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diff --git a/12861-h/12861-h.htm b/12861-h/12861-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4c19e8e --- /dev/null +++ b/12861-h/12861-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,17064 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<html> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8"> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Theory of the Earth, Volume 1 (of 4), by James Hutton</title> +<style type=text/css> + +body {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%} + +h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 {text-align: center;} +p {text-align: justify} +blockquote {text-align: justify} + +hr {width: 50%; text-align: center} +hr.full {width: 100%; + height: 5px; } +hr.short {width: 20%; text-align: center} + +.note {font-size: 0.8em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%} +.footnote {font-size: 0.8em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%} +.side {padding-left: 10px; font-weight: bold; font-size: 75%; + float: right; margin-left: 10px; border-left: thin dashed; + width: 25%; text-indent: 0px; font-style: italic; text-align: left} + +.dropcap {float: left} + +span.pagenum {font-size: 8pt; right: 91%; left: 1%; position: absolute} + +.poem {margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; + text-align: left} +.poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em} +.poem .stanza.i {margin: 1em 0em; font-style: italic;} +.poem p {padding-left: 3em; margin: 0px; text-indent: -3em} +.poem p.i2 {margin-left: 1em} +.poem p.i4 {margin-left: 2em} +.poem p.i6 {margin-left: 3em} +.poem p.i8 {margin-left: 4em} +.poem p.i10 {margin-left: 5em} + a:link {color:#0000ff; + text-decoration:none} + link {color:#0000ff; + text-decoration:none} + a:visited {color:#0000ff; + text-decoration:none} + a:hover {color:#ff0000} + pre {font-size: 8pt;} + + + +</style> +</head> +<body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 12861 ***</div> +<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Theory of the Earth, Volume 1 (of 4), by +James Hutton</h1> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<hr class="full" noshade> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<h1>THEORY +OF THE +EARTH</h1> + +<h4>WITH PROOFS AND ILLUSTRATIONS.</h4><br> + +<h2><i>By JAMES HUTTON, M.D. & F.R.S.E.</i></h2><br><br> + +<h4>IN FOUR PARTS.</h4> + +<h4>EDINBURGH<br> +<br> +1795</h4> + +<h2>VOL. I.</h2><br><br> + +<h3>CONTENTS.</h3> + + +<p>PART I.</p> + +<p><i>THEORY OF THE EARTH; with the Examination +of different Opinions on that</i> +<i>Subject.</i></p> + + +<p>CHAP. I.</p> + +<p><i>THEORY OF THE EARTH; or an Investigation +of the Laws observable in the +Composition, Dissolution, and Restoration +of Land upon the Globe</i></p> + +<p>SECT. I.—<i>Prospect of the Subject to be +treated of</i>.</p> + +<p>SECT. II.—<i>An Investigation of the Natural +Operations employed in consolidating +the Strata of the Globe</i>.</p> + +<p>SECT. III.—<i>Investigation of the Natural +Operations employed in the Production +of Land above the Surface of the Sea</i>.</p> + +<p>SECT. IV.—<i>System of Decay and Renovation +observed in the Earth</i>.</p> + + +<p>CHAP. II.</p> + +<p><i>An Examination of Mr KIRWAN's Objections +to the Igneous Origin of Stony +Substances</i>.</p> + + +<p>CHAP. III.</p> + +<p><i>Of Physical Systems, and Geological Theories, +in general</i>.</p> + + +<p>CHAP. IV.</p> + +<p><i>The Supposition of Primitive Mountains +refuted</i>.</p> + + +<p>CHAP. V.</p> + +<p><i>Concerning that which may be termed the +Primary Part of the Present Earth</i>.</p> + +<p>CHAP. VI.</p> + +<p><i>The Theory of interchanging Sea and +Land, illustrated by an Investigation of +the Primary and Secondary Strata</i>.</p> + +<p>SECT. I.—<i>A distinct view of the Primary +and Secondary Strata</i>.</p> + +<p>SECT. II.—<i>The Theory confirmed from +Observations made on purpose to elucidate +the Subject</i>.</p> + + +<p>CHAP. VII.</p> + +<p><i>Opinions examined with regard to Petrifaction, +or Mineral Concretion</i>.</p> + + +<p>CHAP. VIII.</p> + +<p><i>The Nature of Mineral Coal, and the +Formation of Bituminous Strata, investigated</i>.</p> + +<p>SECT. I.—<i>Purpose of this Inquiry</i>.</p> + +<p>SECT. II.—<i>Natural History of Coal Strata, +and Theory of this Geological Operation</i>.</p> + +<p>SECT. III.—<i>The Mineralogical Operations +of the Earth illustrated from the +Theory of Fossil Coal</i>.</p> + +<br><br> + + +<h3>PART I.</h3><br> + +<h2>THEORY OF THE EARTH;</h2> + +<h3>WITH THE<br> + +<i>EXAMINATION</i><br> + +OF<br> + +<i>DIFFERENT OPINIONS ON THAT SUBJECT</i>.</h3> + + + + +<h4>IN EIGHT CHAPTERS.</h4><br><br> + + +<h3>CHAPTER I.</h3> + + +<p><i>THEORY of the EARTH; or an Investigation of +the Laws observable in the Composition, Dissolution, +and Restoration, of Land upon the +Globe.</i></p> + + + + +<p>SECTION I.</p> + + +<p><i>Prospect of the Subject to be treated of.</i></p> + + +<p>When we trace the parts of which this +terrestrial system is composed, and +when we view the general connection of those +several parts, the whole presents a machine of +a peculiar construction by which it is adapted +to a certain end. We perceive a fabric, erected +in wisdom, to obtain a purpose worthy of +the power that is apparent in the production +of it.</p> + +<p>We know little of the earth's internal parts, +or of the materials which compose it at any +considerable depth below the surface. But +upon the surface of this globe, the more inert +matter is replenished with plants, and with +animal and intellectual beings.</p> + +<p>Where so many living creatures are to ply +their respective powers, in pursuing the end +for which they were intended, we are not to +look for nature in a quiescent state; matter +itself must be in motion, and the scenes of life +a continued or repeated series of agitations and +events.</p> + +<p>This globe of the earth is a habitable world; +and on its fitness for this purpose, our sense of +wisdom in its formation must depend. To +judge of this point, we must keep in view, not +only the end, but the means also by which that +end is obtained. These are, the form of the +whole, the materials of which it is composed, +and the several powers which concur, counteract, +or balance one another, in procuring the +general result.</p> + +<p>The form and constitution of the mass are +not more evidently calculated for the purpose +of this earth as a habitable world, than are the +various substances of which that complicated +body is composed. Soft and hard parts variously +combine to form a medium consistence, +adapted to the use of plants and animals; wet +and dry are properly mixed for nutrition, or +the support of those growing bodies; and hot +and cold produce a temperature or climate no +less required than a soil: Insomuch, that there +is not any particular, respecting either the qualities +of the materials, or the construction of +the machine, more obvious to our perception, +than are the presence and efficacy of design and +intelligence in the power that conducts the work.</p> + +<p>In taking this view of things, where ends +and means are made the object of attention, +we may hope to find a principle upon which +the comparative importance of parts in the system +of nature may be estimated, and also a rule +for selecting the object of our inquiries. Under +this direction, science may find a fit subject +of investigation in every particular, whether +of <i>form</i>, <i>quality</i>, or <i>active power</i>, that presents +itself in this system of motion and of life; +and which, without a proper attention to this +character of the system, might appear anomalous +and incomprehensible.</p> + +<p>It is not only by seeing those general operations +of the globe which depend upon its peculiar +construction as a machine, but also by +perceiving how far the particulars, in the construction +of that machine, depend upon the general +operations of the globe, that we are enabled +to understand the constitution of this earth +as a thing formed by design. We shall thus +also be led to acknowledge an order, not unworthy +of Divine wisdom, in a subject which, +in another view, has appeared as the work of +chance, or as absolute disorder and confusion.</p> + +<p>To acquire a general or comprehensive view +of this mechanism of the globe, by which it is +adapted to the purpose of being a habitable +world, it is necessary to distinguish three different +bodies which compose the whole. These +are, a solid body of earth, an aqueous body of +sea, and an elastic fluid of air.</p> + +<p>It is the proper shape and disposition of these +three bodies that form this globe into a habitable +world; and it is the manner in which +these constituent bodies are adjusted to each +other, and the laws of action by which they +are maintained in their proper qualities and +respective departments, that form the Theory +of the machine which we are now to examine.</p> + +<p>Let us begin with some general sketch of +the particulars now mentioned.</p> + +<p><i>1st</i>, There is a central body in the globe. +This body supports those parts which come to +be more immediately exposed to our view, or +which may be examined by our sense and observation. +This first part is commonly supposed +to be solid and inert; but such a conclusion +is only mere conjecture; and we shall +afterwards find occasion, perhaps, to form another +judgment in relation to this subject, after +we have examined strictly, upon scientific +principles, what appears upon the surface, and +have formed conclusions concerning that +which must have been transacted in some +more central part.</p> + +<p><i>2dly</i>, We find a fluid body of water. This, +by gravitation, is reduced to a spherical form, +and by the centrifugal force of the earth's rotation, +is become oblate. The purpose of this +fluid body is essential in the constitution of the +world; for, besides affording the means of +life and motion to a multifarious race of animals, +it is the source of growth and circulation +to the organized bodies of this earth, in being +the receptacle of the rivers, and the fountain +of our vapours.</p> + +<p><i>3dly</i>, We have an irregular body of land +raised above the level of the ocean. This, no +doubt, is the smallest portion of the globe; +but it is the part to us by far most interesting. +It is upon the surface of this part that plants +are made to grow; consequently, it is by virtue +of this land that animal life, as well as +vegetation, is sustained in this world.</p> + +<p><i>Lastly</i>, We have a surrounding body of atmosphere, +which completes the globe. This +vital fluid is no less necessary, in the constitution +of the world, than are the other parts; +for there is hardly an operation upon the surface +of the earth, that is not conducted or +promoted by its means. It is a necessary condition +for the sustenance of fire; it is the +breath of life to animals; it is at least an instrument +in vegetation; and, while it contributes +to give fertility and health to things that +grow, it is employed in preventing noxious +effects from such as go into corruption. In +short, it is the proper means of circulation for +the matter of this world, by raising up the +water of the ocean, and pouring it forth upon +the surface of the earth.</p> + +<p>Such is the mechanism of the globe: Let +us now mention some of those powers by +which motion is produced, and activity procured +to the mere machine.</p> + +<p>First, There is the progressive force, or +moving power, by which this planetary body, +if solely actuated, would depart continually +from the path which it now pursues, and thus +be for ever removed from its end, whether as +a planetary body, or as a globe sustaining +plants and animals, which may be termed a +living world.</p> + +<p>But this moving body is also actuated by gravitation, +which inclines it directly to the central +body of the sun. Thus it is made to revolve +about that luminary, and to preserve its path.</p> + +<p>It is also upon the same principles, that each +particular part upon the surface of this globe, +is alternately exposed to the influence of light +and darkness, in the diurnal rotation of the +earth, as well as in its annual revolution. In +this manner are produced the vicissitudes of +night and day, so variable in the different latitudes +from the equator to the pole, and so +beautifully calculated to equalise the benefits +of light, so variously distributed in the different +regions of the globe.</p> + +<p>Gravitation, and the <i>vis infita</i> of matter, thus +form the first two powers distinguishable in the +operations of our system, and wisely adapted to +the purpose for which they are employed.</p> + +<p>We next observe the influence of light and +heat, of cold and condensation. It is by means +of these two powers that the various operations +of this living world are more immediately +transacted; although the other powers +are no less required, in order to produce or +modify these great agents in the economy of +life, and system of our changing things.</p> + +<p>We do not now inquire into the nature of +those powers, or investigate the laws of light +and heat, of cold and condemnation, by which +the various purposes of this world are accomplished; +we are only to mention those effects +which are made sensible to the common understanding +of mankind, and which necessarily +imply a power that is employed. Thus, it +is by the operation of those powers that the +varieties of season in spring and autumn are +obtained, that we are blessed with the vicissitudes +of summer's heat and winter's cold, and +that we possess the benefit of artificial light +and culinary fire.</p> + +<p>We are thus bountifully provided with the +necessaries of life; we are supplied with things +conducive to the growth and preservation of +our animal nature, and with fit subjects to +employ and to nourish our intellectual powers.</p> + +<p>There are other actuating powers employed +in the operations of this globe, which we are +little more than able to enumerate; such are +those of electricity, magnetism, and subterraneous +heat or mineral fire.</p> + +<p>Powers of such magnitude or force, are not +to be supposed useless in a machine contrived +surely not without wisdom; but they are +mentioned here chiefly on account of their +general effect; and it is sufficient to have +named powers, of which the actual existence +is well known, but of which the proper use in +the constitution of the world is still obscure. +The laws of electricity and magnetism have +been well examined by philosophers; but the +purposes of those powers in the economy of +the globe have not been discovered. Subterraneous +fire, again, although the most conspicuous +in the operations of this world, and +often examined by philosophers, is a power +which has been still less understood, whether +with regard to its efficient or final cause. It +has hitherto appeared more like the accident +of natural things, than the inherent property +of the mineral region. It is in this last light, +however, that I wish to exhibit it, as a great +power acting a material part in the operations +of the globe, and as an essential part in the +constitution of this world.</p> + +<p>We have thus surveyed the machine in general, +with those moving powers, by which +its operations, diversified almost <i>ad infinitum</i>, +are performed. Let us now confine our view, +more particularly, to that part of the machine +on which we dwell, that so we may consider +the natural consequences of those operations +which, being within our view, we are better +qualified to examine.</p> + +<p>This subject is important to the human +race, to the possessor of this world, to the intelligent +being Man, who foresees events to +come, and who, in contemplating his future +interest, is led to inquire concerning causes, +in order that he may judge of events which +otherwise he could not know.</p> + +<p>If, in pursuing this object, we employ our +skill in research, not in forming vain conjectures; +and if <i>data</i> are to be found, on which +Science may form just conclusions, we should +not long remain in ignorance with respect to +the natural history of this earth, a subject on +which hitherto opinion only, and not evidence, +has decided: For in no subject, perhaps, +is there naturally less defect of evidence, +although philosophers, led by prejudice, or +misguided by false theory, may have neglected +to employ that light by which they should +have seen the system of this world.</p> + +<p>But to proceed in pursuing a little farther +our general or preparatory ideas. A solid +body of land could not have answered the +purpose of a habitable world; for, a soil is necessary +to the growth of plants; and a soil is +nothing but the materials collected from the +destruction of the solid land. Therefore, the +surface of this land, inhabited by man, and +covered with plants and animals, is made by nature +to decay, in dissolving from that hard and, +compact state in which it is found below the +soil; and this soil is necessarily washed away, +by the continual circulation of the water, running +from the summits of the mountains towards +the general receptacle of that fluid. +The heights of our land are thus levelled +with the shores; our fertile plains are formed +from the ruins of the mountains; and those +travelling materials are still pursued by the moving +water, and propelled along the inclined +surface of the earth<a id="footnotetag1" name="footnotetag1"></a><a href="#footnote1"><sup>1</sup></a> These moveable materials, +delivered into the sea, cannot, for a long +continuance, rest upon the shore; for, by the +agitation of the winds, the tides and currents, +every moveable thing is carried farther and farther +along the shelving bottom of the sea, towards +the unfathomable regions of the ocean.</p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1" name="footnote1"></a><b>Footnote 1:</b><a href="#footnotetag1"> (return) </a> M. de Luc, in his second letter to me, published in +the Monthly Review for 1790, says, "You ought to +have proved that both gravel and sand are carried from +our continents to the sea; which, on the contrary, I +shall prove not to be the case." He then endeavours +to prove his assertion, by observing, that, in certain places +where there is not either sufficient declivity in the surface, +or force in the running water, gravel and sand are made +to rest, and do not travel to the sea. This surely is a fact +to which I most readily assent; but, on the other hand, +I hope he will acknowledge, that, where there is sufficient +declivity in the surface, or force in the running water, +sand, gravel, and stones, are travelled upon the land, and +are thus carried into the sea—at last. This is all that my +theory requires, and this is what I believe will be admitted, +without any farther proof on my part.</blockquote> + +<p>If the vegetable soil is thus constantly removed +from the surface of the land, and if its +place is thus to be supplied from the dissolution +of the solid earth, as here represented, we +may perceive an end to this beautiful machine; +an end, arising from no error in its +constitution as a world, but from that destructibility +of its land which is so necessary in the +system of the globe, in the economy of life +and vegetation.</p> + +<p>The immense time necessarily required for +this total destruction of the land, must not be +opposed to that view of future events, which +is indicated by the surest facts, and most approved +principles. Time, which measures +every thing in our idea, and is often deficient +to our schemes, is to nature endless and as +nothing; it cannot limit that by which alone +it had existence; and, as the natural course of +time, which to us seems infinite, cannot be +bounded by any operation that may have an +end, the progress of things upon this globe, +that is, the course of nature, cannot be limited +by time, which must proceed in a continual +succession. We are, therefore, to consider as +inevitable the deduction of our land, so far +as effected by those operations which are necessary +in the purpose of the globe, considered +as a habitable world; and, so far as we have +not examined any other part of the economy +of nature, in which other operations and a +different intention might appear.</p> + +<p>We have now considered the globe of this +earth as a machine, constructed upon chemical +as well as mechanical principles, by which +its different parts are all adapted, in form, in +quality, and in quantity, to a certain end; an +end attained with certainty or success; and an +end from which we may perceive wisdom, in +contemplating the means employed.</p> + +<p>But is this world to be considered thus +merely as a machine, to last no longer than +its parts retain their present position, their +proper forms and qualities? Or may it not +be also considered as an organized body? +such as has a constitution in which the necessary +decay of the machine is naturally repaired, +in the exertion of those productive powers +by which it had been formed.</p> + +<p>This is the view in which we are now to +examine the globe; to see if there be, in the +constitution of this world, a reproductive operation, +by which a ruined constitution may be +again repaired, and a duration or stability thus +procured to the machine, considered as a world +sustaining plants and animals.</p> + +<p>If no such reproductive power, or reforming +operation, after due inquiry, is to be found +in the constitution of this world, we should +have reason to conclude, that the system of +this earth has either been intentionally made +imperfect, or has not been the work of infinite +power and wisdom.</p> + +<p>Here is an important question, therefore, +with regard to the constitution of this globe; +a question which, perhaps, it is in the power +of man's sagacity to resolve; and a question +which, if satisfactorily resolved, might add +some lustre to science and the human intellect.</p> + +<p>Animated with this great, this interesting +view, let us strictly examine our principles, +in order to avoid fallacy in our reasoning; +and let us endeavour to support our attention, +in developing a subject that is vast in its extent, +as well as intricate in the relation of parts +to be stated.</p> + +<p>The globe of this earth is evidently made +for man. He alone, of all the beings which +have life upon this body, enjoys the whole and +every part; he alone is capable of knowing +the nature of this world, which he thus possesses +in virtue of his proper right; and he +alone can make the knowledge of this system +a source of pleasure, and the means of happiness.</p> + +<p>Man alone, of all the animated beings which +enjoy the benefits of this earth, employs the +knowledge which he there receives, in leading +him to judge of the intention of things, +as well as of the means by which they are +brought about; and he alone is thus made to +enjoy, in contemplation as well as sensual +pleasure, all the good that may be observed in +the constitution of this world; he, therefore, +should be made the first subject of inquiry.</p> + +<p>Now, if we are to take the written history +of man for the rule by which we should judge +of the time when the species first began, that +period would be but little removed from the +present state of things. The Mosaic history +places this beginning of man at no great distance; +and there has not been found, in natural +history, any document by which a high +antiquity might be attributed to the human +race. But this is not the case with regard to +the inferior species of animals, particularly +those which inhabit the ocean and its shores. +We find, in natural history, monuments which +prove that those animals had long existed; +and we thus procure a measure for the computation +of a period of time extremely remote, +though far from being precisely ascertained.</p> + +<p>In examining things present, we have data +from which to reason with regard to what has +been; and, from what has actually been, we +have data for concluding with regard to that +which is to happen hereafter. Therefore, +upon the supposition that the operations of +nature are equable and steady, we find, in natural +appearances, means for concluding a certain +portion of time to have necessarily elapsed, +in the production of those events of which +we see the effects.</p> + +<p>It is thus that, in finding the relics of sea-animals +of every kind in the solid body of our +earth, a natural history of those animals is +formed, which includes a certain portion of +time; and, for the ascertaining this portion of +time, we must again have recourse to the regular +operations of this world. We shall thus +arrive at facts which indicate a period to +which no other species of chronology is able +to remount.</p> + +<p>In what follows, therefore, we are to examine +the construction of the present earth, +in order to understand the natural operations +of time past; to acquire principles, by which +we may conclude with regard to the future +course of things, or judge of those operations, +by which a world, so wisely ordered, goes into +decay; and to learn, by what means such +a decayed world may be renovated, or the +waste of habitable land upon the globe repaired.</p> + +<p>This, therefore, is the object which we are +to have in view during this physical investigation; +this is the end to which are to be directed +all the steps in our cosmological pursuit.</p> + +<p>The solid parts of the globe are, in general, +composed of sand, of gravel, of argillaceous +and calcareous strata, or of the various compositions +of these with some other substances, +which it is not necessary now to mention. +Sand is separated and sized by streams and +currents; gravel is formed by the mutual attrition +of stones agitated in water; and marly, +or argillaceous strata, have been collected, by +subsiding in water with which those earthy +substances had been floated. Thus, so far as +the earth is formed of these materials, that solid +body would appear to have been the production +of water, winds, and tides.</p> + +<p>But that which renders the original of our +land clear and evident, is the immense quantities +of calcareous bodies which had belonged +to animals, and the intimate connection of +these masses of animal production with the +other strata of the land. For it is to be proved, +that all these calcareous bodies, from the collection +of which the strata were formed, have +belonged to the sea, and were produced in it.</p> + +<p>We find the marks of marine animals in the +most solid parts of the earth; consequently, +those solid parts have been formed after the +ocean was inhabited by those animals which +are proper to that fluid medium. If, therefore, +we knew the natural history of those +solid parts, and could trace the operations of +the globe, by which they had been formed, +we would have some means for computing +the time through which those species of animals +have continued to live. But how shall +we describe a process which nobody has seen +performed, and of which no written history +gives any account? This is only to be investigated, +<i>first</i>, in examining the nature of those +solid bodies, the history of which we want to +know; and, 2<i>dly</i>, In examining the natural +operations of the globe, in order to see if there +now actually exist such operations, as, from +the nature of the solid bodies, appear to have +been necessary to their formation.</p> + +<p>But, before entering more particularly into +those points of discussion, by which the question +is to be resolved, let us take a general +view of the subject, in order to see what it is +which science and observation must decide.</p> + +<p>In all the regions of the globe, immense +masses are found, which, though at present in +the most solid state, appear to have been formed +by the collection of the calcareous <i>exuviae</i> +of marine animals. The question at present +is not, in what manner those collections of +calcareous relics have become a perfect solid +body, and have been changed from an animal +to a mineral substance; for this is a subject +that will be afterwards considered; we are +now only inquiring, if such is truly the origin +of those mineral masses.</p> + +<p>That all the masses of marble or limestone +are composed of the calcareous matter of marine +bodies, may be concluded from the following +facts:</p> + +<p>1<i>st</i>, There are few beds of marble or limestone, +in which may not be found some of +those objects which indicate the marine origin +of the mass. If, for example, in a mass +of marble, taken from a quarry upon the top +of the Alps or Andes<a id="footnotetag2" name="footnotetag2"></a><a href="#footnote2"><sup>2</sup></a>, there shall be found +one cockle-shell, or piece of coral, it must be +concluded, that this bed of stone had been +originally formed at the bottom of the sea, as +much as another bed which is evidently composed +almost altogether of cockle-shells and +coral. If one bed of limestone is thus found +to have been of a marine origin, every concomitant +bed of the same kind must be also +concluded to have been formed in the same +Manner.</p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2" name="footnote2"></a><b>Footnote 2:</b><a href="#footnotetag2"> (return) </a> "Cette sommité élevée de 984 toises au dessus de +notre lac, et par conséquent de 1172 au dessus de la +mer, est remarquable en ce que l'on y voit des fragmens +d'huîtres pétrifiés.—Cette montagne est dominée par +un rocher escarpé, qui s'il n'est pas inaccessible, est du +moins d'un bien difficile accès; il paroît presqu'entièrement +composé de coquillages pétrifiés, renfermés dans +un roc calcaire, ou marbre grossier noirâtre. Les fragmens +qui s'en détachent, et que l'on rencontre en montant +à la Croix de fer, sont remplis de <i>turbinites</i> de différentes +espèces." M. DE SAUSSURE, <i>Voyage dans les +Alpes</i>, p. 394.</blockquote> + +<p>We thus shall find the greatest part of the +calcareous masses upon this globe to have originated +from marine calcareous bodies; for +whether we examine marbles, limestones, or +such solid masses as are perfectly changed from +the state of earth, and are become compact +and hard, or whether we examine the soft, +earthy, chalky or marly strata, of which so +much of this earth is composed, we still find +evident proofs, that those beds had their origin +from materials deposited at the bottom of +the sea; and that they have the calcareous +substance which they contain, from the same +source as the marbles or the limestones.</p> + +<p>2<i>dly</i>, In those calcareous strata, which are +evidently of marine origin, there are many +parts that are of a sparry structure, that is to +say, the original texture of those beds, in such +places, has been dissolved, and a new structure +has been assumed, which is peculiar to a +certain state of the calcareous earth. This +change is produced by crystallisation, in consequence +of a previous state of fluidity, which +has so disposed the concreting parts, as to allow +them to assume a regular shape and structure +proper to that substance. A body, whose +external form has been modified by this process, +is called a <i>crystal</i>; one whose internal +arrangement of parts is determined by it, is said +to be of a <i>sparry structure</i>; and this is known +from its fracture.</p> + +<p>3<i>dly</i>, There are, in all the regions of the +earth, huge masses of calcareous matter, in +that crystalline form of sparry state, in which +perhaps no vestige can be found of any organised +body, nor any indication that such calcareous +matter had belonged to animals; but +as, in other masses, this sparry structure, or +crystalline state, is evidently assumed by the +marine calcareous substances, in operations +which are natural to the globe, and which are +necessary to the consolidation of the strata, it +does not appear, that the sparry masses, in +which no figured body is formed, have been +originally different from other masses, which, +being only crystallised in part, and in part still +retaining their original form, leave ample +evidence of their marine origin<a id="footnotetag3" name="footnotetag3"></a><a href="#footnote3"><sup>3</sup></a>.</p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3" name="footnote3"></a><b>Footnote 3:</b><a href="#footnotetag3"> (return) </a> M. de Saussure, describing the marble of Aigle, +says, "Les tables polies de ce marbre présentent fréquemment +des coquillages, dont la plupart sont des peignes +striés, et de très-beaux madrépores. Tous ces +corps marins on pris entierement la nature et le grain +même du marbre, on n'y voit presque jamais la coquille +sous sa forme originaire."</blockquote> + +<p>We are led, in this manner, to conclude, +that all the strata of the earth, not only those +consisting of such calcareous masses, but others +superincumbent upon these, have had their +origin at the bottom of the sea, by the collection +of sand and gravel, of shells, of coralline +and crustaceous bodies, and of earths and clays, +variously mixed, or separated and accumulated. +Here is a general conclusion, well authenticated +in the appearances of nature, and +highly important in the natural history of the +earth.</p> + +<p>The general amount of our reasoning is this, +that nine-tenths, perhaps, or ninety-nine hundredths +of this earth, so far as we see, have +been formed by natural operations of the +globe, in collecting loose materials, and depositing +them at the bottom of the sea; consolidating +those collections in various degrees, +and either elevating those consolidated masses +above the level on which they were formed, +or lowering the level of that sea.</p> + +<p>There is a part of the solid earth which we +may at present neglect, not as being persuaded +that this part may not also be found to +come under the general rule of formation with +the rest, but as considering this part to be of +no consequence in forming a general rule, +which shall comprehend almost the whole, +without doing it absolutely. This excluded +part consists of certain mountains and masses +of granite. These are thought to be still older +in their formation, and are said never to +be found superincumbent on strata which +must be acknowledged as the productions of +the sea.</p> + +<p>Having thus found the greater part, if not +the whole, of the solid land to have been originally +composed at the bottom of the sea, we +may now, in order to form a proper idea of +these operations, suppose the whole of this seaborn +land to be again dispersed along the bottom +of the ocean, the surface of which would +rise proportionally over the globe. We would +thus have a spheroid of water, with granite +rocks and islands scattered here and there. +But this would not be the world which we +inhabit; therefore, the question now is, how +such continents, as we actually have upon the +globe, could be erected above the level of the +sea.</p> + +<p>It must be evident, that no motion of the +sea, caused by this earth revolving in the solar +system, could bring about that end; for +let us suppose the axis of the earth to be +changed from the present poles, and placed in +the equinoctial line, the consequence of this +might, indeed, be the formation of a continent +of land about each new pole, from +whence the sea would run towards the new +equator; but all the rest of the globe would +remain an ocean. Some new points might +be discovered, and others, which before appeared +above the surface of the sea, would be +sunk by the rising of the water; but, on the +whole, land could only be gained substantially +at the poles. Such a supposition, as this, if +applied to the present state of things, would +be destitute of every support, as being incapable +of explaining what appears.</p> + +<p>But even allowing that, by the changed axis +of the earth, or any other operation of the +globe, as a planetary body revolving in the +solar system, great continents of land could +have been erected from the place of their formation, +the bottom of the sea, and placed in +a higher elevation, compared with the surface +of that water, yet such a continent as this +could not have continued stationary for many +thousand years; nor could a continent of this +kind have presented to us, every where within +its body, masses of consolidated marble, +and other mineral substances, in a state as different +as possible from that in which they +were, when originally collected together in +the sea.</p> + +<p>Consequently, besides an operation, by +which the earth at the bottom of the sea +should be converted into an elevated land, or +placed high above the level of the ocean, there +is required, in the operations of the globe, a +consolidating power, by which the loose materials +that had subsided from water, should +be formed into masses of the most perfect solidity, +having neither water nor vacuity between +their various constituent parts, nor in +the pores of those constituent parts themselves.</p> + +<p>Here is an operation of the globe, whether +chemical or mechanical, which is necessarily +connected with the formation of our present +continents: Therefore, had we a proper understanding +of this secret operation, we might +thereby be enabled to form an opinion, with +regard to the nature of that unknown power, +by which the continents have been placed +above the surface of that water wherein they +had their birth.</p> + +<p>If this consolidating operation be performed +at the bottom of the ocean, or under great +depths of the earth, of which our continents +are composed, we cannot be witnesses to this +mineral process, or acquire the knowledge of +natural causes, by immediately observing the +changes which they produce; but though we +have not this immediate observation of those +changes of bodies, we have, in science, the +means of reasoning from distant events; consequently, +of discovering, in the general +powers of nature, causes for those events of +which we see the effects.</p> + +<p>That the consolidating operation, in general, +lies out of the reach of our immediate observation, +will appear from the following truth: +All the consolidated masses, of which we now +inquire into the cause, are, upon the surface +of the earth, in a state of general decay, although +the various natures of those bodies admit +of that dissolution in very different degrees<a id="footnotetag4" name="footnotetag4"></a><a href="#footnote4"><sup>4</sup></a></p> + +<p>From every view of the subject, therefore, +we are directed to look into those consolidated +masses themselves, in order to find principles +from whence to judge of those operations by +which they had attained their hardness or +consolidated state.</p> + +<p>It must be evident, that nothing but the +most general acquaintance with the laws of +acting substances, and with those of bodies +changing by the powers of nature, can enable +us to set about this undertaking with any reasonable +prospect of success; and here the science +of Chemistry must be brought particularly +to our aid; for this science, having for +its object the changes produced upon the sensible +qualities, as they are called, of bodies, +by its means we may be enabled to judge of +that which is possible according to the laws of +nature, and of that which, in like manner, we +must consider as impossible.</p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4" name="footnote4"></a><b>Footnote 4:</b><a href="#footnotetag4"> (return) </a> Stalactical and certain ferruginous concretions may seem +to form an exception to the generality of this proposition. +But an objection of this kind could only arise from a partial +view of things; for the concretion here is only temporary; +it is in consequence of a solution, and it is to be followed +by a dissolution, which will be treated of in its proper place.</blockquote> + +<p>Whatever conclusions, therefore, by means +of this science, shall be attained, in just reasoning +from natural appearances, this must be +held as evidence, where more immediate proof +cannot be obtained; and, in a physical subject, +where things actual are concerned, and +not the imaginations of the human mind, this +proof will be considered as amounting to a +demonstration.</p> + +<h3>SECTION II.</h3> + +<p><i>An Investigation of the Natural Operations +employed in consolidating the Strata of the +Globe.</i></p> + + +<p>We are now about to investigate those mineral +operations of the globe by which the qualities +of hardness and solidity, consequently +of strength and durability, are procured to +great bodies of this earth.</p> + +<p>That those qualities are not original to such +bodies, but actually superinduced in the natural +operations of the earth, will appear from +the examination of some of the hardest and +most solid of those mineral bodies. In such +masses, (for example of flint and agate,) we +find included shells and coralline bodies. Consequently, +there must be a natural operation +in the globe for consolidating and hardening +its soft and loose materials. It is concerning +the nature of this consolidating operation that +we are now to inquire.</p> + +<p>There are just two ways in which porous +or spongy bodies can be consolidated, and by +which substances may be formed into masses +of a natural shape and regular structure; the +one of these is simple <i>congelation</i> from a fluid +state, by means of cold; the other is <i>accretion</i>; +and this includes a separatory operation, as +well as that by which the solid body is to be +produced. But in whichever of these ways +solidity shall be procured, it must be brought +about by first inducing fluidity, either immediately +by the action of heat, or mediately +with the assistance of a solvent, that is, by the +operation of solution. Therefore, fire and +water may be considered as the general agents +in this operation, which we would explore.</p> + +<p>Heat has been already mentioned as a general +power, and as acting in all the different +parts of the globe; I would now wish more +particularly to call the attention of the reader +to subterraneous fire, or heat, as a powerful +agent in the mineral regions, and as a cause +necessarily belonging to the internal constitution +of this earth.</p> + +<p>It is not our purpose at present to inquire +into the particular nature of this power of +subterraneous heat, or to trace the proper connection +and analogy of the internal fire with +that which is so necessary to our life, and +which acts so great a part upon the surface of +the earth, this being reserved for the last part. +Our intention in here mentioning it, is only +to dispose the mind to look for active powers +or efficient causes, in that part of the earth +which has been commonly considered as passive +and inert, but which will be found extremely +active, and the source of mighty revolutions +in the fate of land.</p> + +<p>There may, indeed, be some difficulty in +conceiving all the modifications of this mineral +power; but as, on the one hand, we are +not arbitrarily to assume an agent, for the purpose +of explaining events, or certain appearances +which are not understood; so, on the +other, we must not refuse to admit the action +of a known power, when this is properly +suggested in the appearances of things; and, +though we may not understand all the modifications, +or the whole capacity and regulation +of this power in bodies, we are not to neglect +the appropriating to it, as a cause, those +effects which are natural to it, and which, so +far as we know, cannot belong to any other. +On all occasions, we are to judge from what +we know; and, we are only to avoid concluding +from our suppositions, in cases where +evidence or real information is necessarily required. +The subject now considered, subterraneous +fire, will afford an example of that +truth; and, a general view of this great natural +power will here find a proper place, before +the application of it for the explanation of +natural appearances.</p> + +<p>No event is more the object of our notice, +or more interesting as a subject for our study, +than is the burning of a fire: But, the more +that philosophers have studied this subject, the +more they seem to differ as to the manner in +which that conspicuous event is to be explained. +Therefore, being so ignorant with +regard to that fire of which we see the origin +as well as the more immediate effects, how +cautious should we be in judging the nature +of subterraneous fire from the burning of bodies, +a subject which we so little understand.</p> + +<p>But, though the cause of fire in general, or +the operations of that power in its extreme +degrees, be for us a subject involved in much +obscurity, this is not the case with regard to +the more common effects of heat; and, tho' +the actual existence of subterraneous fire, as +the cause of light and heat, might be a thing +altogether problematical in our opinion; yet, +as to other effects, there are some of these +from which the action of that liquefying power +may be certainly concluded as having taken +place within the mineral region, although the +cause should be in every other respect a thing +to us unknown. In that case, where the operation +or effect is evident, and cannot be disputed, +to refuse to admit the power in question, +merely because we had not seen it act, +or because we know not every rule which it +may observe in acting, would be only to found +an argument upon our ignorance; it would +be to misunderstand the nature of investigating +physical truths, which must proceed by reasoning +from effect to cause.</p> + +<p>Our knowledge is extremely limited with +regard to the effects of heat in bodies, while +acting under different conditions, and in various +degrees. But though our knowledge in +these respects is limited, our judgment with +regard to the efficacy of this power of heat is +in its nature positive, and contains not any +thing that is doubtful or uncertain. All mankind, +who have the opportunity, know that +the hard substance of ice is by heat converted +into water, wherein no hardness remains; +and the profound philosophy of Dr Black, in +relation to the subject of <i>latent heat</i>, as that of +Sir Isaac Newton, in relation to the weight of +bodies, is not necessary to convince the world +that in the one case ice will melt, and in the +other, that heavy bodies will move when unsupported.</p> + +<p>But though, in the abstract doctrine of <i>latent +heat</i>, the ingenuity of man has discovered +a certain measure for the quantity of those +commutable effects which are perceived; and +though this be a progress of science far above +the apprehension of the vulgar, yet still, that +solid bodies are changed into fluids, by the +power of heat, is the same unalterable judgment, +which the savage forms as well as the +philosopher. Here, therefore, are evident effects, +which mankind in general attribute to +the power of heat; and it is from those +known effects that we are to investigate subterraneous +fire, or to generalise the power of +heat, as acting in the interior parts, as well as +on the surface of this earth.</p> + +<p>If, indeed, there were any other cause for +fluidity besides the operation of fire or the +power of heat, in that case the most evident +proof, with regard to the flowing, or former +fluidity, of mineral bodies, would draw to no +conclusion in proving the existence of mineral +fire; but when we have not the smallest +reason for conjecturing any other cause, or +the least doubt with regard to that which, in +the doctrine of latent heat, has been properly +investigated, the proofs which we shall bring, +of fusion in all the minerals of this earth, must +be held as proofs of mineral fire, in like manner +as the proof of subterraneous fire would +necessarily imply mineral fusion as its natural +effect.</p> + +<p>Thus we have, in our physical investigation, +several points in view. First, from the +present state of things, to infer a former state +of fusion among mineral bodies. Secondly, +from that former fusion, to infer the actual +existence of mineral fire in the system of the +earth. And, lastly, from the acknowledged +fact of subterraneous fire as a cause, to reason +with regard to the effects of that power in +mineral bodies.</p> + +<p>But besides the power or effect of subterraneous +heat in bodies which are unorganised, +and without system, in the construction of +their different parts, we have to investigate +the proper purpose of this great agent in the +system of this world, which may be considered +as a species of organised body. Here, +therefore, final causes are to be brought into +view, as well as those which are efficient. +Now, in a subject involved with so much obscurity, +as must be for us the internal regions +of the globe, the consideration of efficient and +final causes may contribute mutually to each +others evidence, when separately the investigation +of either might be thought unsatisfactory +or insufficient.</p> + +<p>So far it seemed necessary to premise with +regard to the great mineral power which we +are to employ as an agent in the system of +this earth; and it may be now observed, that +it is in the proper relation of this power of heat +and the fluidity or softness of bodies, as cause +and effect, that we are to find a physical principle +or argument for detecting those false +theories of the earth that have been only imagined, +and not properly founded on fact or +observation. It is also by means of this principle, +that we shall be enabled to form a true +theory of the mineral region, in generalising +particular effects to a common cause.</p> + +<p>Let us now proceed in endeavouring to decide +this important question, viz. By what +active principle is it, that the present state of +things, which we observe in the strata of the +earth, a state so very different from that in +which those bodies had been formed originally, +has been brought about?</p> + +<p>Two causes have been now proposed for +the consolidating of loose materials which had +been in an incoherent state; these are, on the +one hand, fire; or, on the other, water, as +the means of bringing about that event. We +are, therefore, to consider well, what may be +the consequences of consolidation by the one +or other of those agents; and what may be +the respective powers of those agents with respect +to this operation.</p> + +<p>If we are not informed in this branch of +science, we may gaze without instruction upon +the most convincing proofs of what we +want to attain. If our knowledge is imperfect, +we may form erroneous principles, and +deceive ourselves in reasoning with regard to +those works of nature, which are wisely calculated +for our instruction.</p> + +<p>The strata, formed at the bottom of the sea, +are to be considered as having been consolidated, +either by aqueous solution and crystallization, +or by the effect of heat and fusion. +If it is in the first of these two ways that the +solid strata of the globe have attained to their +present state, there will be a certain uniformity +observable in the effects; and there will be +general laws, by which this operation must +have been conducted. Therefore, knowing +those general laws, and making just observations +with regard to the natural appearances +of those consolidated masses, a philosopher, in +his closet, should be able to determine, what +may, and what may not have been transacted +in the bowels of the earth, or below the bottom +of the ocean.</p> + +<p>Let us now endeavour to ascertain what +may have been the power of water, acting +under fixed circumstances, operating upon +known substances, and conducting to a certain +end.</p> + +<p>The action of water upon all different substances +is an operation with which we are +familiar. We have it in our power to apply +water in different degrees of heat for the solution +of bodies, and under various degrees of +compression; consequently, there is no reason +to conclude any thing mysterious in the operations +of the globe, which are to be performed +by means of water, unless an immense +compressing power should alter the nature of +those operations. But compression alters the +relation of evaporation only with regard to +heat, or it changes the degree of heat which +water may be made to sustain; consequently, +we are to look for no occult quality in +water acting upon bodies at the bottom of +the deepest ocean, more than what can be +observed in experiments which we have it in +our power to try.</p> + +<p>With regard again to the effect of time: +Though the continuance of time may do +much in those operations which are extremely +slow, where no change, to our observation, +had appeared to take place, yet, where it is +not in the nature of things to produce the +change in question, the unlimited course of +time would be no more effectual, than the +moment by which we measure events in our +observations.</p> + +<p>Water being the general medium in which +bodies collected at the bottom of the sea are +always contained, if those masses of collected +matter are to be consolidated by solution, it +must be by the dissolution of those bodies in +that water as a menstruum, and by the concretion +or crystallization of this dissolved matter, +that the spaces, first occupied by water in +those masses, are afterwards to be filled with +a hard and solid substance; but without some +other power, by which the water contained +in those cavities and endless labyrinths of the +strata, should be separated in proportion as it +had performed its task, it is inconceivable +how those masses, however changed from the +state of their first subsidence, should be absolutely +consolidated, without any visible or +fluid water in their composition.</p> + +<p>Besides this difficulty of having the water +separated from the porous masses which are +to be consolidated, there is another with +which, upon this supposition, we have to +struggle. This is, From whence should come +the matter with which the numberless cavities +in those masses are to be filled?</p> + +<p>The water in the cavities and interstices of +those bodies composing strata, must be in a +stagnating state; consequently, it can only act +upon the surfaces of those cavities which are +to be filled up. But with what are they to +be filled? Not with water; they are full of +that already: Not with the substance of the +bodies which contain that water; this would +be only to make one cavity in order to fill up +another. If, therefore, the cavities of the +strata are to be filled with solid matter, by +means of water, there must be made to pass +through those porous masses, water impregnated +with some other substances in a dissolved +state; and the aqueous menstruum must +be made to separate from the dissolved substance, +and to deposit the same in those cavities +through which the solution moves.</p> + +<p>By such a supposition as this, we might +perhaps explain a partial consolidation of +those strata; but this is a supposition, of +which the case under consideration does not +admit; for in the present case, which is that +of materials accumulated at the bottom of the +ocean, there is not proper means for separating +the dissolved matter from the water included +in those enormous masses; nor are +there any means by which a circulation in +those masses may be formed. In this case, +therefore, where the means are not naturally +in the supposition, a philosopher, who is to +explain the phenomenon by the natural operation +of water in this situation, must not have +recourse to another agent, still more powerful, +to assist his supposition which cannot be +admitted.</p> + +<p>Thus, it will appear, that, to consolidate +strata formed at the bottom of the sea, in the +manner now considered, operations are required +unnatural to this place; consequently, +not to be supposed, in order to support a hypothesis.</p> + +<p>But now, instead of inquiring how far water +may be supposed instrumental in the consolidation +of strata which were originally of +a loose texture, we are to consider how far +there may be appearances in those consolidated +bodies, by which it might be concluded, +whether or not the present state of their consolidation +has been actually brought about by +means of that agent.</p> + +<p>If water had been the menstruum by which +the consolidating matter was introduced into +the interstices of strata, masses of those bodies +could only be found consolidated with such +substances as water is capable of dissolving; +and these substances would be found only in +such a state as the simple separation of the +solvent water might produce.</p> + +<p>In this case, the consolidation of strata +would be extremely limited; for we cannot +allow more power to water than we find it +has in nature; nor are we to imagine to ourselves +unlimited powers in bodies, on purpose +to explain those appearances by which we +should be made to know the powers of nature. +Let us, therefore, attend, with every +possible circumspection, to the appearances of +those bodies, by means of which we are to +investigate the principles of mineralogy, and +know the laws of nature.</p> + +<p>The question now before us concerns the +consolidating substances of strata. Are these +such as will correspond to the dissolving +power of water, and to the state in which +these substances might be left by the separation +of their menstruum? No; far, far from +this supposition is the conclusion that necessarily +follows from natural appearances.</p> + +<p>We have strata consolidated by calcareous +spar, a thing perfectly distinguishable from the +stalactical concretion of calcareous earth, in +consequence of aqueous solution. We have +strata made solid by the formation of fluor, +a substance not soluble, so far as we know, by +water. We have strata consolidated with +sulphureous and bituminous substances, which +do not correspond to the solution of water. +We have strata consolidated with siliceous +matter, in a state different from that under +which it has been observed, on certain occasions, +to be deposited by water. We have +strata consolidated by feld-spar, a substance +insoluble in water. We have strata consolidated +by almost all the various metallic substances, +with their almost endless mixtures +and sulphureous compositions; that is to say, +we find, perhaps, every different substance +introduced into the interstices of strata which +had been formed by subsidence at the bottom +of the sea.</p> + +<p>If it is by means of water that those interstices +have been filled with those materials, +water must be, like fire, an universal solvent, +or cause of fluidity, and we must change entirely +our opinion of water in relation to its +chemical character. But there is no necessity +thus to violate our chemical principles, in order +to explain certain natural appearances; +more especially if those appearances may be +explained in another manner, consistently +with the known laws of nature.</p> + +<p>If, again, it is by means of heat and fusion +that the loose and porous structure of strata +shall be supposed to have been consolidated, +then every difficulty which had occurred in +reasoning upon the power or agency of water +is at once removed. The loose and discontinuous +body of a stratum may be closed by +means of softness and compression; the porous +structure of the materials may be consolidated, +in a similar manner, by the fusion of +their substance; and foreign matter may be +introduced into the open structure of strata, +in form of steam or exhalation, as well as in +the fluid state of fusion; consequently, heat +is an agent competent for the consolidation of +strata, which water alone is not. If, therefore, +such an agent could be found acting in +the natural place of strata, we must pronounce +it proper to bring about that end.</p> + +<p>The examination of nature gives countenance +to this supposition, so far as strata are +found consolidated by every species of substance, +and almost every possible mixture of +those different substances; consequently, however +difficult it may appear to have this application +of heat, for the purpose of consolidating +strata formed at the bottom of the +ocean, we cannot, from natural appearances, +suppose any other cause, as having actually +produced the effects which are now examined.</p> + +<p>This question, with regard to the means of +consolidating the strata of the globe, is, to natural +history, of the greatest importance; and +it is essential in the theory now proposed to +be given of the mineral system. It would, +therefore, require to be discussed with some +degree of precision in examining the particulars; +but of these, there is so great a field, +and the subject is so complicated in its nature, +that volumes might be written upon particular +branches only, without exhausting what +might be laid upon the subject; because the +evidence, though strong in many particulars, +is chiefly to be enforced by a multitude of +facts, conspiring, in a diversity of ways, to +point out one truth, and by the impossibility +of reconciling all these facts, except by means +of one supposition.</p> + +<p>But, as it is necessary to give some proof +of that which is to be a principle in our reasoning +afterwards, I shall now endeavour to +generalise the subject as much as possible, in +order to answer that end, and, at the same +time, to point out the particular method of +inquiry.</p> + +<p>There are to be found, among the various +strata of the globe, bodies formed of two different +kinds of substances, <i>siliceous</i> bodies, and +those which may be termed <i>sulphureous</i> or +<i>phlogistic</i>. With one or other, or both of +those we substances, every different consolidated +stratum of the globe will be found so +intimately mixed, or closely connected, that +it must be concluded, by whatever cause those +bodies of siliceous and sulphureous matter had +been changed from a fluid to a concreted +state, the strata must have been similarly affected +by the same cause.</p> + +<p>These two species of bodies, therefore, the +siliceous and the sulphureous, may now be +examined, in relation to the causes of their +concretion, with a view to determine, what +has been the general concreting or consolidating +power, which has operated universally +in the globe; and particularly to show, it has +not been by means of any fluid solution, that +strata in general have been consolidated, or +that those particular substances have been +crystallized and concreted.</p> + +<p>Siliceous matter, physically speaking, is not +soluble in water; that is to say, in no manner +of way have we been enabled to learn, that +water has the power of dissolving this matter.</p> + +<p>Many other substances, which are so little +soluble in water, that their solubility could +not be otherwise detected of themselves, are +made to appear soluble by means of siliceous +matter; such is feld-spar, one of the component +parts of rock-granite.</p> + +<p>Feld-spar is a compound of siliceous, argillaceous, +and calcareous earth, intimately united +together. This compound siliceous body +being, for ages, exposed to the weather, the +calcareous part of it is dissolved, and the siliceous +part is left in form of a soft white earth. +But whether this dissolution is performed by +pure water, or by means also of an acid, may +perhaps be questioned. This, however, is +certain, that we must consider siliceous substances +as insoluble in water.</p> + +<p>The water of Glezer in Iceland undoubtedly +contains this substance in solution; but +there is no reason to believe, that it is here +dissolved by any other than the natural means; +that is, an alkaline substance, by which siliceous +bodies may be rendered soluble in water<a id="footnotetag5" name="footnotetag5"></a><a href="#footnote5"><sup>5</sup></a>.</p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5" name="footnote5"></a><b>Footnote 5:</b><a href="#footnotetag5"> (return) </a> This conjecture, which I had thus formed, has been +fully confirmed by the accurate analysis of those waters. +See vol. 3d. of the Phil. Trans. of Edin.</blockquote> + +<p>It may be, therefore, asserted, that no siliceous +body having the hardness of flint, nor +any crystallization of that substance, has ever +been formed, except by fusion. If, by any +art, this substance shall be dissolved in simple +water, or made to crystallise from any solution, +in that case, the assertion which has been here +made may be denied. But where there is not +the vestige of any proof, to authorise the supposition +of flinty matter being dissolved by water, +or crystallized from that solution, such an +hypothesis cannot be admitted, in opposition +to general and evident appearances<a id="footnotetag6" name="footnotetag6"></a><a href="#footnote6"><sup>6</sup></a>.</p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote6" name="footnote6"></a><b>Footnote 6:</b><a href="#footnotetag6"> (return) </a> The Chevalier de Dolomieu has imagined an ingenious +theory for the solution of siliceous substances in water (Journal de Physique, Mai 1792.). +This theory has not been taken up merely at a +venture, but is founded upon very accurate and interesting +chemical experiments. Hitherto, however, the nature +of the siliceous substance is not sufficiently known, to enable +us to found, upon chemical principles, the mineral +operations of nature. That siliceous substance may be +dissolved, or rendered soluble in water, by means of alkaline +salt, and that it may be also volatilised by means of the +fluor acid, is almost all that we know upon the subject. +But this is saying no more in relation to the mineral operations +employed upon the siliceous substance, than it +would be, in relation to those upon gold, to say that this +metal is dissolved by aqua regia. + +<p>It is to be admitted, that every simple substance may +have its menstruum, by means of which it may be retained +with water in a dissolved state; but from this it does +not follow, that it is by the means of aqueous solutions of +all those mineral bodies, that nature operates the consolidation +of bodies, which we find actually accomplished with +all those different substances. It is the business of this +work to show, that from all appearances in the mineral +regions, as well as those upon the surface in the atmosphere, +the supposition, of that manner of consolidating +bodies by solution, is inconsistent both with natural appearances, +and also with chemical principles.</p> + +<p>Our ingenious author, who has, with, great diligence as +well as an enlightened mind, observed the operations of +nature upon the surface of the earth, here says, "ce n'est +pas sans étonnement que je remarque depuis long-temps +que jamais aucune eau qui coule à la surface de la terre +n'attaque le quartz, aucune n'en tient en dissolution, +pendant que celles qui circulent intérieurement le corrodent +aussi souvent qu'elles le déposent."—How dangerous +it is in science for ingenious men to allow themselves +to form conclusions, which the principles on which +they reason do not strictly warrant, we have a remarkable +example in the present case.</p> + +<p>M. de Dolomieu sees no corrosion of quartz, or solution +of that substance, upon the surface of the earth; +from this, then, he concludes, that siliceous substance is +not dissolved in that situation of things. On the other +hand, he finds siliceous bodies variously concreted among +the solid strata of the earth; and, from this he concludes, +that siliceous substance has been both dissolved by water +in the strata, and also there again concreted and crystallised +in having been separated from the water. This is +certainly what we all perceive; but we do not all allow +ourselves to draw such inconclusive inferences from our +premises. Notwithstanding the greatest accuracy of our +observations, quartz may be dissolvable in a minute degree +by water, upon the surface of this earth; and, all the appearances +of siliceous bodies, in the mineral regions, where +we cannot immediately see the operation, may be better +explained by fusion than by aqueous solution.</p> + +<p>But, from his chemical experiments, our author has +conjectured that there may be a phlogistic substance, by +means of which the siliceous earth is dissolved when in +darkness; and that this solvent loses its power, if exposed +to the light of day. I have one observation to oppose +to this ingenious theory. Under deep black mosses, +through which no ray of light can penetrate, every condition +for dissolving siliceous bodies should be found, according +to the supposition in question; neither will sufficient +time be found wanting, in those deep mosses, upon +the summits of our mountains; yet, examine the matter +of fact? not the smallest solution is to be perceived in the +siliceous parts of the stones which are found under those +mosses, but every particle of iron is dissolved, so that the +surface of every stone is white, and nothing but the siliceous +earth of the feld-spar, and perhaps the argillaceous, +is left.</p> + +<p>Here we have in this author an instructive example: +No person, in my opinion, has made such enlightened or +scientific experiments, or such judicious observations with +regard to the nature of siliceous substance, as a compound +thing; no person reasons more distinctly in general, or +sees more clearly the importance of his principles; yet, +with regard to mineral concretions, how often has he been +drawn thus inadvertently into improper generalization! +I appeal to the analogy which, in this treatise, he has +formed, between the stalactical concretions upon the surface +of the earth, and the mineral concretions of siliceous +substance. As an example of the great lights, and penetrating +genius, of this assiduous studier of nature, I refer +to the judicious observations which he has made upon the +subject of aluminous earth, in this dissertation.</p> + +<p>I am surprised to find this enlightened naturalist seeking, +in the origin of this globe of our earth, a general +principle of fluidity or solution in water, like the alkahest +of the alchymists, by means of which the different substances +in the chemical constitution of precious stones +might have been united as well as crystallised. One would +have thought, that a philosopher, so conversant in the +operations of subterraneous fire, would have perceived, +that there is but one general principle of fluidity or dissolution, +and that this is heat.</blockquote> + +<p>Besides this proof for the fusion of siliceous +bodies, which is indirect, arising from the in +dissolubility of that substance in water, there +is another, which is more direct, being founded +upon appearances which are plainly inconsistent +with any other supposition, except that +of simple fluidity induced by heat. The proof +I mean is, the penetration of many bodies with +a flinty substance, which, according to every +collateral circumstance, must have been performed +by the flinty matter in a simply fluid +state, and not in a state of dissolution by a solvent.</p> + +<p>These are flinty bodies perfectly insulated in +strata both of chalk and sand. It requires but +inspection to be convinced. It is not possible +that flinty matter could be conveyed into the +middle of those strata, by a menstruum in +which it was dissolved, and thus deposited in +that place, without the smallest trace of deposition +in the surrounding parts.</p> + +<p>But, besides this argument taken from what +does not appear, the actual form in which those +flinty masses are found, demonstrates, <i>first</i>, +That they have been introduced among those +strata in a fluid state, by injection from some +other place. 2<i>dly</i>, That they have been dispersed +in a variety of ways among those strata, +then deeply immersed at the bottom of the +sea; and, <i>lastly</i>, That they have been there congealed +from the state of fusion, and have remained +in that situation, while those strata have +been removed from the bottom of the ocean to +the surface of the present land.</p> + +<p>To describe those particular appearances +would draw this paper beyond the bounds of +an essay. We must, therefore, refer those who +would inquire more minutely into the subject, +to examine the chalk-countries of France and +England, in which the flint is found variously +formed; the land-hills interspersed among those +chalk-countries, which have been also injected +by melted flint; and the pudding-stone of England, +which I have not seen in its natural situation. +More particularly, I would recommend +an examination of the insulated masses of stone, +found in the sand-hills by the city of Brussels; +a stone which is formed by an injection of +flint among sand, similar to that which, in a +body of gravel, had formed the pudding-stone +of England<a id="footnotetag7" name="footnotetag7"></a><a href="#footnote7"><sup>7</sup></a>.</p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote7" name="footnote7"></a><b>Footnote 7:</b><a href="#footnotetag7"> (return) </a> Accurate descriptions of those appearances, with drawings, +would be, to natural history, a valuable acquisition.</blockquote> + +<p>All these examples would require to be examined +upon the spot, as a great part of the +proof for the fusion of the flinty substance, +arises, in my opinion, from the form in which +those bodies are found, and the state of the +surrounding parts. But there are specimens +brought from many different places, which +contain, in themselves, the most evident marks +of this injection of the flinty substance in a +fluid state. These are pieces of fossil wood, +penetrated with a siliceous substance, which are +brought from England, Germany, and Lochneagh +in Ireland.</p> + +<p>It appears from these specimens, that there +has sometimes been a prior penetration of the +body of wood, either with irony matter, or +calcareous substance. Sometimes, again, which +is the case with that of Lochneagh, there does +not seem to have been any penetration of those +two substances. The injected flint appears to +have penetrated the body of this wood, immersed +at the bottom of the sea, under an immense +compression of water. This appears +from the wood being penetrated partially, some +parts not being penetrated at all.</p> + +<p>Now, in the limits between those two parts, +we have the most convincing proofs, that it +had been flint in a simple fluid state which +had penetrated the wood, and not in a state of +solution.</p> + +<p><i>First</i>, Because, however little of the wood +is left unpenetrated, the division is always distinct +between the injected part and that which +is not penetrated by the fluid flint. In this +case, the flinty matter has proceeded a certain +length, which is marked, and no farther; and, +beyond this boundary, there is no partial impregnation, +nor a gradation of the flintifying +operation, as must have been the case if siliceous +matter had been deposited from a solution. +2<i>dly</i>, The termination of the flinty impregnation +has assumed such a form, precisely, as +would naturally happen from a fluid flint penetrating +that body.</p> + +<p>In other specimens of this mineralising operation, +fossil wood, penetrated, more or less, +with ferruginous and calcareous substances, +has been afterwards penetrated with a flinty +substance. In this case, with whatever different +substances the woody body shall be supposed +to have been penetrated in a state of solution +by water, the regular structure of the +plant would still have remained, with its vacuities, +variously filled with the petrifying substances, +separated from the aqueous menstruum, +and deposited in the vascular structure of the +wood. There cannot be a doubt with regard +to the truth of this proposition; for, as it is, we +frequently find parts of the consolidated wood, +with the vascular structure remaining perfectly +in its natural shape and situation; but if it +had been by aqueous solution that the wood +had been penetrated and consolidated, all the +parts of that body would be found in the same +natural shape and situation.</p> + +<p>This, however, is far from being the case; +for while, in some parts, the vascular structure +is preserved entire, it is also evident, that, in +general, the woody structure is variously broken +and dissolved by the fusion and crystallization +of the flint. There are so many and +such various convincing examples of this, that, +to attempt to describe them, would be to exceed +the bounds prescribed for this dissertation; +but such specimens are in my possession, ready +for the inspection of any person who may desire +to study the subject.</p> + +<p>We may now proceed to consider sulphureous +substances, with regard to their solubility +in water, and to the part which these bodies +have acted in consolidating the strata of the +globe.</p> + +<p>The sulphureous substances here meant to +be considered, are substances not soluble in, +water, so far as we know, but fusible by heat, +and inflammable or combustible by means of +heat and vital air. These substances are of two +kinds; the one more simple, the other more +compound.</p> + +<p>The most simple kind is composed of two +different substances, viz. phlogiston, with certain +specific substances; from which result, on +the one hand, sulphur, and, on the other, proper +coal and metals. The more compound +sort, again, is oily matter, produced by vegetables, +and forming bituminous bodies.</p> + +<p>The <i>first</i> of these is found naturally combined +with almost all metallic substances, which +are then said to be mineralised with sulphur. +Now, it is well known, that this mineralising +operation is performed by means of heat or fusion; +and there is no person skilled in chemistry +that will pretend to say, this may be done +by aqueous solution. The combination of iron +and sulphur, for example, may easily be performed +by fusion; but, by aqueous solution, +this particular combination is again resolved, +and forms an acido-metallic, that is, a vitriolic +substance, after the phlogiston (by means of +which it is insoluble in water) has been separated +from the composition, by the assistance +of vital air.</p> + +<p>The variety of these sulphureo-metallic substances, +in point of composition, is almost indefinite; +but, unless they were all soluble in +water, this could not have happened by the action +of that solvent. If we shall allow any one +of those bodies to have been formed by the +fluidity of heat, they must all have been formed +in the same manner; for there is such a +chain of connection among those bodies in the +mineral regions, that they must all have been +composed, either, on the one hand, by aqueous +solution, or, on the other, by means of heat +and fusion.</p> + +<p>Here, for example, are crystallised together +in one mass, 1<i>st, Pyrites</i>, containing sulphur, +iron, copper; 2<i>dly, Blend</i>, a composition of +iron, sulphur, and calamine; 3<i>dly, Galena</i>, +consisting of lead and sulphur; 4<i>thly, Marmor +metallicum</i>, being the terra ponderosa, saturated +with the vitriolic acid; a substance insoluble in +water; 5<i>thly, Fluor</i>, a saturation of calcareous +earth, with a peculiar acid, called the <i>acid of +spar</i>, also insoluble in water; 6<i>thly, Calcareous +spar</i>, of different kinds, being calcareous earth +saturated with fixed air, and something besides, +which forms a variety in this substance; <i>lastly, +Siliceous substance</i>, or <i>Quartz crystals</i>. All these +bodies, each possessing its proper shape, are +mixed in such a manner as it would be endless +to describe, but which may be expressed in general +by saying, that they are mutually contained +in, and contain each other.</p> + +<p>Unless, therefore; every one of these different +substances may be dissolved in water, and +crystallised from it, it is in vain to look for the +explanation of these appearances in the operations +of nature, by the means of aqueous solution.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, heat being capable of +rendering all these substances fluid, they may +be, with the greatest simplicity, transported +from one place to another; and they may be +made to concrete altogether at the same time, +and distinctly separate in any place. Hence, +for the explanation of those natural appearances, +which are so general, no further conditions +are required, than the supposition of a sufficient +intensity of subterraneous fire or heat, and a +sufficient degree of compression upon those bodies, +which are to be subjected to that violent +heat, without calcination or change. But, so +far as this supposition is not gratuitous, the +appearances of nature will be thus explained.</p> + +<p>I shall only mention one specimen, which +must appear most decisive of the question. It +is, I believe, from an Hungarian mine. In this +specimen, petro-silex, pyrites, and cinnabar, are +so mixed together, and crystallised upon each +other, that it is impossible to conceive any one +of those bodies to have had its fluidity and concretion +from a cause which had not affected +the other two. Now, let those who would +deny the fusion of this siliceous body explain +how water could dissolve these three different +bodies, and deposit them in their present shape. +If, on the contrary, they have not the least +shadow of reason for such a gratuitous supposition, +the present argument must be admitted +in its full force.</p> + +<p>Sulphur and metals are commonly found +combined in the mineral regions. But this +rule is not universal; for they are also frequently +in a separate state. There is not, perhaps, a +metal, among the great number which are now +discovered, that may not be found native, as +they are called, or in their metallic state.</p> + +<p>Metallic substances are also thus found in +some proportion to the disposition of the particular +metals, to resist the mineralising operations, +and to their facility of being metallised +by fire and fusion. Gold, which refuses +to be mineralised with sulphur, is found generally +in its native state. Iron, again, which +is so easily mineralised and scorified, is seldom +found in its malleable state. The other metals +are all found more or less mineralised, +though some of them but rarely in the native +state.</p> + +<p>Besides being found with circumstances thus +corresponding to the natural facility, or to the +impediments attending the metallization of +those different calces, the native metals are +also found in such a shape, and with such +marks, as can only agree with the fusion of +those bodies; that is to say, those appearances +are perfectly irreconcilable with any manner +of solution and precipitation.</p> + +<p>For the truth of this assertion, among a +thousand other examples, I appeal to that famous +mass of native iron discovered by Mr +Pallas in Siberia. This mass being so well +known to all the mineralists of Europe, any +comment upon its shape and structure will be +unnecessary<a id="footnotetag8" name="footnotetag8"></a><a href="#footnote8"><sup>8</sup></a>.</p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote8" name="footnote8"></a><b>Footnote 8:</b><a href="#footnotetag8"> (return) </a> Since this Dissertation was written, M. de la Peyrouse +has discovered a native manganese. The circumstances +of this mineral are so well adapted for illustrating +the present doctrine, and so well related by M. de la Peyrouse, +that I should be wanting to the interest of mineral +knowledge, were I not to give here that part of his Memoir. + +<p>"Lorsque je fis insérer dans le journal de physique de +l'année 1780, au mois de Janvier, une Dissertation contenant +la classification des mines de manganèse, je ne connoissois +point, à cette époque, la mine de manganèse native. +Elle a la couleur de son régule: Elle salit les doigts +de la même teinte. Son tissu parait aussi lamelleux, et les +lames semblent affecter une sorte de divergence. Elle a +ainsi que lui, l'éclat métallique; comme lui elle se laisse +aplatir sous le marteau, et s'exfolie si l'on redouble les +coups; mais une circonstance qui est trop frappante +pour que je l'omette, c'est la figure de la manganèse +native, si prodigieusement conforme à celle du régule, +qu'on s'y laisseroit tromper, si la mine n'étoit encore +dans sa gangue: figure très-essentielle à observer ici, +parce qu'elle est due à la nature même de la manganèse. +En effet, pour réduire toutes les mines en général, il +faut employer divers flux appropriés. Pour la réduction +de la manganèse, bien loin d'user de ce moyen, +il faut, au contraire, éloigner tout flux, produire la fusion, +par la seule violence et la promptitude du feu. +Et telle est la propension naturelle et prodigieuse de la +manganèse à la vitrification, qu'on n'a pu parvenir encore +à réduire son régule en un seul culot; on trouve +dans le creuset plusieurs petits boutons, qui forment +autant de culots séparés. Dans la mine de manganèse +native, elle n'est point en une seule masse; elle est disposée +également en plusieurs culots séparés, et un peu +aplatis, comme ceux que l'art produit; beaucoup plus +gros, à la vérité, parce que les agens de la nature +doivent avoir une autre énergie, que ceux de nos laboratoires; +et cette ressemblance si exacte, semble devoir +vous faire penser que la mine native à été produite par +le feu, tout comme son régule. La présence de la +chaux argentée de la manganèse, me permettroit de +croire que la nature n'a fait que réduire cette chaux. +Du reste, cette mine native est très-pure, et ne contient +aucune partie attirable à l'aimant. Cette mine, unique +jusqu'à ce moment, vient, tout comme les autres manganèse +que j'ai décrites, des mines de fer de <i>Sem</i>, dans +la vallée de <i>Viedersos</i>, en Comté de Foix."—<i>Journal de +Physique, Janvier 1786</i>.</blockquote> + +<p>We come now to the <i>second</i> species of inflammable +bodies called oily or bituminous. +These substances are also found variously mixed +with mineral bodies, as well as forming +strata of themselves; they are, therefore, a +proper subject for a particular examination.</p> + +<p>In the process of vegetation, there are produced +oily and resinous substances; and, from +the collection of these substances at the bottom +of the ocean, there are formed strata, which +have afterwards undergone various degrees of +beat, and have been variously changed, in consequence +of the effects of that heat, according +as the distillation of the more volatile parts of +those bodies has been suffered to proceed.</p> + +<p>In order to understand this, it must be considered, +that, while immersed in water, and +under insuperable compression, the vegetable, +oily, and resinous substances, would appear to +be unalterable by heat; and it is only in proportion +as certain chemical separations take +place, that these inflammable bodies are changed +in their substance by the application of +heat. Now, the most general change of this +kind is in consequence of evaporation, or the +distillation of their more volatile parts, by +which oily substances become bituminous, and +bituminous substances become coaly.</p> + +<p>There is here a gradation which may be +best understood, by comparing the extremes.</p> + +<p>On the one hand, we know by experiment, +that oily and bituminous substances can be +melted and partly changed into vapour by +heat, and that they become harder and denser, +in proportion as the more volatile parts have +evaporated from them. On the other hand, +coaly substances are destitute of fusibility and +volatility, in proportion as they have been +exposed to greater degrees of heat, and to +other circumstances favourable to the dissipation +of their more volatile and fluid parts.</p> + +<p>If, therefore, in mineral bodies, we find the +two extreme states of this combustible substance, +and also the intermediate states, we +must either conclude, that this particular operation +of heat has been thus actually employed in +nature, or we must explain those appearances +by some other means, in as satisfactory a manner, +and so as shall be consistent with other +appearances.</p> + +<p>In this case, it will avail nothing to have +recourse to the false analogy of water dissolving +and crystallising salts, which has been so +much employed for the explanation of other +mineral appearances. The operation here in +question is of a different nature, and necessarily +requires both the powers of heat and proper +conditions for evaporation.</p> + +<p>Therefore, in order to decide the point, +with regard to what is the power in nature +by which mineral bodies have become solid, +we have but to find bituminous substance in +the most complete state of coal, intimately connected +with some other substance, which is +more generally found consolidating the strata, +and assisting in the concretion of mineral substances. +But I have in my possession the most +undoubted proof of this kind. It is a mineral +vein, or cavity, in which are blended together +coal of the most fixed kind, quartz and marmor +metallicum. Nor is this all; for the specimen +now referred to is contained in a rock +of this kind, which every naturalist now-a-days +will allow to have congealed from a fluid +state of fusion. I have also similar specimens +from the same place, in which the coal is not +of that fixed and infusible kind which burns +without flame or smoke, but is bituminous or +inflammable coal.</p> + +<p>We have hitherto been resting the argument +upon a single point, for the sake of simplicity +or clearness, not for want of those circumstances +which shall be found to corroborate +the theory. The strata of fossil coal are found +in almost every intermediate state, as well as +in those of bitumen and charcoal. Of the one +kind is that fossil coal which melts or becomes +fluid upon receiving heat; of the other, is that +species of coal, found both in Wales and Scotland, +which is perfectly infusible in the fire, +and burns like coals, without flame or smoke. +The one species abounds in oily matter, the +other has been distilled by heat, until it has +become a <i>caput mortuum</i>, or perfect coal.</p> + +<p>The more volatile parts of these bituminous +bodies are found in their separate state on +some occasions. There is a stratum of limestone +in Fifeshire, near Raith, which, though +but slightly tinged with a black colour, contains +bituminous matter, like pitch, in many +cavities, which are lined with calcareous spar +crystallised. I have a specimen of such a +cavity, in which the bitumen is in sphericles, +or rounded drops, immersed in the calcareous +spar.</p> + +<p>Now, it is to be observed, that, if the cavity +in the solid limestone or marble, which is lined +with calcareous crystals containing pyrites, +had been thus encrusted by means of the filtration +of water, this water must have dissolved +calcareous spar, pyrites, and bitumen. But +these natural appearances would not even be +explained by this dissolution and supposed filtration +of those substances. There is also required, +<i>first</i>, A cause for the separation of +those different substances from the aqueous +menstruum in which they had been dissolved; +<i>2dly</i>, An explanation of the way in which a +dissolved bitumen should be formed into round +hard bodies of the most solid structure; and, +<i>lastly</i>, Some probable means for this complicated +operation being performed, below the +bottom of the ocean, in the close cavity of a +marble stratum.