoning upon
the subject of mineral concretion, is this:
They see, that by means of water a stony substance
is produced; and, this stony body so
much resembles mineral marble as to be hardly
distinguishable in certain cases. These mineral
philosophers then, reasoning in the manner
of the vulgar, or without analysing the subject
to its principle, naturally attribute the formation
of the mineral marble to a cause of the
same sort; and, the mineral marble being found
so intimately connected with all other mineral
bodies, we must necessarily conclude, in reasoning
according to the soundest principles,
that all those different substances had been
concreted in the same manner. Thus, having
once departed one step from the path of just
investigation, our physical science is necessarily
bewildered in the labyrinth of error. Let us
then, in re-examining our data, point out where
lies that first devious step which had been
impregnated with fixed air, or carbonic
acid gas, (as it is called), dissolves a certain
portion of mild calcareous earth or marble;
consequently such acidulated water, that is, water
impregnated with this gas, will, by filtrating
through calcareous substances, become saturated
with that solution of marble; and, this
solution is what is called a <i>petrifying water</i>.
When this solution is exposed to the action of
the atmosphere, the acid gas, by means of which
the stony substance is dissolved, evaporates from
the solution, in having a stronger attraction for
the atmospheric air; it is then that the marble,
or calcareous substance, concretes and crystallises,
separating from the water in a sparry state,
and forming a very solid stone by the successive
accretion from the solution, as it comes to
be exposed to the influence of the atmosphere
in flowing over the accumulating body. Here
is the source of their delusion; for, they do
not distinguish properly the case of this solution
of a stony substance concreting by means
of the separation of its solvent, and the case of
such a solution being in a place where that necessary
condition cannot be supposed to exist;
such as, e.g., the interstices among the particles
of sand, clay, etc. deposited at the bottom of
the sea, and accumulated in immense stratified
masses.</p>

<p>No example can better illustrate how pernicious
it is to science to have admitted a false
principle, on which a chain of reasoning is to
proceed in forming a theory. Mineral philosophers
have founded their theory upon that
deceitful analogy, which they had concluded
between the stalactical concretions of petrifying
waters and the marble formed in the mineral
regions; thus, blinded by prejudice,
they shut the door against the clearest evidence;
and it is most difficult to make them see the
error of their principle. But this is not to be
wondered at, when we consider how few among
philosophising men remount to the first principles
of their theory; and, unless they shall
thus remount to that first step, in which the
concreting operation of a dissolved stony substance
is supposed to take place without the
necessary conditions for the petrifying operation,
it is impossible to be convinced that their
theory, thus formed with regard to mineral
concretion, is merely supposition, and has no
foundation in matter of fact from whence it
should proceed.</p>

<p>But this is not all; for, even supposing their
theory to be well founded and just, it is plainly
contradicted by natural appearances. According
to that theory of aqueous consolidation,
all the stratified bodies, of which this earth in
general consists, should be found in the natural
order of their regular formation; but, instead
of this, they are found every where disturbed
in that order more or less; in many
places this order and regularity is so disturbed
as hardly to be acknowledged; in most places
we find those stratified bodies broken, dislocated,
and contorted, and this aqueous theory
of mineralists has neither the means for attaining
that end, were it required in their theory,
nor have they any such purpose in their theory,
were that end attainable by the means
which they employ. Thus blinded by the
prejudice of a false analogy, they do not even
endeavour to gratify the human understanding
(which naturally goes in quest of wisdom
and design) by forming a hypothetical or specious
theory of the mineral system; and they
only amuse themselves with the supposition of
an unknown operation of water for the explanation
of their cabinet specimens, a supposition
altogether ineffectual for the purpose of
forming a habitable earth, and a supposition
which is certainly contradicted by every natural
appearance.</p>

<p>Thus, in examining geological and mineralogical
theories, I am laid under the disagreeable
necessity of pointing out the errors of
physical principles which are assumed, the prejudices
of theoretical opinions which have
been received, and the misconceived notions
which philosophers entertain with regard to
the system of nature, in which may be perceived
no ineffectual operation, nor any destructive
intention, but the wise and benevolent
purpose of preserving the present order of
this world. But, though thus misled with
regard to the cause of things, naturalists are
every where making interesting observations
in the mineral kingdom, I shall therefore
avail myself of that instructive information,
for the confirmation of my theory.</p>

<p>It may now be proper to consider what
must be required, in order to have a geological
and mineral theory established upon scientific
principles, or on such grounds as must
give conviction to those who will examine the
subject; for, unless we may clearly see that
there are means for attaining that desirable
end, few philosophers will be persuaded to
pursue this branch of knowledge.</p>

<p>A theory is nothing but the generalization
of particular facts; and, in a theory of the
earth, those facts must be taken from the observations
of natural history. Nature is considered
as absolutely true; no error or contradiction
can be found in nature. For, if such
contradiction were truly found, if the stone,
for example, which fell to day were to rise
again to-morrow, there would be an end of
natural philosophy, our principles would fail,
and we would no longer investigate the rules
of nature from our observations.</p>

<p>Every natural appearance, therefore, which
is explained, <i>i.e.</i> which is made to come into
the order of things that happen, must so far
confirm the theory to which it then belongs.
But is it necessary, that every particular appearance,
among minerals, should be thus explained
in a general theory of the earth?
And, is any appearance, which is not explained
by it, to be considered as sufficient to discredit
or confute a theory which corresponded
with every other appearance? Here is a
question which it would require some accuracy
to resolve.</p>

<p>If we knew all the powers of nature, and all
the different conditions in which those powers
may have their action varied, that is to say,
if we were acquainted with every physical
cause, then every natural effect, or all appearances
upon the surface of this earth, might be
explained in a theory that were just. But,
seeing that this is far from being the case, and
that there may be many causes of which we
are as yet ignorant, as well as certain conditions
in which the known action of powers
may be varied, it must be evident, that a
theory of the earth is not to be confuted by
this argument alone, That there are, among
natural bodies, certain appearances which are
not explained by the theory. We must admit,
that, not having all the data which natural
philosophy requires, we cannot pretend to
explain every thing which appears; and that
our theories, which necessarily are imperfect,
are not to be considered as erroneous when
not explaining every thing which is in nature,
but only when they are found contrary
to or inconsistent with the laws of nature,
which are known, and with which the case in
question may be properly compared.</p>

<p>But we may have different theories to compare
with nature; and, in that case, the
question is not, How far any of those theories
should explain all natural appearances? but,
How far any one particular theory might explain
a phenomenon better than another? In
this case of comparison, it will be evident, that
if one theory explains natural appearances,
then the opposite to that theory cannot be
supposed to explain the same appearances. If
for example, granite, porphyry, or basaltes,
should be found naturally formed by fusion,
the formation of those stones could not be
supposed in any case as formed by water, although
it could not be demonstrated that
water is incapable of forming those mineral
productions.</p>

<p>In like manner, if those three bodies were
proved to have been actually formed by water
alone, then, in other cases where we should
have no proof, they could not be supposed as
having been formed by fire or fusion. It
must be evident, that an equal degree of proof
of those two different propositions would leave
our judgment in suspence, unless that proof
were perfect, in which case, we would have
two different causes producing similar effects.
But, if we shall have a sufficient proof upon
the one side, and only a presumptive proof
or probability upon the other, we must reject
that probability or presumption, when opposed
by a proof, although that proof were only
an induction by reasoning from similar effects
as following similar causes. <i>A fortiori</i>,
if there be on one side a fair induction, without
the least suspicion of error, and on the
other nothing but a mere presumption founded
upon a distant analogy, which could not
even properly apply, then, the inductive proof
would be as satisfactory as if there had not
been any supposition on the opposite side.</p>

<p>So far as a theory is formed in the generalization
of natural appearances, that theory
must be just, although it may not be perfect,
as having comprehended every appearance;
that is to say, a theory is not perfect until it
be founded upon every natural appearance;
in which case, those appearances will be explained
by the theory. The theory of gravitation,
though no ways doubtful, was not so
perfect before the shape of this globe had
been determined by actual measurement, and
before the direction of the plummet had been
tried upon Shihallion, as after those observations
had been made. But a theory which
should be merely hypothetical, or founded
upon a few appearances, can only be received
as a theory, after it has been found to correspond
properly with nature; it would then
be held a proper explanation of those natural
appearances with which it corresponded; and,
the more of those phenomena that were thus
explained by the theory, the more would that,
which had been first conjectural, be converted
into a theory legitimately founded upon natural
appearances.</p>

<p>Matter of fact is that upon which science
proceeds, by generalization, to form theory,
for the purpose of philosophy, or the knowledge
of all natural causes; and it is by the
companion of these matters of fact with any
theory, that such a theory will be tried. But,
in judging of matter of fact, let us be cautious
of deceiving ourselves, by substituting speculative
reasoning in place of actual events.</p>

<p>Nature, as the subject of our observation,
consists of two sorts of objects; for, things
are either active, when we perceive change to
take place in consequence of such action, or
they are quiescent, when we perceive no
change to take place. Now, it is evident,
that in judging of the active powers of nature
from the quiescent objects of our information,
we are liable to error, in misinterpreting the
objects which we see; we thus form to ourselves
false or erroneous opinion concerning
the general laws of action, and the powers of
nature. In comparing, therefore, generalised
facts, or theory, with particular observations,
there is required the greatest care, neither, on
the one hand, to strain the appearances, so as
to bring in to the theory a fact belonging to
another class of things; nor, on the other, to
condemn a proper theory, merely because
that theory has not been extended to the explanation
of every natural appearance.</p>

<p>But, besides the misinterpretation of matters
of fact, we are also to guard against
the misrepresentation of natural appearances.
Whether warped by the prejudice of partial
and erroneous theory, or deceived by the inaccuracy
of superficial observation, naturalists
are apt to see things in an improper light,
and thus to reason from principles which cannot
be admitted, and, which often lead to false
conclusions. A naturalist, for example, comes
to examine a cavity in the mines, he there
finds water dropping down all around him,
and he sees the cavity all hung with siliceous
crystals; he then concludes, without hesitation,
that here is to be perceived cause and
effect, or that he actually sees the formation
of those crystallizations from the operation of
water. It is thus that I have been told by
men of great mineral knowledge, men who
must have had the best education upon that
subject of mineralogy, and who have the superintendance
of great mineral concerns in
Germany, that they had actually seen nature
at work in that operation of forming rock-crystal;&mdash;they
saw what I have now described;
they could see no more; but, they saw
what had convinced them of that which, there
is every reason to believe, never happened.
With regard to my theory, I wish for the
most rigorous examination; and do not ask
for any indulgence whatever, whether with
regard to the principles on which the theory
is built, or for the application of the theory
to the explanation of natural appearances.
But, let not geologists judge my theory by
their imperfect notions of nature, or by those
narrow views which they take of the present
state of things;&mdash;let not mineralogists condemn
my theory, for no other reason but because
it does not correspond with their false
principles, and those gratuitous suppositions
by which they had been pleased to explain to
themselves every thing before. First let them
look into their own theory, and correct that
erroneous principle, with regard to the action
of water, or the assumption of unknown causes,
upon which they have reasoned in forming
their vague notions of the mineral region,
before they can be properly qualified to examine,
impartially, a theory which employs
another principle. Every thing which has
come under my observation shall be, as far as
I can, faithfully related; nor shall I withhold
those which neither the present theory,
nor any other that I am acquainted with, can,
I think, explain.</p>

<p>Appearances cannot well be described except
in relation to some theory or general arrangement
of the subject; because the particular
detail, of every part in a complicated appearance,
would be endless and insignificant.
When, however, any question in a theory depends
upon the nature of an appearance, we
cannot be too particular in describing that by
which the question is to be decided. But
though it be sometimes proper to be minute
in a particular, it is always, and above all
things, necessary to be distinct; and not to
confound together things which are of different
natures. For, though it be by finding
similarity, in things which at first sight may
seem different, that science is promoted and
philosophy attained, yet, we must have a distinct
view of those things which are to be assimilated;
and surely the lowest state of knowledge
in any subject, is the not distinguishing
things which, though not to common observation
different, are not truly the same.</p>

<p>To confound, for example one stone with
another, because they were both hard, friable,
and heavy, would be to describe, with the superficial
views of vulgar observation; whereas
science specifies the weight and hardness,
and thus accurately distinguishes the stone.</p>

<p>Before naturalists had learned to distinguish
what they saw, and to describe, in known
terms, those natural appearances, a theorist
must have generalised only from his proper
observation. This has been my case. When
I first conceived my theory, few naturalists
could write intelligibly upon the subject; but
that is long ago, and things are much altered
since; now there are most enlightened men
making observations, and communicating natural
knowledge. I have the satisfaction, almost
every day, to compare the theory, which
I had formed from my proper observations,
with the actual state of things in almost every
quarter of the globe.</p>

<p>Whether, therefore, we mean to try a theory
by its application to such phenomena as are
well understood, or to learn something from
the application of particular phenomena to a
well established theory, we shall always find
it interesting to have appearances described;
particularly such as may be referred to some
general rule, as circumscribing it to certain
conditions, or as finding rule in rule, that is to
say, discovering those particular conditions in
which the general laws of action may be affected.</p>

<p>Instead, for example, of the rule which
we find in the application of heat for the fusion
and evaporation of mineral substances upon
the surface of this earth, we may find it
necessary to consider the effect which changed
circumstances produce in the mineral regions,
and occasion a change of that rule of action
which we have learned from experience,
when melting and evaporating those substances
in the atmosphere or on the surface of the
earth.</p>

<p>It is in this manner that a theory, which
was formed by the generalization of particular
facts, comes to be a source of information,
by explaining to us certain appearances which
otherwise we could not understand. Thus, it
was not the appearance of the tides that taught
the theory of gravitation; it was the theory of
gravitation that made us understand the appearance
of the tides. In like manner, the law
of gravitation, which was demonstrated from
the motion of the moon in her orbit round
this earth, when applied to the paths of comets,
explained that appearance. Our theory,
of a central fire, has been formed upon
the consolidation of the strata of this earth;
but this theory is to be applied for the explanation
of various different appearances. In
this manner, two different purposes will be
served; the trying of the theory by its application
to phenomena; and the explanation of
phenomena by the principles laid open in the
theory.</p>

<p>I may repeat it; a theory of the earth must
ultimately depend upon matter of fact or particular
observation; but those observations must
be distinct, and those distinguished things must
be generalised. We have just now given for
an example, a distinction among stones, in
knowing them by their sensible qualities. But,
besides distinguishing those objects, we are also
to inquire into the origin and cause of those
things which are distinguished. Here, again,
we take into our aid the chemical as well
as the mechanical properties of these several
things; and hence learn to know on what their
natural form and constitution may depend.
Having thus attained the natural philosophy
of stones, we next inquire into the place and
application of those things in nature; and in
this manner we acquire some knowledge with
regard to the natural constitution of this earth.
We find this earth composed of known things;
it is therefore the operations, required in these
compositions, which form the natural philosophy
of this earth, considered as a body of solid
land. But, the solid land is only one part
of the globe; therefore, the philosophy of the
globe proceeds still farther by knowing the
constitution of this planetary body, as consisting
of different parts united for a purpose,
which is that of a world.</p>

<p>The general theory of this earth as a world,
will thus appear to be a complex thing, which
however founded upon simple principles, contains
many subjects of discussion, and requires
attention to a variety of particulars. For, not
only the great features of this earth are to be
explained by the theory, but also the most minute
appearance, such as are to be found, even
with microscopic observation, in every particular
part.</p>

<p>Thus the nature, constitution, and cause
of every particular appearance in the construction
of this earth, are to be investigated
in a geological theory, as well as that general
constitution of the world in which all
the particular parts are to be employed for a
purpose.</p>

<p>If the subject here examined shall be found
properly explained, there will remain little
doubt with regard to the justness of the theory,
which will then be applicable to other appearances
that may occur; although every
appearance is not to be explained, in a manner
equally satisfactory, by any theory which
is not perfect.</p>

<p>The first subject to be examined is the modern
theory of primitive mountains. I have
written several chapters upon that subject, having
successively acquired more light in this
interesting part of the theory, by observations
of my own in several places of this country,
as well as from the natural history of other
countries. I shall give these nearly in the order
in which they occurred, or had been written.</p>

<br>
<p>CHAP. IV.</p>

<p><i>The Supposition of Primitive Mountains refuted.</i></p>


<p>In the theory now given, the earth has been
represented as a composition of different
materials, which had existed in another form,
and as the effect of natural operations; therefore,
however various may be found the structure
of our earth, and however dissimilar some
parts of its composition may be in comparison
with others, no part should be considered as
original, in relation to the globe, or as primitive,
in relation to second causes, <i>i.e.</i> physical
operations by which those parts should have
been formed. But it is pretended by naturalists,
that there are certain primitive mountains
in the earth, bodies which have had
another origin than that of the general strata
of the globe and subsequent masses; an origin,
therefore, which cannot be considered as having
been produced from natural operations, or
as effected in the course of known causes.
Now, if it can be made to appear, that there
is no solid ground for this distinction; and if
it can be shown, that there is truly no mineral
body in this earth which may not have been
produced by operations natural to the globe,
we should thus procure a certain confirmation
of the doctrine. This also will be the
more interesting, in being deduced from a
part of natural appearances, which seemed to
be inconsistent with the theory.</p>

<p>Certain masses or mountains of granite, are
the only bodies of this earth which have
apparently a certain pretension to this species
of originality. These, therefore, must be now
the subject of our examination.</p>

<p>Granite, considered by itself, does not appear
to have any claim to originality in its
nature. It is composed of bodies which are
capable of being analysed; and these are then
found to be compositions of different substances,
which are also sometimes variously proportioned.
The feldspar and the mica, for example,
as well as the schorl, are found variously
coloured in different granites, and coloured
in various proportions. Besides the
variety in the composition, or chemical mixture
of the different bodies which compose
granite, this rock admits of a great diversity,
from the variety of its mechanical mixture,
or from the different species of bodies which
are its constituent parts. M. de Saussure, who
has examined this subject perhaps more than
any other person, and who has had the very
best opportunities for this purpose, says, that
this composition may be found in all the
different combinations which may be produced
by every possible composition of 7 or 8 different
kinds of stone, (page 108, Voyage dans
les Alpes, etc.). Neither does this fill up the
measure of its variety; for, another source of
change is found in the grain of this rock
stone; I have a specimen of this variety from
the size almost of sand to that of some inches.</p>

<p>Were granite, therefore, to be supposed
as in the original state of its creation, nature
would be considered as having operated in an
indefinite diversity of ways, without that order
and wisdom which we find in all her
works; for here would be change without a
principle, and variety without a purpose.
There is no reason, however, to suppose granite
original, more than any other composite
rock, although we may be ignorant of the particular
process in which it is formed, and although,
comparatively in relation to certain
other rocks, granite, or certain masses of this
composition, may be found of a more ancient
date.</p>

<p>If granite be truly stratified, and those strata
connected with the other strata of the earth,
it can have no claim to originality; and the
idea of primitive mountains, of late so much
employed by natural philosophers, must vanish,
in a more extensive view of the operations
of the globe; but it is certain that granite,
or a species of the same kind of stone, is thus
found stratified. It is the <i>granit feuilletée</i> of
M. de Saussure, and, if I mistake not, what is
called <i>gneis</i> by the Germans. We have it
also in our north alpine country of Scotland;
of this I have specimens, but have not seen it
in its place.</p>

<p>Granite being thus found stratified, the
masses of this stone cannot be allowed to have
any right of priority over the schistus, its
companion in the alpine countries, although M.
de Saussure, whose authority I would revere,
has given it for the following reason; that it
is found the most centrical in the chains of
high mountains, or in alpine countries. Now,
supposing this fact to be general, as he has
found it in the Alps, no argument for the
priority of those masses can be founded either
upon the height or the situation of those granite
mountains; for the height of the mountain
depends upon the solidity and strength of
the stone. Now though it is not to be here
maintained that granite is the most durable of
those alpine rocks, yet as a mountain, either
granite in general, or in particular, certain
species of it, may be esteemed such, consequently,
this massy stone, remaining highest
in the mountainous region, will naturally be
considered as the centre, and according to this
rule, as having the pre-eminence in point of
seniority.</p>

<p>The rock which stands in competition with
granite for the title of primitive in the order
of mountains, is that micaceous stratified stone
which is formed chiefly of quartz, but which
admits of great variety like the granite. The
difference between those two bodies does not
consist in the materials of which they are composed,
for, in their varieties, they may be in
this respect the same, but in a certain regularity
of composition, in this alpine stone, which evidently
arises from stratification or subsidence
in water.</p>

<p>If we shall thus consider all the varieties of
this alpine stone as being of one kind, and
call it granite, then we shall distinguish in this
body two different species, from whence perhaps
some interesting conclusion may be formed
with regard to the operations of the globe.
These two species are, <i>first</i>, granite regular in
its composition, or stratified in its construction;
and, <i>secondly</i>, granite in mass, or irregular
in its construction. Let us now endeavour
to make use of these generalizations
and distinctions.</p>

<p>In examining the great diversity of our
whinstone, trap, or basaltes, it is found at
last to granulate into granite; at the same time
those two different species of rock-stone may
be distinguished. A perfect granite has not
in its composition necessarily any argillaceous
earth, farther than may be in the natural constitution
of its distinct parts; whereas, a perfect
basalt may have abundance of this substance,
without any quartz or any siliceous
body. A perfect granite, is, therefore, an extremely
hard stone, having quartz and feldspar
for its basis; but a perfect whin or basaltes
may be extremely soft, so as to cut easily
with a knife. In like manner granite is a
composition which graduates into porphyry;
but porphyry is only whinstone of a harder
species. Therefore, though perfectly distinct,
those three things graduate into each other,
and may be considered as the same.</p>

<p>Granite and whinstone, or basaltes, though
distinct compositions, thus graduating into
each other; and whinstone, as well as porphyry,
being without doubt a species of lava,
we may consider the granite which is found
in mass without stratification, in like manner
as we do the masses of whinstone, basaltes, or
Swedish trap, as having flowed in the bowels
of the earth, and thus been produced by the
chance of place, without any proper form of
its own, or in an irregular shape and construction.
In this manner would be explained the
irregular shape or structure of those granite
masses; and thus great light would be thrown
upon the waved structure of the stratified alpine
stone, which, though it has not been
made to flow, has been brought to a great
degree of softness, so as to have the original
straight lines of its stratification changed to
those undulated or waving lines which are in
some cases extremely much incurvated.</p>

<p>It remains only to confirm this reasoning,
upon our principles, by bringing actual observation
to its support; and this we shall do
from two of the best authorities. The Chevalier
de Dolomieu, in describing the volcanic
productions of Etna, mentions a lava which
had flowed from that mountain, and which
may be considered as a granite. But M. de
Saussure has put this matter out of doubt by
describing most accurately what he had seen
both in the Alps and at the city of Lyons.
These are veins of granite which have flowed
from the contiguous mass into the stratified
stone, and leave no doubt with regard to this
proposition, that the granite had flowed in form
of subterranean lava, although M. de Saussure
has drawn a very different conclusion from
this appearance. I have also a specimen from
this country of a vein of granite in a granite
stone, the vein being of a smaller grain than
that of the rock which it traverses.<a id="footnotetag20" name="footnotetag20"></a><a href="#footnote20"><sup>20</sup></a></p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote20" name="footnote20"></a><b>Footnote 20:</b><a href="#footnotetag20"> (return) </a> This is what I had wrote upon, the subject of granite,
before I had acquired such ample testimony from my
own observations upon that species of rock. I have given
some notice, in the 3d vol. of the Transactions of the
Edinburgh R.S. concerning the general result of those
observations, which will be given particularly in the course
of this work.</blockquote>

<p>It will thus appear, that the doctrine which
of late has prevailed, of primitive mountains,
or something which should be considered as
original in the construction of this earth, must
be given up as a false view of nature, which
has formed the granite upon the same principle
with that of any other consolidated stratum;
so far as the collection of different materials,
and the subsequent fusion of the compound
mass, are necessary operations in the
preparation of all the solid masses of the earth.
Whatever operations of the globe, therefore,
may be concluded from the composition of
granite masses, as well as of the alpine strata,
these must be considered as giving us information
with regard to the natural history of
this earth; and they will be considered as important,
in proportion as they disclose to us
truths, which from other strata might not be
so evident, or at all made known.</p>

<p>Let us now examine the arguments, which,
may be employed in favour of that supposition
of primitive mountains.</p>

<p>The observations, on which naturalists have
founded that opinion of originality in some
of the component parts of our earth, are these;
<i>first</i>, They observe certain great masses of granite
in which stratification is not to be perceived;
this then they say is an original mass,
and it is not to be derived from any natural
operation of the globe; <i>secondly</i>, They observe
considerable tracts of the earth composed of
matter in the order of stratification as to its
general composition, but not as to its particular
position, the vertical position here prevailing,
instead of the horizontal which is proper
to strata formed in water; this, therefore,
they also term primitive, and suppose it to be
from another origin than that of the subsidence
of materials moved in the waters of the globe;
<i>lastly</i>, They observe both strata and masses of
calcareous matter in which they cannot distinguish
any marine body as is usual in other
strata of the same substance; and these calcareous
masses being generally connected with
their primitive mountains, they have also included
these collections of calcareous matter,
in which marine bodies are not observed,
among the primitive parts which they suppose
to be the original construction of this globe.</p>

<p>It may be proper to see the description of
a calcareous alpine mountain. M. de Saussure
gives us the following observations concerning
a mountain of this kind in the middle of
the Alps, where the water divides in running
different ways towards the sea. It is in describing
the passage of the Bon-Homme,
(Tom. 2. V. dans les Alpes).</p>

<p>"§ 759. Sur la droite ou au couchant de
ces rochers, on voit une montagne calcaire
étonnante dans ce genre par la hardiesse
avec laquelle elle élève contre le ciel ses
cimes aigues et tranchantes, taillées à angles
vifs dans le costume des hautes cimes de
granit. Elle est pourtant bien sûrement calcaire,
je l'ai observée de près, et on rencontre
sur cette route les blocs qui s'en détachent.</p>

<p>"Cette pierre porte les caractères des calcaires
les plus anciennes; sa couleur est
grise, son grain assez fin, on n'y apperçoit
aucun vestige de corps organisés; ses couches
sont peu épaisses, ondées et coupées fréquemment
par des fentes parallèles entr'elles
et perpendiculaires à leurs plans. On trouve
aussi parmi ces fragmens des brèches calcaires
grises."</p>

<p>Here is a mountain which will rank with
the most primitive of the earth; But why?
only because it is extremely consolidated without
any mark of organised body. Had there
been in this mountain but one single shell, we
should not then have scrupled to conclude that
the origin of this lofty mountain had been the
same with every marble or limestone in the
earth. But though, from the structure of this
stone, there is no mark of its having been
formed immediately of the calcareous parts of
animals, there is every mark of those calcareous
strata having been formed like other marbles
by deposit in the waters of the globe.</p>

<p>These two things are also homologated by
the equal or perfect consolidation of their substance;
for, as it is to be proved that all stratified
marbles have been consolidated by the
fusion of their substance, we must attribute the
same consolidating cause to those alpine masses;
the frequent veins that divide those calcareous
strata which M. de Saussure has here
described, also prove the nature of the consolidating
cause, (see Chap. 1. page 111.).</p>

<p>This mountain, considered by itself, may
perhaps afford no data by which a naturalist
might read the circumstances of its origin.
But, Is a theory of the earth to be formed upon
such a negative observation? and, Is there
any particular in this mountain, that may not
be shown in others of which the origin is not
in any degree doubtful?</p>

<p>It is not to be disputed, that there are parts
of the solid body of our earth which may be
considered as primary or prior, compared with
others that are posterior, in relation to the time
of their formation, and much less changed with
regard to the state in which they had been originally
formed:&mdash;But it is here denied, that
there are any parts of the earth which do not
appear to have had the same origin with all
the rest, so far as this consists in the collection
of materials deposited at the bottom of the waters<a id="footnotetag21" name="footnotetag21"></a><a href="#footnote21"><sup>21</sup></a>;
for there is no solid mass of land that
may not be traced to this origin, either from
its composition, or from its local connection
with other masses, the nature of which in this
respect are known. We have already given
examples of this from sufficient authority.
The evidence, therefore, of those primary masses
being original in relation to the natural
operations of the globe, is reduced to this assertion,
that there are no vestiges of organised
bodies to be found in those primary masses.
Let us now examine how far this testimony
for the originality of those masses is to be admitted
in fact and sound reasoning.</p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote21" name="footnote21"></a><b>Footnote 21:</b><a href="#footnotetag21"> (return) </a> There are no collection of those alpine masses in
which may not be found in some of them sand, mica, and
gravel; but these materials prove the existence of an earth,
on which those fragments of greater masses had been formed,
and more or less worn by attrition.</blockquote>

<p>The matter in question at present is this,
that there are certain tracts of countries in
which no vestige of organised bodies are found;
now, let us suppose the fact to be true or well
grounded, Can we conclude from this that
there had been originally no organised bodies
in the composition of those masses?&mdash;Such a
conclusion could only be formed in making a
supposition, that every organised body deposited
in a mass of matter, whether homogeneous
or heterogeneous, should be preserved
without change, while the collected mass, in
which it had been deposited, changes as much
as possible by the operation both of fire and
water. But this supposition is erroneous, and
cannot be admitted; and the study of marbles
will demonstrate this truth, that the calcareous
relics of organised bodies are changed, in the
consolidating operations of the globe, in every
degree, from the smallest alteration to the
greatest, when they become indistinguishable
any farther to our sight.</p>

<p>Therefore, from the supposition of no appearance
of marine bodies in the pretended
primitive masses, there is no sufficient evidence
or reason to conclude, that those masses have
not had a marine origin; because, the traces
of organised bodies may be obliterated by the
many subsequent operations of the mineral
region; and which operations, the present
state of those masses certify beyond dispute.</p>

<p>We are now to examine the fact, how far
the ground on which that false reasoning had
been founded is strictly true.</p>

<p>In the first place, then, it must be considered,
that the alleged fact is nothing but a negative
assertion, importing that no mark of
organised bodies had been observed, in certain
stones and strata which some naturalists have
examined with that view. But, though many
naturalists have looked for them without success,
it does not follow that such marks may
not be found; it indeed proves that such a
task is difficult, and the success of it, to a particular,
most precarious; accident, however,
may bring about what the greatest industry has
not been able to attain. Secondly, there is
good reason to believe that this asserted negation
is not absolutely true; for I have in my
possession what I consider as proof of the contrary;
I found it in Wales, and I think it is
in what may be considered as primitive mountains;&mdash;it
is the mark of shells in a stone of
that kind.</p>

<p>Thus, I had formed my opinion with regard
to this alleged fact, long before I had seen
any description either of the Alps or Pyrennean
mountains; and now I have no reason to
change that opinion. It may indeed be alleged,
that the strata of marble or limestone,
containing marine bodies found in those mountains,
are secondary strata, and not the primitive.
To this I can give no reply, as the descriptions
given of those strata do not enable
me to decide this point.</p>

<p>At the village of Mat, under the Mont Blatten
for example, there is a quarry of schistus
or black slate, in which are often found the
print and the bones of fishes. (Discours sur
l'Histoire Naturelle de la Suisse, page 225.). If
this may be considered as an alpine or primitive
schistus, it would be decisive of the question:
But it would require to have it well ascertained
that this schistus is truly one of those
which are esteemed primitive, or that it is properly
connected with them.</p>

<p>But though I cannot find in those interesting
descriptions which we now have got, any
one which is demonstrative of this truth, that
calcareous marine objects are found in the primitive
strata, this is not the case with regard
to another object equally important in deciding
this question, Whether the primitive strata
are found containing the marks of organised
bodies?</p>

<p>M. de Dellancourt, in his <i>Observations Minéralogiques</i>,
Journal de Physique Juillet 1786,
in describing the mountains of Dauphiné,
gives us the following fact with regard to
those alpine vertical strata.</p>

<p>"La pierre constituante de la montagne
d'Oris est en général le <i>Kneifs</i> ou la roche
feuilletée mica et quartz à couches plus ou
moins ferrées quelquefois le schorl en roche
pénétré de stéatite. Les couches varient infiniment
quant à leur direction et à leur
inclinaisons. Cette montagne est cultivée
et riche dans certain cantons, surtout autour
du village d'Oris, mais elle est très-escarpée
dans beaucoup d'autres. Entre le village
d'Oris et celui du Tresnay est une espèce de
combe assez creuse formée par la chute des
eaux des cimes supérieures des rochers. Cette
combe offre beaucoup de schiste dont les
couches font ou très-inclinées ou perpendiculaires.
Entre ces couches il s'en est trouvé
de plus noires que les autres et capable de
brûler, mais difficilement. Les habitans ont
extrait beaucoup de cette matière terreuse,
et lui ont donné le nom de charbon de terre.
Ils viennent même à bout de la faire brûler,
et de s'en servir l'hiver en la mêlant avec
du bois. Ce schiste noir particulier m'a paru
exister principalement dans les endroits ou
les eaux se sont infiltrées entre les couches
perpendiculaires, et y ont entraîné diverse
matières, et sur-tout des débris de végétaux
que j'ai encore retrouvés à demi-noirs, pulvérulens
et comme dans un état charbonneux."</p>

<p>This formation of coal, by the infiltration
of water and carrying in of vegetable bodies,
certainly cannot be admitted of; consequently,
from this description, there would seem to
be strata of coal alternated with the alpine
schisti. But the formation of mineral coal
requires vegetable matter to have been deposited
along with those earthy substances, at
the bottom of the sea. The production of
vegetable bodies, again, requires the constitution
of sea and land, and the system of a living
world, sustaining plants at least, if not animals.</p>

<p>In this natural history of the alpine schisti,
therefore, we have a most interesting fact, an
example which is extremely rare. Seldom
are calcareous organised bodies found among
those alpine strata, but still more rarely, I believe,
are the marks of vegetable bodies having
contributed in the formation of those masses.
But however rare this example, it is equally
decisive of the question, Whether the alpine
schisti have had a similar origin as the other
strata of the globe, in which are found abundance
of animal and vegetable bodies, or their
relics? and we are authorised to say, that since
those perfect alpine strata of Dauphiné have
had that origin, all the alpine schisti of the
globe have been originally formed in a similar
manner. But to put this matter out of doubt:</p>

<p>In this summer 1788, coming from the Isle
of Man, Mr Clerk and I travelled through the
alpine schistus country of Cumberland and
Westmoreland. We found a limestone quarry
upon the banks of Windermere, near the Low-wood
Inn. I examined this limestone closely,
but despaired of finding any vestige of organised
body. The strata of limestone seem to
graduate into the slate or schistus strata, between
which the calcareous are placed. Fortunately,
however, I at last found a fragment
in which I thought to perceive the works of
organised bodies in a sparry state; I told Mr
Clerk so, and our landlord Mr Wright, who
had accompanied us. I have brought home
this specimen, which I have now ground and
polished; and now it is most evidently full of
fragments of entrochi. Mr Wright then told
me he had seen evident impressions of marine
objects, as I understood from the description,
in the slate of those mountains; and he was
to send me specimens so soon as he could procure
them.</p>

<p>Here is one specimen which at once overturns
all the speculations formed upon that
negative proposition. The schistus mountains
of Cumberland were, in this respect, as perfect
primitive mountains as any upon the earth,
before this observation; now they have no
claim upon that score, no more than any limestone
formed of shells.</p>

<p>When I first announced my belief that such
objects in natural history might be found, I
little thought to have seen it realised, to such a
degree as has now happened in the little circle
of my knowledge. In the summer 1791,</p>

<p>Professor Playfair was to pass through Cumberland.
I begged that he would inquire of
Mr Wright, at the Low-wood Inn, for those
objects which he was to endeavour to procure
for me, and to examine the limestone quarry
in which I had found the specimen with entrochi.
He went through another part of those
primary mountains, and has found examples
of this kind in the schisti; concerning which
he has written me the following account.</p>

<p>"In a visit which I made to the Lakes of
Cumberland in September 1791, in company
with the Hon. Francis Charteris, I
met with a limestone full of marine objects,
though from its position it is certainly to be
reckoned among the primary strata. The
place where we found this stone was in the
district of Lancashire, that is west of Windermere
Lake, on the road from Ambleside
to the north end of Coniston Lake, and
not far from the point when you come in
sight of the latter. Just about this spot we
happened to meet with one of those people
who serve as guides to travellers in those
parts, and who told us, among other things,
that stones with shells in them were often
found not far from where we were then
walking. We immediately began to look
about for specimens of that kind, and soon
met with several; the most remarkable of
which was in a rock that rose a little above
the surface, about 300 or 400 yards to the
right of the road. It was a part of a limestone
stratum, nearly vertical, and was full
of bivalves with the impressions as strong as
in a common secondary limestone. The
strata on both sides had the same inclination,
and were decidedly primary, consisting
of the ordinary micaceous schistus. This
however I need not remark to you, who
know so well from your own observations
that the whole of the country I am now
speaking of has every character of a primary
one. I, only mention it, that it may
not be supposed that the rock in question
was some fragment of a secondary stratum
that remained, after the rest was washed
away, superincumbent on the primary.</p>

<p>"After I had seen this rock, I recollected
that you had told me of something of the
same kind that you saw in a quarry at Low-wood
Inn; and it may be that both belonged
to the same stratum or body of strata;
for the direction of the strata, as nearly as
I could observe, was from S.W. to N.E.;
and this also is nearly the bearing of Low-wood
from the place where we now were.
I send you a specimen, which you can compare
with those you brought from the lime
quarry at Low-wood."</p>

<p>I have examined this specimen, and find it
to be the common schistus of that country,
only containing many bivalve shells and fragments
of entrochi and madrapore bodies, and
mixed with pyrites.</p>

<p>I have already observed that one single example
of a shell, or of its print, in a schistus,
or in a stone stratified among those vertical or
erected masses, suffices to prove the origin of
those bodies to have been, what I had maintained
them to be, water formed strata erected
from the bottom of the sea, like every other
consolidated stratum of the earth. But now,
I think, I may affirm, that there is not, or
rarely, any considerable extent of country of
that primary kind, in which some mark of
this origin will not be found, upon careful examination;
and now I will give my reason for
this assertion. I have been examining the south
alpine country of Scotland, occasionally, for
more than forty years back, and I never could
find any mark of an organised body in the
schistus of those mountains. It is true that I
know of only one place where limestone is
found among the strata; this is upon Tweed-side
near the Crook. This quarry I had carefully
examined long ago, but could find no
mark of any organised body in it. I suppose
they now are working some other of the vertical
strata near those which I had examined;
for, in the summer 1792, I received a letter
from Sir James Hall, which I shall now transcribe.
It is dated at Moffat, June 2. 1792.</p>

<p>"As I was riding yesterday between Noble-house
and Crook, on the road to this place,
I fell in with a quarry of alpine limestone;
it consists of four or five strata, about three
feet thick, one of them single, and the rest
contiguous; they all stand between the strata
of slate and schist that are at the place
nearly vertical. In the neighbourhood, a
slate quarry is worked of a pure blue slate;
several of the strata of slate near the limestone
are filled with fragments of limestone
scattered about like the fragments of schist
in the sandstone in the neighbourhood of
the junction on our coast.<a id="footnotetag22" name="footnotetag22"></a><a href="#footnote22"><sup>22</sup></a></p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote22" name="footnote22"></a><b>Footnote 22:</b><a href="#footnotetag22"> (return) </a> This has a reference to very curious observations which
we made upon the east coast where these mountains terminate,
and which I am to describe in the course of this
work.</blockquote>

<p>"Among the masses of limestone lately
broken off for use, and having the fractures
fresh, I found the forms of cockles quite
distinct; and in great abundance.&mdash;I send
you three pieces of this kind," etc.</p>

