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Morse, Jr.. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- +body { + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + +p { + margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; +} + +img { + border: none; +} + +h1, h2, h3, h4, h5, h6 { + text-align: center; +} + +hr { + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em; +} + +hr.long { + width: 70%; +} + +hr.short { + width: 50% +} + +/* page numbers float in the margin */ +.pagenum { + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; +} + +.indexterm { + margin-bottom: 0em; + font-weight: bold; +} + +.indexentry { + margin-left: 2em; + margin-top: 0em; + margin-bottom: 0em; +} + +.footnote { + font-size: 0.9em; +} + +.display { + margin-left: 2em; + margin-right: 2em; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em;} + +.figure { + padding: 1em; + margin: 0; + text-align: center; + font-size: 0.9em; +} + + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Abraham Lincoln, Vol. I., by John T. Morse + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Abraham Lincoln, Vol. I. + +Author: John T. Morse + +Release Date: July 1, 2004 [EBook #12800] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ABRAHAM LINCOLN, VOL. I. *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland and PG Distributed Proofreaders + + + + + +</pre> + + + + +<br /><!-- Image No 1 --><a name='Png001'></a> + +<p class="figure"> +<a href="img/illus0421.jpg"> +<img width="50%" src='img/illus0421.jpg' alt='Abraham Lincoln'/></a><br /> +Abraham Lincoln. +</p> + +<!-- Image No 2 --><a name='Png002'></a> +<!-- Image No 3 --><a name='Png003'></a> + +<h3>American Statesmen</h3> +<h4>STANDARD LIBRARY EDITION</h4> + +<br /> + +<p class="figure"> +<a href="img/illus0419.jpg"> +<img width="50%" src='img/illus0419.jpg' alt='The Early House of Abraham Lincoln.'/></a><br/> +The Early House of Abraham Lincoln. +</p> + +<hr class='long'/> + +<!-- Image No 4 --><a name='Png004'></a> +<!-- Image No 5 --><a name='Png005'></a> + +<h1>ABRAHAM LINCOLN</h1> + +<h3>BY</h3> +<h2>JOHN T. MORSE, JR.</h2> + +<h3>IN TWO VOLUMES</h3> +<h3>VOL. I.</h3> + +<h3>1899</h3> +<!-- Image No 6 --><a name='Png006'></a> +<!-- Image No 7 --><a name='Png007'></a><a name='Page_v'></a> +<span class="pagenum">v</span> + +<hr class='long'/> + +<a name='EDITORS_INTRODUCTION'></a> + +<h2>EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION</h2> + +<p>The fifth and final group of biographies in the +American Statesmen series deals with the Period +of the Civil War. The statesmen whose lives are +included in this group are Abraham Lincoln, +William H. Seward, Salmon P. Chase, Charles +Francis Adams, Charles Sumner, and Thaddeus +Stevens.</p> + +<hr class='short'/> + +<p>The years of the civil war constitute an episode +rather than an independent period in our national +history. They were interposed between two eras; +and if they are to be integrally connected with +either of these, it is with the era which preceded +them rather than with that which followed them. +They were the result, the closing act, of the quarter-century +of the anti-slavery crusade. When +the war came to an end the country made a new +start under new conditions. Yet it is proper to +treat the years of the war by themselves, not only +because they were filled by the clearly defined and +abnormal condition of warfare, but because a distinct +group of statesmen is peculiarly associated +with them. The men whose lives are found in +<!-- Image No 8 --><a name='Png008'></a><a name='Page_vi'></a><span class="pagenum">vi</span> +this group had been struggling for recognition +during the years which preceded the war, but they +only arrived at the control of affairs after that +event became assured. Soon after its close their +work was substantially done.</p> + +<p>For a long while before hostilities actually broke +out, it was evident that a civil war would be a +natural result of the antagonism between the +South and the North; it is now obvious enough +that it was more than a natural, that it was an +absolutely inevitable result. Looking backward, +we can only be surprised that wise men ever fancied +that a conflict could be avoided; but, as +usual, the strenuous hope became father to an anxious +belief. Abraham Lincoln, in the first year +when he gave indication of his political clear-sightedness, +said truly that the country could not continue +half slave and half free. That truth involved +war. There was no other possible way to settle +the question between the two halves; talk of freeing +the slaves by purchase, or by gradual emancipation +and colonization, was simple nonsense, +the forlorn schemes of men who would fain have +escaped out of the track of inexorable destiny. +Yet the vast majority of the nation, appalled at +the vision of the great fact which lay right athwart +their road, was obstinate in the delusive expectation +of flanking it, as though there were side paths +<!-- Image No 9 --><a name='Png009'></a><a name='Page_vii'></a><span class="pagenum">vii</span> +whereby mankind can circumvent fate and walk +around that which <i>must be</i>, just as if it were not. +Thus it came to pass that when the South seceded, +as every intelligent man ought to have been perfectly +sure would be the case, a confusion fell for +a time upon the North. In that section of the +country there was for a few months a spectacle +which has no parallel in history. There was paralysis, +there was disintegration; worse than either, +there was an utter lack of straight sense and clear +thought. There were politicians, editors, writers, +agitators, reformers in multitudes whose reiteration +of their moral convictions, whose intense addresses +and uncompromising articles, had for years been +bringing about precisely this event; yet when it +came, it appeared that no one of them had contemplated +it with any realizing appreciation, no one +of them was ready for it, no one of them had any +sensible, practical course of action to recommend. +There was no union among them, no cohesion of +opinion or of purpose, no agreement of forecast; +each had his own individual notion as to what +could be done, what should be done, what would be +the train of events. Politically speaking, society +was a mere parcel of units, with topical proximity, +but with no other element of aggregation. The immensity +of the crisis seemed to shake men's minds; +the enigma of duty involved such possibilities, in +<!-- Image No 10 --><a name='Png010'></a><a name='Page_viii'></a><span class="pagenum">viii</span> + +case of a wrong solution, that the wisest leaders, +becoming dazed and overawed, uttered the grossest +follies. Men who had been energetic and vigorous +before, when they were pursuing a purpose, who +became so again afterward, when the distinct issue +had taken shape, now lost for a time their intellectual +self-possession. The picture of the country +during three or four months, or rather an observant +study of the prominent men of the country, is sufficiently +interesting historically, but is vastly more +so psychologically. I know of no other period in +history in which this peculiar element of interest +exists to anywhere near an equal degree. It is +the study of human nature which for a brief time +absorbs us, much more than the study of events.</p> + +<p>But this condition was, by its nature, transitory. +Events moved, and soon created defined and clean-cut +issues, in relation to which individuals were +compelled to find their positions,—positions where +they could establish a belief, whether that belief +should prove at last to be right or wrong; positions +wherein they were willing to abide to the end, +be that end victory or ruin. Primarily everything +depended upon Abraham Lincoln. If he should +prove to be a weak man, like his predecessor, or +if he should prove to be a man of merely ordinary +capacity and character like the presidents who had +followed Van Buren, then all was over for the +<!-- Image No 11 --><a name='Png011'></a><a name='Page_ix'></a><span class="pagenum">ix</span> + +North. With what anxiety, with how much doubt, +the people of the Northern States scanned their +singular and untried choice can never be fully appreciated +by persons who cannot remember those +wearisome, overladen days. He was an unknown +quantity in the awful problem. In his debates +with Douglas he had given some indication of +what was in him, but outside of Illinois not one +man in a hundred was familiar with those debates. +Nor did even they furnish conclusive proof +of his administrative capacity, especially in these +days of novel and mortal stress. For a time he +seemed to wait, to drift; until the day of his inauguration +he gave no sign; then in his speech the +people, whose hearts were standing still in their +eagerness to hear, found reassuring sentences. Yet +nothing seemed to follow during many anxious +weeks; the suns rose and the suns set, and still the +leader raised no standard around which the people +could rally, uttered no inspiring word of command +which could unite the dissevered political cliques. +What was in his mind all this while can never be +known, though no knowledge could be more interesting. +Was he in a simple attitude of expectancy, +awaiting the march of events, watchful for some +one of them to give him the cue as well as the opportunity +for action? Many believe that this was +the case; and if it was, no other course could have +<!-- Image No 12 --><a name='Png012'></a><a name='Page_x'></a><span class="pagenum">x</span> +been more intelligent. In due time events came +which brought decision with them, the crisis shaped +itself, and he was ready with clear and prompt +action. When it was known what he would do, +matters were settled. The people, once assured +that the fight would be made, entered upon it with +such a temper and in possession of such resources +that, in spite of those trying fluctuations which +any wise man could have foreseen, they were sure +in the end to win.</p> + +<p>It would be out of place in these prefatory paragraphs, +to attempt any skeleton picture of the +momentous struggle. I believe that the story is +told very completely in the lives which compose +this group. The statesmen who controlled events +during the war were a new group; they were not +young men, neither were they unknown or untried +in public affairs; but they were for the first time +in control. In their younger days they had been +under the shadow and predominance of the old +school of statesmen, whose object had been to prevent, +or at least to defer indefinitely, precisely that +crisis which was now present. They themselves, +on the other hand, had been strenuously advocating +the policies which had at last brought that crisis +into existence. But the election of Abraham Lincoln +was their first, and as yet their only triumph. +In all previous trials of strength they had been +<!-- Image No 13 --><a name='Png013'></a><a name='Page_xi'></a><span class="pagenum">xi</span> +defeated. Their present success was like the +bursting of a torrent through a dam. At the instant +when they attained it they found themselves +involved in a political swirl and clash of momentous +difficulties. It was a tremendous test to which +they were being subjected. The part which Lincoln +played, at their head, I have endeavored to +depict in his life. The manner in which he controlled +without commanding, his rare combination +of confidence in his own judgment with entire absence +of self-assertion, his instinctive appreciation +of the meaning and bearing of facts, his capacity +to recognize the precise time until which action +should be postponed and then to know that action +must be taken, suggesting the idea of prescience, +his long-suffering and tolerance towards impolitic, +obstructive, or over-rash individuals, his marvelous +gift of keeping in touch with the people, form a +group of qualities which, united in the President +of the United States at that mortal juncture, are +as strong evidence as anything which this generation +has seen to corroborate a faith in an overruling +Providence. Conceive what might have +happened if it had been some other of our presidents +who had happened to have his term begin +in 1861! Yet, after all the study that can be +made of him, there are unexplainable elements in +Lincoln's character which will leave him forever +<!-- Image No 14 --><a name='Png014'></a><a name='Page_xii'></a><span class="pagenum">xii</span> +an enigma. If the world ever settles down to the +acceptance of any definite, accurate picture of +him, it will surely be a false picture. There must +always be vague, indefinable uncertainties in any +presentation of him which shall be truly made.</p> + +<p>Of the men who labored with him, I have left +myself room to say little, nor need much be said +here. Their lives tell their stories. Taken together, +these biographies contain the history, upon +the civil side, of the war period. Seward represents +the policy of the administration as a whole, +for all civil business centred in the office of the +secretary of state. He was a man of extraordinary +ability. It is true that he made a strange blunder +or two, at the outset, odd episodes in his intelligent, +clear-sighted, cool-headed career,—psychologically +interesting, as has been suggested; but he +immediately recovered himself and settled down +to that course of wise statesmanship which was +justly to be expected of him.</p> + +<p>Chase handled the finances of the country with +brilliant success. People have criticised him, especially +have said that his legal-tender scheme was a +needless and mischievous measure. But his task +was immeasurably difficult, and he had to act with +great promptitude, having little time for consideration, +obliged to provide instantly for immediate +exigencies, forced to respect the present state of +<!-- Image No 15 --><a name='Png015'></a><a name='Page_xiii'></a><span class="pagenum">xiii</span> +feeling among the moneyed classes, though it might +be transitory, and to be controlled by the possibilities +of the passing moment. He met the gigantic +daily outlay without even a temporary interruption, +and the country grew rich, not only nominally in +an inflated currency, but actually in a great development +of material resources, beneath his management +of the treasury. To find fault with him, +and to talk of the "<i>might have been</i>" seems unworthy; +also unsatisfactory, since the consequences +of a different policy are wholly matter of supposition.</p> + +<p>Charles Sumner, the preacher of the crusade, +stands for the moral element. Possibly his most important +work came before the war. But the prestige +which he had gained made him a man to be +reckoned with, and he had a following of fervent +and resolute men in the country so numerous that +his support was essential and his opinions had to +be treated with respect.</p> + +<p>The career of Charles Francis Adams in England +will be read for the first time in the life which +forms a part of this series. It has been written +by his son, of course with every possible advantage, +and it is one of the most interesting chapters +in the history of the civil war. Of him, too, it +may be said that he seems to have been specially +raised up for precisely the duty which he had to +<!-- Image No 16 --><a name='Png016'></a><a name='Page_xiv'></a><span class="pagenum">xiv</span> +fulfill. A blunder on the part of our envoy to +Great Britain would have possibly led to consequences +which one trembles to contemplate even in +imagination. The services of Franklin in France +and the positive good of the French alliance in the +Revolution, may be compared with the services of +Mr. Adams in England and the negative advantage +of non-interference by England on behalf of the +South in the civil war. Mr. Adams's coolness, his +unerring judgment, and the prestige of his name, +in combination, made him the one man in the +United States who ought by fitness to have held +his post. That he did hold it was, perhaps, one of +the two or three essential facts which together +made Northern success possible, by the elimination +of unfair and extrinsic causes of defeat.</p> + +<p>One part only of the picture remains to be +drawn, the House of Representatives. It is by +no means conducive to a cheerful patriotic pride to +contemplate the general throng of the politicians +of the country during the war. In plain truth, +they did themselves little credit. Amid the excitement +of the times they utterly failed to appreciate +their true position, their personal and +official limitations. They could not let military +matters alone; they did not often recognize the +boundaries of their own knowledge, and the proper +scope of their usefulness. They intermeddled +<!-- Image No 17 --><a name='Png017'></a><a name='Page_xv'></a><span class="pagenum">xv</span> +ceaselessly, embroiled everything, and as a consequence +they obstructed success in the field almost +as much as if they had been another Confederate +army. It has been with some difficulty that +any one from among them has been found whose +life it was desirable to write. But Thaddeus +Stevens was really a man of great power and note. +Intense and earnest, he exerted a magnificent influence +in the way of encouragement and inspiration. +He adhered, if not altogether so closely as +he ought, yet at least more closely than did many +others, to the proper sphere of his duties as a +civilian. Influential in oratory, skillful in political +management, masterful in temperament, and of +unflinching loyalty, he was long the genuine leader +of the House. In recalling the several members +of that body he stands forth as the one striking +and dominant figure. Nor did his activity cease +with the war; he continued preëminent in the +questions which immediately succeeded it, so that +the reconstruction of the country, without which +our story would be incomplete, finds its proper +place in his biography. Therewith, I think, the +series reaches completion.</p> + +<p>JOHN T. MORSE, JR.</p> + +<p>September, 1898.</p> + +<hr class='long'/> +<!-- Image No 19 --><a name='Png019'></a> +<!