</p> + +<p>Thus, the additional proof, from the facts +relating to the bituminous substances, conspiring +with that from the phenomena of other +bodies, affords the strongest corroboration of +this opinion, that the various concretions found +in the internal parts of strata have not been +occasioned by means of aqueous solution, but +by the power of heat and operation of simple +fusion, preparing those different substances to +concrete and crystallise in cooling.</p> + +<p>The arguments which have been now employed +for proving that strata have been consolidated +by the power of heat, or by the +means of fusion, have been drawn chiefly +from the insoluble nature of those consolidating +substances in relation to water, which is +the only general menstruum that can be allowed +for the mineral regions. But there are +found, in the mineral kingdom, many solid +masses of saltgem, which is a soluble substance. +It may be now inquired, How far these masses, +which are not infrequent in the earth, tend +either to confirm the present theory, or, on +the contrary, to give countenance to that +which supposes water the chief instrument in +consolidating strata.</p> + +<p>The formation of salt at the bottom of the +sea, without the assistance of subterranean fire, +is not a thing unsupposable, as at first sight it +might appear. Let us but suppose a rock +placed across the gut of Gibraltar, (a case nowise +unnatural), and the bottom of the Mediterranean +would be certainly filled with salt, +because the evaporation from the surface of +that sea exceeds the measure of its supply.</p> + +<p>But strata of salt, formed in this manner at +the bottom of the sea, are as far from being +consolidated by means of aqueous solution, as +a bed of sand in the same situation; and we +cannot explain the consolidation of such a +stratum of salt by means of water, without +supposing subterranean heat employed, to evaporate +the brine which would successively occupy +the interstices of the saline crystals. But +this, it may be observed, is equally departing +from the natural operation of water, as the +means for consolidating the sediment of the +ocean, as if we were to suppose the same thing +done by heat and fusion. For the question is +not, If subterranean heat be of sufficient intensity +for the purpose of consolidating strata +by the fusion of their substances; the question +is, Whether it be by means of this agent, subterranean +heat, or by water alone, without the +operation of a melting heat, that those materials +have been variously consolidated.</p> + +<p>The example now under consideration, +consolidated mineral salt, will serve to throw +some light upon the subject; for, as it is to +be shown, that this body of salt had been consolidated +by perfect fusion, and not by means +of aqueous solution, the consolidation of strata +of indissoluble substances, by the operation of +a melting heat, will meet with all that confirmation +which the consistency of natural appearances +can give.</p> + +<p>The salt rock in Cheshire lies in strata of +red marl. It is horizontal in its direction. +I do not know its thickness, but it is dug +thirty or forty feet deep. The body of +this rock is perfectly solid, and the salt, in +many places, pure, colourless, and transparent, +breaking with a sparry cubical structure. But +the greatest part is tinged by the admixture of +the marl, and that in various degrees, from +the slightest tinge of red, to the most perfect +opacity. Thus, the rock appears as if it had +been a mass of fluid salt, in which had been +floating a quantity of marly substance, not +uniformly mixed, but every where separating +and subsiding from the pure saline substance.</p> + +<p>There is also to be observed a certain regularity +in this separation of the tinging from +the colourless substance, which, at a proper +distance, gives to the perpendicular section of +the rock a distinguishable figure in its structure. +When looking at this appearance near +the bottom of the rock, it, at first, presented +me with the figure of regular stratification; +but, upon examining the whole mass of rock, +I found, that it was only towards the bottom +that this stratified appearance took place; and +that, at the top of the rock, the most beautiful +and regular figure was to be observed; but a +figure the most opposite to that of stratification. +It was all composed of concentric circles; +and these appeared to be the section of +a mass, composed altogether of concentric +spheres, like those beautiful systems of configuration +which agates so frequently present +us with in miniature. In about eight or ten +feet from the top, the circles growing large, +were blended together, and gradually lost their +regular appearance, until, at a greater depth, +they again appeared in resemblance of a stratification.</p> + +<p>This regular arrangement of the floating +marly substance in the body of salt, which is +that of the structure of a coated pebble, or that +of concentric spheres, is altogether inexplicable +upon any other supposition, than the +perfect fluidity or fusion of the salt, and the +attractions and repulsions of the contained substances. +It is in vain to look, in the operations +of solution and evaporation, for that +which nothing but perfect fluidity or fusion +can explain.</p> + +<p>This example of a mineral salt congealed +from a melted state, may be confirmed from +another which I have from Dr Black, who +suggested it to me. It is an alkaline salt, +found in a mineral state, and described in the +Philosophical Transactions, <i>anno</i> 1771. But +to understand this specimen, something must +be premised with regard to the nature of fossil +alkali.</p> + +<p>The fossil alkali crystallises from a dissolved +state, in combining itself with a large portion +of the water, in the manner of alum; and, in +this case, the water is essential to the constitution +of that transparent crystalline body; for, +upon the evaporation of the water, the transparent +salt loses its solidity, and becomes a +white powder. If, instead of being gently +dried, the crystalline salt is suddenly exposed +to a sufficient degree of heat, that is, somewhat +more than boiling water, it enters into +the state of aqueous fusion, and it boils, in +emitting the water by means of which it had +been crystallised in the cold, and rendered +fluid in that heated state. It is not possible to +crystallise this alkaline salt from a dissolved +state, without the combination of that quantity +of water, nor to separate that water without +destroying its crystalline state.</p> + +<p>But in this mineral specimen, we have a +solid crystalline salt, with a structure which, +upon fracture, appears to be sparry and radiated, +something resembling that of zeolite. It +contains no water in its crystallization, but +melts in a sufficient heat, without any aqueous +fusion. Therefore, this salt must have +been in a fluid state of fusion, immediately +before its congelation and crystallization.</p> + +<p>It would be endless to give examples of +particular facts, so many are the different natural +appearances that occur, attended with a +variety of different circumstances.</p> + +<p>There is one, however, which is peculiarly +distinct, admits of sufficiently accurate description, +and contains circumstances from +which conclusions may be drawn with clearness. +This is the ironstone, which is commonly +found among the argillaceous strata, +attendant upon fossil coal, both in Scotland +and in England.</p> + +<p>This stone is generally found among the +bituminous schistus, or black argillaceous strata, +either in separate masses of various shapes +and sizes, or forming of itself strata which are +more or less continuous in their direction +among the schistus or argillaceous beds.</p> + +<p>This mineral contains, in general, from 40 +to 50 <i>per cent.</i> of iron, and it loses near one +third of its weight in calcination. Before calcination +it is of a grey colour, is not penetrable +by water, and takes a polish. In this +state, therefore, it is perfectly solid; but being +calcined, it becomes red, porous, and tender.</p> + +<p>The fact to be proved with regard to these +iron-stones is this, That they have acquired +their solid state from fusion, and not in concreting +from any aqueous solution.</p> + +<p>To abridge this disquisition, no argument +is to be taken from contingent circumstances, +(which, however, are often found here as well +as in the case of marbles); such only are to +be employed as are general to the subject, and +arise necessarily from the nature of the operation.</p> + +<p>It will be proper to describe a species of +these stones, which is remarkably regular in +its form. It is that found at Aberlady, in +East Lothian.</p> + +<p>The form of these iron-stones is that of an +oblate or much compressed sphere, and the +size from two or three inches diameter to +more than a foot. In the circular or horizontal +section, they present the most elegant +septarium<a id="footnotetag9" name="footnotetag9"></a><a href="#footnote9"><sup>9</sup></a>; and, from the examination of +this particular structure, the following conclusions +may be drawn.</p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote9" name="footnote9"> +</a><b>Footnote 9:</b><a href="#footnotetag9"> (return) </a> +See <a href="#p1">Plate I.</a></blockquote> + +<p><i>First</i>, That, the septa have been formed by +the uniform contraction of the internal parts +of the stone, the volume of the central parts +diminishing more than that of the circumference; +by this means, the separations of the +stone diminish, in a progression from the +center towards the circumference.</p> + +<p><i>2d</i>, That there are only two ways in which +the septa must have received the spar or spatthose +ore with which they are filled, more or +less, either, <i>first</i> By insinuation into the cavity +of the septa after these were formed; or, +<i>2dly</i>, By separation from the substance of the +stone, at the same time that the septa were +forming.</p> + + + +<p>Were the first supposition true, appearances +would be observable, showing that the sparry +substance had been admitted, either through +the porous structure of the stone, or through +proper apertures communicating from without. +Now, if either one or other of these +had been the case, and that the stone had been +consolidated from no other cause than concretion +from a dissolved state, that particular +structure of the stone, by means of which the +spar had been admitted, must appear at present +upon an accurate examination.</p> + +<p>This, however, is not the case, and we may +rest the argument here. The septa reach not +the circumference; the surface of the stone +is solid and uniform in every part; and there +is not any appearance of the spar in the argillaceous +bed around the stone.</p> + +<p>It, therefore, necessarily follows, that the +contraction of the iron-stone, in order to form +septa, and the filling of these cavities with +spar, had proceeded<i>pari passu</i>; and that this +operation must have been brought about by +means of fusion, or by congelation from a +state of simple fluidity and expansion.</p> + +<p>It is only further to be observed, that all +the arguments which have been already employed, +concerning mineral concretions from +a simply fluid state, or that of fusion, here +take place. I have septaria of this kind, in +which, besides pyrites, iron-ore, calcareous +spar, and another that is ferruginous and compound, +there is contained siliceous crystals; a +case which is not so common. I have them +also attended with circumstances of concretion +and crystallization, which, besides being extremely +rare, are equally curious and interesting.</p> + +<p>There is one fact more which is well worth +our attention, being one of those which are +so general in the mineral regions. It is the +crystallizations which are found in close cavities +of the most solid bodies.</p> + +<p>Nothing is more common than this appearance. +Cavities are every where found closely +lined with crystallizations, of every different +substance which may be supposed in those +places. These concretions are well known to +naturalists, and form part of the beautiful specimens +which are preserved in the cabinets of +collectors, and which the German mineralists +have termed <i>Drusen</i>. I shall only particularise +one species, which may be described upon +principle, and therefore may be a proper subject +on which to reason, for ascertaining the +order of production in certain bodies. This +body, which we are now to examine, is of +the agate species.</p> + +<p>We have now been considering the means +employed by nature in consolidating strata +which were originally of an open structure; +but in perfectly solid strata we find bodies of +agate, which have evidently been formed in +that place where they now are found. This +fact, however, is not still that of which we +are now particularly to inquire; for this, of +which we are to treat, concerns only a cavity +within this agate; now, whatever may have +been the origin of the agate itself, we are to +show, from what appears within its cavity, +that the crystallizations which are found in +this place had arisen from a simply fluid state, +and not from that of any manner of solution.</p> + +<p>The agates now in question are those of +the coated kind, so frequent in this country, +called pebbles. Many of these are filled with +a siliceous crystallization, which evidently +proceeds from the circumference towards the +centre. Many of them, again, are hollow. +Those cavities are variously lined with crystallized +substances; and these are the object +of the present examination.</p> + +<p>But before describing what is found within, +it is necessary to attend to this particular +circumstance, that the cavity is perfectly inclosed +with many solid coats, impervious to +air or water, but particularly with the external +cortical part, which is extremely hard, +takes the highest polish, and is of the most +perfect solidity, admitting the passage of nothing +but light and heat.</p> + +<p>Within these cavities, we find, <i>1st</i>, The +coat of crystals with which this cavity is always +lined; and this is general to all substances +concreting, in similar circumstances, +from a state of fusion; for when thus at liberty +they naturally crystallise. <i>2dly</i>, We +have frequently a subsequent crystallization, +resting on the first, and more or less immersed +in it. <i>3dly</i>, There is also sometimes a +third crystallization, superincumbent on the +second, in like manner as the second was on +the first. I shall mention some particulars.</p> + +<p>I have one specimen, in which the primary +crystals are siliceous, the secondary thin foliaceous +crystals of deep red but transparent iron-ore, +forming elegant figures, that have the +form of roses. The tertiary crystallization is +a frosting of small siliceous crystals upon the +edges of the foliaceous crystals.</p> + +<p>In other specimens, there is first a lining of +colourless siliceous crystals, then another lining +of amethystine crystals, and sometimes +within that, fuliginous crystals. Upon these +fuliginous and amethystine crystals are many +sphericles or hemispheres of red compact iron-ore, +like haematites.</p> + +<p>In others, again, the primary crystals are +siliceous, and the secondary calcareous. Of +this kind, I have one which has, upon the +calcareous crystals, beautiful transparent siliceous +crystals, and iron sphericles both upon +all these crystals, and within them.</p> + +<p><i>Lastly</i>, I have an agate formed of various +red and white coats, and beautifully figured. +The cavity within the coated part of the pebble +is filled up without vacuity, first, with colourless +siliceous crystals; secondly, with fuliginous +crystals; and, lastly, with white or +colourless calcareous spar. But between the +spar and crystals there are many sphericles, +seemingly of iron, half sunk into each of +these two different substances.</p> + +<p>From these facts, I may now be allowed to +draw the following conclusions:</p> + +<p>1<i>st</i>, That concretion had proceeded from the +surface of the agate body inwards. This necessarily +follows from the nature of those figured +bodies, the figures of the external coats always +determining the shape of those within, and +never, contrarily, those within affecting those +without.</p> + +<p>2<i>dly</i>, That when the agate was formed, +the cavity then contained every thing which +now is found within it, and nothing more.</p> + +<p>3<i>dly</i>, That the contained substances must +have been in a fluid state, in order to their +crystallizing.</p> + +<p><i>Lastly</i>, That as this fluid state had not been +the effect of solution in a menstruum, it must +have been fluidity from heat and fusion.</p> + +<p>Let us now make one general observation +and argument with regard to the formation +of those various coated, concreted, crystallized, +and configured bodies. Were the crystallization +and configuration found to proceed +from a central body, and to be directed from +that centre outwards, then, without inquiring +into collateral appearances, and other proofs +with regard to the natural concretion of those +substances, we might suppose that these concretions +might have proceeded from that central +body gradually by accretion, and that the +concreting and crystallizing substances might +have been supplied from a fluid which had +before retained the concreting substance in solution; +in like manner as the crystallizations +of sugar, which are formed in the solution of +that saccharine substance, and are termed candies, +are formed upon the threads which are +extended in the crystallizing vessel for that +purpose. But if, on the contrary, we are to +consider those mineral bodies as spheres of +alternate coats, composed of agate, crystal, +spars, etc.; and if all those crystallizations +have their <i>bases</i> upon the uncrystallized coat +which is immediately external to it, and their +<i>apices</i> turned inwards into the next internal +solid coat, it is not possible to conceive that a +structure of this kind could have been formed +in any manner from a solution. But this +last manner is the way without exception in +which those mineral bodies are found; therefore +we are to conclude, that the concretion +of those bodies had proceeded immediately +from a state of fusion or simple fluidity.</p> + +<p>In granite these cavities are commonly lined +with the crystal corresponding to the constituent +substances of the stone, viz. quartz, +feld-spar, and mica or talk. M. de Saussure, +(Voyages dans les Alpes, tom. ii. §722.), +says, "On trouve fréquemment des amas +considérables de spath calcaire, crystallisé +dans les grottes ou se forme le crystal de +roche; quoique ces grottes soient renfermées +dans le coeur des montagnes d'un +granit vif, & qu'on ne voie aucun roc calcaire +au dessus de ces montagnes."</p> + +<p>So accurate an observer, and so complete a +naturalist, must have observed how the extraneous +substance had been introduced into this +cavity, had they not been formed together +the cavity and the calcareous crystals. That +M. de Saussure perceived no means for that +introduction, will appear from what immediately +follows in that paragraph. "Ces rocs +auroient-ils été détruits, ou bien ce spath +n'est il que le produit d'une sécrétion des +parties calcaires que l'on fait êtres dispersées +entre les divers élémens du granit?"</p> + +<p>Had M. de Saussure allowed himself to +suppose all those substances in fusion, of which +there cannot be a doubt, he would soon have +resolved both this difficulty, and also that of +finding molybdena crystallized along with +feld-spar, in a cavity of this kind. §718.</p> + +<p>To this argument, taken from the close cavities +in our agates, I am now to add another +demonstration. It is the case of the calcedony +agate, containing a body of calcareous +spar; here it is to be shown, that, while the +calcareous body was altogether inclosed within +the calcedony nodular body, these two +substances had been perfectly soft, and had +mutually affected each others shape, in concreting +from a fluid state. In order to see +this, we are to consider that both those substances +have specific shapes in which they +concrete from the third state; the sparry +structure of the one is well known; the spherical +or mammelated crystallization of the calcedony, +is no less conspicuous; this last is, +in the present case, spherical figures, which +are some of them hemispheres, or even more. +The figures which we have now in contemplation +are so distinctly different as cannot be +mistaken; the one is a rhombic figure bounded +by planes; the other is a most perfect +spherical form; and both these are specific figures, +belonging respectively to the crystallization +of those two substances.</p> + +<p>The argument now to be employed for +proving that those two bodies had concreted +from the fluid state of fusion, and not from +any manner of solution, is this: That, were +the one of those bodies to be found impressing +the other with its specific figure, we must +conclude that the impressing body had concreted +or crystallized while the impressed body +was in a soft or fluid state; and that, if +they are both found mutually impressing and +impressed by each other, they must have both +been in the fluid and concreting state together. +Now the fact is, that the calcareous +body is perfectly inclosed within the solid calcedony, +and that they are mutually impressed +by each others specific figure, the sparry +structure of the calcareous body impressing +the calcedony with its type of planes and angles, +at the same time that, in other parts, the +spherical figures of the calcedony enter the +solid body of the spar, and thus impress their +mammelated figures into that part which is +contiguous. It is therefore inconceivable, +that these appearances could have been produced +in any other manner than by those two +bodies concreting from a simply fluid state.</p> + +<p>There are in jaspers and agates many other +appearances, from whence the fusion of those +substances may be concluded with great certainty +and precision; but it is hoped, that +what has been now given may suffice for +establishing that proposition without any +doubt.</p> + +<p>It must not be here objected, That there +are frequently found siliceous crystals and amethysts +containing water; and that it is impossible +to confine water even in melted glass. +It is true, that here, at the surface of the +earth, melted glass cannot, in ordinary circumstances, +be made to receive and inclose +condensed water; but let us only suppose a +sufficient degree of compression in the body +of melted glass, and we can easily imagine it +to receive and confine water as well as any +other substance. But if, even in our operations, +water, by means of compression, may +be made to endure the heat of red hot iron +without being converted into vapour, what +may not the power of nature be able to perform? +The place of mineral operations is not +on the surface of the earth; and we are not +to limit nature with our imbecility, or estimate +the powers of nature by the measure of +our own.<a id="footnotetag10" name="footnotetag10"></a><a href="#footnote10"><sup>10</sup></a></p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote10" name="footnote10"></a><b>Footnote 10:</b><a href="#footnotetag10"> (return) </a> This is so material a principle in the theory of consolidating +the strata of the earth by the fusion of mineral +substances, that I beg the particular attention of the reader +to that subject. The effect of compression upon +compound substances, submitted to increased degrees of +heat, is not a matter of supposition, it is an established +principle in natural philosophy. This, like every other +physical principle, is founded upon matter of fact or experience; +we find, that many compound substances may +with heat be easily changed, by having their more volatile +parts separated when under a small compression; but +these substances are preserved without change when sufficiently +compressed. Our experiments of this kind are +necessarily extremely limited; they are not, however, for +that reason, the less conclusive. The effects of increasing +degrees of heat are certainly prevented by increasing degrees +of compression; but the rate at which the different +effects of those powers proceed, or the measure of those +different degrees of increase that may be made without +changing the constitution of the compound substance, are +not known; nor is there any limit to be set to that operation, +so far as we know. Consequently, it is a physical +principle, That the evaporation of volatile substances by +heat, or the reparation of them from a compound substance, +consequently the effect of fire in changing that +compound substance, may be absolutely prevented by +means of compression. + +<p>It now remains to be considered, how far there is reason +to conclude that there had been sufficient degrees of +compression in the mineral regions, for the purpose of +melting the various substances with which we find strata +consolidated, without changing the chemical constitution +of those compound substances.</p> + +<p>Had I, in reasoning <i>a priori</i>, asserted, That all mineral +bodies might have been melted without change, when under +sufficient compression, there might have arisen, in the +minds of reasoning men, some doubt with regard to the +certainty of that proposition, however probable it were to +be esteemed: But when, in reasoning <i>a posteriori</i>, it is +found that all mineral bodies have been actually melted, +then, all that is required to establish the proposition on +which I have founded my theory, is to see that there must +have been immense degrees of compression upon the subjects +in question; for we neither know the degree of heat +which had been employed, nor that of compression by +which the effect of the heat must have been modified.</p> + +<p>Now, in order to see that there had been immense compression, +we have but to consider that the formation of +the strata, which are to be consolidated, was at the bottom +of the ocean, and that this place is to us unfathomable. +If it be farther necessary to show that it had been +at such unfathomable depth strata were consolidated, it +will be sufficient to observe, it is not upon the surface of +the earth, or above the level of the sea, that this mineral +operation can take place; for, it is there that those consolidated +bodies are redissolved, or necessarily going into +decay, which is the opposite to that operation which we +are now inquiring after; therefore, if they were consolidated +in any other place than at the bottom of the sea, it +must have been between that place of their formation and +the surface of the sea; but that is a supposition which we +have not any reason to make; therefore, we must conclude +that it was at the bottom of the ocean those stratified +bodies had been consolidated.</blockquote> + +<p>To conclude this long chemico-mineral disquisition, +I have specimens in which the mixture +of calcareous, siliceous, and metallic substances, +in almost every species of concretion +which is to be found in mineral bodies, may +be observed, and in which there is exhibited, +in miniature, almost every species of mineral +transaction, which, in nature, is found upon +a scale of grandeur and magnificence. They +are nodules contained in the whin-stone, porphyry, +or basaltes of the Calton-hill, by Edinburgh; +a body which is to be afterwards +examined, when it will be found to have +flowed, and to have been in fusion, by the +operation of subterraneous heat.</p> + +<p>This evidence, though most conclusive with +regard to the application of subterraneous heat, +as the means employed in bringing into fusion +all the different substances with which strata +may be found consolidated, is not directly a +proof that strata had been consolidated by the +fusion of their proper substance. It was necessary +to see the general nature of the evidence, +for the universal application of subterraneous +heat, in the fusion of every kind of +mineral body. Now, that this has been done, +we may give examples of strata consolidated +without the introduction of foreign matter, +merely by the softening or fusion of their own +materials.</p> + +<p>For this purpose, we may consider two different +species of strata, such as are perfectly +simple in their nature, of the most distinct substances, +and whose origin is perfectly understood, +consequently, whose subsequent changes +may be reasoned upon with certainty and clearness. +These are the siliceous and calcareous +strata; and these are the two prevailing substances +of the globe, all the rest being, in comparison +of these, as nothing; for unless it be +the bituminous or coal strata, there is hardly +any other which does not necessarily contain +more or less of one or other of these two substances. +If, therefore, it can be shown, that +both of those two general strata have been +consolidated by the simple fusion of their substance, +no <i>desideratum</i> or doubt will remain, +with regard to the nature of that operation +which has been transacted at great depths of +the earth, places to which all access is denied +to mortal eyes.</p> + +<p>We are now to prove, <i>first</i>, That those strata +have been consolidated by simple fusion; +and, <i>2dly</i>, That this operation is universal, in +relation to the strata of the earth, as having +produced the various degrees of solidity or +hardness in these bodies.</p> + +<p>I shall first remark, that a fortuitous collection +of hard bodies, such as gravel and sand, +can only touch in points, and cannot, while +in that hard state, be made to correspond so +precisely to each others shape as to consolidate +the mass. But if these hard bodies should be +softened in their substance, or brought into a +certain degree of fusion, they might be adapted +mutually to each other, and thus consolidate +the open structure of the mass. Therefore, +to prove the present point, we have but +to exhibit specimens of siliceous and calcareous +strata which have been evidently consolidated +in this manner.</p> + +<p>Of the first kind, great varieties occur in +this country. It is, therefore, needless to describe +these particularly. They are the consolidated +strata of gravel and sand, often containing +abundance of feld-spar, and thus graduating +into granite; a body, in this respect, +perfectly similar to the more regular strata +which we now examine.</p> + +<p>The second kind, again, are not so common +in this country, unless we consider the shells +and coralline bodies in our lime-stones, as exhibiting +the same example, which indeed they +do. But I have a specimen of marble from +Spain, which may be described, and which +will afford the most satisfactory evidence of +the fact in question.</p> + +<p>This Spanish marble may be considered as +a species of pudding-stone, being formed of +calcareous gravel; a species of marble which, +from Mr Bowles' Natural History, appears to +be very common in Spain. The gravel of +which this marble is composed, consists of +fragments of other marbles of different kinds. +Among these, are different species of <i>oolites</i> +marble, some shell marbles, and some composed +of a chalky substance, or of undistinguishable +parts. But it appears, that all these +different marbles had been consolidated or +made hard, then broken into fragments, rolled +and worn by attrition, and thus collected together, +along with some sand or small siliceous +bodies, into one mass. Lastly, This compound +body is consolidated in such a manner +as to give the most distinct evidence, that this +had been executed by the operation of heat or +simple fusion.</p> + +<p>The proof I give is this, That besides the +general conformation of those hard bodies, so +as to be perfectly adapted to each other's +shape, there is, in some places, a mutual indentation +of the different pieces of gravel into +each other; an indentation which resembles +perfectly that junction of the different bones +of the <i>cranium</i>, called sutures, and which must +have necessarily required a mixture of those +bodies while in a soft or fluid state.</p> + +<p>This appearance of indentation is by no +means singular, or limited to one particular +specimen. I have several specimens of different +marbles, in which fine examples of this +species of mixture may be perceived. But in +this particular case of the Spanish pudding-stone, +where the mutual indentation is made +between two pieces of hard stone, worn round +by attrition, the softening or fusion of these +two bodies is not simply rendered probable, +but demonstrated.</p> + +<p>Having thus proved, that those strata had +been consolidated by simple fusion, as proposed, +we now proceed to show, that this mineral +operation had been not only general, as being +found in all the regions of the globe, but +universal, in consolidating our earth in all the +various degrees, from loose and incoherent +shells and sand, to the most solid bodies of the +siliceous and calcareous substances.</p> + +<p>To exemplify this in the various collections +and mixtures of sands, gravels, shells, and corals, +were endless and superfluous. I shall only +take, for an example, one simple homogeneous +body, in order to exhibit it in the various +degrees of consolidation, from the state of +simple incoherent earth to that of the most solid +marble. It must be evident that this is +chalk; naturally a soft calcareous earth, but +which may be also found consolidated in every +different degree.</p> + +<p>Through the middle of the Isle of Wight, +there runs a ridge of hills of indurated chalk. +This ridge runs from the Isle of Wight directly +west into Dorsetshire, and goes by Corscastle +towards Dorchester, perhaps beyond that +place. The sea has broke through this ridge +at the west end of the Isle of Wight, where +columns of the indurated chalk remain, called +the Needles; the same appearance being found +upon the opposite shore in Dorsetshire.</p> + +<p>In this field of chalk, we find every gradation +of that soft earthy substance to the most +consolidated body of this indurated ridge, +which is not solid marble, but which has lost +its chalky property, and has acquired a kind +of stony hardness.</p> + +<p>We want only further to see this cretaceous +substance in its most indurated and consolidated +state; and this we have in the north of +Ireland, not far from the Giants Causeway. +I have examined cargoes of this lime-stone +brought to the west of Scotland, and find the +most perfect evidence of this body having +been once a mass of chalk, which is now a +solid marble.</p> + +<p>Thus, if it is by means of fusion that the +strata of the earth have been, in many places, +consolidated, we must conclude, that all the +degrees of consolidation, which are indefinite, +have been brought about by the same means.</p> + +<p>Now, that all the strata of the mineral regions, +which are those only now examined, +have been consolidated in some degree, is a +fact for which no proof can be offered here, +but must be submitted to experience and inquiry; +so far, however, as they shall be considered +as consolidated in any degree, which +they certainly are in general, we have investigated +the means which had been employed in +that mineral operation.</p> + +<p>We have now considered the concretions of +particular bodies, and the general consolidation +of strata; but it may be alleged, that there is +a great part of the solid mass of this earth not +properly comprehended among those bodies +which have been thus proved to be consolidated +by means of fusion. The body here alluded +to is granite; a mass which is not generally +stratified, and which, being a body perfectly +solid, and forming some part in the +structure of this earth, deserves to be considered.</p> + +<p>The nature of granite, as a part of the structure +of the earth, is too intricate a subject to +be here considered, where we only seek to +prove the fusion of a substance from the evident +marks which are to be observed in a body. +We shall, therefore, only now consider +one particular species of granite; and if this +shall appear to have been in a fluid state of fusion, +we may be allowed to extend this property +to all the kind.</p> + +<p>The species now to be examined comes from +the north country, about four or five miles west +from Portfoy, on the road to Huntly. I have +not been upon the spot, but am informed that +this rock is immediately connected or continuous +with the common granite of the country. +This indeed appears in the specimens +which I have got; for, in some of these, there +is to be perceived a gradation from the regular +to the irregular sort.</p> + +<p>This rock may indeed be considered, in +some respects, as a porphyry; for it has an +evident ground, which is feld-spar, in its sparry +state; and it is, in one view, distinctly maculated +with quartz, which is transparent, but +somewhat dark-coloured<a id="footnotetag11" name="footnotetag11"></a><a href="#footnote11"><sup>11</sup></a>.</p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote11" name="footnote11"> +</a><b>Footnote 11:</b><a href="#footnotetag11"> (return) </a> +See: <a href="#p2">Plate II. fig. 1. 2. 3.</a>*</blockquote> + +<p>Considered as a porphyry, this specimen is +no less singular than as a granite. For, instead +of a siliceous ground, maculated with the +rhombic feld-spar, which is the common state +of porphyry, the ground is uniformly crystallised, +or a homogeneous regular feld-spar, maculated +with the transparent siliceous substance. +But as, besides the feld-spar and quartz, which +are the constituent parts of the stone, there is +also mica, in some places, it may, with propriety, +be termed a granite. + +<p>The singularity of this specimen consists, +not in the nature or proportions of its constituent +parts, but in the uniformity of the sparry +ground, and the regular shape of the quartz +mixture. This siliceous substance, viewed in +one direction, or longitudinally, may be considered +as columnar, prismatical, or continued +in lines running nearly parallel. These columnar +bodies of quartz are beautifully impressed +with a figure on the sides, where they are in +contact with the spar. This figure is that of +furrows or channels, which are perfectly parallel, +and run across the longitudinal direction +of the quartz. This is represented in fig. 4. +This striated figure is only seen when, by +fracture, the quartz is separated from the contiguous +spar.</p> + +<p>But what I would here more particularly +represent is, the transverse section of those +longitudinal siliceous bodies These are seen +in fig. 1. 2. and 3. They have not only separately +the forms of certain typographic +characters, but collectively give the regular +lineal appearance of types set in writing.</p> + +<p>It is evident from the inspection of this fossil, +that the sparry and siliceous substances had +been mixed together in a fluid state; and that +the crystallization of the sparry substance, +which is rhombic, had determined the regular +structure of the quartz, at least in some directions.</p> + +<p>Thus, the siliceous substance is to be considered +as included in the spar, and as figured, +according to the laws of crystallization proper +to the sparry ground; but the spar is also to +be found included in the quartz. It is not, +indeed, always perfectly included or inclosed +on all sides; but this is sometimes the case, or +it appears so in the section. Fig. 5. 6. 7. 8. +9. and 10. are those cases magnified, and represent +the different figured quartz inclosing +the feld-spar. In one of them, the feld-spar, +which is contained within the quartz, contains +also a small triangle of quartz, which it +incloses. Now, it is not possible to conceive +any other way in which those two substances, +quartz and feld-spar, could be thus concreted, +except by congelation from a fluid +state, in which they had been mixed.</p> + +<p>There is one thing more to be observed +with regard to this curious species of granite. +It is the different order or arrangement of the +crystallization or internal structure of the feld-spar +ground, in two contiguous parts of the +same mass. This is to be perceived in the +polished surface of the stone, by means of the +reflection of light.</p> + +<p>There is a certain direction in which, viewing +the stone, when the light falls with a proper +obliquity, we see a luminous reflection +from the internal parts of the stone. This +arises from the reflecting surfaces of the sparry +structure or minute cracks, all turned in +one direction, consequently, giving that luminous +appearance only in one point of view.</p> + +<p>Now, all the parts of the stone in which +the figured quartz is directed in the same +manner, or regularly placed in relation to each +other, present that shining appearance to the +eye at one time, or in the same point of direction. +But there are parts of the mass, which, +though immediately contiguous and properly +continuous, have a different disposition +of the figured quartz; and these two distinguished +masses, in the same surface of the polished +stone, give to the eye their shining appearance +in very different directions. Fig. 3. +shows two of those figured and shining masses, +in the same plane or polished surface.</p> + +<p>It must be evident, that, as the crystallization +of the sparry structure is the figuring +cause of the quartz bodies, there must be observed +a certain correspondency between those +two things, the alinement (if I may be allowed +the expression) of the quartz, and the shining +of the sparry ground. It must also appear, +that at the time of congelation of the +fluid spar, those two contiguous portions had +been differently disposed in the crystallization +of their substance. This is an observation +which I have had frequent opportunities of +making, with respect to masses of calcareous +spar.</p> + +<p>Upon the whole, therefore, whether we +shall consider granite as a stratum or as an irregular +mass, whether as a collection of several +materials, or as the separation of substances +which had been mixed, there is sufficient +evidence of this body having been consolidated +by means of fusion, and in no other +manner.</p> + +<p>We are thus led to suppose, that the power +of heat and operation of fusion must have been +employed in consolidating strata of loose materials, +which had been collected together and +amassed at the bottom of the ocean. It will, +therefore, be proper to consider, what are the +appearances in consolidated strata that naturally +should follow, on the one hand, from fluidity +having been, in this manner, introduced +by means of heat, and, on the other, from the +interstices being filled by means of solution; +that so we may compare appearances with the +one and other of those two suppositions, in +order to know that with which they may be +only found consistent.</p> + +<p>The consolidation of strata with every different +kind of substance was found to be inconsistent +with the supposition, that aqueous +solution had been the means employed for this +purpose. This appearance, on the contrary, +is perfectly consistent with the idea, that the +fluidity of these bodies had been the effect of +heat; for, whether we suppose the introduction +of foreign matter into the porous mass of +a stratum for its consolidation, or whether we +shall suppose the materials of the mass acquiring +a degree of softness, by means of which, +together with an immense compression, the +porous body might be rendered solid; the +power of heat, as the cause of fluidity and vapour, +is equally proper and perfectly competent. +Here, therefore, appearances are as decidedly +in favour of the last supposition, as +they had been inconsistent with the first.</p> + +<p>But if strata have been consolidated by +means of aqueous solution, these masses should +be found precisely in the same state as when +they were originally deposited from the water. +The perpendicular section of those masses +might show the compression of the bodies included +in them, or of which they are composed; +but the horizontal section could not +contain any separation of the parts of the stratum +from one another.</p> + +<p>If, again, strata have been consolidated by +means of heat, acting in such a manner as to +soften their substance, then, in cooling, they +must have formed rents or separations of their +substance, by the unequal degrees of contraction +which the contiguous strata may have +suffered. Here is a most decisive mark by +which the present question must be determined.</p> + +<p>There is not in nature any appearance more +distinct than this of the perpendicular fissures +and separations in strata. These are generally +known to workmen by the terms of veins +or backs and cutters; and there is no consolidated +stratum that wants these appearances. +Here is, therefore, a clear decision of the +question, Whether it has been by means of +heat, or by means of aqueous solution, that +collections of loose bodies at the bottom of +the sea have been consolidated into the hardest +rocks and most perfect marbles<a id="footnotetag12" name="footnotetag12"></a><a href="#footnote12"><sup>12</sup></a>.</p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote12" name="footnote12"></a><b>Footnote 12:</b><a href="#footnotetag12"> (return) </a> This subject is extremely interesting, both to the +theory of the earth, and to the science cf the mining art; +I will now illustrate that theory, with an authority which I +received after giving this dissertation to the Royal Society. +It is in the second volume of M. de Saussure's <i>voyages dans +les Alpes</i>. Here I find proper examples for illustrating that +subject of mineralogy; and I am happy to have this opportunity +of giving the reasoning of a man of science upon +the subject, and the opinion of a person who is in every +respect so well qualified to judge upon a point of this +kind. + +<p>The first example is of a marble in the Alps, (<i>voyages +dans les Alpes.</i>) tom. 2. page 271.</p> + +<p>"La pâte de ces brèches est tantôt blanche, tantôt +grise, et les fragmens qui y font renfermés font, les +uns blancs, les autres gris, d'autres roux, et presque toujours +d'une couleur différente de celle de la pâte qui +les lit. Ils sont tous de nature calcaire; tels étaient au +moins tous ceux que j'ai pus observer; et ce qu'il-y-a de +remarquable, c'est qu'ils sont tous posés dans le sens des +feuillets de la pierre; on diroit en les voyant, qu'ils +ont tous été comprimés et écrasés dans le même sens. +Cette même pierre est mêlée de mica, sur-tout dans les +interstices des couches et entre les fragmens et la pâte +qui les réunit; mais on ne voit point de mica dans les +fragmens eux-mêmes. On trouve aussi dans ces brèches +des infiltrations de quartz. Cette pierre est coupée +par des fréquentes fissures perpendiculaires aux plans +des couches. On voit clairement que ces fentes out +été formées par l'inégal affaissement des couches, et +non par une retraite spontanée: car les morceaux ou +fragmens étrangers sont tous partagés et coupés net par +ces fissures au lieu que dans les divisions naturelles des +couches, ces mêmes fragmens sont entiers et saillans au +dehors de la surface. Les noeuds de quartz et les divers +crystaux, que renferment les roches feuilletées, +présentent le même phénomène, et l'on peut en tirer +la même conséquence; ils font partagés dans les fentes, +et entiers dans les séparations des couches."</p> + +<p>He finds those particular strata in the other side of the +mountain <i>col de la Seigne</i>, and gives us the following observations:</p> + +<p>"Plus bas on passe entre deux bancs de ces mêmes +brèches, entre lesquels sont interposées des couches d'ardoises +noires et de grès feuilletés micacés, dont la situation +est la même.</p> + +<p>"On retrouve encore ces brèches vers le has de la descente, +au pied de pyramides calcaires dont j'ai parlé +plus haut. Je trouvai en 1774 de très-jolis crystaux de +roche qui s'étaient formés dans les fentes de cette +brèche. Il y avoit même un mélange de quartz et de +mica qui s'étoit moulé dans quelques-une de ces fentes. +C'étoit donc une roche semblable aux primitives, et +pourtant d'une formation postérieure à celle de la pierre +calcaire. Et quel système pourroit nous persuader que +la nature ne puisse encore produire ce qu'elle a produit +autrefois!"</p> + +<p>M. de Saussure has here given us an example of a calcareous +Braccia, as he calls it, but which is rather a pudding +stone, with veins or contractions of the mass. He +does not seem to understand these as consequences of the +consolidation of those strata; this, however, is the only +light in which these appearances may be explained, when +those bodies are thus divided without any other separation +in the mass.</p> + +<p>The second example is found in the vertical strata of +those mountains through which the Rhône has made its +way in running from the great valley of the <i>Vallais</i> towards +the lake of Geneva. (Chapitre xlviii.)</p> + +<p>"C'est une espèce de pétrosilex gris, dur, sonore, un +peu transparent, qui se débite en feuillets minces parfaitement +plans et réguliers. Ces feuillets, ou plutôt +ces couches, courent à 35 degrés du nord par est, en +montant du coté de l'ouest sous un angle de 80 degrés. +Ces couches sont coupées par des fentes qui leur sont à-peu-près +perpendiculaires et qui le sont aussi à l'horizon. +Cette pierre s'emploie aux mêmes usage que l'ardoise, +mais elle est beaucoup plus forte et plus durable, parce +qu'elle est plus dure et moins accessible aux impressions +de l'eau et de l'air.</p> + +<p>§ 1047. "Ces pétrosilex feuilletés changent peu-à-peu +de nature, en admettant dans les interstices de leurs +feuillets des parties de feldspath. Ils out alors l'apparence +d'une roche feuilletée, quartzeuse et micacée, +(<i>quartzum fornacum W.</i>). Mais cette apparence est +trompeuse; car on n'y trouve pas un atome de quartz: +toutes les parties blanches qui donnent du feu contre +l'acier, font du feldspath; et les parties grise écailleuses +ne font point du mica, ce sont de lames minces du pétrosilex +dont j'ai déjà parlé."</p> + +<p>Here is evidently what I would call petuntze strata, or +porcelane stone, that is, strata formed by the deposits of +such materials as might come from the <i>detritus</i> of granite, +arranged at the bottom of the sea, and consolidated by +heat in the mineral regions. We have precisely such stratified +masses in the Pentland hills near Edinburgh. I have +also a specimen of the same kind, brought from the East +Indies, in which there is the print of an organized body. +I believe it to be of some coralline or zoophite.</p> + +<p>§ 1048. "Cette roche mélangée continue jusqu'à ce +que le rocher s'éloigne un peu du grand chemin. Là, +ce rocher se présente coupé à pic dans une grande étendue, +et divisé par de grandes fentes obliques, à-peu-près +parallèles entr'elles. Ces fentes partagent la montagne +en grandes tranches de 50 à 60 pieds d'épaisseur, +que de loin semblent être des couches. Mais lorsqu'on +s'en approche, on voit, par le tissu même de la pierre +feuilletée, que ses vraies couches font avec l'horizon des +angles de 70 à 75 degré, et que ces grandes divisions +sont de vraies fentes par lesquelles un grand nombre de +couches consécutives sont coupées presque perpendiculairement +à leurs plans. Les masses de rocher, comprises +entre ces grandes fentes, sont encore divisées par +d'autres fentes plus petites, dont la plupart sont paralleles +aux grandes, d'autres leur sont obliques; mais +toutes sont à très-peu-près perpendiculaires aux plans +des couchés dont la montagne est composée."</p> + +<p>Here is a distinct view of that which may be found to +take place in all consolidated strata, whatever be the composition +of the stratum; and it is this appearance which is +here maintained to be a physical demonstration, that those +strata had been consolidated by means of heat softening +their materials. In that case, those stratified bodies, contracting +in cooling, form veins and fissures traversing perpendicularly +their planes; and these veins are afterwards +filled with mineral substances. These are what I have +here distinguished as the <i>particular</i> veins of mineral masses; +things perfectly different from proper mineral or metallic +veins, which are more general, as belonging to immense +masses of those strata; and which had been formed, +not from the contraction, but from the disrupture of those +masses, and by the forcible injection of fluid mineral substances +from below. Now these two species of veins, the +particular and the general, although occasionally connected, +must be in science carefully distinguished; in the one, +we see the means which had been employed for the +consolidation of the strata; in the other, we see that +power by which the strata have been raised from the bottom +of the sea and placed in the atmosphere.</blockquote> + +<p>Error never can be consistent, nor can truth +fail of having support from the accurate examination +of every circumstance. It is not +enough to have found appearances decisive of +the question, with regard to the two suppositions +which have been now considered, we +may farther seek confirmation of that supposition +which has been found alone consistent +with appearances.</p> + +<p>If it be by means of heat and fusion that +strata have been consolidated, then, in proportion +to the degree of consolidation they have +undergone from their original state, they +should, <i>caeteris paribus</i>, abound more with +separations in their mass. But this conclusion +is found consistent with appearances. A stratum +of porous sand-stone does not abound so +much with veins and cutters as a similar stratum +of marble, or even a similar stratum of +sand-stone that is more consolidated. In proportion, +therefore, as strata have been consolidated, +they are in general intersected with +veins and cutters; and in proportion as strata +are deep in their perpendicular section, the +veins are wide, and placed at greater distances. +In like manner, when strata are thin, the veins +are many, but proportionally narrow.</p> + +<p>It is thus, upon chemical principles, to be +demonstrated, That all the solid strata of the +globe have been condensed by means of heat, +and hardened from a state of fusion. But this +proposition is equally to be maintained from +principles which are mechanical. The strata +of the globe, besides being formed of earths, +are composed of sand, of gravel, and fragments +of hard bodies, all which may be considered +as, in their nature, simple; but these +strata are also found composed of bodies which +are not simple, but are fragments of former +strata, which had been consolidated, and afterwards +were broken and worn by attrition, so +as to be made gravel. Strata composed in +this manner have been again consolidated; +and now the question is, By what means?</p> + +<p>If strata composed of such various bodies +had been consolidated, by any manner of concretion, +from the fluidity of a dissolution, the +hard and solid bodies must be found in their +entire state, while the interstices between those +constituent parts of the stratum are filled up. +No partial fracture can be conceived as introduced +into the middle of a solid mass of hard +matter, without having been communicated +from the surrounding parts. But such partial +separations are found in the middle of those +hard and solid masses; therefore, this compound +body must have been consolidated by +other means than that of concretion from a +state of a solution.</p> + +<p>The Spanish marble already described, as +well as many consolidated strata of siliceous +gravel, of which I have specimens, afford the +clearest evidence of this fact. These hard +bodies are perfectly united together, in forming +the most solid mass; the contiguous parts +of some of the rounded fragments are interlaced +together, as has already been observed; +and there are partial shrinkings of the mass +forming veins, traversing several fragments, +but perfectly filled with the sparry substance +of the mass, and sometimes with parts of the +stone distinctly floating in the transparent body +of spar. Now, there is not, besides heat or +fusion, any known power in nature by which +these effects might be produced. But such +effects are general to all consolidated masses, +although not always so well illustrated in a +cabinet specimen.</p> + +<p>Thus we have discovered a truth that is +confirmed by every appearance, so far as the +nature of the subject now examined admits. +We now return to the general operation, of +forming continents of those materials which +had been deposited at the bottom of the sea.</p> + + + + +<h3>SECTION III.</h3> + +<p><i>Investigation of the Natural Operations employed +in the Production of Land above the +Surface of the Sea.</i></p> + + +<p>We seek to know that operation by means of +which masses of loose materials, collected at +the bottom of the sea, were raised above its +surface, and transformed into solid land.</p> + +<p>We have found, that there is not in this +globe (as a planet revolving in the solar system) +any power or motion adapted to the +purpose now in view; nor, were there such +a power, could a mass of simply collected +materials have continued any considerable +time to resist the waves and currents natural to +the sea, but must have been quickly carried +away, and again deposited at the bottom of +the ocean. But we have found, that there +had been operations, natural to the bowels of +this earth; by which those loose and unconnected +materials have been cemented together, +and consolidated into masses of great strength +and hardness; those bodies are thus enabled +to resist the force of waves and currents, and +to preserve themselves, for a sufficient time, +in their proper shape and place, as land above +the general surface of the ocean.</p> + +<p>We now desire to know, how far those internal +operations of the globe, by which solidity +and stability are procured to the beds of +loose materials, may have been also employed +in raising up a continent of land, to remain +above the surface of the sea.</p> + +<p>There is nothing so proper for the erection +of land above the level of the ocean, as an expansive +power of sufficient force, applied directly +under materials in the bottom of the +sea, under a mass that is proper for the formation +of land when thus erected. The +question is not, how such a power may be +procured; such a power has probably been +employed. If, therefore, such a power should +be consistent with that which we found had +actually been employed in preparing the erected +mass; or, if such a power is to be reasonably +concluded as accompanying those operations +which we have found natural to the +globe, and situated in the very place where +this expansive power appears to be required, +we should thus be led to perceive, in the natural +operations of the globe, a power as efficacious +for the elevation of what had been at +the bottom of the sea into the place of land, +as it is perfect for the preparation of those +materials to serve the purpose of their elevation.</p> + +<p>In opposition to this conclusion, it will not +be allowed to allege; that we are ignorant +how such a power might be exerted under +the bottom of the ocean; for, the present +question is not, what had been the cause of +heat, which has appeared to have been produced +in that place, but if this power of heat, +which has certainly been exerted at the bottom +of the ocean for consolidating strata, had +been employed also for another purpose, that +is, for raising those strata into the place of +land.</p> + +<p>We may, perhaps, account for the elevation +of land, by the same cause with that of +the consolidation of strata, already investigated, +without explaining the means employed +by nature in procuring the power of heat, or +showing from what general source of action +this particular power had been derived; but, +by finding in subterranean heat a cause for +any other change, besides the consolidation of +porous or incoherent bodies, we shall generalise +a fact, or extend our knowledge in the +explanation of natural appearances.</p> + +<p>The power of heat for the expansion of +bodies, is, so far as we know, unlimited; but, +by the expansion of bodies placed under the +strata at the bottom of the sea, the elevation +of those strata may be effected; and the question +now to be resolved regards the actual exertion +of this power of expansion. How far +it is to be concluded as having been employed +in the production of this earth above the level +of the sea.</p> + +<p>Before attempting to resolve that question, +it may be proper to observe, there has been +exerted an extreme degree of heat below the +strata formed at the bottom of the sea; and +this is precisely the action of a power required +for the elevation of those heated bodies into a +higher place. Therefore, if there is no other +way in which we may conceive this event to +have been brought about, consistent with the +present state of things, or what actually appears, +we shall have a right to conclude, that +such had been the order of procedure in natural +things, and that the strata formed at the +bottom of the sea had been elevated, as well as +consolidated, by means of subterraneous heat.</p> + +<p>The consolidation of strata by means of +fusion or the power of heat, has been concluded +from the examination of nature, and from +finding, that the present state of things is inconsistent +with any other supposition. Now, +again, we are considering the only power that +may be conceived as capable of elevating strata +from the bottom of the sea, and placing such +a mass above the surface of the water. It is +a truth unquestionable, that what had been +originally at the bottom of the sea, is at present +the highest of our land. In explaining +this appearance, therefore, no other alternative +is left, but either to suppose strata elevated by +the power of heat above the level of the present +sea, or the surface of the ocean reduced +many miles below the height at which it had +subsisted during the collection and induration +of the land which we inhabit.</p> + +<p>Now, if, on the one hand, we are to suppose +no general power of subterraneous fire +or heat, we leave to our theory no means for +the retreat of the sea, or the lowering of its +surface; if, on the other hand, we are to allow +the general power of subterraneous heat, +we cannot have much difficulty in supposing, +either the surface of the sea to have subsided, +or the bottom of the ocean, in certain parts, +to have been raised by a subterranean power +above the level of its surface, according as appearances +shall be found to require the one or +other of those conclusions. Here, therefore, +we are again remitted to the history of nature, +in order to find matter of fact by which this +question may be properly decided.</p> + +<p>If the present land had been discovered by +the subsiding of the waters, there has not been +a former land, from whence materials had +been procured for the construction of the present, +when at the bottom of the sea; for, there +is no vestige remaining of that land, the whole +land of the present earth having been formed +evidently at the bottom of the sea. Neither +could the natural productions of the sea have +been accumulated, in the shape in which we +now find them, on the surface of this earth; +for, How should the Alps and Andes have +been formed within the sea from the natural +productions of the water? Consequently, this +is a supposition inconsistent with every natural +appearance.</p> + +<p>The supposition, therefore, of the subsidence +of the former ocean, for the purpose of discovering +the present land, is beset with more +difficulty than the simple erection of the bottom +of the former ocean; for, <i>first</i>, There is +a place to provide for the retirement of the +waters of the ocean; and, <i>2dly</i>, There is required +a work of equal magnitude; this is, +the swallowing up of that former continent, +which had procured the materials of the present +land.</p> + +<p>On the one hand, the subsiding of the surface +of the ocean would but make the former +land appear the higher; and, on the other, +the sinking the body of the former land into +the solid globe, so as to swallow up the greater +part of the ocean after it, if not a natural impossibility, +would be at least a superfluous exertion +of the power of nature. Such an operation +as this would discover as little wisdom +in the end elected, as in the means appropriated +to that end; for, if the land be not wasted +and worn away in the natural operations of +the globe, Why make such a convulsion in the +world in order to renew the land? If, again, +the land naturally decays, Why employ so extraordinary +a power, in order to hide a former +continent of land, and puzzle man?</p> + +<p>Let us now consider how far the other proposition, +of strata being elevated by the power +of heat above the level of the sea, may be confirmed +from the examination of natural appearances.</p> + +<p>The strata formed at the bottom of the +ocean are necessarily horizontal in their position, +or nearly so, and continuous in their horizontal +direction or extent. They may change, +and gradually assume the nature of each other, +so far as concerns the materials of which they +are formed; but there cannot be any sudden +change, fracture, or displacement, naturally in +the body of a stratum. But, if these strata are +cemented by the heat of fusion, and erected +with an expansive power acting below, we +may expect to find every species of fracture, +dislocation, and contortion, in those bodies, +and every degree of departure from a horizontal +towards a vertical position.</p> + +<p>The strata of the globe are actually found +in every possible position: For, from horizontal, +they are frequently found vertical; from +continuous, they are broken and separated in +every possible direction; and, from a plane, +they are bent and doubled. It is impossible +that they could have originally been formed, +by the known laws of nature, in their present +state and position; and the power that has +been necessarily required for their change, has +not been inferior to that which might have +been required for their elevation from the +place in which they had been formed.</p> + +<p>In this cafe, natural appearances are not +anomalous. They are, indeed, infinitely various, +as they ought to be, according to the +rule; but all those varieties in appearances +conspire to prove one general truth, viz. That +all which we see had been originally composed +according to certain principles, established +in the constitution of the terraqueous globe; +and that those regular compositions had been +afterwards greatly changed by the operations +of another power, which had introduced apparent +confusion among things first formed in +order and by rule.</p> + +<p>It is concerning the operation of this second +power that we are now inquiring; and here +the apparent irregularity and disorder of the +mineral regions are as instructive, with regard +to what had been transacted in a former period +of time, as the order and regularity of those +same regions are conclusive, in relation to the +place in which a former state of things had +produced that which, in its changed state, we +now perceive.</p> + +<p>We are now to conclude, that the land on +which we dwell had been elevated from a +lower situation by the same agent which had +been employed in consolidating the strata, in +giving them stability, and preparing them for +the purpose of the living world. This agent +is matter actuated by extreme heat, and expanded +with amazing force.</p> + +<p>If this has been the case, it will be reasonable +to expect, that some of the expanded +matter might be found condensed in the bodies +which have been heated by that igneous +vapour; and that matter, foreign to the strata, +may have been thus introduced into the fractures +and separations of those indurated masses.</p> + +<p>We have but to open our eyes to be convinced +of this truth. Look into the sources +of our mineral treasures; ask the miner, from +whence has come the metal into his vein? +Not from the earth or air above,—not from +the strata which the vein traverses; these do +not contain one atom of the minerals now +considered. There is but one place from +whence these minerals may have come; this +is the bowels of the earth, the place of power +and expansion, the place from whence must +have proceeded that intense heat by which loose +materials have been consolidated into rocks, +as well as that enormous force by which the +regular strata have been broken and displaced.</p> + +<p>Our attention is here peculiarly called upon, +where we have the opportunity of examining +those mineral bodies, which have +immediately proceeded from the unknown +region, that place of power and energy which +we want to explore; for, if such is the system +of the earth, that materials are first deposited +at the bottom of the ocean, there to be prepared +in a certain manner, in order to acquire +solidity, and then to be elevated into the proper +place of land, these mineral veins, which +contain matter absolutely foreign to the surface +of the earth, afford the most authentic information +with regard to the operations which +we want to understand. It is these veins +which we are to consider as, in some measure, +the continuation of that mineral region, which +lies necessarily out of all possible reach of our +examination. It is, therefore, peculiarly interesting +to know the state in which things +are to be found in this place, which may be +considered as intermediate between the solid +land, upon the one hand, and the unknown +regions of the earth, upon the other.</p> + +<p>We are now to examine those mineral +veins; and these may be considered, first, in +relation to their form, independent of their +substance or particular contents; and, secondly, +in relation to the contained bodies, independent +of their form.</p> + +<p>In examining consolidated strata, we remarked +veins and cutters as a proof of the means +by which those bodies had been consolidated. +In that case, the formation of these veins is +a regulated process, determined by the degree +of fusion, and the circumstances of condensation +or refrigeration. In respect of these, the +mineral veins now to be examined are anomalous. +They are; but we know not why +or how. We see the effect; but, in that effect, +we do not see the cause. We can say, +negatively, that the cause of mineral veins is +not that by which the veins and fissures of +consolidated strata have been formed; consequently, +that it is not the measured contraction +and regulated condensation of the consolidated +land which has formed those general +mineral veins; however, veins, similar in +many respects, have been formed by the cooperation +of this cause.</p> + +<p>Having thus taken a view of the evident +distinction between the veins or contractions +that are particular to the consolidated body in +which they are found, and those more general +veins which are not limited to that cause, we +may now consider what is general in the subject, +or what is universal in these effects of +which we wish to investigate the cause.</p> + +<p>The event of highest generalization or universality, +in the form of those mineral veins, +is fracture and dislocation. It is not, like that +of the veins of strata, simple separation and +measured contraction; it is violent fracture +and unlimited dislocation. In the one case, +the forming cause is in the body which is separated; +for, after the body had been actuated +by heat, it is by the reaction of the proper +matter of the body, that the chasm which +constitutes the vein is formed. In the other +case, again, the cause is extrinsic in relation to +the body in which the chasm is formed. +There has been the most violent fracture and +divulsion; but the cause is still to seek; and +it appears not in the vein; for it is not every +fracture and dislocation of the solid body of +our earth, in which minerals, or the proper +substances of mineral veins, are found.</p> + +<p>We are now examining matter of fact, real +effects, from whence we would investigate the +nature of certain events which do not now +appear. Of these, two kinds occur; one +which has relation to the hardness and solidity, +or the natural constitution of the body; +the other, to its shape or local situation. The +first has been already considered; the last is +now the subject of inquiry.</p> + +<p>But, in examining those natural appearances, +we find two different kinds of veins; +the one necessarily connected with the consolidating +cause; the other with that cause of +which we now particularly inquire. For, in +those great mineral veins, violent fracture and +dislocation is the principle; but there is no +other principle upon which strata, or masses +formed at the bottom of the sea, can be placed +at a height above its surface. Hence, in those +two different operations, of forming mineral +veins, and erecting strata from a lower to a +higher place, the principle is the same; for, +neither can be done without violent fracture +and dislocation.</p> + +<p>We now only want to know, how far it is +by the same power, as well as upon the same +principle, that these two operations have been +made. An expansive force, acting from below, +is the power most proper for erecting +masses; but whether it is a power of the same +nature with that which has been employed in +forming mineral veins, will best appear in +knowing the nature of their contents. These, +therefore, may be now considered.</p> + +<p>Every species of fracture, and every degree +of dislocation and contortion, may be perceived +in the form of mineral veins; and there is +no other general principle to be observed in +examining their form. But, in examining +their contents, some other principle may appear, +so far as, to the dislocating power or +force, there may be superadded matter, by +which something in relation to the nature of +the power may be known. If, for example, +a tree or a rock shall be found simply split +asunder, although there be no doubt with regard +to some power having been applied in +order to produce the effect, yet we are left +merely to conjecture at the power. But when +wedges of wood or iron, or frozen water, +should be found lodged in the cleft, we might +be enabled, from this appearance, to form a +certain judgment with regard to the nature of +the power which had been applied. This is +the case with mineral veins. We find them +containing matter, which indicates a cause; +and every information in this case is interesting +to the theory.</p> + +<p>The substances contained in mineral veins +are precisely the same with those which, in +the former section, we have considered as being +made instrumental in the consolidation of +strata; and they are found mixed and concreted +in every manner possible.</p> + +<p>But, besides this evidence for the exertion +of extreme heat, in that process by which +those veins were filled, there is another important +observation to be gathered from the +inspection of this subject. There appears to +have been a great mechanical power employed +in the filling of these veins, as well as that +necessarily required in making the first fracture +and divulsion.</p> + +<p>This appears from the order of the contents, +or filling of these veins, which is a +thing often observed to be various and successive. +But what it is chiefly now in view +to illustrate, is that immense force which is +manifested in the fracture and dispersion of +the solid contents which had formerly filled +those veins. Here we find fragments of rock +and spar floating in the body of a vein filled +with metallic substances; there, again, we see +the various fragments of metallic masses floating +in the sparry and siliceous contents.</p> + +<p>One thing is demonstrable from the inspection +of the veins and their contents; this is, +the successive irruptions of those fluid substances +breaking the solid bodies which they +meet, and floating those fragments of the broken +bodies in the vein. It is very common +to see three successive series of those operations; +and all this may be perceived in a +small fragment of stone, which a man of +science may examine in his closet, often better +than descending to the mine, where all +the examples are found on an enlarged scale.</p> + +<p>Let us now consider what power would be +required to force up, from the most unfathomable +depth of the ocean, to the Andes +or the Alps, a column of fluid metal and of +stone. This power cannot be much less than +that required to elevate the highest land upon +the globe. Whether, therefore, we shall consider +the general veins as having been filled +by mineral steams, or by fluid minerals, an +elevating power of immense force is still required, +in order to form as well as fill those +veins. But such a power acting under the +consolidated masses at the bottom of the sea, +is the only natural means for making those +masses land.</p> + +<p>If such have been the operations that are +necessary for the production of this land; +and if these operations are natural to the +globe of this earth, as being the effect of wisdom +in its contrivance, we shall have reason +to look for the actual manifestation of this +truth in the phaenomena of nature, or those +appearances which more immediately discover +the actual cause in the perceived effect.</p> + +<p>To see the evidence of marble, a body that +is solid, having been formed of loose materials +collected at the bottom of the sea, is not +always easy, although it may be made abundantly +plain; and to be convinced that this +calcareous stone, which calcines so easily in +our fires, should have been brought into fusion +by subterraneous heat, without suffering +calcination, must require a chain of reasoning +which every one is not able to attain<a id="footnotetag13" name="footnotetag13"></a><a href="#footnote13"><sup>13</sup></a>. But +when fire bursts forth from the bottom of the +sea, and when the land is heaved up and down, +so as to demolish cities in an instant, and split +asunder rocks and solid mountains, there is +nobody but must see in this a power, which +may be sufficient to accomplish every view of +nature in erecting land, as it is situated in the +place most advantageous for that purpose.</p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote13" name="footnote13"></a><b>Footnote 13:</b><a href="#footnotetag13"> (return) </a> Mr le Chevalier de Dolomieu, in considering the different +effects of heat, has made the following observation; +Journal de Physique, Mai 1792. + +<p>"Je dis <i>le feu tel que nous l'employons</i> pour distinguer +le feu naturel des volcans, du feu de nos fourneaux et +de celui de nos chalumeaux. Nous sommes obligés de +donner une grande activité à son action pour suppléer +et au volume qui ne seroit pas à notre disposition et au +tems que nous sommes forcés de ménager, et cette manière +d'appliquer une chaleur très-active, communique +le mouvement et le désordre jusques dans les molécules +constituantes. Agrégation et composition, tout est +troublé. Dans les volcans la grand masse du feu supplée +à son intensité, le tems remplace son activité, de +manière qu'il tourmente moins les corps fournis à son +action; il ménage leur composition en relâchant leur +agrégation, et les pierres qui eut été rendues fluides par +l'embrasement volcanique peuvent reprendre leur état +primitif; la plupart des substances qu'un feu plus actif +auroit expulsées y restent encore. Voilà pourquoi les +laves ressemblent tellement aux pierres naturelles des +espèces analogues, qu'elles ne peuvent en être distinguées; +voilà également pourquoi les verres volcaniques +eux-même renferment encore des substances élastiques +qui les font boursoufler lorsque nous les fondons de +nouveau, et pourquoi ces verres blanchissent aussi, pour +lors, par la dissipation, d'une substance grasse qui a résisté +à la chaleur des volcans, et que volatilise la chaleur +par laquelle nous obtenons leur second fusion."</p> + +<p>No doubt, the long application of heat may produce +changes in bodies very different from those which are +occasioned by the sudden application of a more intense +heat; but still there must be sufficient intensity in that +power, so as to cause fluidity, without which no chemical +change can be produced in bodies. The essential difference, +however, between the natural heat of the mineral +regions, and that which we excite upon the surface of the +earth, consists in this; that nature applies heat under circumstances +which we are not able to imitate, that is, under +such compression as shall prevent the decomposition of +the constituent substances, by the separation of the more +volatile from the more fixed parts. This is a circumstance +which, so far as I know, no chemist or naturalist +has hitherto considered; and it is that by which the operations +of the mineral regions must certainly be explained. +Without attending to this great principle in the mineralizing +operations of subterraneous fire, it is impossible +to conceive the fusion and concretion of those various bodies, +which we examine when brought up to the surface +of the earth.</blockquote> + +<p>The only question, therefore, which it concerns +us to decide at present, is, Whether those +operations of extreme heat, and violent mechanic +force, be only in the system as a matter +of accident; or if, on the contrary, they are +operations natural to the globe, and necessary +in the production of such land as this which +we inhabit? The answer to this is plain: +These operations of the globe remain at present +with undiminished activity, or in the fullness +of their power.</p> + +<p>A stream of melted lava flows from the sides +of Mount Aetna. Here is a column of weighty +matter raised from a great depth below, to +an immense height above, the level of the sea, +and rocks of an enormous size are projected +from its orifice some miles into the air. Every +one acknowledges that here is the liquefying +power and expansive force of subterranean +fire, or violent heat. But, that Sicily itself had +been raised from the bottom of the ocean, and +that the marble called Sicilian Jasper, had its +solidity upon the same principle with the lava, +would stumble many a naturalist to acknowledge. +Nevertheless, I have in my possession +a table of this marble, from which it is demonstrable, +that this calcareous stone had flowed, +and been in such a state of fusion and fluidity +as lava.</p> + +<p>Here is a comparison formed of two mineral +substances, to which it is of the highest importance +to attend. The solidity and present +state of the one of these is commonly thought +to be the operation of fire; of the other, again, +it is thought to be that of water. This, however, +is not the case. The immediate state and +condition of both these bodies is now to be +considered as equally the effect of fire or heat. +The reason of our forming such a different +judgment with regard to these two subjects is +this; we see, in the one case, the more immediate +connection of the cause and the effect, +while, in the other, we have only the effects +from whence we are in science to investigate +the cause.</p> + +<p>But, if it were necessary always to see this +immediate connection, in order to acknowledge +the operation of a power which, at present, is +extinguished in the effect, we should lose the +benefit of science, or general principles, from +whence particulars may be deduced, and we +should be able to reason no better than the +brute. Man is made for science; he reasons +from effects to causes, and from causes to effects; +but he does not always reason without +error. In reasoning, therefore, from appearances +which are particular, care must be taken +how we generalise; we should be cautious not +to attribute to nature, laws which may perhaps +be only of our own invention.</p> + +<p>The immediate question now before us is +not, If the subterraneous fire, or elevating +power, which we perceive sometimes as operating +with such energy, be the consolidating +cause of strata formed at the bottom of the +sea; nor, if that power be the means of making +land appear above the general surface of +the water? for, though this be the end we want +to arrive at ultimately, the question at present +in agitation respects the laws of nature, or the +generality of particular appearances.</p> + +<p>Has the globe within it such an active power +as fits it for the renovation of that part of its +constitution which may be subject to decay? +Are those powerful operations of fire, or subterraneous +heat, which so often have filled us +with terror and astonishment, to be considered +as having always been? Are they to be concluded +as proper to every part upon the globe, +and as continual in the system of this earth? +If these points in question shall be decided in +the affirmative, we can be at no loss in ascertaining +the power which has consolidated strata, +nor in explaining the present situation of +those bodies, which had their origin at the bottom +of the sea. This, therefore, should be the +object of our pursuit; and in order to have demonstration +in a case of physical inquiry, we +must again have recourse to the book of nature.</p> + +<p>The general tendency of heat is to produce +fluidity and softness; as that of cold is, on the +contrary, to harden soft and fluid bodies. But +this softening power of heat is not uniform in +its nature; it is made to act with very different +effect, according to the nature of the substance +to which it is applied. We are but limited in +the art of increasing the heat or the cold of +bodies; we find, however, extreme difference +in their substances with respect to fusibility.</p> + +<p>A fusible substance, or mineral composition +in a fluid state, is emitted from those places of +the earth at which subterraneous fire and expansive +force are manifested in those eruptive +operations. In examining these emitted bodies, +men of science find a character for such +productions, in generalising the substance, and +understanding the natural constitution of those +bodies. It is in this manner that such a person, +finding a piece of lava in any place of +the earth, says with certainty, Here is a stone +which had congealed from a melted state.</p> + +<p>Having thus found a distinguishing character +for those fused substances called, in general, +Lavas, and having the most visible marks for +that which had been actually a volcano, naturalists, +in examining different countries, have +discovered the most undoubted proofs of many +ancient volcanos, which had not been before +suspected. Thus, volcanos will appear to be +not a matter of accident, or as only happening +in a particular place, they are general to the +globe, so far as there is no place upon the earth +that may not have an eruption of this kind; +although it is by no means necessary for every +place to have had those eruptions.</p> + +<p>Volcanos are natural to the globe, as general +operations; but we are not to consider nature +as having a burning mountain for an end +in her intention, or as a principal purpose in +the general system of this world. The end of +nature in placing an internal fire or power of +heat, and a force of irresistible expansion, in +the body of this earth, is to consolidate the +sediment collected at the bottom of the sea, +and to form thereof a mass of permanent land +above the level of the ocean, for the purpose +of maintaining plants and animals. The power +appointed for this purpose is, as on all other +occasions, where the operation is important, +and where there is any danger of a shortcoming, +wisely provided in abundance; and +there are contrived means for disposing of the +redundancy. These, in the present case, are +our volcanos.</p> + +<p>A volcano is not made on purpose to frighten +superstitious people into fits of piety and +devotion, nor to overwhelm devoted cities +with destruction; a volcano should be considered +as a spiracle to the subterranean furnace, +in order to prevent the unnecessary elevation +of land, and fatal effects of earthquakes; and +we may rest assured, that they, in general, +wisely answer the end of their intention, without +being in themselves an end, for which nature +had exerted such amazing power and excellent +contrivance.</p> + +<p>Let us take a view of the most elevated +places of the earth; if the present theory is +just, it is there that we should find volcanos. +But is not this the case? There are volcanos +in the Andes; and round the Alps we find +many volcanos, which are in France upon the +one side, and in Germany upon the other, as +well as upon the Italian side, where Vesuvius +still continues to exhibit violent eruptions.</p> + +<p>It is not meant to allege, that it is only upon +the summit of a continent volcanos should +appear. Subterraneous fire has sometimes made +its appearance in bursting from the bottom of +the sea. But, even in this last case, land was +raised from the bottom of the sea, before the +eruption made its exit into the atmosphere. It +must also be evident, that, in this case of the +new island near Santorini, had the expansive +power been retained, instead of being discharged, +much more land might have been raised +above the level of the ocean.</p> + +<p>Now, the eruption of that elastic force +through the bottom of the sea, may be considered +as a waste of power in the operations +of the globe, where the elevation of indurated +strata is an object in the exertion of that power; +whereas, in the centre of a continent sufficiently +elevated above the level of the sea, the eruption +of that fiery vapour calculated to elevate +the land, while it may occasionally destroy +the habitations of a few, provides for the security +and quiet possession of the many.</p> + +<p>In order to see the wisdom of this contrivance, +let us consider the two extreme places +at which this eruption of ignited matter may +be performed. These are, on the one hand, +within a continent of land, and, on the other, +at the bottom of the ocean. In the one case, +the free eruption of the expanding power +should be permitted; because the purpose for +which it had been calculated to exist has been +accomplished. In the other, again, the free +eruption of that powerful matter should be +repressed; because there is reserved for that +power much of another operation in that place. +But, according to the wise constitution of +things, this must necessarily happen. The +eruption of the fiery vapour from volcanos +on the continent or land, is interrupted only +occasionally, by the melted bodies flowing in +the subterraneous chimney; whereas, at the +bottom of the ocean, the contact of the water +necessarily tends to close the orifice, by accumulating +condensed matter upon the weakest +place.</p> + +<p>If this be a just theory of the natural operations +of the globe, we shall have reason to +expect, that great quantities of this melted +matter, or fusible substance, may be found in +form of lava, among the strata of the earth, +where there are no visible marks of any volcano, +or burning mountain, having existed. +Here, therefore, is an important point to be +determined; for, if it shall appear that much +of this melted matter, analogous to lava, has +been forced to flow among the strata which +had been formed at the bottom of the sea, and +now are found forming dry land above its surface, +it will be allowed, that we have discovered +the secret operations of nature concocting +future land, as well as those by which the present +habitable earth had been produced from +the bottom of the abyss. Here, therefore, we +shall at present rest the argument, with endeavouring +to show that such is actually the case.