<p>It may perhaps be alleged that those mountains
of Cumberland and Tweedale are not
the primary mountains, but composed of the secondary
schistus, which is every where known
to contain those objects belonging to a former
earth. Naturalists who have not the opportunity
of convincing themselves by their proper
examination, must judge with regard to that
geological fact by the description of others.
Now it is most fortunate for natural history,
that it has been in this range of mountains that
we have discovered those marks of a marine
origin; for, I shall afterwards have occasion to
give the clearest light into this subject, from
observations made in other parts of those same
mountains of schist, by which it will be proved
that they are the primary strata; and thus
no manner of doubt will then remain in the
minds of naturalists, who might otherwise suspect
that we were deceiving ourselves, by mistaking
the secondary for the primitive schistus.</p>

<p>I have only farther to observe, that those
schisti mountains of Wales, of Cumberland,
and of the south alpine part of Scotland, where
these marine objects have been found, consist,
of that species of stone which in some places
makes the most admirable slate for covering
houses; and, in other parts, it breaks into
blocks that so much resemble wood in appearance,
that, without narrow inspection, it might
pass for petrified wood.</p>

<p>We are therefore to conclude that the marks
of organised bodies in those primary mountains
are certainly found; at the same time the
general observation of naturalists has some
foundation, so far as the marks of organised
bodies are both rarely to be met with in those
masses, and not easily distinguished as such
when they are found.</p>

<p>But this scarcity of marine objects is not
confined to those primary mountains, as they
are called; for among the most horizontal
strata, or those of the latest production, there
are many in which, it is commonly thought,
no marine calcareous objects are to be found;
and this is a subject that deserves to be more
particularly considered, as the theory may thus
receive some illustration.</p>

<p>Sandstone, coal, and their accompanying
strata, are thought to be destitute of calcareous
marine productions, although many vestiges
of plants or vegetable productions are there
perceived. But this general opinion is neither
accurate nor true; for though it be true that
in the coal and sandstone strata it is most common
to find marks of vegetable production,
and rarely those calcareous bodies which are
so frequent in the limestone, yet it is not unusual
for coal to be accompanied with limestone
formed of shells and corals, and also
with ironstone containing many of those marine
objects as well as wood. Besides, sandstone
frequently contains objects which have
been organised bodies, but which do not belong
to the vegetable kingdom, at least to no
plant which grows upon the land, but would
seem to have been some species of zoophite
perhaps unknown.</p>

<p>I have also frequently seen the vestige of
shells in sandstone, although in these strata
the calcareous bodies are in general not perceived.
The reason of this is evident. When
there is a small proportion of the calcareous
matter in the mass of sand which is pervious
to steam and to the percolation of water, the
calcareous bodies may be easily dissolved, and
either carried away or dispersed in the mass;
or even without being thus dispersed by means
of solution, the calcareous matter may be absorbed
by the siliceous substance of the stratum
by means of fusion, or by heat and cementation.
The fact is, that I have seen in
sandstone the empty mould of marine shells
with some siliceous crystallization, so far as I
remember, which corresponded perfectly with
that idea. The place I saw this was in a fine
white sandstone accompanying the coal, upon
the sea side at Brora in Sutherland.</p>

<p>Mineralogy is much indebted to Mr Pallas
for the valuable observations which he has
given of countries so distant from the habitations
of learned men. The physiology of the
globe has also been enriched with some interesting
observations from the labours of this
learned traveller. But besides giving us facts,
Mr Pallas has also reasoned upon the subject,
and thus entered deep into the science of Cosmogeny;
here it is that I am afraid he has
introduced some confusion into the natural
history of the earth, in not properly distinguishing
the mineral operations of the globe,
and those again which belong entirely to the
surface of the earth; perhaps also in confounding
the natural effects of water upon the
surface of the earth, with those convulsions of
the sea which may be properly considered as
the accidental operations of the globe. This
subject being strictly connected with the opinions
of that philosopher with regard to primitive
mountains, I am obliged to examine in
this place matters which otherwise might have
come more properly to be considered in
another.</p>

<p>M. Pallas in his <i>Observations sur la formation
des montagnes</i>, (page 48) makes the following
observations.</p>

<p>"J'ai déjà dit que <i>la bande de montagnes
primitives schisteuses</i> hétérogènes, qui, par
toute la terre, accompagne les chaines granitiques,
et comprend les roches quartzeuses
et talceuses mixtes, trapézoïdes, serpentines,
le schiste corne, les roches spathiques et cornées,
les grais purs, le porphyre et le jaspre,
tous rocs fêlés en couches, ou presque perpendiculaires,
ou du moins très-rapidement
inclinées, (les plus favorables à la filtration
des eaux), semble aussi-bien que le granit,
antérieure à la création organisée. Une raison
très-forte pour appuyer cette supposition,
c'est que la plupart de ces roches,
quoique lamelleuse en façon d'ardoise, n'a
jamais produit aux curieux la moindre trace
de pétrifactions ou empreintes de corps organisés.
S'il s'en est trouvé, c'est apparemment
dans des fentes de ces roches où ces
corps ont été apportés par un deluge, et
encastrées apres dans une matière infiltrée,
de même qu'on a trouvé des restes d'Eléphans
dans le filon de la mine d'argent du
Schlangenberg.<a id="footnotetag23" name="footnotetag23"></a><a href="#footnote23"><sup>23</sup></a> Les caractères par lesquels
plusieurs de ces roches semblent avoir
souffert des effets d'un feu-très-violent, les
puissantes veines et amas des minéraux les
plus riches qui se trouvent principalement
dans la bande qui en est composée, leur position
immédiate sur le granit, et même le
passage, par lequel on voit souvent en grand,
changer le granit en une des autres espèces;
tout cela indique une origine bien plus
ancienne, et des causes bien différentes de
celles qui ont produit les montagnes secondaires."</p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote23" name="footnote23"></a><b>Footnote 23:</b><a href="#footnotetag23"> (return) </a> This is a very natural way of reasoning when a philosopher
finds a fact, related by some naturalists, that does
not correspond with his theory or systematic view of
things. Here our author follows the general opinion in
concluding that no organised body should be found in
their primitive strata; when, therefore, such an object is
said to have been observed, it is supposed that there may
have been some mistake with regard to the case, and that all
the circumstances may not have been considered. This
caution with regard to the inaccurate representation of
facts, in natural history, is certainly extremely necessary;
the relicts of an elephant found in a mineral vein, is certainly
a fact of that kind, which should not be given as an
example in geology without the most accurate scientifical
examination of the subject.</blockquote>

<p>Here M. Pallas gives his reason for supposing
those mountains primitive or anterior to
the operations of this globe as a living world;
<i>first</i>, because they have not, in general, marks
of animals or plants; and that it is doubtful
if they ever properly contain those marks of
organised bodies; <i>secondly</i>, because many of
those rocks have the appearance of having
suffered the effects of the most violent fire.
Now, What are those effects? Is it in their
having been brought into a fluid state of fusion.
In that case, no doubt, they may have
been much changed from the original state of
their formation; but this is a very good
reason why, in this changed state, the marks
of organised bodies, which may have been in
their original constitution, should be now effaced.</p>

<p>The <i>third</i> reason for supposing those
mountains primitive, is taken from the metallic
veins, which are found so plentifully in
these masses. Now, had these masses been
the only bodies in this earth in which those
mineral veins were found, there might be
some species of reason for drawing the conclusion,
which is here formed by our philosopher.
But nothing is so common (at least in
England) as mineral veins in the strata of the
latest formation, and in those which are principally
formed of marine productions; consequently
so far from serving the purpose for
which this argument was employed, the mineral
veins in the primitive mountains tend to
destroy their originality, by assimilating them
in some respect with every other mass of strata
or mountain upon the globe.</p>

<p><i>Lastly</i>, M. Pallas here employs an argument
taken from an appearance for which we
are particularly indebted to him, and by which
the arguments which have been already employed
in denying the originality of granite is
abundantly confirmed. It has been already
alleged, that granite, porphyry, and whinstone,
or trap, graduate into each other;
but here M. Pallas informs us that he has
found the granite not only changed into porphyry,
but also into the other alpine compositions.
How an argument for the originality
of these mountains can be established upon
those facts, I am not a little at a loss to conceive.</p>

<p>The general mineralogical view of the Russian
dominions, which we have, in this treatise,
may now be considered with regard to
that distinction made by naturalists, of primitive,
secondary, and tertiary mountains, in order
to see how far the observations of this
well informed naturalist shall be found to confirm
the theory of the earth which has been
already given, or not.</p>

<p>The Oural mountains form a very long
chain, which makes the natural division betwixt
Europe and Asia, to the north of the
Caspian. If in this ridge, as a centre of elevation,
and of mineral operations, we shall find
the greatest manifestation of the violent exertion
of subterraneous fire, or of consolidating
and elevating operations; and if we shall perceive
a regular appearance of diminution in
the violence or magnitude of those operations,
as the places gradually recede from this centre
of active force; we may find some explanation
of those appearances, without having recourse
to conjectures which carry no scientific meaning,
and which are more calculated to confound
our acquired knowledge, than to form
any valuable distinction of things. Let us
consult M. Pallas how far this is the case, or
not.</p>

<p>After having told us that all those various
alpine schisti, jaspers, porphyries, serpentines,
etc. in those mountains, are found mutually
convertible with granite, or graduating into
each other, our author thus continues, (p. 50).</p>

<p>"On entrevoit de certaines loix à l'égard
de l'arrangement respectif de cet ordre secondaire
d'anciennes roches, par tous les
systèmes de montagnes qui appartiennent à
l'Empire Russe. La chaîne Ouralique, par
exemple, a du côté de l'Orient sur tout sa
longueur, une très-grande abondance de
schistes cornés, serpentins et talceux, riches
en filons de cuivre, qui forment le principal
accompagnement du granite, et en jaspres
de diverses couleurs plus extérieurs et
souvent comme entrelacés avec les premiers,
mais formant des suites de montagnes
entières, et occupant de très-grands
espaces. De ce même côté, il y paraît
beaucoup de quartz en grandes roches toutes
pures, tant dans la principale chaîne que
dans le noyau des montagnes de jaspre, et
jusques dans la plaine. Les marbres spateux
et veinés, percent en beaucoup d'endroits.
La plupart de ces espèces ne paraissent
point du tout à la lisière occidentale
de la chaîne, qui n'est presque que de
roche mélangée de schistes
argileux, alumineux, phlogistique, etc. Les
filons des mines d'or mêlées, les riches mines
de cuivre en veines et chambrées, les
mines de fer et d'aimant par amas et montagnes
entières, sont l'apanage de la bande
schisteuse orientale; tandis que l'occidentale
n'a pour elle que des mines de fer de
dépôts, et se montre généralement très-pauvre
en métaux. Le granit de la chaîne
qui borde la Sibérie, est recouvert du côté
que nous connaissons de roches cornées de
la nature des pierres à fusil, quelquefois
tendant à la nature d'un grais fin et de
schistes très-métallières de différente composition.
Le jaspre n'y est qu'en filons, ou
plans obliques, ce qui est très-rare pour la
chaîne Ouralique, et s'observe dans la plus
grande partie de la Sibérie, à l'exception
de cette partie de sa chaîne qui passe près
de la mer d'Okhotsk, ou le jaspre forme
derechef des suites de montagnes, ainsi que
nous venons de le dire des monts Ourals;
mais comme cette roche tient ici le côté
méridionale de la chaîne Sibérienne, et que
nous ne lui connaissons point ce côté sur le
reste de sa longueur, il se pourrait que le
jaspre y fût aussi abondant. Il faudrait,
au reste, bien plus de fouilles et d observations
pour établir quelque chose de certain
sur l'ordre respectif qu'observent ces
roches."</p>

<p>I would now ask, if in all this account of
the gradation of rock from the Oural mountains
to the sandy coast of the Baltic, there is to
be observed any clear and distinctive mark of
primitive, secondary, and tertiary, mountains,
farther than as one stratum may be considered
as either prior or posterior to another stratum,
according to the order of superposition
in which they are found. We have every
where evident marks of the formation of strata
by materials deposited originally in water;
for the most part, there is sufficient proof that
this water in which those materials had been
deposited was the sea; we are likewise assured
that the operations of this living world
producing animals, must have, for a course of
time, altogether inconceivably been exerted,
in preparing materials for this mass; and,
lastly, from the changed constitution of those
masses, we may infer certain mineral operations
that melt the substance and alter the position
of those horizontal bodies. Such is the
information which we may collect from this
mineral description of the Russian Dominions.</p>

<p>If we compare some of the Oural mountains
with the general strata of the Russian
plains, then, as to the contained minerals, we
may find a certain diversity in those two
places; at the same time, no greater perhaps
than may be found betwixt two different
bodies in those same plains, for example, chalk
and flint. But when we consider those bodies
of the earth, or solid strata of the globe, in relation
to their proper structure and formation,
we surely can find in this description nothing
on which may be founded any solid opinion
with regard to a different original, however
important conclusions may perhaps be formed
with regard to the operations of the globe,
from the peculiar appearances found in alpine.</p>

<p>From this detail of what is found in the
Oural mountains, and in the gradation of
country from those mountains to the plains of
Russia, we have several facts that are worthy
of observation. First extensive mountains of
jasper. I have a specimen of this stone; it is
striped red and green like some of our marly
strata. It has evidently been formed of such
argillaceous and siliceous materials, not only
indurated, so as to lose its character, as an argillaceous
stone, but to have been brought into
that degree of fusion which produces perfect
solidity. Of the same kind are those
hornstein rocks of the nature of flint, sometimes
tending to the nature of a fine sandstone.
Here is the same induration of sandstone
by means of fusion, that in the argillaceous
strata has produced jasper. But oblique
veins of jasper are represented as traversing
these last strata; now this is a fact which is
not conceivable in any other way, than by the
injection or transfusion of the fluid jasper
among those masses of indurated strata.</p>

<p>All this belongs to the east side of the
mountains. On the west, again, we find the
same species of strata; only these are not changed
to such a degree as to lose their original
character or construction, and thus to be termed
differently in mineralogy.</p>

<p>Our author then proceeds. (p. 53.)</p>

<p>"Nous pourrons parler plus décisivement
sur les <i>montagnes secondaires et tertiaires</i> de
l'Empire, et c'est de celles-là, de la nature,
de l'arrangement et du contenu de leurs
couches, des grandes inégalités et de la
forme du continent d'Europe et d'Asie, que
l'on peut tirer avec plus de confiance quelques
lumières sur les changemens arrivés
aux terres habitables. Ces deux ordres de
montagnes présentent la chronique de notre
globe la plus ancienne, la moins sujette aux
falsifications, et en même-tems plus lisible
que le caractère des chaînes primitives; ce
font les archives de la nature, antérieures
aux lettres et aux traditions les plus reculées,
qu'il étoit réservé à notre siècle observateur
de feuiller, de commenter, et de
mettre au jour, mais que plusieurs siècles
après le nôtre n'épuiseront pas.</p>

<p>"Dans toute l'étendue de vastes dominations
Russes, aussi bien que dans l'Europe
entière, les observateurs attentifs ont remarqué
que généralement la band schisteuse
des grandes chaînes se trouve immédiatement
recouverte ou cottée par la <i>bande calcaire</i>.
Celle-ci forme deux ordres de montagnes,
très-différentes par la hauteur, la situation
de leurs couches, et la composition
de la pierre calcaire qui les compose; différence
qui est très-évidente dans cette bande
calcaire qui forme la lisière occidentale de
toute la chaîne Ouralique, et dont le plan
s'étend par tout le plat pays de la Russie.
L'on observerait la même chose à l'orient
de la chaîne, et dans toute l'étendue de la
Sibérie, si les couches calcaires horizontales
n'y étaient recouvertes par les dépôts postérieures,
de façon qu'il ne paraît à la surface
que les parties les plus faillantes de la
bande, et si ce pays n'étoit trop nouvellement
cultivé et trop peu exploité par des
fouilles et autres opérations, que des hommes
industrieux ont pratiqué dans les pays anciennement
habités. Ce que je vais exposer
sur les deux ordres de montagnes calcaires,
se rapportera donc principalement à celles
qui sont à l'occident de la chaîne Ouralique.</p>

<p>"Ce côté de la dite chaîne consiste sur cinquante
à cent verstes de largeur, de roche
calcaire solide, d'un grain uni, qui tantôt
ne contient aucune trace de productions
marines, tantôt n'en conserve que des empreintes
aussi légères qu'éparses. Cette
roche s'élève en montagnes d'une hauteur
très-considérable, irrégulières, rapides, et coupées
de vallons escarpés. Ses couches, généralement
épaisses, ne sont point de niveau,
mais très-inclinées à l'horizon, paralleles,
pour la plupart, à la direction de la chaîne,
qui est aussi ordinairement celle de la bande
schisteuse;&mdash;au lieu que du côté de l'orient
les couches calcaires sont au sens de la chaîne
en direction plus ou moins approchante de
l'angle droite. L'on trouve dans ces hautes
montagnes calcaires de fréquentes grottes et
cavernes très-remarquables, tant par leur
grandeur que par les belles congélations et
crystallizations stalactiques dont elles s'ornent.
Quelques-unes de ces grottes ne peuvent
être attribuées qu'à quelque bouleversement
des couches; d'autres semblent devoir
leur origine à l'écoulement des sources souterraines
qui ont amolli, rongé et charrié
une partie de la roche qui en étoit susceptible.</p>

<p>"En s'éloignant de la chaîne, on voit les
couches calcaires s'aplanir assez rapidement,
prendre une position horizontale, et devenir
abondantes en toute forte de coquillages, de
madrépores, et d'autres dépouilles marines.
Telles on les voit par-tout dans les vallées
les plus basses qui se trouvent aux pieds des
montagnes (comme aux environs de la rivière
d'Oufal; telles aussi, elles occupent
tout l'étendue de la grande Russie, tant en
collines qu'en plat pays; solides tantôt et
comme semées de productions marines;
tantôt toutes composées de coquilles et madrépores
brisées, et de ce gravier calcaire
qui se trouve toujours sur les parages ou la
mer abonde en pareilles productions; tantôt,
enfin, dissoutes en craie et en marines, et
souvent entremêlées de couches de gravier
et de cailloux roulés."</p>

<p>How valuable for science to have naturalists
who can distinguish properly what they
see, and describe intelligibly that which they
distinguish. In this description of the strata,
from the chain of mountains here considered
as primitive, to the plains of Russia, which are
supposed to be of a tertiary formation, our naturalist
presents us with another species of strata,
which he has distinguished, on the one
hand, in relation to the mountains at present
in question, and on the other, with regard to
the strata in the plains, concerning which there
is at present no question at all. Now, let us
see how these three things are so connected in
their nature, as to form properly the contiguous
links of the same chain.</p>

<p>The primary and tertiary masses are bodies
perfectly disconnected; and, without a medium
by which they might be approached, they
would be considered as things differing in all
respects, consequently as having their origins
of as opposite a nature as are their appearances.
But the nature and formation of those
bodies are not left in this obscurity; for, the
secondary masses, which are interposed, participate
so precisely of what is truly opposite
and characteristic in the primary and tertiary
masses, that it requires nothing more than to
see this distinction of things in its true light,
to be persuaded, that in those three different
things we may perceive a certain gradation,
which here takes place among the works of
nature, and forms three steps distinguishable
by a naturalist, although in reality nothing
but the variable measure of similar operations.</p>

<p>We are now to assimilate the primary and
tertiary masses, which are so extremely different,
by means of the secondary masses,
which is the mean. The primary and tertiary
differ in the following respects: The one
of these contains the relicts of organised bodies
which are not observed in the other. But in
the species containing these distinguishable
bodies, the natural structure and position of the
mass is little affected, or not so much as to be
called into doubt. This, however, is not the
case with the other; the species in which organised
bodies do not appear, is in general so
indurated or consolidated in its structure, and
changed in its position, that this common origin
of those masses is by good naturalists, who
have also carefully examined them, actually
denied. Now, the secondary masses may be
considered, not only as intermediate with respect
to its actual place, as M. Pallas has represented
it, but as uniting together the primary
and tertiary, or as participating of the
distinguishing characters of the other two. It
is homologated with the primitive mountains,
in the solidity of its substance and in the position
of its strata; with the tertiary species, again,
in its containing marks of organised bodies.
How far this view of things is consistent with
the theory of the earth now given, is submitted
to the consideration of the unprejudiced.</p>

<p>Let us see what our learned author has said
farther on this subject, (page 65).</p>

<p>"Je dois parler d'un ordre de montagnes
très-certainement postérieur aux couches
marines, puisque celles-ci, généralement lui
servent de base. On n'a point jusqu'ici
observé une suite de ces <i>montagnes tertiaires</i>,
effet des catastrophes les plus modernes de
notre globe, si marquée et si puissante, que
celle qui accompagne la chaine Ouralique
ou côté occidentale fur tout la longueur.
Cette suite de montagnes, pour la plupart
composées de grais, de marnes rougeâtres,
entremêlées de couches diversement mixtes,
forme une chaîne par-tout séparée par une
vallée plus ou moins large de la bande de
roche calcaire, dont nous avons parlé. Sillonnée
et entrecoupée de fréquens vallons,
elles s'élève souvent à plus de cent toises
perpendiculaires, se répand vers les plaines
de la Russie en traînées de collines, qui séparent
les rivières, en accompagnant généralement
la rive boréale ou occidentale, et
dégénère enfin en déserts sableux qui occupent
de grands espaces, et s'étendent surtout
par longues bandes parallèles aux principales
traces qui suivent les cours des rivieres.
La principale force de ces montagnes tertiaires
est plus près de la chaîne primitive par-tout le
gouvernement d'Orenbourg et la Permie, ou
elle consiste principalement en grais, et contient
un fond inépuisable de mines de cuivre
sableuses, argileuses, et autres qui se
voient ordinairement dans les couches horizontales.
Plus loin, vers la plaine, sont
des suites de collines toutes marneuses, qui
abondent autant en pierres gypseuses, que
les autres en minerais cuivreux. Je n'entre
pas dans le détail de celles-ci, qui indiquent
sur-tout les sources salines; mais je
dois dire des premières, qui abondent le
plus et dont les plus hautes élévations des
plaines, même celle de Moscou, sont formées,
qu'elles contiennent très-peu de traces
de productions marines, et jamais des
amas entiers de ces corps, tels qu'une mer
reposée pendant des siècles de suite a pu
les accumuler dans les bancs calcaires. Rien,
au contraire, de plus abondant dans ces
montagnes de grais stratifié sur l'ancien
plan calcaire, que des troncs d'arbres entières
et des fragmens de bois pétrifié, souvent
minéralisé par le cuivre ou le fer; des
impressions de troncs de palmires, de tiges
de plantes, de roseau, et de quelques fruits
étrangers; enfin des ossemens d'animaux
terrestres, si rares dans les couches calcaires.
Les bois pétrifiés se trouvent jusques dans les
collines de sable de la plaine; l'on en tire,
entr'autres, des hauteurs sablonneuses aux
environs de Sysran sur la Volga, changés
en queux très-fin, qui a conservé jusqu'à
la texture organique du bois, et remarquables
sur-tout par les traces très-évidentes de
ces vers rongeurs qui attaquent les vaisseaux,
les pilotis et autres bois trempés dans la
mer, et qui sont proprement originaires de
la mer des Indes."</p>

<p>This philosopher has now given us a view
of what, according to the present fashion of
mineral philosophy, he has termed <i>montagnes
primitives, secondaires, et tertiaires</i>. The first
consists in masses and strata, much indurated
and consolidated, and greatly displaced in their
position; but the character of which is chiefly
taken from this, that they contain not any
visible mark of animal or vegetable bodies.</p>

<p>The second are formed in a great measure
of marine productions, are often no less consolidated
than those of the first class, and frequently
no less changed in their natural shape
and situation.</p>

<p>The third again have for character, according
to this learned theorist, the containing of
those organised bodies which are proper to
the earth, instead of those which in the second
class had belonged to the sea; in other respects,
surely there is no essential difference.
It is not pretended that these tertiary strata
had any other origin, than that of having been
deposited in water; it is not so much as suspected,
that this water had been any other
than that of the sea; the few marine bodies
which M. Pallas here acknowledges, goes at
least to prove this fact: and with regard to
the mineral operations which had been employed
in consolidating those water formed
strata, it is impossible not to be convinced that
every effect visible in the other two are here
also to be perceived.</p>

<p>From this view of mineral bodies, taken
from the extensive observations of the Russian
dominions, and from the suppositions of geologists
in relation to those appearances, we
should be led to conclude that the globe of
this earth had been originally nothing but an
ocean, a world containing neither plant nor
animal to live, to grow and propagate its
species. In following a system founded on
those appearances, we must next suppose, that
to the sterile unorganised world there had succeeded
an ocean stored with fish of every
species. Here it would be proper to inquire
what sustained those aquatic animals; for, in
such a system as this, there is no provision
made for continuing the life even of the individuals,
far less of feeding the species while,
in an almost infinite succession of individuals,
they should form a continent of land almost
composed of their <i>exuviae</i>.</p>

<p>If fish can be fed upon water and stone; if
siliceous bodies can, by the digesting powers
of animals, be converted into argillaceous
and calcareous earths; and if inflammable
matter can be prepared without the intervention
of vegetable bodies, we might erect a
system in which this should be the natural
order of things. But to form a system in direct
opposition to every order of nature that
we know, merely because we may suppose
another order of things different from the
laws of nature which we observe, would be
as inconsistent with the rules of reasoning in
science, by which the speculations of philosophy
are directed, as it would be contrary to
common sense, by which the affairs of mankind
are conducted.</p>

<p>Still, however, to pursue our visionary system,
after a continent had been formed from
the relicts of those animals, living, growing,
and propagating, during an indefinite series of
ages, plants at last are formed; and, what is
no less wonderful, those animals which had
formed the earth then disappear; but, in compensation,
we are to suppose, I presume, that
terrestrial animals began. Let us now reason
from those facts, without either constraining
nature, which we know, or forming visionary
systems, with regard to things which are unknown.
It would appear, that at one period
of time, or in one place, the matter of the
globe may be deposited, in strata, without containing
any organised bodies; at another time,
or in another place, much animal matter may
be deposited in strata, without any vegetable
substance there appearing; but at another period,
or at another time, strata may be formed
with much vegetable matter, while there is
hardly to be observed any animal body.
What then are we to conclude upon the
whole? That nature, forming strata, is subject
to vicissitudes; and that it is not always
the same regular operation with respect to the
materials, although always forming strata upon
the same principles. Consequently, upon
the same spot in the sea, different materials
may be accumulated at different periods of
time, and, conversely, the same or similar materials
may be collected in different places at
the same time. Nothing more follows strictly
from the facts on which we now are reasoning;
and this is a conclusion which will be
verified by every appearance, so far as I know.</p>

<p>Of this I am certain, that in a very little
space of this country, in many places, such a
course of things is to be perceived.  Nothing
so common as to find alternated, over and over
again, beds of sand-stone without animal bodies,
beds of coal and schistus abounding with vegetable
bodies, beds of lime-stone formed of shells
and corals, and beds or particular strata of iron-stone
containing sometimes vegetable sometimes
animal bodies, or both. Here, indeed,
the strata are most commonly inclined; it is
seldom they are horizontal; consequently, as
across the whole country, all the strata come
up to the day, and may be seen in the beds
of our rivers, we have an opportunity of observing
that great variety which is in nature,
and which we are not able to explain. This
only is certain, from what we see, that there
is nothing formed in one epoch of nature,
but what has been repeated in another, however
dissimilar may be the operations which
had intervened between those several epochs.</p>

<p>It must not be alleged, that the heights of
the Oural mountains, or the hardness of their
rocks, make an essential distinction between
them and the argillaceous or arenaceous strata
of the plains; solidity and hardness, as well
as changes in their height and natural position,
has been superinduced in operations posterior
to the collection of those masses,&mdash;operations
which may be formed in various degrees,
even in the different parts of the same mass.
If this is the case, there can be no difficulty in
conceiving a stratum, which appears to be argillaceous
or marly in the plains, to be found
jasper in the Oural mountains. But there is
nothing in the Oural mountains, that may not
be found some where or other in the plains,
although the soft and easily decomposing argillaceous
strata be not found upon the Oural
mountains, or the Alps, for this reason, that
had those mountains been formed of such materials,
there had not been a mountain there at
this day.</p>

<p>But surely the greatest possible error, with
regard to the philosophy of this earth, would
be to confound the sediment of a river with
the strata of the globe; bodies deposited upon
the surface of the earth, with those sunk at
the bottom of the sea; and things which only
form the travelled or transported soil, with
those which constitute the substratum or the
solid earth. How far M. Pallas has committed
this oversight, I leave others to determine.
After mentioning those strata in which wood
is found petrified, and metallic minerals formed,
he thus proceeds, (page 69).</p>


<p>"Dans ces mêmes dépôts sableux et souvent
limoneux, gisent les restes des grands
animaux de l'Inde: ces ossemens d'éléphans,
de rhinocéros, de buffles monstrueux,
dont on déterre tous les jours un si grand
nombre, et qui font l'admiration des curieux.
En Sibérie, où l'on à découvert le
long de presque toutes les rivières ces restes
d'animaux étrangers, et l'ivoire même bien
conservé en si grande abondance, qu'il forme
un article de commerce, en Sibérie, dis
je, c'est aussi la couche la plus moderne de
limon sablonneux qui leur sert de sépulture,
et nulle part ces monumens étrangers sont
si frequens, qu'aux endroits où la grande
chaine, qui domine surtout la frontière méridionale
de la Sibérie, offre quelque dépression,
quelque ouverture considérable.</p>

<p>"Ces grands ossemens, tantôt épars tantôt
entassés par squelettes, et même par hécatombes,
considérée dans leurs sites naturels,
m'ont sur-tout convaincu de la réalité d'un
déluge arrivé sur notre terre, d'une catastrophe,
dont j'avoue n'avoir pu concevoir
la vraisemblance avant d'avoir parcouru ces
places, et vu, par moi-même, tout ce qui
peut y servir de preuve à cet évènement
mémorable<a id="footnotetag24" name="footnotetag24"></a><a href="#footnote24"><sup>24</sup></a>. Une infinité de ces ossemens
couchés dans des lits mêlés de petites
tellines calcinées, d'os de poissons, de glossopètres,
de bois chargés d'ocre, etc. prouve
déjà qu'ils ont été transportés par des inondations.
Mais la carcasse d'un rhinocéros,
trouvé avec sa peau entière, des restes
de tendons, de ligamens, et de cartilages,
dans les terres glacées des bords du Viloûi,
dont j'ai déposé les parties les mieux conservées
au cabinet de l'Académie, forme encore
une preuve convaincante que ce devait
être un mouvement d'inondation des
plus violens et des plus rapides, qui entraîna
jadis ces cadavres vers nos climats
glacés, avant que la corruption eût le tems,
d'en détruire les parties molles. Il seroit
à souhaiter qu'un observateur parvint aux
montagnes qui occupent l'espace entre les
fleuves Indighirka et Koylma où selon le
rapport des chasseurs, de semblables carcasses
d'éléphans et d'autres animaux gigantesques
encore revêtues de leurs peaux,
ont été remarquées à plusieurs reprises."</p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote24" name="footnote24"></a><b>Footnote 24:</b><a href="#footnotetag24"> (return) </a> Voyez le Mémoire, imprimé dans le XVII. volume
des nouveaux Commentaires de l'Académie Imperiale de
Petersbourgh.</blockquote>

<p>The question here turns upon this, Are the
sea shells and glossopetrae, which are thus
found deposited along with those skeletons,
in their natural state, or are they petrified and
mineralised. If the productions of the sea
shall here be found collected along with bodies
belonging to the surface of the earth, and
which had never been within the limits of the
sea, this would surely announce to us some
strange catastrophe, of which it would be difficult,
perhaps, to form a notion; if, on the
contrary, those marine productions belong to
the solid strata of the earth, in the resolution
or decay of which they had been set at liberty,
and were transported in the floods, our author
would have no reason from those appearances to
conclude, there had existed any other deluge
than those produced by the waters of the land<a id="footnotetag25" name="footnotetag25"></a><a href="#footnote25"><sup>25</sup></a>.</p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote25" name="footnote25"></a><b>Footnote 25:</b><a href="#footnotetag25"> (return) </a> Since writing this, I find my doubts in a great measure
resolved, in reading M. Pallas's Journal, translated
from the German by M. Gauthier de la Peyronie. What
I had suspected is, I think, confirmed in the distinct account
which M. Pallas has given of those occasions in
which the bones of land animals and marine objects are
found buried together. The marine objects are mineralised;
consequently, they have proceeded from the decomposition
of the solid strata; and, having been travelled in the running
water of the surface of the earth, they must have been
deposited in those beds of rivers, which now are dry, alongst
with the bones, or the entire bodies of terrestrial animals,
the remains of which are now found there. This argument,
from the state of those marine bodies will not be allowed,
perhaps by the generality of mineralists, who attribute
to the operations of water every species of petrifaction
or mineralisation; but, until some species of proof be
given with regard to the truth of that theory, which vulgar
error first suggested, I must reason from a theory, in
proof of which I have given clear examples, and, I think,
irrefragable arguments, which shall be more and more illustrated.
Thus may be removed the necessity of a general
deluge, or any great catastrophe, in order to bring together
things so foreign to each other; but at the same
time we would ascertain this fact, That formerly the Elephant
and Rhinoceros had lived in Siberia. (See Voyage
de Pallas, Tom. II. p. 377 and 403.)</blockquote>

<p>Having thus endeavoured to remove this
prevailing prejudice, of there being primitive
parts in this earth, parts of which the composition
and constitution are not to be explained
upon the principles of natural philosophy, it
will be proper to inquire, how far there may
be in the theory, which has now been given,
principles by which may be explained those
appearances that have led natural philosophers
to form conclusions, of there being in this
earth parts whose origin may not be traced;
and of there being parts whose origin may
not be explained upon the same principles
which apply so well to all the rest.</p>

<br>
<h3>CHAP. V.</h3>

<p><i>Concerning that which may be termed the
Primary Part of the Present Earth</i>.</p>


<p>In the present theory, it is maintained, that
there is no part of the earth which has not
had the same origin, so far as this consists in
that earth being collected at the bottom of the
sea, and afterwards produced, as land, along
with masses of melted substances, by the operation
of mineral causes. But, though all
those things be similar, or equal, as to the
manner of their production, they are far from
being so with regard to the periods of their
original composition, or to the subsequent
operations which they may have undergone.</p>

<p>There is a certain order established for the
progress of nature, for the succession of things,
and for the circulation of matter upon the surface
of this globe; and, the order of time is
associated with this change of things. But it
is not in equal portions that time is thus combined
with dissimilar things, nor always found,
in our estimation, as equally accompanying
those which we reckon similar. The succession
of light and darkness is that which, in
those operations, appears to us most steady;
the alternation of heat and cold comes next,
but not with equal regularity in its periods.
The succession of wet and dry upon the surface
of the earth, though equally the work of
nature and the effect of regular causes, is often
to us irregular, when we look for equal periods
in the course of things which are unequal.
It is by equalities that we find order in things,
and we wish to find order every where.</p>

<p>The present object of our contemplation is
the alternation of land and water upon the
surface of this globe. It is only in knowing
this succession of things, that natural appearances
can be explained; and it is only from
the examination of those appearances, that
any certain knowledge of this operation is to
be obtained. But how shall we acquire the
knowledge of a system calculated for millions,
not of years only, nor of the ages of man, but
of the races of men, and the successions of
empires? There is no question here with regard
to the memory of man, of any human
record, which continues the memory of man
from age to age; we must read the transactions
of time past, in the present state of natural
bodies; and, for the reading of this
character, we have nothing but the laws of
nature, established in the science of man by
his inductive reasoning.</p>

<p>It has been in reasoning after this manner,
that I have endeavoured to prove, that every
thing which we now behold, of the solid parts
of this earth, had been formerly at the bottom
of the sea; and that there is, in the constitution
of this globe, a power for interchanging
sea and land. If this shall be admitted as a
just view of the system of this globe, we may
next examine, how far there are to be found
any marks of certain parts of our earth having
more than once undergone that change of
posture, or vicissitude of things, and of having
had reiterated operations of the mineral kingdom
changing their substance, as well as altering
their positions in relation to the atmosphere
and sea.</p>

<p>Besides the gradual decay of solid land, exposed
to the silent influences of the atmosphere,
and to the violent operations of the
waters moving upon the surface of the earth,
there is a more sudden destruction that may
be supposed to happen sometimes to our continents
of land. In order to see this, it must
be considered, that the continents of our earth
are only raised above the level of the sea by
the expansion of matter, placed below that
land, and rarefied in that place: We may thus
consider our land as placed upon pillars, which
may break, and thus restore the ancient situation
of things when this land had been originally
collected at the bottom of the ocean. It
is not here inquired by what mechanism this
operation is to be performed; it is certainly
by the exertion of a subterranean power that
the land is elevated from the place in which
it had been formed; and nothing is more natural
than to suppose the supports of the land
in time to fail, or be destroyed in the course
of mineral operations which are to us unknown.
In that case, whatever were remaining
of that land, which had for millions of
ages past sustained plants and animals, would
again be placed at the bottom of the sea; and
strata of every different species might be deposited
again upon that mass, which, from an
atmospheric situation, is now supposed to be
lower than the surface of the sea.</p>

<p>Such a compound mass might be again resuscitated,
or restored with the new superincumbent
strata, consolidated in their texture
and inclined in their position. In that case,
the inferior mass must have undergone a
double course of mineral changes and displacement;
consequently, the effect of subterranean
heat or fusion must be more apparent
in this mass, and the marks of its original
formation more and more obliterated.</p>

<p>If, in examining our land, we shall find a
mass of matter which had been evidently
formed originally in the ordinary manner of
stratification, but which is now extremely distorted
in its structure, and displaced in its
position,&mdash;which is also extremely consolidated
in its mass, and variously changed in its
composition,&mdash;which therefore has the marks
of its original or marine composition extremely
obliterated, and many subsequent veins of melted
mineral matter interjected; we should then
reason to suppose that here were masses
of matter which, though not different in their
origin from those that are gradually deposited
at the bottom of the ocean, have been more
acted upon by subterranean heat and the expanding
power, that is to say, have been
changed in a greater degree by the operations
of the mineral region. If this conclusion
shall be thought reasonable, then here is an
explanation of all the peculiar appearances of
the alpine schistus masses of our land, those
parts which have been erroneously considered
as primitive in the constitution of the earth.</p>

<p>We are thus led to suppose, that some parts
of our earth may have undergone the vicissitudes
of sea and land more than once, having
been changed from the summit of a continent
to the bottom of the sea, and again erected,
with the rest of that bottom, into the place of
land. In that case, appearances might be found
to induce natural philosophers to conclude that
there were in our land primary parts, which
had not the marine origin which is generally
to be acknowledged in the structure of this
earth; and, by finding other masses, of marine
origin, superincumbent upon those primary
mountains, they might make strange suppositions
in order to explain those natural appearances.</p>

<p>Let us now see what has been advanced by
those philosophers who, though they term
these parts of the earth <i>primordial</i>, and not
<i>primitive</i>, at the same time appear to deny to
those parts an origin analogous to that of their
secondary mountains, or strata that are aquiform
in their construction.</p>

<p>M. de Luc, after having long believed that
the strata of the Alps had been formed like
those of the low countries, at the bottom of
the sea, gives an account of the occasion by
which he was first confirmed in the opposite
opinion.<a id="footnotetag26" name="footnotetag26"></a><a href="#footnote26"><sup>26</sup></a> Like a true philosopher, he gives
us the reason of this change.</p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote26" name="footnote26"></a><b>Footnote 26:</b><a href="#footnotetag26"> (return) </a> Lettres Physique et Morales sur l'Histoire de la
Terre, tom. 2. pag. 206.</blockquote>