-- Image No 18 --><a name='Png018'></a> + +<a name='CONTENTS'></a> +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> + +<div class="contents"> + +<p><a href='#EDITORS_INTRODUCTION'>EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION</a> +</p> +<p><a href='#CONTENTS'>CONTENTS</a> +</p> +<p><a href='#ILLUSTRATIONS'>ILLUSTRATIONS</a> +</p> +<p><a href='#CHAPTER_I'>I. THE RAW MATERIAL</a> +</p> +<p><a href='#CHAPTER_II'>II. THE START IN LIFE</a> +</p> +<p><a href='#CHAPTER_III'>III. LOVE; A DUEL; LAW, AND CONGRESS</a> +</p> +<p><a href='#CHAPTER_IV'>IV. NORTH AND SOUTH</a> +</p> +<p><a href='#CHAPTER_V'>V. THE LINCOLN-DOUGLAS JOINT DEBATE</a> +</p> +<p><a href='#CHAPTER_VI'>VI. ELECTION</a> +</p> +<p><a href='#CHAPTER_VII'>VII. INTERREGNUM</a> +</p> +<p><a href='#CHAPTER_VIII'>VIII. THE BEGINNING OF WAR</a> +</p> +<p><a href='#CHAPTER_IX'>IX. A REAL PRESIDENT, AND NOT A REAL BATTLE</a> +</p> +<p><a href='#CHAPTER_X'>X. THE FIRST ACT OF THE MCCLELLAN DRAMA</a> +</p> +<p><a href='#CHAPTER_XI'>XI. MILITARY MATTERS OUTSIDE OF VIRGINIA</a> +</p> +<p><a href='#CHAPTER_XII'>XII. FOREIGN AFFAIRS</a> +</p> + +<p><a href='#INDEX'>INDEX</a> +</p> + +</div> + +<hr class='long'/> + +<!-- Image No 20 --><a name='Png020'></a> +<!-- Image No 21 --><a name='Png021'></a> + +<a name='ILLUSTRATIONS'></a> +<h2>ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> + + +<p><a href="img/illus0421.jpg">ABRAHAM LINCOLN</a> +</p> + +<p>From an original, unretouched negative, made in 1864, +at the time he commissioned Ulysses S. Grant Lieutenant-General +and Commander of all the armies of the Republic. +It is said that this negative, with one of General Grant, +was made in commemoration of that event.</p> + +<p>Autograph from the copy of the Gettysburg Address +made by Lincoln for the Soldiers' and Sailors' Fair at +Baltimore, in 1864, and now in the possession of Wm. J.A. +Bliss, Esq., of that city.</p> + +<p><a href="img/illus0419.jpg">VIGNETTE OF LINCOLN'S EARLY HOME</a> +</p> + +<p>The vignette of Lincoln's early home on Goose-Nest +Prairie, near Farmington, Ill., is from a drawing after a +photograph. This log cabin was built by Lincoln and +his father in 1831.</p> + +<p><a href="img/illus0423.jpg">LYMAN TRUMBULL</a> +</p> + +<p>From a photograph by Brady in the Library of the +State Department at Washington.</p> + +<p>Autograph from the Brady Register, owned by his +nephew, Mr. Levin C. Handy, Washington, D.C.</p> + +<p><a href="img/illus0425.jpg">ALEXANDER H. STEPHENS</a> +</p> + +<p>From a photograph by Brady in the Library of the +State Department at Washington.</p> + +<p>Autograph from the Chamberlain collection, Boston +Public Library.</p> + +<p><a href="img/illus0427.jpg">EDWIN M. STANTON</a> +</p> + +<p>From a photograph by Brady in the Library of the +State Department at Washington.</p> + +<p>Autograph from the Chamberlain collection, Boston +Public Library.</p> + +<p><a href="img/illus0429.jpg">THE FIGHT BETWEEN THE MONITOR AND THE MERRIMAC</a> +</p> + +<p>From the painting by W.F. Halsall in the Capitol at +Washington.</p> + +<hr class='long'/> + +<!-- Image No 22 --><a name='Png022'></a> +<!-- Image No 23 --><a name='Png023'></a><a name='Page001'></a><span class="pagenum">001</span> +<a name='ABRAHAM_LINCOLN'></a> +<h2>ABRAHAM LINCOLN</h2> + +<hr class='long'/> + +<a name='CHAPTER_I'></a> +<h2>CHAPTER I</h2> +<h2>THE RAW MATERIAL</h2> + +<p>Abraham Lincoln knew little concerning his +progenitors, and rested well content with the scantiness +of his knowledge. The character and condition +of his father, of whom alone upon that side +of the house he had personal cognizance, did not +encourage him to pry into the obscurity behind that +luckless rover. He was sensitive on the subject; +and when he was applied to for information, a +brief paragraph conveyed all that he knew or desired +to know. Without doubt he would have been +best pleased to have the world take him solely for +himself, with no inquiry as to whence he came,—as +if he had dropped upon the planet like a meteorite; +as, indeed, many did piously hold that he +came a direct gift from heaven. The fullest statement +which he ever made was given in December, +1859, to Mr. Fell, who had interrogated him with +an eye "to the possibilities of his being an available +candidate for the presidency in 1860:" "My +<!-- Image No 24 --><a name='Png024'></a><a name='Page002'></a><span class="pagenum">002</span> +parents were both born in Virginia, of undistinguished +families,—second families, perhaps I +should say. My mother ... was of a family of +the name of Hanks, some of whom now remain in +Adams, some others in Macon, counties, Illinois. +My paternal grandfather, Abraham Lincoln, emigrated +from Rockingham County, Virginia, to Kentucky, +about 1781 or 1782.... His ancestors, +who were Quakers, went to Virginia from Berks +County, Pennsylvania. An effort to identify them +with the New England family of the same name +ended in nothing more definite than a similarity of +Christian names in both families, such as Enoch, +Levi, Mordecai, Solomon, Abraham, and the like." +This effort to connect the President with the +Lincolns of Massachusetts was afterward carried +forward by others, who felt an interest greater than +his own in establishing the fact. Yet if he had +expected the quest to result satisfactorily, he would +probably have been less indifferent about it; for +it is obvious that, in common with all Americans +of the old native stock, he had a strenuous desire +to come of "respectable people;" and his very +reluctance to have his apparently low extraction +investigated is evidence that he would have been +glad to learn that he belonged to an ancient and +historical family of the old Puritan Commonwealth, +settlers not far from Plymouth Rock, and immigrants +not long after the arrival of the Mayflower. +This descent has at last been traced by the patient +genealogist.</p> + +<!-- Image No 25 --><a name='Png025'></a> +<p><a name='Page003'></a><span class="pagenum">003</span> +So early as 1848 the first useful step was taken +by Hon. Solomon Lincoln of Hingham, Massachusetts, +who was struck by a speech delivered by +Abraham Lincoln in the national House of Representatives, +and wrote to ask facts as to his parentage. +The response<a name='FNanchor_1_1'></a><a href='#Footnote_1_1'><sup>[1]</sup></a> + stated substantially what was +afterward sent to Mr. Fell, above quoted. Mr. +Solomon Lincoln, however, pursued the search farther, +and printed the results<a name='FNanchor_2_2'></a><a href='#Footnote_2_2'><sup>[2]</sup></a> +. Later, Mr. Samuel +Shackford of Chicago, Illinois, himself a descendant +from the same original stock, pushed the investigation +more persistently<a name='FNanchor_3_3'></a><a href='#Footnote_3_3'><sup>[3]</sup></a> +. The chain, as put together +by these two gentlemen, is as follows: Hingham, +Massachusetts, was settled in 1635. In 1636 house +lots were set off to Thomas Lincoln, the miller, +Thomas Lincoln, the weaver, and Thomas Lincoln, +the cooper. In 1638 other lots were set off to +Thomas Lincoln, the husbandman, and to Stephen, +his brother. In 1637 Samuel Lincoln, aged eighteen, +came from England to Salem, Massachusetts, +and three years later went to Hingham; he also +was a weaver, and a brother of Thomas, the weaver. +In 1644 there was a Daniel Lincoln in the place. +All these Lincolns are believed to have come from +the County of Norfolk in England<a name='FNanchor_4_4'></a><a href='#Footnote_4_4'><sup>[4]</sup></a> +, though what +<!-- Image No 26 --><a name='Png026'></a><a name='Page004'></a><span class="pagenum">004</span> +kinship existed between them is not known. It is +from Samuel that the President appears to have +been descended. Samuel's fourth son, Mordecai, a +blacksmith, married a daughter of Abraham Jones +of Hull;<a name='FNanchor_5_5'></a><a href='#Footnote_5_5'><sup>[5]</sup></a> + about 1704 he moved to the neighboring +town of Scituate, and there set up a furnace for +smelting iron ore. This couple had six children, +of whom two were named respectively Mordecai +and Abraham; and these two are believed to have +gone to Monmouth County, New Jersey. There +Mordecai seems to have continued in the iron +business, and later to have made another move to +Chester County, Pennsylvania, still continuing in +the same business, until, in 1725, he sold out all +his "Mynes & Minerals, Forges, etc."<a name='FNanchor_6_6'></a><a href='#Footnote_6_6'><sup>[6]</sup></a> + Then, +migrating again, he settled in Amity, Philadelphia +County, Pennsylvania, where, at last, death caught +up with him. By his will, February 22, 1735-36, +he bequeathed his land in New Jersey to John, +his eldest son; and gave other property to his +sons Mordecai and Thomas. He belied the old +motto, for in spite of more than three removes he +left a fair estate, and in the probate proceedings +he is described as "gentleman."<a name='FNanchor_7_7'></a><a href='#Footnote_7_7'><sup>[7]</sup></a> + In 1748 John +<!-- Image No 27 --><a name='Png027'></a><a name='Page005'></a><span class="pagenum">005</span> +sold all he had in New Jersey, and in 1758 moved +into Virginia, settling in that part of Augusta +County which was afterward set off as Rockingham +County. Though his will has not been found, +there is "ample proof," says Mr. Shackford, that +he had five sons, named Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, +Thomas, and John. Of these, Abraham went to +North Carolina, there married Mary Shipley, and +by her had sons Mordecai, Josiah, and Thomas, +who was born in 1778. In 1780 or 1782, as it is +variously stated, this family moved to Kentucky. +There, one day in 1784, the father, at his labor in +the field, was shot by lurking Indians. His oldest +son, working hard by, ran to the house for a gun; +returning toward the spot where lay his father's +body, he saw an Indian in the act of seizing his +brother, the little boy named Thomas. He fired, +with happy aim; the Indian fell dead, and Thomas +escaped to the house. This Thomas it was who +afterward became the father of Abraham Lincoln.<a name='FNanchor_8_8'></a><a href='#Footnote_8_8'><sup>[8]</sup></a> + +Of the other sons of Mordecai (great-uncles +of the President), Thomas also went to +Kentucky, Isaac went to Tennessee, while Jacob +and John stayed in Virginia, and begat progeny +who became in later times ferocious rebels, and of +whom one wrote a very comical blustering letter to +his relative the President;<a name='FNanchor_9_9'></a><a href='#Footnote_9_9'><sup>[9]</sup></a> + and probably another, +<!-- Image No 28 --><a name='Png028'></a><a name='Page006'></a><span class="pagenum">006</span> +bearing oddly enough the name of Abraham, was +a noted fighter.<a name='FNanchor_10_10'></a><a href='#Footnote_10_10'><sup>[10]</sup></a> + It is curious to observe of what +migratory stock we have here the sketch. Mr. +Shackford calls attention to the fact that through +six successive generations all save one were "pioneers +in the settlement of new countries," thus: +1. Samuel came from England to Hingham, Massachusetts. +2. Mordecai lived and died at Scituate, +close by the place of his birth. 3. Mordecai moved, +and settled in Pennsylvania, in the neighborhood +which afterward became Berks County, while it +was still wilderness. 4. John moved into the wilds +of Virginia. 5. Abraham went to the backwoods +of Kentucky shortly after Boone's settlement. 6. +Thomas moved first into the sparsely settled parts +of Indiana, and thence went onward to a similar +region in Illinois.</p> + +<p>Thus in time was corroborated what Abraham +Lincoln wrote in 1848 in one of the above-mentioned +letters to Hon. Solomon Lincoln: "We +have a vague tradition that my great-grandfather +went from Pennsylvania to Virginia, and that he +was a Quaker." It is of little consequence that +this "vague tradition" was stoutly contradicted +by the President's father, the ignorant Thomas, +who indignantly denied that either a Puritan or +a Quaker could be found in the line of his forbears, +and who certainly seemed to set heredity at +defiance if such were the case. But while thus +repudiating others, Thomas himself was in some +<!-- Image No 29 --><a name='Png029'></a><a name='Page007'></a><span class="pagenum">007</span> +danger of being repudiated; for so pained have +some persons been by the necessity of recognizing +Thomas Lincoln as the father of the President, +that they have welcomed, as a happy escape from +this so miserable paternity, a bit of gratuitous and +unsupported gossip, published, though perhaps with +more of malice than of faith, by Mr. Herndon, to +the effect that Abraham Lincoln was the illegitimate +son of some person unknown, presumably +some tolerably well-to-do Kentuckian, who induced +Thomas to assume the rôle of parent.</p> + +<p>Upon the mother's side the ancestral showing is +meagre, and fortunately so, since the case seems +to be a bad one beyond reasonable hope. Her +name was Nancy Hanks. She was born in Virginia, +and was the illegitimate child of one Lucy +Hanks.<a name='FNanchor_11_11'></a><a href='#Footnote_11_11'><sup>[11]</sup></a> + Nor was she the only instance of illegitimacy<a name='FNanchor_12_12'></a><a href='#Footnote_12_12'><sup>[12]</sup></a> + +in a family which, by all accounts, seems +to have been very low in the social scale. Mr. +Herndon calls them by the dread name of "poor +whites," and gives an unappetizing sketch of +them.<a name='FNanchor_13_13'></a><a href='#Footnote_13_13'><sup>[13]</sup></a> + Throughout his pages and those of Lamon +there is abundant and disagreeable evidence +to show the correctness of his estimate. Nancy +Hanks herself, who certainly was not to blame for +her parentage, and perhaps may have improved +matters by an infusion of better blood from her +<!-- Image No 30 --><a name='Png030'></a><a name='Page008'></a><span class="pagenum">008</span> +unknown father, is described by some as a very +rare flower to have bloomed amid the bed of +ugly weeds which surrounded her. These friendly +writers make her a gentle, lovely, Christian creature, +too delicate long to survive the roughness +of frontier life and the fellowship of the shiftless +rover to whom she was unfittingly wedded.<a name='FNanchor_14_14'></a><a href='#Footnote_14_14'><sup>[14]</sup></a> + +Whatever she may have been, her picture is exceeding +dim, and has been made upon scant and +not unquestionable evidence. Mr. Lincoln seems +not often to have referred to her; but when he +did so it was with expressions of affection for her +character and respect for her mental qualities, provided +at least that it was really of her, and not of +his stepmother, that he was speaking,—a matter +not clear from doubt.<a name='FNanchor_15_15'></a><a href='#Footnote_15_15'><sup>[15]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p>On June 10, 1806, Thomas Lincoln gave bond +in the "just and full sum of fifty pounds" to +marry Nancy Hanks, and two days later, June +12, he did so, in Washington County, Kentucky.<a name='FNanchor_16_16'></a><a href='#Footnote_16_16'><sup>[16]</sup></a> + +She was then twenty-three years old. February +12, 1807, their daughter Sarah was born, who was +married and died leaving no issue. February 12, +1809, Abraham Lincoln was born; no other children +came save a boy who lived only a few days.</p> + +<p>The domestic surroundings amid which the babe +came into life were wretched in the extreme. All +<!-- Image No 31 --><a name='Png031'></a><a name='Page009'></a><span class="pagenum">009</span> +the trustworthy evidence depicts a condition of +what civilized people call misery. It is just as +well to acknowledge a fact which cannot now be +obscured by any amount of euphemism. Yet very +many of Lincoln's biographers have been greatly +concerned to color this truth, which he himself, +with his honest nature, was never willing to misrepresent, +however much he resisted efforts to give +it a general publicity. He met curious inquiry +with reticence, but with no attempt to mislead. +Some of his biographers, however, while shunning +direct false statements, have used alleviating adjectives +with literary skill, and have drawn fanciful +pictures of a pious frugal household, of a gallant +frontiersman endowed with a long catalogue +of noble qualities, and of a mother like a Madonna +in the wilderness.<a name='FNanchor_17_17'></a><a href='#Footnote_17_17'><sup>[17]</sup></a> + Yet all the evidence that there +is goes to show that this romantic coloring is purely +illusive. Rough, coarse, low, ignorant, and poverty-stricken +surroundings were about the child; +and though we may gladly avail ourselves of the +possibility of believing his mother to have been +superior to all the rest of it, yet she could by no +means leaven the mass. The father<a name='FNanchor_18_18'></a><a href='#Footnote_18_18'><sup>[18]</sup></a> + was by calling +a carpenter, but not good at his trade, a shiftless +<!-- Image No 32 --><a name='Png032'></a><a name='Page010'></a><span class="pagenum">010</span> +migratory squatter by invincible tendency, +and a very ignorant man, for a long while able +only to form the letters which made his signature, +though later he extended his accomplishments a +little. He rested not much above the very bottom +of existence in the pioneer settlements, apparently +without capacity or desire to do better. The +family was imbued with the peculiar, intense, but +unenlightened form of Christianity, mingled with +curious superstition, prevalent in the backwoods, +and begotten by the influence of the vast wilderness +upon illiterate men of a rude native force. It +interests scholars to trace the evolutions of religious +faiths, but it might be not less suggestive +to study the retrogression of religion into superstition. +Thomas was as restless in matters of creed +as of residence, and made various changes in both +during his life. These were, however, changes +without improvement, and, so far as he was concerned, +his son Abraham might have grown up to +be what he himself was contented to remain.</p> + +<p>It was in the second year after his marriage +that Thomas Lincoln made his first removal. Four +years later he made another. Two or three years +afterwards, in the autumn of 1816, he abandoned +Kentucky and went into Indiana. Some writers +have given to this migration the interesting +character of a flight from a slave-cursed society +to a land of freedom, but whatever poetic fitness +there might be in such a motive, the suggestion is +entirely gratuitous and without the slightest foundation.<a name='FNanchor_19_19'></a><a href='#Footnote_19_19'><sup>[19]</sup></a> +<!