</p> + +<p>It appears from Cronstedt's Mineralogy, +that the rock-stone, called trap by the Swedes, +the amygdaloides and the schwarts-stein of +the Germans, are the same with the whin-stone +of this country. This is also fully confirmed +by specimens from Sweden, sent me +by my friend Dr Gahn. Whatever, therefore, +shall be ascertained with regard to our +whin-stone, may be so far generalized or extended +to the countries of Norway, Sweden, +and Germany.</p> + +<p>The whin-stone of Scotland is also the same +with the toad-stone of Derbyshire, which is of +the amygdaloides species; it is also the same +with the flagstone of the south of Staffordshire, +which is a simple whin-stone, or perfect trap. +England, therefore, must be included in this +great space of land, the mineral operations of +which we explore; and also Ireland, of which +the Giant's Causeway, and many others, are +sufficient proof.</p> + +<p>In the south of Scotland, there is a ridge of +hills, which extends from the west side of the +island in Galloway to the east side in Berwickshire, +composed of granite, of schistus, +and of siliceous strata. The Grampians on +the north, again, form another range of +mountains of the same kind; and between +these two great fields of broken, tumbled, and +distorted strata, there lies a field of lesser hardness +and consolidation, in general; but a field +in which there is a great manifestation of subterraneous +fire, and of exerted force.</p> + +<p>The strata in this space consist, in general, +of sand-stone, coal, lime-stone or marble, iron-stone, +and marl or argillaceous strata, with +strata of analogous bodies, and the various +compositions of these. But what is to the +present purpose is this, that, through all this +space, there are interspersed immense quantities +of whinstone; a body which is to be distinguished +as very different from lava; and +now the disposition of this whin-stone is to be +considered.</p> + +<p>Sometimes it is found in an irregular mass +or mountain, as Mr Cronstedt has properly observed; +but he has also said, that this is not +the case in general. His words are: "It is +oftener found in form of veins in mountains +of another kind, running commonly +in a serpentine manner, contrary or across +to the direction of the rock itself."</p> + +<p>The origin of this form, in which the trap +or whin-stone appears, is most evident to inspection, +when we consider that this solid +body had been in a fluid state, and introduced, +in that state, among strata, which preserved +their proper form. The strata appear to have +been broken, and the two correspondent parts +of those strata are separated to admit the flowing +mass of whin-stone.</p> + +<p>A fine example of this kind may be seen +upon the south side of the Earn, on the road +to Crief. It is twenty-four yards wide, stands +perpendicular, and appears many feet above +the surface of the ground. It runs from that +eastward, and would seem to be the same with +that which crosses the river Tay, in forming +Campsy-lin above Stanley, as a lesser one of +the same kind does below it. I have seen it +at Lednoc upon the Ammon, where it forms +a cascade in that river, about five or six miles +west of Campsy-lin. It appears to run from +the Tay east through Strathmore, so that it +may be considered as having been traced for +twenty or thirty miles, and westwards to +Drummond castle, perhaps much farther.</p> + +<p>Two small veins of the same kind, only +two or three feet wide, may be seen in the +bed of the Water of Leith, traversing the +horizontal strata, the one is above St Bernard's +well, the other immediately below it. But, +more particularly, in the shire of Ayr, to the +north of Irvine, there are to be seen upon the +coast, between that and Scarmorly, in the +space of about twenty miles, more than twenty +or thirty such dykes (as they are called) of +whin-stone. Some of them are of a great +thickness; and, in some places, there is perceived +a short one, running at right angles, +and communicating with other two that run +parallel.</p> + +<p>There is in this country, and in Derbyshire<a id="footnotetag14" name="footnotetag14"></a><a href="#footnote14"><sup>14</sup></a>, +another regular appearance of this stone, +which Cronstedt has not mentioned. In this +case, the strata are not broken in order to have +the whin-stone introduced, they are separated, +and the whin-stone is interjected in form of +strata, having various degrees of regularity, +and being of different thickness. On the +south side of Edinburgh, I have seen, in little +more than the space of a mile from east to +west, nine or ten masses of whin-stone interjected +among the strata. These masses of whin-stone +are from three or four to an hundred feet +thick, running parallel in planes inclined to +the horizon, and forming with it an angle of +about twenty or thirty degrees, as may be +seen at all times in the hill of Salisbury +Craggs.</p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote14" name="footnote14"></a><b>Footnote 14:</b><a href="#footnotetag14"> (return) </a> See Mr Whitehurst's Theory of the Earth.</blockquote> + +<p>Having thus described these masses, which +have flowed by means of heat among the strata +of the globe, strata which had been formed +by subsidence at the bottom of the sea, it will +now be proper to examine the difference that +subsists between these subterraneous lavas, as +they may be termed, and the analogous bodies +which are proper lavas, in having issued out +of a volcano.<a id="footnotetag15" name="footnotetag15"></a><a href="#footnote15"><sup>15</sup></a></p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote15" name="footnote15"></a><b>Footnote 15:</b><a href="#footnotetag15"> (return) </a> The Chevalier de Dolomieu, in his accurate examination +of Aetna and the Lipari islands, has very well observed +the distinction of these two different species of lavas; +but without seeming to know the principle upon +which this essential difference depends. No bias of system, +therefore, can here be supposed as perverting the Chevalier's +view, in taking those observations; and these are interesting +to the present theory, as corresponding perfectly +with the facts from whence it has been formed. It will +be proper to give the account of these in his own words. + +<p>La zéolite est très-commune dans certains laves de +l'Ethna; il seroit peut-être possible d'y en rencontrer des +morceaux aussi gros que ceux que fournit l'isle de Ferroé. +Quoique cette substance semble ici appartenir aux laves, je +ne dirai cependant point que toutes les zéolites soient volcaniques, +ou unies à des matières volcaniques; celles que +l'on trouve en Allemagne sont, dit-on, dans des circonstances +différentes; mais je doit annoncer que je n'ai +trouvé cette substance en Sicile, que dans les seules laves +qui évidemment ont coulé dans la mer, et qui out été recouvertes +par ses eaux. La zéolite des laves n'est point une +déjection volcanique, ni une production du feu, ni même +un matière que les laves aient enveloppée lorsqu'elles +étoient fluides; elle est le résultat d'une opération et d'une +combinaison postérieure, auxquelles les eaux de la mer ont +concouru. Les laves qui n'ont pas été submergées, n'en +contiennent jamais. J'ai trouvé ces observations si constantes, +que par-tout où je rencontrois de la zéolite, j'étois +sûr de trouver d'autres preuves de submersion, et partout +où je voyois des laves recouvertes des dépôts de l'eau, j'étois +sûr de trouver de la zéolite, et un de ces faits m'a +toujours indiqué l'autre. Je me suis servi avec succès de +cette observation pour diriger mes recherches, et pour +connoître l'antiquité des laves. <i>Minéralogie de Volcans, +par M. Faujas de Saint-Fond</i>. Here would appear to be +the distinction of subterraneous lava, in which zeolite and +calcareous spar may be found, and that which has flowed +from a volcano, in which neither of these are ever observed.</blockquote> + +<p>There can be no doubt that these two different +species of bodies have had the same +origin, and that they are composed of the +same materials nearly; but from the different +circumstances Of their production, there is +formed a character to these bodies, by which, +they may be perfectly distinguished. The +difference of those circumstances consists in +this; the one has been emitted to the atmosphere +in its fluid state the other only came to +be exposed to the light in a long course of +time, after it had congealed under the compression +of an immense load of earth, and after +certain operations, proper to the mineral regions, +had been exercised upon the indurated +mass. This is the cause of the difference between +those erupted lavas, and our whin-stone, +toad-stone, and the Swedish trap, which may +be termed subterraneous lava. The visible effects +of those different operations may now +be mentioned.</p> + +<p>In the erupted lavas, those substances which +are subject to calcine and vitrify in our fires, +suffer similar changes, when delivered from a +compression which had rendered them fixed, +though in an extremely heated state. Thus, +a lava in which there is much calcareous spar, +when it comes to be exposed to the atmosphere, +or delivered from the compressing force +of its confinement, effervesces by the explosion +of its fixed air; the calcareous earth, at +the same time, vitrifies with the other substances. +Hence such violent ebullition in volcanos, +and hence the emission of so much pumice-stone +and ashes, which are of the same +nature.</p> + +<p>In the body of our whin-stone, on the contrary, +there is no mark of calcination or vitrification. +We frequently find in it much calcareous +spar, or the <i>terra calcarea aerata</i>, +which had been in a melted state by heat, and +had been crystallized by congelation into a +sparry form. Such is the <i>lapis amygdaloides</i>, +and many of our whin-stone rocks, which +contain pebbles crystallized and variously figured, +both calcareous, siliceous, and of a mixture +in which both these substances form distinct +parts. The specimens of this kind, +which I have from the whin-stone or porphyry +rock of the Calton-hill, exhibit every +species of mineral operation, in forming jasper, +figured agate, and marble; and they demonstrate, +that this had been performed by +heat or fusion.</p> + +<p>I do not mean to say, that this demonstration +is direct; it is conditional, and proceeds +upon the supposition, that the basaltic or porphyry +rock, in which those specimens are +found, is a body which had been in a melted +state. Now, this is a supposition for which I +have abundance of evidence, were it required; +but naturalists are now sufficiently disposed to +admit that proposition; they even draw conclusions +from this fact, which, I think, they +are not sufficiently warranted in doing; that +is, from this appearance, they infer the former +existence of volcanos in those places. For my +part, though I have made the most strict examination, +I never saw any vestige of such an +event. That there are, in other countries, +evident marks of volcanos which have been +long extinguished, is unquestionably true; but +naturalists, imagining that there are no other +marks of subterraneous fire and fusion, except +in the production of a lava, attribute to a volcano, +as a cause, these effects, which only indicate +the exertion of that power which might +have been the cause of a volcano.</p> + +<p>If the theory now given be just, a rock of +marble is no less a mark of subterraneous fire +and fusion, than that of the basaltes; and the +flowing of basaltic streams among strata broken +and displaced, affords the most satisfactory +evidence of those operations by which the +body of our land had been elevated above the +surface of the sea; but it gives no proof that +the eruptive force of mineral vapours had +been discharged in a burning mountain. Now, +this discharge is essential in the proper idea of +a volcano.</p> + +<p>Besides this internal mark of an unerupted +lava in the substance of the stone or body of +the flowing mass, there are others which belong +to it in common with all other mineral +strata, consolidated by subterraneous fire, and +changed from the place of their original formation; +this is, the being broken and dislocated, +and having veins of foreign matter +formed in their separations and contractions.</p> + +<p>If these are mineral operations, proper to +the lower regions of the earth, and exerted +upon bodies under immense compression, such +things will be sometimes found in the unerupted +lavas, as well as in the contiguous +bodies with which they are associated. If, +on the contrary, these are operations proper +to the surface of the earth, where the dissolving +power of water and air take place, and +where certain stalactical and ferruginous concretions +are produced by these means; then, +in erupted lavas, we should find mineral concretions, +which concretions should be denied +to bodies which had been consolidated at the +bottom of the sea; that is to say, where, without +the operation of subterraneous fire, no +changes of that kind could have taken place, +as has already been observed. But in the +unerupted species of lava, that is to say, in our +whin-stone, every species of mineral appearance +is occasionally to be found. Let those +who have the opportunity to examine, say, +what arc to be found in proper lavas, that is, +those of the erupted kind. Sir William Hamilton +informed me, when I showed him those +mineral veins and spars in our whin-stone, +that he had never observed the like, in lavas +We have now formed some conclusions +with regard to the nature and production of +those parts of the land of this globe which we +have had the means of examining perfectly; +but; from the accounts of travellers, and from, +the specimens which are brought to us from +distant parts, we have reason to believe, that +all the rest of the earth is of the same nature +with that which has been now considered. +The great masses of the earth are the same +every where; and all the different species of +earths, of rocks or stone, which have as yet +appeared, are to be found in the little space +of this our island.</p> + +<p>It is true, that there are peculiar productions +in the mineral kingdom which are rare, +as being found only in few places; but these +things are merely accidental in relation to the +land, for they belong in property to those +parts of the mineral region which we never +see. Such are, the diamond of the east, the +platina of the west, and the tin of Cornwall, +Germany, and Sumatra. Gold and silver, +though found in many countries, do not appear +to be immediately necessary in the production +of a habitable country. Iron, again, +is universal in the operations of the globe, and +is found often in that profusion which equals +its utility. Between these two extremes, we +find all other minerals, that is to say, here and +there in moderate quantity, and apparently in +some proportion to their use. But all these +substances are to be considered as the vapours +of the mineral regions, condensed occasionally +in the crevices of the land; and it is only the +rocks and strata (in which those mineral veins +are found) that are now examined with regard +to their original composition, at the bottom +of the sea, as well as to that, operation by +which those bodies had been indurated in their +substance, and elevated from the place in which +they had been formed.</p> + +<p>Thus, we have sufficient reason to believe, +that, in knowing the construction of the land +in Europe, we know the constitution of the +land in every part of the globe. Therefore, +we may proceed to form general conclusions, +from the knowledge of the mineral region, +thus acquired in studying those parts which +are seen.</p> + +<p>Having thus found, <i>first</i>, That the consolidated +and indurated masses of our strata had +suffered the effects of violent heat and fusion; +<i>2dly</i>, That those strata, which had been formed +in a regular manner at the bottom of the +sea, have been violently bended, broken, and +removed from their original place and situation; +and, <i>lastly</i>, Having now found the most +indubitable proof, that the melting, breaking, +and removing power of subterraneous fire, has +been actually exerted upon this land which +we examine, we cannot hesitate in ascribing +these operations as a cause to those effects +which are exposed to our view. Now, these +may be considered as consisting in the solid +state and present situation of those stratified +bodies, originally formed by subsidence in the +ocean; appearances which cannot, in reason, +be ascribed to any other cause, and which, +upon this principle, are perfectly explained.</p> + +<p>It is not meant to specify every particular +in the means employed by nature for the elevation +of our land. It is sufficient to have +shown, that there is, in nature, means employed +for the consolidating of strata, formed +originally of loose and incoherent materials; +and that those same means have also been +employed in changing the place and situation +of those strata. But how describe an operation +which man cannot have any opportunity of +perceiving? Or how imagine that, for which, +perhaps, there are not proper data to be found? +We only know, that the land is raised by a +power which has for principle subterraneous +heat; but, how that land is preserved in its +elevated station, is a subject in which we have +not even the means to form conjecture; at +least, we ought to be cautious how we indulge +conjecture in a subject where no means occur +for trying that which is but supposition.</p> + +<p>We now proceed, from the facts which +have been properly established, to reason with +regard to the duration of this globe, or the +general view of its operations, as a living +world, maintaining plants and animals.</p> + +<h3>SECTION IV.</h3> + +<p><i>System of Decay and Renovation observed in +the Earth</i>.</p> + + +<p>Philosophers observing an apparent disorder +and confusion in the solid parts of this +globe, have been led to conclude, that there +formerly existed a more regular and uniform +state, in the constitution of this earth; that +there had happened some destructive change; +and that the original structure of the earth had +been broken and disturbed by some violent +operation, whether natural, or from a super-natural +cause. Now, all these appearances, +from which conclusions of this kind have been +formed, find the most perfect explanation in +the theory which we have been endeavouring +to establish; for they are the facts from whence +we have reasoned, in discovering the nature +and constitution of this earth: Therefore, +there is no occasion for having recourse to +any unnatural supposition of evil, to any destructive +accident in nature, or to the agency +of any preternatural cause, in explaining that +which actually appears.</p> + +<p>It is necessary for a living or inhabited +world, that this should consist of land and +water. It is also necessary, that the land +should be solid and stable, refilling, with great +power, the violent efforts of the ocean; and, +at the same time, that this solid land should be +resolved by the influence of the sun and atmosphere, +so as to decay, and thus become a soil +for vegetation. But these general intentions +are perfectly fulfilled in the constitution of our +earth, which has been now investigated. This +great body being formed of different mixed +masses, having various degrees of hardness +and solubility, proper soil for plants is supplied +from the gradual resolution of the solid parts; +fertility in those soils arises from the mixture +of different elementary substances; and stability +is procured to that vegetable world, by the +induration of certain bodies, those rocks and +stones, which protect the softer masses of clay +and soil.</p> + +<p>In this manner, also, will easily be explained +those natural appearances which diversify +the surface of the earth for the use of plants +and animals, and those objects which beautify +the face of nature for the contemplation of +mankind. Such are, the distinctions of mountains +and valleys, of lakes and rivers, of dry +barren deserts and rich watered plains, of +rocks which stand apparently unimpaired by +the lapse of time, and sands which fluctuate +with the winds and tides. All these are the +effects of steady causes; each of these has its +proper purpose in the system of the earth; +and in that system is contained another, which +is that of living growing bodies, and of animated +beings.</p> + +<p>But, besides this, man, the intellectual being, +has, in this subject of the mineral kingdom, +the means of gratifying the desire of +knowledge, a faculty by which he is distinguished +from the animal, and by which he +improves his mind in knowing causes. Man +is not satisfied, like the brute, in seeing things +which are; he seeks to know how things +have been, and what they are to be. It is +with pleasure that he observes order and regularity +in the works of nature, instead of being +disgusted with disorder and confusion; +and he is made happy from the appearance of +wisdom and benevolence in the design, instead +of being left to suspect in the Author of nature, +any of that imperfection which he finds +in himself.</p> + +<p>Let us now take a view of that system of +mineral economy, in which may be perceived +every mark of order and design, of provident +wisdom and benevolence.</p> + +<p>We have been endeavouring to prove, that +all the continents and islands of this globe +had been raised above the surface of the ocean; +we have also aimed at pointing out the cause +of this translation of matter, as well as of the +general solidity of that which is raised to our +view; but however this theory shall be received, +no person of observation can entertain +a doubt, that all, or almost all we see of +this earth, had been originally formed at the +bottom of the sea. We have now another +object in our view; this is to investigate the +operations of the globe, at the time that the +foundation of this land was laying in the +waters of the ocean, and to trace the existence +and the nature of things, before the present +land appeared above the surface of the waters. +We should thus acquire some knowledge of +the system according to which this world is +ruled, both in its preservation and production; +and we might be thus enabled to judge, how +far the mineral system of the world shall appear +to be contrived with all the wisdom, +which is so manifest in what are termed the +animal and vegetable kingdoms.</p> + +<p>It must not be imagined that this undertaking +is a thing unreasonable in its nature; or +that it is a work necessarily beset with any unsurmountable +difficulty; for, however imperfectly +we may fulfil this end proposed, yet, so +far as it is to natural causes that are to be ascribed +the operations of former time, and so +far as, from the present state of things, or +knowledge of natural history, we have it in +our power to reason from effect to cause, there +are, in the constitution of the world, which +we now examine, certain means to read the +annals of a former earth.</p> + +<p>The object of inquiry being the operations +of the globe, during the time that the present +earth was forming at the bottom of the sea, +we are now to take a very general view of +nature, without descending into those particulars +which so often occupy the speculations +of naturalists, about the present state of things. +We are not at present to enter into any discussion +with regard to what are the primary +and secondary mountains of the earth; we +are not to consider what is the first, and what +the last, in those things which now are seen; +whatever is most ancient in the strata which +we now examine, is supposed to be collecting +at the bottom of the sea, during the period +concerning which we are now to inquire.</p> + +<p>We have already considered those operations +which had been necessary in forming +our solid land, a body consisting of materials +originally deposited at the bottom of the ocean; +we are now to investigate the source from +whence had come all those materials, from the +collection of which the present land is formed; +and from knowing the state in which +those materials had existed, previously to their +entering the composition of our strata, we +shall learn something concerning the natural +history of this world, while the present earth +was forming in the sea.</p> + +<p>We have already observed, that all the strata +of the earth are composed either from the +calcareous relicts of sea animals, or from the +collection of such materials as we find upon +our shores. At a gross computation, there +may perhaps be a fourth part of our solid land, +which is composed from the matter that had +belonged to those animals. Now, what a +multitude of living creatures, what a quantity +of animal economy must have been required +for producing a body of calcareous matter +which is interspersed throughout all the land +of the globe, and which certainly forms a very +considerable part of that mass! Therefore, +in knowing how those animals had lived, or +with what they had been fed, we shall have +learned a most interesting part of the natural +history of this earth; a part which it is necessary +to have ascertained, in order to see the +former operations of the globe, while preparing +the materials of the present land. But, +before entering upon this subject, let us examine +the other materials of which our land is +formed.</p> + +<p>Gravel forms a part of those materials +which compose our solid land; but gravel is +no other than a collection of the fragments of +solid stones worn round, or having their angular +form destroyed by agitation in water, +and the attrition upon each other, or upon similar +hard bodies. Consequently, in finding +masses of gravel in the composition of our +land, we must conclude, that there had existed +a former land, on which there had been +transacted certain operations of wind and water, +similar to those which are natural to the +globe at present, and by which new gravel is +continually prepared, as well as old gravel consumed +or diminished by attrition upon our +shores.</p> + +<p>Sand is the material which enters, perhaps +in greatest quantity, the composition of our +land. But sand, in general, is no other than +small fragments of hard and solid bodies, worn +or rounded more or less by attrition; consequently, +the same natural history of the earth, +which is investigated from the masses of gravel, +is also applicable to those masses of sand +which we find forming so large a portion of +our present land throughout all the earth<a id="footnotetag16" name="footnotetag16"></a><a href="#footnote16"><sup>16</sup></a>.</p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote16" name="footnote16"></a><b>Footnote 16:</b><a href="#footnotetag16"> (return) </a> Sand is a term that denotes no particular substance; +although by it is commonly meant a siliceous substance, as +being by far the most prevalent. Sand is one of the modifications, +of size and shape, in a hard body or solid substance, +which may be infinitely diversified. The next +modification to be distinguished in mineral bodies is that +of gravel; and this differs in no respect from sand, except +in point of size. Next after gravel, in the order of +ascent, come stones; and these bear nearly the same relation +to gravel as gravel does to sand. Now, by stones is +to be understood the fragments of rocks or solid mineral +bodies; and there is a perfect gradation from those stones +to sand. I have already endeavoured to explain the formation +of those stony substances; and now I am treating +of a certain system of circulation, which is to be found +among minerals. + +<p>M. de Luc censures me for not giving the origin of +sand, of which I form the strata of the earth. He seems +to have misunderstood my treatise. I do not pretend, as +he does in his theory, to describe the beginning of things; +I take things such as I find them at present, and from +these I reason with regard to that which must have been. +When, from a thing which is well known, we explain +another which is less so, we then investigate nature; but +when we imagine things without a pattern or example in +nature, then, instead of natural history, we write only +fable.</p> + +<p>M. de Luc, in the letter already mentioned, says, "that +sand may be, and I think it is, a substance which has +formed <i>strata</i> by <i>precipitation in a liquid</i>." This is but an +opinion, which may be either true or false. If it be true, +it is an operation of the mineral kingdom of which I am +ignorant. In all the sand which I have ever examined, I +have never seen any that might not be referred to the +species of mineral substance from which it had been formed. +When this author shall have given us any kind of +information with regard to the production of sand <i>by precipitation +in a liquid</i>, it will then be time enough to think +of forming the strata of the earth with that sand.*</blockquote> + +<p>Clay is now to be considered as the last of +those materials of which our strata are composed; +but, in order to understand the nature +of this ingredient, something must be premised.</p> + +<p>Clay is a mixture of different earths or +hard substances, in an impalpable state. Those +substances are chiefly the siliceous and aluminous +earths. Other earths are occasionally +mixed in clays, or perhaps always to be found +in some small portion. But this does not affect +the general character of clay; it only +forms a special variety in the subject. A sensible +or considerable portion of calcareous +earth, in the composition of clay, constitutes +a marl, and a sufficient admixture of sand, a +loam.</p> + +<p>An indefinite variety of those compositions +of clay form a large portion of the present +strata, all indurated and consolidated in various +degrees; but this great quantity of siliceous, +argillaceous, and other compound substances, +in form of earth or impalpable sediment, corresponds +perfectly with that quantity of those +same substances which must have been prepared +in the formation of so much gravel and +sand, by the attrition of those bodies in the +moving waters.</p> + +<p>Therefore, from the consideration of those +materials which compose the present land, we +have reason to conclude, that, during the time +this land was forming, by the collection of its +materials at the bottom of the sea, there had +been a former land containing materials similar +to those which we find at present in examining +the earth. We may also conclude, +that there had been operations similar to those +which we now find natural to the globe, and +necessarily exerted in the actual formation of +gravel, sand, and clay. But what we have now +chiefly in view to illustrate is this, that there +had then been in the ocean a system of animated +beings, which propagated their species, +and which have thus continued their several +races to this day.</p> + +<p>In order to be convinced of that truth, we +have but to examine the strata of our earth, +in which we find the remains of animals. In +this examination, we not only discover every +genus of animal which at present exists in the +sea, but probably every species, and perhaps +some species with which at present we are not +acquainted. There are, indeed, varieties in +those species, compared with the present animals +which we examine, but no greater varieties +than may perhaps be found among the +same species in the different quarters of the +globe. Therefore, the system of animal life, +which had been maintained in the ancient sea, +had not been different from that which now +subsists, and of which it belongs to naturalists +to know the history.</p> + +<p>It is the nature of animal life to be ultimately +supported from matter of vegetable +production. Inflammable matter may be considered +as the <i>pabulum</i> of life. This is prepared +in the bodies of living plants, particularly +in their leaves exposed to the sun and +light. This inflammable matter, on the contrary, +is consumed in animal bodies, where it +produces heat or light, or both. Therefore, +however animal matter, or the pabulum of +life, may circulate through a series of digesting +powers, it is constantly impaired or diminishing +in the course of this economy, and, +without the productive power of plants, it +would finally be extinguished.<a id="footnotetag17" name="footnotetag17"></a><a href="#footnote17"><sup>17</sup></a></p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote17" name="footnote17"></a><b>Footnote 17:</b><a href="#footnotetag17"> (return) </a> See Dissertations on different subjects of Natural Philosophy, +part II.</blockquote> + +<p>The animals of the former world must +have been sustained during indefinite successions +of ages. The mean quantity of animal +matter, therefore, must have been preserved +by vegetable production, and the natural waste +of inflammable substance repaired with continual +addition; that is to say, the quantity of +inflammable matter necessary to the animal +consumption, must have been provided by +means of vegetation. Hence we must conclude, +that there had been a world of plants, +as well as an ocean replenished with living +animals.</p> + +<p>We are now, in reasoning from principles, +come to a point decisive of the question, and +which will either confirm the theory, if it be +just, or confute our reasoning, if we have erred. +Let us, therefore, open the book of Nature, +and read in her records, if there had been +a world bearing plants, at the time when this +present world was forming at the bottom of +the sea.</p> + +<p>Here the cabinets of the curious are to be +examined; but here some caution is required, +in order to distinguish things perfectly different, +which sometimes are confounded.</p> + +<p>Fossil wood, to naturalists in general, is +wood dug up from under ground, without +inquiring whether this had been the production +of the present earth, or that which had +preceded it in the circulation of land and water. +The question is important, and the solution +of it is, in general, easy. The vegetable +productions of the present earth, however +deep they may be found buried beneath +its surface, and however ancient they may appear, +compared with the records of our known +times, are new, compared with the solid land +on which they grew; and they are only covered +with the produce of a vegetable soil, or +the alluvion of the present land on which we +dwell, and on which they had grown. But +the fossil bodies which form the present subject +of inquiry, belonged to former land, and +are found only in the sea-born strata of our +present earth. It is to these alone that we +appeal, in order to prove the certainty of former +events.</p> + +<p>Mineralised wood, therefore, is the object +now inquired after; that wood which had +been lodged in the bottom of the sea, and +there composed part of a stratum, which hitherto +we have considered as only formed of +the materials proper to the ocean. Now, what +a profusion of this species of fossil wood is +to be found in the cabinets of collectors, and +even in the hands of lapidaries, and such artificers +of polished stones! In some places, it +would seem to be as common as the agate.</p> + +<p>I shall only mention a specimen in my own +collection. It is wood petrified with calcareous +earth, and mineralised with pyrites. +This specimen of wood contains in itself, even +without the stratum of stone in which it is +embedded, the most perfect record of its genealogy. +It had been eaten or perforated by +those sea worms which destroy the bottoms of +our ships. There is the clearest evidence of +this truth. Therefore, this wood had grown +upon land which flood above the level of +sea, while the present land was only forming +at the bottom of the ocean.</p> + +<p>Wood is the most substantial part of plants, +as shells are the more permanent part of marine +animals. It is not, however, the woody +part alone of the ancient vegetable world that +is transmitted to us in the record of our mineral +pages. We have the type of many species +of foliage, and even of the most delicate +flower; for, in this way, naturalists have determined, +according to the Linnaean system, +the species, or at least the genus, of the plant. +Thus, the existence of a vegetable system at +the period now in contemplation, so far from +being doubtful, is a matter of physical demonstration.</p> + +<p>The profusion of this vegetable matter, delivered +into the ocean, which then generated +land, is also evidenced in the amazing quantities +of mineral coal which is to be found in +perhaps every region of the earth.</p> + +<p>Nothing can be more certain, than that all +the coaly or bituminous strata have had their +origin from the substance of vegetable bodies +that grew upon the land. Those strata, tho', +in general, perfectly consolidated, often separate +horizontally in certain places; and there +we find the fibrous or vascular structure of +the vegetable bodies. Consequently, there is +no doubt of fossil coal being a substance of +vegetable production, however animal substances +also may have contributed in forming +this collection of oleaginous or inflammable +matter.</p> + +<p>Having thus ascertained the state of a former +earth, in which plants and animals had +lived, as well as the gradual production of the +present earth, composed from the materials +of a former world, it must be evident, that +here are two operations which are necessarily +consecutive. The formation of the present +earth necessarily involves the destruction of +continents in the ancient world; and, by pursuing +in our mind the natural operations of a +former earth, we clearly see the origin of that +land, by the fertility of which, we, and all +the animated bodies of the sea, are fed. It is +in like manner, that, contemplating the present +operations of the globe, we may perceive +the actual existence of those productive causes, +which are now laying the foundation of land +in the unfathomable regions of the sea, and +which will, in time, give birth to future continents.</p> + +<p>But though, in generalising the operations +of nature, we have arrived at those great +events, which, at first sight, may fill the mind +with wonder and with doubt, we are not to +suppose, that there is any violent exertion of +power, such as is required in order to produce +a great event in little time; in nature, we find +no deficiency in respect of time, nor any limitation +with regard to power. But time is not +made to flow in vain; nor does there ever +appear the exertion of superfluous power, or +the manifestation of design, not calculated in +wisdom to effect some general end.</p> + +<p>The events now under consideration may +be examined with a view to see this truth; +for it may be inquired, Why destroy one +continent in order to erect another? The +answer is plain; Nature does not destroy a +continent from having wearied of a subject +which had given pleasure, or changed her +purpose, whether for a better or a worse; +neither does she erect a continent of land +among the clouds, to show her power, or to +amaze the vulgar man; Nature has contrived +the productions of vegetable bodies, and the +sustenance of animal life, to depend upon the +gradual but sure destruction of a continent; +that is to say, these two operations necessarily +go hand in hand. But with such wisdom has +nature ordered things in the economy of this +world, that the destruction of one continent is +not brought about without the renovation of +the earth in the production of another; and +the animal and vegetable bodies, for which +the world above the surface of the sea is levelled +with its bottom, are among the means +employed in those operations, as well as the +sustenance of those living beings is the proper +end in view.</p> + +<p>Thus, in understanding the proper constitution +of the present earth, we are led to +know the source from whence had come all +the materials which nature had employed in +the construction of the world which appears; +a world contrived in consummate wisdom for +the growth and habitation of a great diversity +of plants and animals; and a world peculiarly +adapted to the purposes of man, who inhabits +all its climates, who measures its extent, +and determines its productions at his pleasure.</p> + +<p>The whole of a great object or event fills +us with wonder and astonishment, when all +the particulars, in the succession of which the +whole had been produced, may be considered +without the least emotion. When, for example, +we behold the pyramids of Egypt, our +mind is agitated with a crowd of ideas that +highly entertains the person who understands +the subject; but the carrying a heavy stone +up to the top of a hill or mountain would +give that person little pleasure or concern. +We wonder at the whole operation of the pyramid, +but not at any one particular part.</p> + +<p>The raising up of a continent of land from +the bottom of the sea, is an idea that is too +great to be conceived easily in all the parts of +its operations, many of which are perhaps unknown +to us; and, without being properly +understood, so great an idea may appear like +a thing that is imaginary. In like manner, +the co-relative, or corresponding operation, +the destruction of the land, is an idea that +does not easily enter into the mind of man in +its totality, although he is daily witness to +part of the operation. We never see a river +in a flood, but we must acknowledge the carrying +away of part of our land, to be sunk at +the bottom of the sea; we never see a storm +upon the coast, but we are informed of a hostile +attack of the sea upon our country; attacks +which must, in time, wear away the +bulwarks of our soil, and sap the foundations +of our dwellings. Thus, great things are not +understood without the analysing of many +operations, and the combination of time with +many events happening in succession.</p> + +<p>Let us now consider what is to be the subject +of examination, and where it is that we +are to observe those operations which must +determine either the stability or the instability +of this land on which we live.</p> + +<p>Our land has two extremities; the tops of +the mountains, on the one hand, and the sea-shores, +on the other: It is the intermediate +space between these two, that forms the habitation +of plants and animals. While there is +a sea-shore and a higher ground there is that +which is required in the system of the world: +Take these away, and there would remain an +aqueous globe, in which the world would +perish. But, in the natural operations of the +world, the land is perishing continually; and +this is that which now we want to understand.</p> + +<p>Upon the one extremity of our land, there +is no increase, or there is no accession of any +mineral substance. That place is the mountain-top, +on which nothing is observed but +continual decay. The fragments of the mountain +are removed in a gradual succession from +the highest station to the lowest. Being arrived +at the shore, and having entered the dominion +of the waves, in which they find perpetual +agitation, these hard fragments, which +had eluded the resolving powers natural to +the surface of the earth, are incapable of resisting +the powers here employed for the destruction +of the land. By the attrition of one +hard body upon another, the moving stones +and rocky shore, are mutually impaired. And +that solid mass, which of itself had potential +liability against the violence of the waves, affords +the instruments of its own destruction, +and thus gives occasion to its actual instability.</p> + +<p>In order to understand the system of the +heavens, it is necessary to connect together +periods of measured time, and the distinguished +places of revolving bodies. It is thus that +system may be observed, or wisdom, in the +proper adapting of powers to an intention. +In like manner, we cannot understand the +system of the globe, without seeing that progress +of things which is brought about in +time, thus measuring the natural operations of +the earth with those of the heavens. This is +properly the business of the present undertaking.</p> + +<p>Our object is to know the time which had +elapsed since the foundation of the present +continent had been laid at the bottom of the +ocean, to the present moment in which we +speculate on these operations. The space is +long; the data for the calculations are, perhaps, +deficient: No matter; so far as we know our +error, or the deficiency in our operation, we +proceed in science, and shall conclude in reason. +It is not given to man to know what +things are truly in themselves, but only what +those things are in his thought. We seek not +to know the precise measure of any thing; we +only understand the limits of a thing, in knowing +what it is not, either on the one side or +the other.</p> + +<p>We are investigating the age of the present +earth, from the beginning of that body which +was in the bottom of the sea, to the perfection +of its nature, which we consider as in the moment +of our existence; and we have necessarily +another aera, which is collateral, or correspondent, +in the progress of those natural +events. This is the time required, in the natural +operations of this globe, for the destruction +of a former earth; an earth equally perfect +with the present and an earth equally +productive of growing plants and living animals. +Now, it must appear, that, if we had a +measure for the one of those corresponding +operations, we would have an equal knowledge +of the other.</p> + +<p>The formation of a future earth being in +the bottom of the ocean, at depths unfathomable +to man, and in regions far beyond the +reach of his observation, here is a part of the +process which cannot be taken as a principle +in forming an estimate of the whole. But, in +the destruction of the present earth, we have +a process that is performed within the limits of +our observation; therefore, in knowing the +measure of this operation, we shall find the +means of calculating what had passed on a former +occasion, as well as what will happen in +the composition of a future earth. Let us, +therefore, now attempt to make this estimate +of time and labour.</p> + +<p>The highest mountain may be levelled with +the plain from whence it springs, without the +loss of real territory in the land; but when +the ocean makes encroachment on the basis of +our earth, the mountain, unsupported, tumbles +with its weight; and with the accession of +hard bodies, moveable with the agitation of +the waves, gives to the sea the power of undermining +farther and farther into the solid +basis of our land. This is the operation which +is to be measured; this is the mean proportional +by which we are to estimate the age of +worlds that have terminated, and the duration +of those that are but beginning.</p> + +<p>But how shall we measure the decrease of +our land? Every revolution of the globe wears +away some part of some rock upon some coast; +but the quantity of that decrease, in that measured +time, is not a measurable thing. Instead +of a revolution of the globe, let us take an age. +The age of man does no more in this estimate +than a single year. He sees, that the natural +course of things is to wear away the coast, +with the attrition of the sand and stones upon +the shore; but he cannot find a measure for +this quantity which shall correspond to time, +in order to form an estimate of the rate of this +decrease.</p> + +<p>But man is not confined to what he sees; +he has the experience of former men. Let us +then go to the Romans and the Greeks in +search of a measure of our coasts, which we +may compare with the present state of things. +Here, again, we are disappointed; their descriptions +of the shores of Greece and of Italy, +and their works upon the coast, either give +no measure of a decrease, or are not accurate +enough for such a purpose.</p> + +<p>It is in vain to attempt to measure a quantity +which escapes our notice, and which history +cannot ascertain; and we might just as +well attempt to measure the distance of the +stars without a parallax, as to calculate the destruction +of the solid land without a measure +corresponding to the whole.</p> + +<p>The description which Polybius has given +of the Pontus Euxinus, with the two opposite +Bosphori, the Meotis, the Propontis, and the +Port of Byzantium, are as applicable to the +present state of things as they were at the writing +of that history. The filling up of the bed +of the Meotis, an event which, to Polybius, +appeared not far off, must also be considered +as removed to a very distant period, though +the causes still continue to operate as before.</p> + +<p>But there is a thing in which history and +the present state of things do not agree. It is +upon the coast of Spain, where Polybius says +there was an island in the mouth of the harbour +of New Carthage. At present, in place +of the island, there is only a rock under the +surface of the water. It must be evident, however, +that the loss of this small island affords no +proper ground of calculation for the measure +or rate of wasting which could correspond to +the coast in general; as neither the quantity +of what is now lost had been measured, nor +its quality ascertained.</p> + +<p>Let us examine places much more exposed +to the fury of the waves and currents than the +coast of Carthagena, the narrow fretum, for +example, between Italy and Sicily. It does +not appear, that this passage is sensibly wider +than when the Romans first had known it. +The Isthmus of Corinth is also apparently the +same at present as it had been two or three +thousand years ago. Scilla and Charibdis remain +now, as they had been in ancient times, +rocks hazardous for coasting vessels which had +to pass that strait.</p> + +<p>It is not meant by this to say, these rocks +have not been wasted by the sea, and worn +by the attrition of moving bodies, during that +space of time; were this true, and that those +rocks, the bulwarks of the land upon those +coasts, had not been at all impaired from that +period, they might remain for ever, and thus +the system of interchanging the place of sea +and land upon this globe might be frustrated. +It is only meant to affirm, that the quantity +which those rocks, or that coast, have diminished +from the period of our history, has either +been too small a thing for human observation, +or, which is more probable, that no +accurate measurement of the subject, by which +this quantity of decrease might have been ascertained, +had been taken and recorded. It +must be also evident, that a very small operation +of an earthquake would be sufficient to +render every means of information, in this +manner of mensuration, unsatisfactory or precarious.</p> + +<p>Pliny says Italy was distant from Sicily a +mile and a half; but we cannot suppose that +this measure was taken any otherwise than by +computation, and such a measure is but little +calculated to afford us the just means of a comparison +with the present distance. He also +says, indeed, that Sicily had been once joined +with Italy. His words are: "Quondam Brutio +agro cohaerens, mox interfuso mari avulsa.<a id="footnotetag18" name="footnotetag18"></a><a href="#footnote18"><sup>18</sup></a>" +But all that we can conclude from +this history of Pliny is, that, in all times, to +people considering the appearances of those +two approached coasts, it had seemed probable, +that the sea formed a passage between the two +countries which had been once united; in like +manner as is still more immediately perceived, +in that smaller disjunction which is made between +the island of Anglesey and the continent +of Wales.</p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote18" name="footnote18"></a><b>Footnote 18:</b><a href="#footnotetag18"> (return) </a> Lib. 3. cap. 8.</blockquote> + +<p>The port of Syracuse, with the island which +forms the greater and lesser, and the fountain +of Arethusa, the water of which the ancients +divided from the sea with a wall, do not seem +to be altered. From Sicily to the coast of +Egypt, there is an uninterrupted course of sea +for a thousand miles; consequently, the wind, +in such a stretch of sea, should bring powerful +waves against those coasts: But, on this coast +of Egypt, we find the rock on which was formerly +built the famous tower of Pharos; and +also, at the eastern extremity of the port Eunoste, +the sea-bath, cut in the solid rock upon +the shore. Both those rocks, buffeted immediately +with the waves of the Mediterranean +sea, are, to all appearance, the same at this day +as they were in ancient times.<a id="footnotetag19" name="footnotetag19"></a><a href="#footnote19"><sup>19</sup></a></p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote19" name="footnote19"></a><b>Footnote 19:</b><a href="#footnotetag19"> (return) </a> Lettres sur l'Egypte, M. Savary.</blockquote> + +<p>Many other such proofs will certainly occur, +where the different parts of those coasts +are examined by people of observation and intelligence. +But it is enough for our present +purpose, that this decrease of the coasts in general +has not been observed; and that it is as +generally thought, that the land is gaining upon +the sea, as that the sea is gaining upon the +land.</p> + +<p>To sum up the argument, we are certain, +that all the coasts of the present continents are +wasted by the sea, and constantly wearing +away upon the whole; but this operation is so +extremely slow, that we cannot find a measure +of the quantity in order to form an estimate: +Therefore, the present continents of the earth, +which we consider as in a state of perfection, +would, in the natural operations of the globe, +require a time indefinite for their destruction.</p> + +<p>But, in order to produce the present continents, +the destruction of a former vegetable +world was necessary; consequently, the production +of our present continents must have +required a time which is indefinite. In like +manner, if the former continents were of the +same nature as the present, it must have required +another space of time, which also is +indefinite, before they had come to their perfection +as a vegetable world.</p> + +<p>We have been representing the system of +this earth as proceeding with a certain regularity, +which is not perhaps in nature, but +which is necessary for our clear conception of +the system of nature. The system of nature is +certainly in rule, although we may not know +every circumstance of its regulation. We are +under a necessity, therefore, of making regular +suppositions, in order to come at certain +conclusions which may be compared with the +present state of things.</p> + +<p>It is not necessary that the present land +should be worn away and wasted, exactly in +proportion as new land shall appear; or, conversely, +that an equal proportion of new land +should always be produced as the old is made +to disappear. It is only required, that at all +times, there should be a just proportion of +land and water upon the surface of the globe, +for the purpose of a habitable world.</p> + +<p>Neither is it required in the actual system +of this earth, that every part of the land +should be dissolved in its structure, and worn +away by attrition, so as to be floated in the +sea. Parts of the land may often sink in a +body below the level of the sea, and parts +again may be restored, without waiting for +the general circulation of land and water, +which proceeds with all the certainty of nature, +but which advances with an imperceptible +progression. Many of such apparent irregularities +may appear without the least infringement +on the general system. That system +is comprehended in the preparation of future +land at the bottom of the ocean, from +those materials which the dissolution and attrition +of the present land may have provided, +and from those which the natural operations +of the sea afford.</p> + +<p>In thus accomplishing a certain end, we are +not to limit nature with the uniformity of an +equable progression, although it be necessary +in our computations to proceed upon equalities. +Thus also, in the use of means, we are +not to prescribe to nature those alone which +we think suitable for the purpose, in our narrow +view. It is our business to learn of nature +(that is by observation) the ways and +means, which in her wisdom are adopted; +and we are to imagine these only in order to +find means for further information, and to increase +our knowledge from the examination +of things which actually have been. It is in +this manner, that intention may be found in +nature; but this intention is not to be supposed, +or vainly imagined, from what we may +conceive to be.</p> + +<p>We have been now supposing, that the beginning +of our present earth had been laid in +the bottom of the ocean, at the completion of +the former land; but this was only for the +sake of distinctness. The just view is this, +that when the former land of the globe had +been complete, so as to begin to waste and be +impaired by the encroachment of the sea, the +present land began to appear above the surface +of the ocean. In this manner we suppose a +due proportion to be always preserved of land +and water upon the surface of the globe, for +the purpose of a habitable world, such as this +which we possess. We thus, also, allow time +and opportunity for the translation of animals +and plants to occupy the earth.</p> + +<p>But, if the earth on which we live, began +to appear in the ocean at the time when the +last began to be resolved, it could not be from +the materials of the continent immediately preceding +this which we examine, that the present +earth had been constructed; for the bottom +of the ocean must have been filled with +materials before land could be made to appear +above its surface.</p> + +<p>Let us suppose that the continent, which is +to succeed our land, is at present beginning to +appear above the water in the middle of the +Pacific Ocean, it must be evident, that the materials +of this great body, which is formed and +ready to be brought forth, must have been +collected from the destruction of an earth, +which does not now appear. Consequently, +in this true statement of the case, there is necessarily +required the destruction of an animal +and vegetable earth prior to the former land; +and the materials of that earth which is first +in our account, must have been collected at +the bottom of the ocean, and begun to be concocted +for the production of the present earth, +when the land immediately preceding the present +had arrived at its full extent.</p> + +<p>This, however, alters nothing with regard +to the nature of those operations of the globe. +The system is still the same. It only protracts +the indefinite space of time in its existence, +while it gives us a view of another +distinct period of the living world; that is to +say, the world which we inhabit is composed +of the materials, not of the earth which was +the immediate predecessor of the present, but +of the earth which, in ascending from the present, +we consider as the third, and which had +preceded the land that was above the surface +of the sea, while our present land was yet beneath +the water of the ocean. Here are three +distinct successive periods of existence, and +each of these is, in our measurement of time, +a thing of indefinite duration.</p> + +<p>We have now got to the end of our reasoning; +we have no data further to conclude immediately +from that which actually is: But +we have got enough; we have the satisfaction +to find, that in nature there is wisdom, +system, and consistency. For having, in the +natural history of this earth, seen a succession +of worlds, we may from this conclude that +there is a system in nature; in like manner as, +from seeing revolutions of the planets, it is +concluded, that there is a system by which +they are intended to continue those revolutions. +But if the succession of worlds is +established in the system of nature, it is in +vain to look for any thing higher in the origin +of the earth. The result, therefore, of this +physical inquiry is, that we find no vestige of +a beginning,—no prospect of an end.</p> + +<br> +<h3>CHAPTER II.</h3> + +<p><i>An Examination of Mr KIRWAN'S Objections +to the Igneous Origin of Stony Substances</i>.</p> + + +<p>A theory which is founded on a new +principle, a theory which has to make +its way in the public mind by overturning the +opinions commonly received by philosophising +men, and one which has nothing to recommend +it but the truth of its principles, +and the view of wisdom or design to which it +leads, neither of which may perhaps be perceived +by the generality of people, such a +theory, I say, must meet with the strongest +opposition from the prejudices of the learned, +and from the superstition of those who judge +not for themselves in forming their notions, +but look up to men of science for authority. +Such is the case with some part of the Theory +of the Earth, which I have given, and +which will probably give offence to naturalists +who have espoused an opposite opinion. +In order, then, to obtain the approbation of +the public, it may not be enough to give a +theory that should be true, or altogether unexceptionable +it may be necessary to defend +every point that shall be thought exceptionable +by other theorists, and to show the fallacy +of every learned objection that may be made +against it. It is thus, in general, that truth +and error are forced to struggle together, in +the progress of science; and it is only in proportion +as science removes erroneous conceptions, +which are necessarily in the constitution +of human knowledge, that truth will find itself +established in natural philosophy.</p> + +<p>Mr Kirwan has written a dissertation, entitled, +<i>Examination of the Supposed Igneous +Origin of Stony Substances</i>, which was read in +the Royal Irish Academy. The object of that +dissertation is to state certain objections, which +have occurred to him, against the Theory of +the Earth published in the Transactions of the +Edinburgh Royal Society; and he has attacked +that theory in all the points where it appears +to him to be vulnerable. It is to these +objections that I am now to give an answer. +The authority given to this dissertation, by +the Royal Irish Academy, as well as the reputation +of the author, make it necessary for +me to endeavour to put in their true light +the facts alleged in that performance, and +to analyse the arguments employed, in order +to judge of the reasoning by which the +theory of mineral fusion is refuted in this +Examination.</p> + +<p>A theory founded on truth, and formed +according to the proper rules of science, can +ever suffer from a strict examination, by +which it would be but the more and more +confirmed. But, where causes are to be traced +through a chain of various complicated +effects, an examination not properly conducted +upon accurate analytical principles, instead +of giving light upon a subject in which there +had been obscurity and doubt, may only serve +to perplex the understanding, and bring confusion +into a subject which was before sufficiently +distinct. To redress that evil, then, +must require more labour and some address; +and this is an inconveniency that may be looked +for, more or less, in every controversial +discussion.</p> + +<p>I do not mean to enter any farther into the +defence of my theory in this chapter, than +what is necessary to answer a man of science +and respectability, who has stated his objections. +The observations which he has made +appear to me to be founded on nothing more +than common prejudice, and misconceived +notions of the subject. I am therefore to point +out that erroneous train of reasoning, into +which a hasty superficial view of things, perhaps, +has led the patron of an opposite opinion +to see my theory in an unfavourable +light. This, however, is not all; for, that +train of inconsequential reasoning is so congenial +with the crude and inconsiderate notion +generally entertained, of solid mineral bodies +having been formed by the infiltration of water +into the earth, that no opportunity should +be lost of exposing an erroneous manner of +reasoning, which is employed in supporting a +hypothesis founded upon certain operations of +the surface of this earth that cannot be properly +applied to the formation of mineral bodies. +This object, therefore, so far as it may +come in the way, will be attended to in this +discussion, although I shall have another opportunity +of farther enlarging upon that subject.</p> + +<p>Our author begins by examining a geological +operation, the very opposite to that of +mineral consolidation, and which would seem +to have little connection with the subject of +this dissertation. In my theory, I advanced +two propositions with regard to the economy +of this world: First, That the solid masses +of this earth, when exposed to the atmosphere, +decay, and are resolved into loose materials, +of which the vegetable soil upon the +surface is in part composed; and, secondly, +That these loose materials are washed away +by the currents of water, and thus carried at +last into the sea. Our author says "Here are +two suppositions, neither of which is grounded +on facts;" and yet he has but the moment +before made the following confession: +"That the soil, however, receives an increase +from some species of stones that moulder by +exposition to the air cannot be denied, but +there is no proof that all soil has arisen from +decomposition."—Surely <i>all soil</i>, that is +made from the <i>hard and compact</i> body of the +land, which is my proposition, must have +arisen from <i>decomposition</i>; and I have no where +said, that <i>all</i> the soil of this earth is made from +the decomposition or detritus of those stony +substances; for, masses of looser sand and softer +substances contribute still more to the formation +of vegetable soils.</p> + +<p>With regard to the other proposition, our +author says, "Soil is not constantly carried +away by the water, even from mountains."—I +have not said that it is <i>constantly</i> washed +away; for, while it is soil in which plants +grow, it is not travelling to the sea, although +it be on the road, and must there arrive in +time. I have said, that it is <i>necessarily</i> washed +away, that is, occasionally. M. de Luc's authority +is then referred to, as refuting this +operation of water and time upon the soil. +Now, I cannot help here observing, that our +author seems to have as much misapprehended +M. de Luc's argument as he has done +mine. That philosopher, in his letters to the +Queen, has described most accurately the decay +of the rocks and solid mountains of the +Alps and Jura, and the travelling of their materials +by water, although he does not carry +them to the sea. It is true, indeed, that this +author, who supposes the present earth on +which we dwell very young, is anxious to +make an earth, <i>in time</i>, that shall not decay +nor be washed away at all; but that time is +not come yet; therefore the authority, here +given against my theory, is the speculative +supposition, or mere opinion, of a natural philosopher, +with regard to an event which may +never come to pass, and which I shall have +occasion to consider fully in another place.</p> + +<p>Our author had just now said, that I have +advanced two suppositions, <i>neither of which +is grounded on facts</i>: Now, with regard to the +one, he has acknowledged, that the mouldering +of stones takes place, which is the fact on +which that proposition is grounded; and with +regard to the other, the only authority given +against it is founded expressly upon the moving +of soil by means of the rain water, in +order to make sloping plains of mountains. +Here, therefore, I have grounded my propositions +upon facts; and our author has founded +his objections, first, upon a difficulty which +he has himself removed; and, secondly, upon +nothing but a visionary opinion, with regard +to an earth which is not yet made, and which, +when once made, is never more to change.</p> + +<p>After making some unimportant observations,—of +all water not flowing into the sea,—and +of the travelled materials being also deposited +upon the plains, etc. our author thus +proceeds: "Hence the conclusion of our author +relative to the imperfect constitution +of the globe falls to the ground; and the +pains he takes to learn, <i>by what means a +decayed world may be renovated</i>, are superfluous."—The +object of my theory is to +show, that this decaying nature of the solid +earth is the very <i>perfection</i> of its constitution, +as a living world; therefore, it was most proper +that I should <i>take pains to learn</i> by what +means the decayed parts might be renovated. +It is true, indeed, that this will be superfluous, +when once that constitution of the earth, which +M. de Luc thinks is preparing, shall be finished; +but, in the mean time, while rivers carry +the materials of our land, and while the sea +impairs the coast, I may be allowed to suppose +that this is the actual constitution of the +earth.</p> + +<p>I cannot help here animadverting upon +what seems to be our author's plan, in making +these objections, which have nothing to do +with his examination. He accuses me of +giving this world a false or imperfect constitution, +(in which the solid land is considered +as resolvable, and the materials of that land +as being washed away into the sea,) for no +other reason, that I can see, but because this +may imply the formation of a future earth, +which he is not disposed to allow; and, he is +now to deny the stratified construction of this +present earth to have been made by the deposits +of materials at the bottom of the sea, because +that would prove the existence of a former +earth, which is repugnant to his notion +of the origin of things, and is contrary, as he +says, to reason, and the tenor of the Mosaic +history. Let me observe, in passing, that M. +de Luc, of whose opinions our author expresses +much approbation, thinks that he proves, +from the express words and tenor of the Mosaic +history, that the present earth was at the +bottom of the sea not many years ago, and +that the former earth had then disappeared.</p> + +<p>But, what does our author propose to himself, +in refusing to admit my view of the operations +which are daily transacting upon the +surface of this earth, where there is nothing +dark or in the least mysterious, as there may +be in the mineral regions? Does he mean to +say, that it is not the purpose of this world to +provide soil for plants to grow in? Does he +suppose that this soil is not moveable with the +running water of the surface? and, Does he +think that it is not necessary to replace that +soil which is removed? This is all that I required +in that constitution of the world which +he has thus attacked; and I wish that he or +any person would point out, in what respect +I had demanded any thing unreasonable, or +any thing that is not actually to be observed +every day.</p> + +<p>Thus I have endeavoured to show, that our +author has attacked my theory in a part where +I believe it must be thought invulnerable; +but this is only, I presume, in order that he +may make an attack with more advantage +upon another part, viz. the composition of +strata from the materials of an earth thus worn +out in the service of vegetation,—materials +which are necessarily removed in order to +make way for that change of things in which +consists the active and living system of this +world. If he succeed in this attempt to refute +my theory of the original formation of +strata, he would then doubtless find it more +easy to persuade philosophers that the means +which I employ in bringing those materials +again to light, when transformed into such +solid masses as the system of this earth requires, +are extravagant, unnatural, and unnecessary. +Let us then see how he sets about +this undertaking.</p> + +<p>With regard to the composition of the earth, +it is quoted from my theory, that <i>the solid +parts of the globe are in general composed of +sand, gravel, argillaceous and calcareous strata, +or of various compositions of these with other +substances</i>; our author then adds, "This certainly +cannot be affirmed as a fact, but rather +the contrary; it holds only true of the +surface, the basis of the greater part of +Scotland is evidently a granitic rock, to say +nothing of the continents, both of the Old +and New World, according to the testimony +of all mineralogists." This proposition, +with regard to the general composition of the +earth, I have certainly not assumed, I have +maintained it as a fact, after the most scrupulous +examination of all that, with the most diligent +search, I have been able to see, and +of all that authors have wrote intelligibly upon +the subject. If, therefore, I have so misrepresented +this great geological fact on which +my theory is absolutely founded, I must have +erred with open eyes; and my theory of the +earth, like others which have gone before it, +will, upon close examination, appear to be unfounded, +as the dissertation now before us is +endeavouring to represent it.</p> + +<p>Our author here, I think, alleges that the +contrary to this, my fundamental proposition, +is the truth; and he has given us Scotland as +an example in which his assertion (founded +upon the testimony of all mineralogists), +is illustrated. Now my geological proposition +should certainly be applicable to Scotland, +which is the country that I ought to be best +acquainted with; consequently, if what our +author here asserts be true, I would have deserved +that blame which he is willing to +throw on me. Let me then beg the readers +attention for a moment, that I may justify +myself from that charge, and place in its proper +light this authority, upon so material a +point in geology.</p> + +<p>I had examined Scotland from the one end +to the other before I saw one stone of granite +in its native place, I have moreover examined +almost all England and Wales, (excepting Devonshire +and Cornwall) without seeing more +of granite than one spot, not many hundred +yards of extent; this is at Chap; and I know, +from information, that there is another small +spot in the middle of England where it is +just seen. But, let me be more particular with +regard to Scotland, the example given in +proof.</p> + +<p>I had travelled every road from the borders +of Northumberland and Westmoreland to +Edinburgh; from Edinburgh, I had travelled +to Port-Patrick, and from that along the coast +of Galloway and Airshire to Inverary in Argyleshire, +and I had examined every spot between +the Grampians and the Tweedale mountains +from sea to sea, without seeing granite +in its place. I had also travelled from Edinburgh +by Grief, Rannock, Dalwhiny, Fort Augustus, +Inverness, through east Ross and +Caithness, to the Pentland-Frith or Orkney +islands, without seeing one block of granite in +its place. It is true, I met with it on my +return by the east coast, when I just saw it, +and no more, at Peterhead and Aberdeen; +but that was all the granite I had ever seen +when I wrote my Theory of the Earth. I +have, since that time, seen it in different places; +because I went on purpose to examine it, as I +shall have occasion to describe in the course +of this work.</p> + +<p>I may now with some confidence affirm, +from my own observation, and from good information +with regard to those places where I +have not been, except the northwest corner, +I may affirm, I say, that instead of the basis of +the greatest part of Scotland being a granitic +rock, which our author has maintained as an +evident thing, there is very little of it that is +so; not perhaps one five hundred part. So +far also as I am to judge from my knowledge +of the mineral construction of England and +Wales, which I have examined with the greatest +care, and from the mineral chart which +my friend Mr Watt made for me from his +knowledge of Cornwall, I would say that there +is scarcely one five hundred part of Britain +that has granite for its basis. All the rest, +except the porphyry and basaltes, consists of +stratified bodies, which are composed more or +less of the materials which I mentioned, generally, +in the above quotation, and which our +author would dispute.</p> + +<p>But do not let me take the advantage of +this error of our author with regard to the +mineralogy of Scotland, and thus draw what +may be thought an undue conclusion in favour +of my general theory; let us go over +and examine the continent of Europe, and see +if it is any otherwise there than in Britain. +From the granite of the Ural mountains, to +that which we find in the Pyrenees, there is +no reason, so far as I have been able to learn, +to conclude that things are formed either upon +any other principle, or upon a different scale. +But, instead of one five hundred part, let us +suppose there to be one fiftieth part of the +earth in general resting upon granite, I could +not have expressed myself otherwise than I +have done; for, when I maintained that the +earth in general consisted of stratified bodies, +I said that this was only <i>nine tenths, or perhaps +ninety-nine hundredths</i> of the whole, and +I mentioned that there were other masses of a +different origin, which should be considered +separately. Our author, on the contrary, asserts +that the Old and New Worlds, as well as +Scotland, are placed upon granite as a basis, +which he says is according to the testimony of +all mineralogists. I shall have occasion to +examine this opinion of mineralogists, in comparing +it with those masses of granite which +appear to us; and I hope fully to refute the +geological, as well as mineralogical notions +with regard to that body. In the mean time, +let me make the following reflection, which +here naturally occurs.</p> + +<p>My Theory of the Earth is here examined,—not +with the system of nature, or actual +state of things, to which it certainly should +have corresponded,—but with the systematic +views of a person, who has formed his notions +of geology from the vague opinion of +others, and not from what he has seen. Had +the question been, How far my theory agreed +with other theories, our author might very +properly have informed his readers that it was +diametrically opposite to the opinions of mineralogists; +but, this was no reason for concluding +it to be erroneous; on the contrary, +it is rather a presumption that I may have +corrected the error of mineralogists who have +gone before me, in like manner as it is most +reasonable to presume that our author may +have corrected mine. Let us then proceed +to examine how far this shall appear to be the +case.</p> + +<p>Our author has stated very fairly from the +Theory, viz. <i>That all the strata of the earth, +not only those consisting of calcareous masses, but +others superincumbent on these, have had their +origin at the bottom of the sea, by the collection +of sand, gravel, shells, coralline, and crustaceous +bodies, and of earths and clays variously +mixed, separated, and accumulated.</i> He then +adds, "Various geological observations contradict +this conclusion. There are many +stratified mountains of argillaceous slate, +gneiss, serpentine, jasper, and even marble, +in which either sand, gravel, shells, coralline, +or crustaceous bodies are never, or +scarce ever found."</p> + +<p>Here our author seems to have deceived +himself, by taking a very partial view of +things which should be fully examined, and +well understood, before general conclusions +are to be drawn from those appearances; for, +although those particular objects may not be +visible in the strata which he has enumerated, +or many others, they are found in those strata +which are either immediately connected and +alternated with them, or with similar strata; +something to that purpose I think I have said; +and, if I had not, it certainly requires no deep +penetration to have seen this clear solution of +that appearance of those objects not being found +in every particular stratum. He says that +those marks of known materials are never or +scarce ever found;—by <i>scarce ever</i> he surely +means that they are sometimes found; but if +they shall only <i>once</i> be found, his argument +is lost. I have not drawn my geological +conclusion from every particle in strata being +distinguishable, but from there being certain +distinguishable particles in strata, and from our +knowing what had been the former state and +circumstances of those distinguished parts.</p> + +<p>If every stone or part of a stratum, in which +those known objects are not immediately visible, +must be considered as so <i>many geological +observations that contradict my theory</i>, (of strata +being formed from the materials of a former +earth), then, surely every stone and every +stratum which visibly contains any of those +materials, must prove my theory. But if +every stratum, where these are found in any +part of it, is to be concluded as having had +its origin at the bottom of the sea; and, if +every concomitant stratum, though not having +those objects visible or sufficiently distinct, +must be considered as having had the same or +a similar origin, that pretended contradiction +of my theory comes to no more than this, that +every individual stone does not bear in it the +same or equal evidence of that general proposition +which necessarily results from the attentive +consideration of the whole, including +every part.</p> + +<p>But to see how necessary it is to judge in +this manner, not partially, but upon the whole, +we may observe, that there are two ways by +which the visible materials or distinguishable +bodies of a former earth, not only <i>may</i> be rendered +invisible in the composition of our present +earth, but <i>must</i> be so upon many occasions. +These are, <i>first</i>, by mechanical comminution, +which necessarily happens, more or +less, in that operation by which bodies are +moved against one another, and thus transported +from the land to the bottom of the +deepest seas; <i>secondly</i>, by chemical operations, +(whatever these may be, whether the +action of water or of fire, or both), which are +also necessarily employed for consolidating +those loose materials, that are to form the +rocks and stones of this earth, and by means +of which those materials are to have their distinguishable +shapes affected in all degrees and +obliterated. Therefore, to demand the visible +appearance of those materials in every stratum +of the earth, or in every part of a stratum, +is no other than to misunderstand the +subject altogether. The geological observations, +which have been thus alleged as contradicting +my theory, are stratified bodies, +containing proofs of the general origin which +I attribute to the earth, but proofs which may +not always be seen with equal facility as those +which even convince the vulgar.</p> + +<p>Our author has surely perplexed himself +with what writers of late have said concerning +primitive mountains as they are called, a +subject of deeper search, than is commonly +imagined, as I hope to show in the course of +this work. It is an interesting subject of investigation, +as giving us the actual view of +those operations of nature which, in forming +my Theory of the Earth, more general principles +had led me to conclude <i>might be</i>. But, +it is a subject which, I am afraid, will lead me +to give farther offence to our author, however +innocent I may be in giving nothing but what +I have from nature.</p> + +<p>The reason for saying so is this; I am +blamed for having endeavoured to trace back +the operations of this world to a remote period, +by the examination of that which actually +appears, contrary, as is alleged, "to +reason, and the tenor of the Mosaic history, +thus leading to an abyss, from which human +reason recoils, etc." In a word, (says +our author), "to make use of his own expression, +<i>We find no vestige of a beginning.</i> +Then this system of successive worlds must +have been eternal." Such is the logic by +which, I suppose, I am to be accused of atheism. +Our author might have added, that I have +also said—<i>we see no prospect of an end</i>; but what +has all this to do with the idea of eternity? +Are we, with our ideas of <i>time</i>, (or mere succession), +to measure that of eternity, which +never succeeded any thing, and which will +never be succeeded? Are we thus to measure +eternity, that boundless thought, with +those physical notions of ours which necessarily +limit both space and time? and, because +we see not the beginning of created things, +Are we to conclude that those things which +we see have always been, or been without a +cause? Our author would thus, inadvertently +indeed, lead himself into that gulf of irreligion +and absurdity into which, he alleges, +I have <i>boldly plunged</i>.</p> + +<p>In examining this present earth, we find +that it must have had its origin at the bottom +of the sea, although our author seems willing +to deny that proposition. Farther, in examining +the internal construction of this stratified +and sea-born mass, we find that it had +been composed of the moved materials of +a former earth; and, from the most accurate +and extensive examination of those materials, +which in many places are indeed much disguised, +we are led necessarily to conclude, +that there had been a world existing, and +containing an animal, a vegetable, and a mineral +system. But, in thus tracing back the +natural operations which have succeeded each +other, and mark to us the course of time past, +we come to a period in which we cannot see +any farther. This, however, is not the beginning +of those operations which proceed in +time and according to the wise economy of +this world; nor is it the establishing of that, +which, in the course of time, had no beginning; +it is only the limit of our retrospective +view of those operations which have come to +pass in time, and have been conducted by supreme +intelligence.</p> + +<p>My principal anxiety was to show how the +constitution of this world had been wisely +contrived; and this I endeavoured to do, not +from supposition or conjecture, but from its +answering so effectually the end of its intention, +viz. the preserving of animal life, which +we cannot doubt of being its purpose. Here +then is a world that is not eternal, but which +has been the effect of wisdom or design.</p> + +<p>With regard again to the prospective view of +the creation, How are we to see the end of +that wise system of things which so properly +fulfils the benevolent intention of its maker,—in +giving sustenance to the animal part, +and information to intellectual beings, who, +in these works of nature, read what much +concerns their peace of mind,—their intellectual +happiness? What then does our author +mean, in condemning that comprehensive view +which I have endeavoured to take of nature? +Would he deny that there is to be perceived +wisdom in the system of this world, or that a +philosopher, who looks into the operations of +nature, may not plainly read the power and +wisdom of the Creator, without recoiling, as he +says, from the abyss? The abyss, from which +a man of science should recoil, is that of ignorance +and error.</p> + +<p>I have thus shown, that, from not perceiving +the wise disposition of things upon the +surface of this earth for the preservation of +vegetable bodies, our author has been led to +deny the necessary waste of the present earth, +and the consequent preparation of materials +for the construction of another; I have also +shown, that he denies the origin which I had +attributed to the stratified parts of this earth, +as having been the collection of moving materials +from a former earth; and now I am +come to consider the professed purpose of this +paper, viz. the examination of solid stony +substances which we find in those strata of our +earth, as well as in more irregular masses. +Here, no doubt, my theory would have been +attacked with greater success, had our author +succeeded in pointing out its error with regard +to the original composition of those indurated +bodies, to which I ascribe fusion as +the cause of their solidity. For, if we should, +according to our author's proposition, consider +those consolidated bodies as having been originally +formed in that solid state, here the +door might be shut against any farther investigation;—But +to what purpose?—Surely not +to refute my theory, but to explode every +physical inquiry farther on the subject, and +thus to lead us back into the science of darkness +and of scepticism. But let us proceed to +see our author's sentiments on this subject.</p> + +<p>As I had proved from matter of fact, or +the actual appearances of nature, that all the +strata of the earth had been formed at the bottom +of the sea, by the subsidence of those materials +which either come from the decaying +land, or are formed in the sea itself, it was necessary +that I should consider in what manner +those spongy or porous bodies of loose materials, +gathered together at the bottom of the +sea, could have acquired that consolidated +state in which we find them, now that they +are brought up to our examination. Upon +this occasion, our author says, "The particles +which now form the solid parts of the globe +need not be supposed to have originally +been either spongy or porous, the interior +parts at the depth of a few miles might +have been originally, as at present, a solid +mass." If, indeed, we shall make that supposition, +we may then save ourselves the +trouble of considering either how the strata +of the earth have been formed or consolidated; +for, they might have been so originally. +But, how can a naturalist who had ever seen +a piece of Derbyshire marble, or any other +shell limestone, make that supposition? Here +are, to the satisfaction of every body of common +understanding who looks at them, bodies +which are perfectly consolidated, bodies which +have evidently been formed at the bottom of +the sea, and therefore which were not originally +a solid mass. Mr Bertrand, it is true, +wrote a book to prove that those appearances +were nothing but a <i>lusus naturae</i>; and, I suppose +he meant, with our author, that those +strata had been also originally, as at present, a +solid mass.</p> + +<p>With regard to the consolidation of strata, +that cardinal point for discussion, our author +gives the following answer: "Abstracting +from his own gratuitous hypothesis, it is very +easy to satisfy our author on this head; the +concreting and consolidating power in most +cases arises from the mutual attraction of +the component particles of stones to each +other." This is an answer with regard to +the <i>concreting power</i>, a subject about which +we certainly are not here inquiring. Our +author, indeed, has mentioned a <i>consolidating +power</i>; but that is an improper expression; we +are here inquiring, How the interstices, between +the collected materials of strata, deposited at +the bottom of the sea, have been filled +with a hard substance, instead of the fluid water +which had originally occupied those spaces. +Our author then continues; "If these +particles leave any interstices, these are filled +with water, which no ways obstructs +their solidity when the points of contact +are numerous; hence the decrepitation of +many species of stones when heated."