<p>"Ce fut une espèce de <i>montagne</i> très commune,
et que j'avois souvent examinée qui
dessilla mes yeux. La pierre qui la compose
est de la classe appellée <i>schiste</i>; son caractère
générique est d'être <i>feuilletée</i>; elle
renferme <i>l'ardoise</i> dont on couvre les toits.
Ces <i>feuillets</i> minces, qu'on peut prendre
pour des <i>couches</i>, et qui le font en effet
dans quelques pierres de ce genre, rappelloient
toujours l'idée vague de dépôts des
eaux. Mais il y a des masses dont la composition
est plutôt par fibres que par feuillets,
et dont le moëllon ressemble aux copeaux
de bois d'un chantier. Le plus souvent
aussi les feuillets sont situés en toute
suite de sens dans une même <i>montagne</i>, et
quelquefois même verticalement, Enfin il
s'en trouve de si tortillés, qu'il est impossible
de les regarder comme des dépôts de
l'eau.</p>

<p>"Ce fut donc cette espèce de montagne
qui me persuada la première que toutes les
montagnes n'avoient pas une même origine.
Le lieu où j'abjurai mon erreur, étoit un
de ces grands <i>chantiers</i> pétrifiés, qui, par la
variété du tortillement, et des zig-zags des
fibres du moëllon qui le composoit, attira
singulièrement mon attention. C'étoit un
sort grand talus qui venoit d'une face escarpée;
j'y montai pour m'approcher du rocher,
et je remarquai, avec étonnement, des
multitudes de paquets enchevêtrés les uns
dans les autres, sans ordre ni direction fixe;
les uns presqu'en rouleaux; les autres en
zig-zag; et même ce qui, séparé de la montagne,
eût peu être pris pour des <i>couches</i>,
le trouvoit incliné de toute manière dans
cette même face de rocher. <i>Non</i>, me dis-je
alors à moi-même; <i>non, l'eau n'a pu faire
cette montagne.... Ni celle-là donc</i>, ajoutai-je
en regardant ailleurs.... <i>Et pourquoi
mieux celle-là? Pourquoi toutes les montagnes
devroient-elles être le produit des
eaux, seulement parce qu'il y en a quelques-unes
qui annoncent cette origine</i>? En effet,
puis qu'on n'a songé aux eaux, comme
cause des montagnes, que par les preuves
évidentes que quelques-unes offroient de
cette formation; pourquoi étendre cette
conséquence à toutes, s'il y en a beaucoup
qui manquent de ces caractères? C'est
comme le dit Mr. d'Alembert, qu'on généralise
ses premières remarques l'instant
d'apres qu'on ne remarquoit rien."</p>

<p>Science is indebted to this author for giving
us so clear a picture of natural appearances,
and of his own reasoning upon those facts, in
forming his opinion; he thus leads astray no
person of sound judgment, although he may
be in error. The disposition of things in the
present case are such, that, reasoning from his
principles, this author could not see the truth;
because he had not been persuaded, that aquiform
strata could have been so changed by the
chemical power of fusion, and the mechanical
force of bending while in a certain state of
softness.</p>

<p>But though, in this case, the reasoning of
this philosopher is to be justified, so far as he
proceeded upon principles which could not
lead him to the truth, his conduct is not so
irreproachable in applying them to cases by
which their fallacy might have been detected.
This author acknowledges calcareous strata to
be aquiform in their original; but, in those
mountains which he has so much examined,
he will find those aquiform bodies have undergone
the same species of changes, which made
him conclude that those schistus mountains
had not been truly aquiform, as he at first had
thought them. This would have led him to
reason back upon his principles, and to say,
<i>If one species of strata may be thus changed in
its texture, and its shape, may not another be
equally so? Therefore, may not the origin of
both be similar</i>?</p>

<p>But least I should do injustice to this author,
to whom we are indebted for many valuable
observations in natural history, I shall transcribe
what he has said upon the subject, being
persuaded that my readers will not think
this improper in me, or impertinent to the argument.</p>

<p>"Quand nous fumes une fois persuadés
que la mer n'avoit pas fait toutes les <i>montagnes</i>,
nous entreprîmes de découvrir les
caractères distinctifs de celles qui lui devoient
leur origine; et s'il étoit, par exemple,
des matières qui leur fussent propres.
Mais nous y trouvâmes les mêmes
difficultés qu'on rencontre dans tout ce
qu'on veut classer dans la nature. On peut
bien distinguer entr'elles les choses qui ont
fortement l'empreinte de leur classe; mais
les confins échappent toujours.</p>

<p>"C'est là, pour le dire en passant, ce qui a
pu conduire quelques philosophes à imaginer
cette <i>chaîne des êtres</i> où ils supposent,
que, de la pierre à l'homme et plus haut,
les nuances sont réellement imperceptibles.
Comme si, quoique les limites soyent cachées
à nos sens, notre intelligence ne nous
disoit pas, qu'il y a un <i>saut</i>, une distance
même infinie, entre le plus petit degré d'organization
<i>propageante</i>, et la matière unie
par la simple cohésion: entre le plus petit
degré de <i>sensibilité</i>, et la matière insensible:
entre la plus petite capacité d'observer et de
transmettre ses observations, et l'instinct
constamment le même dans l'espèce. Toutes
ces différences tranchées existent dans la
nature; mais notre incapacité de rien connoître
à fond, et la necessité où nous sommes
de juger de tout sur des apparences,
nous fait perdre presque toutes les limites,
parce que sur ces bords, la plupart des phénomènes
sont équivoques. Ainsi la plante
nous paroît se rapprocher de la pierre, mais
n'en approche jamais réellement.</p>

<p>"On éprouve la même difficulté à classer
les montagnes; et quoique depuis quelque
tems plusieurs naturalistes ayent aussi observé
qu'elles n'ont pas toutes la même origine,
je ne vois pas qu'on soit parvenu à
fixer des caractères infaillibles, pour les
placer sûrement toutes dans leurs classes
particulières.</p>

<p>"Après avoir examiné attentivement cet
objet, d'après les phénomènes que j'ai moi-même
observés, et ce que j'ai appris par les
observations des autres; j'ai vu que c'étoit
là un champ très vaste, quand on vouloit
l'embrasser en entier, et trop vaste pour moi,
qui n'étois pas libre d'y consacrer tout le
tems qu'il exige. Je me suis donc replié
sur mon objet principal, savoir <i>la cause qui
a laissé des dépouilles marines dans nos continens</i>,
et l'examen des hypothèses sur cette
matière.</p>

<p>"Les phénomènes ainsi limités, se réduisent
à ceci: qu'il y a dans nos continens
des montagnes visiblement formées par des
<i>dépôts successifs de la mer</i> et a l'égard des
quelles il n'y a besoin de rien imaginer, si
ce n'est la manière dont elles en sont sorties:
qu'il y en a d'autres au contraire, qui
ne portent aucun des caractères de cette
cause, et qui, si elles ont été produites dans
la <i>mer</i>, doivent être l'effet de toute autre
cause que de simples dépôts successifs, et
avoir même précédé l'existence des animaux
marins. J'abandonne donc les classes confuses
où ces caractères sont équivoques, jusqu'à
ce qu'elles servent à fonder quelque
hypothèse; ayant assez de ces deux classes
très distinctes pour examiner d'apres elles
tous les systèmes qui me sont connus.</p>

<p>"Là où ces deux classes de montagnes
sont mêlées, on remarque que celles qui
sont formées par <i>couches</i>, et qui renferment
des <i>corps marins</i>, recouvrent souvent celles
de l'autre classe, mais n'en sont jamais recouvertes.
On a donc naturellement conclu,
que lors même que la <i>mer</i> auroit en
quelque part à la formation des montagnes
où l'on ne reconnoît pas son caractère, celles
auxquelles elle a travaillé seule, en enlevant
des matières dans certaines parties
de son fond et les déposant dans d'autres,
font au moins les dernières formées. On
les a donc nommées <i>secondaires</i>, et les autres
<i>primitives</i>.</p>

<p>"J'adopterai la première de ces expressions;
car c'est la même qui nous étoit venu à
l'esprit à mon frère, et à moi longtemps
avant que nous l'eussions vue employer;
mais je substituerai celle de <i>primordiales à</i>
<i>primitives</i> pour l'autre classe de <i>montagnes</i>,
afin de ne rien décider sur leur origine. Il
est des <i>montagnes</i>, dont jusqu'à present on
n'a pu démêler la cause: voila le fait. Je
ne dirai donc pas qu'elles ont été créées
ainsi, parce qu'en physique je ne dois pas
employer des expressions sur lesquelles on
ne s'entend pas. Sans doute cependant,
que l'histoire naturelle ni la physique ne
nous conduisent nullement à croire que notre
globe ait existé de toute éternité; et
lorsqu'il prit naissance, il fallut bien que la
matière qui le composa fut de quelque nature,
ou sous quelque première forme intégrante.
Rien donc jusqu'ici n'empêche
d'admettre que ces <i>montagnes</i> que je nommerai
<i>primordiales</i>, ne soient réellement
<i>primitives</i>; je penche même pour cette
opinion à l'égard de quelques unes. Mais
il y a une très grande variété entr'elles; et
quoiqu'elles soyent toutes également exclues
de la classe <i>secondaire</i>, elles ne sont pas
toutes semblables: il y en a même un
grand nombre dont les matières ont une
certaine configuration qui semble annoncer
qu'elles ayent été molles et durcies ensuite,
quoique par une toute autre cause que celle
qui a agi pour former les montagnes secondaires."</p>

<p>Here I would beg leave to call the attention
of philosophers to this observation of
a naturalist who explains all petrification, and
the consolidation of strata by aqueous infiltration.
If he has here found reason to conclude
that, in those primordial parts of the earth,
there are a great number which, from their
present configuration, must have been in a
soft state and then hardened, and this by a
quite different cause from that which he supposes
had produced the consolidation and
hardness of the secondary parts; this is entering
precisely into my views of the subject,
in ascribing all the consolidation of the
earth, whether primary or secondary, to one
general cause, and in tracing this cause, from
its effects, to be no other than the fusion of
those bodies. It must be evident, that if this
philosopher has seen good reason for concluding
such a softening cause, which had operated
upon the primary parts, to be quite different
from that which he ascribes to the consolidation
of the secondary, which is the effect of
water, it must then, I say, be evident that the
softening cause of the primary parts, if not
heat, by which every degree of fusion may be
produced, must be an occult cause, one which
cannot be admitted into natural philosophy.</p>

<p>By thus choosing to consider mountains as
of two distinct kinds, one aquiform which is
understood, and the other primordial which is
not to be known, we supersede the necessity of
reconciling a theory with many appearances
in nature which otherwise might be extremely
inconvenient to our explanation, if not inconsistent
with our system. Our author no
doubt has thus relieved himself from a considerable
difficulty in the philosophy of this
earth, by saying here is a great part which is
not to be explained. But I would beg leave
to observe, that this form of discussion, with
regard to a physical subject, is but a mere confession
of our ignorance, and has no tendency
to clear up another part of the subject of
which one treats, however it may impress us
with a favourable opinion of the theorist, in
allowing him all the candour of the acknowledgement.</p>

<p>The general result of the reasoning which
we now have quoted, and what follows in
his examination, seems to terminate in this;
that there are various different compositions
of mountains which this author cannot
allow to be the production of the sea; but it
is not upon account of the matter of which
they are formed, or of the particular mixture
and composition of those species of matter, of
which the variety is almost indefinite. According
to this philosopher, the distinction
that we are to make of those primordial and
secondary competitions, consists in this, that
the first are in such a shape and structure as
cannot be conceived to be formed by subsidence
in water.</p>

<p>M. de Saussure has carefully examined
those same objects; and he seems inclined to
think that they must have been the operation
of the ocean; not in the common manner of
depositing strata, but in some other way by
crystallization. The present theory supposes
all those masses formed originally in the ordinary
manner, by the deposits or subsidence of
materials transported in the waters, and that
those strata were afterwards changed by operations
proper to the mineral regions.</p>

<p>But the subject of the present investigation
goes farther, by inquiring if, in the operations
of the globe, a primary and secondary class of
bodies may be distinguished, so far as the one
may have undergone the operations of the
globe, or the vicissitudes of sea and land, oftener
than the other, consequently must be anterior
to the later productions both in time
and operation, although the original of all those
bodies be the same, and the operations of the
earth, so far as we see in the effects, always
proceed upon the same principles. This is an
extensive view of nature to which few have
turned their thoughts. But this is a subject
to which the observations described by this
author have evidently a reference.</p>

<p>In his 113th letter, he has given us a view
of one of those parts of the earth that are proper
to be examined in determining this question
so important in the genealogy of land,
although no ways concerned in altering the
principles upon which nature in forming continents
must proceed.</p>

<p>It is in describing the nature of the mountains
about <i>Elbingerode</i>; and he begins in ascending
from Hefeld.</p>

<p>"Cette partie extérieure de la chaîne est
<i>primordiale</i>: c'est du <i>granit</i> à <i>Hereld</i> et au
commencement de la route; puis quand on
passe dans d'autres vallées, on trouve les
<i>schistes</i> et la <i>roche grise</i> dans tout le pied
des montagnes: mais des qu'on est arrivé à
une certain hauteur, on voit de la <i>pierre à
chaux</i> par couches étendue sur ces matières;
et c'est elle qui forme le sommet de ces
mêmes montagnes; tellement que la plaine
élevée, qui conduit à <i>Elbingerode</i>, est entièrement
de <i>pierre à chaux</i>, excepté dans
sa partie la plus haute ou cette pierre est
recouverte des mêmes <i>grès</i> et sables <i>vitrescibles</i>
qui sont sur le schiste du Bruchberg
et sur la <i>pierre à chaux</i> dans la <i>Hesse</i> et le
pays de Gottingue.</p>

<p>"Les environs d'Elbingerode étant plus
bas que ces parties recouvertes de matières
vitrescibles, montrent la <i>pierre à chaux</i> à
nud; et l'on y trouve de très beaux marbres,
dont les nuances jaunes, rouges et vertes
sont souvent très vives, et embellies par
les coupes des <i>corps marins</i>.</p>

<p>"Cependant le schiste n'est pas enseveli
partout sous ces dépôts de la mer; on le
retrouve en quelques endroits, et même
avec de <i>filons</i>.</p>

<p>"Ainsi au milieu de ces matières <i>calcaires</i>
qui forment le sol montueux des environs
<i>d'Elbingerode</i>, paroît encore le <i>schiste</i> sur
lequel elles ont été déposées: Et en montant
à la partie la plus élevée de ces mêmes
environs, on trouve que la <i>pierre à chaux</i>
est recouverte elle-même d'une <i>pierre sableuse</i>
grise par couches, dans laquelle on
voit quantité de petits fragmens de <i>schiste</i> posés
de plat. C'est la que se trouve une des
mines de <i>fer</i> dont le minerai va en partie
à la <i>Koningshutte</i>, mais en plus grande
partie à la <i>Rothechutte</i>, qui n'est qu'à une
lieue de distance. On perce d'abord la
couche sableuse; sous elle se trouve de la
<i>pierre à chaux</i> grise; puis une couche de
<i>pierre à chaux ferrugineuse</i>, remplie de <i>corps
marins</i>, et surtout <i>d'entroques</i>: C'est cette
<i>couche</i> qui est ici le <i>minerai</i>; et elle appartient
à la formation de cette éminence comme
toutes les autres <i>couches</i>. Cette mine
se nomme <i>bomshey</i>: elle n'est pas riche;
mais elle sert de <i>fondant</i> aux matières ferrugineuses
tirées des filons des montagnes
primordiales en même tems qu'elle leur
ajoute son <i>fer</i> dans la fonte. A quelque
distance de là on a percé un autre puits;
qui a transversé d'abord une sorte de pierre,
que je ne saurois nommer, mais qui ressemble
fort à une <i>lave</i> poreuse. Au dessous
de cette couche on a retrouvé la <i>pierre
à chaux</i> ordinaire; puis la <i>couche ferrugineuse</i>
y continue; mais elle diffère un peu
de ce qu'elle est dans l'autre mine, une
partie de sa substance étant convertie en <i>jaspe</i>.</p>

<p>"Mais ce qui est digne de la plus grande
attention dans cette contrée, est un filon
peu distant nomme <i>Buchenberg</i>, qui appartient
en partie au Roi, et en partie à
Mr. le Comte de <i>Wernigerode</i>. La montagne
en cette endroit montre une vallée
artificielle de 70 à 80 pieds de profondeur,
de 20 à 30 de largeur dans le haut, et de
400 toises en étendue. C'est le creusement
qu'on a déjà fait en suivant ce <i>filon</i> de <i>fer</i>,
que l'on continue à exploiter de la même
manière sur les terres de Mr. le Comte de
<i>Wernigerode</i>. La matière propre de la montagne
<i>est</i> de <i>schiste</i>; et la vallée qui se forme
de nouveau à mesure qu'on enlève la <i>gangue</i>
du <i>filon</i>, a sûrement déjà existé dans la
mer sous la forme d'une <i>fente</i>, qui a été
remplie, et en particulier des ingrédiens
dont on fait aujourd'hui le <i>fer</i>."</p>

<p>Here is a supposition of our author that
corresponds to nothing which has yet been
observed any where else, so far as I know.
It is concerning a mineral vein, one which
does not appear to differ in any respect from
other mineral veins, except in being worked
in that open manner which has given our author
an idea of its being a valley. He then
supposes that valley (or rather empty vein)
to have been in this mountain when at the
bottom of the sea, and that this mineral vein
had then been filled with those materials
which now are found in that space between
the two sides of the separated rock. This is
a very different operation from that of infiltration,
which is commonly supposed to be
the method of filling mineral veins; but, we
shall soon see the reason why our author has
here deserted the common hypothesis, and has
adopted another to serve the occasion, without
appearing to have considered how perfectly
inconsistent those two suppositions are to each
other. That mineral veins have been filled
with matter in a fluid state, is acknowledged
by every body who has either looked at a
mineral vein in the earth, or in a cabinet specimen;
mineralists and geologists, in general,
suppose this to have been done by means of
solutions and concretions, a supposition by
no means warranted by appearances, which,
on the contrary, in general demonstrate that
the materials of those veins had been introduced
in the fluid state of fusion. But here
is a new idea with regard to the filling of
those veins; and, I would now beg the reader's
attention to the facts which follow in this
interesting description, and which have suggested
that idea to our author.</p>

<p>"Quand cette matière accidentelle est enlevée,
on voit la coupe du <i>schiste</i> des deux
côtes de la <i>fente</i>, faisant un <i>toit</i> et un <i>mur</i>,
parce que la <i>fente</i> n'est pas absolument verticale:
des qu'il y a un peu d'inclinaison,
on distingue un <i>toit</i> et un mur, comme j'ai
l'honneur de l'expliquer à V.M. On ne
connoît point encore l'étendue de ce filon,
ni dans sa profondeur, où l'on ne peut pas
s'enfoncer beaucoup de cette manière, ni
dans la longueur, selon laquelle on continue
à l'exploiter.</p>

<p>"Voilà donc un <i>filon</i>, à la rigueur de la
définition que j'en ai donné à V.M. c'est à
dire, une <i>fente</i> dans la montagne naturelle,
<i>comblée</i> de <i>matière</i> étrangère. Mais ce qu'il
y a d'extraordinaire ici, c'est que cette <i>matière</i>
vient de la <i>mer</i>: ce sont différentes
<i>couches aquiformes</i>, dont quelques unes
sont remplies de <i>corps marins</i>. Il y a des
<i>couches</i> d'une <i>terre martiale</i> fort brune et
sans liaison: d'autres, au contraire toujours
<i>martiales</i>, sont très dures et renferment de
très beau jaspe sanguin: d'autres enfin sont
de vrai <i>marbre</i> gris veinées de rouge. C'est
dans ce marbre que font les <i>corps marins</i>,
savoir des coquillages et des spongites; et il
est lui-même martial comme tout le reste:
les mineurs le nomment <i>Kubrimen</i>, et ne
l'employent que comme un <i>fondant</i> pour
d'autres <i>minéraux de fer</i>.</p>

<p>"A ce <i>filon</i>, s'en joignent d'autres plus embarrassans.
Ils viennent du <i>toit</i>, qu'ils divisent
par de larges <i>fentes</i> comblées, aboutissantes
au <i>filon</i> principale. Ils font de
même <i>calcaires</i> et marins faits par <i>couches</i>;
mais ces <i>couches</i> ont une si grande inclinaison,
que je ne puis les comprendre: il faut
qu'il y ait eu d'étranges bouleversemens dans
ces endroits-là<a id="footnotetag27" name="footnotetag27"></a><a href="#footnote27"><sup>27</sup></a>.</p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote27" name="footnote27"></a><b>Footnote 27:</b><a href="#footnotetag27"> (return) </a> Here, no doubt, are appearances which it is impossible
to explain by the theory of infiltration; it is the filling
of mineral veins, and their branches or ramifications,
with marble containing marks of marine objects. But, if
we shall suppose this marble to have been in the fluid state
of fusion, as well as the iron-ore and jasper, we may easily
conceive it introduced into the principal vein and its
branches. The description here given of those appearances
is by no means such as to enable us to judge particularly
of this case, which surely merits the most accurate
investigation, and which, I doubt not, will give physical
demonstration of the fusion of those mineral substances.
I know that shells have been found within the body of
veins in Germany; but, a stratification of those materials
in a vein was never heard of before, so far as I know.</blockquote>

<p>"Ces <i>fentes</i> se sont faites, et ont été remplies,
dans la <i>mer</i>; puisque les matières
qui les remplissent sont de la classe de ses
dépôts très connoissables, et qu'il contiennent
des <i>dépouilles marines</i>. Mais ce qui
embarrasse alors c'est que les autres <i>filons</i>
ne soyent pas dans le même cas. N'est ce
point là encore un indice, que ces <i>fentes</i>
out été d'abord et principalement remplies
de matières, poussées du fond par la même
force qui secouoit les montagnes<a id="footnotetag28" name="footnotetag28"></a><a href="#footnote28"><sup>28</sup></a>.</p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote28" name="footnote28"></a><b>Footnote 28:</b><a href="#footnotetag28"> (return) </a> But what is this power by which matter is to be
forced from the bottom of the sea to the top of the
mountains? For, unless we can form some idea of that
power which, as a cause, we ascribe to the perceived effect,
we either say nothing to the purpose, or we employ
a preternatural cause. It is not sufficient to imagine a
power capable of raising from the bottom of the sea the
materials deposited in the abyss; it is also necessary to
find a power capable of softening bodies which are hard,
and of thus consolidating those masses which are formed
of loose or unconnected materials. Such a power, indeed,
the present theory assumes; and, so far as this shall be
implied in the supposition of our author, it will thus have
received a certain conformation.</blockquote>

<p>"Ce <i>filon</i> n'est pas le seul dans le <i>Hartz</i>
qui donne des signes <i>marins</i>. Il y en a
un autre, qui même se rapproche davantage
de la nature du commun des <i>filons</i>, et
où l'on trouve aussi des <i>coquillages</i>. C'est
celui de <i>Haus-Hartzbergerzug</i>, pres de
<i>Clausthal</i>, où, dans les <i>Halles</i> de quelques
mines de plomb abandonnées, et dans une
forte <i>d'ardoise</i>, on trouve de petites <i>moules</i> ou
<i>tellines</i> striées, d'une espèce particulière que
j'ai vue dans des <i>ardoises secondaires d'Arotzen</i>
en <i>Waldek</i> et de <i>Sombernon</i> en <i>Bourgogne</i>.
Il y a donc certainement quelques
<i>filons</i> faits par les dépôts de la <i>mer</i> dans les
<i>fentes</i> de montagnes <i>primordiales</i>; comme
au contraire il y a des <i>filons</i> métalliques
sans indices <i>marins</i>, dans des montagnes
évidemment <i>secondaires</i>, telles que celles de
<i>Derbyshire</i>, ou les <i>filons</i> de <i>plomb</i> traversent
des couches de <i>pierre à chaux</i>."</p>

<p>Here again our author seems to me to refute
his own supposition, That a chasm in the
schistus rock may have existed at the bottom
of the sea, and been then filled from above
with such materials as were transported by the
moving water to that place, is not impossible;
but nobody, who knows the nature of a common
metallic vein, can ever suppose it to have
been filled in that manner. Our author then
adds, "On ne fait réellement que commencer
dans ce genre d'observations, considérées
quant à la Cosmologie; ainsi il ne faut
point désespérer que tout cela ne se dévoile
un jour, et que nous n'acquerrions ainsi un
peu plus de connoissance sur ce qui se passoit
dans la <i>mer ancienne</i>.</p>

<p>"En revenant vers <i>Elbingerode</i>, nous retrouvâmes
ces <i>schistes</i>, qui paroissent au
travers des <i>marbres:</i> ils sont donc la continuation
de la masse <i>schisteuse</i> à laquelle
appartient le <i>filon</i>, dont je viens de parler.
Ce <i>filon</i> à été formé dans une <i>fente</i>, restée
ouverte et vide: les dépôts de la <i>mer</i>
l'ont comblée, en même tems qu'ils formoient
les couches de <i>marbre</i>, qui sont à
l'extérieur. En effet, ce <i>filon</i> contient des
<i>couches marines ferrugineuses</i>, de la même
nature que celles des collines calcaires voisines
formées sur le schiste.</p>

<p>"Nous partîmes <i>d'Elbingerode</i> dans l'après
midi pour nous rapprocher de Clausthal.
Notre chemin fut encore quelque tems sur
des sommités <i>calcaires</i>; et avant que d'en
sortir, nous trouvâmes une autre mine singulière
à <i>Arenfeld</i>. C'est encore un vrai
<i>filon</i>; mais dans une montagne de <i>pierre à
chaux:</i> C'est à-dire, que cette montagne a
aussi été <i>fendue</i>, et que la <i>fente</i> a été remplie
d'une <i>gangue</i>. La matière de ce <i>filon</i> est
encore <i>calcaire</i> en plus grande partie; mais
cette <i>pierre à chaux</i> distincte est <i>ferrugineuse</i>,
et parsemée de concrétions de <i>jaspe</i>
comme celles <i>d'Elbingerode:</i> on y trouve
aussi une matière verdâtre, qui, comme le
<i>jaspe</i>, ne fait pas effervescence avec l'eau
forte."</p>

<p>Here is a phenomenon which is altogether
incompatible with the theory that this author
has given us for the explanation of those appearances.
He supposes empty crevices in
the schistus mountains at the bottom of the
sea; these crevices he supposes filled by the
deposits of the sea, at the same time, and with
the same materials with which the lime-stone
strata were formed above the schistus mountains;
but we find one of those same veins in
these secondary calcareous strata. Now, tho'
we should be disposed to allow, that, in the
primordial mountain, of which we are supposed
not to know the origin, there might have
been empty crevices which were afterwards
filled with materials transported by the sea,
this cannot be admitted as taking place in the
loose or incoherent materials deposited above
the schistus. Consequently, this theory of
our author, which is evidently erroneous with
regard to the veins in the lime-stone, must, in
the other case, be at least examined with a
jealous eye.</p>

<p>"Le haut de cette partie des montagnes
<i>calcaires</i> étoit encore recouvert de <i>sable</i> et
de grès <i>vitrescibles</i>: et continuant à marcher,
sans aucune inflexion sensible, nous
nous trouvâmes subitement sur les <i>schistes</i>;
d'où nous montâmes plus rapidement.
Puis traversant quelques petites vallées nous
arrivâmes sur les montagnes qui appartiennent
au prolongement du <i>Brocken</i> ou
<i>Blocksberg</i>. La matière dominante est alors
le <i>granit</i>; mais il est tout en blocs le long
de cette route, et ces blocs se trouvent à
une telle distance de tout sommité intacte
de cette pierre, qui est aisé de juger non
seulement qu'ils ne sont pas dans leur place
originaire, mais encore qu'il ne sont arrivés
là par aucune des causes naturelles
qui agissent dans les montagnes; savoir, la
pesanteur, la pente, et le cours des eaux.
Ce sont donc de violentes explosions qui
ont dispersé ces blocs; et alors ils deviennent
un nouveau trait cosmologique de
quelque importance: car rien ne se meut,
ni ne paroît s'être mu depuis bien des
siècles, dans ces lieux qui montrent tant de
désordre: un tapis de verdure couvre tout,
en conservant les contours baroques du sol.
Le bétail ne sauroit pâturer dans de telles
prairies; mais l'industrieux montagnard fait
y faucher<a id="footnotetag29" name="footnotetag29"></a><a href="#footnote29"><sup>29</sup></a>.</p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote29" name="footnote29"></a><b>Footnote 29:</b><a href="#footnotetag29"> (return) </a> M. de Saussure endeavours to explain those appearances
of transported blocks of granite by another cause;
this is a certain <i>debacle</i> of the waters of the earth, which I
do not understand. M. de Luc again attempts to explain
it by violent explosions; I suppose he means those of a
volcano. But he has not given us the evidence upon
which such an opinion may be founded, farther than by
saying that those blocks could not have come there by the
natural operations of the surface. By this must be meant,
that, from the nearest summit of granite, there is not, at
present, any natural means by which these blocks might
be transported to that place. But it is not with the present
state of things that we are concerned, in explaining
the operations of a distant period. If the natural operations
of the surface change the shape of things, as is
clearly proved by every natural appearance, Why form an
argument against a former transaction, upon the circumstances
of the present state of things? Our author does
not seem to perceive, that, from this mode of reasoning,
there is is an insuperable objection to his violent explosions
having been employed in producing those effects. For,
had there been such a cause, the evidence of this must
have remained; if the surface of the earth does not undergo
great changes: If, again, this surface be in time much
changed, How can we judge from the present shape, what
might have been the former posture of things?

<p>This author, indeed, does not allow much time for the
natural operations of the globe to change its surface; but,
if things be not greatly removed from the state in which
the violent operations of the globe had placed them, Why
does he not point out to us the source of this great disorder
which he there perceives? From what explosion
will be explained the blocks of granite which are found
upon the Jura, and which must have come from the mass
of <i>Mont Blanc</i>? If these dispersed blocks of stone are to
be explained by explosion, there must: have been similar explosions
in other countries where there is not the smallest
appearance of volcanic eruptions; for, around all our
granite mountains, and I believe all others, there are
found many blocks of granite, travelled at a great distance,
and in all directions.</blockquote>

<p>"<i>Oberbruck</i>, ou nous avions été la précédente
fois, se trouva sur notre route, et
nous y passames aussi la nuit, dans l'espérance
de pouvoir monter le lendemain sur
le <i>Brocken</i>; mais il fut encore enveloppé
de nuages; ainsi nous continuâmes à marcher
vers <i>Clausthal</i>, passant de nouveau par
le <i>Bruchberg</i>, où le <i>sable</i> et ses gres recouvrent
le <i>schiste</i>; puis arrivant à une
autre sommité, nous y trouvâmes la même
pierre <i>sableuse</i> par couches, mêlée de parcelles
de <i>schiste</i>, que nous avions vue sur
les montagnes <i>calcaires d'Elbingerode</i>. Il
est donc toujours plus certain que le sol
primordial de toutes ces montagnes existoit
sous les eaux de l'ancienne mer; puisqu'il
est recouvert de diverses fortes de dépôts,
connus pour appartenir à la <i>mer</i>; et que
les <i>fentes</i> des <i>filons</i> existoient dans cette
<i>mer ancienne</i>; puisqu'elle en a rempli elle-même
quelques unes, et qu'elle a recouvert
de ses dépôts quelques autres <i>filons</i> tout
formés. Quant à celles des matières de ces
<i>filons</i>, qui ne paroissent pas être <i>marines</i> (et
c'est de beaucoup la plus grande quantité),
j'ai toujours plus de penchant d'en attribuer
une partie à l'opération des <i>feux souterreins</i>,
à mesure que je vois diminuer la
probabilité de les assigner entièrement à
<i>l'eau</i>. Mais quoi-qu'il en soit, ces gangues
ne font pas de même date que les montagnes<a id="footnotetag30" name="footnotetag30"></a><a href="#footnote30"><sup>30</sup></a>.</p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote30" name="footnote30"></a><b>Footnote 30:</b><a href="#footnotetag30"> (return) </a> I most willingly admit the justness of our author's
view, if he thus perceives the operation of fire in the
solids of our earth; but it is not for the reasons he has
given us for discovering it here more than in other places;
for there is not a mineral vein, (so far at least as I have
seen), in which the appearances may be explained by any
thing else besides the operation of fire or fusion. It is
not easy to conceive in what manner our author had conceived
the opinions which he has displayed in these letters.
He had no opinion of this kind, or rather he was persuaded
that subterraneous fire had no hand in the formation
of this earth before he came to this place of the
Hartz; here he finds certain appearances, by which he is
confirmed in his former opinion, that water had operated
in forming mineral veins; and then he forms the idea
that subterraneous fire may have operated also. But, before
the discovery of the chasms in the schistus mountains
having been filled with the stratified materials of the sea,
How had he supposed veins to be filled? If this philosopher
had before no opinion of subterraneous fire, as instrumental
in that operation, How comes he now to change
that former opinion? For, unless it be the extraordinary
manner of filling these open crevices in the mountains by
matter deposited immediately from the sea, there is certainly
no other appearance in this mineral country of the
Hartz, that may not be found in any other, only perhaps
upon a smaller scale.</blockquote>

<p>"Le lendemain de notre arrivée a <i>Clausthal</i>,
qui étoit le 13e, nous allâmes visiter
d'autres mines de <i>fer</i> en montagnes secondaires,
situées au côté opposé du Hartz.
Elles sont auprès de <i>Grund</i> l'une des <i>villes
de mines</i>, et près du lieu ou sortira la nouvelle
<i>galerie d'écoulement</i> à laquelle on travaille,
etc.</p>

<p>"Arrivés à <i>Grund</i> les officiers mineurs
vinrent, comme à l'ordinaire, accompagner
Mons. de <i>Reden</i> aux <i>mines</i> de leur département.
Celles-ci, sans être plus extraordinaires
que celles qui nous avions
vues à <i>Elbingerod</i>, ou sans aider mieux
jusqu'ici à expliquer ce qu'elles ont toutes
d'extraordinaire, nous donnent au moins
des indices probables de grands accidens.
Ces montagnes de <i>Grund</i> sont encore de
l'espèce remarquable, dont la base est de
<i>schiste</i>, et le haut de <i>pierre à chaux</i>. Les
mines qu'on y exploit sont de <i>fer</i>, et se
trouvent dans cette matière <i>calcaire</i>; mais
elles y sont sous des apparences tout-à-fait
étranges. La montagne où nous les vîmes
principalement le nomme <i>Iberg</i>. On y
poursuit des masses de <i>pierre à fer</i>, de l'ensemble
desquelles les mineurs ne peuvent encore
se rendre compte d'une manière claire.
Ils ont trouvé dans cette montagne des <i>cavernes</i>,
qui ressemblent à l'encaissement de
<i>filons</i> déjà exploités, ou non formés; c'est-à-dire,
que ce sont des <i>fentes</i> presque verticales,
et vides, Le <i>minerai</i> qu'ils poursuivent
est en <i>Rognons</i>; c'est à dire, en
grandes masses sans continuité décidée.
Cependant ces masses semblent se succéder
dans la montagne suivant une certaine direction;
tellement que les mineurs savent
déjà les chercher, par des indices d'habitude.
La substance de cette <i>pierre à fer</i>
particulière renferme des crystallizations de
diverses espèces. Il y a des <i>druses de quartz</i>,
ou de petits cristaux de quartz qui tapissent
des cavités; il y a aussi du <i>spath</i> commun,
et de celui qu'on nomme pesant; on y
trouve enfin une forte de crystallization
nommée <i>Eisenman</i> (<i>homme de fer</i>) par les
mineurs; se sont des amas de cristaux noir-âtres,
qui ressemblent à des groupes de
grandes lentilles plattes, et ces cristaux sont
<i>ferrugineux</i>.</p>

<p>"Entre les signes de bouleversement que
renferme ce lieu, est un rocher nommé
<i>Gebichensten</i>, qui est en <i>pierre à chaux</i>, ce
que <i>l'Ebrenbreitstein</i> de <i>Coblentz</i> est en
pierre sableuse: c'est-à-dire, que ses <i>couches</i>,
remplies de <i>corps marins</i>, sont presque verticales;
ceux de ces corps qu'on y trouve
en plus grande quantité, sont des <i>madrépores</i>.
Ce rocher s'élève comme un grand
obélisque, au-dessus des <i>cavernes</i>, dont j'ai
parlé; montrant par le côté ses <i>couches</i>, qui
se trouvent, comme je l'ai dit, dans une
situation presque verticale. Sa base est déjà
bien minée, tant par les <i>cavernes</i>, que
par la <i>pierre à fer</i> qu'on en tire; et je ne
me hasardai dessus, que parce que je me
dis, qu'il y a des millions contre un à parier,
que ce n'est pas le moment où il s'enfoncerait.
Mais je n'en dirois pas autant,
s'il s'agissoit de m'y loger à demeure.</p>

<p>"Quoique tout ce lieu là soit fort remarquable,
il se pourrait que ce ne fut qu'un
phénomène particulier. Les <i>cavernes</i> peuvent
devoir leur origine à la même cause
que celle de Schartzfeld; et le dérangement
des rochers supérieurs à des enfoncemens
occasionnés par ces <i>cavernes</i>. Rien
n'est si difficile que de retracer aujourd'hui
ces fortes d'accidens à cause des changemens
que le tems y a opérés. S'ils sont
arrivés sous les eaux de la <i>mer</i>, on conçoit
aisément les altérations qui ont dû succéder;
et si c'est depuis que nos continens
sont à sec, les eaux encore, tant intérieures
qu'extérieures, et la végétation, en ont
beaucoup changé l'aspect."</p>

<p>This author has a theory by which he explains
to himself the former residence of the
sea, above the summits of our mountains;
this, however, is not the theory by which we
are now endeavouring to explain appearances;
we must therefore be allowed to reason from
our own principles, in considering the facts
here set forth by our author.</p>

<p>Nothing, I think, is more evident, than
that in this mineral country of the Hartz, we
may find the clearest marks of fracture, elevation,
and dislocation of the strata, and of the
introduction of foreign matter among those
separated bodies. All those appearances, our
author would have to be nothing but some
particular accident, which is not to enter into
the physiology of the earth. I wish again to
generalise these facts, by finding them universal
in relation to the globe, and necessarily
to be found in all the consolidated parts of our
land.</p>

<p>It was not to refute our author's reasoning
that I have here introduced so much of his
observations, but to give an extensive view of
the mineral structure of this interesting country.
This therefore being done, we now proceed
to what is more peculiarly our business
in this place, or the immediate subject of investigation,
viz. the distinction of primary and
secondary strata.</p>

<p>"Dans le voisinage de cette montagne, il
y a une autre fort intéressante, que je vis le
jour suivant. Quoiqu'en traitant des volcans,
j'aie démontré que la formation des
montagnes, par soulèvement, étoit sans example
dans les faits, et sans fondement dans
la théorie, je ne laisseroi pas de m'arrêter au
phénomène que présente cette montagne;
parce qu'il prouvera directement que les
<i>couches calcaires</i> au moins, ont été formées
<i>à la hauteur ou elles sont</i>; c'est-a-dire
qu'elles n'ont pas été soulevées.</p>

<p>"Voulant prendre l'occasion de mon retour
à <i>Hanovre</i>, pour traverser les avant-corps
du <i>Hartz</i>, dans quelque nouvelle direction;
je résolus de faire ce voyage à
cheval, et de prendre ma route droite vers
<i>Hanovre</i>, au-travers des collines; ce qui
me conduisit encore à <i>Grund</i> puis à <i>Münchehof
Brunshausen, Engelade, Winsenburg</i>
et <i>Alfeld</i>, où enfin, traversant la <i>Leine</i> j'entrai
dans la grande route.</p>