-- Image No 33 --><a name='Png033'></a><a name='Page011'></a><span class="pagenum">011</span> +In making this move, Thomas's outfit +consisted of a trifling parcel of tools and cooking +utensils, with ever so little bedding, and four hundred +gallons of whiskey. At his new quarters he +built a "half-faced camp" fourteen feet square, +that is to say, a covered shed of three sides, the +fourth side being left open to the weather. In +this, less snug than the winter's cave of a bear, +the family dwelt for a year, and then were translated +to the luxury of a "cabin," four-walled indeed, +but which for a long while had neither floor, +door, nor window. Amid this hardship and wretchedness +Nancy Lincoln passed away, October 5, +1818, of that dread and mysterious disease, the +scourge of those pioneer communities, known as +the "milk-sickness."<a name='FNanchor_20_20'></a><a href='#Footnote_20_20'><sup>[20]</sup></a> + In a rough coffin, fashioned +by her husband "out of green lumber cut +with a whip-saw," she was laid away in the forest +clearing, and a few months afterward an itinerant +preacher performed some funeral rites over the +poor woman's humble grave.</p> + +<p>For a year Thomas Lincoln was a widower. +Then he went back to Kentucky, and found there +Mrs. Sally Johnston, a widow, whom, when she +was the maiden Sarah Bush, he had loved and +courted, and by whom he had been refused. He +now asked again, and with better success. The +marriage was a little inroad of good luck into his +career; for the new wife was thrifty and industrious, +<!-- Image No 34 --><a name='Png034'></a><a name='Page012'></a><span class="pagenum">012</span> +with the ambition and the capacity to improve +the squalid condition of her husband's household. +She had, too, worldly possessions of bedding and +furniture, enough to fill a four-horse wagon. She +made her husband put a floor, a door, and windows +to his cabin. From the day of her advent a new +spirit made itself felt amid the belongings of the +inefficient Thomas. Her immediate effort was to +make her new husband's children "look a little +more human," and the youthful Abraham began +to get crude notions of the simpler comforts and +decencies of life. All agree that she was a stepmother +to whose credit it is to be said that she +manifested an intelligent kindness towards Abraham.</p> + +<p>The opportunities for education were scant +enough in that day and place. In his childhood +in Kentucky Abraham got a few weeks with one +teacher, and then a few weeks with another. +Later, in Indiana, he studied a few months, in a +scattered way. Probably he had instruction at +home, for the sum of all the schooling which he +had in his whole life was hardly one year;<a name='FNanchor_21_21'></a><a href='#Footnote_21_21'><sup>[21]</sup></a> + a singular +start upon the road to the presidency of the +United States! The books which he saw were +few, but a little later he laid hands upon them all +and read and re-read them till he must have absorbed +all their strong juice into his own nature. +Nicolay and Hay give the list: The Bible; +"Aesop's Fables;" "Robinson Crusoe;" "The +<!-- Image No 35 --><a name='Png035'></a><a name='Page013'></a><span class="pagenum">013</span> +Pilgrim's Progress;" a history of the United +States; Weems's "Washington." He was doubtless +much older when he devoured the Revised +Statutes of Indiana in the office of the town constable. +Dr. Holland adds Lives of Henry Clay +and of Franklin (probably the famous autobiography), +and Ramsay's "Washington;" and Arnold +names Shakespeare and Burns. It was a small +library, but nourishing. He used to write and to +do sums in arithmetic on the wooden shovel by the +fireside, and to shave off the surface in order to +renew the labor.</p> + +<p>As he passed from boyhood to youth his mental +development took its characteristics from the popular +demand of the neighborhood. He scribbled +verses and satirical prose, wherein the coarse wit +was adapted to the taste of the comrades whom it +was designed to please; and it must be admitted +that, after giving due weight to all ameliorating +considerations, it is impossible to avoid disappointment +at the grossness of the jesting. No thought, +no word raised it above the low level of the audience +made up of the laborers on the farms and +the loungers in the groceries. The biographer +who has made public "The First Chronicles of +Reuben" deserves to be held in detestation.<a name='FNanchor_22_22'></a><a href='#Footnote_22_22'><sup>[22]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p>A more satisfactory form of intellectual effervescence +consisted in writing articles on the American +<!-- Image No 36 --><a name='Png036'></a><a name='Page014'></a><span class="pagenum">014</span> +Government, Temperance, etc., and in speech-making +to any who were near at the moment of +inspiration. There is abundant evidence, also, +that already Lincoln was regarded as a witty fellow, +a rare mimic, and teller of jokes and stories; +and therefore was the champion of the fields and +the favorite of all the primitive social gatherings. +This sort of life and popularity had its perils, for +in that day and region men seldom met without +drinking together; but all authorities are agreed +that Lincoln, while the greatest talker, was the +smallest drinker.</p> + +<p>The stories told of his physical strength rival +those which decorate the memory of Hercules. +Others, which show his kindly and humane nature, +are more valuable. Any or all of these may +or may not be true, and, though they are not so +poetical or marvelous as the myths which lend an +antique charm to the heroes of classic and romantic +lore, yet they compare fairly well with those +which Weems has twined about the figure of the +youthful Washington. There is a tale of the rescue +of a pig from a quagmire, and another of the +saving of a drunken man from freezing. There +are many stories of fights; others of the lifting of +enormous weights; and even some of the doing +of great feats of labor in a day, though for such +tasks Lincoln had no love. These are not worth +recounting; there is store of such in every village +about the popular local hero; and though historians +by such folk-lore may throw a glamour about +<!-- Image No 37 --><a name='Png037'></a><a name='Page015'></a><span class="pagenum">015</span> +Lincoln's daily life, he himself, at the time, could +hardly have seen much that was romantic or poetical +in the routine of ill-paid labor and hard living. +Until he came of age his "time" belonged to his +father, who let him out to the neighbors for any +job that offered, making him a man-of-all-work, +without-doors and within. In 1825 he was thus +earning six dollars a month, presumably besides +board and lodging. Sometimes he slaughtered +hogs, at thirty-one cents a day; and in this "rough +work" he was esteemed especially efficient. Such +was the making of a President in the United States +in this nineteenth century!</p> + +<p>Thomas Lincoln, like most men of his stamp, +had the cheerful habit of laying the results of his +own worthlessness to the charge of the conditions +about him, which, naturally, he constantly sought +to change, since it seemed that no change could +bring him to a lower level than he had already +found. As Abraham approached his "freedom-day," +his luckless parent conceived the notion that +he might do better in Illinois than he had done in +Indiana. So he shuffled off the farm, for which he +had never paid, and about the middle of February +the family caravan, with their scanty household +wares packed in an ox team, began a march which +lasted fourteen days and entailed no small measure +of hardship. They finally stopped at a bluff on +the north bank of the north fork of the Sangamon, +a stream which empties into the Ohio. Here +Thomas Lincoln renewed the familiar process of +<!-- Image No 38 --><a name='Png038'></a><a name='Page016'></a><span class="pagenum">016</span> +"starting in life," and with an axe, a saw, and +a knife built a rough cabin of hewed logs, with a +smoke-house and "stable." Abraham, aided by +John Hanks, cleared ten or fifteen acres of land, +split the rails and fenced it, planted it with corn, +and made it over to Thomas as a sort of bequest at +the close of his term of legal infancy. His subsequent +relationship with his parents, especially with +his father, seems to have been slight, involving an +occasional gift of money, a very rare visit, and +finally a commonplace letter of Christian comfort +when the old man was on his deathbed.<a name='FNanchor_23_23'></a><a href='#Footnote_23_23'><sup>[23]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p>At first Abraham's coming of age made no especial +change in his condition; he continued to find +such jobs as he could, as an example of which Is +mentioned his bargain with Mrs. Nancy Miller "to +split four hundred rails for every yard of brown +jeans dyed with white walnut bark that would be +necessary to make him a pair of trousers." After +many months there arrived in the neighborhood +one Denton Offut, one of those scheming, talkative, +evanescent busybodies who skim vaguely over +new territories. This adventurer had a cargo of +hogs, pork, and corn, which he wanted to send to +New Orleans, and the engagement fell to Lincoln +and two comrades at the wage of fifty cents per +day and a bonus of $60 for the three. It has +been said that this and a preceding trip down the +Mississippi first gave Lincoln a glimpse of slavery +in concrete form, and that the spectacle of +<!-- Image No 39 --><a name='Png039'></a><a name='Page017'></a><span class="pagenum">017</span> +negroes "in chains, whipped and scourged," and +of a slave auction, implanted in his mind an "unconquerable +hate" towards the institution, so that +he exclaimed: "If ever I get a chance to hit that +thing, I'll hit it hard." So the loquacious myth-maker +John Hanks asserts;<a name='FNanchor_24_24'></a><a href='#Footnote_24_24'><sup>[24]</sup></a> + but Lincoln himself +refers his first vivid impression to a later trip, +made in 1841, when there were "on board ten or +a dozen slaves shackled together with irons." Of +this subsequent incident he wrote, fourteen years +later, to his friend, Joshua Speed: "That sight +was a continual torment to me; and I see something +like it every time I touch the Ohio or any +other slave border. It is not fair for you to assume +that I have no interest in a thing which has, +and continually exercises, the power of making me +miserable."<a name='FNanchor_25_25'></a><a href='#Footnote_25_25'><sup>[25]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p>Of more immediate consequence was the notion +which the rattle-brained Offut conceived of Lincoln's +general ability. This lively patron now +proposed to build a river steamboat, with "runners +for ice and rollers for shoals and dams," of +which his redoubtable young employee was to be +captain. But this strange scheme gave way to +another for opening in New Salem a "general +store" of all goods. This small town had been +born only a few months before this summer of +1831, and was destined to a brief but riotous life +of some seven years' duration. Now it had a +<!-- Image No 40 --><a name='Png040'></a><a name='Page018'></a><span class="pagenum">018</span> +dozen or fifteen "houses," of which some had cost +only ten dollars for the building; yet to the sanguine +Offut it presented a fair field for retail +commerce. He accordingly equipped his "store," +and being himself engaged in other enterprises, he +installed Lincoln as manager. Soon he also gave +Lincoln a mill to run.</p> + +<p>Besides all this patronage, Offut went about +the region bragging in his extravagant way that +his clerk "knew more than any man in the United +States," would some day be President, and could +now throw or thrash any man in those parts. Now +it so happened that some three miles out from New +Salem lay Clary's Grove, the haunt of a gang of +frontier ruffians of the familiar type, among whom +one Jack Armstrong was champion bully. Offut's +boasting soon rendered an encounter between Lincoln +and Armstrong inevitable, though Lincoln +did his best to avoid it, and declared his aversion +to "this woolling and pulling." The wrestling +match was arranged, and the settlers flocked to it +like Spaniards to a bull-fight. Battle was joined +and Lincoln was getting the better of Armstrong, +whereupon the "Clary's Grove boys," with fine +chivalry, were about to rush in upon Lincoln and +maim him, or worse, when the timely intervention +of a prominent citizen possibly saved even the +life of the future President.<a name='FNanchor_26_26'></a><a href='#Footnote_26_26'><sup>[26]</sup></a> + Some of the biographers, +borrowing the license of poets, have chosen +to tell about the "boys" and the wrestling match +<!-- Image No 41 --><a name='Png041'></a><a name='Page019'></a><span class="pagenum">019</span> +with such picturesque epithets that the combat +bids fair to appear to posterity as romantic as +that of Friar Tuck and Robin Hood. Its consequence +was that Armstrong and Lincoln were fast +friends ever after. Wherever Lincoln was at +work, Armstrong used to "do his loafing," and +Lincoln made visits to Clary's Grove, and long +afterward did a friendly service to "old Hannah," +Armstrong's wife, by saving one of her vicious +race from the gallows, which upon that especial +occasion he did not happen to deserve. Also +Armstrong and his gang gave Lincoln hearty political +support, and an assistance at the polls which +was very effective, for success generally smiled on +that candidate who had as his constituency<a name='FNanchor_27_27'></a><a href='#Footnote_27_27'><sup>[27]</sup></a> + the +"butcher-knife boys," the "barefooted boys," the +"half-horse, half-alligator men," and the "huge-pawed +boys."</p> + +<p>An item less susceptible of a poetic coloring is +that about this time Lincoln ransacked the neighborhood +in search of an English grammar, and +getting trace of one six miles out from the settlement, +he walked over to borrow or to buy it. He +brought it back in triumph, and studied it exhaustively.</p> + +<p>There are also some tales of his honesty which +may stand without disgrace beside that of Washington +and the cherry-tree, and may be better entitled +to credit. It is said that, while he was +"keeping shop" for Offut, a woman one day accidentally +<!-- Image No 42 --><a name='Png042'></a><a name='Page020'></a><span class="pagenum">020</span> +overpaid him by the sum of fourpence, +and that he walked several miles that night to +restore the sum to her before he slept. On another +occasion, discovering that in selling half a +pound of tea he had used too small a weight, he +started instantly forth to make good the deficiency. +Perhaps this integrity does not so much differentiate +Lincoln from his fellows as it may seem to +do, for it is said that honesty was the one distinguishing +virtue of that queer society. None +the less these legends are exponents, which the +numerous fighting stories are not, of the genuine +nature of the man. His chief trait all his life +long was honesty of all kinds and in all things; +not only commonplace, material honesty in dealings, +but honesty in language, in purpose, in +thought; <i>honesty of mind</i>, so that he could never +even practice the most tempting of all deceits, +a deceit against himself. This pervasive honesty +was the trait of his identity, which stayed with +him from beginning to end, when other traits +seemed to be changing, appearing or disappearing, +and bewildering the observer of his career. All +the while the universal honesty was there.</p> + +<p>It took less than a year for Offut's shop to come +to ruin, for the proprietor to wander off into the +unknown void from which he had come, and for +Lincoln to find himself again without occupation. +He won some local reputation by navigating the +steamboat Talisman up the Sangamon River to +Springfield; but nothing came of it.</p> + +<!-- Image No 43 --><a name='Png043'></a> +<p><a name='Page021'></a><span class="pagenum">021</span> +The foregoing narrative ought to have given +some idea of the moral and physical surroundings +of Lincoln's early days. Americans need to carry +their memories hardly fifty years back, in order +to have a lively conception of that peculiar body +of men which for many years was pushed out +in front of civilization in the West. Waifs and +strays from highly civilized communities, these +wanderers had not civilization to learn, but rather +they had shuffled off much that belonged to civilization, +and afterwards they had to acquire it +afresh. Among them crudity in thought and uncouthness +in habits were intertwined in odd, incongruous +crossings with the remnants of the more +respectable customs with which they had once been +familiar. Much they forgot and much they put +away as being no longer useful; many of them—not +all—became very ignorant without being +stupid, very brutal without being barbarous. +Finding life hard, they helped each other with a +general kindliness which is impracticable among +the complexities of elaborate social organizations. +Those who were born on the land, among whom +Lincoln belonged, were peculiar in having no reminiscences, +no antecedent ideas derived from their +own past, whereby to modify the influences of the +immediate present. What they should think about +men and things they gathered from what they saw +and heard around them. Even the modification to +be got from reading was of the slightest, for very +little reading was possible, even if desired. An +<!-- Image No 44 --><a name='Png044'></a><a name='Page022'></a><span class="pagenum">022</span> +important trait of these Western communities was +the closeness of personal intercourse in them, and +the utter lack of any kind of barriers establishing +strata of society. Individuals might differ ever so +widely; but the wisest and the dullest, the most +worthless and the most enterprising, had to rub +shoulder to shoulder in daily life. Yet the variety +was considerable: hardy and danger-loving +pioneers fulfilling the requirements of romance; +shiftless vagrants curiously combining utter inefficiency +with a sort of bastard contempt for hardship; +ruffians who could only offset against every +brutal vice an ignoble physical courage; intelligent +men whose observant eyes ranged over the whole +region in a shrewd search after enterprise and +profit; a few educated men, decent in apparel +and bearing, useful in legislation and in preventing +the ideal from becoming altogether vulgarized +and debased; and others whose energy was chiefly +of the tongue, the class imbued with a taste for +small politics and the public business. All these +and many other varieties were like ingredients +cast together into a caldron; they could not keep +apart, each with his own kind, to the degree which +is customary in old established communities; but +they all ceaselessly crossed and mingled and met, +and talked, and dealt, and helped and hustled each +other, and exerted upon each other that subtle +inevitable influence resulting from such constant +intercourse; and so they inoculated each other with +certain characteristics which became common to +<!