</p> + +<p>If I understand our author's argument, the +particles of stone are, by their mutual attractions, +to leave those hard and solid bodies +which compose the strata, that is to say, those +hard bodies are to dissolve themselves; but, To +what purpose? This must be to fill up the interstices, +which we must suppose occupied by +the water. In that case, we should find the +original interstices filled with the substances +which had composed the strata, and we should +find the water translated into the places of +those bodies; here would be properly a transmutation, +but no consolidation of the strata, +such as we are here to look for, and such as we +actually find among those strata. It may be +very easy for our author to form those explanations +of natural phenomena; it costs no tedious +observation of facts, which are to be +gathered with labour, patience, and attention; +he has but to look into his own fancy, as philosophers +did in former times, when they saw +the abhorrence of a vacuum and explained +the pump. It is thus that we are here told +the consolidation of strata <i>arises from the mutual +attraction of the component particles of +stones to each other</i>; the power, by which the +particles of solid stony bodies retain their +places in relation to each other, and resist separation +from the mass, may, no doubt, be +properly enough termed their mutual attractions; +but we are not here inquiring after that +power; we are to investigate the power by +which the particles of hard and stony bodies +had been separated, contrary to their mutual +attractions, in order to form new concretions, +by being again brought within the spheres of +action in which their mutual attractions might +take place, and make them one solid body. +Now, to say that this is by their mutual attraction, +is either to misunderstand the proper question, +or to give a most preposterous answer.</p> + +<p>It is not every one who is fit to reason with +regard to abstract general propositions; I will +now, therefore, state a particular case, in illustration +of that proposition which has been +here so improperly answered. The strata of +Derbyshire marbles were originally immense +collections at the bottom of the sea, of calcareous +bodies consisting almost wholly of various +fragments of the <i>entrochi</i>; and they were +then covered with an indefinite number of +other strata under which these <i>entrochi</i> must +have been buried. In this original state of +those strata, I suppose the interstices between +the fragments of the coralline bodies to have +been left full of sea-water; at present we find +those interstices completely filled with a most +perfectly solid body of marble; and the +question is, whether that consolidating operation +has been the work of water and solution, +by our naturalist's termed infiltration; or if it +has been performed, as I have maintained, by +the softening power or heat, or introduction +of matter in the fluid state of fusion. Our +author does not propose any other method for +the consolidation of those loose and incoherent +bodies, but he speaks of the <i>mutual attraction +of the component particles of stone to +each other</i>; Will that fill the interstices between +the coralline bodies with solid marble, +as well as consolidate the coralline bodies +themselves? or, if it should, How are those +interstices to be thus filled with a substance +perfectly different from the deposited bodies, +which is also frequently the case? But, how +reason with a person who, with this consolidation +of strata, confounds the well known +operation by which the mortar, made with +caustic lime and sand, becomes a hard body! +One would imagine that he were writing to +people of the last age, and not to chemical +philosophers who know so well how that +mortar is concreted.</p> + +<p>To my argument, That these porous strata +are found <i>consolidated with every different species +of mineral substance</i>, our author makes the +following observation: "Here the difficulties +to the supposition of an aqueous solution +are placed in the strongest light; yet +it must be owned that they partly arise from +the author's own gratuitous supposition, +that strata existed at the bottom of the sea +previous to their consolidation;"—gratuitous +supposition!—so far from being a supposition +of any kind, it is a self evident proposition; +the terms necessarily imply the conclusion. +I beg the readers attention for a +moment to this part of our author's animadversion, +before proceeding to consider the +whole; for, this is a point so essential in my +theory, that if it be a gratuitous supposition, +as is here asserted, it would certainly be in +vain to attempt to build upon it the system of +a world.</p> + +<p>That strata may exist, whether at the bottom +of the sea, or any other where, without +being consolidated, will hardly be disputed; +for, they are actually found consolidated in +every different degree. But, when strata are +found consolidated, at what time is it that we +are to suppose this event to have taken place, +or this accident to have happened to them? +—Strata are formed at the bottom of water, +by the subsidence or successive deposits of certain +materials; it could not therefore be +during their formation that such strata had +been consolidated; consequently, we must necessarily +<i>conclude</i>, without any degree of <i>supposition</i>, +that <i>strata had existed at the bottom of +the sea previous to their consolidation</i>, unless +our author can show how they may have been +consolidated previous to their existing.</p> + +<p>This then is what our author has termed a +gratuitous supposition of mine, and which, he +adds, "is a circumstance which will not be +allowed by the patrons of the aqueous origin +of stony substances, as we have already +seen."—I am perfectly at a loss to guess at +what is here alluded to <i>by having been already +seen</i>, unless it be that which I have already +quoted, concerning things which have been +never seen, that is, <i>those interior parts of the +earth which were originally a solid mass</i>.—I +have hardly patience to answer such reasoning;—a +reasoning which is not founded upon +any principle, which holds up nothing but +chimera to our view, and which ends in nothing +that is intelligible;—but, others, perhaps, +may see this dissertation of our author's +in a different light; therefore, it is my duty +to analyse the argument, however insignificant +it may seem to me.</p> + +<p>I have minutely examined all the stratified +bodies which I have been able, during a lifetime, +to procure, both in this country of Britain, +and from all the quarters of the globe; +and the result of my inquiry has been to +conclude, that there is nothing among them +in an original state, as the reader will see in +the preceding chapter. With regard again to +the masses which are not stratified, I have also +given proof that they are not in their original +state, such as granite, porphyry, serpentine, +and basaltes; and I shall give farther satisfaction, +I hope, upon that head, in the course of +this work. I have therefore concluded, That +there is nothing to be found in an original +state, so far as we see, in the construction of +this earth. But, our author answers, That +the interior parts <i>might have been in an original +state of solidity</i>.—So might they have +been upon the surface of the earth, or on the +summits of our mountains; but, we are not +inquiring What they <i>might have been</i>, but +What they truly <i>are</i>. It is from this actual +state in which the solid parts of the earth are +found, that I have endeavoured to trace back +the different states in which they must have +been; and, by generalising facts, I have formed +a theory of the earth. If this be a +wrong principle or manner of proceeding in +a physical investigation, or if, proceeding upon +that principle, I have made the induction by +reasoning improperly on any occasion, let this +be corrected by philosophers, who may reason +more accurately upon the subject. But to +oppose a physical investigation with this proposition, +<i>that things might have been otherwise</i>, +is to proceed upon a very different principle,—a +principle which, instead of tending to +bring light out of darkness, is only calculated +to extinguish that light which we may have +acquired.</p> + +<p>I shall afterwards have occasion to examine +how far the philosophers, who attribute to +aqueous solution the origin of stony substances, +have proceeded in the same inductive +manner of reasoning from effect to cause, as +they ought to do in physical subjects, and not +by feigning causes, or following a false analogy; +in the mean time, I am to answer the +objections which have been made to the +theory of the earth.</p> + +<p>In opposition to the theory of consolidating +bodies by fusion, our author has taken great +pains to show, that I cannot provide materials +for such a fire as would be necessary, nor find +the means to make it burn had I those materials. +Had our author read attentively my +theory he would have observed, that I give +myself little or no trouble about that fire, or +take no charge with regard to the procuring +of that power, as I have not founded my +theory on the <i>supposition</i> of subterraneous fire, +however that fire properly follows as a conclusion +from those appearances on which the +theory is founded. My theory is founded +upon the general appearances of mineral bodies, +and upon this, that mineral bodies must +necessarily have been in a state of fusion. I +do not pretend to prove, demonstratively, that +they had been even hot, however that conclusion +also naturally follows from their having +been in fusion. It is sufficient for me to demonstrate, +That those bodies must have been, +more or less, in a state of softness and fluidity, +without any species of solution. I do not say +that this fluidity had been without heat; but, +if that had been the case, it would have answered +equally well the purpose of my theory, +so far as this went to explain the consolidation +of strata or mineral bodies, which, I still +repeat, must have been by simple fluidity, and +not by any species of solution, or any other +solvent than that universal one which permeates +all bodies, and which makes them +fluid.</p> + +<p>Our author has justly remarked the difficulty +of fire burning below the earth and sea. +It is not my purpose here to endeavour to remove +those difficulties, which perhaps only +exist in those suppositions which are made on +this occasion; my purpose is to show, that he +had no immediate concern with that question, +in discussing the subject of the consolidation +which we actually find in the strata of the +earth, unless my theory, with regard to the +igneous origin of stony substances, had proceeded +upon the supposition of a subterraneous +fire. It is surely one thing to employ +fire and heat to melt mineral bodies, in supposing +this to be the cause of their consolidation, +and another thing to acknowledge fire +or heat as having been exerted upon mineral +bodies, when it is clearly proved, from actual +appearances, that those bodies had been in a +melted state, or that of simple fluidity. Here +are distinctions which would be thrown away +upon the vulgar; but, to a man of science, +who analyses arguments, and reasons strictly +from effect to cause, this is, I believe, the proper +way of coming at the truth. If the patrons +of the aqueous origin of stony substances +can give us any manner of scientifical, <i>i.e.</i> +intelligible investigation of that process, it shall +be attended to with the most rigid impartiality, +even by a patron of the igneous origin of +those substances, as he wishes above all things +to distinguish, in the mineral operations, those +which, on the one hand, had been the effect +of water, from those which, on the other hand, +had been the immediate effect of fire or fusion;—this +has been my greatest study. But, +while mineralists or geologists give us only +mere opinions, What is science profited by +such inconsequential observations, as are founded +upon nothing but our vulgar notions? Is +the figure of the earth, <i>e.g.</i> to be doubted, +because, according to the common notion of +mankind, the existence of an antipod is certainly +to be denied?</p> + +<p>I am not avoiding to meet that question +with regard to the providing of materials for +such a mineral fire as may be required; no +question I desire more to be asked to resolve; +but it must not be in the manner that our author +has put that question. He has included +this supposed difficulty among a string of +other arguments by which he would refute +my theory with regard to the igneous origin +of stony substances, as if I had made that fire +a necessary condition or a principle in forming +my theory of consolidation. Now, it is precisely +the reverse; and this is what I beg that +mineral philosophers will particularly attend +to, and not give themselves so much unnecessary +trouble, and me so disagreeable a talk. I +have proved that those stony substances have +been in the fluid state of fusion; and from +this, I have inferred the former existence of +an internal heat, a subterraneous fire, or a certain +cause of fusion by whatever name it shall +be called, and by whatever means it shall +have been procured. The nature of that operation +by which strata had been consolidated, +like that by which they had been composed, +must, according to my philosophy, be decided +by ocular demonstration; from examining the +internal evidence which is to be found in those +bodies as we see them in the earth; because +the consolidating operation is not performed +in our sight, no more than their stratification +which our author has also denied to have been +made, as I have said, by the deposits of materials +at the bottom of the sea. Now, with +regard to the means of procuring subterraneous +fire, if the consolidating operation shall +be thus decided to have been that of fusion, +as I think I have fully shown, and for which +I have as many witnesses, perhaps as there are +mineral bodies, then our author's question, +(how I am to procure a fire) in the way that +he has put it, as an argument against the fusion, +would be at least useless; for, though I +should here confess my ignorance with regard +to the means of procuring fire, the evidence +of the melting operation, or former fluidity of +those mineral bodies, would not be thereby in +the least diminished. If again no such evidence +for the fusion of those bodies shall appear, +and it be concluded that they had been +consolidated by the action of water alone, as +our author seems inclined to maintain, he +would have no occasion to start difficulties +about the procuring of fire, in order to refute +a theory which then would fall of itself as +having no foundation.</p> + +<p>But in order to see this author's notion of +the theory which he is here examining, it +may be proper to give a specimen of his +reasoning upon this subject of heat. He says, +"That my supposition of heat necessary for +consolidating strata is <i>gratuitous</i>, not only +because it is unnecessary, as we have already +shown, but also because it is inconsistent +with our author's own theory." Let +us now consider those two propositions. <i>First</i>, +it is unnecessary, <i>as we have already shown</i>;— +I have already taken particular notice of what +we have been shown on this occasion, viz. +That the earth at a certain depth <i>may have +been originally in a solid state</i>; and, that, +where it is to be consolidated, this is done by +the <i>mutual attraction of the stony particles</i>. +Here is all that we have been shown to make +subterraneous heat, for the consolidation of +strata, unnecessary; and now I humbly submit, +if this is sufficient evidence, that mineral +heat is a gratuitous supposition.</p> + +<p>Secondly, "<i>it is inconsistent with our author's +own theory.</i>" Here I would beg the +readers attention to the reasoning employed +on this occasion. He says, "according to +him these strata, which were consolidated +by heat, were composed of materials gradually +worn from a preceding continent, casually +and successively deposited in the sea; +Where then will he find, and how will he +suppose, to have been formed those enormous +masses of sulphur, coal, or bitumen, +necessary to produce that immense heat necessary +for the fusion of those vast mountains +of stone now existing? All the coal, +sulphur, and bitumen, now known, does +not form the 100,000 part of the materials +deposited within one quarter of a mile under +the surface of the earth; if, therefore, +they were, as his hypothesis demands, carried +off and mixed with the other materials, +and not formed in vast and separate collections, +they could never occasion, by their +combustion, a heat capable of producing +the smallest effect, much less those gigantic +effects which he requires."</p> + +<p>Here is a comparative estimate formed between +two things which have not any necessary +relation; these are, the quantity of combustible +materials found in the earth, on the +one hand, and the quantity which is supposed +necessary for hardening and consolidating strata, +on the other. If this earth has been consolidated +by the burning of combustible materials, +there must have been a superfluity, so +far as there is a certain quantity of these actually +found unconsumed in the strata of the +earth. Our author's conclusion is the very +opposite; let us then see how he is to form +his argument, by which he proves that the +supposition of subterraneous heat for hardening +bodies is gratuitous and unnecessary, as +being inconsistent with my theory.</p> + +<p>According to my theory, the strata of this +earth are composed of the materials which +came from a former earth; particularly these +combustible strata that contain plants which +must have grown upon the land. Let us then +suppose the subterraneous fire supplied with +its combustible materials from this source, +the vegetable bodies growing upon the surface +of the land. Here is a source provided +for the supplying of mineral fire, a source +which is inexhaustible or unlimited, unless we +are to circumscribe it with regard to time, and +the necessary ingredients; such as the matter +of light, carbonic matter, and the hydrogenous +principle. But it is not upon any deficiency +of this kind that our author founds his estimate; +it is upon the superfluity of combustible +materials which is actually found in this +earth, after it had been properly consolidated +and raised above the surface of the sea. This is +a method of reasoning calculated to convince +only those who do not understand it; it is as +if we should conclude that a person had died +of want, because he had left provision behind +him. Our author certainly means to employ +nothing but the combustible minerals of the +present earth, in feeding the subterraneous fire +which is to concoct a future earth; in that +case, I will allow that his provision is deficient; +but this is not my theory.</p> + +<p>I am not here to enter into any argument +concerning subterraneous fire; the reader will +find, in the foregoing theory, my reasons for +concluding, That subterraneous fire had existed +previous to, and ever since, the formation +of this earth,—that it exists in all its vigour +at this day,—that there is, in the constitution +of this earth, a superfluity of subterranean +heat,—and that there is wisely provided +a proper remedy against any destructive effect +to the system, that might arise from that +superabundant provision of this necessary +agent. Had our author attended to the ocular +proof that we have of the actual existence +of subterraneous fire, and to the physical demonstrations +which I have given of the effects +of heat in melting mineral bodies, he must +have seen that those arguments of his, with +regard to the difficulty or impossibility of procuring +that fire, can only show the error of +his reasoning. I am far from supposing that +my theory may be free from inconsistency or +error; I am only maintaining that, in all his +confident assertions, this author has not hitherto +pointed any of these out.</p> + +<p>So far I have answered our author's objections +as to consolidation, and I have given +a specimen of his reasoning upon that subject; +but with regard to my Theory of the Earth, +although simple fluidity, without heat, would +have answered the purpose of consolidating +strata that had been formed at the bottom of +the sea, it was necessary to provide a power +for raising those consolidated strata from that +low place to the summits of the continents; +now, in supposing heat to be the cause of that +fluidity which had been employed in the consolidation +of those submarine masses, we find +a power capable of erecting continents, and +the only power, so far as I see, which natural +philosophy can employ for that purpose. Thus +I was led, from the consolidation of strata, +to understand the nature of the elevating +power, and, from the nature of that power, +again to understand the cause of fluidity by +which the rocks and stones of this earth had +been consolidated.</p> + +<p>Having thus, without employing the evidence +of any fire or <i>burning</i>, been necessarily +led to conclude an extreme degree of heat +exerted in the mineral regions, I next inquire +how far there are any appearances from +whence we might conclude whether that active +subterraneous power still subsists, and +what may be the nature of that power. +When first I conceived my theory, naturalists +were far from suspecting that basaltic rocks +were of volcanic origin; I could not then +have employed an argument from these rocks +as I may do now, for proving that the fires, +which we see almost daily issuing with such +force from volcanos, are a continuation of +that active cause which has so evidently been +exerted in all times, and in all places, so far +as have been examined of this earth.</p> + +<p>With regard to the degree of heat in that +subterraneous fire, our author, after proving +that combustible materials would not burn in +the mineral regions, then says, that suppose +they were to burn, this would be "incapable +of forming a heat even equal to that of our +common furnaces, as Mr Dolomieu has +clearly shown to be the case with respect to +volcanic heat." The place to which he +alludes, I believe to be that which I have +quoted from the Journal de Physique (Part I. +page 139) to which I here beg leave to refer +the reader. After what I have already said, +this subject will appear to be of little concern +to me; but, it must be considered, that my +object, in these answers, is not so much to +justify the theory which I have given, as it +is to remove that prejudice which, to those +who are not master of chemical and mineral +subjects, will naturally arise from the opinion +or authority of a scientific man, and a chemist; +therefore, I think it my business to show +how much he has misconceived the matter +which he treats of, and how much he misunderstands +the subject of my theory.</p> + +<p>Mr Dolomieu alleges that the volcanic +fire operates in the melting of bodies, not by +the intensity of its heat, which is the means +employed by us in our operations, but in the +long continuance of its action. But in that +proposition, this philosopher is merely giving +us his opinion; and, this opinion our author +mistakes, I suppose, for the fact on which that +opinion had been (perhaps reasonably) founded. +The reader will see, in the place quoted, +or in the <i>avant-propos</i> to his <i>Mémoire sur les +Iles Ponces</i>, the fact to be this; That the Chevalier +Dolomieu finds those bodies which we +either cannot melt in our fires, or which we +cannot melt without changing them by calcination +and vitrification, he finds, I say, these +substances had actually been melted with his +lavas; he also finds those substances, which +are necessarily dissipated in our fires, to have +been retained in those melted mineral substances. +Had our author quoted the text, instead +of giving us his own interpretation, he could +not have offered a stronger confirmation of +my theory; which certainly is not concerned +with the particular intensity of volcanic fire, +and far less with what may be the opinion of +any naturalist with regard to that intensity, +but only with the efficacy of that volcanic +heat for the melting of mineral substances. +Now this efficacy of volcanic fire, so far as we +are to found upon the authority given on this +occasion, is clearly confirmed by the observations +of a most intelligent mineralist, and one +who is actually a patron of the opposite theory +to that which I have given. This being the +state of the case, Must I not conclude, that +our author has misunderstood the subject, and +that he has been led to give a mutilated opinion +of Mr Dolomieu, in order to refute my +theory, when either the entire opinion, or the +facts on which the opinion had been founded, +would have confirmed it?</p> + +<p>I have thus endeavoured to put in its true +light a species of reasoning, which, while it +assumes the air and form of that inductive +train of thought employed by men of science +for the investigation of nature, is only fit to +mislead the unwary, and, when closely examined, +will appear to be inconsequential or +unfounded. How mortifying then to find, +that one may be employed almost a lifetime +in generalising the phenomena of nature, or +in gathering an infinity of evidence for the +forming of a theory, and that the consequence +of this shall only be to give offence, and to +receive reproach from those who see not things +in the same light!—While man has to learn, +mankind must have different opinions. It is +the prerogative of man to form opinions; +these indeed are often, commonly I may say, +erroneous; but they are commonly corrected, +and it is thus that truth in general is made to +appear.</p> + +<p>I wrote a general Theory for the inspection +of philosophers, who doubtless will point out +its errors; but this requires the study of nature, +which is not the work of a day; and, in +this political age, the study of nature seems to +be but little pursued by our philosophers. In +the mean time, there are, on the one hand, +sceptical philosophers, who think there is nothing +certain in nature, because there is misconception +in the mind of man; on the other +hand, there are many credulous amateurs, +who go to nature to be entertained as we go +to see a pantomime: But there are also superficial +reasoning men, who think themselves +qualified to write on subjects on which they +may have read in books,—subjects which they +may have seen in cabinets, and which, perhaps, +they have just learned to name; without +truly knowing what they see, they think +they know those regions of the earth which +never can be seen; and they judge of the +great operations of the mineral kingdom, from +having kindled a fire, and looked into the bottom +of a little crucible.</p> + +<p>In the Theory of the Earth which was +published, I was anxious to warn the reader +against the notion that subterraneous heat and +fusion could be compared with that which we +induce by our chemical operations on mineral +substances here upon the surface of the +earth; yet, notwithstanding all the precaution +I had taken, our author has bestowed four +quarto pages in proving to me, that our fires +have an effect upon mineral substances different +from that of the subterraneous power +which I would employ.</p> + +<p>He then sets about combining metals with +sulphur in the moist way, as if that were any +more to his purpose than is the making of a +stalactite for the explanation of marble. Silver +and lead may be sulphurated, as he says, with +hepatic gas; but, Has the sulphurated solid +ores of those metals, and that of iron, been +formed in the moist way, as in some measure +they may be by the fusion of our fires? +But, even suppose that this were the case, +Could that explain a thousand other appearances +which are inconsistent with the operation +of water? We see aerated lead dissolved +in the excavations of our mines, and again +concreted by the separation of the evaporated +solvent, in like manner as stalactical concretions +are made of calcareous earth; but, so far +from explaining mineral appearances, as having +had their concretions formed in the same +manner, here is the most convincing argument +against it; for, among the infinite variety +of mineral productions which we find in +nature, Why does no other example of aqueous +concretion ever occur upon the surface of +the earth except those which we understand +so well, and which we therefore know cannot +be performed in the bodies of strata not exposed +to the evaporation of the solvent, a circumstance +which is necessary.</p> + +<p>I have given a very remarkable example of +mineral fusion, in reguline manganese, (as the +reader will see in page 68.) It is not that this +example is more to the purpose of my theory +than what may be found in every species of +stone; but this example speaks so immediately +to the common sense of mankind, (who are +often convinced by a general resemblance of +things, when they may not see the force of +demonstration from an abstract principle) that +I thought it deserved a place on that account, +as well as being a curious example, But more +particularly to my antagonist, who has been +pleased (very improperly indeed) to try some +part of my theory in the fire, here is an example +which should have been absolutely in +point, and without any manner of exception:—Has +he acknowledged this?—No; he has, +on the contrary, endeavoured to set this very +example aside.</p> + +<p>On this occasion, he says, "Manganese has +been found in a reguline state by M. de la +Peyrouse, and in small grains, as when produced +by fire. True; but it was mixed +with a large quantity of iron, which is often, +found in that form without any suspicion of +fusion. A fire capable of melting quartz +might surely produce it in larger masses." +We have here a kind of two arguments, for +removing the effect of this example; and I +shall consider them separately.</p> + +<p>The first of these is, the not being suspected +of having been in fusion; now, if this +were to be admitted as an argument against +the igneous origin of stony substances, it might +have superseded the adducing of any other, +for it is applicable perhaps to every mineral; +but we must here examine the case more minutely.</p> + +<p>This argument, of the manganese being in +a mine of iron, if I understand it rightly, +amounts to this, that, as iron ore is not suspected +of having been melted, therefore, we +should doubt the manganese having been so. +If this be our author's meaning, it is not the +fair conclusion which the case admits of; for, +so far as the manganese appears evidently to +have been in a melted state, the iron ore should +be <i>suspected</i> of having been also in fusion, were +there no other evidence of that fact. In science, +however, it is not suspicion that should +be employed in physical investigation; the +question at present is; If the phenomena of the +case correspond to the conclusion which the +intelligent mineralist, who examined them, +has formed? and, to this question, our author +gives no direct answer. He says, <i>iron is often +found in that form without any suspicion of fusion</i>. +This is what I am now to answer.</p> + +<p>The form in which the manganese appears +is one of the strongest proofs of those masses +having been in fusion; and, if iron should +ever be found in that form, it must give the +same proof of mineral fusion as this example +of manganese; let us then see the nature of +this evidence. The form of the manganese is +that of a fluid body collecting itself into a +spherical figure by the cohesion or attraction +of its particles, so far as may be admitted by +other circumstances; but, being here refilled +by the solid part on which it rests, this spherical +body is flattened by the gravitation of its +substance. Now here is a regular form, which +demonstrates the masses to have been in the +state of fusion; for, there is no other way in +which that form of those reguline masses could +have been induced.</p> + +<p>There now remains to be considered what +our author has observed respecting the intensity +of the fire and size of the masses. "A +fire capable of melting quartz might surely +produce it (meaning the manganese) in larger +masses." M. de la Peyrouse says, that +those masses were in all respects as if formed +by art, only much larger, as the powers of nature +exceed those of our laboratories. What +then is it that is here meant to be disputed? +We are comparing the operation of nature +and that of art, and these are to be judged of +by the product which we examine; but the +quantity, in this case, or the size of the masses, +makes no part of the evidence, and therefore +is here most improperly mentioned by our author. +With regard again to the nature of the +fire by which the fusion had been produced, +he is much mistaken if he imagines that the +reduction of the reguline or metallic manganese +depends upon the intensity of the heat; +it depends upon circumstances proper for the +separation of the oxygenating principle from +the calx, in like manner as the calcination of +calcareous spar must depend upon circumstances +proper for allowing the separation of the +carbonic acid or fixed air.</p> + +<p>But do not let us lose sight of our proper +subject, by examining things foreign or not +so immediately to the purpose. We are only +inquiring if those flattened spheres of native +manganese had been formed by water, or if it +were by fusion; for, our author agrees that +there is no other way. Why then does he +endeavour to evade giving a direct answer, +and fly away to consider the quantity of the +product, as if that had any thing to do with, +the question, or as if that quantity were not +sufficient, neither of which is the case. In +short, our author's whole observation, on this +occasion, looks as if he were willing to destroy, +by insinuation, the force of an argument +which proves the theory of mineral fusion; +and that he wishes to render doubtful, +by a species of sophistry, what in fair reasoning +he cannot deny.</p> + +<p>Our author has written upon the subject of +phlogiston; one would suppose that he should +be well acquainted with inflammable bodies at +least; let us see then what he has to observe +upon that subject. He quotes from my Theory, +that spar, quartz, pyrites, crystallised upon +or near each other, and adhering to coal, or +mixed with bitumen, etc. are found; circumstances +that cannot be explained in the +hypothesis of solution in the moist way.—He +then answers;—"Not exactly, nor with certainty; +which is not wonderful: But they +are still less explicable in the hypothesis of +dry solution, as must be apparent from what +has been already said. How coal, an infusible +substance, could be spread into strata +by mere heat, is to me incomprehensible."—It +is only upon the last sentence that I am +here to remark: This, I believe, will be a sufficient +specimen of our author's understanding, +with regard at least to my Theory which +he is here examining.</p> + +<p>The reader will see what I have said upon +the subject of coal, by turning back to the second +section of the preceding chapter. I had +given almost three quarto pages upon that +subject, endeavouring to explain how all the +different degrees of <i>infusibility</i> were produced, +by means of heat and distillation, in strata +which had been originally more or less oily, +bituminous, and <i>fusible</i>; and now our author +says, that it is incomprehensible to him, how +coal, <i>an infusible substance</i>, could be spread into +strata by mere heat.—So it truly may, either +to him or to any other person; but, it +appears to me almost as incomprehensible, +how a person of common understanding should +read my Dissertation, and impute to it a thing +so contrary to its doctrine.</p> + +<p>Nothing can better illustrate the misconceived +view that our author seems to have taken +of the two opposite theories, (<i>i. e</i>. of consolidation +by means of heat, and by means of +water alone,) than his observation upon the +case of mineral alkali. To that irrefragable argument +(which Dr Black suggested) in proof +of this substance having been in a state of fusion +in the mineral regions, our author makes +the following reply; "What then will our +author say of the vast masses of this salt +which are found with their full quantity of +water of crystallization?"—There is in this +proposition, insignificant as it may seem, a +confusion of ideas, which it certainly cannot +be thought worth while to investigate; but, +so far as the doctrine of the aqueous theory +may be considered as here concerned, it will +be proper that I should give some answer to +the question so triumphantly put to me.</p> + +<p>Our author is in a mistake in supposing that +Dr Black had written any thing upon the subject; +he had only suggested the argument of +this example of mineral alkali to me, as I have +mentioned; and, the use I made of that argument +was to corroborate the example I had +given of sal gem. If, therefore, our author +does not deny the inference from the state of +that mineral alkali, his observation upon it +must refer to something which this other example +of his is to prove on the opposite side, +or to support the aqueous instead of the igneous +theory; and, this is a subject which I am +always willing to examine in the most impartial +manner, having a desire to know the true +effect of aqueous solution in the consolidation +of mineral bodies, and having no objection to +allow it any thing which it can possibly produce, +although denying that it can do every +thing, as many mineralists seem to think.</p> + +<p>The question, with regard to this example +of our author's of a mineral alkali with its water +of crystallization, must be this, Whether +those saline bodies had been concreted by the +evaporation of the aqueous solvent with which +they had been introduced, or by the congelation +of that saline substance from a fluid state +of fusion; for, surely, we are not to suppose +those bodies to have been created in the place +and state in which we find them. With regard +to the evaporation or separation of the +aqueous solvent, this may be easily conceived +according to the igneous theory; but, the +aqueous theory has not any means for the +producing of that effect in the mineral regions, +which is the only place we are here concerned +with. Therefore, this example of a concreted +body of salt, whatever it may prove in other +respects, can neither diminish the evidence of +my Theory with regard to the igneous origin +of stony substances, nor can it contribute to +support the opposite supposition of an aqueous +origin to them.</p> + +<p>But to show how little reason our author +had for exulting in that question which he so +confidently proposed in order to defeat my +argument, let us consider this matter a little +farther. I will for a moment allow the aqueous +theory to have the means for separating +the water from the saline solution, and thus +to concrete the saline substance in the bowels +of the earth; this concretion then is to be examined +with a view to investigate the last state +of this body, which is to inform us with regard +to those mineral operations. But, our +author has not mentioned whether those masses +appear to have been crystallised from the +aqueous solution, or if they appear to have +been congealed from the melted state of their +<i>aqueous fusion</i>.—Has he ever thought of +this? Now this is so material a point in the +view with which that example has been held +out to us, that, without showing that this +salt had crystallised from the solution, he +has no right to employ it as an example; and +if, on the other hand, it should appear to have +simply congealed from the state of aqueous +fusion, then, instead of answering the purpose +for which our author gave it, it would refute +his supposition, as certainly as the example +which I have given.</p> + +<p>So far I have reasoned upon the supposition +of this alkali, with its water of crystallization, +being truly a mineral concretion; but, I see +no authority for such a supposition: It certainly +may be otherwise; and, in that case, +our author would have no more right to give +it as an example in opposition to Dr Black's +argument, than he would have to give the +crystallization of sea-salt, on Turk's Island, in +opposition to the example which I had given, +of the salt rock, at Northwych in Cheshire, +having been in the state of fusion.</p> + +<p>It certainly was incumbent on our author +to have informed us, if those masses of salt +were found in, what may be properly termed, +their mineral state; or, if the state in which +they are found at present had been produced +by the influences of the atmosphere, transforming +that saline substance from its mineral +state, as happens upon so many other occasions; +I am inclined to suspect that this last +is truly the case. It may be thought illiberal +in me to suppose a natural philosopher thus +holding out an example that could only serve +to lead us into error, or to mislead our judgment +with regard to those two theories which +is the subject of consideration. This certainly +would be the case, almost on any other occasion; +but, when I find every argument and +example, employed in this dissertation, to be +either unfounded or misjudged, Whether am +I to conclude our author, on this occasion, to +be consistent with himself, or not?</p> + +<p>I have but one article more to observe upon. +I had given, as I thought, a kind of demonstration, +from the internal evidence of the +stone, that granite had been in the fluid state +of fusion, and had concreted by crystallization +and congelation from that melted state. +This no doubt must be a stumbling block to +those who maintain that granite mountains +are the primitive parts of our earth; and who, +like our author, suppose that "things may +have been originally, as at present, in a +solid state." It must also be a great, if not +an invincible obstacle in the way of the aqueous +theory, which thus endeavours to explain +those granite veins that are found traversing +strata, and therefore necessarily of a posterior +formation.</p> + +<p>To remove that obstacle in the way of the +aqueous theory, or to carry that theory over +the obstacle which he cannot remove, our author +undertakes to refute my theory with regard +to the igneous origin of stony substances, +by giving an example of granite formed upon +the surface of the earth by means of water, or +in what is called the moist way; and he +closes his Dissertation with this example as an +<i>experimentum crucis</i>. It is therefore necessary +that I take this demonstration of our author +into particular consideration; for, surely, independent +of our controversy, which is perhaps +of little moment, here is the most interesting +experiment, as it is announced, that +mineralogy could be enriched with.</p> + +<p>"To close this controversy," says our author, +"I shall only add, that granite, recently +formed in the moist way, has been frequently +found."—Of that remarkable event, +however, he has selected only one example. +This is to be found upon the Oder; and the +authority upon which our author has given +it, is that of Lasius Hartz.</p> + +<p>The formation of a granite stone, from granite +sand, by means of water, is inconsistent +with our chemical knowledge of those mineral +substances which constitute that stone; it +is repugnant to the phenomena which appear +from the inspection of the natural bodies of +this kind; and it is directly contrary to the +universal experience in granite countries, +where, instead of any thing concreting, every +thing is going into decay, from the loose +stones and sand of granite, to the solid rock +and mountains which are always in a state of +degradation. Therefore, to have any credit +given to such a story, would require the most +scientific evidence in its favour. Now, in order +that others may judge whether this has +been the case in this example, I will transcribe +what our author has said upon the subject; +and then I will give the view in which it appears +to me.</p> + +<p>He says, "a mole having been constructed +in the Oder in the year 1723, 350 feet +long, 54 feet in height, 144 feet broad at +bottom, and 54 at the top, its sides only +were granite, without any other cement +than moss; the middle space was entirely +filled with granite sand. In a short time +this concreted into a substance so compact +as to be impenetrable by water."—Here is +an example, according to our author, of <i>granite +formed in the moist way</i>. But now, I +must ask to see the evidence of that fact; for, +from what our author has told us, I do not +even see reason to conclude that there was the +least concretion, or any stone formed at all. +A body of sand will be <i>so compacted as to be +impenetrable by water</i>, with the introduction +of a very little mud, and without any degree +of concretion; muddy water, indeed, cannot +be made to pass through such a body without +compacting it so; and this every body finds, +to their cost, who have attempted to make a +filter of that kind.</p> + +<p>But I shall suppose Lasius has informed our +author that there had been a petrifaction in +this case; and, before I admit this example +of the formation of granite, I must ask what +sort of a granite it was;—whether of two, +three, or four ingredients; and, how these +were disposed. If, again, it were not properly +a granite, but a stone formed of granite +sand, What is the cementing substance?—Is +it quartz, felt-spar, mica, or schorl?—or, Was +it calcareous? If our author knows any thing +about these necessary questions, Why has +he not informed us, as minutely as he +has done with regard to the dimensions of +the mole, with which we certainly are less +concerned? If, again, he knows no more +about the matter than what he has informed +us of, he must have strangely imposed upon +himself, to suppose that he was giving us an +example of the <i>formation of granite in the +moist way</i>, when he has only described an effectual +way of retaining water, by means of +sand and mud.</p> + +<br> +<h3>CHAP. III.</h3> + +<p><i>Of Physical Systems, and Geological Theories, +in general</i>.</p> + + +<p>In the first chapter I have given a general +theory of the earth, with such proofs as I +thought were sufficient for the information of +intelligent men, who might satisfy themselves +by examining the facts on which the reasoning +in that theory had been founded.</p> + +<p>In the second chapter, I have endeavoured +to remove the objections which have been +made to that theory, by a strenuous patron of +the commonly received opinion of mineralogists +and geologists,—an opinion which, if not +diametrically opposite, differs essentially from +mine. But now I am to examine nature +more particularly, in order to compare those +different opinions with the actual state of +things, on which every physical theory must +be founded. Therefore, the opinions of other +geologists should be clearly stated, that so a +fair comparison may be made of theories +which are to represent the system of this +earth.</p> + +<p>Now, if I am to compare that which I +have given as a theory of the earth, with the +theories given by others under that denomination, +I find so little similarity, in the things +to be compared, that no other judgment could +hence be formed, perhaps, than that they had +little or no resemblance. I see certain treatises +named Theories of the Earth; but, I find not +any thing that entitles them to be considered +as such, unless it be their endeavouring to +explain certain appearances which are observed +in the earth. That a proper theory of +the earth should explain all those appearances +is true; but, it does not hold, conversely, that +the explanation of an appearance should constitute +a theory of the earth. So far as the +theory of the earth shall be considered as the +philosophy or physical knowledge of this +world, that is to say, a general view of the +means by which the end or purpose is attained, +nothing can be properly esteemed such a +theory unless it lead, in some degree, to the +forming of that general view of things. But +now, let us see what we have to examine in +that respect.</p> + +<p>We have, first, Burnet's Theory of the +Earth. This surely cannot be considered in +any other light than as a dream, formed upon +the poetic fiction of a golden age, and that of +iron which had succeeded it; at the same +time, there are certain appearances in the +earth which would, in a partial view of things, +seem to justify that imagination. In Telliamed, +again, we have a very ingenious theory, +with regard to the production of the earth +above the surface of the sea, and of the origin +of those land animals which now inhabit +that earth. This is a theory which has something +in it like a regular system, such as we +might expect to find in nature; but, it is only +a physical romance, and cannot be considered +in a serious view, although apparently +better founded than most of that which has +been wrote upon the subject.</p> + +<p>We have then a theory of a very different +kind; this is that of the Count de Buffon. +Here is a theory, not founded on any regular +system, but upon an irregularity of nature, or +an accident supposed to have happened to the +sun. But, are we to consider as a theory of +the earth, an accident by which a planetary +body had been made to increase the number +of these in the solar system? The circumvolution +of a planetary body (allowing it to have +happened in that manner) cannot form the +system of a world, such as our earth exhibits; +and, in forming a theory of the earth, it is required +to see the aptitude of every part of +this complicated machine to fulfil the purpose +of its intention, and not to suppose the +wise system of this world to have arisen from, +the cooling of a lump of melted matter which +had belonged to another body. When we +consider the power and wisdom that must +have been exerted in the contriving, creating, +and maintaining this living world which sustains +such a variety of plants and animals, the +revolution of a mass of dead matter according +to the laws of projectiles, although in perfect +wisdom, is but like a unite among an infinite +series of ascending numbers.</p> + +<p>After the theory of that eloquent writer, +founded on a mere accident, or rather the error +of a comet which produced the beautiful +system of this world, M. de Luc, in his Theory +of the earth, has given us the history of a +disaster which befell this well contrived world;—a +disaster which caused the general deluge, +and which, without a miracle, must have undone +a system of living beings that are so +well adapted to the present state of things. +But, surely, general deluges form no part of +the theory of the earth; for, the purpose of +this earth is evidently to maintain vegetable +and animal life, and not to destroy them.</p> + +<p>Besides these imaginary great operations in +the natural history of this earth, we have also +certain suppositions of geologists and mineralists +with regard to the effect of water, for explaining +to us the consolidation of the loose +materials of which the strata of the earth had +been composed, and also for producing every +other appearance, or any which shall happen +to occur in the examination of the earth, and +require to be explained. That this is no exaggerated +representation, and that this is all +we have as a theory, in the suppositions of +those geologists, will appear from the following +state of the case.</p> + +<p>They suppose water the agent employed in +forming the solid bodies of the earth, and in +producing those crystallised bodies which appear +in the mineral kingdom. That this is a +mere supposition will appear by considering; +first, that they do not know how this agent +water is to operate in producing those effects; +nor have they any direct proof of the fact +which is alleged, from a very fallaceous analogy; +and, secondly, that they cannot tell us +where this operation is to be performed. They +cannot say that it is in the earth above the +level of the sea: for, the same appearances +are found as deep as we can examine below +that level; besides, we see that water has the +opposite effect upon the surface of the earth, +through which it percolates dissolving soluble +substances, and thus resolving solid bodies in +preparing soil for plants. If, again, it be below +the level of the sea, that strata of the earth +are supposed to be consolidated by the infiltration +of that water which falls from the +heavens; this cannot be allowed, so far as +whatever of the earth is bibulous, in that +place, must have been always full of water, +consequently cannot admit of that supposed +infiltration.</p> + +<p>But allowing those suppositions to be true, +there is nothing in them like a theory of the +earth,—a theory that should bring the operations +of the world into the regularity of ends +and means, and, by generalizing these regular +events, show us the operation of perfect intelligence +forming a design; they are only an +attempt to show how certain things, which we +see, have happened without any perceivable +design, or without any farther design than this +particular effect which we perceive. If we +believe that there is almighty power, and supreme +wisdom employed for sustaining that +beautiful system of plants and animals which +is so interesting to us, we must certainly conclude, +that the earth, on which this system of +living things depends, has been constructed +on principles that are adequate to the end proposed, +and procure it a perfection which it is +our business to explore. Therefore, a proper +system of the earth should lead us to see that +wise contraction, by which this earth is made +to answer the purpose of its intention and to +preserve itself from every accident by which +the design of this living world might be frustrated +as this world is an active scene. +or a material machine moving in all its parts, +we must see how this machine is so contrived, +as either to have those parts to move without +wearing and decay, or to have those parts, +which are wasting and decaying, again repaired.</p> + +<p>A rock or stone is not a subject that, of itself, +may interest a philosopher to study; but, +when he comes to see the necessity of those +hard bodies, in the constitution of this earth, +or for the permanency of the land on which +we dwell, and when he finds that there are +means wisely provided for the renovation of +this necessary decaying part, as well as that of +every other, he then, with pleasure, contemplates +this manifestation of design, and thus +connects the mineral system of this earth with +that by which the heavenly bodies are made +to move perpetually in their orbits. It is not, +therefore, simply by seeing the concretion of +mineral bodies that a philosopher is to be gratified +in his his intellectual pursuit, but by the +contemplation of that system in which the +necessary resolution of this earth, while at +present it serves the purpose of vegetation, +or the fertility of our soil, is the very means +employed in furnishing the materials of future +land.</p> + +<p>It is such a view as this that I have endeavoured +to represent in the theory which +I have given. I have there stated the present +situation of things, by which we are led to +perceive a former state; and, from that necessary +progress of actual things, I have concluded +a certain system according to which +things will be changed, without any accident +or error. It is by tracing this regular system +in nature that a philosopher is to perceive the +wisdom with which this world has been contrived; +but, he must see that wisdom founded +upon the aptitude of all the parts to fulfil +the intention of the design; and that intention +is to be deduced from the end which is +known to be attained. Thus we are first to +reason from effect to cause, in seeing the order +of that which has already happened; and +then, from those known causes, to reason forwards, +so as to conceive that which is to come +to pass in time. Such would be the philosophy +of this earth, formed by the highest generalisation +of phenomena, a generalisation +which had required the particular investigation +of inductive reasoning.</p> + +<p>That no such theory as this, founded upon +water as an agent operating in the changes of +this earth, has yet appeared, will, I believe +be easily allowed. With regard again to fire +as an agent in the mineral operations of this +earth, geologists have formed no consistent +theory. They see volcanoes in all the quarters +of the globe, and from those burning +mountains, they conjecture other mountains +have been formed. But a burning mountain +is only a matter of fact; and, they have not +on this formed any general principle, for establishing +what may be called a theory of the +earth. Those who have considered subterraneous +fires as producing certain effects, neither +know how these have been procured, nor do +they see the proper purpose for which they +are employed in the system of this world. +In this case, the agent fire is only seen as a +destructive element, in like manner as deluges +of water have been attributed by others to +changes which have happened in the natural +state of things. These operations are seen only +as the accidents of nature, and not as part +of that design by which the earth, which is +necessarily wasted in the operations of the +world, is to be repaired.</p> + +<p>So far from employing heat or subterraneous +fire as an agent in the mineral operations +of the earth, the volcanic philosophers do not +even attempt to explain upon that principle +the frequent nodules of calcareous, zeolite, +and other spatose and agaty substances, in those +basaltic bodies which they consider as lavas. +Instead then of learning to see the operation +of heat as a general principle of mineral consolidation +and crystallization, the volcanic philosophers +endeavour to explain those particular +appearances, which they think inconsistent +with fusion, by aqueous infiltration, no otherwise +than other mineralists who do not admit +the igneous origin of those basaltic bodies. +Thus, that great agent, subterraneous heat, has +never been employed by geologists, as a general +principle in the theory of the earth; it +has been only considered as an occasional circumstance, +or as the accident of having certain +mineral bodies, which are inflammable, +kindled in the earth, without so much as seeing +how that may be done.</p> + +<p>This agent heat, then, is a new principle +to be employed in forming a theory of the +earth; a principle that must have been in the +constitution of this globe, when contrived to +subsist as a world, and to maintain a system of +living bodies perpetuating their species. It is +therefore necessary to connect this great mineral +principle, subterraneous fire or heat, +with the other operations of the world, in +forming a general theory. For, whether we +are to consider those great and constant explosions +of mineral fire as a principal agent in +the design, or only as a casual event depending +upon circumstances which give occasion +to an operation of such magnitude, here is an +object that must surely have its place in every +general theory of the earth.</p> + +<p>In examining things which actually exist, +and which have proceeded in a certain order, +it is natural to look for that which had been +first; man desires to know what had been the +beginning of those things which now appear. +But when, in forming a theory of the earth, +a geologist shall indulge his fancy in framing, +without evidence, that which had preceded +the present order of things, he then either +misleads himself, or writes a fable for the +amusement of his reader. A theory of the +earth, which has for object truth, can have no +retrospect to that which had preceded the present +order of this world; for, this order alone +is what we have to reason upon; and to reason +without data is nothing but delusion. A +theory, therefore, which is limited to the actual +constitution of this earth, cannot be allowed +to proceed one step beyond the present +order of things.</p> + +<p>But, having surveyed the order of this living +world, and having investigated the progress +of this active scene of life, death and circulation, +we find ample data on which to +found a train of the most conclusive reasoning +with regard to a general design. It is thus +that there is to be perceived another system. +of active things for the contemplation of our +mind;—things which, though not immediately +within our view, are not the less certain +in being out of our sight; and things which +must necessarily be comprehended in the +theory of the earth, if we are to give stability +to it as a world sustaining plants and animals. +This is a mineral system, by which the decayed +constitution of an earth, or fruitful surface +of habitable land, may be continually renewed +in proportion as it is wasted in the operations +of this world.</p> + +<p>It is in this mineral system that I have occasion +to compare the explanations, which I +give of certain natural appearances, with the +theories or explanations which have been +given by others, and which are generally received +as the proper theory of those mineral +operations. I am, therefore, to examine those +different opinions, respecting the means employed +by nature for producing particular appearances +in the construction of our land, appearances +which must be explained in some +consistent mineral theory.</p> + +<p>These appearances may all be comprehended +under two heads, which are now to be +mentioned, in order to see the importance of +their explanation, or purpose which such an +explanation is to serve in a theory of the earth. +The first kind of these appearances is that of +known bodies which we find composing part +of the masses of our land, bodies whose natural +history we know, as having existed in +another state previous to the composition of +this earth where they now are found; these +are the relicts or parts of animal and vegetable +bodies, and various stony substances broken +and worn by attrition, all which had belonged +to a former earth. By means of these known +objects, we are to learn a great deal of the +natural history of this earth; and, it is in +tracing that history, from where we first perceive +it, to the present state of things, that +forms the subject of a geological and mineralogical +theory of this earth. But, we are +more especially enabled to trace those operations +of the earth, by means of the second +kind of appearances, which are now to be +mentioned.</p> + +<p>These again are the evident changes which +those known bodies have undergone, and +which have been induced upon such collected +masses of which those bodies constitute a +part. These changes are of three sorts; <i>first</i>, +the solid state, and various degrees of it, in +which we now find those masses which had +been originally formed by the collection of +loose and incoherent materials; <i>secondly</i>, the +subsequent changes which have evidently +happened to those consolidated masses which +have been broken and displaced, and which +have had other mineral substances introduced +into those broken and disordered parts; and, +<i>lastly</i>, that great change of situation which has +happened to this compound mass formed originally +at the bottom of the sea, a mass which, +after being consolidated in the mineral region, +is now situated in the atmosphere above the +surface of the sea.</p> + +<p>In this manner we are led to the system of +the world, or theory of the earth in general; +for, that great change of situation, which our +land has undergone, cannot be considered as +the work of accident, or any other than an +essential part in the system of this world. It +is therefore a proper view of the necessary +connection and mutual dependence of all those +different systems of changing things that forms +the theory of this earth as a world, or as that +active part of nature which the philosophy of +this earth has to explore. The animal system +is the first or last of these; next comes the +vegetable system, on which the life of animals +depends; then comes the system of this earth, +composed of atmosphere, sea, and land, and +comprehending the various chemical, mechanical, +and meteorologically operations which +take place upon that surface where vegetation +must proceed; and, lastly, we have the mineral +system to contemplate, a system in which +the wasting surface of the earth is employed +in laying the foundation of future land within +the sea, and a system in which the mineral +operations are employed in concocting that +future land.</p> + +<p>Now, such must surely be the theory of this +earth, if the land is continually wasting in the +operations of this world; for, to acknowledge +the perfection of those systems of plants and +animals perpetuating their species, and to suppose +the system of this earth on which they must +depend, to be imperfect, and in time to perish, +would be to reason inconsistently or absurdly. +This is the view of nature that I would wish +philosophers to take; but, there are certain +prejudices of education or prepossession of +opinion among them to be overcome, before +they can be brought to see those fundamental +propositions,—the wasting of the land, and +the necessity of its renovation by the co-operation +of the mineral system. Let us then +consider how men of science, in examining +the mineral state of things, and reasoning from +those appearances by which we are to learn +the physiology of this earth, have misled themselves +with regard to physical causes, and formed +certain mineralogical and geological theories, +by which their judgment is so perverted, +in examining nature, as to exclude them from +the proper means of correcting their first erroneous +notions, or render them blind to the +clearest evidence of any other theory that is +proposed.</p> + +<p>When men of science reason upon subjects +where the ideas are distinct and definite, with +terms appropriated to the ideas, they come to +conclusions in which there is no difference of +opinion. It is otherwise in physical subjects, +where things are to be assimilated, in being +properly compared; there, things are not +always compared in similar and equal circumstances +or conditions; and there, philosophers +often draw conclusions beyond the analogy of +the things compared, and thus judge without +data. When, for example, they would form +the physical induction, with regard to the effect +of fire or water upon certain substances +in the mineral regions, from the analogy of +such events as may be observed upon the surface +of the earth, they are apt to judge of +things acting under different circumstances or +conditions, consequently not producing similar +effects; in which case, they are judging without +reason, that is, instead of inductive reasoning +from actual data or physical truth, they +are forming data to themselves purely by supposition, +consequently, so far as these, imagined +data may be wrong, the physical conclusion, +of these philosophers may be erroneous.</p> + +<p>It is thus that philosophers have judged, +with regard to the effects of fire and water +upon mineral substances below the bottom of +the sea, from what their chemistry had taught +them to believe concerning bodies exposed to +those agents in the atmosphere or on the surface +of the earth. If in those two cases the +circumstances were the same, or similar, consequently +the conditions of the action not +changed, then, the inductive reasoning, which +they employ in that comparison, would be just; +but, so far as it is evidently otherwise, to have +employed that inductive conclusion for the explanation +of mineral appearances, without having +reason to believe that those changed circumstances +of the case should not make any +difference in the action or effect, is plainly to +have transgressed the rules of scientific reasoning; +consequently, instead of being a proper +physical conclusion, it is only that imperfect +reasoning of the vulgar which, by comparing +things not properly analysed or distinguished, +is so subject to be erroneous. This vague reasoning, +therefore, cannot be admitted as a part +of any geological or mineral theory. Now I +here maintain, that philosophers have judged +in no other manner than by this false analogy, +when they conclude that water is the agent by +which mineral concretions have been formed. +But it will be proper to state more particularly +the case of that misunderstanding among mineral +philosophers.</p> + +<p>In forming a geological theory, the general +construction of this earth, and the materials of +which it is composed, are such visible objects, +and so evident to those who will take the pains +to examine nature, that here is a subject in +which there cannot be any doubt or difference +of opinion. Neither can there be any dispute +concerning the place and situation of +mass when it was first formed or composed; +for, this is clearly proved, from every concomitant +circumstance, to have been at the bottom +of the sea. The only question in this +case, that can be made, is, How that mass +comes now to be a solid body, and above the +surface of the sea in which it had been formed?</p> + +<p>With regard to the last, the opinions of philosophers +have been so dissonant, so vague, and +so unreasonable, as to draw to no conclusion. +Some suppose the land to be discovered by the +gradual retreat of the ocean, without proposing +to explain to us from whence had come the +known materials of a former earth, which +compose the highest summits of the mountains +in the highest continents of the earth. +Others suppose the whole of a former earth to +have subsided below the bottom even of the +present sea, and together with it all the water +of the former sea, from above the summits of +the present mountains, which had then been +at the bottom of the former sea. The placing +of the bottom of the sea, or any part of it, in +the atmosphere so as to be dry land, is no +doubt a great operation to be performed, and +a difficult task to be explained; but this is only +an argument the more for philosophers to +agree in adopting the most reasonable means.</p> + +<p>But though philosophers differ so widely in +that point, this is not the case with regard to +the concretion of mineral bodies; here mineralists +seem to be almost all of one mind, at +the same time without any reason, at least, +without any other reason than that false analogy +which they have inconsiderately formed +from the operations of the surface of this earth. +This great misunderstanding of mineralists has +such an extensive and baneful effect in the +judging of geological theories, that it will be +proper here to explain how that has happened, +and to show the necessity of correcting that +erroneous principle before any just opinion +can be formed upon the subject.</p> + +<p>Fire and water are two great agents in the +system of this earth; it is therefore most natural +to look for the operation of those agents +in the changes which are made on bodies in +the mineral regions; and as the consolidated +state of those bodies, which had been collected +at the bottom of the sea, may have been +supposed to be induced either by fusion, or by +the concretion from a solution, we are to consider +how far natural appearance lead to the +conclusion of the one or other of those two +different operations. Here, no doubt, we are +to reason analogically from the known power +and effects of those great agents; but, we must +take care not to reason from a false analogy, +by misunderstanding the circumstances of the +case, or not attending to the necessary conditions +in which those agents act.—We must not +conclude that fire cannot burn in the mineral +regions because our fires require the ventilation +of the atmosphere; for, besides the actual +exigence of mineral fire being a notorious matter +of fact, we know that much more powerful +means <i>may</i> be employed by nature, for that +mineral purpose of exciting heat, than those +which we practise.—We must not conclude +that mineral marble is formed in the same manner +as we see a similar stony substance produced +upon the surface of the earth, unless we +should have reason to suppose the analogy to +be complete. But, this is the very error into +which mineral philosophers have fallen; and +this is the subject which I am now to endeavour +to illustrate.</p> + +<p>The manner in which those philosophers +have deceived themselves when reasoning upon +the subject of mineral concretion, is this: +They see, that by means of water a stony substance +is produced; and, this stony body so +much resembles mineral marble as to be hardly +distinguishable in certain cases. These mineral +philosophers then, reasoning in the manner +of the vulgar, or without analysing the subject +to its principle, naturally attribute the formation +of the mineral marble to a cause of the +same sort; and, the mineral marble being found +so intimately connected with all other mineral +bodies, we must necessarily conclude, in reasoning +according to the soundest principles, +that all those different substances had been +concreted in the same manner. Thus, having +once departed one step from the path of just +investigation, our physical science is necessarily +bewildered in the labyrinth of error. Let us +then, in re-examining our data, point out where +lies that first devious step which had been +impregnated with fixed air, or carbonic +acid gas, (as it is called), dissolves a certain +portion of mild calcareous earth or marble; +consequently such acidulated water, that is, water +impregnated with this gas, will, by filtrating +through calcareous substances, become saturated +with that solution of marble; and, this +solution is what is called a <i>petrifying water</i>. +When this solution is exposed to the action of +the atmosphere, the acid gas, by means of which +the stony substance is dissolved, evaporates from +the solution, in having a stronger attraction for +the atmospheric air; it is then that the marble, +or calcareous substance, concretes and crystallises, +separating from the water in a sparry state, +and forming a very solid stone by the successive +accretion from the solution, as it comes to +be exposed to the influence of the atmosphere +in flowing over the accumulating body. Here +is the source of their delusion; for, they do +not distinguish properly the case of this solution +of a stony substance concreting by means +of the separation of its solvent, and the case of +such a solution being in a place where that necessary +condition cannot be supposed to exist; +such as, e.g., the interstices among the particles +of sand, clay, etc. deposited at the bottom of +the sea, and accumulated in immense stratified +masses.</p> + +<p>No example can better illustrate how pernicious +it is to science to have admitted a false +principle, on which a chain of reasoning is to +proceed in forming a theory. Mineral philosophers +have founded their theory upon that +deceitful analogy, which they had concluded +between the stalactical concretions of petrifying +waters and the marble formed in the mineral +regions; thus, blinded by prejudice, +they shut the door against the clearest evidence; +and it is most difficult to make them see the +error of their principle. But this is not to be +wondered at, when we consider how few among +philosophising men remount to the first principles +of their theory; and, unless they shall +thus remount to that first step, in which the +concreting operation of a dissolved stony substance +is supposed to take place without the +necessary conditions for the petrifying operation, +it is impossible to be convinced that their +theory, thus formed with regard to mineral +concretion, is merely supposition, and has no +foundation in matter of fact from whence it +should proceed.</p> + +<p>But this is not all; for, even supposing their +theory to be well founded and just, it is plainly +contradicted by natural appearances. According +to that theory of aqueous consolidation, +all the stratified bodies, of which this earth in +general consists, should be found in the natural +order of their regular formation; but, instead +of this, they are found every where disturbed +in that order more or less; in many +places this order and regularity is so disturbed +as hardly to be acknowledged; in most places +we find those stratified bodies broken, dislocated, +and contorted, and this aqueous theory +of mineralists has neither the means for attaining +that end, were it required in their theory, +nor have they any such purpose in their theory, +were that end attainable by the means +which they employ. Thus blinded by the +prejudice of a false analogy, they do not even +endeavour to gratify the human understanding +(which naturally goes in quest of wisdom +and design) by forming a hypothetical or specious +theory of the mineral system; and they +only amuse themselves with the supposition of +an unknown operation of water for the explanation +of their cabinet specimens, a supposition +altogether ineffectual for the purpose of +forming a habitable earth, and a supposition +which is certainly contradicted by every natural +appearance.</p> + +<p>Thus, in examining geological and mineralogical +theories, I am laid under the disagreeable +necessity of pointing out the errors of +physical principles which are assumed, the prejudices +of theoretical opinions which have +been received, and the misconceived notions +which philosophers entertain with regard to +the system of nature, in which may be perceived +no ineffectual operation, nor any destructive +intention, but the wise and benevolent +purpose of preserving the present order of +this world. But, though thus misled with +regard to the cause of things, naturalists are +every where making interesting observations +in the mineral kingdom, I shall therefore +avail myself of that instructive information, +for the confirmation of my theory.</p> + +<p>It may now be proper to consider what +must be required, in order to have a geological +and mineral theory established upon scientific +principles, or on such grounds as must +give conviction to those who will examine the +subject; for, unless we may clearly see that +there are means for attaining that desirable +end, few philosophers will be persuaded to +pursue this branch of knowledge.</p> + +<p>A theory is nothing but the generalization +of particular facts; and, in a theory of the +earth, those facts must be taken from the observations +of natural history. Nature is considered +as absolutely true; no error or contradiction +can be found in nature. For, if such +contradiction were truly found, if the stone, +for example, which fell to day were to rise +again to-morrow, there would be an end of +natural philosophy, our principles would fail, +and we would no longer investigate the rules +of nature from our observations.</p> + +<p>Every natural appearance, therefore, which +is explained, <i>i.e.</i> which is made to come into +the order of things that happen, must so far +confirm the theory to which it then belongs. +But is it necessary, that every particular appearance, +among minerals, should be thus explained +in a general theory of the earth? +And, is any appearance, which is not explained +by it, to be considered as sufficient to discredit +or confute a theory which corresponded +with every other appearance? Here is a +question which it would require some accuracy +to resolve.</p> + +<p>If we knew all the powers of nature, and all +the different conditions in which those powers +may have their action varied, that is to say, +if we were acquainted with every physical +cause, then every natural effect, or all appearances +upon the surface of this earth, might be +explained in a theory that were just. But, +seeing that this is far from being the case, and +that there may be many causes of which we +are as yet ignorant, as well as certain conditions +in which the known action of powers +may be varied, it must be evident, that a +theory of the earth is not to be confuted by +this argument alone, That there are, among +natural bodies, certain appearances which are +not explained by the theory. We must admit, +that, not having all the data which natural +philosophy requires, we cannot pretend to +explain every thing which appears; and that +our theories, which necessarily are imperfect, +are not to be considered as erroneous when +not explaining every thing which is in nature, +but only when they are found contrary +to or inconsistent with the laws of nature, +which are known, and with which the case in +question may be properly compared.</p> + +<p>But we may have different theories to compare +with nature; and, in that case, the +question is not, How far any of those theories +should explain all natural appearances? but, +How far any one particular theory might explain +a phenomenon better than another? In +this case of comparison, it will be evident, that +if one theory explains natural appearances, +then the opposite to that theory cannot be +supposed to explain the same appearances. If +for example, granite, porphyry, or basaltes, +should be found naturally formed by fusion, +the formation of those stones could not be +supposed in any case as formed by water, although +it could not be demonstrated that +water is incapable of forming those mineral +productions.</p> + +<p>In like manner, if those three bodies were +proved to have been actually formed by water +alone, then, in other cases where we should +have no proof, they could not be supposed as +having been formed by fire or fusion. It +must be evident, that an equal degree of proof +of those two different propositions would leave +our judgment in suspence, unless that proof +were perfect, in which case, we would have +two different causes producing similar effects. +But, if we shall have a sufficient proof upon +the one side, and only a presumptive proof +or probability upon the other, we must reject +that probability or presumption, when opposed +by a proof, although that proof were only +an induction by reasoning from similar effects +as following similar causes. <i>A fortiori</i>, +if there be on one side a fair induction, without +the least suspicion of error, and on the +other nothing but a mere presumption founded +upon a distant analogy, which could not +even properly apply, then, the inductive proof +would be as satisfactory as if there had not +been any supposition on the opposite side.</p> + +<p>So far as a theory is formed in the generalization +of natural appearances, that theory +must be just, although it may not be perfect, +as having comprehended every appearance; +that is to say, a theory is not perfect until it +be founded upon every natural appearance; +in which case, those appearances will be explained +by the theory. The theory of gravitation, +though no ways doubtful, was not so +perfect before the shape of this globe had +been determined by actual measurement, and +before the direction of the plummet had been +tried upon Shihallion, as after those observations +had been made. But a theory which +should be merely hypothetical, or founded +upon a few appearances, can only be received +as a theory, after it has been found to correspond +properly with nature; it would then +be held a proper explanation of those natural +appearances with which it corresponded; and, +the more of those phenomena that were thus +explained by the theory, the more would that, +which had been first conjectural, be converted +into a theory legitimately founded upon natural +appearances.</p> + +<p>Matter of fact is that upon which science +proceeds, by generalization, to form theory, +for the purpose of philosophy, or the knowledge +of all natural causes; and it is by the +companion of these matters of fact with any +theory, that such a theory will be tried. But, +in judging of matter of fact, let us be cautious +of deceiving ourselves, by substituting speculative +reasoning in place of actual events.</p> + +<p>Nature, as the subject of our observation, +consists of two sorts of objects; for, things +are either active, when we perceive change to +take place in consequence of such action, or +they are quiescent, when we perceive no +change to take place. Now, it is evident, +that in judging of the active powers of nature +from the quiescent objects of our information, +we are liable to error, in misinterpreting the +objects which we see; we thus form to ourselves +false or erroneous opinion concerning +the general laws of action, and the powers of +nature. In comparing, therefore, generalised +facts, or theory, with particular observations, +there is required the greatest care, neither, on +the one hand, to strain the appearances, so as +to bring in to the theory a fact belonging to +another class of things; nor, on the other, to +condemn a proper theory, merely because +that theory has not been extended to the explanation +of every natural appearance.</p> + +<p>But, besides the misinterpretation of matters +of fact, we are also to guard against +the misrepresentation of natural appearances. +Whether warped by the prejudice of partial +and erroneous theory, or deceived by the inaccuracy +of superficial observation, naturalists +are apt to see things in an improper light, +and thus to reason from principles which cannot +be admitted, and, which often lead to false +conclusions. A naturalist, for example, comes +to examine a cavity in the mines, he there +finds water dropping down all around him, +and he sees the cavity all hung with siliceous +crystals; he then concludes, without hesitation, +that here is to be perceived cause and +effect, or that he actually sees the formation +of those crystallizations from the operation of +water. It is thus that I have been told by +men of great mineral knowledge, men who +must have had the best education upon that +subject of mineralogy, and who have the superintendance +of great mineral concerns in +Germany, that they had actually seen nature +at work in that operation of forming rock-crystal;—they +saw what I have now described; +they could see no more; but, they saw +what had convinced them of that which, there +is every reason to believe, never happened. +With regard to my theory, I wish for the +most rigorous examination; and do not ask +for any indulgence whatever, whether with +regard to the principles on which the theory +is built, or for the application of the theory +to the explanation of natural appearances. +But, let not geologists judge my theory by +their imperfect notions of nature, or by those +narrow views which they take of the present +state of things;—let not mineralogists condemn +my theory, for no other reason but because +it does not correspond with their false +principles, and those gratuitous suppositions +by which they had been pleased to explain to +themselves every thing before. First let them +look into their own theory, and correct that +erroneous principle, with regard to the action +of water, or the assumption of unknown causes, +upon which they have reasoned in forming +their vague notions of the mineral region, +before they can be properly qualified to examine, +impartially, a theory which employs +another principle. Every thing which has +come under my observation shall be, as far as +I can, faithfully related; nor shall I withhold +those which neither the present theory, +nor any other that I am acquainted with, can, +I think, explain.</p> + +<p>Appearances cannot well be described except +in relation to some theory or general arrangement +of the subject; because the particular +detail, of every part in a complicated appearance, +would be endless and insignificant. +When, however, any question in a theory depends +upon the nature of an appearance, we +cannot be too particular in describing that by +which the question is to be decided. But +though it be sometimes proper to be minute +in a particular, it is always, and above all +things, necessary to be distinct; and not to +confound together things which are of different +natures. For, though it be by finding +similarity, in things which at first sight may +seem different, that science is promoted and +philosophy attained, yet, we must have a distinct +view of those things which are to be assimilated; +and surely the lowest state of knowledge +in any subject, is the not distinguishing +things which, though not to common observation +different, are not truly the same.</p> + +<p>To confound, for example one stone with +another, because they were both hard, friable, +and heavy, would be to describe, with the superficial +views of vulgar observation; whereas +science specifies the weight and hardness, +and thus accurately distinguishes the stone.</p> + +<p>Before naturalists had learned to distinguish +what they saw, and to describe, in known +terms, those natural appearances, a theorist +must have generalised only from his proper +observation. This has been my case. When +I first conceived my theory, few naturalists +could write intelligibly upon the subject; but +that is long ago, and things are much altered +since; now there are most enlightened men +making observations, and communicating natural +knowledge. I have the satisfaction, almost +every day, to compare the theory, which +I had formed from my proper observations, +with the actual state of things in almost every +quarter of the globe.</p> + +<p>Whether, therefore, we mean to try a theory +by its application to such phenomena as are +well understood, or to learn something from +the application of particular phenomena to a +well established theory, we shall always find +it interesting to have appearances described; +particularly such as may be referred to some +general rule, as circumscribing it to certain +conditions, or as finding rule in rule, that is to +say, discovering those particular conditions in +which the general laws of action may be affected.</p> + +<p>Instead, for example, of the rule which +we find in the application of heat for the fusion +and evaporation of mineral substances upon +the surface of this earth, we may find it +necessary to consider the effect which changed +circumstances produce in the mineral regions, +and occasion a change of that rule of action +which we have learned from experience, +when melting and evaporating those substances +in the atmosphere or on the surface of the +earth.