<p>"Je quittai donc <i>Clausthal</i> (et avec bien
du regret) le 14 au matin; et revenant
d'abord à <i>Grund</i>, je le laissai sur ma droite,
ainsi que <i>l'Iberg</i>; et plus loin, du même
côté, une autre montagne nommée <i>Winterberg</i>
dont la base est <i>schiste</i>, et le sommet
plus haut que Clausthal, entièrement composé
de <i>couches calcaires</i>. De <i>Grund</i> je
montai vers une montagne nommée <i>Ost
Kamp</i>; et je commençai là à donner une
attention particulière au sol. Le long de
mon chemin, je ne trouvai longtemps que
des schistes, qui montroient leurs points en
haut, comme à l'ordinaire, et avec tous leurs
tortillemens de feuillets. Mais arrivé au
haut de la montagne, j'y vis des carrières
de <i>pierre à chaux</i>, où les couches absolument
régulières, et qui ont peu d'épaisseur
sur le <i>schiste</i> suivent parfaitement les contours
du <i>sommet</i>. Ces lits de <i>pierre à chaux</i>
n'ont certainement pas été soulevés du fond
de la <i>mer</i> sur le dos des schistes; lors même
qu'à cause de la grande inclinaison des feuillets
de ceux-ci on voudroit le attribuer à
quelque révolution telle que le <i>soulèvement</i>;
(ce que je n'admettrois point). Car si ces
lits <i>calcaires</i>, ayant été faits au fond de la
<i>mer</i>, avoyent été soulevés avec les schistes,
ne feroient-ils pas brisés et bouleversés comme
eux? Il est donc evident, que quoiqu'il
soi arrivé au schiste qui les porte, ces lits,
et tous les autres de même genre qui sont
au haut de ces montagnes, ont été déposées
au niveau où ils sont; et que par conséquent
la <i>mer</i> les surpassoit alors. Ainsi le
système de soulèvement perd son but, s'il
tend à expliquer pourquoi nous avons des
<i>couches</i>, formées par la mer, qui se trouvent
maintenant si fort au dessus de son niveau.
Il est évident que ces <i>couches</i> n'ont pas été
soulevées; mais que la <i>mer</i> s'est <i>abaissée</i>.
Or c'est là le grand point cosmologique à
expliquer: tous les autres, qui tiennent à
la structure de certaines montagnes inintelligibles,
n'appartiendront qu'à <i>l'histoire naturelle</i>,
tant qu'ils ne se lieront pas avec
celui-la."</p>

<p>Here are two things to be considered; the
interesting facts described by our author, and
the inference that he would have us draw
from those facts. It would appear from the
facts, that the body of schistus below, and
that of lime-stone above, had not undergone
the same disordering operations, or by no
means in the same degree. But our author
has formed another conclusion; he says, that
these lime-stone strata must have been formed
precisely in the place and order in which they
lie at present; and the reason for this is, because
these strata appeared to him to follow
perfectly the contour of the summit of this
mountain. Now, had there been in the top
of this mountain a deep hollow encompassed
about with the schistus rock; and had this
cavity been now found filled with horizontal
strata, there might have been some shadow of
reason for supposing those strata to have been
deposited upon the top of the mountain. But
to suppose, <i>first</i>, that shells and corals should
be deposited upon the convex summit of a
mountain which was then covered by the sea;
<i>secondly</i>, that these moveable materials should
remain upon the summit, while the sea had
changed its place; and, <i>lastly</i>, that those shells
and corals left by the sea upon the top of a
mountain should become strata of solid limestone.
and have also metallic veins in it, certainly
holds of no principle of natural philosophy
that I am acquainted with. If, therefore,
such an appearance as this were to be employed
either in illustration or confirmation of a
theory, it would itself require to be explained;
but this is a task that this cosmologists
does not seem willing to undertake.</p>

<p>He has formed a hypothesis for explaining
the general appearance of that which was once
the bottom of the sea being now found forming
the summits of our mountains; but surely
this philosopher will acknowledge, that
those natural appearances, in any particular
place, will be the same, whether we suppose
the bottom of the sea to have been raised, as
in the present theory, or the surface of the sea
to have sunk according to his hypothesis. For,
it is equally easy to suppose a portion of the
earth to have been raised all this height, as to
suppose all the rest of the surface of the globe
to have sunk an equal space, while a small
portion of the bottom of the sea, remaining
here and there fixed in its place, became the
highest portion of the globe. Consequently,
whatever evidence this philosopher shall find
in support of his theory of the present earth,
(a subject which it is not our purpose to examine)
it cannot be allowed that he has here
brought any argument capable of disproving
the elevation of the bottom of the sea; a supposition
which other theories may require.</p>

<p>I would now observe, in relation to the
present theory, that so far as this author has
reasoned justly from natural appearances, his
conclusions will be found to confirm the present
supposition, that there is to be perceived
the distinction of primordial, and that of secondary,
in the masses of this earth, without
altering the general theory either with respect
to the original formation of those masses, or
to their posterior production.</p>

<p>Here one of two things must be allowed;
either that those strata of schistus had been
broken and distorted under a mass of other
superincumbent strata; or that those superincumbent
strata had been deposited upon the
broken and distorted strata at the bottom of
the sea. Our author, who has examined the
subject, inclines to think, that this last has
been the case. If, therefore, strata had been
deposited upon broken and bare rocks of
schistus, it is probable that these had been
sunk in the sea after having been exposed to
the atmosphere, and served the purpose of
land upon the globe.<a id="footnotetag31" name="footnotetag31"></a><a href="#footnote31"><sup>31</sup></a></p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote31" name="footnote31"></a><b>Footnote 31:</b><a href="#footnotetag31"> (return) </a> This is also supported by another very interesting observation
contained in this letter. M. de Luc observes,
that in this country the schistus is generally covered by
strata of lime-stone, and that these lime-stone strata are
again covered with those of sand-stone, in which are found
a great many fragments of schistus lying flat. Therefore,
while those sand-stone strata were collecting at the bottom
of the sea, there had been rocks of schistus in some other
place, from whence those fragments bad been detached.</blockquote>

<p>An example of the same kind also occurs
in the <i>Discours sur l'Histoire Naturelle de la
Suisse</i>; and this author of the <i>Tableaux de la
Suisse</i> has given a very distinct description of
that appearance, which is perhaps the more
to be valued as a piece of natural history, as
this intelligent author does not pretend to any
geological theory, but simply narrates what
he has seen, with such pertinent observations
on the subject as naturally must occur to a
thinking person on the spot.&mdash;(Discours, etc.
page 228. Entrée au pays de Grisons).</p>

<p>"Du village d'Elen on continue à monter
le reste du petit vallon pendant une lieue
et demie parmi les mêmes espèces de pierres
qu'on vient de décrire; en passant au travers
de bois et de forêts de sapins et de
quelques pâturages dont ce haut est couvert,
on parvient au pied du Bundnerberg,
montagne des grisons, qui forme la
tête du vallon. On laisse à droite un fond
ou espèce d'entonnoir, entouré de très-hautes
montagnes inaccessibles, pour s'enfourrer
à gauche entre des rochers qui font
fort resserrés, où coule un torrent. Ce lieu
seroit horreur si on ne se trouvoit accoutumé,
par degrés, à voir de ces positions effrayantes:
tout y est aride, il n'y a plus
d'arbres ni de végétaux ce sont des rochers
entassés les un sur les autres; ce lieu paroit
d'autant plus affreux que le passage a
été subit, et qu'en sortant de bois et des
forêts, on se trouve tout-à-coup parmi ces
rochers qui s'élèvent comme des murailles,
et dont on ne voit pas la cime; cette gorge
ou cette entrée qui se nomme Jetz, est la
communication du Canton du Glaris aux
Gritons; on a dit précédemment qu'il y en
avoit une plus aisée par le Gros-Thal ou
le grand vallon. Ce passage est très-curieux
pour la Lithogeognosie, il est rare
de trouver autant de phénomènes intéressans
rassemblés, et des substances aussi variées
par rapport à leurs positions; c'est le
local qui mérite le plus d'être examiné en
Suisse, et la plus difficile que nous ayons
parcouru. On se souviendra que nous
avons continuellement monté depuis Glaris,
et que nous nous trouvons au pied de
ces montagnes ou de ces pics étonnans qui
dominent les hautes Alpes; on trouve ici
la facilité peu commune de pouvoir examiner,
et voir le pied ou les fondemens
de ces colosses qui couronnent le globe,
parce qu'ils sont ordinairement entourés de
leurs débris et de leurs éboulemens qui en
cachent le pied. Ici c'est une roche de
schiste bleuâtre, dure et compact, traversée
de filons de quartz blanc, et quelquefois
jaunâtre, dans laquelle on a taillé un sentier
pour pouvoir en franchir le pied. Cette
roche s'élève à une hauteur prodigieuse,
est presque verticale, et ces couches sont à
quatre-vingt degrés d'inclinaison. L'imagination
est effrayée de voir que de pareilles
masses ayent pu être ébranlées et déplacées
au point d'avoir fait presque un quart de
conversion. Après avoir monté et suivi
cette roche parmi les pierres et les décombres,
une heure et demie, on trouve
cette roche de schiste surmontée d'autres
rochers fort hauts qui sont calcaires, et dont
les lits sont fort horizontaux. Les schistes,
qui sont directement sous les roches calcaires,
conservent la même inclinaison qu'elles
ont à leur pied."</p>

<p>Here is an observation which certainly
agrees with that given by M. de Luc, and
would seem to confirm this conclusion, that
strata had been deposited upon those <i>schisti</i>
after they had been changed from their natural
or horizontal position, and become vertical;
at the same time, this conclusion is not
of necessary consequence, without examining
concomitant appearances, and finding particular
marks by which this operation might be
traced; for the simply finding horizontal
strata, placed above vertical or much inclined
schiste, is not sufficient, of itself, to constitute
that fact, while it is acknowledged that every
species of fracture, dislocation, and contortion,
is to be found among the displaced strata of
the globe.</p>

<p>Since writing this chapter, I am enabled to
speak more decisively upon that point, having
acquired more light upon the subject, as will
appear in the next chapter.</p>

<br>
<h3>CHAP. VI.</h3>

<p><i>The Theory of interchanging Sea and Land
illustrated by an Investigation of the Primary
and Secondary Strata</i>.</p>



<p>SECT. I.&mdash;<i>A distinct View of the Primary and
Secondary Strata</i>.</p>


<p>Having given a view of what seems
to be the primary and secondary strata,
from the observations of authors, and having
given what was my opinion when I first wrote
that chapter, I am now to treat of this subject
from observations of my own, which I
made since forming that opinion.</p>

<p>From Portpatrick, on the west coast, to St
Abb's Head, on the east, there is a tract of
schistus mountains, in which the strata are
generally much inclined, or approaching to
the vertical situation; and it is in these inclined
strata that geologists allege that there
is not to be found any vestige of organised
body. This opinion, however, I have now
proved to be erroneous.</p>

<p>There cannot be any doubt with regard to
the original formation of those stratified bodies,
as having been formed of the materials
that are natural to this earth, viz. the detritus
of former bodies; and as having been deposited
in water, like the horizontal strata: For
the substances and bodies of which they are
visibly composed are no other than those
which form the most regular horizontal strata,
and which are continually travelling, or transported
at the bottom of the sea, such as gravel,
and sand, argillaceous and micaceous bodies.</p>

<p>On each side of this ridge of mountains,
which towards the east end is but narrow,
there is a lower country composed of strata
in general more horizontal; and among which
strata, besides coal, there are also found the
relics of organised bodies.</p>

<p>Abstracting at present from any consideration
of organised bodies among the materials
of those strata, it may be affirmed, that the
materials which form the strata in the mountains
and in the low country, are similar, or
of the same nature; that they have, in both
places, been consolidated by the same means,
viz. heat and fusion; and that the same or
similar accidents have happened to them, such
as change from their original position, and
mineral veins traversing them in various
shapes. Yet still there is a distinctive character
for those two bodies, the alpine and the
horizontal strata; for, while the horizontal
position appears natural to the one, and the
changes from that particular state to be only
an accident, the vertical position appears to be
more natural to the other, which is seldom
found horizontal.</p>

<p>Therefore, altho' it is unquestionable that
the strata in the alpine and low countries had
the same or a similar original, yet, as the
vertical position, which is the greatest possible
change in that respect, is more natural to the
alpine strata, or only necessary in the natural
order of those bodies, we are to consider this
great disorder or change from the natural state
of their original formation, as the proper character
of those alpine strata. But then it is
also necessary to include in this character a
general hardness and solidity in those vertical
strata, otherwise they would not have been
properly alpine, or have resisted the wearing
and washing powers of the globe, so as to
have remained higher than the others; for, the
vertical position, or great inclination of those
strata, should rather have disposed them the
more to dissolution and decay. Let us now
see how far we shall be justified in that general
conclusion, by the examination of those
bodies.</p>

<p>The fact is certain, that those alpine bodies
are much harder, or less subject to dissolution
and decay, than the horizontal strata. But
this must be taken in the general, and will by
no means apply to particular cases which
might be compared. Nothing, for example,
more solid than the lime-stones, or marbles,
and iron-stones; nothing more hard or solid
than the chirt or flint; and all these are found
among the horizontal strata. But, while some
strata among those horizontal beds are thus
perfectly solid, others are found with so slight
degrees of consolidation, that we should not
be able to ascribe it to the proper cause, without
that gradation of the effect, which leads
us to impute the slightest degree of consolidation
to the same operations that have produced
the complete solidity. While, therefore, the
most perfect solidity is found in certain strata,
or occasionally among the horizontal bodies,
this forms no part of their character in general,
or cannot be considered as a distinctive
mark, as it truly is with regard to the alpine
strata. These last have a general character
of consolidation and indissolubility, which
is in a manner universal. We are, therefore,
now to inquire into the cause of this distinction,
and to form some hypothesis that may
be tried by the actual state of things, in being
compared with natural appearances.</p>

<p>As the general cause of consolidation among
mineral bodies, formed originally of loose materials,
has been found to consist in certain
degrees of fusion or cementation of those materials
by means of heat; and as, in the examination
of the horizontal strata we actually
find very different degrees of consolidation in
the several strata, independent of their positions
in relation to height or depth, we have
reason to believe that the heat, or consolidating
operation, has not been equally employed
in relation to them all.</p>

<p>We are not now inquiring how an inferior
stratum should have been heated in a lesser
degree, or not consolidated, while a superior
stratum had been consolidated in the most
perfect manner; we are to reason upon a
fact, which is, that the horizontal strata in
general appear not to have been equally or
universally consolidated; and this we must
attribute to an insufficient exertion of the
consolidating cause. But, so far as the erecting
cause is considered as the same with that
by which the elevated bodies were consolidated,
and so far as the vertical situation is a
proof of the great exertion of that subterraneous
power, the strata which are most erected,
should in general be found most consolidated.</p>

<p>Nothing more certain than that there have
been several repeated operations of the mineralising
power exerted upon the strata in particular
places; and all those mineral operations
tend to consolidation: Therefore, the
more the operations have been repeated in
any place, the more we should find the strata
consolidated, or changed from their natural
state. Vertical strata have every appearance
from whence we should be led to conclude,
that much of the mineral power had been exerted
upon them, in changing their original
constitution or appearance. But the question
now to be considered is this, How far it may
appear that these masses of matter, which now
seem to be so different from the ordinary strata
of the globe, had been twice subjected to the
mineral operations, in having been first consolidated
and erected into the place of land,
and afterwards sunk below the bottom of the
sea, in order a second time to undergo the
process of subterraneous heat, and again be
elevated into the place where they now are
found.</p>

<p>It must be evident, here is a question that
may not be easy to decide. It is not to the
degree of any change to which bodies may be
subject, that we are to appeal, in order to clear
up the point in question, but to a regular
course of operations, which must appear to
have been successively transacted, and by
which the different circumstances or situations
of those masses are to be discovered in their
present state. Now, though it does not concern
the present theory that this question be
decided, as it is nothing but a repetition of
the same operations that we look for; nevertheless,
it would be an interesting fact in the
natural history of this earth; and it would
add great lustre to a theory by which so great,
so many operations were to be explained. I
am far from being sanguine in my expectations
of giving all the satisfaction in relation
to this subject that I could wish; but it will
be proper to state what I have lately learned
with regard to so curious a question, that
others, who shall have the opportunity, may
be led to inquire, and that thus the natural
history of the earth may be enlarged, by a
proper investigation of its mineral operations.</p>

<p>With this view I have often considered our
schistus mountains, both in the north and
south; but I never found any satisfactory appearance
from whence conclusions could be
formed, whether for the question or against it.
The places I examined were those between
the alpine countries and the horizontal strata;
here, indeed, I have frequently found a confused
mass, formed of the fragments of those
alpine strata mixed with the materials of the
horizontal bodies; but not having seen the
proper shape and connection of those several
deposits, I always suspended my judgment
with regard to the particular operations which
might have been employed in producing those
appearances.</p>

<p>I had long looked for the immediate junction
of the secondary or low country strata
with the alpine schistus, without finding it;
the first place in which I observed it was at
the north end of the island of Arran, at the
mouth of Loch Ranza; it was upon the shore,
where the inclined strata appeared bare, being;
washed by the sea. It was but a very small
part that I could see; but what appeared was
most distinct. Here the schistus and the sandstone
strata both rise inclined at an angle of
about 45°; but these primary and secondary
strata were inclined in almost opposite directions;
and thus they met together like the
two sides of a <i>lambda</i>, or the rigging of a
house, being a little in disorder at the angle
of their junction. From this situation of
those two different masses of strata, it is evidently
impossible that either of them could
have been formed originally in that position;
therefore, I could not here learn in what state
the schistus strata had been in when those of
the sand-stone, &amp;c, had been superinduced.</p>

<p>Such was the state of my mind, in relation
to that subject:, when at Jedburgh upon a visit
to a friend, after I had returned from Arran,
and wrote the history of that journey; I there
considered myself as among the horizontal
strata which had first appeared after passing
the Tweed, and before arriving at the Tiviot.
The strata there, as in Berwickshire, which is
their continuation to the east, are remarkably
horizontal for Scotland; and they consist of
alternated beds of sand-stone and marl, or argillaceous
and micaceous strata. These horizontal
strata are traversed in places with small
veins of whin-stone, as well as greater masses
forming rocks and hills of that material; but,
except it be these, (of which there are some
curious examples), I thought there could be
nothing more of an interesting nature to observe.
Chance, however, discovered to me
what I could not have expected or foreseen.</p>

<p>The river Tweed, below Melrose, discovers
in its bed the vertical strata of the schistus
mountains, and though here these indurated
bodies are not veined with quartz as in
many places of the mountains, I did not hesitate
to consider them as the same species,
that is to say, the marly materials indurated
and consolidated in those operations by which
they had been so much changed in their place
and natural position. Afterwards in travelling
south, and seeing the horizontal softer
strata, I concluded that I had got out of the
alpine country, and supposed that no more of
the vertical strata were to be observed.</p>

<p>The river Tiviot has made a wide valley as
might have been expected, in running over
those horizontal strata of marly or decaying
substances; and the banks of this river declining
gradually are covered with gravel and
soil, and show little of the solid strata of the
country. This, however, is not the case with
the Jed, which is to the southward of the Tiviot;
that river, in many places, runs upon
the horizontal strata, and undermines steep
banks, which falling shows high and beautiful
sections of the regular horizontal strata. The
little rivulets also which fall into the Jed have
hollowed out deep gullies in the land, and
show the uniformity of the horizontal strata.</p>

<p>In this manner I was disposed to look for
nothing more than what I had seen among
those mineral bodies, when one day, walking
in the beautiful valley above the town of Jedburgh,
I was surprised with the appearance of
vertical strata in the bed of the river, where I
was certain that the banks were composed of
horizontal strata. I was soon satisfied with
regard to this phenomenon, and rejoiced at
my good fortune in stumbling upon an object
so interesting to the natural history of the
earth, and which I had been long looking for
in vain.</p>

<p>Here the vertical strata, similar to those that
are in the bed of the Tweed, appear; and
above those vertical strata, are placed the horizontal
beds, which extend along the whole
country.</p>

<p>The question which we would wish to have
solved is this; if the vertical strata had been
broken and erected under the superincumbent
horizontal strata; or if, after the vertical strata
had been broken and erected, the horizontal
strata had been deposited upon the vertical
strata, then forming the bottom of the sea.
That strata, which are regular and horizontal
in one place, should be found bended,
broken, or disordered at another, is not uncommon;
it is always found more or less in
all our horizontal strata. Now, to what
length this disordering operation might have
been carried, among strata under others, without
disturbing the order and continuity of
those above, may perhaps be difficult to determine;
but here, in this present case, is the
greatest disturbance of the under strata, and
a very great regularity among those above.
Here at least is the most difficult case of this
kind to conceive, if we are to suppose that the
upper strata had been deposited before those
below had been broken and erected.</p>

<p>Let us now suppose that the under strata
had been disordered at the bottom of the sea,
before the superincumbent bodies were deposited;
it is not to be well conceived, that
the vertical strata should in that case appear to
be cut off abruptly, and present their regular
edges immediately under the uniformly deposited
substances above. But, in the case
now under consideration, there appears the
most uniform section of the vertical strata,
their ends go up regularly to the horizontal
deposited bodies. Now, in whatever state the
vertical strata had been in at the time of this
event, we can hardly suppose that they could
have been so perfectly cut off, without any
relict being left to trace that operation. It is
much more probable to suppose, that the sea
had washed away the relics of the broken and
disordered strata, before those that are now
superincumbent had been begun to be deposited.
But we cannot suppose two such
contrary operations in the same place, as that
of carrying away the relics of those broken
strata, and the depositing of sand and subtile
earth in such a regular order. We are therefore
led to conclude, that the bottom of the
sea, or surface of those erected strata, had been
in very different situations at those two periods,
when the relics of the disordered strata
had been carried away, and when the new
materials had been deposited.</p>

<p>If this shall be admitted as a just view of
the subject, it will be fair to suppose, that the
disordered strata had been raised more or less
above the surface of the ocean; that, by the
effects of either rivers, winds, or tides, the
surface of the vertical strata had been washed
bare; and that this surface had been afterwards
sunk below the influence of those destructive
operations, and thus placed in a situation
proper for the opposite effect, the accumulation
of matter prepared and put in motion
by the destroying causes.</p>

<p>I will not pretend to say that this has all
the evidence that should be required, in order
to constitute a physical truth, or principle from
whence we were to reason farther in our
theory; but, as a simple fact, there is more
probability for the thing having happened in
that manner than in any other; and perhaps
this is all that may be attained, though not all
that were to be wished on the occasion. Let
us now see how far any confirmation may be
obtained from the examination of all the
attending circumstances in those operations.</p>

<p>I have already mentioned, that I had long
observed great masses of <i>debris</i>, or an extremely
coarse species of pudding-stone, situated on
the south as well as north sides of those schistus
mountains, where the alpine strata terminate
in our view, and where I had been looking
for the connection of those with the softer
strata of the low country. It has surely been
such appearances as these which have often
led naturalists to see the formation of secondary
and tertiary strata formed by the simple
congestion of <i>debris</i> from the mountains, and
to suppose those masses consolidated by the
operation of that very element by which they
had been torn off from one place and deposited
in another. I never before had data from
whence to reason with regard to the natural
history of those masses of gravel and sand
which always appeared to me in an irregular
shape, and not attended with such circumstances
as might give light into their natural
history; but now I have found what I think
sufficient to explain those obscure appearances,
and which at the same time will in some respect
illustrate or confirm the conjecture which
has now been formed with regard to the operations
of the globe in those regions.</p>

<p>In describing the vertical and horizontal
strata of the Jed, no mention has been made
of a certain pudding-stone, which is interposed
between the two, lying immediately upon
the one and under the other. This puddingstone.
corresponds entirely to that which I
had found along the skirt of the schistus
mountains upon the south side, in different
places, almost from one end to the other. It
is a confused mass of stones, gravel, and sand,
with red marly earth; these are consolidated
or cemented in a considerable degree, and thus
form a stratum extremely unlike any thing
which is to be found either above or below.</p>

<p>When we examine the stones and gravel
of which it is composed, these appear to have
belonged to the vertical strata or schistus
mountains. They are in general the hard
and solid parts of those indurated strata, worn
and rounded by attrition; particularly sand
or marl-stone consolidated and veined with
quartz, and many fragments of quartz, all
rounded by attrition. In this pudding-stone
of the Jed, I find also rounded lumps of porphyry,
but have not perceived any of granite.<a id="footnotetag32" name="footnotetag32"></a><a href="#footnote32"><sup>32</sup></a>
This however is not the case in the pudding-stone
of the schistus mountains, for, where
there is granite in the neighbourhood, there
is also granite in the pudding-stone.</p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote32" name="footnote32"></a>
<b>Footnote 32:</b><a href="#footnotetag32"> (return) </a>
A view of this object is seen in <a href="#p3">plate 3d.</a>
It is from a drawing taken by Mr Clerk of Eldin.</blockquote>

<p>From this it will appear, that the schistus
mountains or the vertical strata of indurated
bodies had been formed, and had been wasted
and worn in the natural operations of the
globe, before the horizontal strata were begun
to be deposited in those places; the gravel
formed of those indurated broken bodies worn
round by attrition evince that fact. But it
also appears that the mineral operations of the
globe, melting and consolidating bodies, had
been exerted upon those deposited strata above
the vertical bodies.</p>

<p>This appears evidently from the examination
of our pudding-stone. The vertical strata
under it are much broken and injected
with ferruginous spar; and this same spar has
greatly penetrated the pudding-stone above,
in which are found the various mineral appearances
of that spar and iron ore.</p>

<p>But those injecting operations reach no farther
up among the marl strata in this place;
and then would appear to have been confined
to the pudding-stone. But in another place,
about half a mile farther up the river, where
a very deep section of the strata is discovered,
there are two injections from below; the one
is a thin vein of whin-stone or basaltes, full of
round particles of steatites impregnated with
copper; it is but a few inches wide, and proceeds
in a kind of zigzag. The other appears
to have been calcareous spar, but the
greatest part of it is now dissolved out. The
strata here descend to the bottom of the river,
which is above the place of the pudding-stone
and vertical strata. Neither are these last discoverable
below the town of Jedburgh, at
least so far as I have seen; and the line of
division, or plane of junction of the vertical
and horizontal strata, appears to decline more
than the bed of the river.</p>

<p>But it may be asked, how the horizontal
strata above, among which are many very
strong beds, have been consolidated. The
answer to this question is plain. Those strata
have been indurated or consolidated in no
other manner than the general strata of the
earth; these being actually the common strata
of the globe; while the vertical or schistus
strata are the ordinary strata still farther manufactured,
(if we may be allowed the expression)
in the vicissitude of things, and by
the mineral operations of the globe. That
those operations have been performed by subterraneous
heat has been already proved; but
I would now mention some particular appearances
which are common or general to those
strata, and which can only be explained upon
that principle.</p>

<p>The red marly earth is prevalent among
those strata; and it is with this red ferruginous
substance that many of the sand-stone
strata are tinged. It is plain that there had
been an uniform, deposits of that sand and
tinging earth; and that, however different
matter might be successively deposited, yet
that each individual stratum should be nearly of
the same colour or appearance, so far as it had
been formed uniformly of the same subsiding
matter. But, in the most uniform strata of
red sand-stone, the fracture of the stone presents
us with circular spots of a white or bluish
colour; those little spheres are in all respects
the same with the rest of the stone,
they only want the tinging matter; and now
it may be inquired how this has come about.</p>

<p>To say that sphericles of white sand should
have been formed by subsiding along with the
red sand and earth which composed the uniform
stratum whether of sand-stone or marl,
(for it happens equally in both,) is plainly
impossible, according to our notion of that
operation in which there is nothing mysterious.
Those foliated strata, which are of the
most uniform nature, must have been gradually
accumulated from the subsiding sand and
earth; and the white or colourless places must
have had their colour destroyed in the subsequent
cementing operations. It is often
apparent, that the discharging operation had
proceeded from a centre, as some small matter
may be perceived in that place. I know not
what species of substance this has been,
whether saline or phlogistic, but it must have
had the power of either volatilising or changing
the ferruginous or red tinging substance
so as to make it lose its colour.</p>

<p>I have only mentioned spherical spots for
distinctness sake; but this discharging operation
is found diversifying those strata in various
ways, but always referable to the same or
similar causes. Thus, in many of the veins or
natural cracks of those strata, we find the colour
discharged for a certain space within the strata;
and we often see several of those spots
united, each of them having proceeded from
its own centre, and uniting where they approached.
In the two veins above mentioned,
of whin-stone and spar traversing the strata,
the colour of the strata is, discharged more or
less in the places contiguous with the veins.</p>

<p>I am now to mention another appearance
of a different kind. Those strata of marl are
in general not much consolidated; but among,
them there are sometimes found thin calcareous
strata extremely consolidated, consequently
much divided by veins. It is in the solid
parts of those strata, perfectly disconnected
from the veins, that there are frequent cavities
curiously lined with crystals of different sorts,
generally calcareous, sometimes containing also
those that are siliceous, and often accompanied
with pyrites. I am persuaded that the
origin of those cavities may have been some
hollow shells, such as <i>echini</i> or some marine
object; but that calcareous body has been so
changed, that it is not now distinguishable;
therefore, at present, I hold this opinion only
as conjecture.</p>

<p>Having, in my return to Edinburgh, travelled
up the Tiviot, with a view to investigate
this subject of primary and secondary
operations of the earth, I found the vertical
strata, or alpine schistus, in the bed of the
river about two miles below Hawick. This
was the third time I had seen those vertical
bodies after leaving the mountains of Lauderdale.
The first place was the bed of the river
Tweed, at the new bridge below Melrose; but
here no other covering is to be seen above
those vertical strata besides the soil or travelled
earth which conceals every thing except the
rock in the bed of the river. The second
place was Jedburgh, where I found the vertical
strata covered with the horizontal sandstone
and marl, as has been now described.
The third place was the Tiviot, and this is
that which now remains to be considered.</p>

<p>Seeing the vertical strata in the bed of the
river, I was desirous to know if those were
immediately covered with the horizontal strata.
This could not be discovered in the bed
of the river where the rock was covered upon
the banks with travelled earth. I therefore
left the river, and followed the course of a
brook which comes from the south side. I
had not gone far up the bank, or former boundary
of the Tiviot, when I had the satisfaction
to find the vertical strata covered with the
pudding-stone and marly beds as in the valley
of the Jed.</p>

<p>It will now be reasonable to suppose that all
the schistus which we perceive, whether in the
mountains or in the valleys, exposed to our
view had been once covered with those horizontal
strata which are observed in Berwickshire
and Tiviotdale; and that, below all those
horizontal strata in the level country, there is
at present a body or basis of vertical or inclined
schistus, on which the horizontal strata of a
secondary order had been deposited. This is
the conclusion that I had formed at Jedburgh,
before I had seen the confirmation of it in the
Tiviot; it is the only one that can be formed
according to this view of things; and it must
remain in the present state until more evidence
be found by which the probability may be
either increased or diminished.</p>

<p>Since writing this, I have read, in the Esprit
de Journaux, an abstract of a memoir of
M. Voigt, upon the same subject, which I
shall now transcribe.</p>

<p>"La mer a commencé par miner les
montagnes primitives dont les débris se
sont précipités au fond. Ces débris forment
la premiere couche qui est posée immédiatement
sur les montagnes primitives.
D'après l'ancien langage de mineurs,
nous avons jusqu'aujourd'hui appellé cette
couche <i>le sol mort rouge</i>, parce qu'il y a
beaucoup de rouge dans son mélange,
qu'elle forme le sol ou la base d'autres
couches, et peut-être de toutes, qu'elle est
entierement inutile et, en quelque facon,
morte pour l'exploitation des mines. Plusieurs
se sont efforcés de lui donner un nom
harmonieux; mais ils ne l'ont pu sans occasionner
des équivoques. Les mots <i>Brèche
Puddinstone Conglomérations</i>, &amp;<i>c</i>. désignent
toujours des substances autres que cette
espèce de pierre.</p>

<p>"Il est très agréable de l'examiner dans les
endroits où elle forme des montagnes entières.
Cette couche est composée d'une
quantité prodigieuse de pierres arrondies, agglutinées
ensemble par une substance argileuse
rouge et même grise, et le toute a acquis
assez de dureté. On ne trouve dans sa composition
aucune espèce de pierre qui, à en
juger par les meilleures observations, puisse
avoir été formée plus tard qu'elle; on n'y
voit par-tout que des parties et des produit
des montagnes primitives principalement de
celles qui abondent le plus dans ces contrées.
Le sol mort, par exemple, qui compose les
montagnes des environs de Walbourg, près
d'Eisenach, contient une quantité de gros
morceaux de granit et de schiste micacé;
c'est vraisemblablement parce que les montagnes
primitives les plus voisines de Rhula,
etc. sont, pour la plus part, formées
de ces deux espèces de pierres. Près de
Goldlauter, le sol mort consiste presque
tout en porphyre, substance dont sont formées
les montagnes primitives qui y dominent;
et le Kiffauserberg dans la Thuringe
a probablement reçu ces morceaux arrondis
de schiste argileux des montagnes voisine
du Hartz. Vous trouverez ici que le schiste
argileux existoit déjà lorsque la mer a jetté
les premiers fondemens de nos montagnes
stratifiées. Je serois fort étonné que quelqu'un
me montrât un sol mort qui contînt
un morceaux de gypse, de marne, de pierre
puante et autres. Quoiqu'il en soit il n'est
pas aisé d'expliquer pourquoi on ne trouve
point de corps marins pétrifiés dans cette
espèce de pierre. C'est peut-être que, par
l'immense quantité de pierres dures roulées
dans le fond de la mer, ils ont été brisés
avant qu'ils aient commencé de s'agglutiner
ensemble. Mais on rencontre sur-tout au
Kiffhauserberg des troncs d'arbres entiers
pétrifiés; preuve qu'il y avoit déjà ou de
la végétation avant que l'océan destructeur
se fût emparé de ces cantons, ou du moins
que quelques isles avoient existé au-dessus de
la surface."</p>

<p>Here we find the same observations in the
mountains of Germany that I have been making
with regard to those of Scotland. I have
formerly observed masses of the same kind in
the west of England, to the east of the Severn;
but I could not discover any proper
connection of that mass with the regular strata.
I have also long observed it in many parts
of Scotland, without being able to attain a sufficiently
satisfactory idea with regard to those
particulars by which the alternation of land
and water, of the superficial and internal mineral
operations of the globe, might be investigated.</p>

<p>It will be very remarkable if similar appearances
are always found upon the junction of
the alpine with the level countries. Such an
appearance, I am inclined to think, may be
found in the Val d'Aoste, near Yvrée. M.
de Saussure describes such a stone as having
been employed in building the triumphal arch
erected in honour of Augustus. "Cet arc
qui étoit anciennement revêtu de marbre,
est construit de grands quartiers d'une espèce
assez singulière de poudingue ou de grès à
gros grains. C'est une assemblage de fragmens,
presque touts angulaires, de toutes
sortes de roches primitives feuilletées, quartzeuses,
micacées; les plus gros de ces fragmens
n'atteignent pas le volume, d'une noisette.
La plupart des édifices antiques de
la cité l'Aoste et de ses environs, sont construits
de cette matière; et les gens du pays
sont persuadés que c'est une composition;
mais j'en ai trouvé des rochers en place dans
les montagnes au nord et au-dessus de la
route d'Yvrée."</p>

<p>We may now come to this general conclusion,
that, in this example of horizontal and
posterior strata placed upon the vertical <i>schisti</i>
which are prior in relation to the former, we
obtain a further view into the natural history
of this earth, more than what appears in the
simple succession of one stratum above another.
We know, in general, that all the solid
parts of this earth, which come to our view,
have either been formed originally by subsidence
at the bottom of the sea, or been transfused
in a melted state from the mineral regions
among those solid bodies; but here we
further learn, that the indurated and erected
strata, after being broken and washed by the
moving waters, had again been sunk below
the sea, and had served as a bottom or basis
on which to form a new structure of strata;
and also, that those new or posterior strata had
been indurated or cemented by the consolidating
operations of the mineral region, and elevated
from the bottom of the sea into the place
of land, or considerably above the general surface
of the waters. It is thus that we may
investigate particular operations in the general
progress of nature, which has for object to
renovate the surface of the earth necessarily
wasted in the operation of a world sustaining
plants and animals.</p>

<p>It is necessary to compare together every
thing of this kind which occurs; it is first necessary
to ascertain the fact of their being a
prior and posterior formation of strata, with
the mineral operations for consolidating those
bodies formed by collection of the moveable
materials; and, secondly, it is interesting to
acquire all the data we can in order to form
a distinct judgment of that progress of nature
in which the solid body of our land is alternately
removed from the bottom of the sea
into the atmosphere, and sunk again at the
bottom of the sea.</p>

<p>I shall now transcribe what M. Schreiber
has wrote in relation to this subject. It is in
a memoir concerning the gold mine of Gardette,
published in the Journal de Physique.</p>

<p>"Avant de quitter la montagne de la Gardette
qu'il me soit permis de rapporter une
observation qui peut-être n'est pas dénuée
de tout intérêt pour les naturalistes; je l'ai
faite dans une galerie à environ cinquante-trois
toises à l'ouest du principal puit laquelle
a été poussée sur la ligne de réunion
de la pierre calcaire, et du granit feuilleté
ou gneiss pour fonder le filon dans cet
endroit. Ce filon a six pouces d'épaisseur,
et consiste en quartz entre-mêlé d'ochre
martiale, de pyrite cuivreuse et galène.
Cette dernière est souvent recouverte de
chaux de plomb grise, et de petits cristaux
de mine de plomb jaune donnant dans l'analyse
un indice d'or. Ce filon finit à la
réunion de la pierre calcaire au gneiss.
Cette réunion se fait ici dans la direction
d'une heure 6/8 de la boussole de raineur, et
sous un inclinaison, occidentale de 26 degrés.</p>

<p>"Mais ce qu'il y a de remarquable, c'est
que le gneis ne participe en rien de la
pierre calcaire quoiqu'il n'en soit séparé
que par une couche d'une pouce d'épaisseur
de terre argileuse et calcaire, tandis
que le rocher calcaire renferme beaucoup
de fragmens de granit et de gneis, dans le
voisinage de cette réunion.</p>

<p>"Cette observation prouve incontestablement
que le granit et le gneis avoient déjà
acquis une dureté capable de résister aux
infiltration des parties calcaire, et qu'ils existoient
à-peu-près tels qu'ils sont aujourd'hui
lorsque la pierre calcaire commença à
se former; autrement elle n'auroit pu saisir
et envelopper des morceaux détachés de
ces rochers auxquels on donne avec raison
l'épithète de primitif ou de première formation."</p>

<p>M. Schreiber continues his reasoning upon
those mineral appearances, in adducing another
argument, which I do not think equally
conclusive.  He says, "Le filon de la
Gardette devoit pareillement exister avant
la montagne calcaire, car s'il s'étoit formé
apres, je ne voit pas la raison pour laquelle
il s'y seroit arrêté court, et pourquoi il ne
se seroit pas prolongé dans cette espèce de
rocher." It is not necessary, in the formation
of a vein, that it should proceed in traversing
all the strata which then are superincumbent;
it is reasonable to suppose, and consistent
with observation to find them stop short
in proceeding from one stratum to another.
Had M. Schreiber found any pieces of the
vein contained in the calcareous rock, he
would have had good reason for that assertion;
but, to conclude that fact from grounds
which do not necessarily imply it, is not to
be permitted in sound reasoning, if certainty
is the object, and not mere probability.</p>