-- Image No 45 --><a name='Png045'></a><a name='Page023'></a><span class="pagenum">023</span> +all and formed the type of the early settler. Thus +was made "the new West," "the great West," +which was pushed ever onward, and endured along +each successive frontier for about a generation. +An eternal movement, a tireless coming and going, +pervaded these men; they passed hither and +thither without pause, phantasmagorically; they +seemed to be forever "moving on," some because +they were real pioneers and natural rovers, others +because they were mere vagrants generally drifting +away from creditors, others because the better +chance seemed ever in the newer place, and all +because they had struck no roots, gathered no +associations, no home ties, no local belongings. +The shopkeeper "moved on" when his notes became +too pressing; the schoolmaster, after a short +stay, left his school to some successor whose accomplishments +could hardly be less than his own; +clergymen ranged vaguely through the country, +to preach, to pray, to bury, to marry, as the case +might be; farmers heard of a more fruitful soil, +and went to seek it. Men certainly had at times +to work hard in order to live at all, yet it was perfectly +possible for the natural idler to rove, to loaf, +and to be shiftless at intervals, and to become as +demoralized as the tramp for whom a shirt and +trousers are the sum of worldly possessions. Books +were scarce; many teachers hardly had as much +book-learning as lads of thirteen years now have +among ourselves. Men who could neither read nor +write abounded, and a deficiency so common could +<!-- Image No 46 --><a name='Png046'></a><a name='Page024'></a><span class="pagenum">024</span> +hardly imply much disgrace or a marked inferiority; +many learned these difficult arts only in mature +years. Fighting was a common pastime, and +when these rough fellows fought, they fought like +savages; Lincoln's father bit off his adversary's +nose in a fight, and a cousin lost the same feature +in the same way; the "gouging" of eyes was a +legitimate resource. The necessity of fighting +might at any moment come to any one; even the +combination of a peaceable disposition with formidable +strength did not save Lincoln from numerous +personal affrays, of which many are remembered, +and not improbably many more have been forgotten. +In spite of the picturesque adjectives which +have been so decoratively used in describing the +ruffian of the frontier, he seems to have been about +what his class always is; and when these fellows +had forced a fight, or "set up" a match, their +chivalry never prevented any unfairness or brutality. +A tale illustrative of the times is told of a +closely contested election in the legislature for the +office of state treasurer. The worsted candidate +strode into the hall of the Assembly, and gallantly +selecting four of the largest and strongest of those +who had voted against him, thrashed them soundly. +The other legislators ran away. But before the +close of the session this pugilist, who so well understood +practical politics, was appointed clerk of the +Circuit Court and county recorder.<a name='FNanchor_28_28'></a><a href='#Footnote_28_28'><sup>[28]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p>Corn bread was the chief article of diet; potatoes +<!-- Image No 47 --><a name='Png047'></a><a name='Page025'></a><span class="pagenum">025</span> +were a luxury, and were often eaten raw like apples. +To the people at large whiskey "straight" +seemed the natural drink of man, and whiskey +toddy was not distasteful to woman. To refuse +to drink was to subject one's self to abuse and +suspicion;<a name='FNanchor_29_29'></a><a href='#Footnote_29_29'><sup>[29]</sup></a> + Lincoln's notorious lack of liking for +it passed for an eccentricity, or a physical peculiarity. +The customary social gatherings were at +horse-racings, at corn-shuckings, at political +speech-makings, at weddings, whereat the coarse +proceedings would not nowadays bear recital; at +log-rollings, where the neighbors gathered to collect +the logs of a newly cleared lot for burning; +and at house-raisings, where they kindly aided to +set up the frame of a cabin for a new-comer; at +camp-meetings, where the hysterical excitement of +a community whose religion was more than half +superstition found clamorous and painful vent;<a name='FNanchor_30_30'></a><a href='#Footnote_30_30'><sup>[30]</sup></a> + +or perchance at a hanging, which, if it met public +approbation, would be sanctioned by the gathering +of the neighbors within a day's journey of the +scene. At dancing-parties men and women danced +barefoot; indeed, they could hardly do better, +since their foot-wear was apt to be either moccasins, +or such boots as they themselves could make +from the hides which they themselves had cured. +In Lincoln's boyhood the hunting-shirt and leggings +made of skins were a sufficiently respectable +<!-- Image No 48 --><a name='Png048'></a><a name='Page026'></a><span class="pagenum">026</span> +garb; and buckskin breeches dyed green were +enough to captivate the heart of any girl who +wished a fashionable lover; but by the time that +he had become a young man, most self-respecting +men had suits of jeans. The ugly butcher's knife +and tomahawk, which had been essential as was +the rapier to the costume of gentlemen two centuries +earlier, began now to be more rarely seen at +the belt about the waist. The women wore linsey-woolsey +gowns, of home manufacture, and dyed +according to the taste or skill of the wearer in +stripes and bars with the brown juice of the butternut. +In the towns it was not long before calico +was seen, and calfskin shoes; and in such populous +centres bonnets decorated the heads of the +fair sex. Amid these advances in the art of dress +Lincoln was a laggard, being usually one of the +worst attired men of the neighborhood; not from +affectation, but from a natural indifference to such +matters. The sketch is likely to become classical +in American history of the appearance which he +presented with his scant pair of trousers, "hitched" +by a single suspender over his shirt, and so short +as to expose, at the lower end, half a dozen inches +of "shinbone, sharp, blue, and narrow."</p> + +<p>In the clearings the dwellings of these men were +the "half-faced camp" open upon one side to the +weather, or the doorless, floorless, and windowless +cabin which, with prosperity, might be made luxurious +by greased paper in the windows, and "puncheon" +floors. The furniture was in keeping with this +<!-- Image No 49 --><a name='Png049'></a><a name='Page027'></a><span class="pagenum">027</span> +exterior. At a corner the bed was constructed by +driving into the ground crotched sticks, whence +poles extended to the crevices of the walls; upon +these poles were laid boards, and upon these boards +were tossed leaves and skins and such other alleviating +material as could be found. Three-legged +stools and a table were hewed from the felled trees +with an axe, which was often the settler's only and +invaluable tool, and which he would travel long +miles to sharpen. If a woman wanted a looking-glass, +she scoured a tin pan, but the temptation to +inspect one's self must have been feeble. A very +few kitchen utensils completed the outfit. Troughs +served for washtubs, when wash tubs were used; +and wooden ploughs broke up the virgin soil. The +whole was little, if at all, more comfortable than +the red man's wigwam. In "towns," so called, +there was of course somewhat more of civilization +than in the clearings. But one must not be misled +by a name; a "town" might signify only a score +of houses, and the length of its life was wholly +problematical; a few days sufficed to build the +wooden huts, which in a few years might be abandoned. +In the early days there was almost no +money among the people; sometimes barter was +resorted to; one lover paid for his marriage license +with maple sugar, another with wolf-scalps. More +often a promise sufficed; credit was a system well +understood, and promissory notes constituted an +unquestioned and popular method of payment that +would have made a millennium for Mr. Micawber. +<!-- Image No 50 --><a name='Png050'></a><a name='Page028'></a><span class="pagenum">028</span> +But however scant might be cash and houses, each +town had its grocery, and these famous "stores" +were by far the chief influence in shaping the +ideas of the Westerner. There all congregated, +the idlers all day long, the busy men in the evening; +and there, stimulated by the whiskey of the +proprietor, they gossiped about everybody's affairs, +talked about business and the prospects of the +neighborhood, and argued about the politics of the +county, the State, and even of the nation. Jokes +and stories, often most uncouth and gross, whiled +away the time. It was in these groceries, and in +the rough crucible of such talk, wherein grotesque +imagery and extravagant phrases were used to +ridicule pretension and to bring every man to his +place, sometimes also to escape taking a hard +fact too hardly, that what we now call "American +humor," with its peculiar native flavor, was born. +To this it is matter of tradition that Lincoln contributed +liberally. He liked neighborly chat and +discussion; and his fondness for political debate, +and his gifts in tale and jest, made him the most +popular man in every "store" that he entered. It +is commonly believed that the effect of this familiarity +with coarse talk did not afterward disappear, +so that he never became fastidious in language or +in story. But apologists of this habit are doubtless +correct in saying that vulgarity in itself had +no attraction for him; it simply did not repel him, +when with it there was a flavor of humor or a useful +point. Apparently it simply meant nothing to +<!-- Image No 51 --><a name='Png051'></a><a name='Page029'></a><span class="pagenum">029</span> +him; a mental attitude which is not difficult of +comprehension in view of its origin.<a name='FNanchor_31_31'></a><a href='#Footnote_31_31'><sup>[31]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p>Some of the most picturesque and amusing pages +of Ford's "History of Illinois" describe the condition +of the bench and bar of these times.<a name='FNanchor_32_32'></a><a href='#Footnote_32_32'><sup>[32]</sup></a> + "Boys, +come in, our John is going to hold court," proclaimed +the sheriff; and the "boys" loitered into +the barroom of the tavern, or into a log cabin +where the judge sat on the bed and thus, really +from the woolsack, administered "law" mixed with +equity as best he knew it. Usually these magistrates +were prudent in guiding the course of practical +justice, and rarely summed up the facts lest +they should make dangerous enemies, especially in +criminal cases; they often refused to state the law, +and generally for a very good reason. They liked +best to turn the whole matter over to the jurors, +who doubtless "understood the case, and would do +justice between the parties." The books of the +science were scarce, and lawyers who studied them +were perhaps scarcer. But probably substantial +fairness in decision did not suffer by reason of +lack of sheepskin learning.</p> + +<p>Politics for a long while were strictly personal; +the elections did not turn upon principles or measures, +but upon the popular estimate of the candidates +individually. Political discussion meant unstinted +<!-- Image No 52 --><a name='Png052'></a><a name='Page030'></a><span class="pagenum">030</span> +praise and unbounded vilification. A man +might, if he chose, resent a vote against himself +as a personal insult, and hence arose much secrecy +and the "keep dark" system. Stump-speaking, +whiskey, and fighting were the chief elements of a +campaign, and the worst class in society furnished +the most efficient backing.<a name='FNanchor_33_33'></a><a href='#Footnote_33_33'><sup>[33]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p>Such was the condition of men and things in +the neighborhood where Abraham Lincoln was +shaping in the days of his youth. Yet it was a +condition which did not last long; Illinois herself +changed and grew as rapidly as any youngster +within her borders. The rate of advance in +all that goes to make up what we now regard as +a civilized society was astonishing. Between the +time when Lincoln was fifteen and when he was +twenty-five, the alteration was so great as to be +confusing. One hardly became familiar with a +condition before it had vanished. Some towns +began to acquire an aspect of permanence; clothes +and manners became like those prevalent in older +communities; many men were settling down in +established residence, identifying themselves with +the fortunes of their neighborhood. Young persons +were growing up and staying where they had been +"raised," as the phrase of a farming community +had it. Comfortable and presentable two-story +houses lent an air of prosperity and stimulated +ambition; law-books began to be collected in +<!-- Image No 53 --><a name='Png053'></a><a name='Page031'></a><span class="pagenum">031</span> +small numbers; and debts were occasionally paid +in money, and could often be collected by legal +process. These improvements were largely due +to the swelling tide of immigration which brought +men of a better type to push their enterprises in +a country presumably emerging from its disagreeable +stage. But the chief educational influence +was to be found in the Anglo-American passion +for an argument and a speech. Hand in hand, as +has so long been the custom in our country, law +and politics moved among the people, who had an +inborn, inherited taste for both; these stimulated +and educated the settlers in a way that only Americans +can appreciate. When Lincoln, as is soon +to be seen, turned to them, he turned to what +then and there appeared the highest callings which +could tempt intellect and ambition.</p> + +<p>The preëminently striking feature in Lincoln's +nature—not a trait of character, but a characteristic +of the man—which is noteworthy in these +early days, and grew more so to the very latest, +was the extraordinary degree to which he always +appeared to be in close and sympathetic touch +with the people, that is to say, the people in the +mass wherein he was imbedded, the social body +amid which he dwelt, which pressed upon him on +all sides, which for him formed "the public." +First this group or body was only the population +of the frontier settlement; then it widened to +include the State of Illinois; then it expanded +to the population of the entire North; and such +<!-- Image No 54 --><a name='Png054'></a><a name='Page032'></a><span class="pagenum">032</span> +had come to be the popular appreciation of this +remarkably developed quality that, at the time of +his death, his admirers even dared to believe that +it would be able to make itself one with all the +heterogeneous, discordant, antagonistic elements +which then composed the very disunited United +States. It is by reason of this quality that it +has seemed necessary to depict so far as possible +that peculiar, transitory phase of society which +surrounded his early days. This quality in him +caused him to be exceptionally susceptible to the +peculiar influences of the people among whom his +lot was cast. This quality for a while prevented +his differentiating himself from them, prevented +his accepting standards and purposes unlike theirs +either in speech or action, prevented his rising +rapidly to a higher moral plane than theirs. This +quality kept him essentially one of them, until his +"people" and his "public" expanded beyond them. +It has been the fashion of his admirers to manifest +an extreme distaste for a truthful presentation of +his earlier days. Some writers have passed very +lightly over them; others, stating plain facts with +a formal accuracy, have used their skill to give to +the picture an untruthful miscoloring; two or three, +instinct with the spirit of Zola, have made their +sketch with plain unsparing realism in color as well +as in lines, and so have brought upon themselves +abuse, and perhaps have deserved much of it, by +reason of a lack of skill in doing an unwelcome +thing, or rather by reason of overdoing it. The +<!-- Image No 55 --><a name='Png055'></a><a name='Page033'></a><span class="pagenum">033</span> +feeling which has led to suppression or to a falsely +romantic description seems to me unreasonable and +wrong. The very quality which made Lincoln, as +a young man, not much superior to his coarse surroundings +was precisely the same quality which, +ripening and expanding rapidly and grandly with +maturing years and a greater circle of humanity, +made him what he was in later life. It is through +this quality that we get continuity in him; without +it, we cannot evade the insoluble problem of two +men,—two lives,—one following the other with +no visible link of connection between them; without +it we have physically one creature, morally +and mentally two beings. If we reject this trait, +we throw away the only key which unlocks the +problem of the most singular life, taken from end +to end, which has ever been witnessed among men, +a life which many have been content to regard as +an unsolved enigma. But if we admit and really +perceive and feel the full force of this trait, developed +in him in a degree probably unequaled in +the annals of men, then, besides the enlightenment +which it brings, we have the great satisfaction of +eliminating much of the disagreeableness attendant +upon his youthful days. Even the commonness +and painful coarseness of his foolish written +expressions become actually an exponent of his +chief and crowning quality, his receptiveness and +his expression of humanity,—that is to say, of all +the humanity he then knew. At first he expressed +what he could discern with the limited, inexperienced +<!