</p> + +<p>It is in this manner that a theory, which +was formed by the generalization of particular +facts, comes to be a source of information, +by explaining to us certain appearances which +otherwise we could not understand. Thus, it +was not the appearance of the tides that taught +the theory of gravitation; it was the theory of +gravitation that made us understand the appearance +of the tides. In like manner, the law +of gravitation, which was demonstrated from +the motion of the moon in her orbit round +this earth, when applied to the paths of comets, +explained that appearance. Our theory, +of a central fire, has been formed upon +the consolidation of the strata of this earth; +but this theory is to be applied for the explanation +of various different appearances. In +this manner, two different purposes will be +served; the trying of the theory by its application +to phenomena; and the explanation of +phenomena by the principles laid open in the +theory.</p> + +<p>I may repeat it; a theory of the earth must +ultimately depend upon matter of fact or particular +observation; but those observations must +be distinct, and those distinguished things must +be generalised. We have just now given for +an example, a distinction among stones, in +knowing them by their sensible qualities. But, +besides distinguishing those objects, we are also +to inquire into the origin and cause of those +things which are distinguished. Here, again, +we take into our aid the chemical as well +as the mechanical properties of these several +things; and hence learn to know on what their +natural form and constitution may depend. +Having thus attained the natural philosophy +of stones, we next inquire into the place and +application of those things in nature; and in +this manner we acquire some knowledge with +regard to the natural constitution of this earth. +We find this earth composed of known things; +it is therefore the operations, required in these +compositions, which form the natural philosophy +of this earth, considered as a body of solid +land. But, the solid land is only one part +of the globe; therefore, the philosophy of the +globe proceeds still farther by knowing the +constitution of this planetary body, as consisting +of different parts united for a purpose, +which is that of a world.</p> + +<p>The general theory of this earth as a world, +will thus appear to be a complex thing, which +however founded upon simple principles, contains +many subjects of discussion, and requires +attention to a variety of particulars. For, not +only the great features of this earth are to be +explained by the theory, but also the most minute +appearance, such as are to be found, even +with microscopic observation, in every particular +part.</p> + +<p>Thus the nature, constitution, and cause +of every particular appearance in the construction +of this earth, are to be investigated +in a geological theory, as well as that general +constitution of the world in which all +the particular parts are to be employed for a +purpose.</p> + +<p>If the subject here examined shall be found +properly explained, there will remain little +doubt with regard to the justness of the theory, +which will then be applicable to other appearances +that may occur; although every +appearance is not to be explained, in a manner +equally satisfactory, by any theory which +is not perfect.</p> + +<p>The first subject to be examined is the modern +theory of primitive mountains. I have +written several chapters upon that subject, having +successively acquired more light in this +interesting part of the theory, by observations +of my own in several places of this country, +as well as from the natural history of other +countries. I shall give these nearly in the order +in which they occurred, or had been written.</p> + +<br> +<p>CHAP. IV.</p> + +<p><i>The Supposition of Primitive Mountains refuted.</i></p> + + +<p>In the theory now given, the earth has been +represented as a composition of different +materials, which had existed in another form, +and as the effect of natural operations; therefore, +however various may be found the structure +of our earth, and however dissimilar some +parts of its composition may be in comparison +with others, no part should be considered as +original, in relation to the globe, or as primitive, +in relation to second causes, <i>i.e.</i> physical +operations by which those parts should have +been formed. But it is pretended by naturalists, +that there are certain primitive mountains +in the earth, bodies which have had +another origin than that of the general strata +of the globe and subsequent masses; an origin, +therefore, which cannot be considered as having +been produced from natural operations, or +as effected in the course of known causes. +Now, if it can be made to appear, that there +is no solid ground for this distinction; and if +it can be shown, that there is truly no mineral +body in this earth which may not have been +produced by operations natural to the globe, +we should thus procure a certain confirmation +of the doctrine. This also will be the +more interesting, in being deduced from a +part of natural appearances, which seemed to +be inconsistent with the theory.</p> + +<p>Certain masses or mountains of granite, are +the only bodies of this earth which have +apparently a certain pretension to this species +of originality. These, therefore, must be now +the subject of our examination.</p> + +<p>Granite, considered by itself, does not appear +to have any claim to originality in its +nature. It is composed of bodies which are +capable of being analysed; and these are then +found to be compositions of different substances, +which are also sometimes variously proportioned. +The feldspar and the mica, for example, +as well as the schorl, are found variously +coloured in different granites, and coloured +in various proportions. Besides the +variety in the composition, or chemical mixture +of the different bodies which compose +granite, this rock admits of a great diversity, +from the variety of its mechanical mixture, +or from the different species of bodies which +are its constituent parts. M. de Saussure, who +has examined this subject perhaps more than +any other person, and who has had the very +best opportunities for this purpose, says, that +this composition may be found in all the +different combinations which may be produced +by every possible composition of 7 or 8 different +kinds of stone, (page 108, Voyage dans +les Alpes, etc.). Neither does this fill up the +measure of its variety; for, another source of +change is found in the grain of this rock +stone; I have a specimen of this variety from +the size almost of sand to that of some inches.</p> + +<p>Were granite, therefore, to be supposed +as in the original state of its creation, nature +would be considered as having operated in an +indefinite diversity of ways, without that order +and wisdom which we find in all her +works; for here would be change without a +principle, and variety without a purpose. +There is no reason, however, to suppose granite +original, more than any other composite +rock, although we may be ignorant of the particular +process in which it is formed, and although, +comparatively in relation to certain +other rocks, granite, or certain masses of this +composition, may be found of a more ancient +date.</p> + +<p>If granite be truly stratified, and those strata +connected with the other strata of the earth, +it can have no claim to originality; and the +idea of primitive mountains, of late so much +employed by natural philosophers, must vanish, +in a more extensive view of the operations +of the globe; but it is certain that granite, +or a species of the same kind of stone, is thus +found stratified. It is the <i>granit feuilletée</i> of +M. de Saussure, and, if I mistake not, what is +called <i>gneis</i> by the Germans. We have it +also in our north alpine country of Scotland; +of this I have specimens, but have not seen it +in its place.</p> + +<p>Granite being thus found stratified, the +masses of this stone cannot be allowed to have +any right of priority over the schistus, its +companion in the alpine countries, although M. +de Saussure, whose authority I would revere, +has given it for the following reason; that it +is found the most centrical in the chains of +high mountains, or in alpine countries. Now, +supposing this fact to be general, as he has +found it in the Alps, no argument for the +priority of those masses can be founded either +upon the height or the situation of those granite +mountains; for the height of the mountain +depends upon the solidity and strength of +the stone. Now though it is not to be here +maintained that granite is the most durable of +those alpine rocks, yet as a mountain, either +granite in general, or in particular, certain +species of it, may be esteemed such, consequently, +this massy stone, remaining highest +in the mountainous region, will naturally be +considered as the centre, and according to this +rule, as having the pre-eminence in point of +seniority.</p> + +<p>The rock which stands in competition with +granite for the title of primitive in the order +of mountains, is that micaceous stratified stone +which is formed chiefly of quartz, but which +admits of great variety like the granite. The +difference between those two bodies does not +consist in the materials of which they are composed, +for, in their varieties, they may be in +this respect the same, but in a certain regularity +of composition, in this alpine stone, which evidently +arises from stratification or subsidence +in water.</p> + +<p>If we shall thus consider all the varieties of +this alpine stone as being of one kind, and +call it granite, then we shall distinguish in this +body two different species, from whence perhaps +some interesting conclusion may be formed +with regard to the operations of the globe. +These two species are, <i>first</i>, granite regular in +its composition, or stratified in its construction; +and, <i>secondly</i>, granite in mass, or irregular +in its construction. Let us now endeavour +to make use of these generalizations +and distinctions.</p> + +<p>In examining the great diversity of our +whinstone, trap, or basaltes, it is found at +last to granulate into granite; at the same time +those two different species of rock-stone may +be distinguished. A perfect granite has not +in its composition necessarily any argillaceous +earth, farther than may be in the natural constitution +of its distinct parts; whereas, a perfect +basalt may have abundance of this substance, +without any quartz or any siliceous +body. A perfect granite, is, therefore, an extremely +hard stone, having quartz and feldspar +for its basis; but a perfect whin or basaltes +may be extremely soft, so as to cut easily +with a knife. In like manner granite is a +composition which graduates into porphyry; +but porphyry is only whinstone of a harder +species. Therefore, though perfectly distinct, +those three things graduate into each other, +and may be considered as the same.</p> + +<p>Granite and whinstone, or basaltes, though +distinct compositions, thus graduating into +each other; and whinstone, as well as porphyry, +being without doubt a species of lava, +we may consider the granite which is found +in mass without stratification, in like manner +as we do the masses of whinstone, basaltes, or +Swedish trap, as having flowed in the bowels +of the earth, and thus been produced by the +chance of place, without any proper form of +its own, or in an irregular shape and construction. +In this manner would be explained the +irregular shape or structure of those granite +masses; and thus great light would be thrown +upon the waved structure of the stratified alpine +stone, which, though it has not been +made to flow, has been brought to a great +degree of softness, so as to have the original +straight lines of its stratification changed to +those undulated or waving lines which are in +some cases extremely much incurvated.</p> + +<p>It remains only to confirm this reasoning, +upon our principles, by bringing actual observation +to its support; and this we shall do +from two of the best authorities. The Chevalier +de Dolomieu, in describing the volcanic +productions of Etna, mentions a lava which +had flowed from that mountain, and which +may be considered as a granite. But M. de +Saussure has put this matter out of doubt by +describing most accurately what he had seen +both in the Alps and at the city of Lyons. +These are veins of granite which have flowed +from the contiguous mass into the stratified +stone, and leave no doubt with regard to this +proposition, that the granite had flowed in form +of subterranean lava, although M. de Saussure +has drawn a very different conclusion from +this appearance. I have also a specimen from +this country of a vein of granite in a granite +stone, the vein being of a smaller grain than +that of the rock which it traverses.<a id="footnotetag20" name="footnotetag20"></a><a href="#footnote20"><sup>20</sup></a></p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote20" name="footnote20"></a><b>Footnote 20:</b><a href="#footnotetag20"> (return) </a> This is what I had wrote upon, the subject of granite, +before I had acquired such ample testimony from my +own observations upon that species of rock. I have given +some notice, in the 3d vol. of the Transactions of the +Edinburgh R.S. concerning the general result of those +observations, which will be given particularly in the course +of this work.</blockquote> + +<p>It will thus appear, that the doctrine which +of late has prevailed, of primitive mountains, +or something which should be considered as +original in the construction of this earth, must +be given up as a false view of nature, which +has formed the granite upon the same principle +with that of any other consolidated stratum; +so far as the collection of different materials, +and the subsequent fusion of the compound +mass, are necessary operations in the +preparation of all the solid masses of the earth. +Whatever operations of the globe, therefore, +may be concluded from the composition of +granite masses, as well as of the alpine strata, +these must be considered as giving us information +with regard to the natural history of +this earth; and they will be considered as important, +in proportion as they disclose to us +truths, which from other strata might not be +so evident, or at all made known.</p> + +<p>Let us now examine the arguments, which, +may be employed in favour of that supposition +of primitive mountains.</p> + +<p>The observations, on which naturalists have +founded that opinion of originality in some +of the component parts of our earth, are these; +<i>first</i>, They observe certain great masses of granite +in which stratification is not to be perceived; +this then they say is an original mass, +and it is not to be derived from any natural +operation of the globe; <i>secondly</i>, They observe +considerable tracts of the earth composed of +matter in the order of stratification as to its +general composition, but not as to its particular +position, the vertical position here prevailing, +instead of the horizontal which is proper +to strata formed in water; this, therefore, +they also term primitive, and suppose it to be +from another origin than that of the subsidence +of materials moved in the waters of the globe; +<i>lastly</i>, They observe both strata and masses of +calcareous matter in which they cannot distinguish +any marine body as is usual in other +strata of the same substance; and these calcareous +masses being generally connected with +their primitive mountains, they have also included +these collections of calcareous matter, +in which marine bodies are not observed, +among the primitive parts which they suppose +to be the original construction of this globe.</p> + +<p>It may be proper to see the description of +a calcareous alpine mountain. M. de Saussure +gives us the following observations concerning +a mountain of this kind in the middle of +the Alps, where the water divides in running +different ways towards the sea. It is in describing +the passage of the Bon-Homme, +(Tom. 2. V. dans les Alpes).</p> + +<p>"§ 759. Sur la droite ou au couchant de +ces rochers, on voit une montagne calcaire +étonnante dans ce genre par la hardiesse +avec laquelle elle élève contre le ciel ses +cimes aigues et tranchantes, taillées à angles +vifs dans le costume des hautes cimes de +granit. Elle est pourtant bien sûrement calcaire, +je l'ai observée de près, et on rencontre +sur cette route les blocs qui s'en détachent.</p> + +<p>"Cette pierre porte les caractères des calcaires +les plus anciennes; sa couleur est +grise, son grain assez fin, on n'y apperçoit +aucun vestige de corps organisés; ses couches +sont peu épaisses, ondées et coupées fréquemment +par des fentes parallèles entr'elles +et perpendiculaires à leurs plans. On trouve +aussi parmi ces fragmens des brèches calcaires +grises."</p> + +<p>Here is a mountain which will rank with +the most primitive of the earth; But why? +only because it is extremely consolidated without +any mark of organised body. Had there +been in this mountain but one single shell, we +should not then have scrupled to conclude that +the origin of this lofty mountain had been the +same with every marble or limestone in the +earth. But though, from the structure of this +stone, there is no mark of its having been +formed immediately of the calcareous parts of +animals, there is every mark of those calcareous +strata having been formed like other marbles +by deposit in the waters of the globe.</p> + +<p>These two things are also homologated by +the equal or perfect consolidation of their substance; +for, as it is to be proved that all stratified +marbles have been consolidated by the +fusion of their substance, we must attribute the +same consolidating cause to those alpine masses; +the frequent veins that divide those calcareous +strata which M. de Saussure has here +described, also prove the nature of the consolidating +cause, (see Chap. 1. page 111.).</p> + +<p>This mountain, considered by itself, may +perhaps afford no data by which a naturalist +might read the circumstances of its origin. +But, Is a theory of the earth to be formed upon +such a negative observation? and, Is there +any particular in this mountain, that may not +be shown in others of which the origin is not +in any degree doubtful?</p> + +<p>It is not to be disputed, that there are parts +of the solid body of our earth which may be +considered as primary or prior, compared with +others that are posterior, in relation to the time +of their formation, and much less changed with +regard to the state in which they had been originally +formed:—But it is here denied, that +there are any parts of the earth which do not +appear to have had the same origin with all +the rest, so far as this consists in the collection +of materials deposited at the bottom of the waters<a id="footnotetag21" name="footnotetag21"></a><a href="#footnote21"><sup>21</sup></a>; +for there is no solid mass of land that +may not be traced to this origin, either from +its composition, or from its local connection +with other masses, the nature of which in this +respect are known. We have already given +examples of this from sufficient authority. +The evidence, therefore, of those primary masses +being original in relation to the natural +operations of the globe, is reduced to this assertion, +that there are no vestiges of organised +bodies to be found in those primary masses. +Let us now examine how far this testimony +for the originality of those masses is to be admitted +in fact and sound reasoning.</p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote21" name="footnote21"></a><b>Footnote 21:</b><a href="#footnotetag21"> (return) </a> There are no collection of those alpine masses in +which may not be found in some of them sand, mica, and +gravel; but these materials prove the existence of an earth, +on which those fragments of greater masses had been formed, +and more or less worn by attrition.</blockquote> + +<p>The matter in question at present is this, +that there are certain tracts of countries in +which no vestige of organised bodies are found; +now, let us suppose the fact to be true or well +grounded, Can we conclude from this that +there had been originally no organised bodies +in the composition of those masses?—Such a +conclusion could only be formed in making a +supposition, that every organised body deposited +in a mass of matter, whether homogeneous +or heterogeneous, should be preserved +without change, while the collected mass, in +which it had been deposited, changes as much +as possible by the operation both of fire and +water. But this supposition is erroneous, and +cannot be admitted; and the study of marbles +will demonstrate this truth, that the calcareous +relics of organised bodies are changed, in the +consolidating operations of the globe, in every +degree, from the smallest alteration to the +greatest, when they become indistinguishable +any farther to our sight.</p> + +<p>Therefore, from the supposition of no appearance +of marine bodies in the pretended +primitive masses, there is no sufficient evidence +or reason to conclude, that those masses have +not had a marine origin; because, the traces +of organised bodies may be obliterated by the +many subsequent operations of the mineral +region; and which operations, the present +state of those masses certify beyond dispute.</p> + +<p>We are now to examine the fact, how far +the ground on which that false reasoning had +been founded is strictly true.</p> + +<p>In the first place, then, it must be considered, +that the alleged fact is nothing but a negative +assertion, importing that no mark of +organised bodies had been observed, in certain +stones and strata which some naturalists have +examined with that view. But, though many +naturalists have looked for them without success, +it does not follow that such marks may +not be found; it indeed proves that such a +task is difficult, and the success of it, to a particular, +most precarious; accident, however, +may bring about what the greatest industry has +not been able to attain. Secondly, there is +good reason to believe that this asserted negation +is not absolutely true; for I have in my +possession what I consider as proof of the contrary; +I found it in Wales, and I think it is +in what may be considered as primitive mountains;—it +is the mark of shells in a stone of +that kind.</p> + +<p>Thus, I had formed my opinion with regard +to this alleged fact, long before I had seen +any description either of the Alps or Pyrennean +mountains; and now I have no reason to +change that opinion. It may indeed be alleged, +that the strata of marble or limestone, +containing marine bodies found in those mountains, +are secondary strata, and not the primitive. +To this I can give no reply, as the descriptions +given of those strata do not enable +me to decide this point.</p> + +<p>At the village of Mat, under the Mont Blatten +for example, there is a quarry of schistus +or black slate, in which are often found the +print and the bones of fishes. (Discours sur +l'Histoire Naturelle de la Suisse, page 225.). If +this may be considered as an alpine or primitive +schistus, it would be decisive of the question: +But it would require to have it well ascertained +that this schistus is truly one of those +which are esteemed primitive, or that it is properly +connected with them.</p> + +<p>But though I cannot find in those interesting +descriptions which we now have got, any +one which is demonstrative of this truth, that +calcareous marine objects are found in the primitive +strata, this is not the case with regard +to another object equally important in deciding +this question, Whether the primitive strata +are found containing the marks of organised +bodies?</p> + +<p>M. de Dellancourt, in his <i>Observations Minéralogiques</i>, +Journal de Physique Juillet 1786, +in describing the mountains of Dauphiné, +gives us the following fact with regard to +those alpine vertical strata.</p> + +<p>"La pierre constituante de la montagne +d'Oris est en général le <i>Kneifs</i> ou la roche +feuilletée mica et quartz à couches plus ou +moins ferrées quelquefois le schorl en roche +pénétré de stéatite. Les couches varient infiniment +quant à leur direction et à leur +inclinaisons. Cette montagne est cultivée +et riche dans certain cantons, surtout autour +du village d'Oris, mais elle est très-escarpée +dans beaucoup d'autres. Entre le village +d'Oris et celui du Tresnay est une espèce de +combe assez creuse formée par la chute des +eaux des cimes supérieures des rochers. Cette +combe offre beaucoup de schiste dont les +couches font ou très-inclinées ou perpendiculaires. +Entre ces couches il s'en est trouvé +de plus noires que les autres et capable de +brûler, mais difficilement. Les habitans ont +extrait beaucoup de cette matière terreuse, +et lui ont donné le nom de charbon de terre. +Ils viennent même à bout de la faire brûler, +et de s'en servir l'hiver en la mêlant avec +du bois. Ce schiste noir particulier m'a paru +exister principalement dans les endroits ou +les eaux se sont infiltrées entre les couches +perpendiculaires, et y ont entraîné diverse +matières, et sur-tout des débris de végétaux +que j'ai encore retrouvés à demi-noirs, pulvérulens +et comme dans un état charbonneux."</p> + +<p>This formation of coal, by the infiltration +of water and carrying in of vegetable bodies, +certainly cannot be admitted of; consequently, +from this description, there would seem to +be strata of coal alternated with the alpine +schisti. But the formation of mineral coal +requires vegetable matter to have been deposited +along with those earthy substances, at +the bottom of the sea. The production of +vegetable bodies, again, requires the constitution +of sea and land, and the system of a living +world, sustaining plants at least, if not animals.</p> + +<p>In this natural history of the alpine schisti, +therefore, we have a most interesting fact, an +example which is extremely rare. Seldom +are calcareous organised bodies found among +those alpine strata, but still more rarely, I believe, +are the marks of vegetable bodies having +contributed in the formation of those masses. +But however rare this example, it is equally +decisive of the question, Whether the alpine +schisti have had a similar origin as the other +strata of the globe, in which are found abundance +of animal and vegetable bodies, or their +relics? and we are authorised to say, that since +those perfect alpine strata of Dauphiné have +had that origin, all the alpine schisti of the +globe have been originally formed in a similar +manner. But to put this matter out of doubt:</p> + +<p>In this summer 1788, coming from the Isle +of Man, Mr Clerk and I travelled through the +alpine schistus country of Cumberland and +Westmoreland. We found a limestone quarry +upon the banks of Windermere, near the Low-wood +Inn. I examined this limestone closely, +but despaired of finding any vestige of organised +body. The strata of limestone seem to +graduate into the slate or schistus strata, between +which the calcareous are placed. Fortunately, +however, I at last found a fragment +in which I thought to perceive the works of +organised bodies in a sparry state; I told Mr +Clerk so, and our landlord Mr Wright, who +had accompanied us. I have brought home +this specimen, which I have now ground and +polished; and now it is most evidently full of +fragments of entrochi. Mr Wright then told +me he had seen evident impressions of marine +objects, as I understood from the description, +in the slate of those mountains; and he was +to send me specimens so soon as he could procure +them.</p> + +<p>Here is one specimen which at once overturns +all the speculations formed upon that +negative proposition. The schistus mountains +of Cumberland were, in this respect, as perfect +primitive mountains as any upon the earth, +before this observation; now they have no +claim upon that score, no more than any limestone +formed of shells.</p> + +<p>When I first announced my belief that such +objects in natural history might be found, I +little thought to have seen it realised, to such a +degree as has now happened in the little circle +of my knowledge. In the summer 1791,</p> + +<p>Professor Playfair was to pass through Cumberland. +I begged that he would inquire of +Mr Wright, at the Low-wood Inn, for those +objects which he was to endeavour to procure +for me, and to examine the limestone quarry +in which I had found the specimen with entrochi. +He went through another part of those +primary mountains, and has found examples +of this kind in the schisti; concerning which +he has written me the following account.</p> + +<p>"In a visit which I made to the Lakes of +Cumberland in September 1791, in company +with the Hon. Francis Charteris, I +met with a limestone full of marine objects, +though from its position it is certainly to be +reckoned among the primary strata. The +place where we found this stone was in the +district of Lancashire, that is west of Windermere +Lake, on the road from Ambleside +to the north end of Coniston Lake, and +not far from the point when you come in +sight of the latter. Just about this spot we +happened to meet with one of those people +who serve as guides to travellers in those +parts, and who told us, among other things, +that stones with shells in them were often +found not far from where we were then +walking. We immediately began to look +about for specimens of that kind, and soon +met with several; the most remarkable of +which was in a rock that rose a little above +the surface, about 300 or 400 yards to the +right of the road. It was a part of a limestone +stratum, nearly vertical, and was full +of bivalves with the impressions as strong as +in a common secondary limestone. The +strata on both sides had the same inclination, +and were decidedly primary, consisting +of the ordinary micaceous schistus. This +however I need not remark to you, who +know so well from your own observations +that the whole of the country I am now +speaking of has every character of a primary +one. I, only mention it, that it may +not be supposed that the rock in question +was some fragment of a secondary stratum +that remained, after the rest was washed +away, superincumbent on the primary.</p> + +<p>"After I had seen this rock, I recollected +that you had told me of something of the +same kind that you saw in a quarry at Low-wood +Inn; and it may be that both belonged +to the same stratum or body of strata; +for the direction of the strata, as nearly as +I could observe, was from S.W. to N.E.; +and this also is nearly the bearing of Low-wood +from the place where we now were. +I send you a specimen, which you can compare +with those you brought from the lime +quarry at Low-wood."</p> + +<p>I have examined this specimen, and find it +to be the common schistus of that country, +only containing many bivalve shells and fragments +of entrochi and madrapore bodies, and +mixed with pyrites.</p> + +<p>I have already observed that one single example +of a shell, or of its print, in a schistus, +or in a stone stratified among those vertical or +erected masses, suffices to prove the origin of +those bodies to have been, what I had maintained +them to be, water formed strata erected +from the bottom of the sea, like every other +consolidated stratum of the earth. But now, +I think, I may affirm, that there is not, or +rarely, any considerable extent of country of +that primary kind, in which some mark of +this origin will not be found, upon careful examination; +and now I will give my reason for +this assertion. I have been examining the south +alpine country of Scotland, occasionally, for +more than forty years back, and I never could +find any mark of an organised body in the +schistus of those mountains. It is true that I +know of only one place where limestone is +found among the strata; this is upon Tweed-side +near the Crook. This quarry I had carefully +examined long ago, but could find no +mark of any organised body in it. I suppose +they now are working some other of the vertical +strata near those which I had examined; +for, in the summer 1792, I received a letter +from Sir James Hall, which I shall now transcribe. +It is dated at Moffat, June 2. 1792.</p> + +<p>"As I was riding yesterday between Noble-house +and Crook, on the road to this place, +I fell in with a quarry of alpine limestone; +it consists of four or five strata, about three +feet thick, one of them single, and the rest +contiguous; they all stand between the strata +of slate and schist that are at the place +nearly vertical. In the neighbourhood, a +slate quarry is worked of a pure blue slate; +several of the strata of slate near the limestone +are filled with fragments of limestone +scattered about like the fragments of schist +in the sandstone in the neighbourhood of +the junction on our coast.<a id="footnotetag22" name="footnotetag22"></a><a href="#footnote22"><sup>22</sup></a></p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote22" name="footnote22"></a><b>Footnote 22:</b><a href="#footnotetag22"> (return) </a> This has a reference to very curious observations which +we made upon the east coast where these mountains terminate, +and which I am to describe in the course of this +work.</blockquote> + +<p>"Among the masses of limestone lately +broken off for use, and having the fractures +fresh, I found the forms of cockles quite +distinct; and in great abundance.—I send +you three pieces of this kind," etc.</p> + +<p>It may perhaps be alleged that those mountains +of Cumberland and Tweedale are not +the primary mountains, but composed of the secondary +schistus, which is every where known +to contain those objects belonging to a former +earth. Naturalists who have not the opportunity +of convincing themselves by their proper +examination, must judge with regard to that +geological fact by the description of others. +Now it is most fortunate for natural history, +that it has been in this range of mountains that +we have discovered those marks of a marine +origin; for, I shall afterwards have occasion to +give the clearest light into this subject, from +observations made in other parts of those same +mountains of schist, by which it will be proved +that they are the primary strata; and thus +no manner of doubt will then remain in the +minds of naturalists, who might otherwise suspect +that we were deceiving ourselves, by mistaking +the secondary for the primitive schistus.</p> + +<p>I have only farther to observe, that those +schisti mountains of Wales, of Cumberland, +and of the south alpine part of Scotland, where +these marine objects have been found, consist, +of that species of stone which in some places +makes the most admirable slate for covering +houses; and, in other parts, it breaks into +blocks that so much resemble wood in appearance, +that, without narrow inspection, it might +pass for petrified wood.</p> + +<p>We are therefore to conclude that the marks +of organised bodies in those primary mountains +are certainly found; at the same time the +general observation of naturalists has some +foundation, so far as the marks of organised +bodies are both rarely to be met with in those +masses, and not easily distinguished as such +when they are found.</p> + +<p>But this scarcity of marine objects is not +confined to those primary mountains, as they +are called; for among the most horizontal +strata, or those of the latest production, there +are many in which, it is commonly thought, +no marine calcareous objects are to be found; +and this is a subject that deserves to be more +particularly considered, as the theory may thus +receive some illustration.</p> + +<p>Sandstone, coal, and their accompanying +strata, are thought to be destitute of calcareous +marine productions, although many vestiges +of plants or vegetable productions are there +perceived. But this general opinion is neither +accurate nor true; for though it be true that +in the coal and sandstone strata it is most common +to find marks of vegetable production, +and rarely those calcareous bodies which are +so frequent in the limestone, yet it is not unusual +for coal to be accompanied with limestone +formed of shells and corals, and also +with ironstone containing many of those marine +objects as well as wood. Besides, sandstone +frequently contains objects which have +been organised bodies, but which do not belong +to the vegetable kingdom, at least to no +plant which grows upon the land, but would +seem to have been some species of zoophite +perhaps unknown.</p> + +<p>I have also frequently seen the vestige of +shells in sandstone, although in these strata +the calcareous bodies are in general not perceived. +The reason of this is evident. When +there is a small proportion of the calcareous +matter in the mass of sand which is pervious +to steam and to the percolation of water, the +calcareous bodies may be easily dissolved, and +either carried away or dispersed in the mass; +or even without being thus dispersed by means +of solution, the calcareous matter may be absorbed +by the siliceous substance of the stratum +by means of fusion, or by heat and cementation. +The fact is, that I have seen in +sandstone the empty mould of marine shells +with some siliceous crystallization, so far as I +remember, which corresponded perfectly with +that idea. The place I saw this was in a fine +white sandstone accompanying the coal, upon +the sea side at Brora in Sutherland.</p> + +<p>Mineralogy is much indebted to Mr Pallas +for the valuable observations which he has +given of countries so distant from the habitations +of learned men. The physiology of the +globe has also been enriched with some interesting +observations from the labours of this +learned traveller. But besides giving us facts, +Mr Pallas has also reasoned upon the subject, +and thus entered deep into the science of Cosmogeny; +here it is that I am afraid he has +introduced some confusion into the natural +history of the earth, in not properly distinguishing +the mineral operations of the globe, +and those again which belong entirely to the +surface of the earth; perhaps also in confounding +the natural effects of water upon the +surface of the earth, with those convulsions of +the sea which may be properly considered as +the accidental operations of the globe. This +subject being strictly connected with the opinions +of that philosopher with regard to primitive +mountains, I am obliged to examine in +this place matters which otherwise might have +come more properly to be considered in +another.</p> + +<p>M. Pallas in his <i>Observations sur la formation +des montagnes</i>, (page 48) makes the following +observations.</p> + +<p>"J'ai déjà dit que <i>la bande de montagnes +primitives schisteuses</i> hétérogènes, qui, par +toute la terre, accompagne les chaines granitiques, +et comprend les roches quartzeuses +et talceuses mixtes, trapézoïdes, serpentines, +le schiste corne, les roches spathiques et cornées, +les grais purs, le porphyre et le jaspre, +tous rocs fêlés en couches, ou presque perpendiculaires, +ou du moins très-rapidement +inclinées, (les plus favorables à la filtration +des eaux), semble aussi-bien que le granit, +antérieure à la création organisée. Une raison +très-forte pour appuyer cette supposition, +c'est que la plupart de ces roches, +quoique lamelleuse en façon d'ardoise, n'a +jamais produit aux curieux la moindre trace +de pétrifactions ou empreintes de corps organisés. +S'il s'en est trouvé, c'est apparemment +dans des fentes de ces roches où ces +corps ont été apportés par un deluge, et +encastrées apres dans une matière infiltrée, +de même qu'on a trouvé des restes d'Eléphans +dans le filon de la mine d'argent du +Schlangenberg.<a id="footnotetag23" name="footnotetag23"></a><a href="#footnote23"><sup>23</sup></a> Les caractères par lesquels +plusieurs de ces roches semblent avoir +souffert des effets d'un feu-très-violent, les +puissantes veines et amas des minéraux les +plus riches qui se trouvent principalement +dans la bande qui en est composée, leur position +immédiate sur le granit, et même le +passage, par lequel on voit souvent en grand, +changer le granit en une des autres espèces; +tout cela indique une origine bien plus +ancienne, et des causes bien différentes de +celles qui ont produit les montagnes secondaires."</p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote23" name="footnote23"></a><b>Footnote 23:</b><a href="#footnotetag23"> (return) </a> This is a very natural way of reasoning when a philosopher +finds a fact, related by some naturalists, that does +not correspond with his theory or systematic view of +things. Here our author follows the general opinion in +concluding that no organised body should be found in +their primitive strata; when, therefore, such an object is +said to have been observed, it is supposed that there may +have been some mistake with regard to the case, and that all +the circumstances may not have been considered. This +caution with regard to the inaccurate representation of +facts, in natural history, is certainly extremely necessary; +the relicts of an elephant found in a mineral vein, is certainly +a fact of that kind, which should not be given as an +example in geology without the most accurate scientifical +examination of the subject.</blockquote> + +<p>Here M. Pallas gives his reason for supposing +those mountains primitive or anterior to +the operations of this globe as a living world; +<i>first</i>, because they have not, in general, marks +of animals or plants; and that it is doubtful +if they ever properly contain those marks of +organised bodies; <i>secondly</i>, because many of +those rocks have the appearance of having +suffered the effects of the most violent fire. +Now, What are those effects? Is it in their +having been brought into a fluid state of fusion. +In that case, no doubt, they may have +been much changed from the original state of +their formation; but this is a very good +reason why, in this changed state, the marks +of organised bodies, which may have been in +their original constitution, should be now effaced.</p> + +<p>The <i>third</i> reason for supposing those +mountains primitive, is taken from the metallic +veins, which are found so plentifully in +these masses. Now, had these masses been +the only bodies in this earth in which those +mineral veins were found, there might be +some species of reason for drawing the conclusion, +which is here formed by our philosopher. +But nothing is so common (at least in +England) as mineral veins in the strata of the +latest formation, and in those which are principally +formed of marine productions; consequently +so far from serving the purpose for +which this argument was employed, the mineral +veins in the primitive mountains tend to +destroy their originality, by assimilating them +in some respect with every other mass of strata +or mountain upon the globe.</p> + +<p><i>Lastly</i>, M. Pallas here employs an argument +taken from an appearance for which we +are particularly indebted to him, and by which +the arguments which have been already employed +in denying the originality of granite is +abundantly confirmed. It has been already +alleged, that granite, porphyry, and whinstone, +or trap, graduate into each other; +but here M. Pallas informs us that he has +found the granite not only changed into porphyry, +but also into the other alpine compositions. +How an argument for the originality +of these mountains can be established upon +those facts, I am not a little at a loss to conceive.</p> + +<p>The general mineralogical view of the Russian +dominions, which we have, in this treatise, +may now be considered with regard to +that distinction made by naturalists, of primitive, +secondary, and tertiary mountains, in order +to see how far the observations of this +well informed naturalist shall be found to confirm +the theory of the earth which has been +already given, or not.</p> + +<p>The Oural mountains form a very long +chain, which makes the natural division betwixt +Europe and Asia, to the north of the +Caspian. If in this ridge, as a centre of elevation, +and of mineral operations, we shall find +the greatest manifestation of the violent exertion +of subterraneous fire, or of consolidating +and elevating operations; and if we shall perceive +a regular appearance of diminution in +the violence or magnitude of those operations, +as the places gradually recede from this centre +of active force; we may find some explanation +of those appearances, without having recourse +to conjectures which carry no scientific meaning, +and which are more calculated to confound +our acquired knowledge, than to form +any valuable distinction of things. Let us +consult M. Pallas how far this is the case, or +not.</p> + +<p>After having told us that all those various +alpine schisti, jaspers, porphyries, serpentines, +etc. in those mountains, are found mutually +convertible with granite, or graduating into +each other, our author thus continues, (p. 50).</p> + +<p>"On entrevoit de certaines loix à l'égard +de l'arrangement respectif de cet ordre secondaire +d'anciennes roches, par tous les +systèmes de montagnes qui appartiennent à +l'Empire Russe. La chaîne Ouralique, par +exemple, a du côté de l'Orient sur tout sa +longueur, une très-grande abondance de +schistes cornés, serpentins et talceux, riches +en filons de cuivre, qui forment le principal +accompagnement du granite, et en jaspres +de diverses couleurs plus extérieurs et +souvent comme entrelacés avec les premiers, +mais formant des suites de montagnes +entières, et occupant de très-grands +espaces. De ce même côté, il y paraît +beaucoup de quartz en grandes roches toutes +pures, tant dans la principale chaîne que +dans le noyau des montagnes de jaspre, et +jusques dans la plaine. Les marbres spateux +et veinés, percent en beaucoup d'endroits. +La plupart de ces espèces ne paraissent +point du tout à la lisière occidentale +de la chaîne, qui n'est presque que de +roche mélangée de schistes +argileux, alumineux, phlogistique, etc. Les +filons des mines d'or mêlées, les riches mines +de cuivre en veines et chambrées, les +mines de fer et d'aimant par amas et montagnes +entières, sont l'apanage de la bande +schisteuse orientale; tandis que l'occidentale +n'a pour elle que des mines de fer de +dépôts, et se montre généralement très-pauvre +en métaux. Le granit de la chaîne +qui borde la Sibérie, est recouvert du côté +que nous connaissons de roches cornées de +la nature des pierres à fusil, quelquefois +tendant à la nature d'un grais fin et de +schistes très-métallières de différente composition. +Le jaspre n'y est qu'en filons, ou +plans obliques, ce qui est très-rare pour la +chaîne Ouralique, et s'observe dans la plus +grande partie de la Sibérie, à l'exception +de cette partie de sa chaîne qui passe près +de la mer d'Okhotsk, ou le jaspre forme +derechef des suites de montagnes, ainsi que +nous venons de le dire des monts Ourals; +mais comme cette roche tient ici le côté +méridionale de la chaîne Sibérienne, et que +nous ne lui connaissons point ce côté sur le +reste de sa longueur, il se pourrait que le +jaspre y fût aussi abondant. Il faudrait, +au reste, bien plus de fouilles et d observations +pour établir quelque chose de certain +sur l'ordre respectif qu'observent ces +roches."</p> + +<p>I would now ask, if in all this account of +the gradation of rock from the Oural mountains +to the sandy coast of the Baltic, there is to +be observed any clear and distinctive mark of +primitive, secondary, and tertiary, mountains, +farther than as one stratum may be considered +as either prior or posterior to another stratum, +according to the order of superposition +in which they are found. We have every +where evident marks of the formation of strata +by materials deposited originally in water; +for the most part, there is sufficient proof that +this water in which those materials had been +deposited was the sea; we are likewise assured +that the operations of this living world +producing animals, must have, for a course of +time, altogether inconceivably been exerted, +in preparing materials for this mass; and, +lastly, from the changed constitution of those +masses, we may infer certain mineral operations +that melt the substance and alter the position +of those horizontal bodies. Such is the +information which we may collect from this +mineral description of the Russian Dominions.</p> + +<p>If we compare some of the Oural mountains +with the general strata of the Russian +plains, then, as to the contained minerals, we +may find a certain diversity in those two +places; at the same time, no greater perhaps +than may be found betwixt two different +bodies in those same plains, for example, chalk +and flint. But when we consider those bodies +of the earth, or solid strata of the globe, in relation +to their proper structure and formation, +we surely can find in this description nothing +on which may be founded any solid opinion +with regard to a different original, however +important conclusions may perhaps be formed +with regard to the operations of the globe, +from the peculiar appearances found in alpine.</p> + +<p>From this detail of what is found in the +Oural mountains, and in the gradation of +country from those mountains to the plains of +Russia, we have several facts that are worthy +of observation. First extensive mountains of +jasper. I have a specimen of this stone; it is +striped red and green like some of our marly +strata. It has evidently been formed of such +argillaceous and siliceous materials, not only +indurated, so as to lose its character, as an argillaceous +stone, but to have been brought into +that degree of fusion which produces perfect +solidity. Of the same kind are those +hornstein rocks of the nature of flint, sometimes +tending to the nature of a fine sandstone. +Here is the same induration of sandstone +by means of fusion, that in the argillaceous +strata has produced jasper. But oblique +veins of jasper are represented as traversing +these last strata; now this is a fact which is +not conceivable in any other way, than by the +injection or transfusion of the fluid jasper +among those masses of indurated strata.</p> + +<p>All this belongs to the east side of the +mountains. On the west, again, we find the +same species of strata; only these are not changed +to such a degree as to lose their original +character or construction, and thus to be termed +differently in mineralogy.</p> + +<p>Our author then proceeds. (p. 53.)</p> + +<p>"Nous pourrons parler plus décisivement +sur les <i>montagnes secondaires et tertiaires</i> de +l'Empire, et c'est de celles-là, de la nature, +de l'arrangement et du contenu de leurs +couches, des grandes inégalités et de la +forme du continent d'Europe et d'Asie, que +l'on peut tirer avec plus de confiance quelques +lumières sur les changemens arrivés +aux terres habitables. Ces deux ordres de +montagnes présentent la chronique de notre +globe la plus ancienne, la moins sujette aux +falsifications, et en même-tems plus lisible +que le caractère des chaînes primitives; ce +font les archives de la nature, antérieures +aux lettres et aux traditions les plus reculées, +qu'il étoit réservé à notre siècle observateur +de feuiller, de commenter, et de +mettre au jour, mais que plusieurs siècles +après le nôtre n'épuiseront pas.</p> + +<p>"Dans toute l'étendue de vastes dominations +Russes, aussi bien que dans l'Europe +entière, les observateurs attentifs ont remarqué +que généralement la band schisteuse +des grandes chaînes se trouve immédiatement +recouverte ou cottée par la <i>bande calcaire</i>. +Celle-ci forme deux ordres de montagnes, +très-différentes par la hauteur, la situation +de leurs couches, et la composition +de la pierre calcaire qui les compose; différence +qui est très-évidente dans cette bande +calcaire qui forme la lisière occidentale de +toute la chaîne Ouralique, et dont le plan +s'étend par tout le plat pays de la Russie. +L'on observerait la même chose à l'orient +de la chaîne, et dans toute l'étendue de la +Sibérie, si les couches calcaires horizontales +n'y étaient recouvertes par les dépôts postérieures, +de façon qu'il ne paraît à la surface +que les parties les plus faillantes de la +bande, et si ce pays n'étoit trop nouvellement +cultivé et trop peu exploité par des +fouilles et autres opérations, que des hommes +industrieux ont pratiqué dans les pays anciennement +habités. Ce que je vais exposer +sur les deux ordres de montagnes calcaires, +se rapportera donc principalement à celles +qui sont à l'occident de la chaîne Ouralique.</p> + +<p>"Ce côté de la dite chaîne consiste sur cinquante +à cent verstes de largeur, de roche +calcaire solide, d'un grain uni, qui tantôt +ne contient aucune trace de productions +marines, tantôt n'en conserve que des empreintes +aussi légères qu'éparses. Cette +roche s'élève en montagnes d'une hauteur +très-considérable, irrégulières, rapides, et coupées +de vallons escarpés. Ses couches, généralement +épaisses, ne sont point de niveau, +mais très-inclinées à l'horizon, paralleles, +pour la plupart, à la direction de la chaîne, +qui est aussi ordinairement celle de la bande +schisteuse;—au lieu que du côté de l'orient +les couches calcaires sont au sens de la chaîne +en direction plus ou moins approchante de +l'angle droite. L'on trouve dans ces hautes +montagnes calcaires de fréquentes grottes et +cavernes très-remarquables, tant par leur +grandeur que par les belles congélations et +crystallizations stalactiques dont elles s'ornent. +Quelques-unes de ces grottes ne peuvent +être attribuées qu'à quelque bouleversement +des couches; d'autres semblent devoir +leur origine à l'écoulement des sources souterraines +qui ont amolli, rongé et charrié +une partie de la roche qui en étoit susceptible.</p> + +<p>"En s'éloignant de la chaîne, on voit les +couches calcaires s'aplanir assez rapidement, +prendre une position horizontale, et devenir +abondantes en toute forte de coquillages, de +madrépores, et d'autres dépouilles marines. +Telles on les voit par-tout dans les vallées +les plus basses qui se trouvent aux pieds des +montagnes (comme aux environs de la rivière +d'Oufal; telles aussi, elles occupent +tout l'étendue de la grande Russie, tant en +collines qu'en plat pays; solides tantôt et +comme semées de productions marines; +tantôt toutes composées de coquilles et madrépores +brisées, et de ce gravier calcaire +qui se trouve toujours sur les parages ou la +mer abonde en pareilles productions; tantôt, +enfin, dissoutes en craie et en marines, et +souvent entremêlées de couches de gravier +et de cailloux roulés."</p> + +<p>How valuable for science to have naturalists +who can distinguish properly what they +see, and describe intelligibly that which they +distinguish. In this description of the strata, +from the chain of mountains here considered +as primitive, to the plains of Russia, which are +supposed to be of a tertiary formation, our naturalist +presents us with another species of strata, +which he has distinguished, on the one +hand, in relation to the mountains at present +in question, and on the other, with regard to +the strata in the plains, concerning which there +is at present no question at all. Now, let us +see how these three things are so connected in +their nature, as to form properly the contiguous +links of the same chain.</p> + +<p>The primary and tertiary masses are bodies +perfectly disconnected; and, without a medium +by which they might be approached, they +would be considered as things differing in all +respects, consequently as having their origins +of as opposite a nature as are their appearances. +But the nature and formation of those +bodies are not left in this obscurity; for, the +secondary masses, which are interposed, participate +so precisely of what is truly opposite +and characteristic in the primary and tertiary +masses, that it requires nothing more than to +see this distinction of things in its true light, +to be persuaded, that in those three different +things we may perceive a certain gradation, +which here takes place among the works of +nature, and forms three steps distinguishable +by a naturalist, although in reality nothing +but the variable measure of similar operations.</p> + +<p>We are now to assimilate the primary and +tertiary masses, which are so extremely different, +by means of the secondary masses, +which is the mean. The primary and tertiary +differ in the following respects: The one +of these contains the relicts of organised bodies +which are not observed in the other. But in +the species containing these distinguishable +bodies, the natural structure and position of the +mass is little affected, or not so much as to be +called into doubt. This, however, is not the +case with the other; the species in which organised +bodies do not appear, is in general so +indurated or consolidated in its structure, and +changed in its position, that this common origin +of those masses is by good naturalists, who +have also carefully examined them, actually +denied. Now, the secondary masses may be +considered, not only as intermediate with respect +to its actual place, as M. Pallas has represented +it, but as uniting together the primary +and tertiary, or as participating of the +distinguishing characters of the other two. It +is homologated with the primitive mountains, +in the solidity of its substance and in the position +of its strata; with the tertiary species, again, +in its containing marks of organised bodies. +How far this view of things is consistent with +the theory of the earth now given, is submitted +to the consideration of the unprejudiced.</p> + +<p>Let us see what our learned author has said +farther on this subject, (page 65).</p> + +<p>"Je dois parler d'un ordre de montagnes +très-certainement postérieur aux couches +marines, puisque celles-ci, généralement lui +servent de base. On n'a point jusqu'ici +observé une suite de ces <i>montagnes tertiaires</i>, +effet des catastrophes les plus modernes de +notre globe, si marquée et si puissante, que +celle qui accompagne la chaine Ouralique +ou côté occidentale fur tout la longueur. +Cette suite de montagnes, pour la plupart +composées de grais, de marnes rougeâtres, +entremêlées de couches diversement mixtes, +forme une chaîne par-tout séparée par une +vallée plus ou moins large de la bande de +roche calcaire, dont nous avons parlé. Sillonnée +et entrecoupée de fréquens vallons, +elles s'élève souvent à plus de cent toises +perpendiculaires, se répand vers les plaines +de la Russie en traînées de collines, qui séparent +les rivières, en accompagnant généralement +la rive boréale ou occidentale, et +dégénère enfin en déserts sableux qui occupent +de grands espaces, et s'étendent surtout +par longues bandes parallèles aux principales +traces qui suivent les cours des rivieres. +La principale force de ces montagnes tertiaires +est plus près de la chaîne primitive par-tout le +gouvernement d'Orenbourg et la Permie, ou +elle consiste principalement en grais, et contient +un fond inépuisable de mines de cuivre +sableuses, argileuses, et autres qui se +voient ordinairement dans les couches horizontales. +Plus loin, vers la plaine, sont +des suites de collines toutes marneuses, qui +abondent autant en pierres gypseuses, que +les autres en minerais cuivreux. Je n'entre +pas dans le détail de celles-ci, qui indiquent +sur-tout les sources salines; mais je +dois dire des premières, qui abondent le +plus et dont les plus hautes élévations des +plaines, même celle de Moscou, sont formées, +qu'elles contiennent très-peu de traces +de productions marines, et jamais des +amas entiers de ces corps, tels qu'une mer +reposée pendant des siècles de suite a pu +les accumuler dans les bancs calcaires. Rien, +au contraire, de plus abondant dans ces +montagnes de grais stratifié sur l'ancien +plan calcaire, que des troncs d'arbres entières +et des fragmens de bois pétrifié, souvent +minéralisé par le cuivre ou le fer; des +impressions de troncs de palmires, de tiges +de plantes, de roseau, et de quelques fruits +étrangers; enfin des ossemens d'animaux +terrestres, si rares dans les couches calcaires. +Les bois pétrifiés se trouvent jusques dans les +collines de sable de la plaine; l'on en tire, +entr'autres, des hauteurs sablonneuses aux +environs de Sysran sur la Volga, changés +en queux très-fin, qui a conservé jusqu'à +la texture organique du bois, et remarquables +sur-tout par les traces très-évidentes de +ces vers rongeurs qui attaquent les vaisseaux, +les pilotis et autres bois trempés dans la +mer, et qui sont proprement originaires de +la mer des Indes."</p> + +<p>This philosopher has now given us a view +of what, according to the present fashion of +mineral philosophy, he has termed <i>montagnes +primitives, secondaires, et tertiaires</i>. The first +consists in masses and strata, much indurated +and consolidated, and greatly displaced in their +position; but the character of which is chiefly +taken from this, that they contain not any +visible mark of animal or vegetable bodies.</p> + +<p>The second are formed in a great measure +of marine productions, are often no less consolidated +than those of the first class, and frequently +no less changed in their natural shape +and situation.</p> + +<p>The third again have for character, according +to this learned theorist, the containing of +those organised bodies which are proper to +the earth, instead of those which in the second +class had belonged to the sea; in other respects, +surely there is no essential difference. +It is not pretended that these tertiary strata +had any other origin, than that of having been +deposited in water; it is not so much as suspected, +that this water had been any other +than that of the sea; the few marine bodies +which M. Pallas here acknowledges, goes at +least to prove this fact: and with regard to +the mineral operations which had been employed +in consolidating those water formed +strata, it is impossible not to be convinced that +every effect visible in the other two are here +also to be perceived.</p> + +<p>From this view of mineral bodies, taken +from the extensive observations of the Russian +dominions, and from the suppositions of geologists +in relation to those appearances, we +should be led to conclude that the globe of +this earth had been originally nothing but an +ocean, a world containing neither plant nor +animal to live, to grow and propagate its +species. In following a system founded on +those appearances, we must next suppose, that +to the sterile unorganised world there had succeeded +an ocean stored with fish of every +species. Here it would be proper to inquire +what sustained those aquatic animals; for, in +such a system as this, there is no provision +made for continuing the life even of the individuals, +far less of feeding the species while, +in an almost infinite succession of individuals, +they should form a continent of land almost +composed of their <i>exuviae</i>.</p> + +<p>If fish can be fed upon water and stone; if +siliceous bodies can, by the digesting powers +of animals, be converted into argillaceous +and calcareous earths; and if inflammable +matter can be prepared without the intervention +of vegetable bodies, we might erect a +system in which this should be the natural +order of things. But to form a system in direct +opposition to every order of nature that +we know, merely because we may suppose +another order of things different from the +laws of nature which we observe, would be +as inconsistent with the rules of reasoning in +science, by which the speculations of philosophy +are directed, as it would be contrary to +common sense, by which the affairs of mankind +are conducted.</p> + +<p>Still, however, to pursue our visionary system, +after a continent had been formed from +the relicts of those animals, living, growing, +and propagating, during an indefinite series of +ages, plants at last are formed; and, what is +no less wonderful, those animals which had +formed the earth then disappear; but, in compensation, +we are to suppose, I presume, that +terrestrial animals began. Let us now reason +from those facts, without either constraining +nature, which we know, or forming visionary +systems, with regard to things which are unknown. +It would appear, that at one period +of time, or in one place, the matter of the +globe may be deposited, in strata, without containing +any organised bodies; at another time, +or in another place, much animal matter may +be deposited in strata, without any vegetable +substance there appearing; but at another period, +or at another time, strata may be formed +with much vegetable matter, while there is +hardly to be observed any animal body. +What then are we to conclude upon the +whole? That nature, forming strata, is subject +to vicissitudes; and that it is not always +the same regular operation with respect to the +materials, although always forming strata upon +the same principles. Consequently, upon +the same spot in the sea, different materials +may be accumulated at different periods of +time, and, conversely, the same or similar materials +may be collected in different places at +the same time. Nothing more follows strictly +from the facts on which we now are reasoning; +and this is a conclusion which will be +verified by every appearance, so far as I know.</p> + +<p>Of this I am certain, that in a very little +space of this country, in many places, such a +course of things is to be perceived. Nothing +so common as to find alternated, over and over +again, beds of sand-stone without animal bodies, +beds of coal and schistus abounding with vegetable +bodies, beds of lime-stone formed of shells +and corals, and beds or particular strata of iron-stone +containing sometimes vegetable sometimes +animal bodies, or both. Here, indeed, +the strata are most commonly inclined; it is +seldom they are horizontal; consequently, as +across the whole country, all the strata come +up to the day, and may be seen in the beds +of our rivers, we have an opportunity of observing +that great variety which is in nature, +and which we are not able to explain. This +only is certain, from what we see, that there +is nothing formed in one epoch of nature, +but what has been repeated in another, however +dissimilar may be the operations which +had intervened between those several epochs.</p> + +<p>It must not be alleged, that the heights of +the Oural mountains, or the hardness of their +rocks, make an essential distinction between +them and the argillaceous or arenaceous strata +of the plains; solidity and hardness, as well +as changes in their height and natural position, +has been superinduced in operations posterior +to the collection of those masses,—operations +which may be formed in various degrees, +even in the different parts of the same mass. +If this is the case, there can be no difficulty in +conceiving a stratum, which appears to be argillaceous +or marly in the plains, to be found +jasper in the Oural mountains. But there is +nothing in the Oural mountains, that may not +be found some where or other in the plains, +although the soft and easily decomposing argillaceous +strata be not found upon the Oural +mountains, or the Alps, for this reason, that +had those mountains been formed of such materials, +there had not been a mountain there at +this day.</p> + +<p>But surely the greatest possible error, with +regard to the philosophy of this earth, would +be to confound the sediment of a river with +the strata of the globe; bodies deposited upon +the surface of the earth, with those sunk at +the bottom of the sea; and things which only +form the travelled or transported soil, with +those which constitute the substratum or the +solid earth. How far M. Pallas has committed +this oversight, I leave others to determine. +After mentioning those strata in which wood +is found petrified, and metallic minerals formed, +he thus proceeds, (page 69).</p> + + +<p>"Dans ces mêmes dépôts sableux et souvent +limoneux, gisent les restes des grands +animaux de l'Inde: ces ossemens d'éléphans, +de rhinocéros, de buffles monstrueux, +dont on déterre tous les jours un si grand +nombre, et qui font l'admiration des curieux. +En Sibérie, où l'on à découvert le +long de presque toutes les rivières ces restes +d'animaux étrangers, et l'ivoire même bien +conservé en si grande abondance, qu'il forme +un article de commerce, en Sibérie, dis +je, c'est aussi la couche la plus moderne de +limon sablonneux qui leur sert de sépulture, +et nulle part ces monumens étrangers sont +si frequens, qu'aux endroits où la grande +chaine, qui domine surtout la frontière méridionale +de la Sibérie, offre quelque dépression, +quelque ouverture considérable.</p> + +<p>"Ces grands ossemens, tantôt épars tantôt +entassés par squelettes, et même par hécatombes, +considérée dans leurs sites naturels, +m'ont sur-tout convaincu de la réalité d'un +déluge arrivé sur notre terre, d'une catastrophe, +dont j'avoue n'avoir pu concevoir +la vraisemblance avant d'avoir parcouru ces +places, et vu, par moi-même, tout ce qui +peut y servir de preuve à cet évènement +mémorable<a id="footnotetag24" name="footnotetag24"></a><a href="#footnote24"><sup>24</sup></a>. Une infinité de ces ossemens +couchés dans des lits mêlés de petites +tellines calcinées, d'os de poissons, de glossopètres, +de bois chargés d'ocre, etc. prouve +déjà qu'ils ont été transportés par des inondations. +Mais la carcasse d'un rhinocéros, +trouvé avec sa peau entière, des restes +de tendons, de ligamens, et de cartilages, +dans les terres glacées des bords du Viloûi, +dont j'ai déposé les parties les mieux conservées +au cabinet de l'Académie, forme encore +une preuve convaincante que ce devait +être un mouvement d'inondation des +plus violens et des plus rapides, qui entraîna +jadis ces cadavres vers nos climats +glacés, avant que la corruption eût le tems, +d'en détruire les parties molles. Il seroit +à souhaiter qu'un observateur parvint aux +montagnes qui occupent l'espace entre les +fleuves Indighirka et Koylma où selon le +rapport des chasseurs, de semblables carcasses +d'éléphans et d'autres animaux gigantesques +encore revêtues de leurs peaux, +ont été remarquées à plusieurs reprises."</p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote24" name="footnote24"></a><b>Footnote 24:</b><a href="#footnotetag24"> (return) </a> Voyez le Mémoire, imprimé dans le XVII. volume +des nouveaux Commentaires de l'Académie Imperiale de +Petersbourgh.</blockquote> + +<p>The question here turns upon this, Are the +sea shells and glossopetrae, which are thus +found deposited along with those skeletons, +in their natural state, or are they petrified and +mineralised. If the productions of the sea +shall here be found collected along with bodies +belonging to the surface of the earth, and +which had never been within the limits of the +sea, this would surely announce to us some +strange catastrophe, of which it would be difficult, +perhaps, to form a notion; if, on the +contrary, those marine productions belong to +the solid strata of the earth, in the resolution +or decay of which they had been set at liberty, +and were transported in the floods, our author +would have no reason from those appearances to +conclude, there had existed any other deluge +than those produced by the waters of the land<a id="footnotetag25" name="footnotetag25"></a><a href="#footnote25"><sup>25</sup></a>.</p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote25" name="footnote25"></a><b>Footnote 25:</b><a href="#footnotetag25"> (return) </a> Since writing this, I find my doubts in a great measure +resolved, in reading M. Pallas's Journal, translated +from the German by M. Gauthier de la Peyronie. What +I had suspected is, I think, confirmed in the distinct account +which M. Pallas has given of those occasions in +which the bones of land animals and marine objects are +found buried together. The marine objects are mineralised; +consequently, they have proceeded from the decomposition +of the solid strata; and, having been travelled in the running +water of the surface of the earth, they must have been +deposited in those beds of rivers, which now are dry, alongst +with the bones, or the entire bodies of terrestrial animals, +the remains of which are now found there. This argument, +from the state of those marine bodies will not be allowed, +perhaps by the generality of mineralists, who attribute +to the operations of water every species of petrifaction +or mineralisation; but, until some species of proof be +given with regard to the truth of that theory, which vulgar +error first suggested, I must reason from a theory, in +proof of which I have given clear examples, and, I think, +irrefragable arguments, which shall be more and more illustrated. +Thus may be removed the necessity of a general +deluge, or any great catastrophe, in order to bring together +things so foreign to each other; but at the same +time we would ascertain this fact, That formerly the Elephant +and Rhinoceros had lived in Siberia. (See Voyage +de Pallas, Tom. II. p. 377 and 403.)</blockquote> + +<p>Having thus endeavoured to remove this +prevailing prejudice, of there being primitive +parts in this earth, parts of which the composition +and constitution are not to be explained +upon the principles of natural philosophy, it +will be proper to inquire, how far there may +be in the theory, which has now been given, +principles by which may be explained those +appearances that have led natural philosophers +to form conclusions, of there being in this +earth parts whose origin may not be traced; +and of there being parts whose origin may +not be explained upon the same principles +which apply so well to all the rest.</p> + +<br> +<h3>CHAP. V.</h3> + +<p><i>Concerning that which may be termed the +Primary Part of the Present Earth</i>.</p> + + +<p>In the present theory, it is maintained, that +there is no part of the earth which has not +had the same origin, so far as this consists in +that earth being collected at the bottom of the +sea, and afterwards produced, as land, along +with masses of melted substances, by the operation +of mineral causes. But, though all +those things be similar, or equal, as to the +manner of their production, they are far from +being so with regard to the periods of their +original composition, or to the subsequent +operations which they may have undergone.</p> + +<p>There is a certain order established for the +progress of nature, for the succession of things, +and for the circulation of matter upon the surface +of this globe; and, the order of time is +associated with this change of things. But it +is not in equal portions that time is thus combined +with dissimilar things, nor always found, +in our estimation, as equally accompanying +those which we reckon similar. The succession +of light and darkness is that which, in +those operations, appears to us most steady; +the alternation of heat and cold comes next, +but not with equal regularity in its periods. +The succession of wet and dry upon the surface +of the earth, though equally the work of +nature and the effect of regular causes, is often +to us irregular, when we look for equal periods +in the course of things which are unequal. +It is by equalities that we find order in things, +and we wish to find order every where.</p> + +<p>The present object of our contemplation is +the alternation of land and water upon the +surface of this globe. It is only in knowing +this succession of things, that natural appearances +can be explained; and it is only from +the examination of those appearances, that +any certain knowledge of this operation is to +be obtained. But how shall we acquire the +knowledge of a system calculated for millions, +not of years only, nor of the ages of man, but +of the races of men, and the successions of +empires? There is no question here with regard +to the memory of man, of any human +record, which continues the memory of man +from age to age; we must read the transactions +of time past, in the present state of natural +bodies; and, for the reading of this +character, we have nothing but the laws of +nature, established in the science of man by +his inductive reasoning.</p> + +<p>It has been in reasoning after this manner, +that I have endeavoured to prove, that every +thing which we now behold, of the solid parts +of this earth, had been formerly at the bottom +of the sea; and that there is, in the constitution +of this globe, a power for interchanging +sea and land. If this shall be admitted as a +just view of the system of this globe, we may +next examine, how far there are to be found +any marks of certain parts of our earth having +more than once undergone that change of +posture, or vicissitude of things, and of having +had reiterated operations of the mineral kingdom +changing their substance, as well as altering +their positions in relation to the atmosphere +and sea.</p> + +<p>Besides the gradual decay of solid land, exposed +to the silent influences of the atmosphere, +and to the violent operations of the +waters moving upon the surface of the earth, +there is a more sudden destruction that may +be supposed to happen sometimes to our continents +of land. In order to see this, it must +be considered, that the continents of our earth +are only raised above the level of the sea by +the expansion of matter, placed below that +land, and rarefied in that place: We may thus +consider our land as placed upon pillars, which +may break, and thus restore the ancient situation +of things when this land had been originally +collected at the bottom of the ocean. It +is not here inquired by what mechanism this +operation is to be performed; it is certainly +by the exertion of a subterranean power that +the land is elevated from the place in which +it had been formed; and nothing is more natural +than to suppose the supports of the land +in time to fail, or be destroyed in the course +of mineral operations which are to us unknown. +In that case, whatever were remaining +of that land, which had for millions of +ages past sustained plants and animals, would +again be placed at the bottom of the sea; and +strata of every different species might be deposited +again upon that mass, which, from an +atmospheric situation, is now supposed to be +lower than the surface of the sea.</p> + +<p>Such a compound mass might be again resuscitated, +or restored with the new superincumbent +strata, consolidated in their texture +and inclined in their position. In that case, +the inferior mass must have undergone a +double course of mineral changes and displacement; +consequently, the effect of subterranean +heat or fusion must be more apparent +in this mass, and the marks of its original +formation more and more obliterated.</p> + +<p>If, in examining our land, we shall find a +mass of matter which had been evidently +formed originally in the ordinary manner of +stratification, but which is now extremely distorted +in its structure, and displaced in its +position,—which is also extremely consolidated +in its mass, and variously changed in its +composition,—which therefore has the marks +of its original or marine composition extremely +obliterated, and many subsequent veins of melted +mineral matter interjected; we should then +reason to suppose that here were masses +of matter which, though not different in their +origin from those that are gradually deposited +at the bottom of the ocean, have been more +acted upon by subterranean heat and the expanding +power, that is to say, have been +changed in a greater degree by the operations +of the mineral region. If this conclusion +shall be thought reasonable, then here is an +explanation of all the peculiar appearances of +the alpine schistus masses of our land, those +parts which have been erroneously considered +as primitive in the constitution of the earth.</p> + +<p>We are thus led to suppose, that some parts +of our earth may have undergone the vicissitudes +of sea and land more than once, having +been changed from the summit of a continent +to the bottom of the sea, and again erected, +with the rest of that bottom, into the place of +land. In that case, appearances might be found +to induce natural philosophers to conclude that +there were in our land primary parts, which +had not the marine origin which is generally +to be acknowledged in the structure of this +earth; and, by finding other masses, of marine +origin, superincumbent upon those primary +mountains, they might make strange suppositions +in order to explain those natural appearances.</p> + +<p>Let us now see what has been advanced by +those philosophers who, though they term +these parts of the earth <i>primordial</i>, and not +<i>primitive</i>, at the same time appear to deny to +those parts an origin analogous to that of their +secondary mountains, or strata that are aquiform +in their construction.</p> + +<p>M. de Luc, after having long believed that +the strata of the Alps had been formed like +those of the low countries, at the bottom of +the sea, gives an account of the occasion by +which he was first confirmed in the opposite +opinion.<a id="footnotetag26" name="footnotetag26"></a><a href="#footnote26"><sup>26</sup></a> Like a true philosopher, he gives +us the reason of this change.</p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote26" name="footnote26"></a><b>Footnote 26:</b><a href="#footnotetag26"> (return) </a> Lettres Physique et Morales sur l'Histoire de la +Terre, tom. 2. pag. 206.</blockquote> + +<p>"Ce fut une espèce de <i>montagne</i> très commune, +et que j'avois souvent examinée qui +dessilla mes yeux. La pierre qui la compose +est de la classe appellée <i>schiste</i>; son caractère +générique est d'être <i>feuilletée</i>; elle +renferme <i>l'ardoise</i> dont on couvre les toits. +Ces <i>feuillets</i> minces, qu'on peut prendre +pour des <i>couches</i>, et qui le font en effet +dans quelques pierres de ce genre, rappelloient +toujours l'idée vague de dépôts des +eaux. Mais il y a des masses dont la composition +est plutôt par fibres que par feuillets, +et dont le moëllon ressemble aux copeaux +de bois d'un chantier. Le plus souvent +aussi les feuillets sont situés en toute +suite de sens dans une même <i>montagne</i>, et +quelquefois même verticalement, Enfin il +s'en trouve de si tortillés, qu'il est impossible +de les regarder comme des dépôts de +l'eau.</p> + +<p>"Ce fut donc cette espèce de montagne +qui me persuada la première que toutes les +montagnes n'avoient pas une même origine. +Le lieu où j'abjurai mon erreur, étoit un +de ces grands <i>chantiers</i> pétrifiés, qui, par la +variété du tortillement, et des zig-zags des +fibres du moëllon qui le composoit, attira +singulièrement mon attention. C'étoit un +sort grand talus qui venoit d'une face escarpée; +j'y montai pour m'approcher du rocher, +et je remarquai, avec étonnement, des +multitudes de paquets enchevêtrés les uns +dans les autres, sans ordre ni direction fixe; +les uns presqu'en rouleaux; les autres en +zig-zag; et même ce qui, séparé de la montagne, +eût peu être pris pour des <i>couches</i>, +le trouvoit incliné de toute manière dans +cette même face de rocher. <i>Non</i>, me dis-je +alors à moi-même; <i>non, l'eau n'a pu faire +cette montagne.... Ni celle-là donc</i>, ajoutai-je +en regardant ailleurs.... <i>Et pourquoi +mieux celle-là? Pourquoi toutes les montagnes +devroient-elles être le produit des +eaux, seulement parce qu'il y en a quelques-unes +qui annoncent cette origine</i>? En effet, +puis qu'on n'a songé aux eaux, comme +cause des montagnes, que par les preuves +évidentes que quelques-unes offroient de +cette formation; pourquoi étendre cette +conséquence à toutes, s'il y en a beaucoup +qui manquent de ces caractères? C'est +comme le dit Mr. d'Alembert, qu'on généralise +ses premières remarques l'instant +d'apres qu'on ne remarquoit rien."</p> + +<p>Science is indebted to this author for giving +us so clear a picture of natural appearances, +and of his own reasoning upon those facts, in +forming his opinion; he thus leads astray no +person of sound judgment, although he may +be in error. The disposition of things in the +present case are such, that, reasoning from his +principles, this author could not see the truth; +because he had not been persuaded, that aquiform +strata could have been so changed by the +chemical power of fusion, and the mechanical +force of bending while in a certain state of +softness.</p> + +<p>But though, in this case, the reasoning of +this philosopher is to be justified, so far as he +proceeded upon principles which could not +lead him to the truth, his conduct is not so +irreproachable in applying them to cases by +which their fallacy might have been detected. +This author acknowledges calcareous strata to +be aquiform in their original; but, in those +mountains which he has so much examined, +he will find those aquiform bodies have undergone +the same species of changes, which made +him conclude that those schistus mountains +had not been truly aquiform, as he at first had +thought them. This would have led him to +reason back upon his principles, and to say, +<i>If one species of strata may be thus changed in +its texture, and its shape, may not another be +equally so? Therefore, may not the origin of +both be similar</i>?</p> + +<p>But least I should do injustice to this author, +to whom we are indebted for many valuable +observations in natural history, I shall transcribe +what he has said upon the subject, being +persuaded that my readers will not think +this improper in me, or impertinent to the argument.</p> + +<p>"Quand nous fumes une fois persuadés +que la mer n'avoit pas fait toutes les <i>montagnes</i>, +nous entreprîmes de découvrir les +caractères distinctifs de celles qui lui devoient +leur origine; et s'il étoit, par exemple, +des matières qui leur fussent propres. +Mais nous y trouvâmes les mêmes +difficultés qu'on rencontre dans tout ce +qu'on veut classer dans la nature. On peut +bien distinguer entr'elles les choses qui ont +fortement l'empreinte de leur classe; mais +les confins échappent toujours.</p> + +<p>"C'est là, pour le dire en passant, ce qui a +pu conduire quelques philosophes à imaginer +cette <i>chaîne des êtres</i> où ils supposent, +que, de la pierre à l'homme et plus haut, +les nuances sont réellement imperceptibles. +Comme si, quoique les limites soyent cachées +à nos sens, notre intelligence ne nous +disoit pas, qu'il y a un <i>saut</i>, une distance +même infinie, entre le plus petit degré d'organization +<i>propageante</i>, et la matière unie +par la simple cohésion: entre le plus petit +degré de <i>sensibilité</i>, et la matière insensible: +entre la plus petite capacité d'observer et de +transmettre ses observations, et l'instinct +constamment le même dans l'espèce. Toutes +ces différences tranchées existent dans la +nature; mais notre incapacité de rien connoître +à fond, et la necessité où nous sommes +de juger de tout sur des apparences, +nous fait perdre presque toutes les limites, +parce que sur ces bords, la plupart des phénomènes +sont équivoques. Ainsi la plante +nous paroît se rapprocher de la pierre, mais +n'en approche jamais réellement.</p> + +<p>"On éprouve la même difficulté à classer +les montagnes; et quoique depuis quelque +tems plusieurs naturalistes ayent aussi observé +qu'elles n'ont pas toutes la même origine, +je ne vois pas qu'on soit parvenu à +fixer des caractères infaillibles, pour les +placer sûrement toutes dans leurs classes +particulières.</p> + +<p>"Après avoir examiné attentivement cet +objet, d'après les phénomènes que j'ai moi-même +observés, et ce que j'ai appris par les +observations des autres; j'ai vu que c'étoit +là un champ très vaste, quand on vouloit +l'embrasser en entier, et trop vaste pour moi, +qui n'étois pas libre d'y consacrer tout le +tems qu'il exige. Je me suis donc replié +sur mon objet principal, savoir <i>la cause qui +a laissé des dépouilles marines dans nos continens</i>, +et l'examen des hypothèses sur cette +matière.</p> + +<p>"Les phénomènes ainsi limités, se réduisent +à ceci: qu'il y a dans nos continens +des montagnes visiblement formées par des +<i>dépôts successifs de la mer</i> et a l'égard des +quelles il n'y a besoin de rien imaginer, si +ce n'est la manière dont elles en sont sorties: +qu'il y en a d'autres au contraire, qui +ne portent aucun des caractères de cette +cause, et qui, si elles ont été produites dans +la <i>mer</i>, doivent être l'effet de toute autre +cause que de simples dépôts successifs, et +avoir même précédé l'existence des animaux +marins. J'abandonne donc les classes confuses +où ces caractères sont équivoques, jusqu'à +ce qu'elles servent à fonder quelque +hypothèse; ayant assez de ces deux classes +très distinctes pour examiner d'apres elles +tous les systèmes qui me sont connus.</p> + +<p>"Là où ces deux classes de montagnes +sont mêlées, on remarque que celles qui +sont formées par <i>couches</i>, et qui renferment +des <i>corps marins</i>, recouvrent souvent celles +de l'autre classe, mais n'en sont jamais recouvertes. +On a donc naturellement conclu, +que lors même que la <i>mer</i> auroit en +quelque part à la formation des montagnes +où l'on ne reconnoît pas son caractère, celles +auxquelles elle a travaillé seule, en enlevant +des matières dans certaines parties +de son fond et les déposant dans d'autres, +font au moins les dernières formées. On +les a donc nommées <i>secondaires</i>, et les autres +<i>primitives</i>.</p> + +<p>"J'adopterai la première de ces expressions; +car c'est la même qui nous étoit venu à +l'esprit à mon frère, et à moi longtemps +avant que nous l'eussions vue employer; +mais je substituerai celle de <i>primordiales à</i> +<i>primitives</i> pour l'autre classe de <i>montagnes</i>, +afin de ne rien décider sur leur origine. Il +est des <i>montagnes</i>, dont jusqu'à present on +n'a pu démêler la cause: voila le fait. Je +ne dirai donc pas qu'elles ont été créées +ainsi, parce qu'en physique je ne dois pas +employer des expressions sur lesquelles on +ne s'entend pas. Sans doute cependant, +que l'histoire naturelle ni la physique ne +nous conduisent nullement à croire que notre +globe ait existé de toute éternité; et +lorsqu'il prit naissance, il fallut bien que la +matière qui le composa fut de quelque nature, +ou sous quelque première forme intégrante. +Rien donc jusqu'ici n'empêche +d'admettre que ces <i>montagnes</i> que je nommerai +<i>primordiales</i>, ne soient réellement +<i>primitives</i>; je penche même pour cette +opinion à l'égard de quelques unes. Mais +il y a une très grande variété entr'elles; et +quoiqu'elles soyent toutes également exclues +de la classe <i>secondaire</i>, elles ne sont pas +toutes semblables: il y en a même un +grand nombre dont les matières ont une +certaine configuration qui semble annoncer +qu'elles ayent été molles et durcies ensuite, +quoique par une toute autre cause que celle +qui a agi pour former les montagnes secondaires."