<p>SECT. II.&mdash;<i>The Theory confirmed from Observations
made on purpose to elucidate the subject</i>.</p>


<p>Having got a distinct view of the primary
and secondary mineral bodies or strata of the
globe, and having thus acquired a particular
object to inquire after, with a view to investigate
or illustrate this piece of natural history,
I was considering where we might most probably
succeed in finding the junction of the
low country strata and alpine schistus. I inquired
of Mr Hall of Whitehall, who had
frequent opportunities of traversing those
mountains which lie between his house in
the Merse and Edinburgh; and I particularly
entreated him to examine the bed of the
Whittater, which he executed to my satisfaction.</p>

<p>Mr Hall having had occasion to examine
the Pease and Tour burns, in planning and
superintending the great improvement of the
post road upon Sir James Hall's estate while
Sir James was abroad, he informed me that
the junction of the schistus and sand-stone
strata was to be found in the Tour burn.
Professor Playfair and I had been intending a
visit to Sir James Hall at Dunglass; and this
was a motive, not so much to hasten our visit,
as to chose the most proper time for a mineral
expedition both upon the hills and along the
sea shore.</p>

<p>It was late in the spring 1788 when Sir
James left town, and Mr Playfair and I went
to Dunglass about the beginning of June.
We had exceeding favourable weather during
the most part of our expedition; and I now
propose to give an account of the result of
our observations.</p>

<p>Dunglass burn is the boundary between the
counties of East Lothian and Berwickshire;
and it is almost the boundary between the
vertical and horizontal strata. To the north-west
of this burn and beautiful dean are situated
the coal, lime-stone, marl, and sand-stone
strata; they are found stretching away along
the shore in a very horizontal direction for
some time, but become more and more inclined
as they approach the schistus of which
the hills of Lammermuir to the south are
composed.</p>

<p>Though the boundary between the two
things here in question be easily perceivable
from the nature of the country at the first inspection,
by the rising of the hills, yet this
does not lead one precisely to the junction;
and in the extensive common boundary of
those two things, the junction itself is only to
be perceived in few places, where the rock is
washed bare by the rivers or the sea, and where
this junction is exposed naked to our view.
The sea is here wearing away the coast; and
the bank, about 200 feet high, is gradually
falling down, making in some places a steep
declivity, in others a perpendicular cliff. St
Abb's Head and Fast Castle are head lands
projecting into the sea, and are the bulwarks
of this shore, which is embayed to the westward,
where the sea preys upon the horizontal
strata. The solid strata are every where exposed
either in the cliff or on the shore; we
were therefore certain of meeting with the
junction in going from Dunglass to Fast Castle,
which is upon the schistus. But this journey
can only be made by sea; and we first
set out to examine the junction in the Tour
and Pease burns, where we had been informed
it was to be found.</p>

<p>In the bottom of those rivulets the sand-stone
and marly strata appear pretty much inclined,
rising towards the schistus country. The
two burns unite before they come to the shore;
and it is about midway between this junction
and the bridges which are thrown over those
two hollows, that the junction is to be found.</p>

<p>The schistus strata here approach towards
vertical; and the sand-stone strata are greatly
inclined. But this inclination of those two
different strata are in opposite directions;
neither does the horizontal section of those
two different strata run parallel to the junction;
that is to say, the intersection of those
two different strata is a line inclined to the
horizon.</p>

<p>At Jedburgh the schistus was vertical, and
the strata horizontal; and there was interposed
a compound bed of pudding-stone, formed
of various water-worn bodies, the gravel
of the schistus strata, and porphyries. Here
again, though we have not a regular pudding-stone,
we have that which corresponds to it,
as having been the effect of similar circumstances.
These are the fracture and detritus
of the schistus, while the strata were deposited
upon the broken ends of the schistus at the
bottom of the sea. Most of the fragments of
the schistus have their angles sharp; consequently,
they had not travelled far, or been
much worn by attrition. But more or less
does not alter the nature of an operation; and
the pudding-stone, which at Jedburgh is interposed
between the vertical schistus and horizontal
strata, is here properly represented by
the included fragments of schistus in the inclined
strata.</p>

<p>The line of this junction running, on the
one hand, towards Fast Castle eastward, and,
on the other, towards the head of Dunglass
burn westward, our business was to pursue
this object in those two different directions.
But it was chiefly in the sea coast that was
placed our expectations, having recollection
of the great banks of gravel under which the
strata are buried about Oldhamstocks, near
which, from all appearances, the junction was
to be expected.</p>

<p>Having taken boat at Dunglass burn, we set
out to explore the coast; and, we observed the
horizontal sand-stone turn up near the Pease
burn, lifting towards the schistus. We found
the junction of that schistus with the red sand-stone
and marly strata on the shore and sea
bank, at St. Helens, corresponding in general
with what we had observed in the burns to
the westward. But, at Siccar Point, we found
a beautiful picture of this junction washed
bare by the sea. The sand-stone strata are
partly washed away, and partly remaining
upon the ends of the vertical schistus; and, in
many places, points of the schistus strata are
seen standing up through among the sand-stone,
the greatest part of which is worn
away. Behind this again we have a natural
section of those sand-stone strata, containing
fragments of the schistus.</p>

<p>After this nothing appears but the schistus
rocks, until sand-stone and marl again are
found at Red-heugh above the vertical strata.
From that bay to Fast Castle we had nothing
to observe but the schistus, which is continued
without interruption to St Abb's Head. Beyond
this, indeed, there appears to be something
above the schistus; and great blocks of
a red whin-stone or basaltes come down from
the height and lie upon the shore; but we
could not perceive distinctly how the upper
mass is connected with the vertical schistus
which is continued below.</p>

<p>Our attention was now directed to what
we could observe with respect to the schisti,
of which we had most beautiful views and
most perfect sections. Here are two objects
to be held in view, in making those observations;
the original formation or stratification
of the schisti, and the posterior operations by
which the present state of things has been
procured. We had remarkable examples for
the illustration of both those subjects.</p>

<p>With regard to the first, we have every
where among the rocks many surfaces of the
erected strata laid bare, in being separated.
Here we found the most distinct marks of
strata of sand modified by moving water. It
is no other than that which we every day
observe upon the sands of our own shore,
when the sea has ebbed and left them in a
waved figure, which cannot be mistaken.
Such figures as these are extremely common
in our sand-stone strata; but this is an object
which I never had distinctly observed in the
alpine schisti; although, considering that the
original of those schisti was strata of sand, and
formed in water, there was no reason to doubt
of such a thing being found. But here the
examples are so many and so distinct, that it
could not fail to give us great satisfaction.</p>

<p>We were no less gratified in our views with
respect to the other object, the mineral operations
by which soft strata, regularly formed in
horizontal planes at the bottom of the sea,
had been hardened and displaced. Fig. 4.
represents one of those examples; it was
drawn by Sir James Hall from a perfect section
in the perpendicular cliff at Lumesden
burn. Here is not only a fine example of
the bendings of the strata, but also of a horizontal
shift or hitch of those erected strata.</p>

<p>St Abb's Head is a promontory which, at
a distance, one would naturally conclude to
be composed of the schisti, as is all the shore
to that place; but, as we approached it, there
was some difference to be perceived in the
external appearance, it having a more rounded
and irregular aspect. Accordingly, upon our
arrival, we found this head-land composed of
a different substance. It is a great mass of
red whin-stone, of a very irregular structure
and composition. Some of it is full of small
pebbles of calcareous spar, surrounded with a
coat of a coloured substance, different both
from the whin-stone ground and the inclosed
pebble. Here ended our expedition by water.</p>

<p>Having thus found the junction of the
sand-stone with the schistus or alpine strata to
run in a line directed from Fast Castle to Oldhamstocks,
or the heads of Dunglass burn, we
set out to trace this burn, not only with a
view to observe the junction, if it should there
appear, but particularly to discover the source
of many blocks of whin-stone, of all sizes,
with which the bed of this burn abounds.</p>

<p>The sand-stone and coal strata, which are
nearly horizontal at the mouth of this burn,
or on the coast, become inclined as we go up
the course of the rivulet; and of this we have
fine sections in the bank. The Dean of Dunglass
is formed of precipitous and perpendicular
rocks, through which the running water
has worn its way more than a hundred feet
deep; above this Dean the banks are steep
and very high, but covered with soil, which
here is a deep gravel. The burn runs all the
way up to Oldhamstocks upon the sand-stone
strata; but there, these are traversed by a high
whin-stone dyke, which crosses the burn obliquely,
as we found it on both banks though
not in the bed of the burn; it is in the south
bank below the village, and on the north
above it. Here is the source of the whin-stone
which we were looking for; it is the
common blue basaltes, of the same nature
with the Giant's Causeway, but with no regular
columnar appearance.</p>

<p>Above Oldhamstocks we again found the
sand-stone in the bank, but it soon disappeared
under a deep cover of gravel, and the burn
then divided into several rivulets which come
from the hills. We traced the one which led
most directly up to the mountains, in expectation
of meeting with the schistus, at least, if
not the junction of it with the sandstone. But
in this we were disappointed. We did not
however lose our labour; for, though the
junction which we pursued be not here visible,
we met with what made it sufficiently evident,
and was at the same time an object far
more interesting in our eyes.</p>

<p>I have already quoted Mr Voigt's description
of the <i>sol mort rouge</i>; he says, that in
places it forms entire mountains; here we
have a perfect example of the same thing;
and the moment we saw it, we said, here is
the <i>sol mort rouge</i>. We ascended to the top
of the mountain through a gully of solid pudding-stone
going into decay, and furnishing
the country below with that great covering of
gravel, soil, and water worn stones. We were
now well acquainted with the pudding-stone,
which is interposed between the horizontal
and alpine strata; but from what we had seen
to the eastward, we never should have dreamed
of meeting with what we now perceived.
What we had hitherto seen of this pudding-stone
was but a few fragments of the schistus
in the lower beds of sand-stone; here a mountain
of water-worn schisti, imbedded in a red
earth and consolidated, presented itself to our
view. It was evident that the schisti mountains,
from whence those fragments had come,
had been prior to this secondary mass; but
here is a secondary mountain equal in height
to the primary, or schisti mountains, at the
basis of which we had seen the strata superinduced
on the shore. Still, however, every
thing here is formed upon the same principle,
and nothing here is altered except the scale on
which the operation had been performed.</p>

<p>Upon the coast, we have but a specimen of
the pudding-stone; most of the fragments
had their angles entire; and few of them are
rounded by attrition. Here, on the contrary,
the mountain is one pudding-stone; and
most of the fragments are stones much rounded
by attrition. But the difference is only in
degree, and not in kind; the stones are the
same, and the nature of the composition similar.
Had we seen the mass of which this
mountain is only a relict, (having been degraded
by the hands of time), we should have
found this pudding-stone at the bottom of our
sand-stone strata; could we have penetrated
below this mass of pudding-stone, we should
have found our schistus which we left on the
shore at St. Helens and in the Tour burn. In
Tiviotdale the vertical schisti are covered with
a bed of pudding-stone, the gravel of which
had been much worn by attrition, but the
thickness of that bed is small; here again the
wearing operation has been great, and the
quantity of those materials even more than in
proportion to those operations. We returned
perfectly satisfied; and Sir James Hall is to
pursue this subject farther when he shall be in
those mountains shooting muir game.</p>

<p>We had now only one object more to pursue;
this was to examine the south side of
those mountains of Lammermuir upon the sea
shore, in order to see the junction of the primary
schistus with the coal strata of Berwickshire.
Mr Hall was to meet us at the Press,
and we were afterwards to go with him to
Whitehall. We met accordingly; but the
weather was rainy; and we went directly to
Whitehall. I had often seen the pudding-stone
in great masse; in the banks of the
Whiteader, as it comes out of the mountains,
but then I had not seen its connection neither,
on the one hand, with the schisti, nor, on the
other, with the sand-stone strata. We knew
that at Lammerton upon the sea coast there
was coal, and consequently the sand-stone
strata; and reasoning upon those data we were
sure that our proper course of investigation
was to trace the river Ey to the shore, and
then go south the coast in search of the junction
of the schistus with the horizontal strata.
This we executed as well as the weather
would permit; but had it to regret, that the
rainy season was not so favourable for our
views, as it was agreeable to the country
which had been suffering with the drought.</p>

<p>It is needless now to enlarge upon this subject.
I shall only mention that we found the
red marly strata above the pudding-stone in
the bed of the Ey and its branches; we then
traced the schistus down the Ey, and found
a mass of the most consolidated pudding-stone
upon the coast to the north of the harbour of
Eymouth. But this mass did not rest on the
schistus; it is immediately upon a mass of
whin-stone; and the schistus is in the harbour,
so that this whin-stone mass seems to be
here interposed between the pudding-stone
and schistus. We then pursued the coast
southwards until we found the junction of the
schistus and sand-stone strata about two miles
from Eymouth; but here the junction was
not attended with any pudding-stone that we
could perceive.</p>

<p>Having found the same or similar appearances
from the one end to the other, and on
both sides of that range of mountains which
run from sea to sea in the south of Scotland,
we may now extend our view of this mineral
operation in comprehending every thing of
the same kind which we meet with in our
island or any other distant country.</p>

<p>Thus perhaps the pudding-stone of the
south of England will be considered in the
same light as having been formed of the <i>débris</i>
and <i>détritus</i> of the flinty bodies.</p>

<p>In the island of Arran, there is also a pudding-stone,
even in some of the summits of
the island, exactly upon the border of the
schistus district, as will be described in the natural
history of that island. This pudding-stone
is composed of gravel formed of the
hardest parts of the schistus and granite or
porphyry mountains. That compound parasitical
stone has been also again cemented by
heat and fusion; I have a specimen in which
there is a clear demonstration of that fact.
One of the water-worn stones which had been
rounded by attrition, has in this pudding-stone
been broken and shifted, the one half slipping
over the other, three quarters of an inch, besides
other smaller slips in the same stone.
But the two pieces are again cemented; or
they had been shifted when the stone was in
that soft state, by which the two pieces are
made perfectly to cohere. Those shifts and
veins, in this species of stone, are extremely
instructive, illustrating the mineral operations
of the globe.</p>

<p>In like manner to the north of the Grampians,
along the south side of Loch Ness,
there are mountains formed of the debris of
schistus and granite mountains, first manufactured
into sand and gravel, and then consolidated
into a pudding-stone, which is always
formed upon the same principle. The same
is also found upon the south side of those
mountains in the shire of Angus.</p>

<p>I may also give for example the African
<i>Brechia</i>, which is a pudding-stone of the same
nature. This stone is composed of granites
or porphyries, serpentines and schisti, extremely
indurated and perfectly consolidated.
It is also demonstrable from the appearance
in this stone that it has been in a softened
state, from the shape and application of its
constituent parts; and in a specimen of it
which I have in my cabinet, there is also a
demonstration of calcareous spar flowing
among the gravel of the consolidated rock.</p>

<p>This fact therefore of pudding-stone mountains,
is a general fact, so far as it is founded
upon observations that are made in Africa,
Germany, and Britain. We may now reason
upon this general fact, in order to see
how far it countenances the idea of primitive
mountains, on the one hand, or on the other
supports the present theory, which admits of
nothing primitive in the visible or examinable
parts of the earth.</p>

<p>To a person who examines accurately the
composition of our mountains, which occupy
the south of Scotland, no argument needs be
used to persuade him that the bodies in
question are not primitive; the thing is evident
from inspection, as much as would be
the ruins of an ancient city, although there
were no record of its history. The visible
materials, which compose for the most part the
strata of our south alpine schisti, are so distinctly
the <i>debris</i> and <i>detritus</i> of a former
earth, and so similar in their nature with those
which for the most part compose the strata on
all hands acknowledged as secondary, that
there can remain no question upon that head.
The consolidation, again, of those strata, and
the erection of them from their original position,
and from the place in which they had
been formed, is another question.</p>

<p>But the acknowledging strata, which had
been formed in the sea of loose materials, to
be consolidated and raised into the place of
land, is plainly giving up the idea of primitive
mountains. The only question, therefore,
which remains to be solved, must respect the
order of things, in comparing the alpine schisti
with the secondary strata; and this indeed
forms a curious subject of investigation.</p>

<p>It is plain that the schisti had been indurated,
elevated, broken, and worn by attrition in
water, before the secondary strata, which form
the most fertile parts of our earth, had existed.
It is also certain that the tops of our schistus
mountains had been in the bottom of the sea
at the time when our secondary strata had begun
to be formed; for the pudding-stone on
the top of our Lammermuir mountains, as
well as the secondary strata upon the vertical
schisti of the Alps and German mountains,
affords the most irrefragable evidence of that
fact.</p>

<p>It is further to be affirmed, that this whole
mass of water-formed materials, as well as the
basis on which it rested, had been subjected
to the mineral operations of the globe, operations
by which the loose and incoherent materials
are consolidated, and that which was
the bottom of the sea made to occupy the station
of land, and serve the purpose for which
it is destined in the world. This also will appear
evident, when it is considered that it has
been from the appearances in this very land,
independent of those of the alpine schisti, that
the present theory has been established.</p>

<p>By thus admitting a primary and secondary
in the formation of our land, the present
theory will be confirmed in all its parts.
For, nothing but those vicissitudes, in which
the old is worn and destroyed, and new land
formed to supply its place, can explain that order
which is to be perceived in all the works
of nature; or give us any satisfactory idea
with regard to that apparent disorder and
confusion, which would disgrace an agent
possessed of wisdom and working with design.</p>


<br>
<h3>CHAP. VII.</h3>

<p><i>Opinions examined with regard to Petrifaction,
or Mineral Concretion.</i></p>


<p>The ideas of naturalists with regard to
petrifaction are so vague and indistinct,
that no proper answer can be given to them.
They in general suppose water to be the solvent
of bodies, and the vehicle of petrifying
substances; but they neither say whether water
be an universal menstruum, nor do they
show in what manner a solid body has been
formed in the bowels of the earth, from
that solution. It may now be proper to examine
this subject, not with a view to explain
all those petrifactions of bodies which is performed
in the mineral regions of the earth,
those regions that are inaccessible to man, but
to show that what has been wrote by naturalists,
upon this subject, has only a tendency
to corrupt science, by admitting the grossest
supposition in place of just principle or truth,
and to darken natural history by introducing
an ill conceived theory in place of matter of fact.</p>

<p>M. le Comte de Buffon has attempted to
explain the crystallization of bodies, or production
of mineral forms, by the accretion or
juxtaposition of elementary bodies, which
have only form in two dimensions, length and
breadth; that is to say, that mineral concretions
are composed of surfaces alone, and not
of bodies. This however is only an attempt
to explain, what we do not understand, by a
proposition which is either evidently contradictory,
or plainly inconceivable. It is true
that this eloquent and ingenious author endeavours
to correct the palpable absurdity of
the proposition, by representing the constituent
parts of the mineral bodies as "<i>de lames
infiniment minces</i>;" but who is it does not
see, that these infinitely thin plates are no
other than bodies of three dimensions, contrary
to the supposition; for, infinitely thin,
means a certain thickness; but the smallest
possible or assignable thickness differs as much
from a perfect superficies as the greatest.</p>

<p>M. de Luc has given us his ideas of petrifaction
with sufficient precision of term and
clearness of expression; his opinion, therefore,
deserves to be examined; and, as his
theory of petrifaction is equally applicable to
every species of substance, it is necessary again
to examine this subject, notwithstanding of
what has been already said, in the first part of
this work, concerning consolidation and mineral
concretion from the fluid state of fusion.</p>

<p>This author has perhaps properly exposed
Woodward's Theory of Petrification in saying<a id="footnotetag33" name="footnotetag33"></a><a href="#footnote33"><sup>33</sup></a>,
"Son erreur à cet égard vient de ce
qu'il n'a point réfléchi sur la manière dont
se fait la <i>pétrifaction</i>. Il ramollit d'abord
les <i>pierres</i> pour y faire entrer les coquilles,
sans bien connoître l'agent qu'il y employe;
et il les duroit ensuite, sans réfléchir au
comment." To avoid this error or defect,
M. de Luc, in his Theory of Petrifaction, sets
out with the acknowledged principle of cohesion;
and, in order to consolidate strata of
a porous texture, he supposes water carrying
minute bodies of all shapes and sizes, and depositing
them in such close contact as to produce
solidity and concretion. Now, if Dr
Woodward softened stones without a proper
cause, M. de Luc, in employing the specious
principle of cohesion, has consolidated them
upon no better grounds; for, the application
of this principle is as foreign to his purpose,
as is that of magnetism. Bodies, it is true,
cohere when their surfaces are closely applied
to each other; But how apply this principle
to consolidation?&mdash;only by supposing all the
separate bodies, of which the solid is to be
composed, to be in perfect contact in all their
surfaces. But this, in other words, is supposing
the body to be solid; and, to suppose the
agent, water, capable of thus making hard
bodies solid, is no other than having recourse
to the fortuitous concourse of atoms to make
a world; a thought which this author would
surely hold in great contempt.</p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote33" name="footnote33"></a><b>Footnote 33:</b><a href="#footnotetag33"> (return) </a> Lettres Physiques et Morales.</blockquote>

<p>He then illustrates this operation of nature
by those of art, in building walls which certainly
become hard, and which, as our author
seems to think, become solid. But this is only
an imperfect or erroneous representation of
this subject; for, mortar does not become
hard upon the principle of petrification adopted
by our author. Mortar, made of clay, instead
of lime, will not acquire a stony hardness,
nor ever, by means of water, will it be
more indurated than by simply drying; neither
will the most subtile powder of chalk, with
water and sand, form any solid body, or a
proper mortar. The induration of mortar
arises from the solution of a stony substance,
and the subsequent concretion of that dissolved
matter, operations purely chemical. Now,
if this philosopher, in his Theory of Petrifaction,
means only to explain a chemical operation
upon mechanical principles, why have
recourse, for an example in this subject, to
mineral bodies, the origin of which is questioned?
Why does he not rather explain,
upon this principle, the known concretion of
some body, from a fluid state, or, conversely,
the known solution of some concreted body?
If again he means to explain petrifaction in
the usual way, by a chemical operation, in that
case, the application of his polished surfaces, so
as to cohere, cannot take place until the dissolved
body be separated from the fluid, by means
of which it is transported from place to place
in the mineral regions. But it is in this preliminary
step that lies all the difficulty; for,
could we see how every different substance
might be dissolved, and every dissolved substance
separated from its solvent at our pleasure,
we should find no difficulty in admitting
the cohesion of hard bodies, whether by
means of this doctrine of polished surfaces, or
by the principle of general attraction, a principle
which surely comprehends this particular,
termed a cohesive power.</p>

<p>It must not be alleged, that seeing we
know not how water dissolves saline bodies,
therefore, this fluid, for any thing that we
know, may also dissolve crystal; and, if water
thus dissolves a mineral substance in a manner
unknown to us, it may in like manner deposit
it, although we may not be able to imagine
how. This kind of reasoning is only
calculated to keep us in ignorance; at the
same time, the reasoning of philosophers, concerning
petrifaction, does not in general appear
to be founded on any principle that is
more sound. That water dissolves salt is
a fact. That water dissolves crystal is not
a fact; therefore, those two propositions,
with regard to the power of water, are infinitely
removed, and cannot be assimilated in
sound physical reasoning. It is no more a
truth that water is able to dissolve salt, than
that we never have been able to detect the
smallest disposition in water to dissolve crystal,
flint, quartz, or metals. Therefore, to allege
the possibility of water being capable of dissolving
those bodies in the mineral regions,
and of thus changing the substance of one
body into another, as naturalists have supposed,
contrary to their knowledge, or in order
to explain appearances, is so far from tending
to increase our science, that it is abandoning
the human intellect to be bewildered in an
error; it is the vain attempt of lulling to sleep
the scientific conscience, and making the soul
of man insensible to the natural distress of
conscious ignorance.</p>

<p>But besides that negative argument concerning
the insolubility of crystal, by which
the erroneous suppositions of naturalists are to
be rejected, crystal in general is found regularly
concreted in the cavities of the most solid
rock, in the heart of the closest agate, and
in the midst of granite mountains. But these
masses of granite were formed by fusion; I
hope that I shall give the most satisfactory
proof of that truth: Consequently, here at
least there is no occasion for the action of water
in dissolving siliceous substances in one
place, in order to concrete and crystallise it in
another.</p>

<p>In these cavities of the solid granite rock,
where crystal is found regularly shooting from
a basis which is the internal surface of the cavity,
we find the other constituent substances
of the granite also crystallised. I have those
small cavities, in this rock, from the island of
Arran, containing crystal, felt-spar, and mica,
all crystallised in the same cavity<a id="footnotetag34" name="footnotetag34"></a><a href="#footnote34"><sup>34</sup></a>. But this
is nothing to the <i>druzen</i> or crystalline concretions,
which are found in a similar manner
among metallic and mineral substances in the
veins and mines; there, every species of mineral
and metallic substance, with every variety
of mixture and composition, are found
both concreted and crystallised together in
every imaginable shape and situation.</p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote34" name="footnote34"></a><b>Footnote 34:</b><a href="#footnotetag34"> (return) </a> The Chevalier Dolomieu makes the following observation.
Journal de Physique, Juillet 1791.

<p>"J'ai été étonné de trouver au centre d'un énorme
massif de granit, que l'on avoit ouvert avec la poudre
pour pratiquer un chemin, des morceaux, gros comme
le poing et au dessous, de spath calcaire blanc, très-effervescent,
en grandes écailles, ou lames entrecroisées.
Il n'occupoit point des cavités particulières, il n'y paroissoit
le produit d'une infiltration qui auroit rempli des
cavités, mais il étoit incorporé avec les feld-spath, le
mica, et le quartz, faissoit masse avec eux, et ne pouvoit
se rompre sans les entraîner avec lui."</p>

<p>This great naturalist is convinced that the spar had not
been here introduced by infiltration, although that is the
very method which he employs to form concretions, not
only of spar but of crystal, zeolite, and pyrites, in the
closest cavities of the most solid rocks of basaltes. These
four substances in this stone were so mixed together that
nothing but the fusion of the whole mass could explain
the state in which they appeared; but, thinking that such
a supposition could not be allowed, this naturalist, like a
man of science when his data fail, leaves the matter without
any interpretation of his own. This however is what
he has not done in the case of basaltes, or that which he
mistakes for proper lavas, as I shall have occasion to show.</blockquote>

<p>Here is an infinite operation, but an operation
which is easily performed by the natural
arrangement of substances acting freely in a
fluid state, and concreting together, each substance,
whether more simple or more compound,
directing itself by its internal principle
of attraction, and affecting mechanically those
that are concreting around it.</p>

<p>We see the very same thing happen under
our eye, and precisely in the same manner.
When a fluid mass of any mineral or metallic
substance is made to congeal by sudden cooling
on the outside, while the mass within is
fluid, a cavity is thus sometimes formed by
the contraction of the contained fluid; and in
this cavity are found artificial <i>druzen</i>, as they
may be called, being crystallizations similar to
those which the mineral cavities exhibit in
such beauty and perfection.</p>

<p>Petrification and consolidation, in some degree,
may doubtless be performed, in certain
circumstances, by means of the solution of
calcareous earth; but the examples given by
M. de Luc, of those bodies of lime-stone and
agate petrified in the middle of strata of loose
or sandy materials, are certainly inexplicable
upon any other principle except the fusion of
those substances with which the bodies are
petrified<a id="footnotetag35" name="footnotetag35"></a><a href="#footnote35"><sup>35</sup></a>.</p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote35" name="footnote35"></a><b>Footnote 35:</b><a href="#footnotetag35"> (return) </a> Vid. Lettre 28 et Lettre 103. Lettres Physiques
et Morales.</blockquote>

<p>This subject deserves the strictest attention;
I propose it as a touchstone for every theory
of petrification or perfect consolidation. First,
There are found, among argillaceous strata,
insulated bodies of iron-stone, perfectly consolidated;
secondly, There are found, in strata
of chalk and lime-stone, masses of insulated
flints; thirdly, There are found, in strata of
sea sand, masses of that sand cemented by a
siliceous substance; fourthly, In the midst of
blocks of sand-stone, there are found masses
of loose or pure sand inclosed in crystallised
cavities; and in this sand are found insulated
masses of crystallised spar, including within
them the sand, but without having the sparry
or calcareous crystallization disturbed by it.
There are also other globular masses of the
same kind, where the sparry crystallization
is either not to be observed, or appears only
partially<a id="footnotetag36" name="footnotetag36"></a><a href="#footnote36"><sup>36</sup></a>: And now, lastly, In strata of shell-sand,
there are found masses of consolidated
lime-stone or marble. In all those cases, the
consolidated bodies are perfectly insulated in
the middle of strata, in which they must of
necessity have been petrified or consolidated;
the stratum around the bodies has not been
affected by the petrifying substance, as there
is not any vestige of it there; and here are
examples of different substances, all conspiring
to prove one uniform truth. Therefore, a
general theory of petrification or consolidation
of mineral bodies must explain this distinct
fact, and not suffer it any longer to remain a
<i>lusus naturae</i>.</p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote36" name="footnote36"></a><b>Footnote 36:</b><a href="#footnotetag36"> (return) </a> Mem. de l'Académie Royale des Sciences, an. 1775.</blockquote>

<p>Let us now consider what it is that we
have to explain, upon the supposition of those
concretions being formed from a solution.
We have, first, To understand what sort of a
solution had been employed for the introducing
of those various substances; secondly,
How those concretions had been formed from
such solutions within those bodies of strata;
and, lastly, How such concretions could
have been formed, without any vestige appearing
of the same substance, or of the same
operation, in the surrounding part of the stratum.
Whatever may be the difficulty of explaining
those particular appearances by means
of fusion and mechanical force, it is plainly
impossible to conceive those bodies formed in
those places by infiltration, or any manner of
concretion from a state of solution.</p>

<p>Naturalists, in explaining the formation of
stones, often use a chemical language which
either has no proper meaning, or which will
not apply to the subject of mineral operations.
We know the chemical process by which one
or two stony concretions may be formed
among bodies passing from one state to another.
When, therefore, a change from a
former state of things in mineral bodies is
judged by naturalists to have happened, the
present state is commonly explained, or the
change is supposed to have been made by
means of a similar process, without inquiring
if this had truly been the case or not. Thus
their knowledge of chemistry has led naturalists
to reason erroneously, in explaining
things upon false principles. It would be needless
to give an example of any one particular
author in this respect; for, so far as I have
seen, it appears to be almost general, every one
copying the language of another, and no one
understanding that language which has been
employed.</p>

<p>These naturalists suppose every thing done
by means of solution in the mineral kingdom,
and yet they are ignorant of those solvents.
They conceive or they imagine concretions
and crystallizations to be formed of every different
substance, and in every place within
the solid body of the earth, without considering
how far the thing is possible which they
suppose. They are constantly talking of
operations which could only take place in the
cavities of the earth above the level of the sea,
and where the influence of the atmosphere
were felt; and yet this is the very place which
we have it in our power to examine, and
where, besides the stalactite, and one or two
more of the same kind, or formed on the same
principle, they have never been able to discover
one of the many which, according to their
theory, ought always to be in action or effect.
So far from knowing that general consolidating
operation, which they suppose to be exerted
in filling up the veins and cavities of the
earth by means of the infiltrating water of the
surface, they do not seem fully to understand
the only operation of this kind which they
see. The concretion of calcareous matter
upon the surface of the earth is perhaps the
only example upon which their theory is
founded; and yet nothing can be more against
it than the general history of this transaction.</p>

<p>Calcareous matter, the great <i>vinculum</i> of
many mineral bodies, is in a perpetual state
of dissolution and decay, in every place where
the influences of air and water may pervade.
The general tendency of this is to dissolve
calcareous matter out of the earth, and deliver
that solution into the sea. Were it possible to
deny that truth, the very formation of stalactite,
that operation which has bewildered naturalists,
would prove it; for it is upon the
general solubility of calcareous matter exposed
to water that those cavities are formed, in
which may be found such collections of stalactical
concretion; and the general tendency
of those operations is to waste the calcareous
bodies through which water percolates. But
how is the general petrifaction or consolidation
of strata, below the surface of the sea, to
be explained by the general dissolution of that
consolidating substance in the earth above that
level? Instead of finding a general petrifying
or consolidating operation in the part of the
earth which we are able to examine, we find
the contrary operation, so far at least as relates
to calcareous spar, and many other mineral
bodies which are decomposed and dissolved
upon the surface of the earth.</p>

<p>Thus in the surface of the earth, above the
level of the sea, no petrifying operation of a
durable nature is found; and, were such an
operation there found, it could not be general,
as affecting every kind of substance. But,
even suppose that such a general operation
were found to take place in the earth above
the level of the sea, where there might be a
circulation of air and percolation of water,
How could the strata of the earth below the
level of the sea be petrified? This is a question
that does not seem to have entered into
the heads of our naturalists who attempt to
explain petrifaction or mineral concretion
from aqueous solutions. But the consolidation
of loose and incoherent things, gathered
together at the bottom of the sea, and afterwards
raised into rocks of various sorts, forms
by far the greatest example of petrification or
mineral operation of this globe. It is this
that must be explained in a mineral theory;
and it is this great process of petrifaction to
which the doctrine of infiltration, whether for
the mechanical purpose of applying cohesive
surfaces, or the chemical one of forming crystallizations
and concretions, will not by any
means apply.</p>

<p>Nothing shows more how little true science
has been employed for the explanation of phenomena,
than the language of modern naturalists,
who attribute, to stalactical and stalagmical
operations, every superficial or distant resemblance
to those calcareous bodies, the origin
of which we know so well. It is not a mere
resemblance that should homologate different
things; there should be a specific character in
every thing that is to be generalised. It will
be our business to show that, in the false
stalactites, there is not the distinctive character
of those water formed bodies to be found.</p>

<p>In the formation of stalactical concretions,
besides the incrustation as well as crystallization
of the stony substance from the aqueous
vehicle by which it had been carried in the
dissolved state, we have the other necessary
accompanyments of the operation, or collateral
circumstances of the case. Such, for example,
is that tubular construction of the stalactite,
first formed by the concretion of the
calcareous substance upon the outside of the
pendant gut of water exposed to the evaporation
of the atmosphere; we then see the gradual
filling up of that pervious tube through
which the petrifying water had passed for a
certain time; and, lastly, we see the continual
accretion which this conducting body had received
from the water running successively
over every part of it. But among the infinite
number of siliceous concretions and crystallizations,
as well as those of an almost indefinite
variety of other substances, all of which are
attributed to solution, there is not the least
vestige of any collateral operation, by which
the nature of that concretion might be ascertained
in the same manner. In all those cases,
we see nothing but the concreted substances
or their crystallizations; but, no mark of any
solvent or incrusting process is to be perceived.
On the contrary, almost all, or the greatest part
of them, are so situated, and attended with
such circumstances, as demonstrate the physical
impossibility of that being the manner in
which they had been concreted; for, they are
situated within close cavities, through which
nothing can pervade but heat, electricity, magnetism,
etc.; and they fill those cavities more
or less, from the thinnest incrustation of crystals
to the full content of those cavities with
various substances, all regularly concreted or
crystallised according to an order which cannot
apply to the concretion of any manner of
solution.</p>

<p>That there is, in the mineral system, an
operation of water which may with great
propriety be termed <i>infiltration</i>, I make no
doubt. But this operation of water, that may
be employed in consolidating the strata in the
mineral regions, is essentially different from
that which is inconsiderately employed or supposed
by mineralists when they talk of infiltration;
these two operations have nothing in
common except employing the water of the
surface of the earth to percolate a porous body.
Now, the percolation of water may increase
the porousness of that body which it
pervades, but never can thus change it from a
porous to a perfect solid body. But even the
percolation of water through the strata deposited
at the bottom of the sea, necessarily required,
according to the supposition of naturalists,
must be refused; for, the interstices of
those strata are, from the supposition of the
case, already filled with water; consequently,
without first removing that stagnant water, it
is in vain to propose the infiltration of any
fluid from the surface.</p>

<p>This is a difficulty which does not occur in
our theory, where the strata, deposited at the
bottom of the sea, are to be afterwards heated
by the internal fires of the earth. The natural
consequence of those heating operations
may be considered as the converting of the
water contained in the strata into steam, and
the expulsion of steam or vapour, by raising
it up against the power of gravity, to be delivered
upon the surface of the earth and again
condensed to the state of water.</p>

<p>Let us now conceive the strata, which had
been deposited at the bottom of the sea, as exhausted
of their water, and as communicating
with the surface of the earth impregnated with
water. Here again we have the power of gravity
to operate in carrying down water to that
place which had been before exhausted by the
power of heat; and in this manner, by alternately
employing those two great physical
agents, we cannot doubt that nature may convey
soluble substances from above, and deposit
them below for the purpose of consolidating
porous bodies, or of filling with saline and
earthy matter those interstices which had been
originally filled with water, when the strata
were deposited at the bottom of the sea. How
far any marks of this operation may be perceived,
by carefully examining our mines and
minerals, I know not; I can only say that, on
the contrary, whenever those examined objects
were clear and distinct, with the concomitant
circumstances, so as to be understood, I have
always found the most certain marks of the
solid bodies having concreted from the fluid
state of fusion. This, however, does not exclude
the case of infiltration having been previously
employed; and I would intreat mineralists,
who have the opportunity of examining
the solid parts of the earth, to attend particularly
to this distinction. But do not let
them suppose that infiltration can be made to
fill either the pores or veins of strata without
the operation of mineral heat, or some such
process by which the aqueous vehicle may be
discharged.</p>

<p>Not only are mineral philosophers so inconsiderate,
in forming geological theories upon
a mere supposition or false analogy, they
have even proceeded, upon that erroneous
theory, to form a geological supposition for
explaining the appearances of strata and other
stony masses in employing a particular physical
operation, which is, that of <i>crystallization</i><a id="footnotetag37" name="footnotetag37"></a><a href="#footnote37"><sup>37</sup></a>.
Now crystallization may be considered as a
species of elective concretion, by which every
particular substance, in passing from a fluid to
a solid state, may assume a certain peculiar external
shape and internal arrangement of its
parts, by which it is often distinguished. But,
to suppose the solid mineral structure of the
earth explained, like an enigma, by the word
<i>crystallization</i>, is to misunderstand the science
by which we would explain the subject of research;
and, to form a general mineral theory
thus upon that term, is an attempt to generalise
without a reason. For, when it were even
admitted that every solid body is crystallised,
we thus know no more of the geology of this
earth, or understand as little of the general
theory of mineral concretion, as we did before;&mdash;we
cannot, from that, say whether it
be by the operation of solution or of fusion
which had produced the perceived effect.</p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote37" name="footnote37"></a><b>Footnote 37:</b><a href="#footnotetag37"> (return) </a> Journal de Physique; Avril 1753.</blockquote>

<p>M. de Carosi has wrote a treatise upon certain
petrifactions<a id="footnotetag38" name="footnotetag38"></a><a href="#footnote38"><sup>38</sup></a>. In the doctrine of this
treatise there is something new or extraordinary.
It will therefore be proper to make
some observations on it.</p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote38" name="footnote38"></a><b>Footnote 38:</b><a href="#footnotetag38"> (return) </a> Sur la Generation du Silex et du Quartz en partie.
Observations faites en Pologne 1783, à Cracovie.</blockquote>

<p>The object of this treatise is to describe the
generation of silex and quartz, with their modifications
or compositions, formed within mineral
bodies of a different substance. The natural
history contained in this little treatise is
well described and sufficiently interesting. But
It is chiefly in order to examine the means
which, according to the theory of this treatise,
are employed in petrifying bodies, that I consider
it in this place.</p>