-- Image No 56 --><a name='Png056'></a><a name='Page034'></a><span class="pagenum">034</span> +vision of the ignorant son of a wretched +vagrant pioneer; later he gave expression to the +humanity of a people engaged in a purpose physically +and morally as vast and as grand as any +enterprise which the world has seen. Thus, with +perfect fairness, without wrenching or misrepresentation +or sophistry, the ugliness of his youth +ceases to be his own and becomes only the presentation +of a curious social condition. In his youth +he expressed a low condition, in later life a noble +one; at each period he expressed correctly what +he found. His day and generation uttered itself +through him. With such thoughts, and from this +point of view, it is possible to contemplate Lincoln's +early days, amid all their degraded surroundings +and influences and unmarked by apparent +antagonism or obvious superiority on his part, +without serious dismay.</p> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_1_1'></a><a href='#FNanchor_1_1'>[1]</a> + Two letters, now in the possession of Mr. Francis H. Lincoln +of Boston, Mass.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_2_2'></a><a href='#FNanchor_2_2'>[2]</a> + <i>New England Hist. and Gen. Register</i>, October, 1865.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_3_3'></a><a href='#FNanchor_3_3'>[3]</a> + <i>Ibid.</i> April, 1887, vol. xli. p. 153.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_4_4'></a><a href='#FNanchor_4_4'>[4]</a> + See articles in <i>N.E.H. and G. Reg.</i> above cited. Mr. Lincoln's +article states that in Norwich, Norfolk County, Eng., there +is a "curious chased copper box with the inscription 'Abraham +Lincoln, Norwich, 1731;'" also in St. Andrew's Church in the +same place a mural tablet: "In memory of Abraham Lincoln, of +this parish, who died July 13, 1798, aged 79 years." Similarities +of name are also noted.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_5_5'></a><a href='#FNanchor_5_5'>[5]</a> + A town adjoining Hingham, Mass.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_6_6'></a><a href='#FNanchor_6_6'>[6]</a> + His brother Abraham also resided in Chester County, and +died there, April, 1745.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_7_7'></a><a href='#FNanchor_7_7'>[7]</a> + N. and H. i. 3.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_8_8'></a><a href='#FNanchor_8_8'>[8]</a> + A different pedigree, published in the <i>Lancaster Intelligencer</i>, +September 24, 1879, by David J. Lincoln of Birdsboro, Berks +County, Penn., is refuted by George Lincoln of Hingham, Mass., +in the <i>Hingham Journal</i>, October 10, 1879.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_9_9'></a><a href='#FNanchor_9_9'>[9]</a> + N. and H. i. 4 note.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_10_10'></a><a href='#FNanchor_10_10'>[10]</a> + N. and H. i. 4 note.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_11_11'></a><a href='#FNanchor_11_11'>[11]</a> + Herndon, 3.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_12_12'></a><a href='#FNanchor_12_12'>[12]</a> + The unpleasant Dennis Hanks was an illegitimate son of an +"aunt of the President's mother." Herndon, 13; and see Lamon, +12.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_13_13'></a><a href='#FNanchor_13_13'>[13]</a> + Herndon, 14.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_14_14'></a><a href='#FNanchor_14_14'>[14]</a> + Holland, 23; Lamon, 11; N. and H. i. 24; Herndon, 13, 28; +Raymond, 20; but Raymond is no authority as to Lincoln's +youth, and Holland is little more valuable for the same period.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_15_15'></a><a href='#FNanchor_15_15'>[15]</a> + Lamon, 32. But see Herndon, 13.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_16_16'></a><a href='#FNanchor_16_16'>[16]</a> + N. and H. 23; Herndon, 5; but see Lamon, 10.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_17_17'></a><a href='#FNanchor_17_17'>[17]</a> + For instance, see the pages of the first chapter of the Life by +Arnold, a book which becomes excellent after the author has got +free from the fancied necessities of creating an appropriate background +for the origin and childhood of the hero. So, more briefly, +Raymond, who gives no authority to support the faith which is in +him.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_18_18'></a><a href='#FNanchor_18_18'>[18]</a> + For description of him, see Lamon, 8, 9; Herndon, 11.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_19_19'></a><a href='#FNanchor_19_19'>[19]</a> + Herndon, 19; Lamon, 16; Holland, 25.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_20_20'></a><a href='#FNanchor_20_20'>[20]</a> + Herndon, 25-28; Lamon, 26-28.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_21_21'></a><a href='#FNanchor_21_21'>[21]</a> + Herndon, 34-37, 41; Lamon, 34-36; Holland, 28.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_22_22'></a><a href='#FNanchor_22_22'>[22]</a> + Mr. Herndon did this ill deed; 50-54. Lamon prefers to +say that most of this literature is "too indecent for publication," +63.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_23_23'></a><a href='#FNanchor_23_23'>[23]</a> + Thomas Lincoln died January 17, 1851.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_24_24'></a><a href='#FNanchor_24_24'>[24]</a> + Herndon, 75, 76; Lamon, 82; Arnold, 30; N. and H. i. 72.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_25_25'></a><a href='#FNanchor_25_25'>[25]</a> + N. and H. i. 74.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_26_26'></a><a href='#FNanchor_26_26'>[26]</a> + Lamon, 92, 93, has the best account of this famous encounter.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_27_27'></a><a href='#FNanchor_27_27'>[27]</a> + Ford, <i>Hist. of Illinois</i>, 88.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_28_28'></a><a href='#FNanchor_28_28'>[28]</a> + Ford, <i>Hist. of Illinois</i>, 81.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_29_29'></a><a href='#FNanchor_29_29'>[29]</a> + See anecdote in <i>The Good Old Times in McLean County</i>, 48.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_30_30'></a><a href='#FNanchor_30_30'>[30]</a> + "The jerks" was the graphic name of an attack not uncommon +at these religious meetings.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_31_31'></a><a href='#FNanchor_31_31'>[31]</a> + See Herndon, 104, 118; Holland has some singular remarks +on this subject, p. 83; N. and H., i. 121, say that Lincoln was +"clean of speech,"—an agreeable statement, for which one would +like to have some authority.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_32_32'></a><a href='#FNanchor_32_32'>[32]</a> + Ford, <i>Hist. of Illinois</i>, 82-86.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_33_33'></a><a href='#FNanchor_33_33'>[33]</a> + Ford, <i>Hist. of Illinois</i>, 55, 86, 88,104; Herndon, 103; N. and +H. i. 107; Lamon, 124, 230.</p></div> + + + +<hr class='long'/> +<!-- Image No 57 --><a name='Png057'></a><a name='Page035'></a><span class="pagenum">035</span> + +<a name='CHAPTER_II'></a> +<h2>CHAPTER II</h2> +<h2>THE START IN LIFE</h2> + +<p>In Illinois during the years of Lincoln's boyhood +the red man was retiring sullenly before the fatal +advance of the white man's frontier. Shooting, +scalping, and plundering forays still occurred, and +in the self-complaisant reminiscences of the old +settlers of that day the merciless and mysterious +savage is apt to lend to the narrative the lively +coloring of mortal danger.<a name='FNanchor_34_34'></a><a href='#Footnote_34_34'><sup>[34]</sup></a> + In the spring of 1832 +a noted chief of the Sacs led a campaign of such +importance that it lives in history under the dignified +title of "the Black Hawk war." The Indians +gathered in numbers so formidable that Governor +Reynolds issued a call for volunteers to aid the +national forces. Lincoln, left unemployed by the +failure of Offut, at once enlisted. The custom +then was, so soon as there were enough recruits +for a company, to elect a captain by vote. The +method was simple: each candidate stood at some +point in the field and the men went over to one +or another according to their several preferences. +Three fourths of the company to which Lincoln +belonged ranged themselves with him, and long +<!-- Image No 58 --><a name='Png058'></a><a name='Page036'></a><span class="pagenum">036</span> +afterward he used to say that no other success in +life had given him such pleasure as did this one.</p> + +<p>The company was attached to the Fourth Illinois +Regiment, commanded by Colonel Samuel Thompson, +in the brigade of General Samuel Whiteside. +On April 27 they started for the scene of conflict, +and for many days endured much hardship +of hunger and rough marching. But thereby they +escaped serious danger, for they were too fatigued +to go forward on May 12, when the cavalry battalions +rode out gallantly, recklessly, perhaps a +little stupidly, into ambush and death. It so +happened that Lincoln never came nearer to any +engagement than he did to this one of "Stillman's +Run;" so that in place of military glory he had +to be content with the reputation of being the best +comrade and story-teller at the camp fire. He +had, however, an opportunity to do one honorable +act: the brief term of service of the volunteers +expired on May 27, and most of them eagerly hastened +away from an irksome task, without regard to +the fact that their services were still much needed, +whereas Lincoln and some other officers reënlisted +as privates. They were made the "Independent +Spy Battalion" of mounted volunteers, were given +many special privileges, but were concerned in +no engagement, and erelong were mustered out +of service. Lincoln's certificate of discharge was +signed by Robert Anderson, who afterward was in +command at Fort Sumter at the outbreak of the +rebellion. Thus, late in June, Lincoln was again a +<!-- Image No 59 --><a name='Png059'></a><a name='Page037'></a><span class="pagenum">037</span> +civilian in New Salem, and was passing from war to +politics.</p> + +<p>Nomination by caucus had not yet been introduced +into Illinois,<a name='FNanchor_35_35'></a><a href='#Footnote_35_35'><sup>[35]</sup></a> + and any person who wished to +be a candidate for an elective office simply made +public announcement of the fact and then conducted +his campaign as best he could.<a name='FNanchor_36_36'></a><a href='#Footnote_36_36'><sup>[36]</sup></a> + On March +9, 1832, shortly before his enlistment, Lincoln issued +a manifesto "To the People of Sangamon County," +in which he informed them that he should run as a +candidate for the state legislature at the autumn +elections, and told them his political principles.<a name='FNanchor_37_37'></a><a href='#Footnote_37_37'><sup>[37]</sup></a> + +He was in favor of internal improvements, such +as opening roads, clearing streams, building a railroad +across Sangamon County, and making the +Sangamon River straight and navigable. He advocated +a usury law, and hazarded the extraordinary +argument that "in cases of extreme necessity there +could always be means found to cheat the law; +while in all other cases it would have its intended +effect." A law ameliorated by infractions is no +uncommon thing, but this is perhaps the only +instance in which a law has been befriended on the +ground that it can be circumvented. He believed +<!-- Image No 60 --><a name='Png060'></a><a name='Page038'></a><span class="pagenum">038</span> +that every man should "receive at least a moderate +education." He deprecated changes in existing +laws; for, he said, "considering the great probability +that the framers of those laws were wiser +than myself, I should prefer not meddling with +them." The clumsy phraseology of his closing +paragraph coupled not badly a frank avowal of +ambition with an ingenuous expression of personal +modesty. The principles thus set forth were those +of Clay and the Whigs, and at this time the "best +people" in Sangamon County belonged to this +party. The Democrats, on the other hand, did not +much concern themselves with principles, but accepted +General Jackson in place thereof, as constituting +in himself a party platform. In the rough-and-tumble +pioneer community they could not do +better, and for many years they had controlled +the State; indeed, Lincoln himself had felt no +small loyalty towards a President who admirably +expressed Western civilization. Now, however, he +considered himself "an avowed Clay man,"<a name='FNanchor_38_38'></a><a href='#Footnote_38_38'><sup>[38]</sup></a> + and +besides the internal improvement system he spoke +also for a national bank and a high protective +tariff; probably he knew very little about either, +but his partisanship was perfect, for if there was +any distinguishing badge of an anti-Jackson Whig, +it certainly was advocacy of a national bank.</p> + +<p>After his return from the "war," Lincoln set +<!-- Image No 61 --><a name='Png061'></a><a name='Page039'></a><span class="pagenum">039</span> +about electioneering with a good show of energy. +He hardly anticipated success, but at least upon +this trial trip he expected to make himself known +to the people and to gain useful experience. He +"stumped" his own county thoroughly, and is said +to have made speeches which were blunt, crude, +and inartificial, but not displeasing to his audiences. +A story goes that once "a general fight" +broke out among his hearers, and one of his friends +was getting roughly handled, whereupon Lincoln, +descending from the rostrum, took a hand in the +affray, tossed one of the assailants "ten or twelve +feet easily," and then continued his harangue. +Yet not even thus could he win, and another was +chosen over his head. He had, however, more +reason to be gratified than disappointed with the +result; for, though in plain fact he was a raw and +unknown youngster, he stood third upon a list of +eight candidates, receiving 657 votes; and out of +208 votes cast in his own county he scored 205.<a name='FNanchor_39_39'></a><a href='#Footnote_39_39'><sup>[39]</sup></a> + +In this there was ample encouragement for the +future.</p> + +<p>The political campaign being over, and legislative +functions postponed, Lincoln was brought face +to face with the pecuniary problem. He contemplated, +not without approbation, the calling of the +blacksmith; but the chance to obtain a part interest +in a grocery "store" tempted him into an occupation +for which he was little fitted. He became +junior partner in the firm of Berry & Lincoln, +<!-- Image No 62 --><a name='Png062'></a><a name='Page040'></a><span class="pagenum">040</span> +which, by executing and delivering sundry notes +of hand, absorbed the whole grocery business of +the town. But Lincoln was hopelessly inefficient +behind the counter, and Berry was a tippler. So +in a year's time the store "winked out," leaving +as its only important trace those ill-starred scraps +of paper by which it had been founded. Berry +"moved on" from the inconvenient neighborhood, +and soon afterward died, contributing nothing to +reduce the indebtedness. Lincoln patiently continued +to make payments during several years to +come, until he had discharged the whole amount. +It was only a few hundred dollars, but to him it +seemed so enormous that betwixt jest and earnest +he called it "the national debt." So late as in +1848, when he was a member of the House of +Representatives at Washington, he applied part +of his salary to this old indebtedness.</p> + +<p>During this "store"-keeping episode he had +begun to study law, and while "keeping shop" he +was with greater diligence reading Blackstone and +such other elementary classics of the profession +as he could borrow. He studied with zeal and +became absorbed in his books. Perched upon a +woodpile, or lying under a tree with his feet thrust +upwards against the trunk and "grinding around +with the shade," he caused some neighbors to laugh +uproariously, and others to say that he was daft. +In fact, he was in grim earnest, and held on his +way with much persistence.</p> + +<p>May 7, 1833, Lincoln was commissioned as postmaster +<!-- Image No 63 --><a name='Png063'></a><a name='Page041'></a><span class="pagenum">041</span> +at New Salem. His method of distributing +the scanty mail was to put all the letters in +his hat, and to hand them out as he happened to +meet the persons to whom they were addressed. +The emoluments could hardly have gone far towards +the discharge of "the national debt." His +incumbency in this office led to a story worth telling. +When New Salem, and by necessity also the +post-office, like the grocery shop, "winked out," +in 1836, there was a trifling balance of sixteen or +eighteen dollars due from Lincoln to the government. +Several years afterward, when he was practicing +law in Springfield, the government agent at +last appeared to demand a settlement. Lincoln +went to his trunk and drew forth "an old blue +sock with a quantity of silver and copper coin tied +up in it," the identical bits of money which he +had gathered from the people at New Salem, and +which, through many days of need in the long +intervening period, he had not once touched.</p> + +<p>Fortunately an occupation now offered itself +which was more lucrative, and possessed also the +valuable quality of leaving niches of leisure for +the study of the law. The mania for speculation +in land had begun in Illinois; great tracts were +being cut up into "town lots," and there was as +lively a market for real estate as the world has +ever seen. The official surveyor of the county, +John Calhoun, had more work than he could do, +and offered to appoint Lincoln as a deputy. A +little study made him competent for the work, +<!