</p> + +<p>Here I would beg leave to call the attention +of philosophers to this observation of +a naturalist who explains all petrification, and +the consolidation of strata by aqueous infiltration. +If he has here found reason to conclude +that, in those primordial parts of the earth, +there are a great number which, from their +present configuration, must have been in a +soft state and then hardened, and this by a +quite different cause from that which he supposes +had produced the consolidation and +hardness of the secondary parts; this is entering +precisely into my views of the subject, +in ascribing all the consolidation of the +earth, whether primary or secondary, to one +general cause, and in tracing this cause, from +its effects, to be no other than the fusion of +those bodies. It must be evident, that if this +philosopher has seen good reason for concluding +such a softening cause, which had operated +upon the primary parts, to be quite different +from that which he ascribes to the consolidation +of the secondary, which is the effect of +water, it must then, I say, be evident that the +softening cause of the primary parts, if not +heat, by which every degree of fusion may be +produced, must be an occult cause, one which +cannot be admitted into natural philosophy.</p> + +<p>By thus choosing to consider mountains as +of two distinct kinds, one aquiform which is +understood, and the other primordial which is +not to be known, we supersede the necessity of +reconciling a theory with many appearances +in nature which otherwise might be extremely +inconvenient to our explanation, if not inconsistent +with our system. Our author no +doubt has thus relieved himself from a considerable +difficulty in the philosophy of this +earth, by saying here is a great part which is +not to be explained. But I would beg leave +to observe, that this form of discussion, with +regard to a physical subject, is but a mere confession +of our ignorance, and has no tendency +to clear up another part of the subject of +which one treats, however it may impress us +with a favourable opinion of the theorist, in +allowing him all the candour of the acknowledgement.</p> + +<p>The general result of the reasoning which +we now have quoted, and what follows in +his examination, seems to terminate in this; +that there are various different compositions +of mountains which this author cannot +allow to be the production of the sea; but it +is not upon account of the matter of which +they are formed, or of the particular mixture +and composition of those species of matter, of +which the variety is almost indefinite. According +to this philosopher, the distinction +that we are to make of those primordial and +secondary competitions, consists in this, that +the first are in such a shape and structure as +cannot be conceived to be formed by subsidence +in water.</p> + +<p>M. de Saussure has carefully examined +those same objects; and he seems inclined to +think that they must have been the operation +of the ocean; not in the common manner of +depositing strata, but in some other way by +crystallization. The present theory supposes +all those masses formed originally in the ordinary +manner, by the deposits or subsidence of +materials transported in the waters, and that +those strata were afterwards changed by operations +proper to the mineral regions.</p> + +<p>But the subject of the present investigation +goes farther, by inquiring if, in the operations +of the globe, a primary and secondary class of +bodies may be distinguished, so far as the one +may have undergone the operations of the +globe, or the vicissitudes of sea and land, oftener +than the other, consequently must be anterior +to the later productions both in time +and operation, although the original of all those +bodies be the same, and the operations of the +earth, so far as we see in the effects, always +proceed upon the same principles. This is an +extensive view of nature to which few have +turned their thoughts. But this is a subject +to which the observations described by this +author have evidently a reference.</p> + +<p>In his 113th letter, he has given us a view +of one of those parts of the earth that are proper +to be examined in determining this question +so important in the genealogy of land, +although no ways concerned in altering the +principles upon which nature in forming continents +must proceed.</p> + +<p>It is in describing the nature of the mountains +about <i>Elbingerode</i>; and he begins in ascending +from Hefeld.</p> + +<p>"Cette partie extérieure de la chaîne est +<i>primordiale</i>: c'est du <i>granit</i> à <i>Hereld</i> et au +commencement de la route; puis quand on +passe dans d'autres vallées, on trouve les +<i>schistes</i> et la <i>roche grise</i> dans tout le pied +des montagnes: mais des qu'on est arrivé à +une certain hauteur, on voit de la <i>pierre à +chaux</i> par couches étendue sur ces matières; +et c'est elle qui forme le sommet de ces +mêmes montagnes; tellement que la plaine +élevée, qui conduit à <i>Elbingerode</i>, est entièrement +de <i>pierre à chaux</i>, excepté dans +sa partie la plus haute ou cette pierre est +recouverte des mêmes <i>grès</i> et sables <i>vitrescibles</i> +qui sont sur le schiste du Bruchberg +et sur la <i>pierre à chaux</i> dans la <i>Hesse</i> et le +pays de Gottingue.</p> + +<p>"Les environs d'Elbingerode étant plus +bas que ces parties recouvertes de matières +vitrescibles, montrent la <i>pierre à chaux</i> à +nud; et l'on y trouve de très beaux marbres, +dont les nuances jaunes, rouges et vertes +sont souvent très vives, et embellies par +les coupes des <i>corps marins</i>.</p> + +<p>"Cependant le schiste n'est pas enseveli +partout sous ces dépôts de la mer; on le +retrouve en quelques endroits, et même +avec de <i>filons</i>.</p> + +<p>"Ainsi au milieu de ces matières <i>calcaires</i> +qui forment le sol montueux des environs +<i>d'Elbingerode</i>, paroît encore le <i>schiste</i> sur +lequel elles ont été déposées: Et en montant +à la partie la plus élevée de ces mêmes +environs, on trouve que la <i>pierre à chaux</i> +est recouverte elle-même d'une <i>pierre sableuse</i> +grise par couches, dans laquelle on +voit quantité de petits fragmens de <i>schiste</i> posés +de plat. C'est la que se trouve une des +mines de <i>fer</i> dont le minerai va en partie +à la <i>Koningshutte</i>, mais en plus grande +partie à la <i>Rothechutte</i>, qui n'est qu'à une +lieue de distance. On perce d'abord la +couche sableuse; sous elle se trouve de la +<i>pierre à chaux</i> grise; puis une couche de +<i>pierre à chaux ferrugineuse</i>, remplie de <i>corps +marins</i>, et surtout <i>d'entroques</i>: C'est cette +<i>couche</i> qui est ici le <i>minerai</i>; et elle appartient +à la formation de cette éminence comme +toutes les autres <i>couches</i>. Cette mine +se nomme <i>bomshey</i>: elle n'est pas riche; +mais elle sert de <i>fondant</i> aux matières ferrugineuses +tirées des filons des montagnes +primordiales en même tems qu'elle leur +ajoute son <i>fer</i> dans la fonte. A quelque +distance de là on a percé un autre puits; +qui a transversé d'abord une sorte de pierre, +que je ne saurois nommer, mais qui ressemble +fort à une <i>lave</i> poreuse. Au dessous +de cette couche on a retrouvé la <i>pierre +à chaux</i> ordinaire; puis la <i>couche ferrugineuse</i> +y continue; mais elle diffère un peu +de ce qu'elle est dans l'autre mine, une +partie de sa substance étant convertie en <i>jaspe</i>.</p> + +<p>"Mais ce qui est digne de la plus grande +attention dans cette contrée, est un filon +peu distant nomme <i>Buchenberg</i>, qui appartient +en partie au Roi, et en partie à +Mr. le Comte de <i>Wernigerode</i>. La montagne +en cette endroit montre une vallée +artificielle de 70 à 80 pieds de profondeur, +de 20 à 30 de largeur dans le haut, et de +400 toises en étendue. C'est le creusement +qu'on a déjà fait en suivant ce <i>filon</i> de <i>fer</i>, +que l'on continue à exploiter de la même +manière sur les terres de Mr. le Comte de +<i>Wernigerode</i>. La matière propre de la montagne +<i>est</i> de <i>schiste</i>; et la vallée qui se forme +de nouveau à mesure qu'on enlève la <i>gangue</i> +du <i>filon</i>, a sûrement déjà existé dans la +mer sous la forme d'une <i>fente</i>, qui a été +remplie, et en particulier des ingrédiens +dont on fait aujourd'hui le <i>fer</i>."</p> + +<p>Here is a supposition of our author that +corresponds to nothing which has yet been +observed any where else, so far as I know. +It is concerning a mineral vein, one which +does not appear to differ in any respect from +other mineral veins, except in being worked +in that open manner which has given our author +an idea of its being a valley. He then +supposes that valley (or rather empty vein) +to have been in this mountain when at the +bottom of the sea, and that this mineral vein +had then been filled with those materials +which now are found in that space between +the two sides of the separated rock. This is +a very different operation from that of infiltration, +which is commonly supposed to be +the method of filling mineral veins; but, we +shall soon see the reason why our author has +here deserted the common hypothesis, and has +adopted another to serve the occasion, without +appearing to have considered how perfectly +inconsistent those two suppositions are to each +other. That mineral veins have been filled +with matter in a fluid state, is acknowledged +by every body who has either looked at a +mineral vein in the earth, or in a cabinet specimen; +mineralists and geologists, in general, +suppose this to have been done by means of +solutions and concretions, a supposition by +no means warranted by appearances, which, +on the contrary, in general demonstrate that +the materials of those veins had been introduced +in the fluid state of fusion. But here +is a new idea with regard to the filling of +those veins; and, I would now beg the reader's +attention to the facts which follow in this +interesting description, and which have suggested +that idea to our author.</p> + +<p>"Quand cette matière accidentelle est enlevée, +on voit la coupe du <i>schiste</i> des deux +côtes de la <i>fente</i>, faisant un <i>toit</i> et un <i>mur</i>, +parce que la <i>fente</i> n'est pas absolument verticale: +des qu'il y a un peu d'inclinaison, +on distingue un <i>toit</i> et un mur, comme j'ai +l'honneur de l'expliquer à V.M. On ne +connoît point encore l'étendue de ce filon, +ni dans sa profondeur, où l'on ne peut pas +s'enfoncer beaucoup de cette manière, ni +dans la longueur, selon laquelle on continue +à l'exploiter.</p> + +<p>"Voilà donc un <i>filon</i>, à la rigueur de la +définition que j'en ai donné à V.M. c'est à +dire, une <i>fente</i> dans la montagne naturelle, +<i>comblée</i> de <i>matière</i> étrangère. Mais ce qu'il +y a d'extraordinaire ici, c'est que cette <i>matière</i> +vient de la <i>mer</i>: ce sont différentes +<i>couches aquiformes</i>, dont quelques unes +sont remplies de <i>corps marins</i>. Il y a des +<i>couches</i> d'une <i>terre martiale</i> fort brune et +sans liaison: d'autres, au contraire toujours +<i>martiales</i>, sont très dures et renferment de +très beau jaspe sanguin: d'autres enfin sont +de vrai <i>marbre</i> gris veinées de rouge. C'est +dans ce marbre que font les <i>corps marins</i>, +savoir des coquillages et des spongites; et il +est lui-même martial comme tout le reste: +les mineurs le nomment <i>Kubrimen</i>, et ne +l'employent que comme un <i>fondant</i> pour +d'autres <i>minéraux de fer</i>.</p> + +<p>"A ce <i>filon</i>, s'en joignent d'autres plus embarrassans. +Ils viennent du <i>toit</i>, qu'ils divisent +par de larges <i>fentes</i> comblées, aboutissantes +au <i>filon</i> principale. Ils font de +même <i>calcaires</i> et marins faits par <i>couches</i>; +mais ces <i>couches</i> ont une si grande inclinaison, +que je ne puis les comprendre: il faut +qu'il y ait eu d'étranges bouleversemens dans +ces endroits-là<a id="footnotetag27" name="footnotetag27"></a><a href="#footnote27"><sup>27</sup></a>.</p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote27" name="footnote27"></a><b>Footnote 27:</b><a href="#footnotetag27"> (return) </a> Here, no doubt, are appearances which it is impossible +to explain by the theory of infiltration; it is the filling +of mineral veins, and their branches or ramifications, +with marble containing marks of marine objects. But, if +we shall suppose this marble to have been in the fluid state +of fusion, as well as the iron-ore and jasper, we may easily +conceive it introduced into the principal vein and its +branches. The description here given of those appearances +is by no means such as to enable us to judge particularly +of this case, which surely merits the most accurate +investigation, and which, I doubt not, will give physical +demonstration of the fusion of those mineral substances. +I know that shells have been found within the body of +veins in Germany; but, a stratification of those materials +in a vein was never heard of before, so far as I know.</blockquote> + +<p>"Ces <i>fentes</i> se sont faites, et ont été remplies, +dans la <i>mer</i>; puisque les matières +qui les remplissent sont de la classe de ses +dépôts très connoissables, et qu'il contiennent +des <i>dépouilles marines</i>. Mais ce qui +embarrasse alors c'est que les autres <i>filons</i> +ne soyent pas dans le même cas. N'est ce +point là encore un indice, que ces <i>fentes</i> +out été d'abord et principalement remplies +de matières, poussées du fond par la même +force qui secouoit les montagnes<a id="footnotetag28" name="footnotetag28"></a><a href="#footnote28"><sup>28</sup></a>.</p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote28" name="footnote28"></a><b>Footnote 28:</b><a href="#footnotetag28"> (return) </a> But what is this power by which matter is to be +forced from the bottom of the sea to the top of the +mountains? For, unless we can form some idea of that +power which, as a cause, we ascribe to the perceived effect, +we either say nothing to the purpose, or we employ +a preternatural cause. It is not sufficient to imagine a +power capable of raising from the bottom of the sea the +materials deposited in the abyss; it is also necessary to +find a power capable of softening bodies which are hard, +and of thus consolidating those masses which are formed +of loose or unconnected materials. Such a power, indeed, +the present theory assumes; and, so far as this shall be +implied in the supposition of our author, it will thus have +received a certain conformation.</blockquote> + +<p>"Ce <i>filon</i> n'est pas le seul dans le <i>Hartz</i> +qui donne des signes <i>marins</i>. Il y en a +un autre, qui même se rapproche davantage +de la nature du commun des <i>filons</i>, et +où l'on trouve aussi des <i>coquillages</i>. C'est +celui de <i>Haus-Hartzbergerzug</i>, pres de +<i>Clausthal</i>, où, dans les <i>Halles</i> de quelques +mines de plomb abandonnées, et dans une +forte <i>d'ardoise</i>, on trouve de petites <i>moules</i> ou +<i>tellines</i> striées, d'une espèce particulière que +j'ai vue dans des <i>ardoises secondaires d'Arotzen</i> +en <i>Waldek</i> et de <i>Sombernon</i> en <i>Bourgogne</i>. +Il y a donc certainement quelques +<i>filons</i> faits par les dépôts de la <i>mer</i> dans les +<i>fentes</i> de montagnes <i>primordiales</i>; comme +au contraire il y a des <i>filons</i> métalliques +sans indices <i>marins</i>, dans des montagnes +évidemment <i>secondaires</i>, telles que celles de +<i>Derbyshire</i>, ou les <i>filons</i> de <i>plomb</i> traversent +des couches de <i>pierre à chaux</i>."</p> + +<p>Here again our author seems to me to refute +his own supposition, That a chasm in the +schistus rock may have existed at the bottom +of the sea, and been then filled from above +with such materials as were transported by the +moving water to that place, is not impossible; +but nobody, who knows the nature of a common +metallic vein, can ever suppose it to have +been filled in that manner. Our author then +adds, "On ne fait réellement que commencer +dans ce genre d'observations, considérées +quant à la Cosmologie; ainsi il ne faut +point désespérer que tout cela ne se dévoile +un jour, et que nous n'acquerrions ainsi un +peu plus de connoissance sur ce qui se passoit +dans la <i>mer ancienne</i>.</p> + +<p>"En revenant vers <i>Elbingerode</i>, nous retrouvâmes +ces <i>schistes</i>, qui paroissent au +travers des <i>marbres:</i> ils sont donc la continuation +de la masse <i>schisteuse</i> à laquelle +appartient le <i>filon</i>, dont je viens de parler. +Ce <i>filon</i> à été formé dans une <i>fente</i>, restée +ouverte et vide: les dépôts de la <i>mer</i> +l'ont comblée, en même tems qu'ils formoient +les couches de <i>marbre</i>, qui sont à +l'extérieur. En effet, ce <i>filon</i> contient des +<i>couches marines ferrugineuses</i>, de la même +nature que celles des collines calcaires voisines +formées sur le schiste.</p> + +<p>"Nous partîmes <i>d'Elbingerode</i> dans l'après +midi pour nous rapprocher de Clausthal. +Notre chemin fut encore quelque tems sur +des sommités <i>calcaires</i>; et avant que d'en +sortir, nous trouvâmes une autre mine singulière +à <i>Arenfeld</i>. C'est encore un vrai +<i>filon</i>; mais dans une montagne de <i>pierre à +chaux:</i> C'est à-dire, que cette montagne a +aussi été <i>fendue</i>, et que la <i>fente</i> a été remplie +d'une <i>gangue</i>. La matière de ce <i>filon</i> est +encore <i>calcaire</i> en plus grande partie; mais +cette <i>pierre à chaux</i> distincte est <i>ferrugineuse</i>, +et parsemée de concrétions de <i>jaspe</i> +comme celles <i>d'Elbingerode:</i> on y trouve +aussi une matière verdâtre, qui, comme le +<i>jaspe</i>, ne fait pas effervescence avec l'eau +forte."</p> + +<p>Here is a phenomenon which is altogether +incompatible with the theory that this author +has given us for the explanation of those appearances. +He supposes empty crevices in +the schistus mountains at the bottom of the +sea; these crevices he supposes filled by the +deposits of the sea, at the same time, and with +the same materials with which the lime-stone +strata were formed above the schistus mountains; +but we find one of those same veins in +these secondary calcareous strata. Now, tho' +we should be disposed to allow, that, in the +primordial mountain, of which we are supposed +not to know the origin, there might have +been empty crevices which were afterwards +filled with materials transported by the sea, +this cannot be admitted as taking place in the +loose or incoherent materials deposited above +the schistus. Consequently, this theory of +our author, which is evidently erroneous with +regard to the veins in the lime-stone, must, in +the other case, be at least examined with a +jealous eye.</p> + +<p>"Le haut de cette partie des montagnes +<i>calcaires</i> étoit encore recouvert de <i>sable</i> et +de grès <i>vitrescibles</i>: et continuant à marcher, +sans aucune inflexion sensible, nous +nous trouvâmes subitement sur les <i>schistes</i>; +d'où nous montâmes plus rapidement. +Puis traversant quelques petites vallées nous +arrivâmes sur les montagnes qui appartiennent +au prolongement du <i>Brocken</i> ou +<i>Blocksberg</i>. La matière dominante est alors +le <i>granit</i>; mais il est tout en blocs le long +de cette route, et ces blocs se trouvent à +une telle distance de tout sommité intacte +de cette pierre, qui est aisé de juger non +seulement qu'ils ne sont pas dans leur place +originaire, mais encore qu'il ne sont arrivés +là par aucune des causes naturelles +qui agissent dans les montagnes; savoir, la +pesanteur, la pente, et le cours des eaux. +Ce sont donc de violentes explosions qui +ont dispersé ces blocs; et alors ils deviennent +un nouveau trait cosmologique de +quelque importance: car rien ne se meut, +ni ne paroît s'être mu depuis bien des +siècles, dans ces lieux qui montrent tant de +désordre: un tapis de verdure couvre tout, +en conservant les contours baroques du sol. +Le bétail ne sauroit pâturer dans de telles +prairies; mais l'industrieux montagnard fait +y faucher<a id="footnotetag29" name="footnotetag29"></a><a href="#footnote29"><sup>29</sup></a>.</p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote29" name="footnote29"></a><b>Footnote 29:</b><a href="#footnotetag29"> (return) </a> M. de Saussure endeavours to explain those appearances +of transported blocks of granite by another cause; +this is a certain <i>debacle</i> of the waters of the earth, which I +do not understand. M. de Luc again attempts to explain +it by violent explosions; I suppose he means those of a +volcano. But he has not given us the evidence upon +which such an opinion may be founded, farther than by +saying that those blocks could not have come there by the +natural operations of the surface. By this must be meant, +that, from the nearest summit of granite, there is not, at +present, any natural means by which these blocks might +be transported to that place. But it is not with the present +state of things that we are concerned, in explaining +the operations of a distant period. If the natural operations +of the surface change the shape of things, as is +clearly proved by every natural appearance, Why form an +argument against a former transaction, upon the circumstances +of the present state of things? Our author does +not seem to perceive, that, from this mode of reasoning, +there is is an insuperable objection to his violent explosions +having been employed in producing those effects. For, +had there been such a cause, the evidence of this must +have remained; if the surface of the earth does not undergo +great changes: If, again, this surface be in time much +changed, How can we judge from the present shape, what +might have been the former posture of things? + +<p>This author, indeed, does not allow much time for the +natural operations of the globe to change its surface; but, +if things be not greatly removed from the state in which +the violent operations of the globe had placed them, Why +does he not point out to us the source of this great disorder +which he there perceives? From what explosion +will be explained the blocks of granite which are found +upon the Jura, and which must have come from the mass +of <i>Mont Blanc</i>? If these dispersed blocks of stone are to +be explained by explosion, there must: have been similar explosions +in other countries where there is not the smallest +appearance of volcanic eruptions; for, around all our +granite mountains, and I believe all others, there are +found many blocks of granite, travelled at a great distance, +and in all directions.</blockquote> + +<p>"<i>Oberbruck</i>, ou nous avions été la précédente +fois, se trouva sur notre route, et +nous y passames aussi la nuit, dans l'espérance +de pouvoir monter le lendemain sur +le <i>Brocken</i>; mais il fut encore enveloppé +de nuages; ainsi nous continuâmes à marcher +vers <i>Clausthal</i>, passant de nouveau par +le <i>Bruchberg</i>, où le <i>sable</i> et ses gres recouvrent +le <i>schiste</i>; puis arrivant à une +autre sommité, nous y trouvâmes la même +pierre <i>sableuse</i> par couches, mêlée de parcelles +de <i>schiste</i>, que nous avions vue sur +les montagnes <i>calcaires d'Elbingerode</i>. Il +est donc toujours plus certain que le sol +primordial de toutes ces montagnes existoit +sous les eaux de l'ancienne mer; puisqu'il +est recouvert de diverses fortes de dépôts, +connus pour appartenir à la <i>mer</i>; et que +les <i>fentes</i> des <i>filons</i> existoient dans cette +<i>mer ancienne</i>; puisqu'elle en a rempli elle-même +quelques unes, et qu'elle a recouvert +de ses dépôts quelques autres <i>filons</i> tout +formés. Quant à celles des matières de ces +<i>filons</i>, qui ne paroissent pas être <i>marines</i> (et +c'est de beaucoup la plus grande quantité), +j'ai toujours plus de penchant d'en attribuer +une partie à l'opération des <i>feux souterreins</i>, +à mesure que je vois diminuer la +probabilité de les assigner entièrement à +<i>l'eau</i>. Mais quoi-qu'il en soit, ces gangues +ne font pas de même date que les montagnes<a id="footnotetag30" name="footnotetag30"></a><a href="#footnote30"><sup>30</sup></a>.</p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote30" name="footnote30"></a><b>Footnote 30:</b><a href="#footnotetag30"> (return) </a> I most willingly admit the justness of our author's +view, if he thus perceives the operation of fire in the +solids of our earth; but it is not for the reasons he has +given us for discovering it here more than in other places; +for there is not a mineral vein, (so far at least as I have +seen), in which the appearances may be explained by any +thing else besides the operation of fire or fusion. It is +not easy to conceive in what manner our author had conceived +the opinions which he has displayed in these letters. +He had no opinion of this kind, or rather he was persuaded +that subterraneous fire had no hand in the formation +of this earth before he came to this place of the +Hartz; here he finds certain appearances, by which he is +confirmed in his former opinion, that water had operated +in forming mineral veins; and then he forms the idea +that subterraneous fire may have operated also. But, before +the discovery of the chasms in the schistus mountains +having been filled with the stratified materials of the sea, +How had he supposed veins to be filled? If this philosopher +had before no opinion of subterraneous fire, as instrumental +in that operation, How comes he now to change +that former opinion? For, unless it be the extraordinary +manner of filling these open crevices in the mountains by +matter deposited immediately from the sea, there is certainly +no other appearance in this mineral country of the +Hartz, that may not be found in any other, only perhaps +upon a smaller scale.</blockquote> + +<p>"Le lendemain de notre arrivée a <i>Clausthal</i>, +qui étoit le 13e, nous allâmes visiter +d'autres mines de <i>fer</i> en montagnes secondaires, +situées au côté opposé du Hartz. +Elles sont auprès de <i>Grund</i> l'une des <i>villes +de mines</i>, et près du lieu ou sortira la nouvelle +<i>galerie d'écoulement</i> à laquelle on travaille, +etc.</p> + +<p>"Arrivés à <i>Grund</i> les officiers mineurs +vinrent, comme à l'ordinaire, accompagner +Mons. de <i>Reden</i> aux <i>mines</i> de leur département. +Celles-ci, sans être plus extraordinaires +que celles qui nous avions +vues à <i>Elbingerod</i>, ou sans aider mieux +jusqu'ici à expliquer ce qu'elles ont toutes +d'extraordinaire, nous donnent au moins +des indices probables de grands accidens. +Ces montagnes de <i>Grund</i> sont encore de +l'espèce remarquable, dont la base est de +<i>schiste</i>, et le haut de <i>pierre à chaux</i>. Les +mines qu'on y exploit sont de <i>fer</i>, et se +trouvent dans cette matière <i>calcaire</i>; mais +elles y sont sous des apparences tout-à-fait +étranges. La montagne où nous les vîmes +principalement le nomme <i>Iberg</i>. On y +poursuit des masses de <i>pierre à fer</i>, de l'ensemble +desquelles les mineurs ne peuvent encore +se rendre compte d'une manière claire. +Ils ont trouvé dans cette montagne des <i>cavernes</i>, +qui ressemblent à l'encaissement de +<i>filons</i> déjà exploités, ou non formés; c'est-à-dire, +que ce sont des <i>fentes</i> presque verticales, +et vides, Le <i>minerai</i> qu'ils poursuivent +est en <i>Rognons</i>; c'est à dire, en +grandes masses sans continuité décidée. +Cependant ces masses semblent se succéder +dans la montagne suivant une certaine direction; +tellement que les mineurs savent +déjà les chercher, par des indices d'habitude. +La substance de cette <i>pierre à fer</i> +particulière renferme des crystallizations de +diverses espèces. Il y a des <i>druses de quartz</i>, +ou de petits cristaux de quartz qui tapissent +des cavités; il y a aussi du <i>spath</i> commun, +et de celui qu'on nomme pesant; on y +trouve enfin une forte de crystallization +nommée <i>Eisenman</i> (<i>homme de fer</i>) par les +mineurs; se sont des amas de cristaux noir-âtres, +qui ressemblent à des groupes de +grandes lentilles plattes, et ces cristaux sont +<i>ferrugineux</i>.</p> + +<p>"Entre les signes de bouleversement que +renferme ce lieu, est un rocher nommé +<i>Gebichensten</i>, qui est en <i>pierre à chaux</i>, ce +que <i>l'Ebrenbreitstein</i> de <i>Coblentz</i> est en +pierre sableuse: c'est-à-dire, que ses <i>couches</i>, +remplies de <i>corps marins</i>, sont presque verticales; +ceux de ces corps qu'on y trouve +en plus grande quantité, sont des <i>madrépores</i>. +Ce rocher s'élève comme un grand +obélisque, au-dessus des <i>cavernes</i>, dont j'ai +parlé; montrant par le côté ses <i>couches</i>, qui +se trouvent, comme je l'ai dit, dans une +situation presque verticale. Sa base est déjà +bien minée, tant par les <i>cavernes</i>, que +par la <i>pierre à fer</i> qu'on en tire; et je ne +me hasardai dessus, que parce que je me +dis, qu'il y a des millions contre un à parier, +que ce n'est pas le moment où il s'enfoncerait. +Mais je n'en dirois pas autant, +s'il s'agissoit de m'y loger à demeure.</p> + +<p>"Quoique tout ce lieu là soit fort remarquable, +il se pourrait que ce ne fut qu'un +phénomène particulier. Les <i>cavernes</i> peuvent +devoir leur origine à la même cause +que celle de Schartzfeld; et le dérangement +des rochers supérieurs à des enfoncemens +occasionnés par ces <i>cavernes</i>. Rien +n'est si difficile que de retracer aujourd'hui +ces fortes d'accidens à cause des changemens +que le tems y a opérés. S'ils sont +arrivés sous les eaux de la <i>mer</i>, on conçoit +aisément les altérations qui ont dû succéder; +et si c'est depuis que nos continens +sont à sec, les eaux encore, tant intérieures +qu'extérieures, et la végétation, en ont +beaucoup changé l'aspect."</p> + +<p>This author has a theory by which he explains +to himself the former residence of the +sea, above the summits of our mountains; +this, however, is not the theory by which we +are now endeavouring to explain appearances; +we must therefore be allowed to reason from +our own principles, in considering the facts +here set forth by our author.</p> + +<p>Nothing, I think, is more evident, than +that in this mineral country of the Hartz, we +may find the clearest marks of fracture, elevation, +and dislocation of the strata, and of the +introduction of foreign matter among those +separated bodies. All those appearances, our +author would have to be nothing but some +particular accident, which is not to enter into +the physiology of the earth. I wish again to +generalise these facts, by finding them universal +in relation to the globe, and necessarily +to be found in all the consolidated parts of our +land.</p> + +<p>It was not to refute our author's reasoning +that I have here introduced so much of his +observations, but to give an extensive view of +the mineral structure of this interesting country. +This therefore being done, we now proceed +to what is more peculiarly our business +in this place, or the immediate subject of investigation, +viz. the distinction of primary and +secondary strata.</p> + +<p>"Dans le voisinage de cette montagne, il +y a une autre fort intéressante, que je vis le +jour suivant. Quoiqu'en traitant des volcans, +j'aie démontré que la formation des +montagnes, par soulèvement, étoit sans example +dans les faits, et sans fondement dans +la théorie, je ne laisseroi pas de m'arrêter au +phénomène que présente cette montagne; +parce qu'il prouvera directement que les +<i>couches calcaires</i> au moins, ont été formées +<i>à la hauteur ou elles sont</i>; c'est-a-dire +qu'elles n'ont pas été soulevées.</p> + +<p>"Voulant prendre l'occasion de mon retour +à <i>Hanovre</i>, pour traverser les avant-corps +du <i>Hartz</i>, dans quelque nouvelle direction; +je résolus de faire ce voyage à +cheval, et de prendre ma route droite vers +<i>Hanovre</i>, au-travers des collines; ce qui +me conduisit encore à <i>Grund</i> puis à <i>Münchehof +Brunshausen, Engelade, Winsenburg</i> +et <i>Alfeld</i>, où enfin, traversant la <i>Leine</i> j'entrai +dans la grande route.</p> + +<p>"Je quittai donc <i>Clausthal</i> (et avec bien +du regret) le 14 au matin; et revenant +d'abord à <i>Grund</i>, je le laissai sur ma droite, +ainsi que <i>l'Iberg</i>; et plus loin, du même +côté, une autre montagne nommée <i>Winterberg</i> +dont la base est <i>schiste</i>, et le sommet +plus haut que Clausthal, entièrement composé +de <i>couches calcaires</i>. De <i>Grund</i> je +montai vers une montagne nommée <i>Ost +Kamp</i>; et je commençai là à donner une +attention particulière au sol. Le long de +mon chemin, je ne trouvai longtemps que +des schistes, qui montroient leurs points en +haut, comme à l'ordinaire, et avec tous leurs +tortillemens de feuillets. Mais arrivé au +haut de la montagne, j'y vis des carrières +de <i>pierre à chaux</i>, où les couches absolument +régulières, et qui ont peu d'épaisseur +sur le <i>schiste</i> suivent parfaitement les contours +du <i>sommet</i>. Ces lits de <i>pierre à chaux</i> +n'ont certainement pas été soulevés du fond +de la <i>mer</i> sur le dos des schistes; lors même +qu'à cause de la grande inclinaison des feuillets +de ceux-ci on voudroit le attribuer à +quelque révolution telle que le <i>soulèvement</i>; +(ce que je n'admettrois point). Car si ces +lits <i>calcaires</i>, ayant été faits au fond de la +<i>mer</i>, avoyent été soulevés avec les schistes, +ne feroient-ils pas brisés et bouleversés comme +eux? Il est donc evident, que quoiqu'il +soi arrivé au schiste qui les porte, ces lits, +et tous les autres de même genre qui sont +au haut de ces montagnes, ont été déposées +au niveau où ils sont; et que par conséquent +la <i>mer</i> les surpassoit alors. Ainsi le +système de soulèvement perd son but, s'il +tend à expliquer pourquoi nous avons des +<i>couches</i>, formées par la mer, qui se trouvent +maintenant si fort au dessus de son niveau. +Il est évident que ces <i>couches</i> n'ont pas été +soulevées; mais que la <i>mer</i> s'est <i>abaissée</i>. +Or c'est là le grand point cosmologique à +expliquer: tous les autres, qui tiennent à +la structure de certaines montagnes inintelligibles, +n'appartiendront qu'à <i>l'histoire naturelle</i>, +tant qu'ils ne se lieront pas avec +celui-la."</p> + +<p>Here are two things to be considered; the +interesting facts described by our author, and +the inference that he would have us draw +from those facts. It would appear from the +facts, that the body of schistus below, and +that of lime-stone above, had not undergone +the same disordering operations, or by no +means in the same degree. But our author +has formed another conclusion; he says, that +these lime-stone strata must have been formed +precisely in the place and order in which they +lie at present; and the reason for this is, because +these strata appeared to him to follow +perfectly the contour of the summit of this +mountain. Now, had there been in the top +of this mountain a deep hollow encompassed +about with the schistus rock; and had this +cavity been now found filled with horizontal +strata, there might have been some shadow of +reason for supposing those strata to have been +deposited upon the top of the mountain. But +to suppose, <i>first</i>, that shells and corals should +be deposited upon the convex summit of a +mountain which was then covered by the sea; +<i>secondly</i>, that these moveable materials should +remain upon the summit, while the sea had +changed its place; and, <i>lastly</i>, that those shells +and corals left by the sea upon the top of a +mountain should become strata of solid limestone. +and have also metallic veins in it, certainly +holds of no principle of natural philosophy +that I am acquainted with. If, therefore, +such an appearance as this were to be employed +either in illustration or confirmation of a +theory, it would itself require to be explained; +but this is a task that this cosmologists +does not seem willing to undertake.</p> + +<p>He has formed a hypothesis for explaining +the general appearance of that which was once +the bottom of the sea being now found forming +the summits of our mountains; but surely +this philosopher will acknowledge, that +those natural appearances, in any particular +place, will be the same, whether we suppose +the bottom of the sea to have been raised, as +in the present theory, or the surface of the sea +to have sunk according to his hypothesis. For, +it is equally easy to suppose a portion of the +earth to have been raised all this height, as to +suppose all the rest of the surface of the globe +to have sunk an equal space, while a small +portion of the bottom of the sea, remaining +here and there fixed in its place, became the +highest portion of the globe. Consequently, +whatever evidence this philosopher shall find +in support of his theory of the present earth, +(a subject which it is not our purpose to examine) +it cannot be allowed that he has here +brought any argument capable of disproving +the elevation of the bottom of the sea; a supposition +which other theories may require.</p> + +<p>I would now observe, in relation to the +present theory, that so far as this author has +reasoned justly from natural appearances, his +conclusions will be found to confirm the present +supposition, that there is to be perceived +the distinction of primordial, and that of secondary, +in the masses of this earth, without +altering the general theory either with respect +to the original formation of those masses, or +to their posterior production.</p> + +<p>Here one of two things must be allowed; +either that those strata of schistus had been +broken and distorted under a mass of other +superincumbent strata; or that those superincumbent +strata had been deposited upon the +broken and distorted strata at the bottom of +the sea. Our author, who has examined the +subject, inclines to think, that this last has +been the case. If, therefore, strata had been +deposited upon broken and bare rocks of +schistus, it is probable that these had been +sunk in the sea after having been exposed to +the atmosphere, and served the purpose of +land upon the globe.<a id="footnotetag31" name="footnotetag31"></a><a href="#footnote31"><sup>31</sup></a></p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote31" name="footnote31"></a><b>Footnote 31:</b><a href="#footnotetag31"> (return) </a> This is also supported by another very interesting observation +contained in this letter. M. de Luc observes, +that in this country the schistus is generally covered by +strata of lime-stone, and that these lime-stone strata are +again covered with those of sand-stone, in which are found +a great many fragments of schistus lying flat. Therefore, +while those sand-stone strata were collecting at the bottom +of the sea, there had been rocks of schistus in some other +place, from whence those fragments bad been detached.</blockquote> + +<p>An example of the same kind also occurs +in the <i>Discours sur l'Histoire Naturelle de la +Suisse</i>; and this author of the <i>Tableaux de la +Suisse</i> has given a very distinct description of +that appearance, which is perhaps the more +to be valued as a piece of natural history, as +this intelligent author does not pretend to any +geological theory, but simply narrates what +he has seen, with such pertinent observations +on the subject as naturally must occur to a +thinking person on the spot.—(Discours, etc. +page 228. Entrée au pays de Grisons).</p> + +<p>"Du village d'Elen on continue à monter +le reste du petit vallon pendant une lieue +et demie parmi les mêmes espèces de pierres +qu'on vient de décrire; en passant au travers +de bois et de forêts de sapins et de +quelques pâturages dont ce haut est couvert, +on parvient au pied du Bundnerberg, +montagne des grisons, qui forme la +tête du vallon. On laisse à droite un fond +ou espèce d'entonnoir, entouré de très-hautes +montagnes inaccessibles, pour s'enfourrer +à gauche entre des rochers qui font +fort resserrés, où coule un torrent. Ce lieu +seroit horreur si on ne se trouvoit accoutumé, +par degrés, à voir de ces positions effrayantes: +tout y est aride, il n'y a plus +d'arbres ni de végétaux ce sont des rochers +entassés les un sur les autres; ce lieu paroit +d'autant plus affreux que le passage a +été subit, et qu'en sortant de bois et des +forêts, on se trouve tout-à-coup parmi ces +rochers qui s'élèvent comme des murailles, +et dont on ne voit pas la cime; cette gorge +ou cette entrée qui se nomme Jetz, est la +communication du Canton du Glaris aux +Gritons; on a dit précédemment qu'il y en +avoit une plus aisée par le Gros-Thal ou +le grand vallon. Ce passage est très-curieux +pour la Lithogeognosie, il est rare +de trouver autant de phénomènes intéressans +rassemblés, et des substances aussi variées +par rapport à leurs positions; c'est le +local qui mérite le plus d'être examiné en +Suisse, et la plus difficile que nous ayons +parcouru. On se souviendra que nous +avons continuellement monté depuis Glaris, +et que nous nous trouvons au pied de +ces montagnes ou de ces pics étonnans qui +dominent les hautes Alpes; on trouve ici +la facilité peu commune de pouvoir examiner, +et voir le pied ou les fondemens +de ces colosses qui couronnent le globe, +parce qu'ils sont ordinairement entourés de +leurs débris et de leurs éboulemens qui en +cachent le pied. Ici c'est une roche de +schiste bleuâtre, dure et compact, traversée +de filons de quartz blanc, et quelquefois +jaunâtre, dans laquelle on a taillé un sentier +pour pouvoir en franchir le pied. Cette +roche s'élève à une hauteur prodigieuse, +est presque verticale, et ces couches sont à +quatre-vingt degrés d'inclinaison. L'imagination +est effrayée de voir que de pareilles +masses ayent pu être ébranlées et déplacées +au point d'avoir fait presque un quart de +conversion. Après avoir monté et suivi +cette roche parmi les pierres et les décombres, +une heure et demie, on trouve +cette roche de schiste surmontée d'autres +rochers fort hauts qui sont calcaires, et dont +les lits sont fort horizontaux. Les schistes, +qui sont directement sous les roches calcaires, +conservent la même inclinaison qu'elles +ont à leur pied."</p> + +<p>Here is an observation which certainly +agrees with that given by M. de Luc, and +would seem to confirm this conclusion, that +strata had been deposited upon those <i>schisti</i> +after they had been changed from their natural +or horizontal position, and become vertical; +at the same time, this conclusion is not +of necessary consequence, without examining +concomitant appearances, and finding particular +marks by which this operation might be +traced; for the simply finding horizontal +strata, placed above vertical or much inclined +schiste, is not sufficient, of itself, to constitute +that fact, while it is acknowledged that every +species of fracture, dislocation, and contortion, +is to be found among the displaced strata of +the globe.</p> + +<p>Since writing this chapter, I am enabled to +speak more decisively upon that point, having +acquired more light upon the subject, as will +appear in the next chapter.</p> + +<br> +<h3>CHAP. VI.</h3> + +<p><i>The Theory of interchanging Sea and Land +illustrated by an Investigation of the Primary +and Secondary Strata</i>.</p> + + + +<p>SECT. I.—<i>A distinct View of the Primary and +Secondary Strata</i>.</p> + + +<p>Having given a view of what seems +to be the primary and secondary strata, +from the observations of authors, and having +given what was my opinion when I first wrote +that chapter, I am now to treat of this subject +from observations of my own, which I +made since forming that opinion.</p> + +<p>From Portpatrick, on the west coast, to St +Abb's Head, on the east, there is a tract of +schistus mountains, in which the strata are +generally much inclined, or approaching to +the vertical situation; and it is in these inclined +strata that geologists allege that there +is not to be found any vestige of organised +body. This opinion, however, I have now +proved to be erroneous.</p> + +<p>There cannot be any doubt with regard to +the original formation of those stratified bodies, +as having been formed of the materials +that are natural to this earth, viz. the detritus +of former bodies; and as having been deposited +in water, like the horizontal strata: For +the substances and bodies of which they are +visibly composed are no other than those +which form the most regular horizontal strata, +and which are continually travelling, or transported +at the bottom of the sea, such as gravel, +and sand, argillaceous and micaceous bodies.</p> + +<p>On each side of this ridge of mountains, +which towards the east end is but narrow, +there is a lower country composed of strata +in general more horizontal; and among which +strata, besides coal, there are also found the +relics of organised bodies.</p> + +<p>Abstracting at present from any consideration +of organised bodies among the materials +of those strata, it may be affirmed, that the +materials which form the strata in the mountains +and in the low country, are similar, or +of the same nature; that they have, in both +places, been consolidated by the same means, +viz. heat and fusion; and that the same or +similar accidents have happened to them, such +as change from their original position, and +mineral veins traversing them in various +shapes. Yet still there is a distinctive character +for those two bodies, the alpine and the +horizontal strata; for, while the horizontal +position appears natural to the one, and the +changes from that particular state to be only +an accident, the vertical position appears to be +more natural to the other, which is seldom +found horizontal.</p> + +<p>Therefore, altho' it is unquestionable that +the strata in the alpine and low countries had +the same or a similar original, yet, as the +vertical position, which is the greatest possible +change in that respect, is more natural to the +alpine strata, or only necessary in the natural +order of those bodies, we are to consider this +great disorder or change from the natural state +of their original formation, as the proper character +of those alpine strata. But then it is +also necessary to include in this character a +general hardness and solidity in those vertical +strata, otherwise they would not have been +properly alpine, or have resisted the wearing +and washing powers of the globe, so as to +have remained higher than the others; for, the +vertical position, or great inclination of those +strata, should rather have disposed them the +more to dissolution and decay. Let us now +see how far we shall be justified in that general +conclusion, by the examination of those +bodies.</p> + +<p>The fact is certain, that those alpine bodies +are much harder, or less subject to dissolution +and decay, than the horizontal strata. But +this must be taken in the general, and will by +no means apply to particular cases which +might be compared. Nothing, for example, +more solid than the lime-stones, or marbles, +and iron-stones; nothing more hard or solid +than the chirt or flint; and all these are found +among the horizontal strata. But, while some +strata among those horizontal beds are thus +perfectly solid, others are found with so slight +degrees of consolidation, that we should not +be able to ascribe it to the proper cause, without +that gradation of the effect, which leads +us to impute the slightest degree of consolidation +to the same operations that have produced +the complete solidity. While, therefore, the +most perfect solidity is found in certain strata, +or occasionally among the horizontal bodies, +this forms no part of their character in general, +or cannot be considered as a distinctive +mark, as it truly is with regard to the alpine +strata. These last have a general character +of consolidation and indissolubility, which +is in a manner universal. We are, therefore, +now to inquire into the cause of this distinction, +and to form some hypothesis that may +be tried by the actual state of things, in being +compared with natural appearances.</p> + +<p>As the general cause of consolidation among +mineral bodies, formed originally of loose materials, +has been found to consist in certain +degrees of fusion or cementation of those materials +by means of heat; and as, in the examination +of the horizontal strata we actually +find very different degrees of consolidation in +the several strata, independent of their positions +in relation to height or depth, we have +reason to believe that the heat, or consolidating +operation, has not been equally employed +in relation to them all.</p> + +<p>We are not now inquiring how an inferior +stratum should have been heated in a lesser +degree, or not consolidated, while a superior +stratum had been consolidated in the most +perfect manner; we are to reason upon a +fact, which is, that the horizontal strata in +general appear not to have been equally or +universally consolidated; and this we must +attribute to an insufficient exertion of the +consolidating cause. But, so far as the erecting +cause is considered as the same with that +by which the elevated bodies were consolidated, +and so far as the vertical situation is a +proof of the great exertion of that subterraneous +power, the strata which are most erected, +should in general be found most consolidated.</p> + +<p>Nothing more certain than that there have +been several repeated operations of the mineralising +power exerted upon the strata in particular +places; and all those mineral operations +tend to consolidation: Therefore, the +more the operations have been repeated in +any place, the more we should find the strata +consolidated, or changed from their natural +state. Vertical strata have every appearance +from whence we should be led to conclude, +that much of the mineral power had been exerted +upon them, in changing their original +constitution or appearance. But the question +now to be considered is this, How far it may +appear that these masses of matter, which now +seem to be so different from the ordinary strata +of the globe, had been twice subjected to the +mineral operations, in having been first consolidated +and erected into the place of land, +and afterwards sunk below the bottom of the +sea, in order a second time to undergo the +process of subterraneous heat, and again be +elevated into the place where they now are +found.</p> + +<p>It must be evident, here is a question that +may not be easy to decide. It is not to the +degree of any change to which bodies may be +subject, that we are to appeal, in order to clear +up the point in question, but to a regular +course of operations, which must appear to +have been successively transacted, and by +which the different circumstances or situations +of those masses are to be discovered in their +present state. Now, though it does not concern +the present theory that this question be +decided, as it is nothing but a repetition of +the same operations that we look for; nevertheless, +it would be an interesting fact in the +natural history of this earth; and it would +add great lustre to a theory by which so great, +so many operations were to be explained. I +am far from being sanguine in my expectations +of giving all the satisfaction in relation +to this subject that I could wish; but it will +be proper to state what I have lately learned +with regard to so curious a question, that +others, who shall have the opportunity, may +be led to inquire, and that thus the natural +history of the earth may be enlarged, by a +proper investigation of its mineral operations.</p> + +<p>With this view I have often considered our +schistus mountains, both in the north and +south; but I never found any satisfactory appearance +from whence conclusions could be +formed, whether for the question or against it. +The places I examined were those between +the alpine countries and the horizontal strata; +here, indeed, I have frequently found a confused +mass, formed of the fragments of those +alpine strata mixed with the materials of the +horizontal bodies; but not having seen the +proper shape and connection of those several +deposits, I always suspended my judgment +with regard to the particular operations which +might have been employed in producing those +appearances.</p> + +<p>I had long looked for the immediate junction +of the secondary or low country strata +with the alpine schistus, without finding it; +the first place in which I observed it was at +the north end of the island of Arran, at the +mouth of Loch Ranza; it was upon the shore, +where the inclined strata appeared bare, being; +washed by the sea. It was but a very small +part that I could see; but what appeared was +most distinct. Here the schistus and the sandstone +strata both rise inclined at an angle of +about 45°; but these primary and secondary +strata were inclined in almost opposite directions; +and thus they met together like the +two sides of a <i>lambda</i>, or the rigging of a +house, being a little in disorder at the angle +of their junction. From this situation of +those two different masses of strata, it is evidently +impossible that either of them could +have been formed originally in that position; +therefore, I could not here learn in what state +the schistus strata had been in when those of +the sand-stone, &c, had been superinduced.</p> + +<p>Such was the state of my mind, in relation +to that subject:, when at Jedburgh upon a visit +to a friend, after I had returned from Arran, +and wrote the history of that journey; I there +considered myself as among the horizontal +strata which had first appeared after passing +the Tweed, and before arriving at the Tiviot. +The strata there, as in Berwickshire, which is +their continuation to the east, are remarkably +horizontal for Scotland; and they consist of +alternated beds of sand-stone and marl, or argillaceous +and micaceous strata. These horizontal +strata are traversed in places with small +veins of whin-stone, as well as greater masses +forming rocks and hills of that material; but, +except it be these, (of which there are some +curious examples), I thought there could be +nothing more of an interesting nature to observe. +Chance, however, discovered to me +what I could not have expected or foreseen.</p> + +<p>The river Tweed, below Melrose, discovers +in its bed the vertical strata of the schistus +mountains, and though here these indurated +bodies are not veined with quartz as in +many places of the mountains, I did not hesitate +to consider them as the same species, +that is to say, the marly materials indurated +and consolidated in those operations by which +they had been so much changed in their place +and natural position. Afterwards in travelling +south, and seeing the horizontal softer +strata, I concluded that I had got out of the +alpine country, and supposed that no more of +the vertical strata were to be observed.</p> + +<p>The river Tiviot has made a wide valley as +might have been expected, in running over +those horizontal strata of marly or decaying +substances; and the banks of this river declining +gradually are covered with gravel and +soil, and show little of the solid strata of the +country. This, however, is not the case with +the Jed, which is to the southward of the Tiviot; +that river, in many places, runs upon +the horizontal strata, and undermines steep +banks, which falling shows high and beautiful +sections of the regular horizontal strata. The +little rivulets also which fall into the Jed have +hollowed out deep gullies in the land, and +show the uniformity of the horizontal strata.</p> + +<p>In this manner I was disposed to look for +nothing more than what I had seen among +those mineral bodies, when one day, walking +in the beautiful valley above the town of Jedburgh, +I was surprised with the appearance of +vertical strata in the bed of the river, where I +was certain that the banks were composed of +horizontal strata. I was soon satisfied with +regard to this phenomenon, and rejoiced at +my good fortune in stumbling upon an object +so interesting to the natural history of the +earth, and which I had been long looking for +in vain.</p> + +<p>Here the vertical strata, similar to those that +are in the bed of the Tweed, appear; and +above those vertical strata, are placed the horizontal +beds, which extend along the whole +country.</p> + +<p>The question which we would wish to have +solved is this; if the vertical strata had been +broken and erected under the superincumbent +horizontal strata; or if, after the vertical strata +had been broken and erected, the horizontal +strata had been deposited upon the vertical +strata, then forming the bottom of the sea. +That strata, which are regular and horizontal +in one place, should be found bended, +broken, or disordered at another, is not uncommon; +it is always found more or less in +all our horizontal strata. Now, to what +length this disordering operation might have +been carried, among strata under others, without +disturbing the order and continuity of +those above, may perhaps be difficult to determine; +but here, in this present case, is the +greatest disturbance of the under strata, and +a very great regularity among those above. +Here at least is the most difficult case of this +kind to conceive, if we are to suppose that the +upper strata had been deposited before those +below had been broken and erected.</p> + +<p>Let us now suppose that the under strata +had been disordered at the bottom of the sea, +before the superincumbent bodies were deposited; +it is not to be well conceived, that +the vertical strata should in that case appear to +be cut off abruptly, and present their regular +edges immediately under the uniformly deposited +substances above. But, in the case +now under consideration, there appears the +most uniform section of the vertical strata, +their ends go up regularly to the horizontal +deposited bodies. Now, in whatever state the +vertical strata had been in at the time of this +event, we can hardly suppose that they could +have been so perfectly cut off, without any +relict being left to trace that operation. It is +much more probable to suppose, that the sea +had washed away the relics of the broken and +disordered strata, before those that are now +superincumbent had been begun to be deposited. +But we cannot suppose two such +contrary operations in the same place, as that +of carrying away the relics of those broken +strata, and the depositing of sand and subtile +earth in such a regular order. We are therefore +led to conclude, that the bottom of the +sea, or surface of those erected strata, had been +in very different situations at those two periods, +when the relics of the disordered strata +had been carried away, and when the new +materials had been deposited.</p> + +<p>If this shall be admitted as a just view of +the subject, it will be fair to suppose, that the +disordered strata had been raised more or less +above the surface of the ocean; that, by the +effects of either rivers, winds, or tides, the +surface of the vertical strata had been washed +bare; and that this surface had been afterwards +sunk below the influence of those destructive +operations, and thus placed in a situation +proper for the opposite effect, the accumulation +of matter prepared and put in motion +by the destroying causes.</p> + +<p>I will not pretend to say that this has all +the evidence that should be required, in order +to constitute a physical truth, or principle from +whence we were to reason farther in our +theory; but, as a simple fact, there is more +probability for the thing having happened in +that manner than in any other; and perhaps +this is all that may be attained, though not all +that were to be wished on the occasion. Let +us now see how far any confirmation may be +obtained from the examination of all the +attending circumstances in those operations.</p> + +<p>I have already mentioned, that I had long +observed great masses of <i>debris</i>, or an extremely +coarse species of pudding-stone, situated on +the south as well as north sides of those schistus +mountains, where the alpine strata terminate +in our view, and where I had been looking +for the connection of those with the softer +strata of the low country. It has surely been +such appearances as these which have often +led naturalists to see the formation of secondary +and tertiary strata formed by the simple +congestion of <i>debris</i> from the mountains, and +to suppose those masses consolidated by the +operation of that very element by which they +had been torn off from one place and deposited +in another. I never before had data from +whence to reason with regard to the natural +history of those masses of gravel and sand +which always appeared to me in an irregular +shape, and not attended with such circumstances +as might give light into their natural +history; but now I have found what I think +sufficient to explain those obscure appearances, +and which at the same time will in some respect +illustrate or confirm the conjecture which +has now been formed with regard to the operations +of the globe in those regions.</p> + +<p>In describing the vertical and horizontal +strata of the Jed, no mention has been made +of a certain pudding-stone, which is interposed +between the two, lying immediately upon +the one and under the other. This puddingstone. +corresponds entirely to that which I +had found along the skirt of the schistus +mountains upon the south side, in different +places, almost from one end to the other. It +is a confused mass of stones, gravel, and sand, +with red marly earth; these are consolidated +or cemented in a considerable degree, and thus +form a stratum extremely unlike any thing +which is to be found either above or below.</p> + +<p>When we examine the stones and gravel +of which it is composed, these appear to have +belonged to the vertical strata or schistus +mountains. They are in general the hard +and solid parts of those indurated strata, worn +and rounded by attrition; particularly sand +or marl-stone consolidated and veined with +quartz, and many fragments of quartz, all +rounded by attrition. In this pudding-stone +of the Jed, I find also rounded lumps of porphyry, +but have not perceived any of granite.<a id="footnotetag32" name="footnotetag32"></a><a href="#footnote32"><sup>32</sup></a> +This however is not the case in the pudding-stone +of the schistus mountains, for, where +there is granite in the neighbourhood, there +is also granite in the pudding-stone.</p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote32" name="footnote32"></a> +<b>Footnote 32:</b><a href="#footnotetag32"> (return) </a> +A view of this object is seen in <a href="#p3">plate 3d.</a> +It is from a drawing taken by Mr Clerk of Eldin.</blockquote> + +<p>From this it will appear, that the schistus +mountains or the vertical strata of indurated +bodies had been formed, and had been wasted +and worn in the natural operations of the +globe, before the horizontal strata were begun +to be deposited in those places; the gravel +formed of those indurated broken bodies worn +round by attrition evince that fact. But it +also appears that the mineral operations of the +globe, melting and consolidating bodies, had +been exerted upon those deposited strata above +the vertical bodies.</p> + +<p>This appears evidently from the examination +of our pudding-stone. The vertical strata +under it are much broken and injected +with ferruginous spar; and this same spar has +greatly penetrated the pudding-stone above, +in which are found the various mineral appearances +of that spar and iron ore.</p> + +<p>But those injecting operations reach no farther +up among the marl strata in this place; +and then would appear to have been confined +to the pudding-stone. But in another place, +about half a mile farther up the river, where +a very deep section of the strata is discovered, +there are two injections from below; the one +is a thin vein of whin-stone or basaltes, full of +round particles of steatites impregnated with +copper; it is but a few inches wide, and proceeds +in a kind of zigzag. The other appears +to have been calcareous spar, but the +greatest part of it is now dissolved out. The +strata here descend to the bottom of the river, +which is above the place of the pudding-stone +and vertical strata. Neither are these last discoverable +below the town of Jedburgh, at +least so far as I have seen; and the line of +division, or plane of junction of the vertical +and horizontal strata, appears to decline more +than the bed of the river.</p> + +<p>But it may be asked, how the horizontal +strata above, among which are many very +strong beds, have been consolidated. The +answer to this question is plain. Those strata +have been indurated or consolidated in no +other manner than the general strata of the +earth; these being actually the common strata +of the globe; while the vertical or schistus +strata are the ordinary strata still farther manufactured, +(if we may be allowed the expression) +in the vicissitude of things, and by +the mineral operations of the globe. That +those operations have been performed by subterraneous +heat has been already proved; but +I would now mention some particular appearances +which are common or general to those +strata, and which can only be explained upon +that principle.</p> + +<p>The red marly earth is prevalent among +those strata; and it is with this red ferruginous +substance that many of the sand-stone +strata are tinged. It is plain that there had +been an uniform, deposits of that sand and +tinging earth; and that, however different +matter might be successively deposited, yet +that each individual stratum should be nearly of +the same colour or appearance, so far as it had +been formed uniformly of the same subsiding +matter. But, in the most uniform strata of +red sand-stone, the fracture of the stone presents +us with circular spots of a white or bluish +colour; those little spheres are in all respects +the same with the rest of the stone, +they only want the tinging matter; and now +it may be inquired how this has come about.</p> + +<p>To say that sphericles of white sand should +have been formed by subsiding along with the +red sand and earth which composed the uniform +stratum whether of sand-stone or marl, +(for it happens equally in both,) is plainly +impossible, according to our notion of that +operation in which there is nothing mysterious. +Those foliated strata, which are of the +most uniform nature, must have been gradually +accumulated from the subsiding sand and +earth; and the white or colourless places must +have had their colour destroyed in the subsequent +cementing operations. It is often +apparent, that the discharging operation had +proceeded from a centre, as some small matter +may be perceived in that place. I know not +what species of substance this has been, +whether saline or phlogistic, but it must have +had the power of either volatilising or changing +the ferruginous or red tinging substance +so as to make it lose its colour.</p> + +<p>I have only mentioned spherical spots for +distinctness sake; but this discharging operation +is found diversifying those strata in various +ways, but always referable to the same or +similar causes. Thus, in many of the veins or +natural cracks of those strata, we find the colour +discharged for a certain space within the strata; +and we often see several of those spots +united, each of them having proceeded from +its own centre, and uniting where they approached. +In the two veins above mentioned, +of whin-stone and spar traversing the strata, +the colour of the strata is, discharged more or +less in the places contiguous with the veins.</p> + +<p>I am now to mention another appearance +of a different kind. Those strata of marl are +in general not much consolidated; but among, +them there are sometimes found thin calcareous +strata extremely consolidated, consequently +much divided by veins. It is in the solid +parts of those strata, perfectly disconnected +from the veins, that there are frequent cavities +curiously lined with crystals of different sorts, +generally calcareous, sometimes containing also +those that are siliceous, and often accompanied +with pyrites. I am persuaded that the +origin of those cavities may have been some +hollow shells, such as <i>echini</i> or some marine +object; but that calcareous body has been so +changed, that it is not now distinguishable; +therefore, at present, I hold this opinion only +as conjecture.</p> + +<p>Having, in my return to Edinburgh, travelled +up the Tiviot, with a view to investigate +this subject of primary and secondary +operations of the earth, I found the vertical +strata, or alpine schistus, in the bed of the +river about two miles below Hawick. This +was the third time I had seen those vertical +bodies after leaving the mountains of Lauderdale. +The first place was the bed of the river +Tweed, at the new bridge below Melrose; but +here no other covering is to be seen above +those vertical strata besides the soil or travelled +earth which conceals every thing except the +rock in the bed of the river. The second +place was Jedburgh, where I found the vertical +strata covered with the horizontal sandstone +and marl, as has been now described. +The third place was the Tiviot, and this is +that which now remains to be considered.</p> + +<p>Seeing the vertical strata in the bed of the +river, I was desirous to know if those were +immediately covered with the horizontal strata. +This could not be discovered in the bed +of the river where the rock was covered upon +the banks with travelled earth. I therefore +left the river, and followed the course of a +brook which comes from the south side. I +had not gone far up the bank, or former boundary +of the Tiviot, when I had the satisfaction +to find the vertical strata covered with the +pudding-stone and marly beds as in the valley +of the Jed.</p> + +<p>It will now be reasonable to suppose that all +the schistus which we perceive, whether in the +mountains or in the valleys, exposed to our +view had been once covered with those horizontal +strata which are observed in Berwickshire +and Tiviotdale; and that, below all those +horizontal strata in the level country, there is +at present a body or basis of vertical or inclined +schistus, on which the horizontal strata of a +secondary order had been deposited. This is +the conclusion that I had formed at Jedburgh, +before I had seen the confirmation of it in the +Tiviot; it is the only one that can be formed +according to this view of things; and it must +remain in the present state until more evidence +be found by which the probability may be +either increased or diminished.</p> + +<p>Since writing this, I have read, in the Esprit +de Journaux, an abstract of a memoir of +M. Voigt, upon the same subject, which I +shall now transcribe.</p> + +<p>"La mer a commencé par miner les +montagnes primitives dont les débris se +sont précipités au fond. Ces débris forment +la premiere couche qui est posée immédiatement +sur les montagnes primitives. +D'après l'ancien langage de mineurs, +nous avons jusqu'aujourd'hui appellé cette +couche <i>le sol mort rouge</i>, parce qu'il y a +beaucoup de rouge dans son mélange, +qu'elle forme le sol ou la base d'autres +couches, et peut-être de toutes, qu'elle est +entierement inutile et, en quelque facon, +morte pour l'exploitation des mines. Plusieurs +se sont efforcés de lui donner un nom +harmonieux; mais ils ne l'ont pu sans occasionner +des équivoques. Les mots <i>Brèche +Puddinstone Conglomérations</i>, &<i>c</i>. désignent +toujours des substances autres que cette +espèce de pierre.</p> + +<p>"Il est très agréable de l'examiner dans les +endroits où elle forme des montagnes entières. +Cette couche est composée d'une +quantité prodigieuse de pierres arrondies, agglutinées +ensemble par une substance argileuse +rouge et même grise, et le toute a acquis +assez de dureté. On ne trouve dans sa composition +aucune espèce de pierre qui, à en +juger par les meilleures observations, puisse +avoir été formée plus tard qu'elle; on n'y +voit par-tout que des parties et des produit +des montagnes primitives principalement de +celles qui abondent le plus dans ces contrées. +Le sol mort, par exemple, qui compose les +montagnes des environs de Walbourg, près +d'Eisenach, contient une quantité de gros +morceaux de granit et de schiste micacé; +c'est vraisemblablement parce que les montagnes +primitives les plus voisines de Rhula, +etc. sont, pour la plus part, formées +de ces deux espèces de pierres. Près de +Goldlauter, le sol mort consiste presque +tout en porphyre, substance dont sont formées +les montagnes primitives qui y dominent; +et le Kiffauserberg dans la Thuringe +a probablement reçu ces morceaux arrondis +de schiste argileux des montagnes voisine +du Hartz. Vous trouverez ici que le schiste +argileux existoit déjà lorsque la mer a jetté +les premiers fondemens de nos montagnes +stratifiées. Je serois fort étonné que quelqu'un +me montrât un sol mort qui contînt +un morceaux de gypse, de marne, de pierre +puante et autres. Quoiqu'il en soit il n'est +pas aisé d'expliquer pourquoi on ne trouve +point de corps marins pétrifiés dans cette +espèce de pierre. C'est peut-être que, par +l'immense quantité de pierres dures roulées +dans le fond de la mer, ils ont été brisés +avant qu'ils aient commencé de s'agglutiner +ensemble. Mais on rencontre sur-tout au +Kiffhauserberg des troncs d'arbres entiers +pétrifiés; preuve qu'il y avoit déjà ou de +la végétation avant que l'océan destructeur +se fût emparé de ces cantons, ou du moins +que quelques isles avoient existé au-dessus de +la surface."</p> + +<p>Here we find the same observations in the +mountains of Germany that I have been making +with regard to those of Scotland. I have +formerly observed masses of the same kind in +the west of England, to the east of the Severn; +but I could not discover any proper +connection of that mass with the regular strata. +I have also long observed it in many parts +of Scotland, without being able to attain a sufficiently +satisfactory idea with regard to those +particulars by which the alternation of land +and water, of the superficial and internal mineral +operations of the globe, might be investigated.</p> + +<p>It will be very remarkable if similar appearances +are always found upon the junction of +the alpine with the level countries. Such an +appearance, I am inclined to think, may be +found in the Val d'Aoste, near Yvrée. M. +de Saussure describes such a stone as having +been employed in building the triumphal arch +erected in honour of Augustus. "Cet arc +qui étoit anciennement revêtu de marbre, +est construit de grands quartiers d'une espèce +assez singulière de poudingue ou de grès à +gros grains. C'est une assemblage de fragmens, +presque touts angulaires, de toutes +sortes de roches primitives feuilletées, quartzeuses, +micacées; les plus gros de ces fragmens +n'atteignent pas le volume, d'une noisette. +La plupart des édifices antiques de +la cité l'Aoste et de ses environs, sont construits +de cette matière; et les gens du pays +sont persuadés que c'est une composition; +mais j'en ai trouvé des rochers en place dans +les montagnes au nord et au-dessus de la +route d'Yvrée."</p> + +<p>We may now come to this general conclusion, +that, in this example of horizontal and +posterior strata placed upon the vertical <i>schisti</i> +which are prior in relation to the former, we +obtain a further view into the natural history +of this earth, more than what appears in the +simple succession of one stratum above another. +We know, in general, that all the solid +parts of this earth, which come to our view, +have either been formed originally by subsidence +at the bottom of the sea, or been transfused +in a melted state from the mineral regions +among those solid bodies; but here we +further learn, that the indurated and erected +strata, after being broken and washed by the +moving waters, had again been sunk below +the sea, and had served as a bottom or basis +on which to form a new structure of strata; +and also, that those new or posterior strata had +been indurated or cemented by the consolidating +operations of the mineral region, and elevated +from the bottom of the sea into the place +of land, or considerably above the general surface +of the waters. It is thus that we may +investigate particular operations in the general +progress of nature, which has for object to +renovate the surface of the earth necessarily +wasted in the operation of a world sustaining +plants and animals.</p> + +<p>It is necessary to compare together every +thing of this kind which occurs; it is first necessary +to ascertain the fact of their being a +prior and posterior formation of strata, with +the mineral operations for consolidating those +bodies formed by collection of the moveable +materials; and, secondly, it is interesting to +acquire all the data we can in order to form +a distinct judgment of that progress of nature +in which the solid body of our land is alternately +removed from the bottom of the sea +into the atmosphere, and sunk again at the +bottom of the sea.</p> + +<p>I shall now transcribe what M. Schreiber +has wrote in relation to this subject. It is in +a memoir concerning the gold mine of Gardette, +published in the Journal de Physique.</p> + +<p>"Avant de quitter la montagne de la Gardette +qu'il me soit permis de rapporter une +observation qui peut-être n'est pas dénuée +de tout intérêt pour les naturalistes; je l'ai +faite dans une galerie à environ cinquante-trois +toises à l'ouest du principal puit laquelle +a été poussée sur la ligne de réunion +de la pierre calcaire, et du granit feuilleté +ou gneiss pour fonder le filon dans cet +endroit. Ce filon a six pouces d'épaisseur, +et consiste en quartz entre-mêlé d'ochre +martiale, de pyrite cuivreuse et galène. +Cette dernière est souvent recouverte de +chaux de plomb grise, et de petits cristaux +de mine de plomb jaune donnant dans l'analyse +un indice d'or. Ce filon finit à la +réunion de la pierre calcaire au gneiss. +Cette réunion se fait ici dans la direction +d'une heure 6/8 de la boussole de raineur, et +sous un inclinaison, occidentale de 26 degrés.</p> + +<p>"Mais ce qu'il y a de remarquable, c'est +que le gneis ne participe en rien de la +pierre calcaire quoiqu'il n'en soit séparé +que par une couche d'une pouce d'épaisseur +de terre argileuse et calcaire, tandis +que le rocher calcaire renferme beaucoup +de fragmens de granit et de gneis, dans le +voisinage de cette réunion.</p> + +<p>"Cette observation prouve incontestablement +que le granit et le gneis avoient déjà +acquis une dureté capable de résister aux +infiltration des parties calcaire, et qu'ils existoient +à-peu-près tels qu'ils sont aujourd'hui +lorsque la pierre calcaire commença à +se former; autrement elle n'auroit pu saisir +et envelopper des morceaux détachés de +ces rochers auxquels on donne avec raison +l'épithète de primitif ou de première formation."</p> + +<p>M. Schreiber continues his reasoning upon +those mineral appearances, in adducing another +argument, which I do not think equally +conclusive. He says, "Le filon de la +Gardette devoit pareillement exister avant +la montagne calcaire, car s'il s'étoit formé +apres, je ne voit pas la raison pour laquelle +il s'y seroit arrêté court, et pourquoi il ne +se seroit pas prolongé dans cette espèce de +rocher." It is not necessary, in the formation +of a vein, that it should proceed in traversing +all the strata which then are superincumbent; +it is reasonable to suppose, and consistent +with observation to find them stop short +in proceeding from one stratum to another. +Had M. Schreiber found any pieces of the +vein contained in the calcareous rock, he +would have had good reason for that assertion; +but, to conclude that fact from grounds +which do not necessarily imply it, is not to +be permitted in sound reasoning, if certainty +is the object, and not mere probability.</p> + + + +<p>SECT. II.—<i>The Theory confirmed from Observations +made on purpose to elucidate the subject</i>.</p> + + +<p>Having got a distinct view of the primary +and secondary mineral bodies or strata of the +globe, and having thus acquired a particular +object to inquire after, with a view to investigate +or illustrate this piece of natural history, +I was considering where we might most probably +succeed in finding the junction of the +low country strata and alpine schistus. I inquired +of Mr Hall of Whitehall, who had +frequent opportunities of traversing those +mountains which lie between his house in +the Merse and Edinburgh; and I particularly +entreated him to examine the bed of the +Whittater, which he executed to my satisfaction.</p> + +<p>Mr Hall having had occasion to examine +the Pease and Tour burns, in planning and +superintending the great improvement of the +post road upon Sir James Hall's estate while +Sir James was abroad, he informed me that +the junction of the schistus and sand-stone +strata was to be found in the Tour burn. +Professor Playfair and I had been intending a +visit to Sir James Hall at Dunglass; and this +was a motive, not so much to hasten our visit, +as to chose the most proper time for a mineral +expedition both upon the hills and along the +sea shore.</p> + +<p>It was late in the spring 1788 when Sir +James left town, and Mr Playfair and I went +to Dunglass about the beginning of June. +We had exceeding favourable weather during +the most part of our expedition; and I now +propose to give an account of the result of +our observations.</p> + +<p>Dunglass burn is the boundary between the +counties of East Lothian and Berwickshire; +and it is almost the boundary between the +vertical and horizontal strata. To the north-west +of this burn and beautiful dean are situated +the coal, lime-stone, marl, and sand-stone +strata; they are found stretching away along +the shore in a very horizontal direction for +some time, but become more and more inclined +as they approach the schistus of which +the hills of Lammermuir to the south are +composed.</p> + +<p>Though the boundary between the two +things here in question be easily perceivable +from the nature of the country at the first inspection, +by the rising of the hills, yet this +does not lead one precisely to the junction; +and in the extensive common boundary of +those two things, the junction itself is only to +be perceived in few places, where the rock is +washed bare by the rivers or the sea, and where +this junction is exposed naked to our view. +The sea is here wearing away the coast; and +the bank, about 200 feet high, is gradually +falling down, making in some places a steep +declivity, in others a perpendicular cliff. St +Abb's Head and Fast Castle are head lands +projecting into the sea, and are the bulwarks +of this shore, which is embayed to the westward, +where the sea preys upon the horizontal +strata. The solid strata are every where exposed +either in the cliff or on the shore; we +were therefore certain of meeting with the +junction in going from Dunglass to Fast Castle, +which is upon the schistus. But this journey +can only be made by sea; and we first +set out to examine the junction in the Tour +and Pease burns, where we had been informed +it was to be found.</p> + +<p>In the bottom of those rivulets the sand-stone +and marly strata appear pretty much inclined, +rising towards the schistus country. The +two burns unite before they come to the shore; +and it is about midway between this junction +and the bridges which are thrown over those +two hollows, that the junction is to be found.</p> + +<p>The schistus strata here approach towards +vertical; and the sand-stone strata are greatly +inclined. But this inclination of those two +different strata are in opposite directions; +neither does the horizontal section of those +two different strata run parallel to the junction; +that is to say, the intersection of those +two different strata is a line inclined to the +horizon.</p> + +<p>At Jedburgh the schistus was vertical, and +the strata horizontal; and there was interposed +a compound bed of pudding-stone, formed +of various water-worn bodies, the gravel +of the schistus strata, and porphyries. Here +again, though we have not a regular pudding-stone, +we have that which corresponds to it, +as having been the effect of similar circumstances. +These are the fracture and detritus +of the schistus, while the strata were deposited +upon the broken ends of the schistus at the +bottom of the sea. Most of the fragments of +the schistus have their angles sharp; consequently, +they had not travelled far, or been +much worn by attrition. But more or less +does not alter the nature of an operation; and +the pudding-stone, which at Jedburgh is interposed +between the vertical schistus and horizontal +strata, is here properly represented by +the included fragments of schistus in the inclined +strata.</p> + +<p>The line of this junction running, on the +one hand, towards Fast Castle eastward, and, +on the other, towards the head of Dunglass +burn westward, our business was to pursue +this object in those two different directions. +But it was chiefly in the sea coast that was +placed our expectations, having recollection +of the great banks of gravel under which the +strata are buried about Oldhamstocks, near +which, from all appearances, the junction was +to be expected.</p> + +<p>Having taken boat at Dunglass burn, we set +out to explore the coast; and, we observed the +horizontal sand-stone turn up near the Pease +burn, lifting towards the schistus. We found +the junction of that schistus with the red sand-stone +and marly strata on the shore and sea +bank, at St. Helens, corresponding in general +with what we had observed in the burns to +the westward. But, at Siccar Point, we found +a beautiful picture of this junction washed +bare by the sea. The sand-stone strata are +partly washed away, and partly remaining +upon the ends of the vertical schistus; and, in +many places, points of the schistus strata are +seen standing up through among the sand-stone, +the greatest part of which is worn +away. Behind this again we have a natural +section of those sand-stone strata, containing +fragments of the schistus.</p> + +<p>After this nothing appears but the schistus +rocks, until sand-stone and marl again are +found at Red-heugh above the vertical strata. +From that bay to Fast Castle we had nothing +to observe but the schistus, which is continued +without interruption to St Abb's Head. Beyond +this, indeed, there appears to be something +above the schistus; and great blocks of +a red whin-stone or basaltes come down from +the height and lie upon the shore; but we +could not perceive distinctly how the upper +mass is connected with the vertical schistus +which is continued below.</p> + +<p>Our attention was now directed to what +we could observe with respect to the schisti, +of which we had most beautiful views and +most perfect sections. Here are two objects +to be held in view, in making those observations; +the original formation or stratification +of the schisti, and the posterior operations by +which the present state of things has been +procured. We had remarkable examples for +the illustration of both those subjects.</p> + +<p>With regard to the first, we have every +where among the rocks many surfaces of the +erected strata laid bare, in being separated. +Here we found the most distinct marks of +strata of sand modified by moving water. It +is no other than that which we every day +observe upon the sands of our own shore, +when the sea has ebbed and left them in a +waved figure, which cannot be mistaken. +Such figures as these are extremely common +in our sand-stone strata; but this is an object +which I never had distinctly observed in the +alpine schisti; although, considering that the +original of those schisti was strata of sand, and +formed in water, there was no reason to doubt +of such a thing being found. But here the +examples are so many and so distinct, that it +could not fail to give us great satisfaction.</p> + +<p>We were no less gratified in our views with +respect to the other object, the mineral operations +by which soft strata, regularly formed in +horizontal planes at the bottom of the sea, +had been hardened and displaced. Fig. 4. +represents one of those examples; it was +drawn by Sir James Hall from a perfect section +in the perpendicular cliff at Lumesden +burn. Here is not only a fine example of +the bendings of the strata, but also of a horizontal +shift or hitch of those erected strata.</p> + +<p>St Abb's Head is a promontory which, at +a distance, one would naturally conclude to +be composed of the schisti, as is all the shore +to that place; but, as we approached it, there +was some difference to be perceived in the +external appearance, it having a more rounded +and irregular aspect. Accordingly, upon our +arrival, we found this head-land composed of +a different substance. It is a great mass of +red whin-stone, of a very irregular structure +and composition. Some of it is full of small +pebbles of calcareous spar, surrounded with a +coat of a coloured substance, different both +from the whin-stone ground and the inclosed +pebble. Here ended our expedition by water.</p> + +<p>Having thus found the junction of the +sand-stone with the schistus or alpine strata to +run in a line directed from Fast Castle to Oldhamstocks, +or the heads of Dunglass burn, we +set out to trace this burn, not only with a +view to observe the junction, if it should there +appear, but particularly to discover the source +of many blocks of whin-stone, of all sizes, +with which the bed of this burn abounds.</p> + +<p>The sand-stone and coal strata, which are +nearly horizontal at the mouth of this burn, +or on the coast, become inclined as we go up +the course of the rivulet; and of this we have +fine sections in the bank. The Dean of Dunglass +is formed of precipitous and perpendicular +rocks, through which the running water +has worn its way more than a hundred feet +deep; above this Dean the banks are steep +and very high, but covered with soil, which +here is a deep gravel. The burn runs all the +way up to Oldhamstocks upon the sand-stone +strata; but there, these are traversed by a high +whin-stone dyke, which crosses the burn obliquely, +as we found it on both banks though +not in the bed of the burn; it is in the south +bank below the village, and on the north +above it. Here is the source of the whin-stone +which we were looking for; it is the +common blue basaltes, of the same nature +with the Giant's Causeway, but with no regular +columnar appearance.</p> + +<p>Above Oldhamstocks we again found the +sand-stone in the bank, but it soon disappeared +under a deep cover of gravel, and the burn +then divided into several rivulets which come +from the hills. We traced the one which led +most directly up to the mountains, in expectation +of meeting with the schistus, at least, if +not the junction of it with the sandstone. But +in this we were disappointed. We did not +however lose our labour; for, though the +junction which we pursued be not here visible, +we met with what made it sufficiently evident, +and was at the same time an object far +more interesting in our eyes.</p> + +<p>I have already quoted Mr Voigt's description +of the <i>sol mort rouge</i>; he says, that in +places it forms entire mountains; here we +have a perfect example of the same thing; +and the moment we saw it, we said, here is +the <i>sol mort rouge</i>. We ascended to the top +of the mountain through a gully of solid pudding-stone +going into decay, and furnishing +the country below with that great covering of +gravel, soil, and water worn stones. We were +now well acquainted with the pudding-stone, +which is interposed between the horizontal +and alpine strata; but from what we had seen +to the eastward, we never should have dreamed +of meeting with what we now perceived. +What we had hitherto seen of this pudding-stone +was but a few fragments of the schistus +in the lower beds of sand-stone; here a mountain +of water-worn schisti, imbedded in a red +earth and consolidated, presented itself to our +view. It was evident that the schisti mountains, +from whence those fragments had come, +had been prior to this secondary mass; but +here is a secondary mountain equal in height +to the primary, or schisti mountains, at the +basis of which we had seen the strata superinduced +on the shore. Still, however, every +thing here is formed upon the same principle, +and nothing here is altered except the scale on +which the operation had been performed.