<p>The first section of this treatise has for title,
<i>Generation du Caillou et du Quartz de la terre
calcaire pure</i>. It may be worth while to compare
the natural history of this part of the
earth with the flint and chert found in our
chalk and lime-stone countries. I shall therefore
transcribe what is worth observing upon
that subject (p. 5.).</p>

<p>"Nous rencontrons chez nous dans les
parties le plus montagneuses, et les moins
couvertes de terreau, ou tout-au plus de
sable, entre de purs rochers calcaires une
quantité incroyable de cailloux (silex) tant
en boules, que veines, couches, et débris.
Au premier coup d'oeil l'on s'imagine que
ce font des débris de montagnes éloignées,
qui y furent amenés par les eaux, mais, en
examinant la chose de plus pres, on est
convaincu, que ce sont tout au contraire,
des parties détachées des montagnes de la
contrée. Car il y a sur presque toute l'étendue
de nos montagnes calcaires une
couche, ou pour mieux dire, un banc composé
de plusieurs couches de base calcaire,
mais qui ou sont parsemées irrégulièrement
de boules, de rognons, de veines, et de petits
filons de silex, ou qui contiennent cette
pierre en filon, veines, et couches parallèles,
et régulièrement disposées. Les boules et
rognons de silex y font depuis moins de la
grandeur d'une petite noisette, jusqu'au
diamètre de plus de six pouces de nôtre
mesure. La plupart de ces boules tant
qu'elles sont dans l'intérieur caché de la
roche vive, et qu'elles n'ont rien souffert de
l'impression de l'air, ont, pour l'ordinaire,
une croûte de spath calcaire, au moyen de
la quelle elles sont accrues à la roche mere;
ou pour mieux dire la croûte spatheuse fait
l'intermède entre le silex, et la roche calcaire,
par où se fait le passage de l'une à
l'autre. Mais ceci ne vaut que de boules
de silex entièrement formées. C'est dont
on peut même se convaincre à la vue, par
beaucoup de pierres dont le pavé de la ville
de Cracovie est composé. Mais là, ou le
silex n'est pas encore entièrement achevé,
la croûte spatheuse manque, en revanche on
y voit évidemment le passage par degrés
successifs de la roche calcaire au silex qui y
est contenu, et les nuances de ce passage
sont souvent si peu marquées que même les
acides minéraux ne suffisent pas à les
déterminer, ce n'est que le briquet, qui
nous aide à les découvrir. On voit bien
ou la pierre calcaire s'enfonce en couleur,
l'on s'apperçoit, où sa dureté, ses cassures
changent, mais, comme elle y souffre encore
quelque impression des acides, l'on ne sauroit
déterminer au juste le point, ou elle a
déjà plus de la nature du silex, que de celle
de la chaux, qu'en la frappant du briquet.</p>

<p>"Tels sont les cailloux en boules et rognons
avant leur état de perfection, il y aura
même au milieu une partie de pierre calcaire
non changée.</p>

<p>"Ceux au contraire, ou la nature à achevé
son ouvrage, ont une croûte de chaux endurcie,
et sont purement du silex fini, mais
de toutes couleurs, d'un grain et d'une texture
plus ou moins fine, qui passe assez souvent
par degrés dans les différentes variétés
du noble silex. Ils ont, pour l'ordinaire,
dans leur intérieur une cavité, mais pas
toujours au centre, et qui vient apparemment
de la consommation de cette partie calcaire
qui y resta la dernière, et n'en fut changée
ou dissolute et séparée, que lorsque le reste
du silex étoit déjà entièrement fini. Ces
cavités sont toujours, ou enduites de calcédoine
en couche concentriques recouverte
de petits cristaux fort brillans et durs de
quartz, ou bien seulement de ces derniers-ci.
Par-fois il y a aussi du spath calcaire
crystallisé, mais cela est extrêmement rare.
Quelque-fois enfin ces cavités sont remplies
d'une noix de calcédoine. Je n'ai réussi
qu'une seule fois en cassant un pareil silex
en boule d'y trouver encore le reste de
l'eau de crystallisation."</p>

<p>The only remark that I would here make
is this, that, if the crystallization of those close
cavities in the <i>silex</i> had at any time required
water of solution, it must always have required
it. But, if there had been water of solution
contained in those close cavities, for the
crystallization of the various things which are
often found within them, How comes it that
this water is almost never found? I have
good reason to believe that water contained
within a solid flint will not make its escape,
as does that contained in the <i>anhydrites</i> of
Mount <i>Berico</i>, which are composed of a porous
calcedony.  But the siliceous crystallizations
within close cavities is a curious subject,
which we shall have occasion to examine more
particularly in treating of agates. We now
proceed to the next section, which is the generation
of silex and quartz in marl, (p. 19.)</p>

<p>"Il y a des contrées, chez nous, qui out
des étendus assez considérables en long et
en large, de montagnes de pierre de marne
calcaire, dans lesquelles on rencontre le
même phénomène que dans celles de chaux
pure; c. a. d. nous y trouvons du silex de
différentes variétés, et dans tous les degrés
successifs de leur formation, et de leur perfection.
Outre cela, nous y voyons encore
quelque chose, qui semble nous conduire à
la découverte des moyens, dont se sort la
nature pour effecteur cette opération, et qui
nous étoit caché dans les montagnes de
chaux pure: ces bancs de pierre marnesilicieuse,
contiennent une partie considérable
de pyrites sulfureuses, qui non seulement
y forment une grande quantité de
petits sillons, mais toute la masse de la montagne
est rempli de parcelles souvent presqu'imperceptibles
de ce minéral. Ces
pyrites sont évidemment des productions
du phlogistique et de l'acide contenu dans
la montagne.</p>


<p>"L'eau, qui s'y trouve ordinairement en
assez grande abondance, en détacha, extraha
d'un et l'autre, et les combina après
tous les deux ensemble. Cette même eau
les dissout derechef, et en fait de nouvelles
combinaisons. C'est ce qu'on voit évidemment
là, ou la nature, ayant commencé ses
opérations, il n'y est resté de la pyrite,
qu'une portion de la partie inflammable
liée à une base terrestre. Dans ces endroits
la marne n'est que fort peu sensible
aux acides, et de blanche qu'elle étoit, sa
couleur est devenue presque noire. C'est
là qu'on observe les différens degrés du
changement de la marne en silex, contenant,
même encore, par fois, de parties
pyritéiques non détruites dans son intérieur.
Et comme la nature forme ici, de
même, que dans la chaux pure les silex, la
plupart en boules ou rognons; comme les
différent degrés de métamorphoses de la
marne en silex, sont ici beaucoup plus nombreuses
que là, de sorte qu'il y a des bandes
entières, qui mériteroient plutôt d'être appellés
bandes silicieuses, que marneuses;
comme il y a, enfin, une grande quantité de
pyrites, qu'ailleurs, il est très probable qu'elle
se serve là du même moyen qu'ici pour
opérer la métamorphose en question.</p>

<p>"Ne nous précipitons, cependant, pas à en
tirer plus de conséquences; poursuivons
plutôt le fil de notre récit.</p>

<p>"Le silex, qui se trouve ici, est non seulement
de différents degrés de perfection, il
est de plus d'une espèce. Il y a de la pierre
à feu, 2 de la calcédoine, 3 des agathes, et
4 différentes nuances et passages des espèces
ordinaires aux fines du silex.</p>

<p>"La pierre à feu, est, ordinairement dans
son état de perfection d'un grain assez fin,
d'une couleur grise plus ou moins foncée,
et même donnant, dans le noirâtre, plus ou
moins diaphane; ses cassures sont concentriques
ou coquillées, et sa masse est assez
compacte. Outre sa conformation ordinaire
en boules et rognons, elle fait presque toujours
la noix de ursins marins, qui y font
en grand nombre, et dont la coquille est le
plus souvent, et presque toujours de spath
calcaire, même au milieu d'une boule de
silex parfait.</p>

<p>"Les calcédoines et agathes de ces couches
sont toujours (au moins, je ne les ai pas
encore vues autrement) de coraux et autres
corps marins pétrifiés. Donc, il faut que
les couches de pierres roulées, d'où j'ai tiré
ma collection citée plus haut, soyent des
débris de montagne» détruites de cette
espèce. Il y en a qui sont très parfaites
comme celles qui composent ma collection,
d'autres méritent plutôt d'être rangées parmi
les passages du silex ordinaire, et ses
espèces plus fines; d'autres encore sont, en
effet, de vraies agathes, mais qui renferment
dans leur intérieur plus ou moins de parties
non parfaites presque calcaires, qui
s'annoncent d'abord par leur couleur
blanche, par leur gros grains relativement
au reste, par leur opacité, par leur mollesse
respective, et souvent même par leur sensibilité
pour les acides minéraux. Mais
celles, qui sont finies, quoiqu'elles ayent,
pour la plupart, une couleur presque noire,
ne laissent, cependant, pas d'avoir aussi des
teintes plus claires comme brunâtres, verdâtres,
rougeâtres, jaunâtres, bleuâtres,
tachetées, veinées, etc. Leur clarté n'est
pas moins variable, que leur couleur, il y
en a de presqu'opaques, comme aussi de
presque transparentes, sur tout là, ou la calcédoine
prédomine.</p>

<p>"Le quartz s'y trouve comme dans les
pierres de la premiere section, c, a, d, crystallisé,
en groupes dans de petites cavités;
quelquefois aussi en veines. La calcédoine
y est de même, ou bien en mamelons,
ou bien en stalactites, lorsqu'elle a de la
place pour s'y déposer.</p>

<p>"Un phénomène encore plus curieux que
cela est cette belle pyrite sulphureuse jaune,
comme de l'or, qui est quelquefois parsemée
par tout la substance de pétrifications
agathisées, et qui apparemment y fut déposée
après la dite métamorphose à la faveur des
petits pores, qui y étoient restés ouverts."</p>

<p>I would beg that mineralists, who use such
language as this, would consider if it contains
a distinct idea of the operation which they
would thereby describe, or if it does not contain
either a contradiction or an inconceivable
proposition. It supposes a calcareous body to
be metamorphosed, somehow by means of the
mountain acid, into a siliceous body. But,
finding many bodies of pyrites contained
within that solid flint, it is said, that, when the
calcareous body was flintified, there were left
in it cavities which were afterwards filled with
pyrites. Let us reflect a moment upon this
doctrine. These cavities were first open to
the outside of the flinty body; but now the
pyrites with which they had been filled is insulated
in the solid flint. Here three things
are required; first, The calcareous body is to
be flintified, at the same time leaving the body
full of small cavities open to the outside; secondly,
These cavities are to be filled with
pyrites; lastly, These mineral bodies are to
be so inclosed within the flint, as to leave no
vestige of the former processes. This marly
mountain itself, which had been formed of
loose materials gathered together at the bottom
of the sea, was first to be filled with pyrites,
in various shapes, by means of the phlogistic
and the acid of the mountain. Here is
proposed to us an operation which is totally
unknown, or of which we have no kind of
idea. But, let us suppose pyrites formed in
this mountain, (of whatever chemical substances),
by means of water; Why should
water again undo that pyrites, in order to
form other concretions? And, Why should
the flint be formed first with cavities, and
then made solid, after pyrites had been introduced
into those cavities of the agate, and, as
our author expresses it, <i>parsemée pour toute la
substance?</i> Here are suppositions which are
not only perfectly gratuitous, but are also inconsistent
with any thing that we understand.
This is not explaining nature; it is only feigning
causes<a id="footnotetag39" name="footnotetag39"></a><a href="#footnote39"><sup>39</sup></a>.</p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote39" name="footnote39"></a><b>Footnote 39:</b><a href="#footnotetag39"> (return) </a> The description of those insulated siliceous bodies,
containing in their closed cavities all the usual concretions
of calcedony and crystals, as well as full of small pyrites
floating in the solid flint, are extremely interesting to a
mineral system, or such a geological theory as should explain
the present state of things in those strata that had
been formed by deposits of known materials at the bottom
of the sea; they are indeed such appearances as may be
found, more or less, in all consolidated strata. But it is
this author's explanation of that petrifaction which is our
present object to consider; and, as he is so particular in
giving us his theory upon the subject, it is easy to detect
the error of his reasoning. Were those naturalists who
explain things only in general, by saying that water is the
agent, and infiltration the means employed by nature;&mdash;were
these naturalists, I say, to give us as particular a description
of their process, it would appear as inconsistent
with the nature of things as that which we have from this
author, who examines nature very minutely, and who sees
distinctly that the infiltrating theory is inapplicable for the
explanation of those petrifactions.</blockquote>

<p>The third section has for title, "<i>Generation
du Silex et Quartz de la Pierre Puante</i>."
Here we find an example worthy of being
recorded, as contributing to throw great light
upon those mineral operations; however, the
opinion of our author and mine, upon this
subject, differ widely. He proceeds thus:</p>

<p>"Cette pierre n'est, comme chacun le sçait,
qu'une pierre calcaire contenant du bitume.</p>

<p>"Nos montagnes n'en contiennent seulement
pas de simples couches, mais il y en
a même de grandes bancs fort épais.</p>

<p>"Le caillou, ou silex qui s'y génère, forme,
tantôt de gros blocs informes, qui occupent
des cavités dans l'intérieure des montagnes,
tantôt, enfin, en forme de filons.</p>

<p>"J'ai remarqué cette métamorphose sur
trois endroits différens, dans chacun des
quels la nature a autrement opéré.</p>

<p>"Sur l'un, la pierre puante fait un banc
horizontal dans une montagne de pierre
calcaire crystalline, ou d'une espèce de
marbre, qui contient des couches et filons
de métal. Ce banc de pierre puante y fait
le toit d'une couche de galène de plomb
et de pierre calaminaire, et dans ses cavités
et fentes il y a non seulement des blocs de
grandeur différente, mais aussi des veines
et petites bandes courtes de silex, tant ordinaire,
que noble c, a, d, de la pierre à
feu, de calcédoine, d'agathes, et même
d'une espèce de cornaline jaune et rouge
pâle. Je ne m'arrêterai pas à en détailler
les variétés, parce qu'elles sont trop accidentelles.
Je ne les connois pas même toutes,
il s'en faut de beaucoup, parce qu'elles se
trouvent dans des anciennes mines négligées,
peut être depuis plus d'un siècle, et
par conséquent peu accessibles. Je ne doute,
cependant pas, que, si l'on pouvoit mieux
sonder le terrain, on y trouveroit bien plus
encore du peu que j'ai cité. Parmi ce silex,
il y a aussi de petites groupes et de petites
veines de quartz solide et crystallisé.</p>

<p>"Au second endroit la pierre puante fait
un filon, ou si l'on veut, une couche ou
bande verticale, qui partage la montagne
en deux parties presqu'égales de l'épaisseur
de trois aunes à peu près. La montagne,
ou cela se voit est aussi une ancienne mine
de cuivre et de plomb, consistant en plusieurs
variétés de marbre, différent en couleur
et en grain, déposées par couches les
unes sur les autres. Le filon de silex est
formé de feuilles alternatives de pierre
puante et de silex, tous les deux de couleur
brun de bois à peu prés; mais le silex est
plus foncé que sa compagne. Ces feuilles
alternatives, consistent d'autres bien plus
minces encore, qui souvent n'ont pas l'épaisseur
d'une ligne, mais ce qu'il y a de
plus curieux, c'est que la même feuille est
d'un but de pierre porque, qui, vers le
milieu, passe successivement en silex, qui, à
son tour, vers l'autre but, qui étoit exposé
à l'air repasse par les mêmes gradations en
une espèce de tuffe calcaire. Ce qui nous
fait voir évidemment la génération et la
destruction du silex, même avec une partie
des moyens par lesquels elle s'opère.
Comme l'endroit de cette découverte n'est
accessible qu'à la superficie, je ne saurois
dire s'il y a d'autres variétés de silex outre
la dite. Il l'est à supposer autant par analogie,
que par quelques morceaux qui ont
de petites veines transversales d'une espèce
de calcédoine, et qui sont, même, sur leur
fentes, garnis de petits cristaux de roche.
Mais ce qu'il y a de sur c'est que ce filon,
parvenu à une certaine profondeur, s'ennoblit
et contient du métal, c. a. d. de la galène
de plomb, et de la pyrite cuivreuse,
j'y en ai trouvés de morceaux, qui en font
de preuves incontestables. Le caillou d'ici
est un grain fin d'une texture forte, peu
transparent, donne beaucoup d'étincelles au
briquet, mais ses cassures sont écailleuses.</p>

<p>"La montagne calcaire du troisième lieu a
une couche de pierre puante épaisse de plusieurs
aunes, qui, derechef contient de petites
couches irrégulières et des bandes
transversales de silex, qui ont jusques à six
pouces passés d'épaisseur. La pierre puante
est d'une couleur gris-brune, d'un grain
assez fin, et d'un tissu assez dur; ses cassures
sont irrégulières, mais plus la pierre
s'approche du silex, plus elles donnent dans
le coquillé. Le silex ordinaire est d'un
brun de bois, d'un grain assez fin, et d'un
tissu résistant, et ses cassures sont égales à la
pierre porque. Ce n'est pas là la seule
variété, il y a, aussi, de la calcédoine et des
agathes de couleurs différentes. Même la
pierre à feu est assez souvent traversée de
veines de calcédoine, de quartz crystallisé,
et de spath calcaire blanc en feuilles et en
crystaux. Il arrive que la même veine est
composée de ces trois espèces de pierres à
la fois, de sorte que l'une semble passer dans
l'autre, parce que les limites réciproques
sont, souvent, assez indistinctes. Il est évident,
que le silex est formé de la pierre
puante, parce qu'on remarque ici les mêmes
phénomènes dont j'ai parlé plus haut, c. a.
d. les passages successifs de l'une dans l'autre
pierre, tant en montant qu'en descendant."</p>

<p>There is nothing particular in the siliceous
mixture in this species of lime-stone, except
the vein of that substance. It is evident that
this vein, traversing the mountain, had been
introduced in the fluid state of fusion. I do
not mean to say, that, in this particular case
now described, the evidence of that truth peculiarly
appears; but that, from the general
nature of mineral veins breaking and traversing
the solid strata of the globe, no other
conclusion can be formed; and that in the
particulars of this example there is nothing
that could lead us to suppose any other origin
to the petrifactions contained in this vein of
stinking lime-stone. It is plain, that our author
has imagined to himself an unknown
manner of executing his mineral metamorphoses.
He sees plainly that the common
notion of infiltration will not at all explain
the evident confusion of those calcareous and
siliceous bodies which appear to him to be
metamorphosing into each other. Nothing,
indeed, can explain those phenomena but a
general cause of fluidity; and there is no such
general cause besides that of heat or fusion.</p>

<p>But to show how mineralists of great merit,
gentlemen who have examined systematically
and with some accuracy, may impose upon
themselves in reasoning for the explanation of
mineral appearances from limited notions of
things, and from the supposition of these having
been formed where they now are found,
that is, upon the surface of the earth, I would
beg leave to transcribe what this author has
said upon this species of petrifaction. It is
not that he is ignorant of what mineralists
have already said upon the subject; it is because
he sees the incompetency of their explanations
in those particular cases; and that
he would employ some other more effectual
means. (p. 50.)</p>

<p>"Toute terre calcaire à changer dans une
autre doit, avant toute chose, être rendue
réfractaire ce qui ne peut se faire qu'en la
saturant avec un acide. Mais une terre
simplement, saturée d'un acide, est d'une réduction
fort aisée, vu que l'acide n'y tient
pas trop fort, d'ailleurs ce n'est qu'un sel
neutre terreux fort facile â dissoudre dans
une quantité suffisante d'eau. Or pour
rendre cette union plus constante, il faut
que la terre alcaline s'assimile intimement à
l'acide, ce qui ne se sera jamais sans un intermedeliant,
qui homogène les parties de
ce nouveau corps, et pour que cela ce fasse
il est indispensable, qu'il s'opère une dissolution
foncière des parties terrestres de la
chaux, qui facilite l'ingress à l'acide, et à
l'intermède pour qu'ils s'y lie bien fortement.
Supposons qu'il se forme une liqueur savonneuse
de l'acide et du phlogistique, que
l'air fixe, mis en liberté, ouvre les interstices
des parties qui constituent la terre alcaline,
qu'apres cela cette liqueur savonneuse ayant
l'entrée libre s'assimile à la terre en proportion
requise, que l'eau, qui servoit de
véhicule dans cette operation, s'évapore successivement,
et emporte le superflu des ingrediens,
pour qu'il se puisse opérer le rapprochement
le plus exacte des parcelles ou
molécules homogénées de nouveau corps
qu'enfin les molécules les plus pures et les
mieux affinées soyent réunies en forme liquide
dans des cavités, et que par l'évaporation
et séparation de l'eau, ou elles nageoient,
il s'en forme des crystaux n'aurons-nous
pas une boule de silex, avec de crystaux
de quartz dans ses creux intérieurs."</p>

<p>The supposed case is this; a calcareous
body is to be metamorphosed into a siliceous
nodule, having a cavity within it lined with
quartz, crystals, etc. M. de Carosi means to
inform us how this may be done. Now, as
this process requires no other conditions than
those that may be found upon the surface of
this earth, the proper way to prove this hypothetical
theory, would be to exhibit such a
mineral body produced by those means. But,
even supposing that such a process were to
be exhibited, still it would remain to be explained,
how this process, which requires conditions
certainly not be found at the bottom
of the sea, could be accomplished in that place,
where the strata of the earth had been deposited,
accumulated, consolidated, and metamorphosed.</p>

<p>This mineral process, which has been now
described, will no doubt revolt the opinions
of many of our chemists as well as naturalists;
and I should not have thought of transcribing
it, but as an example of that inconclusive
reasoning which prevails in mineralogical
writings upon this subject.</p>

<p>But this is not all. We have, upon this
occasion, a most remarkable example of the
fallaceous views that may be taken of things;
and of the danger to science when men of
sense and observation form suppositions for
the explanation of appearances without that
strict conformity with the principles of natural
philosophy which is requited on all occasions.
Both M. de Carosi, and also M. Macquart<a id="footnotetag40" name="footnotetag40"></a><a href="#footnote40"><sup>40</sup></a>,
to whom our author communicated
his ideas and proper specimens, assert, that
from their accurate experience, they find calcedony
growing daily, not only in the solid
body of gypsum, etc. while in the mine, but
also in the solid stone when taken out of the
mine, and preserved in their cabinet.</p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote40" name="footnote40"></a><b>Footnote 40:</b><a href="#footnotetag40"> (return) </a> Vid. Essais de Minéralogie par M. Macquart.</blockquote>

<p>What answer can be made to this positive
testimony of these gentlemen, by a person
who has not seen any such a thing, and who
has not the opportunity of examining the
cases in which those naturalists may have perhaps
been led into some delusion? Were I
however to conjecture upon a subject in
which I have not any positive information, I
should suppose that some part of the calcedony,
like the <i>oculus mundi</i> when dipped in water,
may be so transparent, while containing some
portion of humidity, that it is not easily distinguishable
from the gypsum in which it is
concreted; but that in having the humidity
evaporated, by being taken out of the mine
and exposed to the dry air, those portions of
calcedony, which did not before appear, may
be perceived by becoming more opaque<a id="footnotetag41" name="footnotetag41"></a><a href="#footnote41"><sup>41</sup></a>.</p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote41" name="footnote41"></a><b>Footnote 41:</b><a href="#footnotetag41"> (return) </a> From the description given in this treatise, and from
the drawings both of M. de Carosi and M. Macquart, I
find a very valuable inference to be made, so much the
more interesting, as I have not found any example of the
like before. This arises from the intimate connection
which is here to be perceived between agate and gypsum.
Now, upon this principle, that the agate-calcedony had
been formed by fusion, a truth which, from the general
testimony of minerals, I must presume, it is plain,
that those nodules of gypsum had been in the fluid state
of fusion among those marly strata, and that the gypseous
bodies had been penetrated variously with the siliceous
substance of the calcedony.

<p>The description of those siliceous penetrations of gypsum
is followed by this conclusion: "En voila assez, je
crois pour faire voir que le silex ci-décrit est effectivement
une émanation du gypse, et non pas une matière
hétérogène amenée d'autre part et déposée, ou nous
la voyons." In this instance our author had convinced
himself that the calcedony concretions had not been formed,
as he and other mineralists had before supposed, by
means of infiltration; he has not, however, substituted any
thing more intelligible in its stead. I do not pretend
that we understand mineral fusion; but only that such
mineral fusion is a thing demonstrable upon a thousand
occasions; and that thus is to be explained the petrification
and consolidation of the porous and naturally incoherent
strata of the earth.</blockquote>

<p>There is, however, a subject in which I can
more freely accuse this author of being deceived.
This naturalist says, that calcareous
stones become silex by a certain chemical
operation; and that those flinty bodies, in being
exposed upon the surface of the earth,
out of their natural bed, are again, by a contrary
chemical operation, changed from flint
to a calcareous substance. I will give it in
his own words, (p. 56.)</p>

<p>"Cela dit, venons au fait. Tout silex progénéré
de chaux, détaché de son lieu natal,
et exposé aux changemens de saisons, s'amollit,
reçoit de crevasses, perd sa transparence,
devient, enfin, tout-à-fait opaque,
le phlogistique s'en évapore, l'acide en est
détaché, lavé, et de terre vitrescible, qu'il
étoit, il redevient chaux, comme il étoit
auparavant."</p>

<p>Here is no question with regard to mere
opinion, but to matter of fact; and, in this
case, nothing is more evident, than that upon
the surface of this earth, that is, in the examinable
parts above the level of the sea, there
is no transition either of calcareous bodies into
flint, nor of flinty bodies into calcareous
substance. Calcareous matter is constantly
dissolved by water, when it is exposed to the
washing of that fluid; and it is even dissolved
out of the most perfect union or combination
with siliceous substance, and the most solid
composition of an insoluble body, as may be
perceived in the decaying of feld-spar. A
superficial view of flints, which have come out
of a body of chalk, may have created such an
opinion, which will not either bear the light
of chemical or mineral investigation. The
subject of these chalk flints will be minutely
examined in its proper place.</p>

<p>Our author has carefully examined the subject
of flintification; and the country where
he makes his observations would seem to be
well disposed for such a research. He has
had great opportunity and inclination to examine
the subject which he writes upon; and
he has given a distinct account of what be has
seen. His description of the flintification of
sand-stone is extremely interesting. I will
therefore transcribe it, both as a valuable portion
of natural history, and also in order to
contrast this author's opinion, with regard to
the means employed by nature in petrifying
bodies, and that which I maintain to be the
general consolidating operation of the globe.
It is Section V. <i>Generation du Caillou du Silex
du Grès, ou Pierre Sabloneuse</i>.</p>

<p>"Tout grès est susceptible de cette métamorphose
quant au grain et quant à la couleur;
depuis la bréccia quartzeuse jusqu'à
la pierre à rasoir; et depuis le grès blanc
jusqu'au brun et presque noirâtre, tient ou
non tient, dur, ou presque friable, c'est indifférent,
toutes ces variétés donnent du
silex, et surtout de la calcédoine, de la cornaline,
et des agathes. Quant au ciment
je l'y ai toujours remarqué calcaire et faisant
effervescence avec les acides dans les
endroits de la pierre qui n'étoient point
encore changés; et jamais je n'ai vu ce
changement dans du grès dont le ciment
fut ou quartzeux ou argileux et réfractaire.
Ainsi le ciment entre pour quelque chose
dans ce changement.</p>

<p>"Le commencement de cette métamorphose
paroit (autant que j'ai pu l'observer
dans mes débris roulés) se faire par le ciment,
qui dissout là, où les agens eurent
l'accès libre, rend les grains en quartz mobiles,
les emporte, les mêle avec sa masse
dense-liquide, les dissout, même en partie,
et forme, dans cet état, des veines et de
masses calcédonieuse, carneoliques, ou d'une
autre espèce de silex, au milieu du grés peu,
ou pas du tout, changé. Car autant que je
puis voir, ce n'est pas par couches ou veines
qu'elle s'opère, mais par boules et masses
rond-oblongues. Au commencement ces
veines et tâches sont fort minces, et le reste
du grés n'est point du tout, ou à peine sensiblement
changé hormis qu'il gagne, plus
de consistance, à proportion du changement
souffert. Mais à mesure que le silex y
augmente et se perfectionne, on y apperçoit
les degrés par lesquels a passé cette
operation. Les nuance du passage d'une
pierre à l'autre deviennent plus visibles, les
veines et masses de silex grandissent au
point, même, qu'il y a jusqu'aux trois quart
du grés changé en silex clair comme de
l'eau n'ayant que fort peu de grains de
sable nageants dans sa masse. Des morceaux
de cette espèce sont rares à la vérité,
mais j'en ai, cependant, trouvé quelques
uns. Ordinairement, dans les beaux morceaux,
le silex fait la base, et le sable y est,
comme nageant tantôt en grains séparés
tantôt en parties et flocons. Dans les pieces
moins belles, le sable fait la base, et le silex
sert à la fois de ciment, et forme aussi plus
ou moins de veines, qui traversent la masse
en maintes et maintes directions. Mais si
c'est un grès à gros grains, ou de la breccia,
alors le reste prend la nature silicieuse
mêlé de sable fin, et les gros grains de
quartz restent tels, qu'ils étoient, sans
changer. J'ai déjà remarqué que cette
métamorphose semble s'opérer, comme celle
des cailloux d'origine calcaire en forme approchans
la sphérique, il faut encore y a
jouter, que j'ai lieu de croire, qu'elle se
fasse aussi du dedans en dehors, tout, comme
la décomposition se fait du dehors au dedans.</p>

<p>"Il arrive dans cette pierre, comme dans
toute autre, qu'il se forme des crystallisations
dans les cavités. Lorsqu'elles sont de silex,
leur figure est toujours mamelonnée,
mais leur eau ou pureté, leur grandeur et
leur couleur n'est pas par tout égale. Il y
en a qui sont grands, et de la plus pure calcédoine,
d'autres sont petits et chaque goutte
ou mamelon contient un grain de sable,
de facon que cela a l'air d'un grès crystallisè
en mamelons ou stalagmitique.
D'autres encore sont, de calcédoine, mais
recouverts d'une croûte, tantôt blanche qui
fait effervescence avec l'acide minéral, et
qui est, par conséquent, de nature calcaire;
tantôt cette croûte est bleue foncée nuancée
de bleu-celeste; tantôt, enfin, elle est noire,
mais toutes les deux réfractaires. Outre ces
crystallisations silicieuses, il y en a, quoique
rarement, de quartzeuses, qui ou forment
de petites veines de crystal, ou bien
des groupes de crystaux quartzeux, ou qui
enfin, enduisent les mamelons de silex."</p>

<p>Our author then makes a specification of
the different varieties; after which he continues,
p. 69.</p>

<p>"Après tout ceci, l'on conviendra j'espère,
que nôtre grais est une pierre bien singulière,
et surpassant, à bien des égards, le
grais, faussement dit crystallisé, de Fontainebleau.
La raison de la figure du grais
François est fort évidente, c'est le spath calcaire,
qui lui sert de ciment, qui la lui fit
prendre; mais qu'est-ce qui opère les métamorphoses
racontées dans notre grai siliceux?
Seroit-ce son ciment calcaire ou
marneux par les mêmes raisons, qui font
changer la marne en silex? La chose est
très-probable, et je n'en saurois pas même,
deviner d'autre. En ce cas la nature auroit
un moyen d'opérer par la voie humide, ce
que nous faisons dans nos laboratoires en
quelque façon, par la voie sèche, c, a, d,
de fondre et liquéfier la terre vitrescible, au
moyen des alcalis; secret que nous lui
avons déjà arraché en partie, en faisant la
liqueur silicieuse."</p>

<p>"Je n'ose, cependant, décider pas même
hypothétiquement, sur cette matière, pour
n'avoir pu observer la nature dans ses ateliers,
et parce que je ne possède que des
pièces, qui détachées de leur lieu natal, depuis
un très long-tems, furent exposées aux
intempéries des saisons, où elles peuvent
avoir souffert bien de changemens."</p>

<p>There cannot be a more fair exposition of
facts; and it is only our author's opinion of
this mineral transmutation that I would controvert.
I do not pretend to understand the
manner of operating that our author here supposes
nature to take. I only maintain, that
here, as every where in general, the loose and
incoherent strata of the globe have been petrified,
that is, consolidated, by means of the
fusion of their substances; and this I think is
confirmed from the accurate description here
given of the flintification of sand-stone. Here
is described very distinctly an appearance
which is very common or general on those
occasions; this is the parts or particles of stone
floating in the fluid siliceous substance, and
there dissolving more or less.</p>

<p>M. de Carosi describes very systematically
the generation of silex, calcedony, onyx, and
quartz, in calcareous earth, marl, gypsum,
sand-stone, and also what he terms <i>terre glaise,
ou de l'Argile</i>. It is in this last that we find
a perfect analogy with what is so frequent in
this country of Scotland. These are the
agates, calcedonies, calcareous and zeolite nodules,
which are found produced in our whin-stone
or subterraneous lavas, that is, the amygdaloides
of Crondstedt. Naturalists explain
the formation of those nodular bodies differently.
The Chevalier de Dolomieu supposes
these rocks to have been erupted lavas, originally
containing cavities; and that these cavities
in the solid rock had been afterwards filled
and crystallised, by means of infiltration,
with the different substances which are found
variously concreted and crystallised within
the solid rocks. Our author, on the contrary,
supposes these formed by a species of chemical
transmutation of calcareous and argillaceous
earths, which, if not altogether incomprehensible,
is at least not in any degree, so
far as I know, a thing to be understood.</p>

<p>This is not the place where that subject of
these particular rocks, which is extremely interesting,
is to be examined. We shall afterwards
have occasion to treat of that matter at
large. It is sufficient here to observe, that
our author finds occasion to generalise the
formation of those petrifactions with the flintifications
in calcareous and gypseous bodies.
When, therefore, the formation of any of
them shall be demonstrated, as having taken
its origin in the fusion of those substances,
this mode of operation, which is generalised
in the consolidation of strata, will be properly
inferred in all the rest.</p>

<p>Petrifaction is a subject in which mineralogists
have perhaps wandered more widely
from the truth than in any other part of natural
history; and the reason is plain. The
mineral operations of nature lie in a part of
the globe which is necessarily inaccessible to
man, and where the powers of nature act under
very different conditions from those which
we find take place in the only situation where
we can live. Naturalists, therefore, finding
in stalactical incrustation a cause for the formation
of stone, in many respects analogous
to what is found in the strata of the earth, and
which had come from the mineral region in a
consolidated state, have, without due consideration,
attributed to this cause all the appearances
of petrifaction or mineral concretion.
It has been one of the objects of this work to
show that this operation of incrustation, or
petrifaction by means of solution, is altogether
ineffectual for producing mineral concretions;
and that, even were it capable of forming those
mineral bodies, yet that, in the solid parts of
this earth, formed by a deposit of travelled
materials at the bottom of the sea, the conditions
necessary to this incrustating process do
not take place.</p>

<p>Those enlightened naturalists who have of
late been employed in carefully examining
the evidences of mineral operations, are often
staggered in finding appearances inconsistent
with the received doctrine of infiltration;
they then have recourse to ingenious suppositions,
in order to explain that enigma. In
giving examples of this kind. I have in view
both to represent the natural history these mineralists
furnish us with, which is extremely
interesting, and also to show the various shapes
in which error will proceed, when ingenious
men are obliged to reason without some necessary
principle in their science. We have
just now had an example in Europe; I will
next present the reader with one from Asia.</p>

<p>M. Patrin, in his <i>Notice Minéralogique de
la Daourie</i>, (Journal de Physique, Mars 1791)
gives us a very distinct account of what he
met with in that region. Describing the
country of Doutchersk upon the river Argun,
in Siberia, he proceeds thus:</p>

<p>"Ces collines sont formées d'un hornstein
gris qui paroit se convertir en pierre calcaire
par l'action des météores; car tout celui
qu'on prend hors du contact de l'air donne
les plus vives étincelles, et ne fait pas la
moindre effervescence avec les acides, même
après avoir été calciné; et l'on observe celui
qui est à découvert, passer, par nuances
insensibles, jusqu'à l'état de pierre calcaire
parfaite de couleur blanchâtre."</p>

<p>Here M. Patrin has persuaded himself, probably
from an imperfect examination of the
subject, that there takes place a mineral metamorphosis,
which certainly is not found in
any other part of the earth, and for which he
does not find any particular cause. The natural
effect of the meteors, in other parts of
the earth, is to dissolve the calcareous substance
out of bodies exposed to those agents;
and the gradation from the one of those two
things to the other, which seems to be the
data on which he had proceeded in forming
his conclusion, is not sufficient to prove the
metamorphosis, even were there not so strong
a physical objection to it; for, it is by no
means unusual for mineral bodies to graduate
thus from one substance to another. However
that be, this is not the principal object of
the example<a id="footnotetag42" name="footnotetag42"></a><a href="#footnote42"><sup>42</sup></a>.</p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote42" name="footnote42"></a><b>Footnote 42:</b><a href="#footnotetag42"> (return) </a> Here we have well informed naturalists reasoning
with all the light of our present mineralogy, and maintaining,
on the one hand, that gypsum is transformed into
calcedony, by the operation of the meteors, or some
such cause; and, on the other, that a siliceous substance
is by the same means converted into lime-stone. What
should we now conclude from this?&mdash;That calcareous and
siliceous substances were mutually convertible. But then
this is only in certain districts of Poland and Siberia.
Every where, indeed, we find strange mixtures of calcareous
and siliceous bodies; but neither mineralists nor
chemists have, from these examples, ventured to affirm
a metamorphosis, which might have spared them much
difficulty in explaining those appearances.