-- Image No 64 --><a name='Png064'></a><a name='Page042'></a><span class="pagenum">042</span> +which he performed for some time with admirable +accuracy, if the stories are to be believed. But +he had not long enjoyed the mild prosperity of +this new career ere an untoward interruption came +from a creditor of the extinct grocery firm. This +man held one of the notes representing "the +national debt," and now levied execution upon +Lincoln's horse and surveying instruments. Two +friends, however, were at hand in this hour of need, +and Bolin Greene and James Short are gratefully +remembered as the men who generously furnished, +in that actual cash which was so scarce in Illinois, +the sums of one hundred and twenty-five dollars +and one hundred and twenty dollars respectively, +to redeem these essential implements of Lincoln's +business.</p> + +<p>The summer of 1834 found Lincoln again a candidate +for the legislature. He ran as a Whig, but +he received and accepted offers of aid from the +Democrats, and their votes swelled the flattering +measure of his success. It has usually been stated +that he led the four successful candidates, the poll +standing: Lincoln, 1,376; Dawson, 1,370; Carpenter, +1,170; Stuart, 1,164. But Mr. Herndon +adduces evidence that Dawson's number was 1,390, +whereby Lincoln is relegated to the second place. +Holland tells us that he "shouldered his pack and +on foot trudged to Vandalia, then the capital of +the State, about a hundred miles, to make his +entrance into public life." But the correcting pen +of the later biographer interferes with this dramatic +<!-- Image No 65 --><a name='Png065'></a><a name='Page043'></a><span class="pagenum">043</span> +incident also. For it seems that, after the +result of the election was known, Lincoln visited a +friend, Coleman Smoot, and said: "Did you vote +for me?" "I did," replied Smoot. "Then," said +Lincoln, "you must lend me two hundred dollars!" +This seemed a peculiar <i>sequitur</i>, for ordinary political +logic would have made any money that was to +pass between voter and candidate move the other +way. Yet Smoot accepted the consequence entailed +in part by his own act, and furnished the +money, whereby Lincoln was able to purchase a +new suit of clothes and to ride in the stage to +Vandalia.</p> + +<p>The records of this legislature show nothing noteworthy. +Lincoln was very inappropriately placed +on the Committee on Public Accounts and Expenditures; +also it is recorded that he introduced a +resolution to obtain for the State a part of the +proceeds of the public lands sold within it. What +has chiefly interested the chroniclers is, that at this +session he first saw Stephen A. Douglas, then a +lobbyist, and said of him: "He is the least man +I ever saw." Lincoln's part seems to have been +rather that of an observer than of an actor. The +account given is that he was watching, learning, +making acquaintances, prudently preparing for +future success, rather than endeavoring to seize it +too greedily. In fact, there is reason to believe +that his thoughts were intent on far other matter +than the shaping of laws and statutes. For to this +period belongs the episode of Ann Rutledge. The +<!-- Image No 66 --><a name='Png066'></a><a name='Page044'></a><span class="pagenum">044</span> +two biographers whose personal knowledge is the +best regard this as the one real romance of Lincoln's +life. Heretofore he had held himself shyly +aloof from women's society, but this maiden won +his heart. She comes before posterity amid a glamour +of rhetorical description, which attributes to +her every grace of form and feature, every charm +of character and intellect. She was but a schoolgirl +of seventeen years when two men became her +lovers; a year or more afterward she became engaged +to one of them, but before they could be +married he made a somewhat singular excuse for +going to New York on family affairs. His absence +was prolonged and his letters became few. People +said that the girl had been deceived, and Lincoln +began to hope that the way was clearing for him. +But under the prolonged strain Miss Rutledge's +health broke down, and on August 25, 1835, she +died of brain fever. Lincoln was allowed to see +her as she lay near her end. The effect upon him +was grievous. Many declared him crazy, and his +friends feared that he might go so far as to take +his own life; they watched him closely, and one of +them at last kindly took him away from the scene +of his sufferings for a while, and bore him constant +and cheering company. In time the cloud passed, +but it seems certain that on only one or two other +occasions in his life did that deep melancholy, +which formed a permanent background to his temperament, +take such overmastering, such alarming +and merciless possession of him. He was afflicted +<!-- Image No 67 --><a name='Png067'></a><a name='Page045'></a><span class="pagenum">045</span> +sorely with a constitutional tendency to gloom, and +the evil haunted him all his life long. Like a dark +fog-bank it hung, always dull and threatening, on +the verge of his horizon, sometimes rolling heavily +down upon him, sometimes drawing off into a more +or less remote distance, but never wholly disappearing. +Every one saw it in his face and often felt +it in his manner, and few pictures of him have +been made so bad as not in some degree to present +it. The access of it which was brought on by this +unhappy love affair was somewhat odd and uncouth +in its manifestations, but was so genuine and sincere +that one feels that he was truly undergoing +the baptism of a great sorrow.</p> + +<p>At no other point is there more occasion to note +this trait of character, which presents a curious +and interesting subject for study. Probably no +exhaustive solution is possible. One wanders off +into the mystery of human nature, loses his way in +the dimness of that which can be felt but cannot +be expressed, and becomes aware of even dimmer +regions beyond in which it is vain to grope. It is +well known that the coarse and rough side of life +among the pioneers had its reaction in a reserved +and at times morose habit, nearly akin to sadness, +at least in those who frequented the wilderness; it +was the expression of the influence of the vast, +desolate, and lonely nature amid which they passed +their lives. It is true that Lincoln was never a +backwoodsman, and never roved alone for long +periods among the shadowy forests and the limit-less +<!-- Image No 68 --><a name='Png068'></a><a name='Page046'></a><span class="pagenum">046</span> +prairies, so that their powerful and weird influences, +though not altogether remote, never bore +upon him in full force; yet their effect was everywhere +around him, and through others he imbibed it, +for his disposition was sensitive and sympathetic for +such purposes. That there was also a simple prosaic +physical inducement cannot be denied. Hardship +and daily discomfort in all the arrangements +of life counted for something, and especially so the +bad food, greasy, unwholesome, horribly cooked, +enough to afflict an ostrich with the blue devils +of dyspepsia. The denizen of the town devoured +messes vastly worse than the simple meal of the +hunter and trapper, and did not counteract the ill +effect by hard exercise in the free, inspiring air. +Such facts must be considered, though they diminish +the poetry which rhetoricians and sentimentalists +have cast over the melancholy of Lincoln's temperament. +Yet they fall far short of wholly accounting +for a gloom which many have loved to attribute to +the mysticism of a great destiny, as though the +awful weight of his immense task was making +itself felt in his strange, brooding nature long +years before any human prophet could have forecast +any part of that which was to come. In this +apparent vague consciousness of the oppression of +a great burden of toil, duty, and responsibility, +casting its shadow so far before, there is something +so fascinating to the imagination of man that we +cannot quite forego it, or accept any explanation +which would compel us altogether to part with it. +<!-- Image No 69 --><a name='Png069'></a><a name='Page047'></a><span class="pagenum">047</span> +The shuddering awe and terrible sense of fate, +which the grandeur of the Greek tragedies so powerfully +expresses, come to us when we contemplate +this strange cloud which never left Lincoln in any +year after his earliest youth, although some traits +in his character seemed often incomprehensibly to +violate it, and like rebellious spirits to do outrage +to it, while, in fact, they only made it the more +striking, picturesque, and mysterious. But, after +all explanations have been made, the conclusion +must be that there is no one and only thread to +guide us through the labyrinth to the heart of this +singular trait, and each of us must follow that +which his own nature renders intelligible or congenial +for him. To us, who know the awful closing +acts of his life-drama, it seems so appropriate that +there should be an impressive unity, and so an inevitable +backward influence working from the end +towards the beginning, that we cannot avoid, nor +would avoid, an instinctive belief that an occult +moral and mental condition already existed in the +years of Lincoln's life which we are now observing, +although the profound cause of that condition +lay wholly in the future, in the years which were +still far away. There is a charm in the very unreason +and mysticism of such a faith, and mankind +will never quite fail to fancy, if not actually to +believe, that the life which Lincoln had to live in +the future wrought in some inexplicable way upon +the life which he was living in the present. The +explanation is not more strange than the enigma.</p> + +<!-- Image No 70 --><a name='Png070'></a> +<p><a name='Page048'></a><span class="pagenum">048</span> +Returning now to the narrative, an unpleasant +necessity is encountered. It must be confessed that +the atmosphere of romance which lingers around +this love-tale of the fair and sweet Ann Rutledge, +so untimely taken away, is somewhat attenuated +by the fact that only some fifteen months rolled +by after she was laid in the ground before Lincoln +was again intent upon matrimony. In the autumn +of 1836 Miss Mary Owens, of Kentucky, appeared +in New Salem,—a comely lass, with "large blue +eyes," "fine trimmings," and a long and varied +list of attractions. Lincoln immediately began to +pay court to her, but in an ungainly and morbid +fashion. It is impossible to avoid feeling that his +mind was not yet in a natural and healthy condition. +While offering to marry her, he advised her +not to have him. Upon her part she found him +"deficient in those little links which make up the +chain of woman's happiness." So she would none +of him, but wedded another and became the mother +of some Confederate soldiers. Lincoln did not suffer +on this second occasion as he had done on the +first; and in the spring of 1838 he wrote upon the +subject one of the most unfortunate epistles ever +penned, in which he turned the whole affair into +coarse and almost ribald ridicule. In fact he +seems as much out of place in dealing with women +and with love as he was in place in dealing with +politicians and with politics, and it is pleasant to +return from the former to the latter topics.<a name='FNanchor_40_40'></a><a href='#Footnote_40_40'><sup>[40]</sup></a> +</p> + +<!-- Image No 71 --><a name='Png071'></a> +<p><a name='Page049'></a><span class="pagenum">049</span> +The spring of 1836 found Lincoln again nominating +himself before the citizens of Sangamon +County, but for the last time. His party denounced +the caucus system as a "Yankee contrivance, intended +to abridge the liberties of the people;" but +they soon found that it would be as sensible to do +battle with pikes and bows, after the invention of +muskets and cannon, as to continue to oppose free +self-nomination to the Jacksonian method of nomination +by convention. In enjoying this last opportunity, +not only of presenting himself, but also of +constructing his own "platform," Lincoln published +the following card:—</p> + +<p>NEW SALEM, June 13, 1836. +<!-- Image No 72 --><a name='Png072'></a><a name='Page050'></a><span class="pagenum">050</span> +</p> + +<p>TO THE EDITOR OF THE JOURNAL:—</p> + +<p>In your paper of last Saturday I see a communication +over the signature of "Many Voters" in which the candidates +who are announced in the "Journal" are called +upon to "show their hands." Agreed. Here's mine.</p> + +<p>I go for all sharing the privileges of the government +who assist in bearing its burdens. Consequently, I go +for admitting all whites to the right of suffrage who pay +taxes or bear arms (by no means excluding females).</p> + +<p>If elected, I shall consider the whole people of Sangamon +my constituents, as well those that oppose as those +that support me.</p> + +<p>While acting as their representative, I shall be governed +by their will on all subjects upon which I have +the means of knowing what their will is; and upon all +others I shall do what my own judgment teaches me +will best advance their interests. Whether elected or +not, I go for distributing the proceeds of the sales of +public lands to the several States to enable our State, in +common with others, to dig canals and construct railroads +without borrowing money and paying the interest +on it.</p> + +<p>If alive on the first Monday in November, I shall +vote for Hugh L. White for President.</p> + +<p>Very respectfully,</p> + +<p>A. LINCOLN.</p> + +<p>The canvass was conducted after the usual fashion, +with stump-speaking, fighting, and drinking. +Western voters especially fancied the joint debate +between rivals, and on such exciting occasions +were apt to come to the arbitrament of fists and +knives. But it is pleasant to hear that Lincoln +<!-- Image No 73 --><a name='Png073'></a><a name='Page051'></a><span class="pagenum">051</span> +calmed rather than excited such affrays, and that +once, when Ninian W. Edwards climbed upon a +table and screamed at his opponent the lie direct, +Lincoln replied by "so fair a speech" that it quelled +the discord. Henceforward he practiced a calm, +carefully-weighed, dispassionate style in presenting +facts and arguments. Even if he cultivated it +from appreciation of its efficiency, at least his skill +in it was due to the fact that it was congenial to +his nature, and that his mind worked instinctively +along these lines. His mental constitution, his +way of thinking, were so honest that he always +seemed to be a man sincerely engaged in seeking +the truth, and who, when he believed that he had +found it, would tell it precisely as he saw it, and +tell it all. This was the distinguishing trait or +habit which differentiates Lincoln from too many +other political speakers and writers in the country. +Yet with it he combined the character of a +practical politician and a stanch party man. No +party has a monopoly of truth and is always in the +right; but Lincoln, with the advantage of being +naturally fair-minded to a rare degree, understood +that the best ingenuity is fairness, and that the +second best ingenuity is the appearance of fairness.</p> + +<p>A pleasant touch of his humor illumined this +campaign. George Forquer, once a Whig but +now a Democrat and an office-holder, had lately +built for himself the finest house in Springfield, +and had decorated it with the first lightning-rod +<!-- Image No 74 --><a name='Png074'></a><a name='Page052'></a><span class="pagenum">052</span> +ever seen in the neighborhood. One day, after +Forquer had been berating Lincoln as a young +man who must "be taken down," Lincoln turned +to the audience with a few words: "It is for you, +not for me, to say whether I am up or down. The +gentleman has alluded to my being a young man;<a name='FNanchor_41_41'></a><a href='#Footnote_41_41'><sup>[41]</sup></a> + +I am older in years than I am in the tricks and +trades of politicians. I desire to live, and I desire +place and distinction as a politician; but I would +rather die now than, like the gentleman, live to +see the day when I should have to erect a lightning-rod +to protect a guilty conscience from an +offended God."</p> + +<p>There are other stories of this campaign, amusing +and characteristic of the region and the times, +but which there is not room to repeat. The +result of it was that Sangamon County, hitherto +Democratic, was now won by the Whigs, and that +Lincoln had the personal satisfaction of leading +the poll. The county had in the legislature nine +representatives, tall fellows all, not one of them +standing less than six feet, so that they were nicknamed +"the Long Nine." Such was their authority +that one of them afterward said: "All the bad +or objectionable laws passed at that session of the +legislature, and for many years afterward, were +chargeable to the management and influence of +<!-- Image No 75 --><a name='Png075'></a><a name='Page053'></a><span class="pagenum">053</span> +'the Long Nine.'" This was a damning confession, +for the "bad and objectionable" laws of that +session were numerous. A mania possessed the +people. The whole State was being cut up into +towns and cities and house-lots, so that town-lots +were said to be the only article of export.<a name='FNanchor_42_42'></a><a href='#Footnote_42_42'><sup>[42]</sup></a> + A +system of internal improvements at the public +expense was pushed forward with incredible recklessness. +The State was to be "gridironed" with +thirteen hundred miles of railroad; the courses of +the rivers were to be straightened; and where nature +had neglected to supply rivers, canals were to +be dug. A loan of twelve millions of dollars was +authorized, and the counties not benefited thereby +received gifts of cash. The bonds were issued and +sent to the bankers of New York and of Europe, +and work was vigorously begun. The terrible +financial panic of 1837 ought to have administered +an early check to this madness. But it did +not. Resolutions of popular conventions instructed +legislators to institute "a general system of internal +improvements," which should be "commensurate +with the wants of the people;" and the lawgivers +obeyed as implicitly as if each delegate was +lighting his steps by an Aladdin's lamp.</p> + +<p>With this mad current Lincoln swam as wildly +and as ignorantly as did any of his comrades. He +was absurdly misplaced as a member of the Committee +on Finance. Never in his life did he show +<!