</p> + +<p>Upon the coast, we have but a specimen of +the pudding-stone; most of the fragments +had their angles entire; and few of them are +rounded by attrition. Here, on the contrary, +the mountain is one pudding-stone; and +most of the fragments are stones much rounded +by attrition. But the difference is only in +degree, and not in kind; the stones are the +same, and the nature of the composition similar. +Had we seen the mass of which this +mountain is only a relict, (having been degraded +by the hands of time), we should have +found this pudding-stone at the bottom of our +sand-stone strata; could we have penetrated +below this mass of pudding-stone, we should +have found our schistus which we left on the +shore at St. Helens and in the Tour burn. In +Tiviotdale the vertical schisti are covered with +a bed of pudding-stone, the gravel of which +had been much worn by attrition, but the +thickness of that bed is small; here again the +wearing operation has been great, and the +quantity of those materials even more than in +proportion to those operations. We returned +perfectly satisfied; and Sir James Hall is to +pursue this subject farther when he shall be in +those mountains shooting muir game.</p> + +<p>We had now only one object more to pursue; +this was to examine the south side of +those mountains of Lammermuir upon the sea +shore, in order to see the junction of the primary +schistus with the coal strata of Berwickshire. +Mr Hall was to meet us at the Press, +and we were afterwards to go with him to +Whitehall. We met accordingly; but the +weather was rainy; and we went directly to +Whitehall. I had often seen the pudding-stone +in great masse; in the banks of the +Whiteader, as it comes out of the mountains, +but then I had not seen its connection neither, +on the one hand, with the schisti, nor, on the +other, with the sand-stone strata. We knew +that at Lammerton upon the sea coast there +was coal, and consequently the sand-stone +strata; and reasoning upon those data we were +sure that our proper course of investigation +was to trace the river Ey to the shore, and +then go south the coast in search of the junction +of the schistus with the horizontal strata. +This we executed as well as the weather +would permit; but had it to regret, that the +rainy season was not so favourable for our +views, as it was agreeable to the country +which had been suffering with the drought.</p> + +<p>It is needless now to enlarge upon this subject. +I shall only mention that we found the +red marly strata above the pudding-stone in +the bed of the Ey and its branches; we then +traced the schistus down the Ey, and found +a mass of the most consolidated pudding-stone +upon the coast to the north of the harbour of +Eymouth. But this mass did not rest on the +schistus; it is immediately upon a mass of +whin-stone; and the schistus is in the harbour, +so that this whin-stone mass seems to be +here interposed between the pudding-stone +and schistus. We then pursued the coast +southwards until we found the junction of the +schistus and sand-stone strata about two miles +from Eymouth; but here the junction was +not attended with any pudding-stone that we +could perceive.</p> + +<p>Having found the same or similar appearances +from the one end to the other, and on +both sides of that range of mountains which +run from sea to sea in the south of Scotland, +we may now extend our view of this mineral +operation in comprehending every thing of +the same kind which we meet with in our +island or any other distant country.</p> + +<p>Thus perhaps the pudding-stone of the +south of England will be considered in the +same light as having been formed of the <i>débris</i> +and <i>détritus</i> of the flinty bodies.</p> + +<p>In the island of Arran, there is also a pudding-stone, +even in some of the summits of +the island, exactly upon the border of the +schistus district, as will be described in the natural +history of that island. This pudding-stone +is composed of gravel formed of the +hardest parts of the schistus and granite or +porphyry mountains. That compound parasitical +stone has been also again cemented by +heat and fusion; I have a specimen in which +there is a clear demonstration of that fact. +One of the water-worn stones which had been +rounded by attrition, has in this pudding-stone +been broken and shifted, the one half slipping +over the other, three quarters of an inch, besides +other smaller slips in the same stone. +But the two pieces are again cemented; or +they had been shifted when the stone was in +that soft state, by which the two pieces are +made perfectly to cohere. Those shifts and +veins, in this species of stone, are extremely +instructive, illustrating the mineral operations +of the globe.</p> + +<p>In like manner to the north of the Grampians, +along the south side of Loch Ness, +there are mountains formed of the debris of +schistus and granite mountains, first manufactured +into sand and gravel, and then consolidated +into a pudding-stone, which is always +formed upon the same principle. The same +is also found upon the south side of those +mountains in the shire of Angus.</p> + +<p>I may also give for example the African +<i>Brechia</i>, which is a pudding-stone of the same +nature. This stone is composed of granites +or porphyries, serpentines and schisti, extremely +indurated and perfectly consolidated. +It is also demonstrable from the appearance +in this stone that it has been in a softened +state, from the shape and application of its +constituent parts; and in a specimen of it +which I have in my cabinet, there is also a +demonstration of calcareous spar flowing +among the gravel of the consolidated rock.</p> + +<p>This fact therefore of pudding-stone mountains, +is a general fact, so far as it is founded +upon observations that are made in Africa, +Germany, and Britain. We may now reason +upon this general fact, in order to see +how far it countenances the idea of primitive +mountains, on the one hand, or on the other +supports the present theory, which admits of +nothing primitive in the visible or examinable +parts of the earth.</p> + +<p>To a person who examines accurately the +composition of our mountains, which occupy +the south of Scotland, no argument needs be +used to persuade him that the bodies in +question are not primitive; the thing is evident +from inspection, as much as would be +the ruins of an ancient city, although there +were no record of its history. The visible +materials, which compose for the most part the +strata of our south alpine schisti, are so distinctly +the <i>debris</i> and <i>detritus</i> of a former +earth, and so similar in their nature with those +which for the most part compose the strata on +all hands acknowledged as secondary, that +there can remain no question upon that head. +The consolidation, again, of those strata, and +the erection of them from their original position, +and from the place in which they had +been formed, is another question.</p> + +<p>But the acknowledging strata, which had +been formed in the sea of loose materials, to +be consolidated and raised into the place of +land, is plainly giving up the idea of primitive +mountains. The only question, therefore, +which remains to be solved, must respect the +order of things, in comparing the alpine schisti +with the secondary strata; and this indeed +forms a curious subject of investigation.</p> + +<p>It is plain that the schisti had been indurated, +elevated, broken, and worn by attrition in +water, before the secondary strata, which form +the most fertile parts of our earth, had existed. +It is also certain that the tops of our schistus +mountains had been in the bottom of the sea +at the time when our secondary strata had begun +to be formed; for the pudding-stone on +the top of our Lammermuir mountains, as +well as the secondary strata upon the vertical +schisti of the Alps and German mountains, +affords the most irrefragable evidence of that +fact.</p> + +<p>It is further to be affirmed, that this whole +mass of water-formed materials, as well as the +basis on which it rested, had been subjected +to the mineral operations of the globe, operations +by which the loose and incoherent materials +are consolidated, and that which was +the bottom of the sea made to occupy the station +of land, and serve the purpose for which +it is destined in the world. This also will appear +evident, when it is considered that it has +been from the appearances in this very land, +independent of those of the alpine schisti, that +the present theory has been established.</p> + +<p>By thus admitting a primary and secondary +in the formation of our land, the present +theory will be confirmed in all its parts. +For, nothing but those vicissitudes, in which +the old is worn and destroyed, and new land +formed to supply its place, can explain that order +which is to be perceived in all the works +of nature; or give us any satisfactory idea +with regard to that apparent disorder and +confusion, which would disgrace an agent +possessed of wisdom and working with design.</p> + + +<br> +<h3>CHAP. VII.</h3> + +<p><i>Opinions examined with regard to Petrifaction, +or Mineral Concretion.</i></p> + + +<p>The ideas of naturalists with regard to +petrifaction are so vague and indistinct, +that no proper answer can be given to them. +They in general suppose water to be the solvent +of bodies, and the vehicle of petrifying +substances; but they neither say whether water +be an universal menstruum, nor do they +show in what manner a solid body has been +formed in the bowels of the earth, from +that solution. It may now be proper to examine +this subject, not with a view to explain +all those petrifactions of bodies which is performed +in the mineral regions of the earth, +those regions that are inaccessible to man, but +to show that what has been wrote by naturalists, +upon this subject, has only a tendency +to corrupt science, by admitting the grossest +supposition in place of just principle or truth, +and to darken natural history by introducing +an ill conceived theory in place of matter of fact.</p> + +<p>M. le Comte de Buffon has attempted to +explain the crystallization of bodies, or production +of mineral forms, by the accretion or +juxtaposition of elementary bodies, which +have only form in two dimensions, length and +breadth; that is to say, that mineral concretions +are composed of surfaces alone, and not +of bodies. This however is only an attempt +to explain, what we do not understand, by a +proposition which is either evidently contradictory, +or plainly inconceivable. It is true +that this eloquent and ingenious author endeavours +to correct the palpable absurdity of +the proposition, by representing the constituent +parts of the mineral bodies as "<i>de lames +infiniment minces</i>;" but who is it does not +see, that these infinitely thin plates are no +other than bodies of three dimensions, contrary +to the supposition; for, infinitely thin, +means a certain thickness; but the smallest +possible or assignable thickness differs as much +from a perfect superficies as the greatest.</p> + +<p>M. de Luc has given us his ideas of petrifaction +with sufficient precision of term and +clearness of expression; his opinion, therefore, +deserves to be examined; and, as his +theory of petrifaction is equally applicable to +every species of substance, it is necessary again +to examine this subject, notwithstanding of +what has been already said, in the first part of +this work, concerning consolidation and mineral +concretion from the fluid state of fusion.</p> + +<p>This author has perhaps properly exposed +Woodward's Theory of Petrification in saying<a id="footnotetag33" name="footnotetag33"></a><a href="#footnote33"><sup>33</sup></a>, +"Son erreur à cet égard vient de ce +qu'il n'a point réfléchi sur la manière dont +se fait la <i>pétrifaction</i>. Il ramollit d'abord +les <i>pierres</i> pour y faire entrer les coquilles, +sans bien connoître l'agent qu'il y employe; +et il les duroit ensuite, sans réfléchir au +comment." To avoid this error or defect, +M. de Luc, in his Theory of Petrifaction, sets +out with the acknowledged principle of cohesion; +and, in order to consolidate strata of +a porous texture, he supposes water carrying +minute bodies of all shapes and sizes, and depositing +them in such close contact as to produce +solidity and concretion. Now, if Dr +Woodward softened stones without a proper +cause, M. de Luc, in employing the specious +principle of cohesion, has consolidated them +upon no better grounds; for, the application +of this principle is as foreign to his purpose, +as is that of magnetism. Bodies, it is true, +cohere when their surfaces are closely applied +to each other; But how apply this principle +to consolidation?—only by supposing all the +separate bodies, of which the solid is to be +composed, to be in perfect contact in all their +surfaces. But this, in other words, is supposing +the body to be solid; and, to suppose the +agent, water, capable of thus making hard +bodies solid, is no other than having recourse +to the fortuitous concourse of atoms to make +a world; a thought which this author would +surely hold in great contempt.</p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote33" name="footnote33"></a><b>Footnote 33:</b><a href="#footnotetag33"> (return) </a> Lettres Physiques et Morales.</blockquote> + +<p>He then illustrates this operation of nature +by those of art, in building walls which certainly +become hard, and which, as our author +seems to think, become solid. But this is only +an imperfect or erroneous representation of +this subject; for, mortar does not become +hard upon the principle of petrification adopted +by our author. Mortar, made of clay, instead +of lime, will not acquire a stony hardness, +nor ever, by means of water, will it be +more indurated than by simply drying; neither +will the most subtile powder of chalk, with +water and sand, form any solid body, or a +proper mortar. The induration of mortar +arises from the solution of a stony substance, +and the subsequent concretion of that dissolved +matter, operations purely chemical. Now, +if this philosopher, in his Theory of Petrifaction, +means only to explain a chemical operation +upon mechanical principles, why have +recourse, for an example in this subject, to +mineral bodies, the origin of which is questioned? +Why does he not rather explain, +upon this principle, the known concretion of +some body, from a fluid state, or, conversely, +the known solution of some concreted body? +If again he means to explain petrifaction in +the usual way, by a chemical operation, in that +case, the application of his polished surfaces, so +as to cohere, cannot take place until the dissolved +body be separated from the fluid, by means +of which it is transported from place to place +in the mineral regions. But it is in this preliminary +step that lies all the difficulty; for, +could we see how every different substance +might be dissolved, and every dissolved substance +separated from its solvent at our pleasure, +we should find no difficulty in admitting +the cohesion of hard bodies, whether by +means of this doctrine of polished surfaces, or +by the principle of general attraction, a principle +which surely comprehends this particular, +termed a cohesive power.</p> + +<p>It must not be alleged, that seeing we +know not how water dissolves saline bodies, +therefore, this fluid, for any thing that we +know, may also dissolve crystal; and, if water +thus dissolves a mineral substance in a manner +unknown to us, it may in like manner deposit +it, although we may not be able to imagine +how. This kind of reasoning is only +calculated to keep us in ignorance; at the +same time, the reasoning of philosophers, concerning +petrifaction, does not in general appear +to be founded on any principle that is +more sound. That water dissolves salt is +a fact. That water dissolves crystal is not +a fact; therefore, those two propositions, +with regard to the power of water, are infinitely +removed, and cannot be assimilated in +sound physical reasoning. It is no more a +truth that water is able to dissolve salt, than +that we never have been able to detect the +smallest disposition in water to dissolve crystal, +flint, quartz, or metals. Therefore, to allege +the possibility of water being capable of dissolving +those bodies in the mineral regions, +and of thus changing the substance of one +body into another, as naturalists have supposed, +contrary to their knowledge, or in order +to explain appearances, is so far from tending +to increase our science, that it is abandoning +the human intellect to be bewildered in an +error; it is the vain attempt of lulling to sleep +the scientific conscience, and making the soul +of man insensible to the natural distress of +conscious ignorance.</p> + +<p>But besides that negative argument concerning +the insolubility of crystal, by which +the erroneous suppositions of naturalists are to +be rejected, crystal in general is found regularly +concreted in the cavities of the most solid +rock, in the heart of the closest agate, and +in the midst of granite mountains. But these +masses of granite were formed by fusion; I +hope that I shall give the most satisfactory +proof of that truth: Consequently, here at +least there is no occasion for the action of water +in dissolving siliceous substances in one +place, in order to concrete and crystallise it in +another.</p> + +<p>In these cavities of the solid granite rock, +where crystal is found regularly shooting from +a basis which is the internal surface of the cavity, +we find the other constituent substances +of the granite also crystallised. I have those +small cavities, in this rock, from the island of +Arran, containing crystal, felt-spar, and mica, +all crystallised in the same cavity<a id="footnotetag34" name="footnotetag34"></a><a href="#footnote34"><sup>34</sup></a>. But this +is nothing to the <i>druzen</i> or crystalline concretions, +which are found in a similar manner +among metallic and mineral substances in the +veins and mines; there, every species of mineral +and metallic substance, with every variety +of mixture and composition, are found +both concreted and crystallised together in +every imaginable shape and situation.</p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote34" name="footnote34"></a><b>Footnote 34:</b><a href="#footnotetag34"> (return) </a> The Chevalier Dolomieu makes the following observation. +Journal de Physique, Juillet 1791. + +<p>"J'ai été étonné de trouver au centre d'un énorme +massif de granit, que l'on avoit ouvert avec la poudre +pour pratiquer un chemin, des morceaux, gros comme +le poing et au dessous, de spath calcaire blanc, très-effervescent, +en grandes écailles, ou lames entrecroisées. +Il n'occupoit point des cavités particulières, il n'y paroissoit +le produit d'une infiltration qui auroit rempli des +cavités, mais il étoit incorporé avec les feld-spath, le +mica, et le quartz, faissoit masse avec eux, et ne pouvoit +se rompre sans les entraîner avec lui."</p> + +<p>This great naturalist is convinced that the spar had not +been here introduced by infiltration, although that is the +very method which he employs to form concretions, not +only of spar but of crystal, zeolite, and pyrites, in the +closest cavities of the most solid rocks of basaltes. These +four substances in this stone were so mixed together that +nothing but the fusion of the whole mass could explain +the state in which they appeared; but, thinking that such +a supposition could not be allowed, this naturalist, like a +man of science when his data fail, leaves the matter without +any interpretation of his own. This however is what +he has not done in the case of basaltes, or that which he +mistakes for proper lavas, as I shall have occasion to show.</blockquote> + +<p>Here is an infinite operation, but an operation +which is easily performed by the natural +arrangement of substances acting freely in a +fluid state, and concreting together, each substance, +whether more simple or more compound, +directing itself by its internal principle +of attraction, and affecting mechanically those +that are concreting around it.</p> + +<p>We see the very same thing happen under +our eye, and precisely in the same manner. +When a fluid mass of any mineral or metallic +substance is made to congeal by sudden cooling +on the outside, while the mass within is +fluid, a cavity is thus sometimes formed by +the contraction of the contained fluid; and in +this cavity are found artificial <i>druzen</i>, as they +may be called, being crystallizations similar to +those which the mineral cavities exhibit in +such beauty and perfection.</p> + +<p>Petrification and consolidation, in some degree, +may doubtless be performed, in certain +circumstances, by means of the solution of +calcareous earth; but the examples given by +M. de Luc, of those bodies of lime-stone and +agate petrified in the middle of strata of loose +or sandy materials, are certainly inexplicable +upon any other principle except the fusion of +those substances with which the bodies are +petrified<a id="footnotetag35" name="footnotetag35"></a><a href="#footnote35"><sup>35</sup></a>.</p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote35" name="footnote35"></a><b>Footnote 35:</b><a href="#footnotetag35"> (return) </a> Vid. Lettre 28 et Lettre 103. Lettres Physiques +et Morales.</blockquote> + +<p>This subject deserves the strictest attention; +I propose it as a touchstone for every theory +of petrification or perfect consolidation. First, +There are found, among argillaceous strata, +insulated bodies of iron-stone, perfectly consolidated; +secondly, There are found, in strata +of chalk and lime-stone, masses of insulated +flints; thirdly, There are found, in strata of +sea sand, masses of that sand cemented by a +siliceous substance; fourthly, In the midst of +blocks of sand-stone, there are found masses +of loose or pure sand inclosed in crystallised +cavities; and in this sand are found insulated +masses of crystallised spar, including within +them the sand, but without having the sparry +or calcareous crystallization disturbed by it. +There are also other globular masses of the +same kind, where the sparry crystallization +is either not to be observed, or appears only +partially<a id="footnotetag36" name="footnotetag36"></a><a href="#footnote36"><sup>36</sup></a>: And now, lastly, In strata of shell-sand, +there are found masses of consolidated +lime-stone or marble. In all those cases, the +consolidated bodies are perfectly insulated in +the middle of strata, in which they must of +necessity have been petrified or consolidated; +the stratum around the bodies has not been +affected by the petrifying substance, as there +is not any vestige of it there; and here are +examples of different substances, all conspiring +to prove one uniform truth. Therefore, a +general theory of petrification or consolidation +of mineral bodies must explain this distinct +fact, and not suffer it any longer to remain a +<i>lusus naturae</i>.</p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote36" name="footnote36"></a><b>Footnote 36:</b><a href="#footnotetag36"> (return) </a> Mem. de l'Académie Royale des Sciences, an. 1775.</blockquote> + +<p>Let us now consider what it is that we +have to explain, upon the supposition of those +concretions being formed from a solution. +We have, first, To understand what sort of a +solution had been employed for the introducing +of those various substances; secondly, +How those concretions had been formed from +such solutions within those bodies of strata; +and, lastly, How such concretions could +have been formed, without any vestige appearing +of the same substance, or of the same +operation, in the surrounding part of the stratum. +Whatever may be the difficulty of explaining +those particular appearances by means +of fusion and mechanical force, it is plainly +impossible to conceive those bodies formed in +those places by infiltration, or any manner of +concretion from a state of solution.</p> + +<p>Naturalists, in explaining the formation of +stones, often use a chemical language which +either has no proper meaning, or which will +not apply to the subject of mineral operations. +We know the chemical process by which one +or two stony concretions may be formed +among bodies passing from one state to another. +When, therefore, a change from a +former state of things in mineral bodies is +judged by naturalists to have happened, the +present state is commonly explained, or the +change is supposed to have been made by +means of a similar process, without inquiring +if this had truly been the case or not. Thus +their knowledge of chemistry has led naturalists +to reason erroneously, in explaining +things upon false principles. It would be needless +to give an example of any one particular +author in this respect; for, so far as I have +seen, it appears to be almost general, every one +copying the language of another, and no one +understanding that language which has been +employed.</p> + +<p>These naturalists suppose every thing done +by means of solution in the mineral kingdom, +and yet they are ignorant of those solvents. +They conceive or they imagine concretions +and crystallizations to be formed of every different +substance, and in every place within +the solid body of the earth, without considering +how far the thing is possible which they +suppose. They are constantly talking of +operations which could only take place in the +cavities of the earth above the level of the sea, +and where the influence of the atmosphere +were felt; and yet this is the very place which +we have it in our power to examine, and +where, besides the stalactite, and one or two +more of the same kind, or formed on the same +principle, they have never been able to discover +one of the many which, according to their +theory, ought always to be in action or effect. +So far from knowing that general consolidating +operation, which they suppose to be exerted +in filling up the veins and cavities of the +earth by means of the infiltrating water of the +surface, they do not seem fully to understand +the only operation of this kind which they +see. The concretion of calcareous matter +upon the surface of the earth is perhaps the +only example upon which their theory is +founded; and yet nothing can be more against +it than the general history of this transaction.</p> + +<p>Calcareous matter, the great <i>vinculum</i> of +many mineral bodies, is in a perpetual state +of dissolution and decay, in every place where +the influences of air and water may pervade. +The general tendency of this is to dissolve +calcareous matter out of the earth, and deliver +that solution into the sea. Were it possible to +deny that truth, the very formation of stalactite, +that operation which has bewildered naturalists, +would prove it; for it is upon the +general solubility of calcareous matter exposed +to water that those cavities are formed, in +which may be found such collections of stalactical +concretion; and the general tendency +of those operations is to waste the calcareous +bodies through which water percolates. But +how is the general petrifaction or consolidation +of strata, below the surface of the sea, to +be explained by the general dissolution of that +consolidating substance in the earth above that +level? Instead of finding a general petrifying +or consolidating operation in the part of the +earth which we are able to examine, we find +the contrary operation, so far at least as relates +to calcareous spar, and many other mineral +bodies which are decomposed and dissolved +upon the surface of the earth.</p> + +<p>Thus in the surface of the earth, above the +level of the sea, no petrifying operation of a +durable nature is found; and, were such an +operation there found, it could not be general, +as affecting every kind of substance. But, +even suppose that such a general operation +were found to take place in the earth above +the level of the sea, where there might be a +circulation of air and percolation of water, +How could the strata of the earth below the +level of the sea be petrified? This is a question +that does not seem to have entered into +the heads of our naturalists who attempt to +explain petrifaction or mineral concretion +from aqueous solutions. But the consolidation +of loose and incoherent things, gathered +together at the bottom of the sea, and afterwards +raised into rocks of various sorts, forms +by far the greatest example of petrification or +mineral operation of this globe. It is this +that must be explained in a mineral theory; +and it is this great process of petrifaction to +which the doctrine of infiltration, whether for +the mechanical purpose of applying cohesive +surfaces, or the chemical one of forming crystallizations +and concretions, will not by any +means apply.</p> + +<p>Nothing shows more how little true science +has been employed for the explanation of phenomena, +than the language of modern naturalists, +who attribute, to stalactical and stalagmical +operations, every superficial or distant resemblance +to those calcareous bodies, the origin +of which we know so well. It is not a mere +resemblance that should homologate different +things; there should be a specific character in +every thing that is to be generalised. It will +be our business to show that, in the false +stalactites, there is not the distinctive character +of those water formed bodies to be found.</p> + +<p>In the formation of stalactical concretions, +besides the incrustation as well as crystallization +of the stony substance from the aqueous +vehicle by which it had been carried in the +dissolved state, we have the other necessary +accompanyments of the operation, or collateral +circumstances of the case. Such, for example, +is that tubular construction of the stalactite, +first formed by the concretion of the +calcareous substance upon the outside of the +pendant gut of water exposed to the evaporation +of the atmosphere; we then see the gradual +filling up of that pervious tube through +which the petrifying water had passed for a +certain time; and, lastly, we see the continual +accretion which this conducting body had received +from the water running successively +over every part of it. But among the infinite +number of siliceous concretions and crystallizations, +as well as those of an almost indefinite +variety of other substances, all of which are +attributed to solution, there is not the least +vestige of any collateral operation, by which +the nature of that concretion might be ascertained +in the same manner. In all those cases, +we see nothing but the concreted substances +or their crystallizations; but, no mark of any +solvent or incrusting process is to be perceived. +On the contrary, almost all, or the greatest part +of them, are so situated, and attended with +such circumstances, as demonstrate the physical +impossibility of that being the manner in +which they had been concreted; for, they are +situated within close cavities, through which +nothing can pervade but heat, electricity, magnetism, +etc.; and they fill those cavities more +or less, from the thinnest incrustation of crystals +to the full content of those cavities with +various substances, all regularly concreted or +crystallised according to an order which cannot +apply to the concretion of any manner of +solution.</p> + +<p>That there is, in the mineral system, an +operation of water which may with great +propriety be termed <i>infiltration</i>, I make no +doubt. But this operation of water, that may +be employed in consolidating the strata in the +mineral regions, is essentially different from +that which is inconsiderately employed or supposed +by mineralists when they talk of infiltration; +these two operations have nothing in +common except employing the water of the +surface of the earth to percolate a porous body. +Now, the percolation of water may increase +the porousness of that body which it +pervades, but never can thus change it from a +porous to a perfect solid body. But even the +percolation of water through the strata deposited +at the bottom of the sea, necessarily required, +according to the supposition of naturalists, +must be refused; for, the interstices of +those strata are, from the supposition of the +case, already filled with water; consequently, +without first removing that stagnant water, it +is in vain to propose the infiltration of any +fluid from the surface.</p> + +<p>This is a difficulty which does not occur in +our theory, where the strata, deposited at the +bottom of the sea, are to be afterwards heated +by the internal fires of the earth. The natural +consequence of those heating operations +may be considered as the converting of the +water contained in the strata into steam, and +the expulsion of steam or vapour, by raising +it up against the power of gravity, to be delivered +upon the surface of the earth and again +condensed to the state of water.</p> + +<p>Let us now conceive the strata, which had +been deposited at the bottom of the sea, as exhausted +of their water, and as communicating +with the surface of the earth impregnated with +water. Here again we have the power of gravity +to operate in carrying down water to that +place which had been before exhausted by the +power of heat; and in this manner, by alternately +employing those two great physical +agents, we cannot doubt that nature may convey +soluble substances from above, and deposit +them below for the purpose of consolidating +porous bodies, or of filling with saline and +earthy matter those interstices which had been +originally filled with water, when the strata +were deposited at the bottom of the sea. How +far any marks of this operation may be perceived, +by carefully examining our mines and +minerals, I know not; I can only say that, on +the contrary, whenever those examined objects +were clear and distinct, with the concomitant +circumstances, so as to be understood, I have +always found the most certain marks of the +solid bodies having concreted from the fluid +state of fusion. This, however, does not exclude +the case of infiltration having been previously +employed; and I would intreat mineralists, +who have the opportunity of examining +the solid parts of the earth, to attend particularly +to this distinction. But do not let +them suppose that infiltration can be made to +fill either the pores or veins of strata without +the operation of mineral heat, or some such +process by which the aqueous vehicle may be +discharged.</p> + +<p>Not only are mineral philosophers so inconsiderate, +in forming geological theories upon +a mere supposition or false analogy, they +have even proceeded, upon that erroneous +theory, to form a geological supposition for +explaining the appearances of strata and other +stony masses in employing a particular physical +operation, which is, that of <i>crystallization</i><a id="footnotetag37" name="footnotetag37"></a><a href="#footnote37"><sup>37</sup></a>. +Now crystallization may be considered as a +species of elective concretion, by which every +particular substance, in passing from a fluid to +a solid state, may assume a certain peculiar external +shape and internal arrangement of its +parts, by which it is often distinguished. But, +to suppose the solid mineral structure of the +earth explained, like an enigma, by the word +<i>crystallization</i>, is to misunderstand the science +by which we would explain the subject of research; +and, to form a general mineral theory +thus upon that term, is an attempt to generalise +without a reason. For, when it were even +admitted that every solid body is crystallised, +we thus know no more of the geology of this +earth, or understand as little of the general +theory of mineral concretion, as we did before;—we +cannot, from that, say whether it +be by the operation of solution or of fusion +which had produced the perceived effect.</p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote37" name="footnote37"></a><b>Footnote 37:</b><a href="#footnotetag37"> (return) </a> Journal de Physique; Avril 1753.</blockquote> + +<p>M. de Carosi has wrote a treatise upon certain +petrifactions<a id="footnotetag38" name="footnotetag38"></a><a href="#footnote38"><sup>38</sup></a>. In the doctrine of this +treatise there is something new or extraordinary. +It will therefore be proper to make +some observations on it.</p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote38" name="footnote38"></a><b>Footnote 38:</b><a href="#footnotetag38"> (return) </a> Sur la Generation du Silex et du Quartz en partie. +Observations faites en Pologne 1783, à Cracovie.</blockquote> + +<p>The object of this treatise is to describe the +generation of silex and quartz, with their modifications +or compositions, formed within mineral +bodies of a different substance. The natural +history contained in this little treatise is +well described and sufficiently interesting. But +It is chiefly in order to examine the means +which, according to the theory of this treatise, +are employed in petrifying bodies, that I consider +it in this place.</p> + +<p>The first section of this treatise has for title, +<i>Generation du Caillou et du Quartz de la terre +calcaire pure</i>. It may be worth while to compare +the natural history of this part of the +earth with the flint and chert found in our +chalk and lime-stone countries. I shall therefore +transcribe what is worth observing upon +that subject (p. 5.).</p> + +<p>"Nous rencontrons chez nous dans les +parties le plus montagneuses, et les moins +couvertes de terreau, ou tout-au plus de +sable, entre de purs rochers calcaires une +quantité incroyable de cailloux (silex) tant +en boules, que veines, couches, et débris. +Au premier coup d'oeil l'on s'imagine que +ce font des débris de montagnes éloignées, +qui y furent amenés par les eaux, mais, en +examinant la chose de plus pres, on est +convaincu, que ce sont tout au contraire, +des parties détachées des montagnes de la +contrée. Car il y a sur presque toute l'étendue +de nos montagnes calcaires une +couche, ou pour mieux dire, un banc composé +de plusieurs couches de base calcaire, +mais qui ou sont parsemées irrégulièrement +de boules, de rognons, de veines, et de petits +filons de silex, ou qui contiennent cette +pierre en filon, veines, et couches parallèles, +et régulièrement disposées. Les boules et +rognons de silex y font depuis moins de la +grandeur d'une petite noisette, jusqu'au +diamètre de plus de six pouces de nôtre +mesure. La plupart de ces boules tant +qu'elles sont dans l'intérieur caché de la +roche vive, et qu'elles n'ont rien souffert de +l'impression de l'air, ont, pour l'ordinaire, +une croûte de spath calcaire, au moyen de +la quelle elles sont accrues à la roche mere; +ou pour mieux dire la croûte spatheuse fait +l'intermède entre le silex, et la roche calcaire, +par où se fait le passage de l'une à +l'autre. Mais ceci ne vaut que de boules +de silex entièrement formées. C'est dont +on peut même se convaincre à la vue, par +beaucoup de pierres dont le pavé de la ville +de Cracovie est composé. Mais là, ou le +silex n'est pas encore entièrement achevé, +la croûte spatheuse manque, en revanche on +y voit évidemment le passage par degrés +successifs de la roche calcaire au silex qui y +est contenu, et les nuances de ce passage +sont souvent si peu marquées que même les +acides minéraux ne suffisent pas à les +déterminer, ce n'est que le briquet, qui +nous aide à les découvrir. On voit bien +ou la pierre calcaire s'enfonce en couleur, +l'on s'apperçoit, où sa dureté, ses cassures +changent, mais, comme elle y souffre encore +quelque impression des acides, l'on ne sauroit +déterminer au juste le point, ou elle a +déjà plus de la nature du silex, que de celle +de la chaux, qu'en la frappant du briquet.</p> + +<p>"Tels sont les cailloux en boules et rognons +avant leur état de perfection, il y aura +même au milieu une partie de pierre calcaire +non changée.</p> + +<p>"Ceux au contraire, ou la nature à achevé +son ouvrage, ont une croûte de chaux endurcie, +et sont purement du silex fini, mais +de toutes couleurs, d'un grain et d'une texture +plus ou moins fine, qui passe assez souvent +par degrés dans les différentes variétés +du noble silex. Ils ont, pour l'ordinaire, +dans leur intérieur une cavité, mais pas +toujours au centre, et qui vient apparemment +de la consommation de cette partie calcaire +qui y resta la dernière, et n'en fut changée +ou dissolute et séparée, que lorsque le reste +du silex étoit déjà entièrement fini. Ces +cavités sont toujours, ou enduites de calcédoine +en couche concentriques recouverte +de petits cristaux fort brillans et durs de +quartz, ou bien seulement de ces derniers-ci. +Par-fois il y a aussi du spath calcaire +crystallisé, mais cela est extrêmement rare. +Quelque-fois enfin ces cavités sont remplies +d'une noix de calcédoine. Je n'ai réussi +qu'une seule fois en cassant un pareil silex +en boule d'y trouver encore le reste de +l'eau de crystallisation."</p> + +<p>The only remark that I would here make +is this, that, if the crystallization of those close +cavities in the <i>silex</i> had at any time required +water of solution, it must always have required +it. But, if there had been water of solution +contained in those close cavities, for the +crystallization of the various things which are +often found within them, How comes it that +this water is almost never found? I have +good reason to believe that water contained +within a solid flint will not make its escape, +as does that contained in the <i>anhydrites</i> of +Mount <i>Berico</i>, which are composed of a porous +calcedony. But the siliceous crystallizations +within close cavities is a curious subject, +which we shall have occasion to examine more +particularly in treating of agates. We now +proceed to the next section, which is the generation +of silex and quartz in marl, (p. 19.)</p> + +<p>"Il y a des contrées, chez nous, qui out +des étendus assez considérables en long et +en large, de montagnes de pierre de marne +calcaire, dans lesquelles on rencontre le +même phénomène que dans celles de chaux +pure; c. a. d. nous y trouvons du silex de +différentes variétés, et dans tous les degrés +successifs de leur formation, et de leur perfection. +Outre cela, nous y voyons encore +quelque chose, qui semble nous conduire à +la découverte des moyens, dont se sort la +nature pour effecteur cette opération, et qui +nous étoit caché dans les montagnes de +chaux pure: ces bancs de pierre marnesilicieuse, +contiennent une partie considérable +de pyrites sulfureuses, qui non seulement +y forment une grande quantité de +petits sillons, mais toute la masse de la montagne +est rempli de parcelles souvent presqu'imperceptibles +de ce minéral. Ces +pyrites sont évidemment des productions +du phlogistique et de l'acide contenu dans +la montagne.</p> + + +<p>"L'eau, qui s'y trouve ordinairement en +assez grande abondance, en détacha, extraha +d'un et l'autre, et les combina après +tous les deux ensemble. Cette même eau +les dissout derechef, et en fait de nouvelles +combinaisons. C'est ce qu'on voit évidemment +là, ou la nature, ayant commencé ses +opérations, il n'y est resté de la pyrite, +qu'une portion de la partie inflammable +liée à une base terrestre. Dans ces endroits +la marne n'est que fort peu sensible +aux acides, et de blanche qu'elle étoit, sa +couleur est devenue presque noire. C'est +là qu'on observe les différens degrés du +changement de la marne en silex, contenant, +même encore, par fois, de parties +pyritéiques non détruites dans son intérieur. +Et comme la nature forme ici, de +même, que dans la chaux pure les silex, la +plupart en boules ou rognons; comme les +différent degrés de métamorphoses de la +marne en silex, sont ici beaucoup plus nombreuses +que là, de sorte qu'il y a des bandes +entières, qui mériteroient plutôt d'être appellés +bandes silicieuses, que marneuses; +comme il y a, enfin, une grande quantité de +pyrites, qu'ailleurs, il est très probable qu'elle +se serve là du même moyen qu'ici pour +opérer la métamorphose en question.</p> + +<p>"Ne nous précipitons, cependant, pas à en +tirer plus de conséquences; poursuivons +plutôt le fil de notre récit.</p> + +<p>"Le silex, qui se trouve ici, est non seulement +de différents degrés de perfection, il +est de plus d'une espèce. Il y a de la pierre +à feu, 2 de la calcédoine, 3 des agathes, et +4 différentes nuances et passages des espèces +ordinaires aux fines du silex.</p> + +<p>"La pierre à feu, est, ordinairement dans +son état de perfection d'un grain assez fin, +d'une couleur grise plus ou moins foncée, +et même donnant, dans le noirâtre, plus ou +moins diaphane; ses cassures sont concentriques +ou coquillées, et sa masse est assez +compacte. Outre sa conformation ordinaire +en boules et rognons, elle fait presque toujours +la noix de ursins marins, qui y font +en grand nombre, et dont la coquille est le +plus souvent, et presque toujours de spath +calcaire, même au milieu d'une boule de +silex parfait.</p> + +<p>"Les calcédoines et agathes de ces couches +sont toujours (au moins, je ne les ai pas +encore vues autrement) de coraux et autres +corps marins pétrifiés. Donc, il faut que +les couches de pierres roulées, d'où j'ai tiré +ma collection citée plus haut, soyent des +débris de montagne» détruites de cette +espèce. Il y en a qui sont très parfaites +comme celles qui composent ma collection, +d'autres méritent plutôt d'être rangées parmi +les passages du silex ordinaire, et ses +espèces plus fines; d'autres encore sont, en +effet, de vraies agathes, mais qui renferment +dans leur intérieur plus ou moins de parties +non parfaites presque calcaires, qui +s'annoncent d'abord par leur couleur +blanche, par leur gros grains relativement +au reste, par leur opacité, par leur mollesse +respective, et souvent même par leur sensibilité +pour les acides minéraux. Mais +celles, qui sont finies, quoiqu'elles ayent, +pour la plupart, une couleur presque noire, +ne laissent, cependant, pas d'avoir aussi des +teintes plus claires comme brunâtres, verdâtres, +rougeâtres, jaunâtres, bleuâtres, +tachetées, veinées, etc. Leur clarté n'est +pas moins variable, que leur couleur, il y +en a de presqu'opaques, comme aussi de +presque transparentes, sur tout là, ou la calcédoine +prédomine.</p> + +<p>"Le quartz s'y trouve comme dans les +pierres de la premiere section, c, a, d, crystallisé, +en groupes dans de petites cavités; +quelquefois aussi en veines. La calcédoine +y est de même, ou bien en mamelons, +ou bien en stalactites, lorsqu'elle a de la +place pour s'y déposer.</p> + +<p>"Un phénomène encore plus curieux que +cela est cette belle pyrite sulphureuse jaune, +comme de l'or, qui est quelquefois parsemée +par tout la substance de pétrifications +agathisées, et qui apparemment y fut déposée +après la dite métamorphose à la faveur des +petits pores, qui y étoient restés ouverts."</p> + +<p>I would beg that mineralists, who use such +language as this, would consider if it contains +a distinct idea of the operation which they +would thereby describe, or if it does not contain +either a contradiction or an inconceivable +proposition. It supposes a calcareous body to +be metamorphosed, somehow by means of the +mountain acid, into a siliceous body. But, +finding many bodies of pyrites contained +within that solid flint, it is said, that, when the +calcareous body was flintified, there were left +in it cavities which were afterwards filled with +pyrites. Let us reflect a moment upon this +doctrine. These cavities were first open to +the outside of the flinty body; but now the +pyrites with which they had been filled is insulated +in the solid flint. Here three things +are required; first, The calcareous body is to +be flintified, at the same time leaving the body +full of small cavities open to the outside; secondly, +These cavities are to be filled with +pyrites; lastly, These mineral bodies are to +be so inclosed within the flint, as to leave no +vestige of the former processes. This marly +mountain itself, which had been formed of +loose materials gathered together at the bottom +of the sea, was first to be filled with pyrites, +in various shapes, by means of the phlogistic +and the acid of the mountain. Here is +proposed to us an operation which is totally +unknown, or of which we have no kind of +idea. But, let us suppose pyrites formed in +this mountain, (of whatever chemical substances), +by means of water; Why should +water again undo that pyrites, in order to +form other concretions? And, Why should +the flint be formed first with cavities, and +then made solid, after pyrites had been introduced +into those cavities of the agate, and, as +our author expresses it, <i>parsemée pour toute la +substance?</i> Here are suppositions which are +not only perfectly gratuitous, but are also inconsistent +with any thing that we understand. +This is not explaining nature; it is only feigning +causes<a id="footnotetag39" name="footnotetag39"></a><a href="#footnote39"><sup>39</sup></a>.</p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote39" name="footnote39"></a><b>Footnote 39:</b><a href="#footnotetag39"> (return) </a> The description of those insulated siliceous bodies, +containing in their closed cavities all the usual concretions +of calcedony and crystals, as well as full of small pyrites +floating in the solid flint, are extremely interesting to a +mineral system, or such a geological theory as should explain +the present state of things in those strata that had +been formed by deposits of known materials at the bottom +of the sea; they are indeed such appearances as may be +found, more or less, in all consolidated strata. But it is +this author's explanation of that petrifaction which is our +present object to consider; and, as he is so particular in +giving us his theory upon the subject, it is easy to detect +the error of his reasoning. Were those naturalists who +explain things only in general, by saying that water is the +agent, and infiltration the means employed by nature;—were +these naturalists, I say, to give us as particular a description +of their process, it would appear as inconsistent +with the nature of things as that which we have from this +author, who examines nature very minutely, and who sees +distinctly that the infiltrating theory is inapplicable for the +explanation of those petrifactions.</blockquote> + +<p>The third section has for title, "<i>Generation +du Silex et Quartz de la Pierre Puante</i>." +Here we find an example worthy of being +recorded, as contributing to throw great light +upon those mineral operations; however, the +opinion of our author and mine, upon this +subject, differ widely. He proceeds thus:</p> + +<p>"Cette pierre n'est, comme chacun le sçait, +qu'une pierre calcaire contenant du bitume.</p> + +<p>"Nos montagnes n'en contiennent seulement +pas de simples couches, mais il y en +a même de grandes bancs fort épais.</p> + +<p>"Le caillou, ou silex qui s'y génère, forme, +tantôt de gros blocs informes, qui occupent +des cavités dans l'intérieure des montagnes, +tantôt, enfin, en forme de filons.</p> + +<p>"J'ai remarqué cette métamorphose sur +trois endroits différens, dans chacun des +quels la nature a autrement opéré.</p> + +<p>"Sur l'un, la pierre puante fait un banc +horizontal dans une montagne de pierre +calcaire crystalline, ou d'une espèce de +marbre, qui contient des couches et filons +de métal. Ce banc de pierre puante y fait +le toit d'une couche de galène de plomb +et de pierre calaminaire, et dans ses cavités +et fentes il y a non seulement des blocs de +grandeur différente, mais aussi des veines +et petites bandes courtes de silex, tant ordinaire, +que noble c, a, d, de la pierre à +feu, de calcédoine, d'agathes, et même +d'une espèce de cornaline jaune et rouge +pâle. Je ne m'arrêterai pas à en détailler +les variétés, parce qu'elles sont trop accidentelles. +Je ne les connois pas même toutes, +il s'en faut de beaucoup, parce qu'elles se +trouvent dans des anciennes mines négligées, +peut être depuis plus d'un siècle, et +par conséquent peu accessibles. Je ne doute, +cependant pas, que, si l'on pouvoit mieux +sonder le terrain, on y trouveroit bien plus +encore du peu que j'ai cité. Parmi ce silex, +il y a aussi de petites groupes et de petites +veines de quartz solide et crystallisé.</p> + +<p>"Au second endroit la pierre puante fait +un filon, ou si l'on veut, une couche ou +bande verticale, qui partage la montagne +en deux parties presqu'égales de l'épaisseur +de trois aunes à peu près. La montagne, +ou cela se voit est aussi une ancienne mine +de cuivre et de plomb, consistant en plusieurs +variétés de marbre, différent en couleur +et en grain, déposées par couches les +unes sur les autres. Le filon de silex est +formé de feuilles alternatives de pierre +puante et de silex, tous les deux de couleur +brun de bois à peu prés; mais le silex est +plus foncé que sa compagne. Ces feuilles +alternatives, consistent d'autres bien plus +minces encore, qui souvent n'ont pas l'épaisseur +d'une ligne, mais ce qu'il y a de +plus curieux, c'est que la même feuille est +d'un but de pierre porque, qui, vers le +milieu, passe successivement en silex, qui, à +son tour, vers l'autre but, qui étoit exposé +à l'air repasse par les mêmes gradations en +une espèce de tuffe calcaire. Ce qui nous +fait voir évidemment la génération et la +destruction du silex, même avec une partie +des moyens par lesquels elle s'opère. +Comme l'endroit de cette découverte n'est +accessible qu'à la superficie, je ne saurois +dire s'il y a d'autres variétés de silex outre +la dite. Il l'est à supposer autant par analogie, +que par quelques morceaux qui ont +de petites veines transversales d'une espèce +de calcédoine, et qui sont, même, sur leur +fentes, garnis de petits cristaux de roche. +Mais ce qu'il y a de sur c'est que ce filon, +parvenu à une certaine profondeur, s'ennoblit +et contient du métal, c. a. d. de la galène +de plomb, et de la pyrite cuivreuse, +j'y en ai trouvés de morceaux, qui en font +de preuves incontestables. Le caillou d'ici +est un grain fin d'une texture forte, peu +transparent, donne beaucoup d'étincelles au +briquet, mais ses cassures sont écailleuses.</p> + +<p>"La montagne calcaire du troisième lieu a +une couche de pierre puante épaisse de plusieurs +aunes, qui, derechef contient de petites +couches irrégulières et des bandes +transversales de silex, qui ont jusques à six +pouces passés d'épaisseur. La pierre puante +est d'une couleur gris-brune, d'un grain +assez fin, et d'un tissu assez dur; ses cassures +sont irrégulières, mais plus la pierre +s'approche du silex, plus elles donnent dans +le coquillé. Le silex ordinaire est d'un +brun de bois, d'un grain assez fin, et d'un +tissu résistant, et ses cassures sont égales à la +pierre porque. Ce n'est pas là la seule +variété, il y a, aussi, de la calcédoine et des +agathes de couleurs différentes. Même la +pierre à feu est assez souvent traversée de +veines de calcédoine, de quartz crystallisé, +et de spath calcaire blanc en feuilles et en +crystaux. Il arrive que la même veine est +composée de ces trois espèces de pierres à +la fois, de sorte que l'une semble passer dans +l'autre, parce que les limites réciproques +sont, souvent, assez indistinctes. Il est évident, +que le silex est formé de la pierre +puante, parce qu'on remarque ici les mêmes +phénomènes dont j'ai parlé plus haut, c. a. +d. les passages successifs de l'une dans l'autre +pierre, tant en montant qu'en descendant."</p> + +<p>There is nothing particular in the siliceous +mixture in this species of lime-stone, except +the vein of that substance. It is evident that +this vein, traversing the mountain, had been +introduced in the fluid state of fusion. I do +not mean to say, that, in this particular case +now described, the evidence of that truth peculiarly +appears; but that, from the general +nature of mineral veins breaking and traversing +the solid strata of the globe, no other +conclusion can be formed; and that in the +particulars of this example there is nothing +that could lead us to suppose any other origin +to the petrifactions contained in this vein of +stinking lime-stone. It is plain, that our author +has imagined to himself an unknown +manner of executing his mineral metamorphoses. +He sees plainly that the common +notion of infiltration will not at all explain +the evident confusion of those calcareous and +siliceous bodies which appear to him to be +metamorphosing into each other. Nothing, +indeed, can explain those phenomena but a +general cause of fluidity; and there is no such +general cause besides that of heat or fusion.</p> + +<p>But to show how mineralists of great merit, +gentlemen who have examined systematically +and with some accuracy, may impose upon +themselves in reasoning for the explanation of +mineral appearances from limited notions of +things, and from the supposition of these having +been formed where they now are found, +that is, upon the surface of the earth, I would +beg leave to transcribe what this author has +said upon this species of petrifaction. It is +not that he is ignorant of what mineralists +have already said upon the subject; it is because +he sees the incompetency of their explanations +in those particular cases; and that +he would employ some other more effectual +means. (p. 50.)</p> + +<p>"Toute terre calcaire à changer dans une +autre doit, avant toute chose, être rendue +réfractaire ce qui ne peut se faire qu'en la +saturant avec un acide. Mais une terre +simplement, saturée d'un acide, est d'une réduction +fort aisée, vu que l'acide n'y tient +pas trop fort, d'ailleurs ce n'est qu'un sel +neutre terreux fort facile â dissoudre dans +une quantité suffisante d'eau. Or pour +rendre cette union plus constante, il faut +que la terre alcaline s'assimile intimement à +l'acide, ce qui ne se sera jamais sans un intermedeliant, +qui homogène les parties de +ce nouveau corps, et pour que cela ce fasse +il est indispensable, qu'il s'opère une dissolution +foncière des parties terrestres de la +chaux, qui facilite l'ingress à l'acide, et à +l'intermède pour qu'ils s'y lie bien fortement. +Supposons qu'il se forme une liqueur savonneuse +de l'acide et du phlogistique, que +l'air fixe, mis en liberté, ouvre les interstices +des parties qui constituent la terre alcaline, +qu'apres cela cette liqueur savonneuse ayant +l'entrée libre s'assimile à la terre en proportion +requise, que l'eau, qui servoit de +véhicule dans cette operation, s'évapore successivement, +et emporte le superflu des ingrediens, +pour qu'il se puisse opérer le rapprochement +le plus exacte des parcelles ou +molécules homogénées de nouveau corps +qu'enfin les molécules les plus pures et les +mieux affinées soyent réunies en forme liquide +dans des cavités, et que par l'évaporation +et séparation de l'eau, ou elles nageoient, +il s'en forme des crystaux n'aurons-nous +pas une boule de silex, avec de crystaux +de quartz dans ses creux intérieurs."</p> + +<p>The supposed case is this; a calcareous +body is to be metamorphosed into a siliceous +nodule, having a cavity within it lined with +quartz, crystals, etc. M. de Carosi means to +inform us how this may be done. Now, as +this process requires no other conditions than +those that may be found upon the surface of +this earth, the proper way to prove this hypothetical +theory, would be to exhibit such a +mineral body produced by those means. But, +even supposing that such a process were to +be exhibited, still it would remain to be explained, +how this process, which requires conditions +certainly not be found at the bottom +of the sea, could be accomplished in that place, +where the strata of the earth had been deposited, +accumulated, consolidated, and metamorphosed.</p> + +<p>This mineral process, which has been now +described, will no doubt revolt the opinions +of many of our chemists as well as naturalists; +and I should not have thought of transcribing +it, but as an example of that inconclusive +reasoning which prevails in mineralogical +writings upon this subject.</p> + +<p>But this is not all. We have, upon this +occasion, a most remarkable example of the +fallaceous views that may be taken of things; +and of the danger to science when men of +sense and observation form suppositions for +the explanation of appearances without that +strict conformity with the principles of natural +philosophy which is requited on all occasions. +Both M. de Carosi, and also M. Macquart<a id="footnotetag40" name="footnotetag40"></a><a href="#footnote40"><sup>40</sup></a>, +to whom our author communicated +his ideas and proper specimens, assert, that +from their accurate experience, they find calcedony +growing daily, not only in the solid +body of gypsum, etc. while in the mine, but +also in the solid stone when taken out of the +mine, and preserved in their cabinet.</p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote40" name="footnote40"></a><b>Footnote 40:</b><a href="#footnotetag40"> (return) </a> Vid. Essais de Minéralogie par M. Macquart.</blockquote> + +<p>What answer can be made to this positive +testimony of these gentlemen, by a person +who has not seen any such a thing, and who +has not the opportunity of examining the +cases in which those naturalists may have perhaps +been led into some delusion? Were I +however to conjecture upon a subject in +which I have not any positive information, I +should suppose that some part of the calcedony, +like the <i>oculus mundi</i> when dipped in water, +may be so transparent, while containing some +portion of humidity, that it is not easily distinguishable +from the gypsum in which it is +concreted; but that in having the humidity +evaporated, by being taken out of the mine +and exposed to the dry air, those portions of +calcedony, which did not before appear, may +be perceived by becoming more opaque<a id="footnotetag41" name="footnotetag41"></a><a href="#footnote41"><sup>41</sup></a>.</p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote41" name="footnote41"></a><b>Footnote 41:</b><a href="#footnotetag41"> (return) </a> From the description given in this treatise, and from +the drawings both of M. de Carosi and M. Macquart, I +find a very valuable inference to be made, so much the +more interesting, as I have not found any example of the +like before. This arises from the intimate connection +which is here to be perceived between agate and gypsum. +Now, upon this principle, that the agate-calcedony had +been formed by fusion, a truth which, from the general +testimony of minerals, I must presume, it is plain, +that those nodules of gypsum had been in the fluid state +of fusion among those marly strata, and that the gypseous +bodies had been penetrated variously with the siliceous +substance of the calcedony. + +<p>The description of those siliceous penetrations of gypsum +is followed by this conclusion: "En voila assez, je +crois pour faire voir que le silex ci-décrit est effectivement +une émanation du gypse, et non pas une matière +hétérogène amenée d'autre part et déposée, ou nous +la voyons." In this instance our author had convinced +himself that the calcedony concretions had not been formed, +as he and other mineralists had before supposed, by +means of infiltration; he has not, however, substituted any +thing more intelligible in its stead. I do not pretend +that we understand mineral fusion; but only that such +mineral fusion is a thing demonstrable upon a thousand +occasions; and that thus is to be explained the petrification +and consolidation of the porous and naturally incoherent +strata of the earth.</blockquote> + +<p>There is, however, a subject in which I can +more freely accuse this author of being deceived. +This naturalist says, that calcareous +stones become silex by a certain chemical +operation; and that those flinty bodies, in being +exposed upon the surface of the earth, +out of their natural bed, are again, by a contrary +chemical operation, changed from flint +to a calcareous substance. I will give it in +his own words, (p. 56.)</p> + +<p>"Cela dit, venons au fait. Tout silex progénéré +de chaux, détaché de son lieu natal, +et exposé aux changemens de saisons, s'amollit, +reçoit de crevasses, perd sa transparence, +devient, enfin, tout-à-fait opaque, +le phlogistique s'en évapore, l'acide en est +détaché, lavé, et de terre vitrescible, qu'il +étoit, il redevient chaux, comme il étoit +auparavant."</p> + +<p>Here is no question with regard to mere +opinion, but to matter of fact; and, in this +case, nothing is more evident, than that upon +the surface of this earth, that is, in the examinable +parts above the level of the sea, there +is no transition either of calcareous bodies into +flint, nor of flinty bodies into calcareous +substance. Calcareous matter is constantly +dissolved by water, when it is exposed to the +washing of that fluid; and it is even dissolved +out of the most perfect union or combination +with siliceous substance, and the most solid +composition of an insoluble body, as may be +perceived in the decaying of feld-spar. A +superficial view of flints, which have come out +of a body of chalk, may have created such an +opinion, which will not either bear the light +of chemical or mineral investigation. The +subject of these chalk flints will be minutely +examined in its proper place.</p> + +<p>Our author has carefully examined the subject +of flintification; and the country where +he makes his observations would seem to be +well disposed for such a research. He has +had great opportunity and inclination to examine +the subject which he writes upon; and +he has given a distinct account of what be has +seen. His description of the flintification of +sand-stone is extremely interesting. I will +therefore transcribe it, both as a valuable portion +of natural history, and also in order to +contrast this author's opinion, with regard to +the means employed by nature in petrifying +bodies, and that which I maintain to be the +general consolidating operation of the globe. +It is Section V. <i>Generation du Caillou du Silex +du Grès, ou Pierre Sabloneuse</i>.</p> + +<p>"Tout grès est susceptible de cette métamorphose +quant au grain et quant à la couleur; +depuis la bréccia quartzeuse jusqu'à +la pierre à rasoir; et depuis le grès blanc +jusqu'au brun et presque noirâtre, tient ou +non tient, dur, ou presque friable, c'est indifférent, +toutes ces variétés donnent du +silex, et surtout de la calcédoine, de la cornaline, +et des agathes. Quant au ciment +je l'y ai toujours remarqué calcaire et faisant +effervescence avec les acides dans les +endroits de la pierre qui n'étoient point +encore changés; et jamais je n'ai vu ce +changement dans du grès dont le ciment +fut ou quartzeux ou argileux et réfractaire. +Ainsi le ciment entre pour quelque chose +dans ce changement.</p> + +<p>"Le commencement de cette métamorphose +paroit (autant que j'ai pu l'observer +dans mes débris roulés) se faire par le ciment, +qui dissout là, où les agens eurent +l'accès libre, rend les grains en quartz mobiles, +les emporte, les mêle avec sa masse +dense-liquide, les dissout, même en partie, +et forme, dans cet état, des veines et de +masses calcédonieuse, carneoliques, ou d'une +autre espèce de silex, au milieu du grés peu, +ou pas du tout, changé. Car autant que je +puis voir, ce n'est pas par couches ou veines +qu'elle s'opère, mais par boules et masses +rond-oblongues. Au commencement ces +veines et tâches sont fort minces, et le reste +du grés n'est point du tout, ou à peine sensiblement +changé hormis qu'il gagne, plus +de consistance, à proportion du changement +souffert. Mais à mesure que le silex y +augmente et se perfectionne, on y apperçoit +les degrés par lesquels a passé cette +operation. Les nuance du passage d'une +pierre à l'autre deviennent plus visibles, les +veines et masses de silex grandissent au +point, même, qu'il y a jusqu'aux trois quart +du grés changé en silex clair comme de +l'eau n'ayant que fort peu de grains de +sable nageants dans sa masse. Des morceaux +de cette espèce sont rares à la vérité, +mais j'en ai, cependant, trouvé quelques +uns. Ordinairement, dans les beaux morceaux, +le silex fait la base, et le sable y est, +comme nageant tantôt en grains séparés +tantôt en parties et flocons. Dans les pieces +moins belles, le sable fait la base, et le silex +sert à la fois de ciment, et forme aussi plus +ou moins de veines, qui traversent la masse +en maintes et maintes directions. Mais si +c'est un grès à gros grains, ou de la breccia, +alors le reste prend la nature silicieuse +mêlé de sable fin, et les gros grains de +quartz restent tels, qu'ils étoient, sans +changer. J'ai déjà remarqué que cette +métamorphose semble s'opérer, comme celle +des cailloux d'origine calcaire en forme approchans +la sphérique, il faut encore y a +jouter, que j'ai lieu de croire, qu'elle se +fasse aussi du dedans en dehors, tout, comme +la décomposition se fait du dehors au dedans.</p> + +<p>"Il arrive dans cette pierre, comme dans +toute autre, qu'il se forme des crystallisations +dans les cavités. Lorsqu'elles sont de silex, +leur figure est toujours mamelonnée, +mais leur eau ou pureté, leur grandeur et +leur couleur n'est pas par tout égale. Il y +en a qui sont grands, et de la plus pure calcédoine, +d'autres sont petits et chaque goutte +ou mamelon contient un grain de sable, +de facon que cela a l'air d'un grès crystallisè +en mamelons ou stalagmitique. +D'autres encore sont, de calcédoine, mais +recouverts d'une croûte, tantôt blanche qui +fait effervescence avec l'acide minéral, et +qui est, par conséquent, de nature calcaire; +tantôt cette croûte est bleue foncée nuancée +de bleu-celeste; tantôt, enfin, elle est noire, +mais toutes les deux réfractaires. Outre ces +crystallisations silicieuses, il y en a, quoique +rarement, de quartzeuses, qui ou forment +de petites veines de crystal, ou bien +des groupes de crystaux quartzeux, ou qui +enfin, enduisent les mamelons de silex."</p> + +<p>Our author then makes a specification of +the different varieties; after which he continues, +p. 69.</p> + +<p>"Après tout ceci, l'on conviendra j'espère, +que nôtre grais est une pierre bien singulière, +et surpassant, à bien des égards, le +grais, faussement dit crystallisé, de Fontainebleau. +La raison de la figure du grais +François est fort évidente, c'est le spath calcaire, +qui lui sert de ciment, qui la lui fit +prendre; mais qu'est-ce qui opère les métamorphoses +racontées dans notre grai siliceux? +Seroit-ce son ciment calcaire ou +marneux par les mêmes raisons, qui font +changer la marne en silex? La chose est +très-probable, et je n'en saurois pas même, +deviner d'autre. En ce cas la nature auroit +un moyen d'opérer par la voie humide, ce +que nous faisons dans nos laboratoires en +quelque façon, par la voie sèche, c, a, d, +de fondre et liquéfier la terre vitrescible, au +moyen des alcalis; secret que nous lui +avons déjà arraché en partie, en faisant la +liqueur silicieuse."</p> + +<p>"Je n'ose, cependant, décider pas même +hypothétiquement, sur cette matière, pour +n'avoir pu observer la nature dans ses ateliers, +et parce que je ne possède que des +pièces, qui détachées de leur lieu natal, depuis +un très long-tems, furent exposées aux +intempéries des saisons, où elles peuvent +avoir souffert bien de changemens."</p> + +<p>There cannot be a more fair exposition of +facts; and it is only our author's opinion of +this mineral transmutation that I would controvert. +I do not pretend to understand the +manner of operating that our author here supposes +nature to take. I only maintain, that +here, as every where in general, the loose and +incoherent strata of the globe have been petrified, +that is, consolidated, by means of the +fusion of their substances; and this I think is +confirmed from the accurate description here +given of the flintification of sand-stone. Here +is described very distinctly an appearance +which is very common or general on those +occasions; this is the parts or particles of stone +floating in the fluid siliceous substance, and +there dissolving more or less.</p> + +<p>M. de Carosi describes very systematically +the generation of silex, calcedony, onyx, and +quartz, in calcareous earth, marl, gypsum, +sand-stone, and also what he terms <i>terre glaise, +ou de l'Argile</i>. It is in this last that we find +a perfect analogy with what is so frequent in +this country of Scotland. These are the +agates, calcedonies, calcareous and zeolite nodules, +which are found produced in our whin-stone +or subterraneous lavas, that is, the amygdaloides +of Crondstedt. Naturalists explain +the formation of those nodular bodies differently. +The Chevalier de Dolomieu supposes +these rocks to have been erupted lavas, originally +containing cavities; and that these cavities +in the solid rock had been afterwards filled +and crystallised, by means of infiltration, +with the different substances which are found +variously concreted and crystallised within +the solid rocks. Our author, on the contrary, +supposes these formed by a species of chemical +transmutation of calcareous and argillaceous +earths, which, if not altogether incomprehensible, +is at least not in any degree, so +far as I know, a thing to be understood.</p> + +<p>This is not the place where that subject of +these particular rocks, which is extremely interesting, +is to be examined. We shall afterwards +have occasion to treat of that matter at +large. It is sufficient here to observe, that +our author finds occasion to generalise the +formation of those petrifactions with the flintifications +in calcareous and gypseous bodies. +When, therefore, the formation of any of +them shall be demonstrated, as having taken +its origin in the fusion of those substances, +this mode of operation, which is generalised +in the consolidation of strata, will be properly +inferred in all the rest.</p> + +<p>Petrifaction is a subject in which mineralogists +have perhaps wandered more widely +from the truth than in any other part of natural +history; and the reason is plain. The +mineral operations of nature lie in a part of +the globe which is necessarily inaccessible to +man, and where the powers of nature act under +very different conditions from those which +we find take place in the only situation where +we can live. Naturalists, therefore, finding +in stalactical incrustation a cause for the formation +of stone, in many respects analogous +to what is found in the strata of the earth, and +which had come from the mineral region in a +consolidated state, have, without due consideration, +attributed to this cause all the appearances +of petrifaction or mineral concretion. +It has been one of the objects of this work to +show that this operation of incrustation, or +petrifaction by means of solution, is altogether +ineffectual for producing mineral concretions; +and that, even were it capable of forming those +mineral bodies, yet that, in the solid parts of +this earth, formed by a deposit of travelled +materials at the bottom of the sea, the conditions +necessary to this incrustating process do +not take place.</p> + +<p>Those enlightened naturalists who have of +late been employed in carefully examining +the evidences of mineral operations, are often +staggered in finding appearances inconsistent +with the received doctrine of infiltration; +they then have recourse to ingenious suppositions, +in order to explain that enigma. In +giving examples of this kind. I have in view +both to represent the natural history these mineralists +furnish us with, which is extremely +interesting, and also to show the various shapes +in which error will proceed, when ingenious +men are obliged to reason without some necessary +principle in their science. We have +just now had an example in Europe; I will +next present the reader with one from Asia.</p> + +<p>M. Patrin, in his <i>Notice Minéralogique de +la Daourie</i>, (Journal de Physique, Mars 1791) +gives us a very distinct account of what he +met with in that region. Describing the +country of Doutchersk upon the river Argun, +in Siberia, he proceeds thus:</p> + +<p>"Ces collines sont formées d'un hornstein +gris qui paroit se convertir en pierre calcaire +par l'action des météores; car tout celui +qu'on prend hors du contact de l'air donne +les plus vives étincelles, et ne fait pas la +moindre effervescence avec les acides, même +après avoir été calciné; et l'on observe celui +qui est à découvert, passer, par nuances +insensibles, jusqu'à l'état de pierre calcaire +parfaite de couleur blanchâtre."</p> + +<p>Here M. Patrin has persuaded himself, probably +from an imperfect examination of the +subject, that there takes place a mineral metamorphosis, +which certainly is not found in +any other part of the earth, and for which he +does not find any particular cause. The natural +effect of the meteors, in other parts of +the earth, is to dissolve the calcareous substance +out of bodies exposed to those agents; +and the gradation from the one of those two +things to the other, which seems to be the +data on which he had proceeded in forming +his conclusion, is not sufficient to prove the +metamorphosis, even were there not so strong +a physical objection to it; for, it is by no +means unusual for mineral bodies to graduate +thus from one substance to another. However +that be, this is not the principal object of +the example<a id="footnotetag42" name="footnotetag42"></a><a href="#footnote42"><sup>42</sup></a>.</p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote42" name="footnote42"></a><b>Footnote 42:</b><a href="#footnotetag42"> (return) </a> Here we have well informed naturalists reasoning +with all the light of our present mineralogy, and maintaining, +on the one hand, that gypsum is transformed into +calcedony, by the operation of the meteors, or some +such cause; and, on the other, that a siliceous substance +is by the same means converted into lime-stone. What +should we now conclude from this?—That calcareous and +siliceous substances were mutually convertible. But then +this is only in certain districts of Poland and Siberia. +Every where, indeed, we find strange mixtures of calcareous +and siliceous bodies; but neither mineralists nor +chemists have, from these examples, ventured to affirm +a metamorphosis, which might have spared them much +difficulty in explaining those appearances. + +<p>This is a subject that may be taken in very different +lights. In one view, no doubt, there would appear to +be absurdity in the doctrine of metamorphosis, as there is +now a days acknowledged to be in that of <i>lusus naturae</i>; +and those reasoning mineralists might thus, in the opinion +of some philosophers, expose their theory to contempt and +ridicule. This is not the light in which I view the subject. +I give those gentlemen credit for diligently observing +nature; and I applaud them for having the merit to +reason for themselves, which would seem to be the case +with few of the many naturalists who now speak and write +upon the subject.</p> + +<p>Let us now draw an inference, with regard to this, in +judging of the different theories. Either the received +system concerning mineral operations is just, in which case +those gentlemen, who employ a secret metamorphosis, may +be to blame in laying it aside; or it is erroneous and deficient; +and, in that case, they have the merit of distinguishing +the error or deficiency of the prevailing system. +How far they have seen the system of nature, in those examples +which they have described, is another question. +In the mean time, I am to avail myself of the testimony +of those gentlemen of observation, by which the insufficiency +at least of the received mineral system is acknowledged.</blockquote> + + +<p>After speculating upon the effect of the +ancient ocean upon the mountains of that +country, he proceeds as follows:</p> + +<p>"Je laisse ces conjectures pour remarquer +un fait singulier: la colline, qui est au +nord de l'église de la fonderie, a son arrête +composée de ce hornstein qui se décompose +en pierre calcaire; mais ici, les parties, qui +sont ainsi décomposées, offrent une substance +calcédonieuse disposées par zones concentriques, +comme on l'observe dans les agates +d'oberstein; mais ce ne sont point ici des +corps parasites formés par infiltration dans +des cavités pré-existantes comme les agates; +on voit que ce sont les parties constituantes +de la roche qui, <i>par un travail interne</i>, et +par une sorte de crystallisation, out pris +cette disposition régulière (que ce mot de +<i>crystallisation</i> ne révolte point, j'appelle +ainsi toute tendance à prendre une forme +constante, polyèdre ou non polyèdre.) Les +couches les plus voisine du centre sont nettes +et distinctes; peu-à-peu elles le sont moins, +et enfin elles s'évanouissent et se confondent +avec le fond de la roche. Chaque assemblage +de ces zones a une forme ronde ou +ovale plus ou moins régulière de sept à huit +pouces de diamètre.</p> + +<p>"Cela ressemble en grand à ce qu'on observe +dans les pierres oeillées, et la cause est +vraisemblablement la même. Je le répète, +je regarde cette disposition régulière comme +une véritable cristallisation, qui peut s'opérer +et qui s'opère en effet dans l'intérieur +des corp les plus solide, tant qu'ils sont +fournis à l'action des agens de la nature.</p> + +<p>"Tous ceux qui visitent l'intérieur de la +terre savent que les roches mêmes le plus +compactes y sont intimement pénétrées +d'humidité, et ce fluide n'est certainement +pas l'eau pure; c'est l'agent qui opère +toutes les agrégations, toutes les cristallisations, +tous les travaux de la nature dans le +règne minéral. On peut donc aisément +concevoir qu'à la faveur de ce fluide, il +règne, dans les parties les plus intimes des +corps souterrains, une circulation qui fait +continuellement changer de place aux élémens +de la matière, jusqu'a ce que réunis +par la force des affinités, les corpuscules +similaires prennent la forme que la nature +leur a assignée."</p> + +<p>Those nodular bodies or figured parts which +are here inclosed in the rock, are evidently +what may be called calcedony agates. M. +Patrin is persuaded, from the examination of +them, that they had not been formed in the +manner of German agates, which he supposes +is by mean of infiltration; and he has endeavoured +to conceive another manner of +operating, still however by means of water, +which I suppose, according to this hypothesis, +is to dissolve substances in one part, and deposits +them in another, There must certainly +be some great <i>desideratum</i> in that mineral +philosophy which is obliged to have recourse +to such violent suppositions. First, water is +not an universal solvent, as it would require +to be, upon this supposition; secondly, were +water allowed to be an universal menstruum, +here is to be established a circulation that does +not naturally arise from the mixture of water +and earth; and, lastly, were this circulation +to be allowed, it would not explain the variety +which is found in the consolidation and +concretion of mineral bodies.</p> + +<p>So long, therefore, as we are to explain natural +appearances by reasoning from known +principles, and not by ascribing those effects +to preternatural causes, we cannot allow +of this regular operation which M. Patrin +alleges to be acting in the interior parts +of the most solid bodies. This is indeed +evident, that there has been a cause operating +in the internal parts of the most solid +bodies, a cause by which the elements, or constituent +parts of those solid bodies, have been +moved and regularly disposed, as this author +very well observes must have been the case in +our agates or eyed stones; but to ascribe to +water this effect, or to employ either an ineffectual +or an unknown cause, is not to reason +philosophically with regard to the history of +nature; it is to reason phantastically, and to +imagine fable.</p> + +<p>M. Monnet has imagined a petrifying power +in water very different from any that has +hitherto been conceived, I believe, by natural +philosophers, and I also believe, altogether inconsistent +with experience or matter of fact; +but as it is not without good reason that this +naturalist has been induced to look out for a +petrifying cause different from any hitherto +supposed, and as he has endeavoured very +properly to refute the systems of petrification +hitherto received, I would beg leave to transcribe +his reasoning upon the subject in corroboration +of the present theory of consolidation +by the means of fusion.</p> + +<p>It is upon occasion of describing one of the +species of alpine stone or schistus which contains +quartzy particles. <i>Nouveau voyage minéralogique, +etc.</i> Journal de Physique Aoust +1784.</p> + +<p>"Il y a loin de cette pierre, que je regarde +comme une variété de roches ardoisées, aux +véritable ardoises. La composition de toutes +ces pierres est due aux terres quartzeuses et +argileuses, et à la terre talqueuse, que je +démontrerai un jour être une espèce particulière +et distincte des autres, qui constitue +les bonnes ardoises, et fait, ainsi que le +quartz, qu'elles résistent aux injures de l'air, +sans s'effleurir, comme je ferai voir que cette +terre, qu'on désignera sous la dénomination +de terre talqueuse, si l'on veut, résiste au +grand feu sans se fondre. Les différences +de toutes ces pierres, quoique composées +des mêmes matières, mais dans des proportions +différentes, sont frappantes, et pourroient +faire croire qu'elles n'appartiennent +pas à ce genre. Mais qui ne voit ici que +toutes ces différences, ou ces variétés, ne sont +dues qu'aux modifications de la matière +première, qu'elle a éprouvées, soit en se mêlant +avec des matières hétérogènes, prévenantes +du débris des êtres qui ont existé, +comme l'argile, par exemple, qui, de l'aveu +de presque tous les naturalistes, est le produit +de l'organization des plantes, ou soit +en se mêlant avec de la matière déjà solidifiée +depuis long-temps? Or nous ne craignons +pas de dire, ce que nous avons dit +plusieurs fois quand l'occasion s'en est présentée, +que cette matière unique, que se +modifie selon les occasions et les circonstances, +et qui prend un caractère analogue au +matières qu'elle rencontre, est l'eau, que +beaucoup de naturalistes cherchent vainement +ailleurs. Ils ne peuvent comprendre, +malgré les exemples frappans qui pourroient +les porter à adopter cette opinion, +que ce fluide général soit l'élément des corps +solides du règne minéral, comme il est de +ceux du règne végétal et du règne animal. +L'on cherche sérieusement, par des expériences +chimiques, à découvrir si l'eau est +susceptible de se convertir en terre comme +si la nature n'avoit pas d'autre moyen que +nous de la faire passer de l'état fluide à l'état +solide. Voyez le spath calcaire et le quartz +transparens; est il à présumer qu'ils ne +sont que le résultat du dépôt des matières +terreuses fait par les eaux? Mais, dans ce ca-là +encore, il faut supposer que l'eau qui est +restée entre ces partie s'est solidifiée; car, +qu'est-elle donc devenue, et quel est donc +le lien qui a uni ces parties et leur a fait +prendre une forme régulière? Il est vrai +qu'on nous parle d'un suc lapidifique; mais +c'est-la un être de raison, dont il seroit bien +plus difficile d'établir l'existence, que de +croire à la solidification de l'eau. On nous +donne cependant comme un principe certain +que l'eau charie d'un lieu à un autre +les matières qu'il a dissoutes, et qu'elle les +dépose à la maniere des sels. Mais c'est +supposer une chose démentie par l'experience; +savoir, que l'eau ait la propriété de +dissoudre les matières terreuses, telles que +la quartzeuse. A la vérité, M. Auchard de +Berlin y joint de l'air fixe; mais cet air fixe +ne sauroit tenir en dissolution un atome de +quartz dans l'eau; et quelle qu'ait été l'exactitude +de ceux qui ont répété les expériences +de M. Auchard, on n'a pu réussir à +imiter la nature, c'est-à-dire, à former des +cristaux quartzeux, comme il a annoncé. +Que l'eau ait la faculté de tenir en dissolution +quelques petites parties de terre calcaire, +au moyen de cet air fixe, il n'en faut +pas conclure qu'elle puisse former de cette +maniere tous les cristaux calcaires, sans que +l'eau elle-même y concoure pour sa part; +car ce seroit conclure quelque fois que la +partie seroit égale au tout. Voyez ces +géodes calcaire et argileuses, qui renferment +des cristaux nombreux de quartz ou +de spath calcaire; ne sont ils que le résultat +du dépôt de l'eau qui y a été renfermée, ou +que la cristallization pure et simple des molécules +que vous supposez avoir été tenues +en dissolution par cette eau? Il naîtroit de +cette opinion une foule d'objections qu'il +seroit impossible de résoudre. Cependant +M. Guettard, dans la minéralogie du Dauphiné, +qui vient de paroître, ouvrage très-estimable +à beaucoup d'égards, explique, +selon cette maniere de penser, la formation +de cristallizations quartzeuses qu'on trouve +dans certaines géodes de cette province, et +celle des mines de cristal des hautes montagnes. +En supposant même comme vraie +l'explication qu'il en donne, on trouveroit +en cela un des plus grands problème, et des +plus difficiles à résoudre qu'il y ait en minéralogie; +car d'abord il faudroit expliquer +comment un si petite quantité d'eau que +celle qui a été renfermée dans les géodes, +et celle qui est parvenue dans les fentes des +rochers, ont pu fournir un si grande quantité +de matière que celle qui constitue ces +cristallisations, et ce qui n'est pas le moins +difficile à concevoir, comment l'eau a pu +charrier cette matière à travers tant de matières +différentes, et la conserver précisément +pour cette destination; comment, par exemple, +l'eau est venue déposer de la terre +quartzeuse dans les masses énormes de pierres +calcaires, qui forment la côté qui domine +le village de Champigny, à quatre +lieues de Paris, au delà de Saint-maur; car +s'il nous faut citer un exemple frappant de +cette singularité, et à portée d'être vue des +naturalistes qui sont dans la capitale, je ne +puis mieux faire que de citer cette côté, une +des plus curieuses de la France, et que je +me propose de fair connoître en détail dans +la troisième partie de la minéralogie de la +France. On verra, dis-je, dans cette bonne +pierre à chaux, et une de plus pure des environs +de Paris, de très-abondantes cristallisations +de quartz transparent, et quelque fois de +belle eau, que les ouvriers sont forcés de +séparer de la partie calcaire, à laquelle elles +adhèrent fortement. Mais c'est trop nous +arrêter à combattre une opinion qui doit son +origine aux premières idées qu'ont eues les +premiers observateurs en minéralogie, qui +se détruira d'elle même comme tant d'autres +dont il nous reste à peine le souvenir."