<p>This is a subject that may be taken in very different
lights. In one view, no doubt, there would appear to
be absurdity in the doctrine of metamorphosis, as there is
now a days acknowledged to be in that of <i>lusus naturae</i>;
and those reasoning mineralists might thus, in the opinion
of some philosophers, expose their theory to contempt and
ridicule. This is not the light in which I view the subject.
I give those gentlemen credit for diligently observing
nature; and I applaud them for having the merit to
reason for themselves, which would seem to be the case
with few of the many naturalists who now speak and write
upon the subject.</p>

<p>Let us now draw an inference, with regard to this, in
judging of the different theories. Either the received
system concerning mineral operations is just, in which case
those gentlemen, who employ a secret metamorphosis, may
be to blame in laying it aside; or it is erroneous and deficient;
and, in that case, they have the merit of distinguishing
the error or deficiency of the prevailing system.
How far they have seen the system of nature, in those examples
which they have described, is another question.
In the mean time, I am to avail myself of the testimony
of those gentlemen of observation, by which the insufficiency
at least of the received mineral system is acknowledged.</blockquote>


<p>After speculating upon the effect of the
ancient ocean upon the mountains of that
country, he proceeds as follows:</p>

<p>"Je laisse ces conjectures pour remarquer
un fait singulier: la colline, qui est au
nord de l'église de la fonderie, a son arrête
composée de ce hornstein qui se décompose
en pierre calcaire; mais ici, les parties, qui
sont ainsi décomposées, offrent une substance
calcédonieuse disposées par zones concentriques,
comme on l'observe dans les agates
d'oberstein; mais ce ne sont point ici des
corps parasites formés par infiltration dans
des cavités pré-existantes comme les agates;
on voit que ce sont les parties constituantes
de la roche qui, <i>par un travail interne</i>, et
par une sorte de crystallisation, out pris
cette disposition régulière (que ce mot de
<i>crystallisation</i> ne révolte point, j'appelle
ainsi toute tendance à prendre une forme
constante, polyèdre ou non polyèdre.) Les
couches les plus voisine du centre sont nettes
et distinctes; peu-à-peu elles le sont moins,
et enfin elles s'évanouissent et se confondent
avec le fond de la roche. Chaque assemblage
de ces zones a une forme ronde ou
ovale plus ou moins régulière de sept à huit
pouces de diamètre.</p>

<p>"Cela ressemble en grand à ce qu'on observe
dans les pierres oeillées, et la cause est
vraisemblablement la même. Je le répète,
je regarde cette disposition régulière comme
une véritable cristallisation, qui peut s'opérer
et qui s'opère en effet dans l'intérieur
des corp les plus solide, tant qu'ils sont
fournis à l'action des agens de la nature.</p>

<p>"Tous ceux qui visitent l'intérieur de la
terre savent que les roches mêmes le plus
compactes y sont intimement pénétrées
d'humidité, et ce fluide n'est certainement
pas l'eau pure; c'est l'agent qui opère
toutes les agrégations, toutes les cristallisations,
tous les travaux de la nature dans le
règne minéral. On peut donc aisément
concevoir qu'à la faveur de ce fluide, il
règne, dans les parties les plus intimes des
corps souterrains, une circulation qui fait
continuellement changer de place aux élémens
de la matière, jusqu'a ce que réunis
par la force des affinités, les corpuscules
similaires prennent la forme que la nature
leur a assignée."</p>

<p>Those nodular bodies or figured parts which
are here inclosed in the rock, are evidently
what may be called calcedony agates. M.
Patrin is persuaded, from the examination of
them, that they had not been formed in the
manner of German agates, which he supposes
is by mean of infiltration; and he has endeavoured
to conceive another manner of
operating, still however by means of water,
which I suppose, according to this hypothesis,
is to dissolve substances in one part, and deposits
them in another, There must certainly
be some great <i>desideratum</i> in that mineral
philosophy which is obliged to have recourse
to such violent suppositions. First, water is
not an universal solvent, as it would require
to be, upon this supposition; secondly, were
water allowed to be an universal menstruum,
here is to be established a circulation that does
not naturally arise from the mixture of water
and earth; and, lastly, were this circulation
to be allowed, it would not explain the variety
which is found in the consolidation and
concretion of mineral bodies.</p>

<p>So long, therefore, as we are to explain natural
appearances by reasoning from known
principles, and not by ascribing those effects
to preternatural causes, we cannot allow
of this regular operation which M. Patrin
alleges to be acting in the interior parts
of the most solid bodies. This is indeed
evident, that there has been a cause operating
in the internal parts of the most solid
bodies, a cause by which the elements, or constituent
parts of those solid bodies, have been
moved and regularly disposed, as this author
very well observes must have been the case in
our agates or eyed stones; but to ascribe to
water this effect, or to employ either an ineffectual
or an unknown cause, is not to reason
philosophically with regard to the history of
nature; it is to reason phantastically, and to
imagine fable.</p>

<p>M. Monnet has imagined a petrifying power
in water very different from any that has
hitherto been conceived, I believe, by natural
philosophers, and I also believe, altogether inconsistent
with experience or matter of fact;
but as it is not without good reason that this
naturalist has been induced to look out for a
petrifying cause different from any hitherto
supposed, and as he has endeavoured very
properly to refute the systems of petrification
hitherto received, I would beg leave to transcribe
his reasoning upon the subject in corroboration
of the present theory of consolidation
by the means of fusion.</p>

<p>It is upon occasion of describing one of the
species of alpine stone or schistus which contains
quartzy particles. <i>Nouveau voyage minéralogique,
etc.</i> Journal de Physique Aoust
1784.</p>

<p>"Il y a loin de cette pierre, que je regarde
comme une variété de roches ardoisées, aux
véritable ardoises. La composition de toutes
ces pierres est due aux terres quartzeuses et
argileuses, et à la terre talqueuse, que je
démontrerai un jour être une espèce particulière
et distincte des autres, qui constitue
les bonnes ardoises, et fait, ainsi que le
quartz, qu'elles résistent aux injures de l'air,
sans s'effleurir, comme je ferai voir que cette
terre, qu'on désignera sous la dénomination
de terre talqueuse, si l'on veut, résiste au
grand feu sans se fondre. Les différences
de toutes ces pierres, quoique composées
des mêmes matières, mais dans des proportions
différentes, sont frappantes, et pourroient
faire croire qu'elles n'appartiennent
pas à ce genre. Mais qui ne voit ici que
toutes ces différences, ou ces variétés, ne sont
dues qu'aux modifications de la matière
première, qu'elle a éprouvées, soit en se mêlant
avec des matières hétérogènes, prévenantes
du débris des êtres qui ont existé,
comme l'argile, par exemple, qui, de l'aveu
de presque tous les naturalistes, est le produit
de l'organization des plantes, ou soit
en se mêlant avec de la matière déjà solidifiée
depuis long-temps? Or nous ne craignons
pas de dire, ce que nous avons dit
plusieurs fois quand l'occasion s'en est présentée,
que cette matière unique, que se
modifie selon les occasions et les circonstances,
et qui prend un caractère analogue au
matières qu'elle rencontre, est l'eau, que
beaucoup de naturalistes cherchent vainement
ailleurs. Ils ne peuvent comprendre,
malgré les exemples frappans qui pourroient
les porter à adopter cette opinion,
que ce fluide général soit l'élément des corps
solides du règne minéral, comme il est de
ceux du règne végétal et du règne animal.
L'on cherche sérieusement, par des expériences
chimiques, à découvrir si l'eau est
susceptible de se convertir en terre comme
si la nature n'avoit pas d'autre moyen que
nous de la faire passer de l'état fluide à l'état
solide. Voyez le spath calcaire et le quartz
transparens; est il à présumer qu'ils ne
sont que le résultat du dépôt des matières
terreuses fait par les eaux? Mais, dans ce ca-là
encore, il faut supposer que l'eau qui est
restée entre ces partie s'est solidifiée; car,
qu'est-elle donc devenue, et quel est donc
le lien qui a uni ces parties et leur a fait
prendre une forme régulière? Il est vrai
qu'on nous parle d'un suc lapidifique; mais
c'est-la un être de raison, dont il seroit bien
plus difficile d'établir l'existence, que de
croire à la solidification de l'eau. On nous
donne cependant comme un principe certain
que l'eau charie d'un lieu à un autre
les matières qu'il a dissoutes, et qu'elle les
dépose à la maniere des sels. Mais c'est
supposer une chose démentie par l'experience;
savoir, que l'eau ait la propriété de
dissoudre les matières terreuses, telles que
la quartzeuse. A la vérité, M. Auchard de
Berlin y joint de l'air fixe; mais cet air fixe
ne sauroit tenir en dissolution un atome de
quartz dans l'eau; et quelle qu'ait été l'exactitude
de ceux qui ont répété les expériences
de M. Auchard, on n'a pu réussir à
imiter la nature, c'est-à-dire, à former des
cristaux quartzeux, comme il a annoncé.
Que l'eau ait la faculté de tenir en dissolution
quelques petites parties de terre calcaire,
au moyen de cet air fixe, il n'en faut
pas conclure qu'elle puisse former de cette
maniere tous les cristaux calcaires, sans que
l'eau elle-même y concoure pour sa part;
car ce seroit conclure quelque fois que la
partie seroit égale au tout. Voyez ces
géodes calcaire et argileuses, qui renferment
des cristaux nombreux de quartz ou
de spath calcaire; ne sont ils que le résultat
du dépôt de l'eau qui y a été renfermée, ou
que la cristallization pure et simple des molécules
que vous supposez avoir été tenues
en dissolution par cette eau? Il naîtroit de
cette opinion une foule d'objections qu'il
seroit impossible de résoudre. Cependant
M. Guettard, dans la minéralogie du Dauphiné,
qui vient de paroître, ouvrage très-estimable
à beaucoup d'égards, explique,
selon cette maniere de penser, la formation
de cristallizations quartzeuses qu'on trouve
dans certaines géodes de cette province, et
celle des mines de cristal des hautes montagnes.
En supposant même comme vraie
l'explication qu'il en donne, on trouveroit
en cela un des plus grands problème, et des
plus difficiles à résoudre qu'il y ait en minéralogie;
car d'abord il faudroit expliquer
comment un si petite quantité d'eau que
celle qui a été renfermée dans les géodes,
et celle qui est parvenue dans les fentes des
rochers, ont pu fournir un si grande quantité
de matière que celle qui constitue ces
cristallisations, et ce qui n'est pas le moins
difficile à concevoir, comment l'eau a pu
charrier cette matière à travers tant de matières
différentes, et la conserver précisément
pour cette destination; comment, par exemple,
l'eau est venue déposer de la terre
quartzeuse dans les masses énormes de pierres
calcaires, qui forment la côté qui domine
le village de Champigny, à quatre
lieues de Paris, au delà de Saint-maur; car
s'il nous faut citer un exemple frappant de
cette singularité, et à portée d'être vue des
naturalistes qui sont dans la capitale, je ne
puis mieux faire que de citer cette côté, une
des plus curieuses de la France, et que je
me propose de fair connoître en détail dans
la troisième partie de la minéralogie de la
France. On verra, dis-je, dans cette bonne
pierre à chaux, et une de plus pure des environs
de Paris, de très-abondantes cristallisations
de quartz transparent, et quelque fois de
belle eau, que les ouvriers sont forcés de
séparer de la partie calcaire, à laquelle elles
adhèrent fortement. Mais c'est trop nous
arrêter à combattre une opinion qui doit son
origine aux premières idées qu'ont eues les
premiers observateurs en minéralogie, qui
se détruira d'elle même comme tant d'autres
dont il nous reste à peine le souvenir."</p>

<p>We find here an accurate naturalist, and a
diligent observer, who, in conformity with
what my sentiments are upon the subject,
thinks it impossible that the crystallizations in
close cavities, and concretions of different solid
substances within each other, which so frequently
occur in the mineral regions, could
have been produced, by means of solution and
crystallization, from a fluid vehicle. But
what has he now substituted in place of this
solution, in order to explain appearances?&mdash;a
mere supposition, viz. that nature may have
the power of converting water, in those secret
places, into some other thing; or rather that
the substance of water is here converted into
every other thing; for, though he has only
mentioned quartz and calcareous spar, what
mineral substance is there that may not be
found in those close cavities? They are actually
almost all, not even excepting gold;
for, small grains of gold are inclosed within
the cavities of a porous stone, in the Siberian
mine. Now, for what purpose should nature,
(to the power of which we are not to set a
limit) have such an object in view as to convert
water into every thing, unless it were to
confound human understanding? For, so far
as human experience has been as yet able to
reach, there would appear to be certain elementary
substances; and among these is water,
or the principles of that fluid<a id="footnotetag43" name="footnotetag43"></a><a href="#footnote43"><sup>43</sup></a>. But because
water is so generally found in bodies, and so
necessarily in most of the operations of this
world, why convert it into every other thing?
Surely, for no better reason than that there
has not occurred to this mineralist any other
way of explaining certain natural appearances
which aqueous solution could not produce.
Here is no dispute about a matter of fact; it
is on all hands allowed, that in certain cavities,
inaccessible to any thing but heat and
cold, we find mineral concretions, which contain
no water, and which, according to the
known operations of nature, water could not
have produced; must we therefore have recourse
to water acting according to no known
principle, that is to say, are we to explain nature
by a preternatural cause?</p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote43" name="footnote43"></a><b>Footnote 43:</b><a href="#footnotetag43"> (return) </a> Water is now considered by men of science, as a
compound substance; this doctrine, which seems to follow
so necessarily from the experiments of the French
philosophers, must be tried by the growing light of chemical
science. In the oxygenating operation of inflammable
and combustible bodies when burning, those ingenious
chemists overlooked the operation of <i>phlogistic matter</i>,
which has no weight, and which escapes on that occasion,
as I have had occasion to show in a dissertation upon phlogiston,
and in the Philosophy of Light, Heat, and Fire.
How far this view, which I have given of those interesting
experiments, may lead to the explanation of other collateral
phenomena, such as that of the water produced, I
will not pretend to conjecture.  One thing is evident,
that if the weight of the water, procured in burning inflammable
and vital air, be equal to that of those two
gasses, we would then have reason to conclude, either that
water were a compound substance, or that vital air, and
inflammable vapour were compounds of water and the
matter of light, or solar substance.</blockquote>

<p>I dare say that this is not the view that M.
Monnet takes of the subject, when he thinks
to explain to himself the concretion of those
different substances by means of water; but,
according to my apprehension of the matter,
his theory, when sifted to the bottom, will
bear no other construction; and, unless he
shall consider water like the matter of heat, as
capable of producing the fluidity of fusion,
and of being also again abstracted from the
fluid, by pervading the most solid body, which
would then be a substance different from water,
he must employ this aqueous substance as a
menstruum or solvent for solid bodies, in the
same manner as has been done by those naturalists
whom he he justly censure, and conform
to those erroneous ideas which first observations,
or inaccurate knowledge of minerals,
may have suggested to former naturalists.</p>

<p>It is the dissolution and concretion of siliceous
substance, no doubt, that gives such difficulty
to our naturalists in explaining petrifaction:
they have, however, something apparently
in their favour, which it may be proper
now to mention.</p>

<p>In the <i>first</i> place, although siliceous substance
is not soluble, so far as we know, by
simple water, it is soluble by means of alkaline
substance; consequently, it is possible that
it may be dissolved in the earth.</p>

<p><i>Secondly</i>, The water of Giezer in Iceland,
actually petrifies bodies which are alternately
imbibed with that hot water and exposed to
the air. This water, therefore, not only contains
siliceous substance in a dissolved state,
but deposits this again, either by means of
cooling, or being aerated, or of evaporating.
Consequently, without knowing the principle
upon which it proceeds, we here perceive a
natural operation by which siliceous petrifaction
may be performed.</p>

<p><i>Lastly</i>, We have another principle for the
dissolution of siliceous substance. This is the
fluor acid which volatilises the siliceous substance.
This, however, requires certain conditions,
which cannot be found as a general
cause in the mineral regions.</p>

<p>Thus we would seem to have every thing
necessary for explaining the concretion and
crystallization of siliceous bodies, provided we
could find the proper conditions requisite for
that operation; for whether it shall be by
means of acid or alkaline substances that siliceous
matter is to be dissolved, volatilised, and
transported from one place to another, it is
necessary that those dissolving substances should
be present upon those occasions. Nor is it
sufficient only to dissolve the siliceous substance
which is to be transported; the necessary
conditions for the concretion again of the
dissolved substances, whatever these may be,
are also absolutely required for this operation.
Now, though those requisite conditions may
be, upon many occasions, allowed in the
earth, it is not according to the theory of our
modern naturalists, who explain petrifaction
upon the principles of simple infiltration of
water, that any advantage can be taken of
those conditions; nor are natural appearances
to be explained without employing more
complicated chemical agents in the mineral
regions.</p>

<p>To this subject of the petrifactions of Giezier,
I may now add the information which
we have received in consequence of a new
voyage from this country to Iceland.</p>

<p>When Sir Joseph Banks returned from his
expedition to Iceland, he landed at this place;
and, having brought specimens of the petrifications
of Giezer, Dr Black and I first discovered
that these were of a siliceous substance. I
have always conjectured that the water of
Giezer must be impregnated with flinty matter
by means of an alkaline substance, and so
expressed my opinion in the Theory of the
Earth published in the Transactions of the
Edinburgh Royal Society. We have therefore
been very desirous of procuring some of
that water, in order to have it analysed.</p>

<p>An opportunity favourable to our views has
occurred this summer. Mr Stanley set out
from this place with the same purpose of examining
Iceland. He was so good as to ask
of Dr Black and I what inquiries we would
incline that he should make. We have now,
by the favour of this gentleman, obtained
specimens of the petrifactions of Giezer; and,
what is still more interesting, we have procured
some of the water of those petrifying
boiling springs.</p>

<p>It appears from these specimens, that the
boiling water which is ejected from those
aqueous volcanoes, if we may use the expression,
is endued with the quality of forming
two different species of petrifaction or incrustation;
for, besides the siliceous bodies, of
which we had before received specimens, the
same stream of water incrustates its channel
with a calcareous substance. All the specimens
which I have seen consist of incrustation,
some purely siliceous, some calcareous,
and others mixed of those two, more or less.</p>

<p>Dr Black has been analysing the water;
and he finds in it siliceous matter dissolved
by an alkaline substance, in the manner of
liquor silicum<a id="footnotetag44" name="footnotetag44"></a><a href="#footnote44"><sup>44</sup></a>. My conjecture has thus
been verified.</p>

<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote44" name="footnote44"></a><b>Footnote 44:</b><a href="#footnotetag44"> (return) </a> See Trans. of the Edin. Royal Society.</blockquote>

<p>It must not be alleged that nature may
operate in the mineral regions, as she does
here upon the surface in the case of Giezer.
Such an argument as this, however sound it
may be in general, will not apply to the subject
of which we treat at present. There is
no question about the limiting the powers of
nature; we are only considering nature as operating
in a certain determined manner, viz.
by water acting simply upon the loose materials
of the land deposited at the bottom of the
sea, and accumulated in regular strata, one
upon another, to the most enormous depth or
thickness. This is the situation and condition
of things in which nature is to operate; and
we are to find the means of consolidating
those strata, and concreting every species of
substance in almost every possible composition,
according to some known physical principle.
Here is an operation which is limited; for, we
must reason strictly, according to the laws of
nature, in the case which we have under consideration;
and we cannot suppose nature as
ever transgressing those laws.</p>

<p>It is acknowledged, that, by means sometimes
of an aeriform, sometimes of an alkaline,
perhaps also of an acid substance, calcareous
matter is dissolved in the earth, and certain
metallic substances, such as lead and iron.
This solution also, upon particular occasions,
(where the proper conditions for separating
the solvent from the dissolved substance exist),
forms certain concretions; these are sometimes
a mere incrustation, as in the case of
the siliceous incrustation of Giezer, sometimes
again in a crystallised or sparry form,
as in the case of stalactical concretions. But
here is no question of those cases where the
proper conditions may be found; first, of dissolving
the substance which is afterwards to be
concreted; secondly, of separating the menstruum
from the dissolved substance; and,
lastly, of removing the fluid deprived of its
solution, and of supplying a new solution in
its room; the question is, how far those concretions
are formed where those conditions do
not take place. Now, this last case is that of
almost all mineral concretions.</p>

<p>It must not be here alleged that certain
concretions have been found in mines posterior
to these having been worked by man;
consequently, that those concretions have been
formed by nothing but the infiltration of water.
In those cases, where such concretions
are truly found, I am persuaded that all the
conditions proper to that operation will also
be found; and it is only, I believe, in those
cases where such proper conditions may be
found, that this aqueous concretion ever appears.
Now, if we shall except calcareous
stalactite, and the bog ore of iron, How seldom
is it that any appearance of those aqueous
mineral concretion ever is found? Those
very few cases in which they are found, afford
the strongest proof against these being operations
general to the globe, or proper mineral
concretions; because it is only where all the
necessary conditions conspire in each contributing
its part, that the effect is accomplished;
and this is a thing which cannot possibly
take place in the aquiform strata below the
surface of the sea. But, without attending to
this clear distinction of things perfectly different,
naturalists are apt to see false analogies,
and thus in generalising to form the most erroneous
theories.</p>

<p>I shall now give an example of this fallaceous
manner of reasoning; it is in the case
of certain mineral appearances which are erroneously
considered as stalactical concretions.</p>

<p>The only true stalactical bodies are of a
calcareous substance; they are formed by water
containing this substance in a dissolved
state; and the principles upon which this particular
concretion is formed are well known.
It is therefore easy to compare other concretions,
which may have some superficial resemblance
to these stalactical bodies, in order to
see if they have proceeded upon the same
principle of concretion from a dissolved state,
or by water depositing its dissolved substance
in a similar manner.</p>

<p>There are two different mineral substances
which give appearances of this sort. These
are certain concretions of calcedony, and also
of iron-ore, which are thought to have such
resemblance to stalactical concretions as, by
some superficial observers, to be reckoned of
the same kind. It is now proposed to show
that those conclusions are not well founded;
and that, in this case of calcedony and iron-ore,
it could not be upon the principle of stalactical
concretion that the bodies now in question
had their forms.</p>

<p>The principle upon which calcareous substance
is dissolved in water, and made to concrete
by the evaporation of the acid substance,
or fixed air by which it had been dissolved, is
too well known to require any explanation
in this place; we are only to consider the
sensible effects of those operations of which
we know so well the proper conditions.</p>

<p>There are just two distinct views under
which we may consider all stalactical concretions
formed; these are the incrustation of the
calcareous substance concreting upon a foreign
body, and the incrustation of the same substance
upon itself. By the first any manner
of shape may be formed, provided there be a
solid body, upon the surface of which the calcareous
solution is made to pass. By the second,
again, we have various forms; but we
know the principles upon which they had
been made. These are the shape and motions
of the fluid which gives the calcareous
concretion. Now, these principles are always
to be perceived, more or less, in all the bizarre
or fantastical, as well as regular shapes which
are produced by stalactical concretions. At
present, we shall confine our views to one
particular shape, which is simple, regular, and
perfectly understood wherever it is formed.</p>

<p>Drops of water falling from a roof, and
forming stalactite, produce first tubular bodies,
and then gradually consolidate and increase
those pendulous bodies by incrustation. These
appearances are thought to be observed in the
calcedony and ferruginous concretions, which
has led some mineralists to conclude, that those
concretions had been formed in the same manner,
by means of water. We are now to show
that these mineral appearances are not analogous
to stalactites in their formation, and that
they have evidently been formed in a different
manner.</p>

<p>It must be evident, that, in the formation
of those pendulous bodies, each distinct stalactite
must be formed by a separate drop of water;
consequently, that no more stalactites can
be formed in a given space, than there could
have subsisted separate drops of water. Now,
a drop of water is a very determined thing;
and thus we have a principle by which to
judge of those mistaken appearances.</p>

<p>Let us suppose the gut of water to be but
one eighth of an inch, although it is a great
deal more, we should have no stalactites formed
nearer to each other than that measure of
space. But those mineral concretions, which
are supposed to be stalactical, are contained in
half that space, or are nearer to each other
than the tenth or twentieth of an inch. I
have them like needles, and in every degree
of proximity or contiguity, at the same time
that they are perfectly solid. Therefore, it is
plainly impossible that they could have been
formed upon this principle of calcareous stalactite.
But, it is only by this false resemblance,
that any argument can be formed for
the concretion of those bodies from an aqueous
solution; in every other respect they are
true mineral concretions; and, that these have
had a very different origin, has been already
the subject of investigation, and will be more
particularly examined in the course of this
work.</p>

<p>The term <i>infiltration</i>, which has been much
employed for explaining mineral appearances,
is too vague, imperfect, or unexplicit, for
science, whether as the means of knowing
nature, or the subject of confutation. This is
not the case with that of stalactite; here is a
term that implies a certain natural operation,
or a most distinct process for attaining a certain
end; and we know the principles upon
which it proceeds, as well as the several steps
that may be traced in the general result. It
is an operation which has not only been analysed
to its principles; it is also a process
which is performed by man, proceeding on
his acquired knowledge. Now, were this
operation common to the mineral regions, as
it is proper to the surface of this earth; we
could not remain in any degree of suspense
with regard to the origin of those mineral
bodies; for, having the true clue of knowledge,
we should be able to unravel the most
intricate and mysterious appearance. But, so
far from this being the case, the more we
come to inquire into nature, and employ this
principle, the less we find it applicable, and
the more involved in darkness is our science.</p>

<p>The places where these false appearances of
stalactite are found, are precisely those in
which, from the nature of things, all possibility
for such an operation is excluded. For,
How can this take place within a closs cavity
in the mineral regions? The term <i>vegetation</i>
may as well be employed for the explanation
of those appearances: But what would
now be said of such an explication? It is
high time that science were properly applied
to the natural history of this earth, and mineralists
not allowed to impose upon themselves
with false reasoning, or to please themselves
with the vain attempt of explaining visible
effects by unknown causes.</p>

<p>Such various inconsistent opinions, respecting
petrifaction or mineral concretion, as I
have now exposed, opinions that are not
founded on any sound physical principle,
authorise me to conclude that they are all
erroneous. If this be admitted, it will follow
that we have no proof of any proper mineral
concretion except that which had proceeded
by congelation from the fluid state of fusion.
This has been the doctrine which I have held
out in my Theory of the Earth; and this will
be more and more confirmed as we come to
examine particular mineral appearances.</p>
<br>
<h3>CHAP. VIII.</h3>

<p><i>The Nature of Mineral Coal, and the Formation
of Bituminous Strata, investigated.</i></p>



<p>SECT. I.&mdash;<i>Purpose of this Inquiry.</i></p>


<p>In the first chapter, I have given a perfect
mark by which to judge, of every consolidated
stratum, how far that had been the
operation or effect of water alone, or if it had
been that of heat and fusion. This is the
particular veins or divisions of the consolidated
stratum, arising from the contraction of
the mass, distended by heat, and contracted
in cooling. It is not an argument of greater
or lesser probability; it is a physical demonstration;
but, so far as I see, it would appear
to be for most mineralists an unintelligible proposition.
Time, however, will open the eyes
of men; science will some day find admittance
into the cabinet of the curious. I will
therefore now give another proof,&mdash;not of
the consolidation of mineral bodies by means
of fusion, for there is no mineral body in
which that proof is not found,&mdash;but of the
inconsistency of aqueous infiltration with the
appearances of bodies, where not only fusion
had been employed for the consolidation, but
where the application of heat is necessary, and
along with it the circumstances proper for
<i>distillation</i>.</p>

<p>Short-sighted naturalists see springs of water
issuing from the earth, one forming calcareous
incrustations, the other depositing bituminous
substances. Here is enough for them
to make the theory of a world; on the one
hand, solid marble is explained, on the other,
solid coal. Ignorance suspects not error;
their first step is to reason upon a false principle;&mdash;no
matter, were they only to reason
far enough, they would soon find their error
by the absurdity into which it lands them.
The misfortune is, they reason no farther;
they have explained mineralogy by infiltration;
and they content themselves with viewing
the beautiful specimens in their cabinet.
the supposed product of solution and crystalization.
How shall we inform such observators;
How reason with those who attend
not to an argument!</p>

<p>As naturalists have explained all mineral
concretions from aqueous or other solution,
and attributed to infiltration the formation of
those stony bodies in which there are marks
of their original composition, so have they
explained to themselves, I suppose, the origin
of those bituminous bodies which are found
among the strata of the earth. In the case of
stony substances, I have shown how unfounded
all their theories are for the production of
those concretions, crystallizations, and consolidated
bodies. I am here to examine the
subject of inflammable and combustible bodies,
which I believe have been little considered by
those theorists who suppose mineral bodies
consolidated by infiltration. It is here that
we shall find an infinite difference between
the aqueous and igneous theories; for, we
shall find it impossible to explain by the one
certain operations which must have necessarily
required the great agent generally employed
in the other.</p>

<p>The subject of this chapter is a touch-stone
for every theory of the earth. In every quarter
of this globe, perhaps in every extensive
country, bituminous strata are to be found;
they are alternated with those which are called
aquiform, or which had been evidently
formed by subsidence of certain moved materials
at the bottom of the sea; so far, therefore,
all those strata have had the same origin.
In this point I think I may assert, that all the
different theories at present are agreed; and
it is only concerning certain transformations
of those strata, since their original collection,
that have been ascribed to different causes.</p>

<p>Of these transformations, which the strata
must have undergone, there are two kinds;
one in relation to change of place and position;
the other in relation to solidity or consistence.
It is only the last of those two
changes which is here to be the subject of
consideration; because, with regard to the
first, there is nothing peculiar in these bituminous
strata to throw any light, in that respect,
upon the others. This is not the case with
regard to the transformation in their chemical
character and consistence; bituminous bodies
may not be affected by chemical agents, such
as fire and water, in the same manner as the
argillaceous, siliceous, micaceous, and such
other strata that are alternated with the bituminous;
and thus we may find the means for
investigating the nature of that agent by which
those strata in general have been transformed
in their substance; or we may find means for
the detecting of false theories which may have
been formed with regard to those operations
in which the original deposits of water had
been changed.</p>

<p>We have had but two theories, with regard
to the transformation of those bodies which
have had a known origin, or to the change of
their substance and consistence; the one of
these which I have given is that of heat or
fusion; the other, which I wish to be compared
with mine, is that of water and infiltration.
It is by this last that all authors hitherto,
in one shape or another, have endeavoured
to explain the changes that those strata
must have undergone since the time of their
first formation at the bottom of the sea. They
indiscriminately apply the doctrine of infiltration
to those strata of mineral coal as to any
other; they say that bituminous matter is infiltrated
with the water, impregnates certain
strata of earth with bituminous matter, and
thus converts them into mineral coal, and bituminous
strata. This is not reasoning physically,
or by the inductive method of proceeding
upon matter of fact; it is reasoning fantastically,
or by making gratuitous supposition
founded merely on imagination. It was thus
that natural philosophers reasoned before the
age of science; the wonder now is, how men
of science, in the present enlightened age,
should suffer such language of ignorance and
credulity to pass uncensured.</p>

<p>The subject which I am now to treat of
consists of peculiar strata of the earth, bodies
which we may investigate through all the
stages of their change, which is extreme; for,
from vegetable bodies produced upon the habitable
earth, they are now become a mineral
body, and the most perfect coal,&mdash;a thing
extremely different from what it had been,
and a thing which cannot be supposed to
have been accomplished by the operation of
water alone, or any other agent in nature
with which we are acquainted, except the action
of fire or heat. It is therefore impossible
for a philosopher, reasoning upon actual physical
principles, not to acknowledge in this a
complete proof of the theory which has been
given, and a complete refutation of that aqueous
operation which has been so inconsiderately
supposed as consolidating the strata of
the earth, and forming the various mineral
concretions which are found in that great
body.</p>

<p>To see this, it will be sufficient to trace the
progress of vegetable and animal substances,
(bodies which had certainly lived by means
of a former earth), to this changed state in
which they have become perfect mineral bodies,
and constitute a part of the present earth.
For, as these changes are perfectly explained
by the one theory, and absolutely inconsistent
with the other, there arises from this a conviction
that must be irresistible to a person
who can give proper attention to a chain of
reasoning from effect to cause.</p>

<p>But if we thus succeed to illustrate the
theory of the earth by the natural history of
those particular strata, we have but one step
farther to make in order to bring all the other
parts of the earth, whether stratified or not,
into the most perfect consistence with the
theory; now this step, it will be most easy to
make; and I shall now mention it, that so
the reader may keep it in his view: Pyrites is
a sulphureo-metallic substance, which cannot
be produced by means of water, a substance
which the influences of the atmosphere decomposes
or separates into its elements, and
which even our imperfect art may be considered
as able to produce, by means of fusion
in our fires. Therefore, the finding of this
creature of fire intimately connected with
those consolidated strata of mineral coal, adds
the greatest confirmation, were it necessary, to
the doctrine of those mineral bodies having
been consolidated by fusion. This confirmation,
however, is not necessary, and it is not
the only thing which I am at present to illustrate
in that doctrine. What I have now in
view is, to homologate the origin of those coal
strata, with the production of every other
mineral substance, by heat or fusion; and this
is what the intimate connection of pyrites
with those strata will certainly accomplish.
This will be done in the following manner:</p>

<p>Pyrites is not only found in great masses
along with the coal strata; it is contained in
the veins which traverse those strata, and in
the minute ramifications of those veins, which
are occasioned by the contraction of the mass,
and generally divide it into small cubical
pieces; but besides that extrinsic connection,
(as it may be called,) with the stratum of coal,
pyrites is found intimately connected with
that solid body, in being mixed with its substance.
If, therefore, it were proved, that
either the one or other of those two substances
had been consolidated by fusion, the other
must be acknowledged as having had the same
origin; but now I am to prove, from the natural
history of mineral coal, that pyrites had
been there formed by fusion; and then, by
means of the known origin of that sulphureo-metallic
substance, we shall extend our knowledge
to the origin of every other mineral
body.</p>

<p>The process of this argument is as follows:
Every mineral body, I believe, without exception,
will be found so intimately connected
with pyrites, that these two things must be
concluded as having been together in a fluid
state, and that, whatever may have been the
cause of fluidity in the one, this must have also
caused the fluidity in the other; consequently,
whatever shall be proved with regard
to the mineral operations of pyrites, must be
considered as proved of every other mineral
substance. But, from the connection of pyrites
with mineral coal, it is to be proved that
the origin of this metallic body had been fusion;
and then it will appear, that all other
mineral bodies must have been more or less
in fusion, or that they must have been consolidated
by means of heat, and not by any
manner of solution or aqueous infiltration. I
therefore now proceed to take a view of the
natural history of coal strata,&mdash;a subject which
mineralogists seem not inclined to engage with,
although the most ample data are to be found
for that investigation.</p>

<p>SECT. II.&mdash;<i>Natural History of Coal Strata,
and Theory of this Geological Operation.</i></p>


<p>Fossil coal is the species of stratum best understood
with regard to its accidents, as being
much sought after; at least, this is the case in
many parts of Britain, where it supplies the
place of wood for burning. This fossil body
has the most distinguished character; for, being
inflammable or combustible in its nature,
there is no other species of stratum that may
be confounded with it.</p>

<p>But, though coal be thus the most distinguishable
mineral, and that which is best understood
in the science of mining, it is perhaps
the most difficult to be treated of in the
science of mineralogy; for, not having properly
any distinguishable parts, we have nothing
in the natural constitution of this body,
as we have in most other strata, to lead us to
the knowledge of its original state or first formation.</p>

<p>The varieties of coal are distinguished by
their different manner of burning; but, from
appearances of this kind, no perfect judgement
can be formed with regard to the specific
manner in which those strata had been
made; although, from chemical principles,
some conclusion may be drawn concerning
certain changes which they have undergone
since they had been formed.</p>

<p>Thus we have one species of coal which
is extremely fusible, abounds with oil, and
consequently is inflammable; we have another
species again which is perfectly fixed and infusible
in the fire; therefore, we may conclude
upon principle, that, however, both
those coals must have undergone the operation
of heat and fusion, in bringing them to
their present state, it is only the last that has
become so much evaporated as to become perfectly
fixed, or so perfectly distilled, as to
have been reduced to a caput mortuum.</p>

<p>The argument here employed is founded
upon this fact; that, from the fusible species
of coal, a caput mortuum may be formed by
distillation, and that this chemical production
has every essential quality, or every peculiar
property, of the fixed and infusible species;
although, from the circumstances of our operation,
this caput mortuum may not have precisely
the exterior appearance of the natural
coal. But, we have reason to believe, it is
not in the nature of things to change the infusible
species, so as to make it fusible or oily.
Now, that this body was not formed originally
in its present state, must appear from this,
that the stratum here considered is perfectly
solid; but, without fusion, this could not have
been attained; and the coal is now supposed
to be infusible. Consequently, this fixed substance,
which is now, properly speaking, a
perfect coal, had been originally an oily bituminous
or fusible substance. It is now a fixed
substance, and an infusible coal; therefore,
it must have been by means of heat and distillation
that it had been changed, from the
original state in which this stratum had been
formed.</p>

<p>We have thus, in the examination of coal
strata upon chemical principles, received a
certain lesson in geology, although this does
not form a proper distinction by which to
specify those strata in general, or explain the
variety of that mineral. For, in this manner,
we could only distinguish properly two species
of those strata; the one bituminous or inflammable;
the other proper coal, burning without
smoke or flame. Thus it will appear
that, as this quality of being perfectly charred
is not originally in the constitution of the
stratum, but an accident to which some strata
of every species may have been subjected, we
could not class them by this property without
confounding together strata which had differences
in their composition or formation.
Therefore, we are led to inquire after some
other distinction, which may be general to strata
of fossil coal, independent of those changes
which this substance may have undergone after
it had been formed in a stratum.</p>

<p>Perfect mineral coal being a body of undistinguishable
parts, it is only in its resolution
that we may analyse it, and this is done by
burning. Thus, in analysing coal by burning,
we have, in the ashes alone, that by which
one species of coal may be distinguished from
another; and, if we should consider pure coal
as having no ashes of itself, we should then, in
the weight of its ashes, have a measure of the
purity of the coal, this being inversely as the
quantity of the ashes. Now, though this be
not accurately true, as the purest coal must
have some ashes proper to itself, yet, as this is
a small matter compared with the quantity of
earthy matter that may be left in burning
some species of coal, this method of analysis
may be considered as not far removed from
the truth.</p>

<p>But, in distinguishing fossil coal by this
species of chemical analysis, not only is there
to be found a perfect or indefinite gradation
from a body which is perfectly combustible
to one that is hardly combustible in any sensible
degree, we should also fall into an inconveniency
similar to that already mentioned,
of confounding two things extremely different
in their nature, a bituminous body, and a
perfect charcoal. Thus, if we shall found our
distinction upon the fusibility and different
degree of having been charred, we shall confound
fossil coals of very different degrees of
value in burning, or of very different compositions
as strata; if, again, we found it upon
the purity of composition, in judging from
the ashes, we shall confound fossil bodies of
very different qualities, the one burning with
much smoke and flame, the other without
any; the one fusible almost like wax, the
other fixed and infusible as charcoal.</p>

<p>It will now appear, that what cannot be
done in either the one or other of those two
methods, may in a great degree, or with considerable
propriety, be performed in employing
both.</p>

<p>Thus, whether for the economical purposes
of life, or the natural history of fossil coal,
those strata should be considered both with
regard to the purity of their composition as
inflammable matter deposited at the bottom
of the sea, and to the changes which they
have afterwards undergone by the operation
of subterranean heat and distillation.</p>

<p>We have now considered the original matter
of which coal strata are composed to be of
two kinds; the one pure bitumen or coal, as
being perfectly inflammable or combustible;
the other an earthy matter, with which proper
coal may be variously mixed in its composition,
or intimately connected, in subsiding
from that suspended state by which it had
been carried in the ocean. It is a matter of
great importance, in the physiology of this
globe, to know that the proper substance of
coal may be thus mixed with heterogeneous
bodies; for, supposing that this earthy matter,
which has subsided in the water along with coal,
be no farther connected with the combustible
substance of those strata, than that it had floated
in the waters of the ocean, and subsided <i>pari
passu</i> with the proper materials of the coal, we
hence learn a great deal with regard to the
state in which the inflammable matter must
have been at the time of its formation into
strata. This will appear by considering, that
we find schistus mixed with coal in the most
equal or uniform manner, and in almost every
conceivable degree, from the purest coal to
the most perfect schistus. Hence we have
reason to conclude, that, at the formation of
those strata, the bituminous matter, highly
subtilised, had been uniformly mixed with the
earth subsiding in the water.</p>

<p>Not only is the bituminous matter of coal
found mixed in every different proportion
with the earthy or uninflammable materials of
strata, but the coaly or bituminous composition
is found with perhaps every different
species of substance belonging to strata. This
is certain, that we have the coaly matter intimately
mixed with argillaceous and with calcareous
strata.</p>

<p>Thus it will appear, that it is no proper
explanation of the formation of coal strata, to
say that vegetable matter is the basis of those
strata; for though, in vegetation, a substance
proper for the formation of bituminous matter
is produced, it remains to know by what
means, from a vegetable body, this bituminous
matter is produced, and how it comes to be
diffused in that subtile state by which it may
be uniformly mixed with the most impalpable
earth in water. Could we once resolve this
question, every other appearance might be
easily explained. Let us therefore now endeavour
to discover a principle for the resolving
of this problem.</p>

<p>There are two ways in which vegetable
bodies may be, in part at least, resolved into
that subtilised state of bituminous matter after
which we inquire; the one of these is by
means of fire, the other by water. We shall
now consider these severally as the means of
forming bituminous strata, although they may
be both employed by nature in this work.</p>