-- Image No 76 --><a name='Png076'></a><a name='Page054'></a><span class="pagenum">054</span> +the slightest measure of "money sense." He had, +however, declared his purpose to be governed by +the will of his constituents in all matters in which +he knew that will, and at this time he apparently +held the American theory that the multitude probably +possesses the highest wisdom, and that at +any rate the majority is entitled to have its way. +Therefore, in this ambitious enterprise of putting +Illinois at the very forefront of the civilized world +by an outburst of fine American energy, his ardor +was as warm as that of the warmest, and his intelligence +was as utterly misled as that of the most +ignorant. He declared his ambition to be "the +DeWitt Clinton of Illinois." After the inevitable +crash had come, amid the perplexity of general ruin +and distress, he honestly acknowledged that he +had blundered very badly. Nevertheless, no vengeance +was exacted of him by the people; which +led Governor Ford to say that it is safer for a politician +to be wrong with his constituents than to +be right against them, and to illustrate this profound +truth by naming Lincoln among the "spared +monuments of popular wrath."</p> + +<p>"The Long Nine" had in this legislature a task +peculiarly their own: to divide Sangamon County, +and to make Springfield instead of Vandalia the +state capital. Amid all the whirl of the legislation +concerning improvements Lincoln kept this +especial purpose always in view. It is said that +his skill was infinite, and that he never lost heart. +He gained the reputation of being the best "log-roller" +<!-- Image No 77 --><a name='Png077'></a><a name='Page055'></a><span class="pagenum">055</span> +in the legislature, and no measure got the +support of the "Long Nine" without a contract +for votes to be given in return for the removal of +the state capital. It is unfortunate that such +methods should enjoy the prestige of having been +conspicuously practiced by Abraham Lincoln, but +the evidence seems to establish the fact. That +there was anything objectionable in the skillful +performance of such common transactions as the +trading of votes probably never occurred to him, +being a professional politician, any more than it +did to his constituents, who triumphed noisily in +this success, and welcomed their candidates home +with great popular demonstrations of approval.<a name='FNanchor_43_43'></a><a href='#Footnote_43_43'><sup>[43]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p>A more agreeable occurrence at this session is +the position taken by Lincoln concerning slavery, +a position which was looked upon with extreme +disfavor in those days in that State, and which he +voluntarily assumed when he was not called upon +to act or commit himself in any way concerning +the matter. During the session sundry resolutions +were passed, disapproving abolition societies and +doctrines, asserting the sacredness of the right of +property in slaves in the slave States, and alleging +that it would be against good faith to abolish +slavery in the District of Columbia without the +consent of the citizens of the District. Two days +<!-- Image No 78 --><a name='Png078'></a><a name='Page056'></a><span class="pagenum">056</span> +before the end of the session, March 3, 1837, Lincoln +introduced a strenuous protest. It bore only +one signature besides his own, and doubtless this +fact was fortunate for Lincoln, since it probably +prevented the document from attracting the attention +and resentment of a community which, at the +time, by no means held the opinion that there was +either "injustice" or "bad policy" in the great +"institution" of the South. It was within a few +months after this very time that the atrocious persecution +and murder of Lovejoy took place in the +neighboring town of Alton.</p> + +<p>In such hours as he could snatch from politics +and bread-winning Lincoln had continued to study +law, and in March, 1837, he was admitted to the +bar. He decided to establish himself in Springfield, +where certainly he deserved a kindly welcome +in return for what he had done towards +making it the capital. It was a little town of +only between one and two thousand inhabitants; +but to Lincoln it seemed a metropolis. "There +is a great deal of flourishing about in carriages +here," he wrote; there were also social distinctions, +and real aristocrats, who wore ruffled shirts, +and even adventured "fair top-boots" in the "unfathomable" +mud of streets which knew neither +sidewalks nor pavements.</p> + +<p>Lincoln came into the place bringing all his +worldly belongings in a pair of saddle-bags. He +found there John T. Stuart, his comrade in the +Black Hawk campaign, engaged in the practice +<!-- Image No 79 --><a name='Png079'></a><a name='Page057'></a><span class="pagenum">057</span> +of the law. The two promptly arranged a partnership. +But Stuart was immersed in that too +common mixture of law and politics in which the +former jealous mistress is apt to take the traditional +revenge upon her half-hearted suitor. Such +happened in this case; and these two partners, +both making the same blunder of yielding imperfect +allegiance to their profession, paid the inevitable +penalty; they got perhaps work enough in +mere point of quantity, but it was neither interesting +nor lucrative. Such business, during the +four years which he passed with Stuart, did not +wean Lincoln from his natural fondness for matters +political. At the same time he was a member +of sundry literary gatherings and debating societies. +Such of his work as has been preserved +does not transcend the ordinary productions of a +young man trying his wings in clumsy flights of +oratory; but he had the excuse that the thunderous +declamatory style was then regarded in the +West as the only true eloquence. He learned +better, in course of time, and so did the West; +and it was really good fortune that he passed +through the hobbledehoy period in the presence +of audiences whose taste was no better than his +own.</p> + +<p>Occasionally amid the tedium of these high-flown +commonplaces there opens a fissure through which +the inner spirit of the man looks out for an instant. +It is well known that Lincoln was politically ambitious; +his friends knew it, his biographers have +<!-- Image No 80 --><a name='Png080'></a><a name='Page058'></a><span class="pagenum">058</span> +said it, he himself avowed it. Now and again, in +these early days, when his horizon could hardly +have ranged beyond the state legislature and the +lower house of Congress, he uttered some sentences +which betrayed longings of a high moral grade, +and indicated that office and power were already +regarded by him as the opportunities for great +actions. Strenuous as ought to be the objection +to that tone in speaking of Lincoln which seems +to proceed from beneath the sounding-board of the +pulpit, and which uses him as a Sunday-school +figure to edify a piously admiring world, yet it +certainly seems a plain fact that his day-dreams +at this period foreshadowed the acts of his later +years, and that what he pleased himself with imagining +was not the acquirement of official position +but the achievement of some great benefit +for mankind. He did not, of course, expect to +do this as a philanthropist; for he understood +himself sufficiently to know that his road lay in +the public service. Accordingly he talks not as +Clarkson or Wilberforce, but as a public man, of +"emancipating slaves," of eliminating slavery and +drunkenness from the land; at the same time he +speaks thus not as a politician shrewdly anticipating +the coming popular impulse, but as one +desiring to stir that impulse. When he said, in +his manifesto in 1832, that he had "no other ambition +so great as that of being truly esteemed +by his fellow-men," he uttered words which in +the mouths of most politicians have the irritating +<!-- Image No 81 --><a name='Png081'></a><a name='Page059'></a><span class="pagenum">059</span><span class="pagenum">059</span> +effect of the dreariest and cheapest of platitudes; +but he obviously uttered them with the sincerity of +a deep inward ambition, that kind of an ambition +which is often kept sacred from one's nearest intimates. +Many side glimpses show him in this light, +and it seems to be the genuine and uncolored one.</p> + +<p>In 1838 Lincoln was again elected a member of +the lower house of the legislature, and many are +the amusing stories told of the canvass. It was +in this year that he made sudden onslaught on the +demagogue Dick Taylor, and opening with a sudden +jerk the artful colonel's waistcoat, displayed +a glittering wealth of jewelry hidden temporarily +beneath it. There is also the tale of his friend +Baker haranguing a crowd in the store beneath +Lincoln's office. The audience differed with Baker, +and was about to punish him severely for the difference, +when Lincoln dangled down through a trap-door +in the ceiling, intimated his intention to share +in the fight if there was to be one, and brought +the audience to a more pacific frame of mind. +Such amenities of political debate at least tested +some of the qualities of the individual. The Whig +party made him their candidate for the speakership +and he came within one vote of being elected.<a name='FNanchor_44_44'></a><a href='#Footnote_44_44'><sup>[44]</sup></a> + +He was again a member of the Finance Committee; +but financiering by those wise lawgivers was no +longer so lightsome and exuberant a task as it had +been. The hour of reckoning had come; and the +<!-- Image No 82 --><a name='Png082'></a><a name='Page060'></a><span class="pagenum">060</span> +business proved to be chiefly a series of humiliating +and futile efforts to undo the follies of the +preceding two and a half years. Lincoln shared +in this disagreeable labor, as he had shared in the +mania which had made it necessary. He admitted +that he was "no financier," and gave evidence of +the fact by submitting a bill which did not deserve +to be passed, and was not. It can, however, be +said for him that he never favored repudiation, as +some of his comrades did.</p> + +<p>In 1840<a name='FNanchor_45_45'></a><a href='#Footnote_45_45'><sup>[45]</sup></a> + Lincoln was again elected, again was +the nominee of the Whig party for the speakership, +and again was beaten by Ewing, the Democratic +candidate, who mustered 46 votes against +36 for Lincoln. This legislature held only one +session, and apparently Holland's statement, that +"no important business of general interest was +transacted," is a fair summary. Lincoln did only +one memorable thing, and that unfortunately was +discreditable. In a close and exciting contest, he, +with two other Whigs, jumped out of the window +in order to break a quorum. It is gratifying to +hear from the chronicler of the event, who was one +of the parties concerned, that "Mr. Lincoln always +regretted that he entered into that arrangement, as +he deprecated everything that savored of the revolutionary."<a name='FNanchor_46_46'></a><a href='#Footnote_46_46'><sup>[46]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p><!-- Image No 83 --><a name='Png083'></a><a name='Page061'></a><span class="pagenum">061</span> +The year 1840 was made lively throughout the +country by the spirited and rollicking campaign +which the Whigs made on behalf of General Harrison. +In that famous struggle for "Tippecanoe +and Tyler too," the log cabin, hard cider, and the +'coon skin were the popular emblems which seemed +to lend picturesqueness and enthusiasm and a kind +of Western spirit to the electioneering everywhere +in the land. In Illinois Lincoln was a candidate +on the Whig electoral ticket, and threw himself +with great zeal into the congenial task of "stumping" +the State. Douglas was doing the same duty +on the other side, and the two had many encounters. +Of Lincoln's speeches only one has been preserved,<a name='FNanchor_47_47'></a><a href='#Footnote_47_47'><sup>[47]</sup></a> + +and it leads to the conclusion that nothing +of value was lost when the others perished. The +effusion was in the worst style of the effervescent +and exuberant school of that region and generation. +Nevertheless, it may have had the greatest +merit which oratory can possess, in being perfectly +adapted to the audience to which it was addressed. +But rhetoric could not carry Illinois for the Whigs; +the Democrats cast the vote of the State.</p> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_34_34'></a><a href='#FNanchor_34_34'>[34]</a> + <i>The Good Old Times in McLean County</i>, passim.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_35_35'></a><a href='#FNanchor_35_35'>[35]</a> + It was first advocated in 1835-36, and was adopted by slow +degrees thereafter. Ford, <i>Hist. of Illinois</i>, 204.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_36_36'></a><a href='#FNanchor_36_36'>[36]</a> + <i>Ibid.</i> 201.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_37_37'></a><a href='#FNanchor_37_37'>[37]</a> + Lamon, 129, where is given the text of the manifesto; Herndon, +101; N. and H. i. 101, 105; Holland, 53, says that <i>after</i> his +return from the Black Hawk campaign, Lincoln "was applied +to" to become a candidate, and that the "application was a great +surprise to him." This seems an obvious error, in view of the +manifesto; yet see Lamon, 122.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_38_38'></a><a href='#FNanchor_38_38'>[38]</a> + N. and H. i. 102. Lamon regards him as "a nominal Jackson +man" in contradistinction to a "whole-hog Jackson man;" as +"Whiggish" rather than actually a Whig. Lamon, 123, 126.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_39_39'></a><a href='#FNanchor_39_39'>[39]</a> + Herndon, 105. But see N. and H. i. 109.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_40_40'></a><a href='#FNanchor_40_40'>[40]</a> + The whole story of these two love affairs is given at great +length by Herndon and by Lamon. Other biographers deal lightly +with these episodes. Nicolay and Hay scantly refer to them, and, +in their admiration for Mr. Lincoln, even permit themselves to +speak of that most abominable letter to Mrs. Browning as "grotesquely +comic." (Vol. i. p. 192.) It is certainly true that the +revelations of Messrs. Herndon and Lamon are painful, and in +part even humiliating; and it would be most satisfactory to give +these things the go-by. But this seems impossible; if one wishes +to study and comprehend the character of Mr. Lincoln, the strange +and morbid condition in which he was for some years at this time +cannot possibly be passed over. It may even be said that it would +be unfair to him to do so; and a truthful idea of him, on the +whole, redounds more to his credit than a maimed and mutilated +one, even though the mutilation seems to consist in lopping off and +casting out of sight a deformity. Psychologically, perhaps physiologically, +these episodes are interesting, and as aiding a comprehension +of Mr. Lincoln's nature they are indispensable; but +historically they are of no consequence, and I am glad that the +historical character of this work gives me the right to dwell upon +them lightly.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_41_41'></a><a href='#FNanchor_41_41'>[41]</a> + It is amusing-to compare this Western oratory with the famous +outburst of the younger Pitt which he opened with those +familiar words: "The atrocious crime of being a young man +which the honorable gentleman has with such spirit and decency +charged upon me," etc., etc.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_42_42'></a><a href='#FNanchor_42_42'>[42]</a> + For the whole history of the rise, progress, and downfall of +this mania, see Ford, <i>Hist. of Illinois</i>, ch. vi.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_43_43'></a><a href='#FNanchor_43_43'>[43]</a> + Ford, <i>Hist. of Illinois</i>, 186; Lamon, 198-201; Herndon, 176, +180. N. and H., i. 137-139, endeavor to give a different color to +this transaction, but they make out no case as against the statements +of writers who had such opportunities to know the truth as +had Governor Ford, Lamon, and Herndon.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_44_44'></a><a href='#FNanchor_44_44'>[44]</a> + N. and H. i. 160; Holland, 74; Lamon, 212; but see Herndon, 193.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_45_45'></a><a href='#FNanchor_45_45'>[45]</a> + For the story of <i>The Skinning of Thomas</i>, belonging to this +campaign, see Herndon, 197; Lamon, 231; and for the Radford +story, see N. and H. i. 172; Lamon, 230.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_46_46'></a><a href='#FNanchor_46_46'>[46]</a> + Lamon, 216, 217. Nicolay and Hay, i. 162, speak of "a number" +of the members, among whom Lincoln was "prominent," +making this exit; but there seem to have been only two besides +him.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_47_47'></a><a href='#FNanchor_47_47'>[47]</a> + N. and H. i. 173-177.</p></div> + + + +<hr class='long'/> +<!-- Image No 84 --><a name='Png084'></a><a name='Page062'></a><span class="pagenum">062</span> + +<a name='CHAPTER_III'></a> +<h2>CHAPTER III</h2> +<h2>LOVE; A DUEL; LAW, AND CONGRESS</h2> + +<p>Collaterally with law and politics, Lincoln +was at this time engaged with that almost grotesque +courtship which led to his marriage. The +story is a long and strange one; in its best gloss +it is not agreeable, and in its worst version it is +exceedingly disagreeable. In any form it is inexplicable, +save so far as the apparent fact that his +mind was somewhat disordered can be taken as an +explanation. In 1839 Miss Mary Todd, who had +been born in Lexington, Kentucky, December 13, +1818, came to Springfield to stay with her sister, +Mrs. Ninian W. Edwards. The Western biographers +describe her as "gifted with rare talents," +as "high-bred, proud, brilliant, witty," as "aristocratic" +and "accomplished," and as coming from +a "long and distinguished ancestral line." Later +in her career critics with more exacting standards +gave other descriptions. There is, however, no +doubt that in point of social position and acquirements +she stood at this time much above Lincoln.</p> + +<p>Upon Lincoln's part it was a peculiar wooing, a +series of morbid misgivings as to the force of his +affection, of alternate ardor and coldness, advances +<!