</p> + +<p>We find here an accurate naturalist, and a +diligent observer, who, in conformity with +what my sentiments are upon the subject, +thinks it impossible that the crystallizations in +close cavities, and concretions of different solid +substances within each other, which so frequently +occur in the mineral regions, could +have been produced, by means of solution and +crystallization, from a fluid vehicle. But +what has he now substituted in place of this +solution, in order to explain appearances?—a +mere supposition, viz. that nature may have +the power of converting water, in those secret +places, into some other thing; or rather that +the substance of water is here converted into +every other thing; for, though he has only +mentioned quartz and calcareous spar, what +mineral substance is there that may not be +found in those close cavities? They are actually +almost all, not even excepting gold; +for, small grains of gold are inclosed within +the cavities of a porous stone, in the Siberian +mine. Now, for what purpose should nature, +(to the power of which we are not to set a +limit) have such an object in view as to convert +water into every thing, unless it were to +confound human understanding? For, so far +as human experience has been as yet able to +reach, there would appear to be certain elementary +substances; and among these is water, +or the principles of that fluid<a id="footnotetag43" name="footnotetag43"></a><a href="#footnote43"><sup>43</sup></a>. But because +water is so generally found in bodies, and so +necessarily in most of the operations of this +world, why convert it into every other thing? +Surely, for no better reason than that there +has not occurred to this mineralist any other +way of explaining certain natural appearances +which aqueous solution could not produce. +Here is no dispute about a matter of fact; it +is on all hands allowed, that in certain cavities, +inaccessible to any thing but heat and +cold, we find mineral concretions, which contain +no water, and which, according to the +known operations of nature, water could not +have produced; must we therefore have recourse +to water acting according to no known +principle, that is to say, are we to explain nature +by a preternatural cause?</p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote43" name="footnote43"></a><b>Footnote 43:</b><a href="#footnotetag43"> (return) </a> Water is now considered by men of science, as a +compound substance; this doctrine, which seems to follow +so necessarily from the experiments of the French +philosophers, must be tried by the growing light of chemical +science. In the oxygenating operation of inflammable +and combustible bodies when burning, those ingenious +chemists overlooked the operation of <i>phlogistic matter</i>, +which has no weight, and which escapes on that occasion, +as I have had occasion to show in a dissertation upon phlogiston, +and in the Philosophy of Light, Heat, and Fire. +How far this view, which I have given of those interesting +experiments, may lead to the explanation of other collateral +phenomena, such as that of the water produced, I +will not pretend to conjecture. One thing is evident, +that if the weight of the water, procured in burning inflammable +and vital air, be equal to that of those two +gasses, we would then have reason to conclude, either that +water were a compound substance, or that vital air, and +inflammable vapour were compounds of water and the +matter of light, or solar substance.</blockquote> + +<p>I dare say that this is not the view that M. +Monnet takes of the subject, when he thinks +to explain to himself the concretion of those +different substances by means of water; but, +according to my apprehension of the matter, +his theory, when sifted to the bottom, will +bear no other construction; and, unless he +shall consider water like the matter of heat, as +capable of producing the fluidity of fusion, +and of being also again abstracted from the +fluid, by pervading the most solid body, which +would then be a substance different from water, +he must employ this aqueous substance as a +menstruum or solvent for solid bodies, in the +same manner as has been done by those naturalists +whom he he justly censure, and conform +to those erroneous ideas which first observations, +or inaccurate knowledge of minerals, +may have suggested to former naturalists.</p> + +<p>It is the dissolution and concretion of siliceous +substance, no doubt, that gives such difficulty +to our naturalists in explaining petrifaction: +they have, however, something apparently +in their favour, which it may be proper +now to mention.</p> + +<p>In the <i>first</i> place, although siliceous substance +is not soluble, so far as we know, by +simple water, it is soluble by means of alkaline +substance; consequently, it is possible that +it may be dissolved in the earth.</p> + +<p><i>Secondly</i>, The water of Giezer in Iceland, +actually petrifies bodies which are alternately +imbibed with that hot water and exposed to +the air. This water, therefore, not only contains +siliceous substance in a dissolved state, +but deposits this again, either by means of +cooling, or being aerated, or of evaporating. +Consequently, without knowing the principle +upon which it proceeds, we here perceive a +natural operation by which siliceous petrifaction +may be performed.</p> + +<p><i>Lastly</i>, We have another principle for the +dissolution of siliceous substance. This is the +fluor acid which volatilises the siliceous substance. +This, however, requires certain conditions, +which cannot be found as a general +cause in the mineral regions.</p> + +<p>Thus we would seem to have every thing +necessary for explaining the concretion and +crystallization of siliceous bodies, provided we +could find the proper conditions requisite for +that operation; for whether it shall be by +means of acid or alkaline substances that siliceous +matter is to be dissolved, volatilised, and +transported from one place to another, it is +necessary that those dissolving substances should +be present upon those occasions. Nor is it +sufficient only to dissolve the siliceous substance +which is to be transported; the necessary +conditions for the concretion again of the +dissolved substances, whatever these may be, +are also absolutely required for this operation. +Now, though those requisite conditions may +be, upon many occasions, allowed in the +earth, it is not according to the theory of our +modern naturalists, who explain petrifaction +upon the principles of simple infiltration of +water, that any advantage can be taken of +those conditions; nor are natural appearances +to be explained without employing more +complicated chemical agents in the mineral +regions.</p> + +<p>To this subject of the petrifactions of Giezier, +I may now add the information which +we have received in consequence of a new +voyage from this country to Iceland.</p> + +<p>When Sir Joseph Banks returned from his +expedition to Iceland, he landed at this place; +and, having brought specimens of the petrifications +of Giezer, Dr Black and I first discovered +that these were of a siliceous substance. I +have always conjectured that the water of +Giezer must be impregnated with flinty matter +by means of an alkaline substance, and so +expressed my opinion in the Theory of the +Earth published in the Transactions of the +Edinburgh Royal Society. We have therefore +been very desirous of procuring some of +that water, in order to have it analysed.</p> + +<p>An opportunity favourable to our views has +occurred this summer. Mr Stanley set out +from this place with the same purpose of examining +Iceland. He was so good as to ask +of Dr Black and I what inquiries we would +incline that he should make. We have now, +by the favour of this gentleman, obtained +specimens of the petrifactions of Giezer; and, +what is still more interesting, we have procured +some of the water of those petrifying +boiling springs.</p> + +<p>It appears from these specimens, that the +boiling water which is ejected from those +aqueous volcanoes, if we may use the expression, +is endued with the quality of forming +two different species of petrifaction or incrustation; +for, besides the siliceous bodies, of +which we had before received specimens, the +same stream of water incrustates its channel +with a calcareous substance. All the specimens +which I have seen consist of incrustation, +some purely siliceous, some calcareous, +and others mixed of those two, more or less.</p> + +<p>Dr Black has been analysing the water; +and he finds in it siliceous matter dissolved +by an alkaline substance, in the manner of +liquor silicum<a id="footnotetag44" name="footnotetag44"></a><a href="#footnote44"><sup>44</sup></a>. My conjecture has thus +been verified.</p> + +<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote44" name="footnote44"></a><b>Footnote 44:</b><a href="#footnotetag44"> (return) </a> See Trans. of the Edin. Royal Society.</blockquote> + +<p>It must not be alleged that nature may +operate in the mineral regions, as she does +here upon the surface in the case of Giezer. +Such an argument as this, however sound it +may be in general, will not apply to the subject +of which we treat at present. There is +no question about the limiting the powers of +nature; we are only considering nature as operating +in a certain determined manner, viz. +by water acting simply upon the loose materials +of the land deposited at the bottom of the +sea, and accumulated in regular strata, one +upon another, to the most enormous depth or +thickness. This is the situation and condition +of things in which nature is to operate; and +we are to find the means of consolidating +those strata, and concreting every species of +substance in almost every possible composition, +according to some known physical principle. +Here is an operation which is limited; for, we +must reason strictly, according to the laws of +nature, in the case which we have under consideration; +and we cannot suppose nature as +ever transgressing those laws.</p> + +<p>It is acknowledged, that, by means sometimes +of an aeriform, sometimes of an alkaline, +perhaps also of an acid substance, calcareous +matter is dissolved in the earth, and certain +metallic substances, such as lead and iron. +This solution also, upon particular occasions, +(where the proper conditions for separating +the solvent from the dissolved substance exist), +forms certain concretions; these are sometimes +a mere incrustation, as in the case of +the siliceous incrustation of Giezer, sometimes +again in a crystallised or sparry form, +as in the case of stalactical concretions. But +here is no question of those cases where the +proper conditions may be found; first, of dissolving +the substance which is afterwards to be +concreted; secondly, of separating the menstruum +from the dissolved substance; and, +lastly, of removing the fluid deprived of its +solution, and of supplying a new solution in +its room; the question is, how far those concretions +are formed where those conditions do +not take place. Now, this last case is that of +almost all mineral concretions.</p> + +<p>It must not be here alleged that certain +concretions have been found in mines posterior +to these having been worked by man; +consequently, that those concretions have been +formed by nothing but the infiltration of water. +In those cases, where such concretions +are truly found, I am persuaded that all the +conditions proper to that operation will also +be found; and it is only, I believe, in those +cases where such proper conditions may be +found, that this aqueous concretion ever appears. +Now, if we shall except calcareous +stalactite, and the bog ore of iron, How seldom +is it that any appearance of those aqueous +mineral concretion ever is found? Those +very few cases in which they are found, afford +the strongest proof against these being operations +general to the globe, or proper mineral +concretions; because it is only where all the +necessary conditions conspire in each contributing +its part, that the effect is accomplished; +and this is a thing which cannot possibly +take place in the aquiform strata below the +surface of the sea. But, without attending to +this clear distinction of things perfectly different, +naturalists are apt to see false analogies, +and thus in generalising to form the most erroneous +theories.</p> + +<p>I shall now give an example of this fallaceous +manner of reasoning; it is in the case +of certain mineral appearances which are erroneously +considered as stalactical concretions.</p> + +<p>The only true stalactical bodies are of a +calcareous substance; they are formed by water +containing this substance in a dissolved +state; and the principles upon which this particular +concretion is formed are well known. +It is therefore easy to compare other concretions, +which may have some superficial resemblance +to these stalactical bodies, in order to +see if they have proceeded upon the same +principle of concretion from a dissolved state, +or by water depositing its dissolved substance +in a similar manner.</p> + +<p>There are two different mineral substances +which give appearances of this sort. These +are certain concretions of calcedony, and also +of iron-ore, which are thought to have such +resemblance to stalactical concretions as, by +some superficial observers, to be reckoned of +the same kind. It is now proposed to show +that those conclusions are not well founded; +and that, in this case of calcedony and iron-ore, +it could not be upon the principle of stalactical +concretion that the bodies now in question +had their forms.</p> + +<p>The principle upon which calcareous substance +is dissolved in water, and made to concrete +by the evaporation of the acid substance, +or fixed air by which it had been dissolved, is +too well known to require any explanation +in this place; we are only to consider the +sensible effects of those operations of which +we know so well the proper conditions.</p> + +<p>There are just two distinct views under +which we may consider all stalactical concretions +formed; these are the incrustation of the +calcareous substance concreting upon a foreign +body, and the incrustation of the same substance +upon itself. By the first any manner +of shape may be formed, provided there be a +solid body, upon the surface of which the calcareous +solution is made to pass. By the second, +again, we have various forms; but we +know the principles upon which they had +been made. These are the shape and motions +of the fluid which gives the calcareous +concretion. Now, these principles are always +to be perceived, more or less, in all the bizarre +or fantastical, as well as regular shapes which +are produced by stalactical concretions. At +present, we shall confine our views to one +particular shape, which is simple, regular, and +perfectly understood wherever it is formed.</p> + +<p>Drops of water falling from a roof, and +forming stalactite, produce first tubular bodies, +and then gradually consolidate and increase +those pendulous bodies by incrustation. These +appearances are thought to be observed in the +calcedony and ferruginous concretions, which +has led some mineralists to conclude, that those +concretions had been formed in the same manner, +by means of water. We are now to show +that these mineral appearances are not analogous +to stalactites in their formation, and that +they have evidently been formed in a different +manner.</p> + +<p>It must be evident, that, in the formation +of those pendulous bodies, each distinct stalactite +must be formed by a separate drop of water; +consequently, that no more stalactites can +be formed in a given space, than there could +have subsisted separate drops of water. Now, +a drop of water is a very determined thing; +and thus we have a principle by which to +judge of those mistaken appearances.</p> + +<p>Let us suppose the gut of water to be but +one eighth of an inch, although it is a great +deal more, we should have no stalactites formed +nearer to each other than that measure of +space. But those mineral concretions, which +are supposed to be stalactical, are contained in +half that space, or are nearer to each other +than the tenth or twentieth of an inch. I +have them like needles, and in every degree +of proximity or contiguity, at the same time +that they are perfectly solid. Therefore, it is +plainly impossible that they could have been +formed upon this principle of calcareous stalactite. +But, it is only by this false resemblance, +that any argument can be formed for +the concretion of those bodies from an aqueous +solution; in every other respect they are +true mineral concretions; and, that these have +had a very different origin, has been already +the subject of investigation, and will be more +particularly examined in the course of this +work.</p> + +<p>The term <i>infiltration</i>, which has been much +employed for explaining mineral appearances, +is too vague, imperfect, or unexplicit, for +science, whether as the means of knowing +nature, or the subject of confutation. This is +not the case with that of stalactite; here is a +term that implies a certain natural operation, +or a most distinct process for attaining a certain +end; and we know the principles upon +which it proceeds, as well as the several steps +that may be traced in the general result. It +is an operation which has not only been analysed +to its principles; it is also a process +which is performed by man, proceeding on +his acquired knowledge. Now, were this +operation common to the mineral regions, as +it is proper to the surface of this earth; we +could not remain in any degree of suspense +with regard to the origin of those mineral +bodies; for, having the true clue of knowledge, +we should be able to unravel the most +intricate and mysterious appearance. But, so +far from this being the case, the more we +come to inquire into nature, and employ this +principle, the less we find it applicable, and +the more involved in darkness is our science.</p> + +<p>The places where these false appearances of +stalactite are found, are precisely those in +which, from the nature of things, all possibility +for such an operation is excluded. For, +How can this take place within a closs cavity +in the mineral regions? The term <i>vegetation</i> +may as well be employed for the explanation +of those appearances: But what would +now be said of such an explication? It is +high time that science were properly applied +to the natural history of this earth, and mineralists +not allowed to impose upon themselves +with false reasoning, or to please themselves +with the vain attempt of explaining visible +effects by unknown causes.</p> + +<p>Such various inconsistent opinions, respecting +petrifaction or mineral concretion, as I +have now exposed, opinions that are not +founded on any sound physical principle, +authorise me to conclude that they are all +erroneous. If this be admitted, it will follow +that we have no proof of any proper mineral +concretion except that which had proceeded +by congelation from the fluid state of fusion. +This has been the doctrine which I have held +out in my Theory of the Earth; and this will +be more and more confirmed as we come to +examine particular mineral appearances.</p> +<br> +<h3>CHAP. VIII.</h3> + +<p><i>The Nature of Mineral Coal, and the Formation +of Bituminous Strata, investigated.</i></p> + + + +<p>SECT. I.—<i>Purpose of this Inquiry.</i></p> + + +<p>In the first chapter, I have given a perfect +mark by which to judge, of every consolidated +stratum, how far that had been the +operation or effect of water alone, or if it had +been that of heat and fusion. This is the +particular veins or divisions of the consolidated +stratum, arising from the contraction of +the mass, distended by heat, and contracted +in cooling. It is not an argument of greater +or lesser probability; it is a physical demonstration; +but, so far as I see, it would appear +to be for most mineralists an unintelligible proposition. +Time, however, will open the eyes +of men; science will some day find admittance +into the cabinet of the curious. I will +therefore now give another proof,—not of +the consolidation of mineral bodies by means +of fusion, for there is no mineral body in +which that proof is not found,—but of the +inconsistency of aqueous infiltration with the +appearances of bodies, where not only fusion +had been employed for the consolidation, but +where the application of heat is necessary, and +along with it the circumstances proper for +<i>distillation</i>.</p> + +<p>Short-sighted naturalists see springs of water +issuing from the earth, one forming calcareous +incrustations, the other depositing bituminous +substances. Here is enough for them +to make the theory of a world; on the one +hand, solid marble is explained, on the other, +solid coal. Ignorance suspects not error; +their first step is to reason upon a false principle;—no +matter, were they only to reason +far enough, they would soon find their error +by the absurdity into which it lands them. +The misfortune is, they reason no farther; +they have explained mineralogy by infiltration; +and they content themselves with viewing +the beautiful specimens in their cabinet. +the supposed product of solution and crystalization. +How shall we inform such observators; +How reason with those who attend +not to an argument!</p> + +<p>As naturalists have explained all mineral +concretions from aqueous or other solution, +and attributed to infiltration the formation of +those stony bodies in which there are marks +of their original composition, so have they +explained to themselves, I suppose, the origin +of those bituminous bodies which are found +among the strata of the earth. In the case of +stony substances, I have shown how unfounded +all their theories are for the production of +those concretions, crystallizations, and consolidated +bodies. I am here to examine the +subject of inflammable and combustible bodies, +which I believe have been little considered by +those theorists who suppose mineral bodies +consolidated by infiltration. It is here that +we shall find an infinite difference between +the aqueous and igneous theories; for, we +shall find it impossible to explain by the one +certain operations which must have necessarily +required the great agent generally employed +in the other.</p> + +<p>The subject of this chapter is a touch-stone +for every theory of the earth. In every quarter +of this globe, perhaps in every extensive +country, bituminous strata are to be found; +they are alternated with those which are called +aquiform, or which had been evidently +formed by subsidence of certain moved materials +at the bottom of the sea; so far, therefore, +all those strata have had the same origin. +In this point I think I may assert, that all the +different theories at present are agreed; and +it is only concerning certain transformations +of those strata, since their original collection, +that have been ascribed to different causes.</p> + +<p>Of these transformations, which the strata +must have undergone, there are two kinds; +one in relation to change of place and position; +the other in relation to solidity or consistence. +It is only the last of those two +changes which is here to be the subject of +consideration; because, with regard to the +first, there is nothing peculiar in these bituminous +strata to throw any light, in that respect, +upon the others. This is not the case with +regard to the transformation in their chemical +character and consistence; bituminous bodies +may not be affected by chemical agents, such +as fire and water, in the same manner as the +argillaceous, siliceous, micaceous, and such +other strata that are alternated with the bituminous; +and thus we may find the means for +investigating the nature of that agent by which +those strata in general have been transformed +in their substance; or we may find means for +the detecting of false theories which may have +been formed with regard to those operations +in which the original deposits of water had +been changed.</p> + +<p>We have had but two theories, with regard +to the transformation of those bodies which +have had a known origin, or to the change of +their substance and consistence; the one of +these which I have given is that of heat or +fusion; the other, which I wish to be compared +with mine, is that of water and infiltration. +It is by this last that all authors hitherto, +in one shape or another, have endeavoured +to explain the changes that those strata +must have undergone since the time of their +first formation at the bottom of the sea. They +indiscriminately apply the doctrine of infiltration +to those strata of mineral coal as to any +other; they say that bituminous matter is infiltrated +with the water, impregnates certain +strata of earth with bituminous matter, and +thus converts them into mineral coal, and bituminous +strata. This is not reasoning physically, +or by the inductive method of proceeding +upon matter of fact; it is reasoning fantastically, +or by making gratuitous supposition +founded merely on imagination. It was thus +that natural philosophers reasoned before the +age of science; the wonder now is, how men +of science, in the present enlightened age, +should suffer such language of ignorance and +credulity to pass uncensured.</p> + +<p>The subject which I am now to treat of +consists of peculiar strata of the earth, bodies +which we may investigate through all the +stages of their change, which is extreme; for, +from vegetable bodies produced upon the habitable +earth, they are now become a mineral +body, and the most perfect coal,—a thing +extremely different from what it had been, +and a thing which cannot be supposed to +have been accomplished by the operation of +water alone, or any other agent in nature +with which we are acquainted, except the action +of fire or heat. It is therefore impossible +for a philosopher, reasoning upon actual physical +principles, not to acknowledge in this a +complete proof of the theory which has been +given, and a complete refutation of that aqueous +operation which has been so inconsiderately +supposed as consolidating the strata of +the earth, and forming the various mineral +concretions which are found in that great +body.</p> + +<p>To see this, it will be sufficient to trace the +progress of vegetable and animal substances, +(bodies which had certainly lived by means +of a former earth), to this changed state in +which they have become perfect mineral bodies, +and constitute a part of the present earth. +For, as these changes are perfectly explained +by the one theory, and absolutely inconsistent +with the other, there arises from this a conviction +that must be irresistible to a person +who can give proper attention to a chain of +reasoning from effect to cause.</p> + +<p>But if we thus succeed to illustrate the +theory of the earth by the natural history of +those particular strata, we have but one step +farther to make in order to bring all the other +parts of the earth, whether stratified or not, +into the most perfect consistence with the +theory; now this step, it will be most easy to +make; and I shall now mention it, that so +the reader may keep it in his view: Pyrites is +a sulphureo-metallic substance, which cannot +be produced by means of water, a substance +which the influences of the atmosphere decomposes +or separates into its elements, and +which even our imperfect art may be considered +as able to produce, by means of fusion +in our fires. Therefore, the finding of this +creature of fire intimately connected with +those consolidated strata of mineral coal, adds +the greatest confirmation, were it necessary, to +the doctrine of those mineral bodies having +been consolidated by fusion. This confirmation, +however, is not necessary, and it is not +the only thing which I am at present to illustrate +in that doctrine. What I have now in +view is, to homologate the origin of those coal +strata, with the production of every other +mineral substance, by heat or fusion; and this +is what the intimate connection of pyrites +with those strata will certainly accomplish. +This will be done in the following manner:</p> + +<p>Pyrites is not only found in great masses +along with the coal strata; it is contained in +the veins which traverse those strata, and in +the minute ramifications of those veins, which +are occasioned by the contraction of the mass, +and generally divide it into small cubical +pieces; but besides that extrinsic connection, +(as it may be called,) with the stratum of coal, +pyrites is found intimately connected with +that solid body, in being mixed with its substance. +If, therefore, it were proved, that +either the one or other of those two substances +had been consolidated by fusion, the other +must be acknowledged as having had the same +origin; but now I am to prove, from the natural +history of mineral coal, that pyrites had +been there formed by fusion; and then, by +means of the known origin of that sulphureo-metallic +substance, we shall extend our knowledge +to the origin of every other mineral +body.</p> + +<p>The process of this argument is as follows: +Every mineral body, I believe, without exception, +will be found so intimately connected +with pyrites, that these two things must be +concluded as having been together in a fluid +state, and that, whatever may have been the +cause of fluidity in the one, this must have also +caused the fluidity in the other; consequently, +whatever shall be proved with regard +to the mineral operations of pyrites, must be +considered as proved of every other mineral +substance. But, from the connection of pyrites +with mineral coal, it is to be proved that +the origin of this metallic body had been fusion; +and then it will appear, that all other +mineral bodies must have been more or less +in fusion, or that they must have been consolidated +by means of heat, and not by any +manner of solution or aqueous infiltration. I +therefore now proceed to take a view of the +natural history of coal strata,—a subject which +mineralogists seem not inclined to engage with, +although the most ample data are to be found +for that investigation.</p> + +<p>SECT. II.—<i>Natural History of Coal Strata, +and Theory of this Geological Operation.</i></p> + + +<p>Fossil coal is the species of stratum best understood +with regard to its accidents, as being +much sought after; at least, this is the case in +many parts of Britain, where it supplies the +place of wood for burning. This fossil body +has the most distinguished character; for, being +inflammable or combustible in its nature, +there is no other species of stratum that may +be confounded with it.</p> + +<p>But, though coal be thus the most distinguishable +mineral, and that which is best understood +in the science of mining, it is perhaps +the most difficult to be treated of in the +science of mineralogy; for, not having properly +any distinguishable parts, we have nothing +in the natural constitution of this body, +as we have in most other strata, to lead us to +the knowledge of its original state or first formation.</p> + +<p>The varieties of coal are distinguished by +their different manner of burning; but, from +appearances of this kind, no perfect judgement +can be formed with regard to the specific +manner in which those strata had been +made; although, from chemical principles, +some conclusion may be drawn concerning +certain changes which they have undergone +since they had been formed.</p> + +<p>Thus we have one species of coal which +is extremely fusible, abounds with oil, and +consequently is inflammable; we have another +species again which is perfectly fixed and infusible +in the fire; therefore, we may conclude +upon principle, that, however, both +those coals must have undergone the operation +of heat and fusion, in bringing them to +their present state, it is only the last that has +become so much evaporated as to become perfectly +fixed, or so perfectly distilled, as to +have been reduced to a caput mortuum.</p> + +<p>The argument here employed is founded +upon this fact; that, from the fusible species +of coal, a caput mortuum may be formed by +distillation, and that this chemical production +has every essential quality, or every peculiar +property, of the fixed and infusible species; +although, from the circumstances of our operation, +this caput mortuum may not have precisely +the exterior appearance of the natural +coal. But, we have reason to believe, it is +not in the nature of things to change the infusible +species, so as to make it fusible or oily. +Now, that this body was not formed originally +in its present state, must appear from this, +that the stratum here considered is perfectly +solid; but, without fusion, this could not have +been attained; and the coal is now supposed +to be infusible. Consequently, this fixed substance, +which is now, properly speaking, a +perfect coal, had been originally an oily bituminous +or fusible substance. It is now a fixed +substance, and an infusible coal; therefore, +it must have been by means of heat and distillation +that it had been changed, from the +original state in which this stratum had been +formed.</p> + +<p>We have thus, in the examination of coal +strata upon chemical principles, received a +certain lesson in geology, although this does +not form a proper distinction by which to +specify those strata in general, or explain the +variety of that mineral. For, in this manner, +we could only distinguish properly two species +of those strata; the one bituminous or inflammable; +the other proper coal, burning without +smoke or flame. Thus it will appear +that, as this quality of being perfectly charred +is not originally in the constitution of the +stratum, but an accident to which some strata +of every species may have been subjected, we +could not class them by this property without +confounding together strata which had differences +in their composition or formation. +Therefore, we are led to inquire after some +other distinction, which may be general to strata +of fossil coal, independent of those changes +which this substance may have undergone after +it had been formed in a stratum.</p> + +<p>Perfect mineral coal being a body of undistinguishable +parts, it is only in its resolution +that we may analyse it, and this is done by +burning. Thus, in analysing coal by burning, +we have, in the ashes alone, that by which +one species of coal may be distinguished from +another; and, if we should consider pure coal +as having no ashes of itself, we should then, in +the weight of its ashes, have a measure of the +purity of the coal, this being inversely as the +quantity of the ashes. Now, though this be +not accurately true, as the purest coal must +have some ashes proper to itself, yet, as this is +a small matter compared with the quantity of +earthy matter that may be left in burning +some species of coal, this method of analysis +may be considered as not far removed from +the truth.</p> + +<p>But, in distinguishing fossil coal by this +species of chemical analysis, not only is there +to be found a perfect or indefinite gradation +from a body which is perfectly combustible +to one that is hardly combustible in any sensible +degree, we should also fall into an inconveniency +similar to that already mentioned, +of confounding two things extremely different +in their nature, a bituminous body, and a +perfect charcoal. Thus, if we shall found our +distinction upon the fusibility and different +degree of having been charred, we shall confound +fossil coals of very different degrees of +value in burning, or of very different compositions +as strata; if, again, we found it upon +the purity of composition, in judging from +the ashes, we shall confound fossil bodies of +very different qualities, the one burning with +much smoke and flame, the other without +any; the one fusible almost like wax, the +other fixed and infusible as charcoal.</p> + +<p>It will now appear, that what cannot be +done in either the one or other of those two +methods, may in a great degree, or with considerable +propriety, be performed in employing +both.</p> + +<p>Thus, whether for the economical purposes +of life, or the natural history of fossil coal, +those strata should be considered both with +regard to the purity of their composition as +inflammable matter deposited at the bottom +of the sea, and to the changes which they +have afterwards undergone by the operation +of subterranean heat and distillation.</p> + +<p>We have now considered the original matter +of which coal strata are composed to be of +two kinds; the one pure bitumen or coal, as +being perfectly inflammable or combustible; +the other an earthy matter, with which proper +coal may be variously mixed in its composition, +or intimately connected, in subsiding +from that suspended state by which it had +been carried in the ocean. It is a matter of +great importance, in the physiology of this +globe, to know that the proper substance of +coal may be thus mixed with heterogeneous +bodies; for, supposing that this earthy matter, +which has subsided in the water along with coal, +be no farther connected with the combustible +substance of those strata, than that it had floated +in the waters of the ocean, and subsided <i>pari +passu</i> with the proper materials of the coal, we +hence learn a great deal with regard to the +state in which the inflammable matter must +have been at the time of its formation into +strata. This will appear by considering, that +we find schistus mixed with coal in the most +equal or uniform manner, and in almost every +conceivable degree, from the purest coal to +the most perfect schistus. Hence we have +reason to conclude, that, at the formation of +those strata, the bituminous matter, highly +subtilised, had been uniformly mixed with the +earth subsiding in the water.</p> + +<p>Not only is the bituminous matter of coal +found mixed in every different proportion +with the earthy or uninflammable materials of +strata, but the coaly or bituminous composition +is found with perhaps every different +species of substance belonging to strata. This +is certain, that we have the coaly matter intimately +mixed with argillaceous and with calcareous +strata.</p> + +<p>Thus it will appear, that it is no proper +explanation of the formation of coal strata, to +say that vegetable matter is the basis of those +strata; for though, in vegetation, a substance +proper for the formation of bituminous matter +is produced, it remains to know by what +means, from a vegetable body, this bituminous +matter is produced, and how it comes to be +diffused in that subtile state by which it may +be uniformly mixed with the most impalpable +earth in water. Could we once resolve this +question, every other appearance might be +easily explained. Let us therefore now endeavour +to discover a principle for the resolving +of this problem.</p> + +<p>There are two ways in which vegetable +bodies may be, in part at least, resolved into +that subtilised state of bituminous matter after +which we inquire; the one of these is by +means of fire, the other by water. We shall +now consider these severally as the means of +forming bituminous strata, although they may +be both employed by nature in this work.</p> + +<p>When vegetable bodies are made to burn, +there is always more or less of a fuliginous +substance formed; but this fuliginous substance +is no other than a bituminous body in +that subtilised state in which it is indefinitely +divided, and may be mixed uniformly with +any mass of matter equally subtilised with itself. +But this is precisely what we want, in +order to compose the strata of coal in question. +If, therefore, there were to be found in the +ocean such a fund of this fuliginous substance +as might suffice for the formation of bituminous +strata, no difficulty would be left in explaining +the original of fossil coal. But tho' +sufficient quantity of this fuliginous matter +might not be found for the explanation of +natural appearances, yet there cannot be a +doubt that more or less of this matter must be +produced in the mineral operations of the +globe, and be found precisely in that place +where it is required for the forming of those +strata of coal.</p> + +<p>In order to conceive this, we are to consider, +that there are actually great quantities of +coal strata in a charred state, which indicates +that all their more volatile oleaginous or fuliginous +matter had been separated by force of +subterranean heat; and, we are to suppose +that this had been transacted at the bottom of +the ocean: Consequently, a subtile oleaginous, +bituminous, or fuliginous substance, must have +been diffused in that ocean; and this bituminous +matter would be employed in forming +other strata, which were then deposited at the +bottom of the waters.</p> + +<p>But besides this quantity of bituminous +matter which is necessarily formed in the mineral +operations of the earth, and with regard +to the quantity of which we can never form +a proper estimate, there must enter into this +same calculation all the fuliginous matter that +is formed in burning bodies upon the surface +of this earth. This bituminous matter of +smoke is first delivered into the atmosphere, +but ultimately it must be settled at the bottom +of the sea. Hence though, compared with +the quantity that we think required, each revolution +of the globe produces but a little in +our estimation, yet the progress of time, in reforming +worlds, may produce all that is necessary +in the formation of our strata.</p> + +<p>There now remains to explain the other +way in which bituminous matter may be obtained +from vegetable bodies, that is, by means +of water. For this purpose we must begin +with a part of natural history that will throw +some light upon the subject.</p> + +<p>All the rivers in Scotland run into the sea +tinged with a brown substance; this is most +evident in some of them after a flood, and +while yet the river is swelled; but, in travelling +to the north of Scotland in the summer +season, without any rain, I saw all the rivers, +without exception, of a brown colour, compared +with a river of more clear water. This +colour proceeds from the moss water, as it is +called, which runs into the rivers, or the infusion +of that vegetable substance which forms +combustible turf, called peat. Now, this +moss water leaves, upon evaporation, a bituminous +substance, which very much resembles +fossil coal. Therefore, in order to employ +this vegetable infusion, delivered into the ocean +for the purpose of forming bituminous strata +at its bottom, it is only required to make this +bituminous matter separate and subside.</p> + +<p>If now we consider the immense quantity +of inflammable vegetable substance, dissolved +in water, that is carried into the sea by all the +rivers of the earth, and the indefinite space of +time during which those rivers have been +pouring in that oily matter into the sea; and +if we consider, that the continual action of +the sun and atmosphere upon this oily substance +tends, by inspissation, to make it more +and more dense or bituminous, we cannot +hesitate in supposing a continual separation of +this bituminous matter or inspissated oil from +the water, and a precipitation of it to the bottom +of the sea. This argument is corroborated +by considering, that, if it were otherwise, +the water of the sea must have, during the +immense time that rivers are proved to have +run, be strongly impregnated with that oily +or bituminous substance; but this does not +appear; therefore we are to conclude, that +there must be the means of separating that +substance from the water in which it had been +dissolved.</p> + +<p>If there is thus, from the continual perishing +of animal and vegetable bodies upon the +surface of this earth and in the sea, a certain +supply of oily or bituminous matter given to +the ocean, then, however small a portion of +this shall be supposed the whole oily or inflammable +matter produced upon the surface of +the earth, or however long time it may require +for thus producing a stratum or considerable +body of coal, we must still see in this a source +of the materials proper for the production of +that species of strata in the bottom of the sea.</p> + +<p>We have now considered the proper materials +of which pure fossil coal is chiefly formed; +we have at present to consider what should be +the appearances of such a substance as this collected +at the bottom of the sea, and condensed +or consolidated by compression and by heat. +We should thus have a body of a most uniform +structure, black, breaking with a polished +surface, and more or less fusible in the fire, +or burning with more or less smoke and flame, +in proportion as it should be distilled or inspissated, +less or more, by subterranean heat. But +this is the description of our purest fossil coals, +which burn in giving the greatest quantity of +heat, and leave the smallest quantity of ashes.</p> + +<p>In order to form another regular species of +coal, let us suppose that, along with the bituminous +substance now considered, there shall +be floating in the water of the ocean a subtile +earthy substance, and that these two different +substances shall subside together in an uniform +manner, to produce a stratum which shall be +covered with immense weight, compressed, +condensed, and consolidated as before, we +should thus have produced a most homogeneous +or uniform body to appearance, but not +so in reality. The mixture of heterogeneous +matter, in this case, is too minute to be discovered +simply by inspection; it must require +deep reflection upon the subject, with the help +of chemical analysis, to understand the constitution +of this body, and judge of all the circumstances +or particulars in which it differs +from the former. It is worth while to examine +this subject with some attention, as it +will give the most instructive view of the +composition of bituminous strata, both those +which are not considered as coal, and also the +different species of that mineral body.</p> + +<p>In the first place then, if the mixture of +those two different substances had been sufficiently +perfect, and the precipitation uniform, +the solid body of coal resulting from this mixture, +would not only appear homogeneous, but +might break equally or regularly in all directions; +but the fracture of this coal must visibly +differ from the former, so far as the fracture +of this heterogeneous coal cannot have the +polished surface of the pure bituminous body; +for, the earthy matter that is interposed among +the bituminous particles must affect the +fracture in preventing its surface from being +perfectly smooth. This imperfect plane +of the fracture may be improved by polishing; +in which case the body might be sufficiently +smooth to have an agreeable polish; but it +cannot have a perfect polish like a homogeneous +body, or appear with that glassy surface +which is naturally in the fracture of the +pure bituminous coal.</p> + +<p>But this is also a perfect description of +that species of coal which is called in England +Kennel coal, and in Scotland Parrot coal. It +is so uniform in its substance that it is capable +of being formed on the turning loom; +and it receives a certain degree of polish, resembling +bodies of jet.</p> + +<p>Thus, we have a species of coal in which +we shall find but a small degree of fusibility, +although it may not be charred in any degree. +Such an infusible coal may therefore contain +a great deal of aqueous substance, and volatile +oily matter; consequently may burn with +smoke and flame. But this same species of +coal may also occasionally be charred more +or less by the operation of subterranean heat; +and, in that case, we should have a variety of +coal which could only be distinguished, from +a similar state of pure bituminous coal, by the +ashes which they leave in burning. At least, +this must be the case, when both species are, +by sufficient distillation, reduced to the state +of what may be properly termed a chemical +coal.</p> + +<p>But in the natural state of its composition, +we find those strata of kennel or parrot coal, +possessing a peculiar property, which deserves +to be considered, as still throwing more light +upon the subject.</p> + +<p>We have been representing these strata of +coal as homogeneous to appearance, and as +breaking indifferently in all directions; this +last, perhaps, is not so accurate; for they +would seem to break chiefly into two directions, +that is, either parallel or perpendicular +to the bed. Thus we have this coal commonly +in rectangular pieces, in which it is extremely +difficult to distinguish the direction of +the bed, or stratification of the mass. By an +expert eye, however, this may be in general, +or at least sometimes, distinguished, and then, +by knowing the habit of the coal in burning, +a person perfectly ignorant of the philosophy +of the matter may exhibit a wonderful sagacity, +or even of power over future events, +in applying this body to fire; for, at his pleasure, +and unknown to those who are not in +the secret; he may apparently, in equal circumstances, +make this coal either kindle quietly, +or with violent cracking and explosions, +throwing its splinters at a distance.</p> + +<p>The explanation lies in this, that, though +the rectangular mass of coal appears extremely +uniform in its structure, it is truly a stratified +mass; it is therefore affected, by the +sudden approach of fire in a very different +manner, according as the edge of the stratum, +which is seen in four of the sides of this supposed +cube, shall be applied to the fire, or the +other two sides, which are in the line of the +stratum, or parallel to the bed of coal. The +reason of this phenomenon now remains to +be considered.</p> + +<p>When the edge of the coal is exposed to +the fire, the stratification of the coal is opened +gradually by the heat and expanding vapours, +as a piece of wood, of a similar shape, would +be by means of wedges placed in the end way +of the timber. The coal then kindles quietly, +and quickly flames, while the mass of this bituminous +schistus is opening like the leaves of +a book, and thus exhibits an appearance in +burning extremely like wood. But let the +fire be applied to the middle of the bed, instead +of the edge of the leaves, and we shall +see a very different appearance; for here the +expanded aqueous vapours, confined between +the <i>laminae</i>, form explosions, in throwing off +splinters from the kindling mass; and this +mass of coal takes fire with much noise and +disturbance.</p> + +<p>The ashes of this coal may be determined +as to quality, being in general a subtile white +earth; but, as to quantity, the measure of that +earth produces an indefinite variety in this +species of coal; for, from the kennel or parrot +coal, which is valuable for its burning with +much flame, to that black schistus which our +masons use in drawing upon stone, and which, +though combustible in some degree, is not +thought to be a coal, there is a perfect gradation, +in which coal may be found with every +proportion of this earthy alloy.</p> + +<p>Among the lowest species of this combustible +schistus are those argillaceous strata in +Yorkshire from whence they procure alum in +burning great heaps of this stone, which also +contains sulphur, to impregnate the aluminous +earth with its acid. We have also, in +this country, strata which differ from those +aluminous schisti only in the nature of the +earth, with which the bituminous sediment is +mixed. In the strata now considered, the +earth, precipitated with the bituminous matter, +being calcareous, has produced a limestone, +which, after burning especially, is perfectly +fissile.</p> + +<p>Therefore, with regard to the composition +of mineral coal, the theory is this. That inflammable, +vegetable, and animal substances, +in a subtilised state, had subsided in the sea, +being mixed more or less with argillaceous, +calcareous, and other earthy substances in an +impalpable state. Now, the chemical analysis +of fossil coal justifies that theory; for, in +the distillation of the inflammable or oily coal, +we procure volatile alkali, as might be naturally +expected.</p> + +<p>Thus we have considered fossil coal as various, +both in its state and composition; we +have described coal which is of the purest +composition, as well as that which is most impure +or earthy; and we have shown that +there is a gradation, from the most bituminous +state in which those strata had been formed in +being deposited at the bottom of the sea, to +the most perfect state of a chemical coal, to +which they have been brought by the operation +of subterranean fire or heat.</p> + +<p>We have been hitherto considering fossil +coal as formed of the impalpable parts of inflammable +bodies, united together by pressure, +and made to approach in various degrees to +the nature of a chemical coal, by means of +subterranean heat; because, from the examination +of those strata, many of them have +evidently been formed in this manner. But +vegetable bodies macerated in water, and then +consolidated by compression, form a substance +of the same kind, almost undistinguishable from +some species of fossil coal. We have an example +of this in our turf pits or peat mosses; +when this vegetable substance has been compressed +under a great load of earth, which +sometimes happens, it is much consolidated, +and hardens, by drying, into a black body, +not afterwards dilutable or penetrated by +water, and almost undistinguishable in burning +from mineralised bodies of the same kind.</p> + +<p>Also, when fossil wood has been condensed +by compression and changed by the operation +of heat, as it is frequently found in argillaceous +strata, particularly in the aluminous rock +upon the coast of Yorkshire, it becomes a jet +almost undistinguishable from some species of +fossil coal.</p> + +<p>There cannot therefore be a doubt, that if +this vegetable substance, which is formed by +the collection of wood and plants in water +upon the surface of the earth, were to be +found in the place of fossil coal, and to undergo +the mineral operations of the globe, it must at +least augment the quantity of those strata, +though it should not form distinct strata by +itself.</p> + +<p>It may perhaps be thought that vegetable +bodies and their impalpable parts are things +too far distant in the scale of magnitude to be +supposed as subsiding together in the ocean; +and this would certainly be a just observation +with regard to any other species of bodies: But +the nature of vegetable bodies is to be floatant +in water; so that we may suppose them +carried at any distance from the shore; consequently, +the size of the body here makes no +difference with regard to the place or order in +which these are to be deposited.</p> + +<p>The examination of fossil coal fully confirms +those reasonable suppositions. For, <i>first</i>, +The strata that attend coal, whether the sandstone +or the argillaceous strata, commonly, +almost universally, abound with the most distinct +evidence of vegetable substances; this is +the impressions of plants which are found in +their composition. <i>Secondly</i>, There is much +fossil coal, particularly that termed in England +clod coal, and employed in the iron foundry, +that shows abundance of vegetable bodies in +its composition. The strata of this coal have +many horizontal interstices, at which the more +solid shining coal is easily separated; here the +fibrous structure of the compressed vegetable +bodies is extremely visible; and thus no manner +of doubt remains, that at least a part of +this coal had been composed of the vegetable +bodies themselves, whatever may have been +the origin of the more compact parts where +nothing is to be distinguished.</p> + +<p>The state in which we often find fossil +wood in strata gives reason to conclude that +this body of vegetable production, in its condensed +state, is in appearance undistinguishable +from fossil coal, and may be also in great +quantity; as, for example, the Bovey coal in +Devonshire.</p> + +<p>Thus the strata of fossil coal would appear +to be formed by the subsidence of inflammable +matter of every species at the bottom of the +sea, in places distant from the shore, or where +there had been much repose, and where the +lightest and most floatant bodies have been deposited +together. This is confirmed in examining +those bodies of fossil coal; for, though +there are often found beds of sand-stone immediately +above and below the stratum of the +coal, we do not find any sand mixed in the +strata of the coal itself.</p> + +<p>Having found the composition of coal to be +various, but all included within certain rules +which have been investigated, we may perceive +in this an explanation of that diversity +which is often observed among the various +strata of one bed of coal. Even the most opposite +species of composition may be found in +the thickness of one bed, although of very +little depth, that is to say, the purest bituminous +coal may, in the same bed, be conjoined +with that which is most earthy.</p> + +<p>Fossil coal is commonly alternated with regular +sand-stone and argillaceous strata; but +these are very different bodies; therefore, it +may perhaps be inquired how such different +substances came to be deposited in the same +place of the ocean. The answer to this is +easy; we do not pretend to trace things from +their original to the place in which they had +been ultimately deposited at the bottom of the +sea. It is enough that we find the substance +of which we treat delivered into the sea, and +regularly deposited at the bottom, after having +been transported by the currents of the +ocean. Now the currents of the ocean, +however regular they may be for a certain +period of time, and however long this period +may be protracted, naturally change; and +then the currents, which had given birth to +one species of stratum in one place, will carry +it to another; and the sediment which the +moment before had formed a coal stratum, or +a bed of that bituminous matter, may be succeeded +either with the sediment of an argillaceous +stratum, or covered over with a bed +of sand, brought by the changed current of +the sea.</p> + +<p>We have now considered all the appearances +of coal strata, so far as these depend upon +the materials, and their original collection. +But, as those bituminous strata have been +changed in their substance by the operation of +subterranean heat and inspissation, we are now +to look for the necessary consequences of this +change in the body of the stratum; and also +for other mineral operations common to fossil +coal with consolidated strata of whatever +species.</p> + +<p>If coal, like other mineral strata, have +been inspissated and consolidated by subterranean +heat, we should find them traversed with +veins and fissures; and, if the matter found +in those veins and fissures corresponds to that +found in similar places of other strata, every +confirmation will be hence given to the +theory that can be expected from the consideration +of those bituminous strata. But +this is the case; we find those fissures filled +both with calcareous, gypseous, and pyritous +substances. Therefore, we have reason to +conclude, that the strata of fossil coal, like +every other indurated or consolidated body in +the earth, has been produced, <i>first</i>, by means of +water preparing and collecting materials proper +for the construction of land; and, <i>secondly</i>, by +the operation of internal fire or subterranean +heat melting and thus consolidating every +known substance of the globe.</p> + +<p>Not only are those sparry and pyritous substances, +which are more natural to coal strata, +found forming veins traversing those strata in +various directions, but also every other mineral +vein may occasionally be found pervading +coal mines, or traversing bituminous strata. +Gold, silver, copper, lead, calamine, have all, +in this manner, been found in coal.</p> + +<p>There remains now only to consider those +bituminous strata of fossil coal in relation to +that change of situation which has happened +more or less to every stratum which we examine; +but which is so much better known +in those of coal, by having, from their great +utility in the arts of life, become a subject for +mining, and thus been traced in the earth at +great expense, and for a long extent.</p> + +<p>Coal strata, which had been originally in a +horizontal position, are now found sometimes +standing in an erect posture, even almost perpendicular +to the plane in which they had +been formed. Miners therefore distinguish +coal strata according as they deem them to +approach to the one or other of those two extremes, +in terming them either flat or edge +seams or veins. Thus, it will appear, that +every possible change from the original position +of those strata may have happened, and +are daily found from our experience in those +mines.</p> + +<p>But besides the changed position of those +strata, in departing from the horizontal line or +flat position in which they had been formed, +there is another remarkable change, termed +by miners a <i>trouble</i> in the coal. The consideration +of this change will further illustrate +the operations of nature in placing that which +had been at the bottom of the sea above its +surface.</p> + +<p>Strata, that are in one place regularly inclined, +may be found bended, or irregularly +inclined, in following their course. Here +then is a source of irregularity which often +materially effects the estimates of miners, +judging from what they see, of those parts +which are to be explored; and this is an accident +which they frequently experience.</p> + +<p>But, without any change in the general direction +of the stratum, miners often find their +coal broke off abruptly, those two parts being +placed upon a higher and lower situation in +respect to each other, if flat beds, or separated +laterally if they are edge seams. This is by +miners termed a <i>slip, hitch</i>, or <i>dyke</i>.</p> + +<p>These irregularities may either be attended +with an injected body of subterraneous lava +or basaltes, here termed whin-stone, or they +may not be attended, at least apparently, <i>i.e.</i> +immediately, with any such accident. But +experienced miners know, that, in approaching +to any of those injected masses of stone, +which are so frequent in this country, their +coal is more and more subject to be troubled.</p> + +<p>As there is, in this country of Scotland, +two different species of mountains or hills, +one composed both in matter and manner exactly +similar to the Alps of Switzerland, the +other of whin-stone, basaltic rock, or subterraneous +lava; and as the fossil coal, argillaceous +and sand-stone strata, are found variously connected +with those hills, nothing can tend more +to give a proper understanding, with regard +to the construction of the land in general, of +the globe than a view of those different bodies, +which are here found much mixed together +in a little space of country, thus exhibiting, +as it were in miniature, what may be +found in other parts of the world, upon a +larger scale, but not upon any other principle. +I will therefore endeavour to give a short description +of the mineral state of this country +with regard to coal, so far as my experience +and memory will serve.</p> + +<p>This country might very properly be considered +as consisting of primary and secondary +mountains; not as supposing the primary +mountains original and inexplicable in their +formation, any more than those of the latest +production, but as considering the one to be +later in point of time, or posterior in the progress +of things. The first are those which +commonly form the alpine countries, consisting +of various schisti, of quartzy stone, and +granites. The second, again, are the whinstone +or basaltic hills scattered up and down +the low country, and evidently posterior to +the strata of that country, which they break, +elevate, and displace.</p> + +<p>Thus there are in this country, as well as +every where else, three things to be distinguished; +first, the alpine or elevated country; +secondly, the flat or low country; and, thirdly, +that which has been of posterior formation +to the strata which it traverses, in whatever +shape or quality; whether as a mountain, or +only as a vein; whether as a basaltes, a porphyry, +or a granite, or only as a metal, a siliceous +substance, or a spar.</p> + +<p>Those three things which are here distinguished +do not differ with regard to the chemical +character of their substances; for, in +each of these, every different substance is to +be found, more or less; and it is not in being +composed of materials peculiar to itself, that +makes an alpine country be distinguished from +a flat country; it is chiefly in the changes +which the strata of the alpine country have +been made to undergo, posterior to their original +collection, that the rocks of the alpine +country differ from those of the flat country.</p> + +<p>But the observation that is most to the purpose +of the present subject of bituminous strata, +is this; it is chiefly in the strata of the flat +country that fossil coal are found; there are +none that I know of in all the alpine countries +of Scotland; and it is always among the strata +peculiar to the flat country that fossil coal is +found. Now, this appearance cannot be explained +by saying that the materials of mineral +coal had not existed in the world while +those primary strata were formed in the sea. +I have already shown, (chap. 4.) that there +had been the same system of a world, producing +plants, and thus maintaining animals, +while the primary strata were formed in the +sea; I have even adduced an example of coal +strata among those primary schisti, although +this be an extremely rare occurrence: Consequently, +we are under the necessity of looking +out for some other cause.</p> + +<p>If the changes which have been evidently +superinduced in the strata of alpine countries +arise from the repeated operations of subterranean +fire, or to the extreme degree in which +those strata have been affected by this consolidating +and elevating cause, it will be natural +to suppose that the bituminous or combustible +part among those stratifications, may have been +mostly consumed upon some occasion during +those various and long continued operations; +whereas, in the flat beds of the low country, +although there is the most perfect evidence +for the exertion of heat in the consolidation +of those strata, the general quantity of this +has been a little thing, compared with the +universal manifestation of this cause in the +operations of the alpine countries, the strata +of which have been so much displaced in their +situations and positions.</p> + +<p>To illustrate this, strata of sand-stone are +found in both the alpine and flat countries of +Scotland. About Leadhills, for example, there +are abundance of those strata; but, in the flat +country, the generality of the sand-stone is so +little changed as to appear to every enlightened +naturalist aquiform strata; whereas the +most enlightened of those philosophers will +not perhaps attribute the same original to a +similar composition in the alpine country, +which is so much changed from its original +state. It is not because there had been wanting +a sufficient degree of heat to consolidate +the sand-stone in the coal country; for I can +show specimens of sand-stone almost contiguous +with coal, that have been extremely +much consolidated in this manner. But this +is only a particular stratum; and the general +appearance of the sand-stone, as well as other +strata in the coal countries, is that of having +been little affected by those subterranean operations +of heat by which those bodies in the +alpine country have been changed in their +structure, shape, and position.</p> + +<p>If we shall thus allow the principle of consolidation, +consequently also of induration, to +have been much exerted upon the strata of +the alpine country, and but moderately or little +upon those of the low country of Scotland, +we shall evidently see one reason, perhaps the +only one, for the lesser elevation of the one +country above the level of the sea, than the +other. This is because the one resists the +powers which have been employed in leveling +what has been raised from the bottom of +the sea, more than the other; consequently, +we find more of the one remaining above the +level of the sea than of the other.</p> + +<p>Let us now take the map of Scotland, in +order to observe the mixture of those two different +species of countries, whereof the one is +generally low and flat, the other high and +mountainous; the one more or less provided +with fossil coal, the other not.</p> + +<p>From St Abb's Head, on the east of Scotland, +to the Mull of Galloway, on the west, +there runs a ridge of mountains of granite, +quartz, and schistus strata, which contain not +coal. On each side of this ridge we find coal +countries; Northumberland, on the one side, +and, on the other, the shires of Ayr, Lanark, +and the Lothians; the one is a mountainous +country, the others are comparatively low or +flat countries. Let us now draw another alpine +line from Buchan and Caithness, upon the east, to +the island of Jura, on the west; this traverses +a mountainous country destitute of coal, and, +so far as I know, of any marks of marine bodies. +But, on each side of this great alpine +ridge, we find the hard country skirted with +one which is lower, flatter, or of a softer nature, +in which coal is found, upon the one +side, in the shires of Fife, Clackmannan, and +Stirling; and, on the other, in that hollow +which runs from the Murray Frith south-west, +in a straight line, directed upon the end +of Mull, and composed, for the most part, of +water very little above the level of the sea. +Here, to be sure, the coal is scarce, or not so +evident; but there is coal upon the sea coast +in several places of this great Bay betwixt +Buchan and Caithness; and the lowness of +the country, across this part of the island, is +almost sufficient testimony that it had been +composed of softer materials.</p> + +<p>Thus the coal country of Scotland may be +considered as in one band across the island, +and included in the counties of Ayr, Lanark, +and all those which border upon the Frith of +Forth. Now, in all this tract of coal and tender +strata, we do not find ridges of alpine +stone or primary mountains, but we find many +hills of solid rock, little mountains, from 500 +to 1000 feet high; such as that beautiful conical +hill North Berwick Law, Torpender +Law, Arthur's Seat, the Lowmands, and +others of inferior note. That is to say, the +whole of this included space, both sea and +land, has been invaded from below with melted +masses of whin-stone, breaking up through +the natural strata of the country, and variously +embossing the surface of the earth at present, +when all the softer materials, with which +those subterranean lavas had been covered, +are washed away or removed from those summits +of the country. Hence there is scarcely +a considerable tubercle, with which this country +also abounds, that may not be found containing +a mass of whin-stone as a nucleus.</p> + +<p>But besides those insulated masses of whinstone +that form a gradation from a mountain +to a single rock, such, for example, as that on +which the Castle of Edinburgh is built, we +find immense quantities of the same basaltic +rock interjected among the natural strata, always +breaking and disordering them, but often +apparently following their directions for a +considerable space with some regularity. We +also find dykes of the same substance bisecting +the strata like perpendicular veins of +rock; and, in some places, we see the connection +of these rocks of the same substance, +which thus appear to be placed in such a different +form in relation to the strata.</p> + +<p>It will thus appear, that the regular form, +and horizontal direction of strata throughout +this country of coal, now under contemplation, +has been broken and disordered by the +eruption and interjection of those masses of +basaltic stone or subterraneous lava; and thus +may be explained not only the disorders and +irregularities of coal strata, but also the different +qualities of this bituminous substance from +its more natural state to that of a perfect coal +or fixed infusible and combustible substance +burning without smoke. This happens sometimes +to a part of a coal stratum which approaches +the whin-stone.</p> + +<p>Having thus stated the case of combustible +or bituminous strata, I would ask those naturalists, +who adhere to the theory of infiltration +and the operation of water alone, how +they are to conceive those strata formed and +consolidated. They must consider, that here +are immense bodies of those combustible strata, +under hundreds, perhaps thousands, of fathoms +of sand-stone, iron-stone, argillaceous and calcareous +strata. If they are to suppose bituminous +bodies collected at the bottom of the +sea, they must say from whence that bitumen +had come; for, with regard to the strata below +those bituminous bodies, above them, and +between them, we see perfectly from whence +had come the materials of which they are +formed. They cannot say that it is from a +collection of earthy matter which had been +afterwards bituminized by infiltration; for, +although we find many of those earthy strata +variously impregnated with the bituminous +and coaly matter, I have shown that the earthy +and the bituminous matter had subsided together; +besides, there are many of those coaly +and bituminous strata in which there is no +more than two or three <i>per cent.</i> of earthy +matter or ashes after burning; therefore the +strata must have been formed of bituminous +matter, and not simply impregnated with +it.</p> + +<p>To avoid this difficulty, we shall allow +them to form their strata, which certainly +is the case in great part, by the collection +of vegetable bodies; then, I desire them to say, +in what manner they are to consolidate those +bodies. If they shall allege that it is by simple +pressure, How shall we conceive the numerous +veins of spar and pyrites, which traverse +those strata in all directions, to be formed +in those bodies consolidated by the compression +of the superincumbent masses?—Here +is a manifest inconsistency, which proves +that it could not be. But, even were we to +suppose all those difficulties to be over come, +there is still an impossibility in the way of +that inconsiderate theory, and this will appear +more fully in the following chapter.</p> + +<p>SECT. III.—<i>The Mineralogical Operations of +the Earth illustrated from the Theory of Fossil +Coal.</i></p> + + +<p>There is not perhaps a greater difference +among the various qualities of bodies than +that which may be observed to subsist between +the burning of those two substances, that is, +the inflammable bodies on the one hand, and +those that are combustible on the other. I +have treated of that distinction in Dissertations +upon subjects of Natural Philosophy, +part 3d. where I have considered the different +effects of those two kinds of bodies upon the +incident light; and, in a Dissertation upon +the Philosophy of Fire, etc. I have distinguished +those two kinds of substances in relation +to their emitting, in burning, the fixed light +which had constituted a part of those inflammable +and combustible bodies.</p> + +<p>All animals and vegetable bodies contain +both those different chemical substances united; +and this phlogistic composition is an +essential part in every animal and vegetable +substance. There are to be found in those +bodies particular substances, which abound +more or less with one of those species of phlogistic +matter, but never is the one species of +those burning substances to be found naturally, +in animal and vegetable bodies, without +being associated with the other; and it is all +that the chemical art can do to separate them +in a great degree upon occasion. Pure ardent +spirit may perhaps be considered as containing +the one, and the most perfect coal +the other; the chemical principle of the one +is proper carbonic matter; and of the other +it is the hydrogeneous principle, or that of +inflammable air.</p> + +<p>Thus we so far understand the composition +of animal and vegetable substances which burn +or maintain our fires; we also understand the +chemical analysis of those bodies, in separating +the inflammable from the combustible substance, +or the volatile from the fixed matter, the +oil from what is the proper coal. It is by distillation +or evaporation, the effect of heat, that +this separatory operation is performed; and +we know no other means by which this may +be done. Therefore, wherever we find +peculiar effects of that separatory operation, +we have a right to infer the proper cause.</p> + +<p>The subject, which we are to consider in +this section, is not the composition of strata +in those of mineral coal, but the transformation +of those, which had been originally inflammable +bodies, into bodies which are only +combustible, an end which is to be attained +by the separation of their volatile or inflammable +substances. In the last section, I +have shown of what materials the strata of +mineral coal had been originally formed; these +are substances containing abundance of inflammable +oil or bitumen, as well as carbonic +matter which is properly combustible; and +this is confirmed by the generality of those +strata, which, though perfectly consolidated +by fusion, retain still their inflammable and fusible +qualities. But now the object of investigation +is that mineral operation by which +some of those strata, or some parts of a fusible +and inflammable stratum, have been so changed +as to become infusible and only combustible.</p> + +<p>We have now examined those strata which +may be considered as either proper mineral +coal, or as only a bituminous schistus; we +are now to class along with these another species +of this kind of matter, which has had a +similar origin, although it may assume a different +character.</p> + +<p>According to the common observations of +mankind, the eminent quality by which coal +is to be distinguished, is the burning of that +substance, or its capacity for making a fire. +Therefore, however similar in other respects, +a substance which had not that eminent quality +of coal could hardly be considered as being +allied to it; far less could it be supposed, +as being in every other respect the same. We +are however to endeavour to show, that there +are truly substances of this kind, substances +which to common observation, having none +of the properties of coal with respect to fire, +consequently, no utility for the purpose of +burning, might be considered as another species +of mineral, while at the same time they +are truly at bottom a composition very little +different from those which we have considered +as the most perfect coal.</p> + +<p>It must be recollected that we have distinguished +coal in general as of two different +species, one perfect or proper coal, containing +no perceptible quantity of either oil or phlegm; +the other as burning with smoke and flame, +consequently containing both aqueous and +oleaginous substances which it emits in distillation. +It is the first of these which we are +now to consider more particularly, in order +to see the varieties which may be found in +this species of mineral substance.</p> + +<p>When that bituminous fossil, which is the +common coal of this country, is submitted to +heat it is subject to melt more or less, and +emits smoke which is composed of water and +oil. If it be thus completely distilled, it +becomes a perfect coal of a porous or spongy +texture. Such a substance as this is extremely +rare among minerals; I have however found +it. It is in the harbour of Ayr, where a whinstone +dyke traverses the coal strata, and includes +some of that substance in the state of +coals or cinder. I pointed this out many +years ago to Dr Black; and lately I showed +it to Professor Playfair.</p> + +<p>But the culm of South Wales, the Kilkenny +coal of Ireland, and the blind coal of +Scotland, notwithstanding that these are a perfect +coal, or charred to a coal, have nothing +of the porous construction of the specimen +which I have just now mentioned; they are +perfectly solid, and break with a smooth shining +surface like those which emit smoke and +flame.</p> + +<p>Here is therefore a mineral operation in the +preparation of those coals which we cannot +imitate; and here is the clearest evidence of +the operation of mineral fire or heat, although +we are ignorant of the reason why some coal +strata are charred, while others are not, and +why, in some particular cases, the charred coal +may be porous or spungy like our coaks, while +in general those blind coals (as they are called) +are perfectly solid in their structure.</p> + +<p>But to what I would call more particularly +the attention of mineral philosophers is this, +that it is inconceivable to have this effect produced +by means of water; we might as well +say that heat were to be the cause of ice. The +production of coal from vegetable bodies, in +which that phlogistic substance is originally +produced, or from animal bodies which have +it from that source, is made by heat, and by +no other means, so far as we know. But, +even heat alone is not sufficient to effect that +end, or make a perfect coal; the phlogistic +body, which is naturally compound, consisting +of both inflammable and combustible substances, +must be separated chemically, and this +must be the operation of heat under the proper +circumstances for distillation or evaporation.</p> + +<p>Here is the impossibility which in the last +chapter I have alleged the aqueous theory +has to struggle against; and here is one of +the absolute proofs of the igneous theory. +Not only must the aqueous part of those natural +phlogistic bodies be evaporated, in order +to their becoming coal, but the oily parts must +also, by a still increased degree of heat, be +evaporated, or separated by distillation from +the combustible part. Here, therefore, is evidently +the operation of heat, not simply that +of fusion in contradiction to the fluidity of +aqueous solution, but in opposition to any effect +of water, as requiring the absence or separation +of that aqueous substance.</p> + +<p>But those natural appearances go still farther +to confirm our theory, which, upon all occasions, +considers the compression upon the bodies +that are submitted to the operation of +heat, in the mineral regions, as having the +greatest efficacy in modifying that operation. +Coal strata, which are in the neighbourhood +of each other, being of those two opposite +species, the one fusible and inflammable, the +other infusible and combustible, afford the +clearest proof of the efficacy of compression; +for, it is evident, that the coal, which was once +bituminous or fusible, cannot be charred without +the distillation of that substance; therefore, +prevent the distillation by compression +and the charring operation cannot proceed, +whatever should be the intensity of the heat; +and then, fusion alone must be the effect upon +the bituminous body. But now, as we have +both those species of coal in the vicinity of +each other, and even the same strata of coal +part charred, while the rest is not, this natural +appearance, so far from being a stumbling +block, as it must be to the opposite theory, is +most clearly explained by the partial escape of +vapours from the mineral regions, and thus +confirms the theory with regard to the efficacy +of compression.</p> + +<p>It is owing to the solidity of those natural +charred coals, and the want of oil, that +they are so very difficult of kindling; but, +when once kindled in sufficient quantity, they +make a fire which is very durable. There +are even some of them which, to common observation, +seem to be altogether incombustible. +I have of this kind a specimen from a stratum +at Stair, which shall be afterwards mentioned.</p> + +<p>M. Struve, in the Journal de Physique for +January 1790, describes a mineral which he +calls <i>plombagine charbonneuse ou hexaëdre</i>; +and gives for reason, <i>parce qu'elle ressemble extrêmement +au charbon de pierre schisteux, ou +d'hexaëdre</i>. He says farther, "Il est très +commun, dans une roche qui forme un passage +entre les granits et les brèches, qu'on +n'a trouvée jusqu'à présent qu'on masses +roulées dans le pays de Vaud." He concludes +his paper thus: "Ce fossile singulier ne +paroît pas appartenir à la Suisse seule. J'ai +dans ce moment devant les yeux une substance +parfaitement semblable, si on excepte +la couleur qui tient le milieu entre le gris +de fer et le rouge modéré; elle vient du +pays de Gotha de la Friedrischs-grube, +proche d'Umneau. On le regarde comme +un eisenrahm uni à du charbon de pierre."</p> + +<p>The specimen which I have from Stair +upon the water of Ayr, so far as I can understand, +perfectly resembles this <i>plombagine</i> of +M. Struve. It consumes very slowly in the +fire, and deflagrates like plumbago with nitre. +Now this comes from a regular coal stratum; +and what is more remarkable, in this stratum +is contained a true plumbago, Farther up the +country, the Earl of Dumfries has also a mine +containing plumbago along with other coal +strata; and though the plumbago of these two +mines have not all the softness and beauty of +the mineral of the same species from Cumberland, +they are nevertheless perfect plumbago.</p> + +<p>I have a specimen of steatetical whinstone +or basaltes from some part of Cumberland, in +which is contained many nodules of the most +perfect and beautiful plumbago. It is dispersed +through this stone in rounded masses of +all sizes from a nut to a pin's head; and many +of these are mixed with pyrites. There is +therefore reason to believe that this plumbago +had been in fusion.</p> + +<p>Now, if we consider that every species of +coal and every species of plumbago are equally, +that is, perfectly combustible, and yield, in +burning, the same volatile principles, differing +only perhaps a little in the small quantity of +fixed matter which remains, we shall be inclined +to believe, that they have all the same +origin in a vegetable substance; and that they +are diversified by some very small composition +of other matter. This being allowed, one +thing is certain, that it is by the operation of +mineral fire or heat that those combustible substances, +however composed, have been brought +to their present state of coal, although we are +ignorant of the circumstances by which their +differences and their peculiar chemical and +mechanical qualities have been produced.</p> + +<p>Let us resume in a few words. There is +not perhaps one substance in the mineral kingdom +by which the operation of subterraneous +heat is, to common understanding, better exemplified +than that of mineral coal. Those +strata are evidently a deposit of inflammable +substances which all come originally from vegetable +bodies. In this state of their formation, +those coal strata must all be oleagenous +or bituminous. In many of them, however, +these volatile parts are found wanting; and, +the stratum is found in the state of the most +perfect coal or caput mortuum. There, is, I +presume, no other means to be found by +which this eminent effect could be produced, +except by distillation; and, this distillation +perhaps proceeded under the restraining force +of an immense compression.</p> + +<p>To this theory it must not be objected, that +all the strata of coal, which are found in the +same place or neighbourhood, are not reduced +to that caput mortuum or perfect coaly state. +The change from a bituminous to a coaly +substance can only take place in proportion as +the distillation of the volatile parts is permitted. +Now this distillation must be permitted, +if any passage can be procured from the inflammable +body submitted to the operation of +subterraneous heat; and, one stratum of coal +may find vent for the passage of those vapours, +through some crevice which is not +open to another. In this way, doubtless, +some of those bodies have been inspissated or +reduced to a fixed coal, while others, at a little +distance, have retained most of their volatile +parts.</p> + +<p>We cannot doubt of this distilling operation +in the mineral regions, when we consider that +in most places of the earth we find the evident +effects of such distillation of oily substances +in the naphta and petroleum that are constantly +emitted along with water in certain +springs. These oily substances are no other +than such as may be procured, in a similar +manner, from the fusible or inflammable coal +strata; we have therefore every proof of this +mineral operation that the nature of things +admit of. We have also sufficient evidence +that those fusible and inflammable coals, which +have not been distilled to a caput mortuum, +had been subjected to the operation of subterraneous +heat, because we find those fusible +coals subject to be injected with pyrites, as +well as the more perfect coal.</p> + +<p>If we now consider those various appearances +of mineral bodies which are thus explained +by the theory of mineral fire, or exertion +of subterraneous heat, appearances +which it is impossible to reconcile by any +supposition of aqueous solution, or that unintelligible +language of mineral infiltration which +has of late prevailed, we shall be fully satisfied, +that there is a uniform system in nature +of providing a power in the mineral regions, +for consolidating the loose materials deposited +at the bottom of the sea, and for erecting +those masses of mineralized substances into +the place of land; we shall thus be led to +admire the wisdom of nature, providing for +the continuation of this living world, and employing +those very means by which, in a more +partial view of things, this beautiful structure +of an inhabited earth seems to be necessarily +going into destruction.</p> + +<br> +<h4>END OF VOLUME FIRST.</h4> + +<br><br> +<h3>PLATES</H3> +<br><br> + +<a name="p1"></a> +<div align="center"><img src="images/ill_1.png" alt=""></div> +<br><br> +<a name="p2"></a> +<div align="center"><img src="images/ill_2.png" alt=""></div> +<br><br> +<a name="p3"></a> +<div align="center"><img src="images/ill_3.png" alt="" width="100%"></div> +<br><br> +<div align="center"><img src="images/ill_4.png" alt="" width="100%"></div> +<br><br> +<hr class="full" noshade> + +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 12861 ***</div> +</body> +</html> diff --git a/12861-h/images/ill_1.png b/12861-h/images/ill_1.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6b1e9b8 --- /dev/null +++ b/12861-h/images/ill_1.png diff --git a/12861-h/images/ill_2.png b/12861-h/images/ill_2.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..78d8f44 --- /dev/null +++ b/12861-h/images/ill_2.png diff --git a/12861-h/images/ill_3.png b/12861-h/images/ill_3.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4f3e633 --- /dev/null +++ b/12861-h/images/ill_3.png diff --git a/12861-h/images/ill_4.png b/12861-h/images/ill_4.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..25e82ee --- /dev/null +++ b/12861-h/images/ill_4.png |