<p>When vegetable bodies are made to burn,
there is always more or less of a fuliginous
substance formed; but this fuliginous substance
is no other than a bituminous body in
that subtilised state in which it is indefinitely
divided, and may be mixed uniformly with
any mass of matter equally subtilised with itself.
But this is precisely what we want, in
order to compose the strata of coal in question.
If, therefore, there were to be found in the
ocean such a fund of this fuliginous substance
as might suffice for the formation of bituminous
strata, no difficulty would be left in explaining
the original of fossil coal. But tho'
sufficient quantity of this fuliginous matter
might not be found for the explanation of
natural appearances, yet there cannot be a
doubt that more or less of this matter must be
produced in the mineral operations of the
globe, and be found precisely in that place
where it is required for the forming of those
strata of coal.</p>

<p>In order to conceive this, we are to consider,
that there are actually great quantities of
coal strata in a charred state, which indicates
that all their more volatile oleaginous or fuliginous
matter had been separated by force of
subterranean heat; and, we are to suppose
that this had been transacted at the bottom of
the ocean: Consequently, a subtile oleaginous,
bituminous, or fuliginous substance, must have
been diffused in that ocean; and this bituminous
matter would be employed in forming
other strata, which were then deposited at the
bottom of the waters.</p>

<p>But besides this quantity of bituminous
matter which is necessarily formed in the mineral
operations of the earth, and with regard
to the quantity of which we can never form
a proper estimate, there must enter into this
same calculation all the fuliginous matter that
is formed in burning bodies upon the surface
of this earth. This bituminous matter of
smoke is first delivered into the atmosphere,
but ultimately it must be settled at the bottom
of the sea. Hence though, compared with
the quantity that we think required, each revolution
of the globe produces but a little in
our estimation, yet the progress of time, in reforming
worlds, may produce all that is necessary
in the formation of our strata.</p>

<p>There now remains to explain the other
way in which bituminous matter may be obtained
from vegetable bodies, that is, by means
of water. For this purpose we must begin
with a part of natural history that will throw
some light upon the subject.</p>

<p>All the rivers in Scotland run into the sea
tinged with a brown substance; this is most
evident in some of them after a flood, and
while yet the river is swelled; but, in travelling
to the north of Scotland in the summer
season, without any rain, I saw all the rivers,
without exception, of a brown colour, compared
with a river of more clear water. This
colour proceeds from the moss water, as it is
called, which runs into the rivers, or the infusion
of that vegetable substance which forms
combustible turf, called peat. Now, this
moss water leaves, upon evaporation, a bituminous
substance, which very much resembles
fossil coal. Therefore, in order to employ
this vegetable infusion, delivered into the ocean
for the purpose of forming bituminous strata
at its bottom, it is only required to make this
bituminous matter separate and subside.</p>

<p>If now we consider the immense quantity
of inflammable vegetable substance, dissolved
in water, that is carried into the sea by all the
rivers of the earth, and the indefinite space of
time during which those rivers have been
pouring in that oily matter into the sea; and
if we consider, that the continual action of
the sun and atmosphere upon this oily substance
tends, by inspissation, to make it more
and more dense or bituminous, we cannot
hesitate in supposing a continual separation of
this bituminous matter or inspissated oil from
the water, and a precipitation of it to the bottom
of the sea. This argument is corroborated
by considering, that, if it were otherwise,
the water of the sea must have, during the
immense time that rivers are proved to have
run, be strongly impregnated with that oily
or bituminous substance; but this does not
appear; therefore we are to conclude, that
there must be the means of separating that
substance from the water in which it had been
dissolved.</p>

<p>If there is thus, from the continual perishing
of animal and vegetable bodies upon the
surface of this earth and in the sea, a certain
supply of oily or bituminous matter given to
the ocean, then, however small a portion of
this shall be supposed the whole oily or inflammable
matter produced upon the surface of
the earth, or however long time it may require
for thus producing a stratum or considerable
body of coal, we must still see in this a source
of the materials proper for the production of
that species of strata in the bottom of the sea.</p>

<p>We have now considered the proper materials
of which pure fossil coal is chiefly formed;
we have at present to consider what should be
the appearances of such a substance as this collected
at the bottom of the sea, and condensed
or consolidated by compression and by heat.
We should thus have a body of a most uniform
structure, black, breaking with a polished
surface, and more or less fusible in the fire,
or burning with more or less smoke and flame,
in proportion as it should be distilled or inspissated,
less or more, by subterranean heat. But
this is the description of our purest fossil coals,
which burn in giving the greatest quantity of
heat, and leave the smallest quantity of ashes.</p>

<p>In order to form another regular species of
coal, let us suppose that, along with the bituminous
substance now considered, there shall
be floating in the water of the ocean a subtile
earthy substance, and that these two different
substances shall subside together in an uniform
manner, to produce a stratum which shall be
covered with immense weight, compressed,
condensed, and consolidated as before, we
should thus have produced a most homogeneous
or uniform body to appearance, but not
so in reality. The mixture of heterogeneous
matter, in this case, is too minute to be discovered
simply by inspection; it must require
deep reflection upon the subject, with the help
of chemical analysis, to understand the constitution
of this body, and judge of all the circumstances
or particulars in which it differs
from the former. It is worth while to examine
this subject with some attention, as it
will give the most instructive view of the
composition of bituminous strata, both those
which are not considered as coal, and also the
different species of that mineral body.</p>

<p>In the first place then, if the mixture of
those two different substances had been sufficiently
perfect, and the precipitation uniform,
the solid body of coal resulting from this mixture,
would not only appear homogeneous, but
might break equally or regularly in all directions;
but the fracture of this coal must visibly
differ from the former, so far as the fracture
of this heterogeneous coal cannot have the
polished surface of the pure bituminous body;
for, the earthy matter that is interposed among
the bituminous particles must affect the
fracture in preventing its surface from being
perfectly smooth. This imperfect plane
of the fracture may be improved by polishing;
in which case the body might be sufficiently
smooth to have an agreeable polish; but it
cannot have a perfect polish like a homogeneous
body, or appear with that glassy surface
which is naturally in the fracture of the
pure bituminous coal.</p>

<p>But this is also a perfect description of
that species of coal which is called in England
Kennel coal, and in Scotland Parrot coal. It
is so uniform in its substance that it is capable
of being formed on the turning loom;
and it receives a certain degree of polish, resembling
bodies of jet.</p>

<p>Thus, we have a species of coal in which
we shall find but a small degree of fusibility,
although it may not be charred in any degree.
Such an infusible coal may therefore contain
a great deal of aqueous substance, and volatile
oily matter; consequently may burn with
smoke and flame. But this same species of
coal may also occasionally be charred more
or less by the operation of subterranean heat;
and, in that case, we should have a variety of
coal which could only be distinguished, from
a similar state of pure bituminous coal, by the
ashes which they leave in burning. At least,
this must be the case, when both species are,
by sufficient distillation, reduced to the state
of what may be properly termed a chemical
coal.</p>

<p>But in the natural state of its composition,
we find those strata of kennel or parrot coal,
possessing a peculiar property, which deserves
to be considered, as still throwing more light
upon the subject.</p>

<p>We have been representing these strata of
coal as homogeneous to appearance, and as
breaking indifferently in all directions; this
last, perhaps, is not so accurate; for they
would seem to break chiefly into two directions,
that is, either parallel or perpendicular
to the bed. Thus we have this coal commonly
in rectangular pieces, in which it is extremely
difficult to distinguish the direction of
the bed, or stratification of the mass. By an
expert eye, however, this may be in general,
or at least sometimes, distinguished, and then,
by knowing the habit of the coal in burning,
a person perfectly ignorant of the philosophy
of the matter may exhibit a wonderful sagacity,
or even of power over future events,
in applying this body to fire; for, at his pleasure,
and unknown to those who are not in
the secret; he may apparently, in equal circumstances,
make this coal either kindle quietly,
or with violent cracking and explosions,
throwing its splinters at a distance.</p>

<p>The explanation lies in this, that, though
the rectangular mass of coal appears extremely
uniform in its structure, it is truly a stratified
mass; it is therefore affected, by the
sudden approach of fire in a very different
manner, according as the edge of the stratum,
which is seen in four of the sides of this supposed
cube, shall be applied to the fire, or the
other two sides, which are in the line of the
stratum, or parallel to the bed of coal. The
reason of this phenomenon now remains to
be considered.</p>

<p>When the edge of the coal is exposed to
the fire, the stratification of the coal is opened
gradually by the heat and expanding vapours,
as a piece of wood, of a similar shape, would
be by means of wedges placed in the end way
of the timber. The coal then kindles quietly,
and quickly flames, while the mass of this bituminous
schistus is opening like the leaves of
a book, and thus exhibits an appearance in
burning extremely like wood. But let the
fire be applied to the middle of the bed, instead
of the edge of the leaves, and we shall
see a very different appearance; for here the
expanded aqueous vapours, confined between
the <i>laminae</i>, form explosions, in throwing off
splinters from the kindling mass; and this
mass of coal takes fire with much noise and
disturbance.</p>

<p>The ashes of this coal may be determined
as to quality, being in general a subtile white
earth; but, as to quantity, the measure of that
earth produces an indefinite variety in this
species of coal; for, from the kennel or parrot
coal, which is valuable for its burning with
much flame, to that black schistus which our
masons use in drawing upon stone, and which,
though combustible in some degree, is not
thought to be a coal, there is a perfect gradation,
in which coal may be found with every
proportion of this earthy alloy.</p>

<p>Among the lowest species of this combustible
schistus are those argillaceous strata in
Yorkshire from whence they procure alum in
burning great heaps of this stone, which also
contains sulphur, to impregnate the aluminous
earth with its acid. We have also, in
this country, strata which differ from those
aluminous schisti only in the nature of the
earth, with which the bituminous sediment is
mixed. In the strata now considered, the
earth, precipitated with the bituminous matter,
being calcareous, has produced a limestone,
which, after burning especially, is perfectly
fissile.</p>

<p>Therefore, with regard to the composition
of mineral coal, the theory is this. That inflammable,
vegetable, and animal substances,
in a subtilised state, had subsided in the sea,
being mixed more or less with argillaceous,
calcareous, and other earthy substances in an
impalpable state. Now, the chemical analysis
of fossil coal justifies that theory; for, in
the distillation of the inflammable or oily coal,
we procure volatile alkali, as might be naturally
expected.</p>

<p>Thus we have considered fossil coal as various,
both in its state and composition; we
have described coal which is of the purest
composition, as well as that which is most impure
or earthy; and we have shown that
there is a gradation, from the most bituminous
state in which those strata had been formed in
being deposited at the bottom of the sea, to
the most perfect state of a chemical coal, to
which they have been brought by the operation
of subterranean fire or heat.</p>

<p>We have been hitherto considering fossil
coal as formed of the impalpable parts of inflammable
bodies, united together by pressure,
and made to approach in various degrees to
the nature of a chemical coal, by means of
subterranean heat; because, from the examination
of those strata, many of them have
evidently been formed in this manner. But
vegetable bodies macerated in water, and then
consolidated by compression, form a substance
of the same kind, almost undistinguishable from
some species of fossil coal. We have an example
of this in our turf pits or peat mosses;
when this vegetable substance has been compressed
under a great load of earth, which
sometimes happens, it is much consolidated,
and hardens, by drying, into a black body,
not afterwards dilutable or penetrated by
water, and almost undistinguishable in burning
from mineralised bodies of the same kind.</p>

<p>Also, when fossil wood has been condensed
by compression and changed by the operation
of heat, as it is frequently found in argillaceous
strata, particularly in the aluminous rock
upon the coast of Yorkshire, it becomes a jet
almost undistinguishable from some species of
fossil coal.</p>

<p>There cannot therefore be a doubt, that if
this vegetable substance, which is formed by
the collection of wood and plants in water
upon the surface of the earth, were to be
found in the place of fossil coal, and to undergo
the mineral operations of the globe, it must at
least augment the quantity of those strata,
though it should not form distinct strata by
itself.</p>

<p>It may perhaps be thought that vegetable
bodies and their impalpable parts are things
too far distant in the scale of magnitude to be
supposed as subsiding together in the ocean;
and this would certainly be a just observation
with regard to any other species of bodies: But
the nature of vegetable bodies is to be floatant
in water; so that we may suppose them
carried at any distance from the shore; consequently,
the size of the body here makes no
difference with regard to the place or order in
which these are to be deposited.</p>

<p>The examination of fossil coal fully confirms
those reasonable suppositions. For, <i>first</i>,
The strata that attend coal, whether the sandstone
or the argillaceous strata, commonly,
almost universally, abound with the most distinct
evidence of vegetable substances; this is
the impressions of plants which are found in
their composition. <i>Secondly</i>, There is much
fossil coal, particularly that termed in England
clod coal, and employed in the iron foundry,
that shows abundance of vegetable bodies in
its composition. The strata of this coal have
many horizontal interstices, at which the more
solid shining coal is easily separated; here the
fibrous structure of the compressed vegetable
bodies is extremely visible; and thus no manner
of doubt remains, that at least a part of
this coal had been composed of the vegetable
bodies themselves, whatever may have been
the origin of the more compact parts where
nothing is to be distinguished.</p>

<p>The state in which we often find fossil
wood in strata gives reason to conclude that
this body of vegetable production, in its condensed
state, is in appearance undistinguishable
from fossil coal, and may be also in great
quantity; as, for example, the Bovey coal in
Devonshire.</p>

<p>Thus the strata of fossil coal would appear
to be formed by the subsidence of inflammable
matter of every species at the bottom of the
sea, in places distant from the shore, or where
there had been much repose, and where the
lightest and most floatant bodies have been deposited
together. This is confirmed in examining
those bodies of fossil coal; for, though
there are often found beds of sand-stone immediately
above and below the stratum of the
coal, we do not find any sand mixed in the
strata of the coal itself.</p>

<p>Having found the composition of coal to be
various, but all included within certain rules
which have been investigated, we may perceive
in this an explanation of that diversity
which is often observed among the various
strata of one bed of coal. Even the most opposite
species of composition may be found in
the thickness of one bed, although of very
little depth, that is to say, the purest bituminous
coal may, in the same bed, be conjoined
with that which is most earthy.</p>

<p>Fossil coal is commonly alternated with regular
sand-stone and argillaceous strata; but
these are very different bodies; therefore, it
may perhaps be inquired how such different
substances came to be deposited in the same
place of the ocean. The answer to this is
easy; we do not pretend to trace things from
their original to the place in which they had
been ultimately deposited at the bottom of the
sea. It is enough that we find the substance
of which we treat delivered into the sea, and
regularly deposited at the bottom, after having
been transported by the currents of the
ocean. Now the currents of the ocean,
however regular they may be for a certain
period of time, and however long this period
may be protracted, naturally change; and
then the currents, which had given birth to
one species of stratum in one place, will carry
it to another; and the sediment which the
moment before had formed a coal stratum, or
a bed of that bituminous matter, may be succeeded
either with the sediment of an argillaceous
stratum, or covered over with a bed
of sand, brought by the changed current of
the sea.</p>

<p>We have now considered all the appearances
of coal strata, so far as these depend upon
the materials, and their original collection.
But, as those bituminous strata have been
changed in their substance by the operation of
subterranean heat and inspissation, we are now
to look for the necessary consequences of this
change in the body of the stratum; and also
for other mineral operations common to fossil
coal with consolidated strata of whatever
species.</p>

<p>If coal, like other mineral strata, have
been inspissated and consolidated by subterranean
heat, we should find them traversed with
veins and fissures; and, if the matter found
in those veins and fissures corresponds to that
found in similar places of other strata, every
confirmation will be hence given to the
theory that can be expected from the consideration
of those bituminous strata. But
this is the case; we find those fissures filled
both with calcareous, gypseous, and pyritous
substances. Therefore, we have reason to
conclude, that the strata of fossil coal, like
every other indurated or consolidated body in
the earth, has been produced, <i>first</i>, by means of
water preparing and collecting materials proper
for the construction of land; and, <i>secondly</i>, by
the operation of internal fire or subterranean
heat melting and thus consolidating every
known substance of the globe.</p>

<p>Not only are those sparry and pyritous substances,
which are more natural to coal strata,
found forming veins traversing those strata in
various directions, but also every other mineral
vein may occasionally be found pervading
coal mines, or traversing bituminous strata.
Gold, silver, copper, lead, calamine, have all,
in this manner, been found in coal.</p>

<p>There remains now only to consider those
bituminous strata of fossil coal in relation to
that change of situation which has happened
more or less to every stratum which we examine;
but which is so much better known
in those of coal, by having, from their great
utility in the arts of life, become a subject for
mining, and thus been traced in the earth at
great expense, and for a long extent.</p>

<p>Coal strata, which had been originally in a
horizontal position, are now found sometimes
standing in an erect posture, even almost perpendicular
to the plane in which they had
been formed. Miners therefore distinguish
coal strata according as they deem them to
approach to the one or other of those two extremes,
in terming them either flat or edge
seams or veins. Thus, it will appear, that
every possible change from the original position
of those strata may have happened, and
are daily found from our experience in those
mines.</p>

<p>But besides the changed position of those
strata, in departing from the horizontal line or
flat position in which they had been formed,
there is another remarkable change, termed
by miners a <i>trouble</i> in the coal. The consideration
of this change will further illustrate
the operations of nature in placing that which
had been at the bottom of the sea above its
surface.</p>

<p>Strata, that are in one place regularly inclined,
may be found bended, or irregularly
inclined, in following their course. Here
then is a source of irregularity which often
materially effects the estimates of miners,
judging from what they see, of those parts
which are to be explored; and this is an accident
which they frequently experience.</p>

<p>But, without any change in the general direction
of the stratum, miners often find their
coal broke off abruptly, those two parts being
placed upon a higher and lower situation in
respect to each other, if flat beds, or separated
laterally if they are edge seams. This is by
miners termed a <i>slip, hitch</i>, or <i>dyke</i>.</p>

<p>These irregularities may either be attended
with an injected body of subterraneous lava
or basaltes, here termed whin-stone, or they
may not be attended, at least apparently, <i>i.e.</i>
immediately, with any such accident. But
experienced miners know, that, in approaching
to any of those injected masses of stone,
which are so frequent in this country, their
coal is more and more subject to be troubled.</p>

<p>As there is, in this country of Scotland,
two different species of mountains or hills,
one composed both in matter and manner exactly
similar to the Alps of Switzerland, the
other of whin-stone, basaltic rock, or subterraneous
lava; and as the fossil coal, argillaceous
and sand-stone strata, are found variously connected
with those hills, nothing can tend more
to give a proper understanding, with regard
to the construction of the land in general, of
the globe than a view of those different bodies,
which are here found much mixed together
in a little space of country, thus exhibiting,
as it were in miniature, what may be
found in other parts of the world, upon a
larger scale, but not upon any other principle.
I will therefore endeavour to give a short description
of the mineral state of this country
with regard to coal, so far as my experience
and memory will serve.</p>

<p>This country might very properly be considered
as consisting of primary and secondary
mountains; not as supposing the primary
mountains original and inexplicable in their
formation, any more than those of the latest
production, but as considering the one to be
later in point of time, or posterior in the progress
of things. The first are those which
commonly form the alpine countries, consisting
of various schisti, of quartzy stone, and
granites. The second, again, are the whinstone
or basaltic hills scattered up and down
the low country, and evidently posterior to
the strata of that country, which they break,
elevate, and displace.</p>

<p>Thus there are in this country, as well as
every where else, three things to be distinguished;
first, the alpine or elevated country;
secondly, the flat or low country; and, thirdly,
that which has been of posterior formation
to the strata which it traverses, in whatever
shape or quality; whether as a mountain, or
only as a vein; whether as a basaltes, a porphyry,
or a granite, or only as a metal, a siliceous
substance, or a spar.</p>

<p>Those three things which are here distinguished
do not differ with regard to the chemical
character of their substances; for, in
each of these, every different substance is to
be found, more or less; and it is not in being
composed of materials peculiar to itself, that
makes an alpine country be distinguished from
a flat country; it is chiefly in the changes
which the strata of the alpine country have
been made to undergo, posterior to their original
collection, that the rocks of the alpine
country differ from those of the flat country.</p>

<p>But the observation that is most to the purpose
of the present subject of bituminous strata,
is this; it is chiefly in the strata of the flat
country that fossil coal are found; there are
none that I know of in all the alpine countries
of Scotland; and it is always among the strata
peculiar to the flat country that fossil coal is
found. Now, this appearance cannot be explained
by saying that the materials of mineral
coal had not existed in the world while
those primary strata were formed in the sea.
I have already shown, (chap. 4.) that there
had been the same system of a world, producing
plants, and thus maintaining animals,
while the primary strata were formed in the
sea; I have even adduced an example of coal
strata among those primary schisti, although
this be an extremely rare occurrence: Consequently,
we are under the necessity of looking
out for some other cause.</p>

<p>If the changes which have been evidently
superinduced in the strata of alpine countries
arise from the repeated operations of subterranean
fire, or to the extreme degree in which
those strata have been affected by this consolidating
and elevating cause, it will be natural
to suppose that the bituminous or combustible
part among those stratifications, may have been
mostly consumed upon some occasion during
those various and long continued operations;
whereas, in the flat beds of the low country,
although there is the most perfect evidence
for the exertion of heat in the consolidation
of those strata, the general quantity of this
has been a little thing, compared with the
universal manifestation of this cause in the
operations of the alpine countries, the strata
of which have been so much displaced in their
situations and positions.</p>

<p>To illustrate this, strata of sand-stone are
found in both the alpine and flat countries of
Scotland. About Leadhills, for example, there
are abundance of those strata; but, in the flat
country, the generality of the sand-stone is so
little changed as to appear to every enlightened
naturalist aquiform strata; whereas the
most enlightened of those philosophers will
not perhaps attribute the same original to a
similar composition in the alpine country,
which is so much changed from its original
state. It is not because there had been wanting
a sufficient degree of heat to consolidate
the sand-stone in the coal country; for I can
show specimens of sand-stone almost contiguous
with coal, that have been extremely
much consolidated in this manner. But this
is only a particular stratum; and the general
appearance of the sand-stone, as well as other
strata in the coal countries, is that of having
been little affected by those subterranean operations
of heat by which those bodies in the
alpine country have been changed in their
structure, shape, and position.</p>

<p>If we shall thus allow the principle of consolidation,
consequently also of induration, to
have been much exerted upon the strata of
the alpine country, and but moderately or little
upon those of the low country of Scotland,
we shall evidently see one reason, perhaps the
only one, for the lesser elevation of the one
country above the level of the sea, than the
other. This is because the one resists the
powers which have been employed in leveling
what has been raised from the bottom of
the sea, more than the other; consequently,
we find more of the one remaining above the
level of the sea than of the other.</p>

<p>Let us now take the map of Scotland, in
order to observe the mixture of those two different
species of countries, whereof the one is
generally low and flat, the other high and
mountainous; the one more or less provided
with fossil coal, the other not.</p>

<p>From St Abb's Head, on the east of Scotland,
to the Mull of Galloway, on the west,
there runs a ridge of mountains of granite,
quartz, and schistus strata, which contain not
coal. On each side of this ridge we find coal
countries; Northumberland, on the one side,
and, on the other, the shires of Ayr, Lanark,
and the Lothians; the one is a mountainous
country, the others are comparatively low or
flat countries. Let us now draw another alpine
line from Buchan and Caithness, upon the east, to
the island of Jura, on the west; this traverses
a mountainous country destitute of coal, and,
so far as I know, of any marks of marine bodies.
But, on each side of this great alpine
ridge, we find the hard country skirted with
one which is lower, flatter, or of a softer nature,
in which coal is found, upon the one
side, in the shires of Fife, Clackmannan, and
Stirling; and, on the other, in that hollow
which runs from the Murray Frith south-west,
in a straight line, directed upon the end
of Mull, and composed, for the most part, of
water very little above the level of the sea.
Here, to be sure, the coal is scarce, or not so
evident; but there is coal upon the sea coast
in several places of this great Bay betwixt
Buchan and Caithness; and the lowness of
the country, across this part of the island, is
almost sufficient testimony that it had been
composed of softer materials.</p>

<p>Thus the coal country of Scotland may be
considered as in one band across the island,
and included in the counties of Ayr, Lanark,
and all those which border upon the Frith of
Forth. Now, in all this tract of coal and tender
strata, we do not find ridges of alpine
stone or primary mountains, but we find many
hills of solid rock, little mountains, from 500
to 1000 feet high; such as that beautiful conical
hill North Berwick Law, Torpender
Law, Arthur's Seat, the Lowmands, and
others of inferior note. That is to say, the
whole of this included space, both sea and
land, has been invaded from below with melted
masses of whin-stone, breaking up through
the natural strata of the country, and variously
embossing the surface of the earth at present,
when all the softer materials, with which
those subterranean lavas had been covered,
are washed away or removed from those summits
of the country. Hence there is scarcely
a considerable tubercle, with which this country
also abounds, that may not be found containing
a mass of whin-stone as a nucleus.</p>

<p>But besides those insulated masses of whinstone
that form a gradation from a mountain
to a single rock, such, for example, as that on
which the Castle of Edinburgh is built, we
find immense quantities of the same basaltic
rock interjected among the natural strata, always
breaking and disordering them, but often
apparently following their directions for a
considerable space with some regularity. We
also find dykes of the same substance bisecting
the strata like perpendicular veins of
rock; and, in some places, we see the connection
of these rocks of the same substance,
which thus appear to be placed in such a different
form in relation to the strata.</p>

<p>It will thus appear, that the regular form,
and horizontal direction of strata throughout
this country of coal, now under contemplation,
has been broken and disordered by the
eruption and interjection of those masses of
basaltic stone or subterraneous lava; and thus
may be explained not only the disorders and
irregularities of coal strata, but also the different
qualities of this bituminous substance from
its more natural state to that of a perfect coal
or fixed infusible and combustible substance
burning without smoke. This happens sometimes
to a part of a coal stratum which approaches
the whin-stone.</p>

<p>Having thus stated the case of combustible
or bituminous strata, I would ask those naturalists,
who adhere to the theory of infiltration
and the operation of water alone, how
they are to conceive those strata formed and
consolidated. They must consider, that here
are immense bodies of those combustible strata,
under hundreds, perhaps thousands, of fathoms
of sand-stone, iron-stone, argillaceous and calcareous
strata. If they are to suppose bituminous
bodies collected at the bottom of the
sea, they must say from whence that bitumen
had come; for, with regard to the strata below
those bituminous bodies, above them, and
between them, we see perfectly from whence
had come the materials of which they are
formed. They cannot say that it is from a
collection of earthy matter which had been
afterwards bituminized by infiltration; for,
although we find many of those earthy strata
variously impregnated with the bituminous
and coaly matter, I have shown that the earthy
and the bituminous matter had subsided together;
besides, there are many of those coaly
and bituminous strata in which there is no
more than two or three <i>per cent.</i> of earthy
matter or ashes after burning; therefore the
strata must have been formed of bituminous
matter, and not simply impregnated with
it.</p>

<p>To avoid this difficulty, we shall allow
them to form their strata, which certainly
is the case in great part, by the collection
of vegetable bodies; then, I desire them to say,
in what manner they are to consolidate those
bodies. If they shall allege that it is by simple
pressure, How shall we conceive the numerous
veins of spar and pyrites, which traverse
those strata in all directions, to be formed
in those bodies consolidated by the compression
of the superincumbent masses?&mdash;Here
is a manifest inconsistency, which proves
that it could not be. But, even were we to
suppose all those difficulties to be over come,
there is still an impossibility in the way of
that inconsiderate theory, and this will appear
more fully in the following chapter.</p>

<p>SECT. III.&mdash;<i>The Mineralogical Operations of
the Earth illustrated from the Theory of Fossil
Coal.</i></p>


<p>There is not perhaps a greater difference
among the various qualities of bodies than
that which may be observed to subsist between
the burning of those two substances, that is,
the inflammable bodies on the one hand, and
those that are combustible on the other. I
have treated of that distinction in Dissertations
upon subjects of Natural Philosophy,
part 3d. where I have considered the different
effects of those two kinds of bodies upon the
incident light; and, in a Dissertation upon
the Philosophy of Fire, etc. I have distinguished
those two kinds of substances in relation
to their emitting, in burning, the fixed light
which had constituted a part of those inflammable
and combustible bodies.</p>

<p>All animals and vegetable bodies contain
both those different chemical substances united;
and this phlogistic composition is an
essential part in every animal and vegetable
substance. There are to be found in those
bodies particular substances, which abound
more or less with one of those species of phlogistic
matter, but never is the one species of
those burning substances to be found naturally,
in animal and vegetable bodies, without
being associated with the other; and it is all
that the chemical art can do to separate them
in a great degree upon occasion. Pure ardent
spirit may perhaps be considered as containing
the one, and the most perfect coal
the other; the chemical principle of the one
is proper carbonic matter; and of the other
it is the hydrogeneous principle, or that of
inflammable air.</p>

<p>Thus we so far understand the composition
of animal and vegetable substances which burn
or maintain our fires; we also understand the
chemical analysis of those bodies, in separating
the inflammable from the combustible substance,
or the volatile from the fixed matter, the
oil from what is the proper coal. It is by distillation
or evaporation, the effect of heat, that
this separatory operation is performed; and
we know no other means by which this may
be done. Therefore, wherever we find
peculiar effects of that separatory operation,
we have a right to infer the proper cause.</p>

<p>The subject, which we are to consider in
this section, is not the composition of strata
in those of mineral coal, but the transformation
of those, which had been originally inflammable
bodies, into bodies which are only
combustible, an end which is to be attained
by the separation of their volatile or inflammable
substances. In the last section, I
have shown of what materials the strata of
mineral coal had been originally formed; these
are substances containing abundance of inflammable
oil or bitumen, as well as carbonic
matter which is properly combustible; and
this is confirmed by the generality of those
strata, which, though perfectly consolidated
by fusion, retain still their inflammable and fusible
qualities. But now the object of investigation
is that mineral operation by which
some of those strata, or some parts of a fusible
and inflammable stratum, have been so changed
as to become infusible and only combustible.</p>

<p>We have now examined those strata which
may be considered as either proper mineral
coal, or as only a bituminous schistus; we
are now to class along with these another species
of this kind of matter, which has had a
similar origin, although it may assume a different
character.</p>

<p>According to the common observations of
mankind, the eminent quality by which coal
is to be distinguished, is the burning of that
substance, or its capacity for making a fire.
Therefore, however similar in other respects,
a substance which had not that eminent quality
of coal could hardly be considered as being
allied to it; far less could it be supposed,
as being in every other respect the same. We
are however to endeavour to show, that there
are truly substances of this kind, substances
which to common observation, having none
of the properties of coal with respect to fire,
consequently, no utility for the purpose of
burning, might be considered as another species
of mineral, while at the same time they
are truly at bottom a composition very little
different from those which we have considered
as the most perfect coal.</p>

<p>It must be recollected that we have distinguished
coal in general as of two different
species, one perfect or proper coal, containing
no perceptible quantity of either oil or phlegm;
the other as burning with smoke and flame,
consequently containing both aqueous and
oleaginous substances which it emits in distillation.
It is the first of these which we are
now to consider more particularly, in order
to see the varieties which may be found in
this species of mineral substance.</p>

<p>When that bituminous fossil, which is the
common coal of this country, is submitted to
heat it is subject to melt more or less, and
emits smoke which is composed of water and
oil. If it be thus completely distilled, it
becomes a perfect coal of a porous or spongy
texture. Such a substance as this is extremely
rare among minerals; I have however found
it. It is in the harbour of Ayr, where a whinstone
dyke traverses the coal strata, and includes
some of that substance in the state of
coals or cinder. I pointed this out many
years ago to Dr Black; and lately I showed
it to Professor Playfair.</p>

<p>But the culm of South Wales, the Kilkenny
coal of Ireland, and the blind coal of
Scotland, notwithstanding that these are a perfect
coal, or charred to a coal, have nothing
of the porous construction of the specimen
which I have just now mentioned; they are
perfectly solid, and break with a smooth shining
surface like those which emit smoke and
flame.</p>

<p>Here is therefore a mineral operation in the
preparation of those coals which we cannot
imitate; and here is the clearest evidence of
the operation of mineral fire or heat, although
we are ignorant of the reason why some coal
strata are charred, while others are not, and
why, in some particular cases, the charred coal
may be porous or spungy like our coaks, while
in general those blind coals (as they are called)
are perfectly solid in their structure.</p>

<p>But to what I would call more particularly
the attention of mineral philosophers is this,
that it is inconceivable to have this effect produced
by means of water; we might as well
say that heat were to be the cause of ice. The
production of coal from vegetable bodies, in
which that phlogistic substance is originally
produced, or from animal bodies which have
it from that source, is made by heat, and by
no other means, so far as we know. But,
even heat alone is not sufficient to effect that
end, or make a perfect coal; the phlogistic
body, which is naturally compound, consisting
of both inflammable and combustible substances,
must be separated chemically, and this
must be the operation of heat under the proper
circumstances for distillation or evaporation.</p>

<p>Here is the impossibility which in the last
chapter I have alleged the aqueous theory
has to struggle against; and here is one of
the absolute proofs of the igneous theory.
Not only must the aqueous part of those natural
phlogistic bodies be evaporated, in order
to their becoming coal, but the oily parts must
also, by a still increased degree of heat, be
evaporated, or separated by distillation from
the combustible part. Here, therefore, is evidently
the operation of heat, not simply that
of fusion in contradiction to the fluidity of
aqueous solution, but in opposition to any effect
of water, as requiring the absence or separation
of that aqueous substance.</p>

<p>But those natural appearances go still farther
to confirm our theory, which, upon all occasions,
considers the compression upon the bodies
that are submitted to the operation of
heat, in the mineral regions, as having the
greatest efficacy in modifying that operation.
Coal strata, which are in the neighbourhood
of each other, being of those two opposite
species, the one fusible and inflammable, the
other infusible and combustible, afford the
clearest proof of the efficacy of compression;
for, it is evident, that the coal, which was once
bituminous or fusible, cannot be charred without
the distillation of that substance; therefore,
prevent the distillation by compression
and the charring operation cannot proceed,
whatever should be the intensity of the heat;
and then, fusion alone must be the effect upon
the bituminous body. But now, as we have
both those species of coal in the vicinity of
each other, and even the same strata of coal
part charred, while the rest is not, this natural
appearance, so far from being a stumbling
block, as it must be to the opposite theory, is
most clearly explained by the partial escape of
vapours from the mineral regions, and thus
confirms the theory with regard to the efficacy
of compression.</p>

<p>It is owing to the solidity of those natural
charred coals, and the want of oil, that
they are so very difficult of kindling; but,
when once kindled in sufficient quantity, they
make a fire which is very durable. There
are even some of them which, to common observation,
seem to be altogether incombustible.
I have of this kind a specimen from a stratum
at Stair, which shall be afterwards mentioned.</p>

<p>M. Struve, in the Journal de Physique for
January 1790, describes a mineral which he
calls <i>plombagine charbonneuse ou hexaëdre</i>;
and gives for reason, <i>parce qu'elle ressemble extrêmement
au charbon de pierre schisteux, ou
d'hexaëdre</i>. He says farther, "Il est très
commun, dans une roche qui forme un passage
entre les granits et les brèches, qu'on
n'a trouvée jusqu'à présent qu'on masses
roulées dans le pays de Vaud." He concludes
his paper thus: "Ce fossile singulier ne
paroît pas appartenir à la Suisse seule. J'ai
dans ce moment devant les yeux une substance
parfaitement semblable, si on excepte
la couleur qui tient le milieu entre le gris
de fer et le rouge modéré; elle vient du
pays de Gotha de la Friedrischs-grube,
proche d'Umneau. On le regarde comme
un eisenrahm uni à du charbon de pierre."</p>

<p>The specimen which I have from Stair
upon the water of Ayr, so far as I can understand,
perfectly resembles this <i>plombagine</i> of
M. Struve. It consumes very slowly in the
fire, and deflagrates like plumbago with nitre.
Now this comes from a regular coal stratum;
and what is more remarkable, in this stratum
is contained a true plumbago, Farther up the
country, the Earl of Dumfries has also a mine
containing plumbago along with other coal
strata; and though the plumbago of these two
mines have not all the softness and beauty of
the mineral of the same species from Cumberland,
they are nevertheless perfect plumbago.</p>

<p>I have a specimen of steatetical whinstone
or basaltes from some part of Cumberland, in
which is contained many nodules of the most
perfect and beautiful plumbago. It is dispersed
through this stone in rounded masses of
all sizes from a nut to a pin's head; and many
of these are mixed with pyrites. There is
therefore reason to believe that this plumbago
had been in fusion.</p>

<p>Now, if we consider that every species of
coal and every species of plumbago are equally,
that is, perfectly combustible, and yield, in
burning, the same volatile principles, differing
only perhaps a little in the small quantity of
fixed matter which remains, we shall be inclined
to believe, that they have all the same
origin in a vegetable substance; and that they
are diversified by some very small composition
of other matter. This being allowed, one
thing is certain, that it is by the operation of
mineral fire or heat that those combustible substances,
however composed, have been brought
to their present state of coal, although we are
ignorant of the circumstances by which their
differences and their peculiar chemical and
mechanical qualities have been produced.</p>

<p>Let us resume in a few words. There is
not perhaps one substance in the mineral kingdom
by which the operation of subterraneous
heat is, to common understanding, better exemplified
than that of mineral coal. Those
strata are evidently a deposit of inflammable
substances which all come originally from vegetable
bodies. In this state of their formation,
those coal strata must all be oleagenous
or bituminous. In many of them, however,
these volatile parts are found wanting; and,
the stratum is found in the state of the most
perfect coal or caput mortuum. There, is, I
presume, no other means to be found by
which this eminent effect could be produced,
except by distillation; and, this distillation
perhaps proceeded under the restraining force
of an immense compression.</p>

<p>To this theory it must not be objected, that
all the strata of coal, which are found in the
same place or neighbourhood, are not reduced
to that caput mortuum or perfect coaly state.
The change from a bituminous to a coaly
substance can only take place in proportion as
the distillation of the volatile parts is permitted.
Now this distillation must be permitted,
if any passage can be procured from the inflammable
body submitted to the operation of
subterraneous heat; and, one stratum of coal
may find vent for the passage of those vapours,
through some crevice which is not
open to another. In this way, doubtless,
some of those bodies have been inspissated or
reduced to a fixed coal, while others, at a little
distance, have retained most of their volatile
parts.</p>

<p>We cannot doubt of this distilling operation
in the mineral regions, when we consider that
in most places of the earth we find the evident
effects of such distillation of oily substances
in the naphta and petroleum that are constantly
emitted along with water in certain
springs. These oily substances are no other
than such as may be procured, in a similar
manner, from the fusible or inflammable coal
strata; we have therefore every proof of this
mineral operation that the nature of things
admit of. We have also sufficient evidence
that those fusible and inflammable coals, which
have not been distilled to a caput mortuum,
had been subjected to the operation of subterraneous
heat, because we find those fusible
coals subject to be injected with pyrites, as
well as the more perfect coal.</p>

<p>If we now consider those various appearances
of mineral bodies which are thus explained
by the theory of mineral fire, or exertion
of subterraneous heat, appearances
which it is impossible to reconcile by any
supposition of aqueous solution, or that unintelligible
language of mineral infiltration which
has of late prevailed, we shall be fully satisfied,
that there is a uniform system in nature
of providing a power in the mineral regions,
for consolidating the loose materials deposited
at the bottom of the sea, and for erecting
those masses of mineralized substances into
the place of land; we shall thus be led to
admire the wisdom of nature, providing for
the continuation of this living world, and employing
those very means by which, in a more
partial view of things, this beautiful structure
of an inhabited earth seems to be necessarily
going into destruction.</p>

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