-- Image No 85 --><a name='Png085'></a><a name='Page063'></a><span class="pagenum">063</span> +and withdrawals, and every variety of strange language +and freakish behavior. In the course of it, +oddly enough, his omnipresent competitor, Douglas, +crossed his path, his rival in love as well as in +politics, and ultimately outstripped by him in each +alike. After many months of this queer, uncertain +zigzag progress, it was arranged that the marriage +should take place on January 1, 1841. At the +appointed hour the company gathered, the supper +was set out, and the bride, "bedecked in veil and +silken gown, and nervously toying with the flowers +in her hair," according to the graphic description +of Mr. Herndon, sat in her sister's house awaiting +the coming of her lover. She waited, but he came +not, and soon his friends were searching the town +for him. Towards morning they found him. Some +said that he was insane; if he was not, he was at +least suffering from such a terrible access of his +constitutional gloom that for some time to come +it was considered necessary to watch him closely. +His friend Speed took him away upon a long visit +to Kentucky, from which he returned in a much +improved mental condition, but soon again came +under the influence of Miss Todd's attractions.</p> + +<p>The memory of the absurd result of the recent +effort at marriage naturally led to the avoidance of +publicity concerning the second undertaking. So +nothing was said till the last moment; then the +license was procured, a few friends were hastily +notified, and the ceremony was performed, all +within a few hours, on November 4, 1842. A +<!-- Image No 86 --><a name='Png086'></a><a name='Page064'></a><span class="pagenum">064</span> +courtship marked by so many singularities was +inevitably prolific of gossip; and by all this tittle-tattle, +in which it is absolutely impossible to separate +probably a little truth from much fiction, the +bride suffered more than the groom. Among other +things it was asserted that Lincoln at last came to +the altar most reluctantly. One says that he was +"pale and trembling, as if being driven to slaughter;" +another relates that the little son of a friend, +noticing that his toilet had been more carefully +made than usual, asked him where he was going, +and that he gloomily responded: "To hell, I suppose." +Probably enough, however, these anecdotes +are apocryphal; for why the proud and high-tempered +Miss Todd should have held so fast to +an unwilling lover, who had behaved so strangely +and seemed to offer her so little, is a conundrum +which has been answered by no better explanation +than the very lame one, that she foresaw his future +distinction. It was her misfortune that she failed +to make herself popular, so that no one has cared +in how disagreeable or foolish a position any story +places her. She was charged with having a sharp +tongue, a sarcastic wit, and a shrewish temper, +over which perilous traits she had no control. It +is related that her sister, Mrs. Edwards, opposed +the match, from a belief that the two were utterly +uncongenial, and later on this came to be the accepted +belief of the people at large. That Mrs. +Lincoln often severely harassed her husband always +has been and always will be believed. One +<!-- Image No 87 --><a name='Png087'></a><a name='Page065'></a><span class="pagenum">065</span> +would gladly leave the whole topic veiled in that +privacy which ought always to be accorded to +domestic relations which are supposed to be only +imperfectly happy; but his countrymen have not +shown any such respect to Mr. Lincoln, and it no +longer is possible wholly to omit mention of a matter +about which so much has been said and written. +Moreover, it has usually been supposed that the +influence of Mrs. Lincoln upon her husband was +unceasing and powerful, and that her moods and +her words constituted a very important element in +his life.<a name='FNanchor_48_48'></a><a href='#Footnote_48_48'><sup>[48]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p>Another disagreeable incident of this period was +the quarrel with James A. Shields. In the summer +of 1842 sundry coarse assaults upon Shields, +attributed in great part, or wholly, to the so-called +<!-- Image No 88 --><a name='Png088'></a><a name='Page066'></a><span class="pagenum">066</span> +trenchant and witty pen of Miss Todd, appeared +in the Springfield "Journal." Lincoln accepted +the responsibility for them, received and reluctantly +accepted a challenge, and selected broadswords as +the weapons! "Friends," however, brought about +an "explanation," and the conflict was avoided. +But ink flowed in place of blood, and the newspapers +were filled with a mass of silly, grandiloquent, +blustering, insolent, and altogether pitiable +stuff. All the parties concerned were placed in a +most humiliating light, and it is gratifying to hear +that Lincoln had at least the good feeling to be +heartily ashamed of the affair, so that he "always +seemed willing to forget" it. But every veil which +he ever sought to throw over anything concerning +himself has had the effect of an irresistible provocation +to drag the subject into the strongest glare +of publicity.<a name='FNanchor_49_49'></a><a href='#Footnote_49_49'><sup>[49]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p>All the while, amid so many distractions, Lincoln +was seeking a livelihood at the bar. On April +<!-- Image No 89 --><a name='Png089'></a><a name='Page067'></a><span class="pagenum">067</span> +14, 1841, a good step was taken by dissolving the +partnership with Stuart and the establishment of +a new partnership with Stephen T. Logan, lately +judge of the Circuit Court of the United States, +and whom Arnold calls "the head of the bar at +the capital." This gentleman, though not averse +to politics, was a close student, assiduous in his +attention to business, and very accurate and methodical +in his ways. Thus he furnished a shining +example of precisely the qualities which Lincoln +had most need to cultivate, and his influence upon +Lincoln was marked and beneficial. They continued +together until September 20, 1843, when +they separated, and on the same day Lincoln, heretofore +a junior, became the senior in a new partnership +with William H. Herndon. This firm was +never formally dissolved up to the day of Lincoln's +death.</p> + +<p>When Lincoln was admitted to the bar the +practice of the law was in a very crude condition +in Illinois. General principles gathered from a +few text-books formed the simple basis upon +which lawyers tried cases and framed arguments +in improvised court-rooms. But the advance was +rapid and carried Lincoln forward with it. The +raw material, if the phrase may be pardoned, was +excellent; there were many men in the State who +united a natural aptitude for the profession with +high ability, ambition, and a progressive spirit. +Lincoln was brought in contact with them all, +whether they rode his circuit or not, because the +<!-- Image No 90 --><a name='Png090'></a><a name='Page068'></a><span class="pagenum">068</span> +federal courts were held only in Springfield. +Among them were Stephen A. Douglas, Lyman +Trumbull, afterward for a long while chairman of +the Judiciary Committee of the national Senate, +David Davis, afterward a senator, and an associate +justice of the Supreme Court of the United +States; O.H. Browning, Ninian W. Edwards, +Edward D. Baker, Justin Butterfield, Judge Logan, +and more. Precisely what position Lincoln +occupied among these men it is difficult to say +with accuracy, because it is impossible to know +just how much of the praise which has been bestowed +upon him is the language of eulogy or of +the brotherly courtesy of the bar, and how much +is a discriminating valuation of his qualities. That +in the foregoing list there were better and greater +lawyers than he is unquestionable; that he was +primarily a politician and only secondarily a lawyer +is equally beyond denial. He has been described +also as "a case lawyer," that is to say, a +lawyer who studies each case as it comes to him +simply by and for itself, a method which makes the +practitioner rather than the jurist. That Lincoln +was ever learned in the science is hardly pretended. +In fact it was not possible that the divided allegiance +which he gave to his profession for a +score of years could have achieved such a result.<a name='FNanchor_50_50'></a><a href='#Footnote_50_50'><sup>[50]</sup></a> + +<!-- Image No 91 --><a name='Png091'></a><a name='Page069'></a><span class="pagenum">069</span> +But it is said, and the well-known manner of his +mental operations makes it easy to believe, that +his arguments had a marvelous simplicity and +clearness, alike in thought and in expression. To +these traits they owed their great force; and a +legal argument can have no higher traits; fine-drawn +subtlety is undeniably an inferior quality. +Noteworthy above all else was his extraordinary +capacity for statement; all agree that his statement +of his case and his presentation of the facts +and the evidence were so plain and fair as to be +far more convincing than the argument which was +built upon them. Again it may be said that the +power to state in this manner is as high in the +order of intellectual achievement as anything +within forensic possibilities.</p> + +<p>As an advocate Lincoln seems to have ranked +better than he did in the discussion of pure points +of law. When he warmed to his work his power +over the emotions of a jury was very great. A +less dignified but not less valuable capacity lay in +his humor and his store of illustrative anecdotes. +But the one trait, which all agree in attributing to +him and which above all others will redound to his +honor, at least in the mind of the layman, is that +he was only efficient when his client was in the +right, and that he made but indifferent work in +a wrong cause. He was preëminently the honest +lawyer, the counsel fitted to serve the litigant who +was justly entitled to win. His power of lucid +statement was of little service when the real facts +<!-- Image No 92 --><a name='Png092'></a><a name='Page070'></a><span class="pagenum">070</span> +were against him; and his eloquence seemed paralyzed +when he did not believe thoroughly that his +client had a just cause. He generally refused to +take cases unless he could see that as matter of +genuine right he ought to win them. People who +consulted him were at times bluntly advised to +withdraw from an unjust or a hard-hearted contention, +or were bidden to seek other counsel. He +could even go the length of leaving a case, while +actually conducting it, if he became satisfied of +unfairness on the part of his client; and when a +coadjutor won a case from which he had withdrawn +<i>in transitu</i>, so to speak, he refused to accept any +portion of the fee. Such habits may not meet +with the same measure of commendation from professional +men<a name='FNanchor_51_51'></a><a href='#Footnote_51_51'><sup>[51]</sup></a> + which they will command on the +part of others; but those who are not members of +this ingenious profession, contemning the fine logic +which they fail to overcome, stubbornly insist upon +admiring the lawyer who refuses to subordinate +right to law. In this respect Lincoln accepted the +ideals of laymen rather than the doctrines of his +profession.<a name='FNanchor_52_52'></a><a href='#Footnote_52_52'><sup>[52]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p><!-- Image No 93 --><a name='Png093'></a><a name='Page071'></a><span class="pagenum">071</span> +In the presidential campaign of 1844, in which +Henry Clay was the candidate of the Whig party, +Lincoln was nominated upon the Whig electoral +ticket. He was an ardent admirer of Clay and +he threw himself into this contest with great zeal. +Oblivious of courts and clients, he devoted himself +to "stumping" Illinois and a part of Indiana. +When Illinois sent nine Democratic electors to +vote for James K. Polk, his disappointment was +bitter. All the members of the defeated party had +a peculiar sense of personal chagrin upon this occasion, +and Lincoln felt it even more than others. +It is said that two years later a visit to Ashland +resulted in a disillusionment, and that his idol +then came down from its pedestal, or at least the +pedestal was made much lower.<a name='FNanchor_53_53'></a><a href='#Footnote_53_53'><sup>[53]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p>In March, 1843, Lincoln had hopes that the +Whigs would nominate him as their candidate +for the national House of Representatives. In +the canvass he developed some strength, but not +quite enough, and the result was somewhat ludicrous, +for Sangamon County made him a delegate +to the nominating convention with instructions to +vote for one of his own competitors, Colonel Edward +D. Baker, the gallant gentleman and brilliant +orator who fell at Ball's Bluff. The prize was +finally carried off by Colonel John J. Hardin, who +afterward died at Buena Vista. By a change of +election periods the next convention was held in +1844, and this time Lincoln publicly declined to +<!-- Image No 94 --><a name='Png094'></a><a name='Page072'></a><span class="pagenum">072</span> +make a contest for the nomination against Colonel +Baker, who accordingly received it and was elected. +It has been said that an agreement was made +between Hardin, Baker, Lincoln, and Judge Logan, +whereby each should be allowed one term +in Congress, without competition on the part of +any of the others; but the story does not seem +altogether trustworthy, nor wholly corroborated +by the facts. Possibly there may have been a +courteous understanding between them. It has, +however, been spoken of as a very reprehensible +bargain, and Lincoln has been zealously defended +against the reproach of having entered into it. +Why, if indeed it ever was made, it had this +objectionable complexion is a point in the inscrutable +moralities of politics which is not plain to +those uninitiated in these ethical mysteries.</p> + +<p>In the year 1846 Lincoln again renewed his +pursuit of the coveted honor, as Holland very +properly puts it. Nothing is more absurd than +statements to the purport that he was "induced +to accept" the nomination, statements which he +himself would have heard with honest laughter. +Only three years ago<a name='FNanchor_54_54'></a><a href='#Footnote_54_54'><sup>[54]</sup></a> + he had frankly written to +a friend: "Now, if you should hear any one say +that Lincoln don't want to go to Congress, I wish +you, as a personal friend of mine, would tell him +you have reason to believe he is mistaken. The +truth is I would [should] like to go very much." +Now, the opportunity being at hand, he spared no +<!-- Image No 95 --><a name='Png095'></a><a name='Page073'></a><span class="pagenum">073</span> +pains to compass it. In spite of the alleged agreement +Hardin made reconnoissances in the district, +which Lincoln met with counter-manifestations so +vigorous that on February 26 Hardin withdrew, +and on May 1 Lincoln was nominated. Against +him the Democrats set Peter Cartwright, the famous +itinerant preacher of the Methodists, whose +strenuous and popular eloquence had rung in the +ears of every Western settler. Stalwart, aggressive, +possessing all the qualities adapted to win the +good-will of such a constituency, the Apostle of the +West was a dangerous antagonist. But Lincoln +had political capacity in a rare degree. Foresight +and insight, activity and the power to organize and +to direct, were his. In this campaign his eye was +upon every one; individuals, newspaper editors, +political clubs, got their inspiration and their guidance +from him.<a name='FNanchor_55_55'></a><a href='#Footnote_55_55'><sup>[55]</sup></a> + Such thoroughness deserved and +achieved an extraordinary success; and at the +polls, in August, the district gave him a majority +of 1,511. In the latest presidential campaign it +had given Clay a majority of 914; and two years +later it gave Taylor a majority of 1,501. Sangamon +County gave Lincoln a majority of 690, the +largest given to any candidate from 1836 to 1850, +inclusive. Moreover, Lincoln was the only Whig +who secured a place in the Illinois delegation.</p> + +<p>Though elected in the summer of 1846, it was +not until December 6, 1847, that the Thirtieth +<!-- Image No 96 --><a name='Png096'></a><a name='Page074'></a><span class="pagenum">074</span> +Congress began its first session. Robert C. Winthrop +was chosen speaker of the House, by 110 +votes out of 218. The change in the political condition +was marked; in the previous House the +Democrats had numbered 142 and the Whigs +only 75; in this House the Whigs were 116, the +Democrats 108. Among the members were John +Quincy Adams, Andrew Johnson, Alexander H. +Stephens, Howell Cobb, David Wilmot, Jacob Collamer, +Robert Toombs, with many more scarcely +less familiar names. The Mexican war was drawing +towards its close,<a name='FNanchor_56_56'></a><a href='#Footnote_56_56'><sup>[56]</sup></a> + and most of the talking +in Congress had relation to it. The whole Whig +party denounced it at the time, and the nation has +been more than half ashamed of it ever since. By +adroit manoeuvres Polk had forced the fight upon +a weak and reluctant nation, and had made to his +own people false statements as to both the facts +and the merits of the quarrel. The rebuke which +they had now administered, by changing the large +Democratic majority into a minority, "deserves," +says von Holst, "to be counted among the most +meritorious proofs of the sound and honorable +feeling of the American nation."<a name='FNanchor_57_57'></a><a href='#Footnote_57_57'><sup>[57]</sup></a> + But while the +<!-- Image No 97 --><a name='Png097'></a><a name='Page075'></a><span class="pagenum">075</span> +administration had thus smirched the inception +and the whole character of the war with meanness +and dishonor, the generals and the army were winning +abundant glory for the national arms. Good +strategy achieved a series of brilliant victories, +and fortunately for the Whigs General Taylor and +General Scott, together with a large proportion of +the most distinguished regimental officers, were of +their party. This aided them essentially in their +policy, which was, to denounce the entering into +the war but to vote all necessary supplies for its +vigorous prosecution.</p> + +<p>Into this scheme of his party Lincoln entered +with hearty concurrence. A week after the House +met he closed a letter to his partner with the +remark: "As you are all so anxious for me to +distinguish myself, I have concluded to do so +before long," and what he said humorously he +probably meant seriously. Accordingly he soon +afterward<a name='FNanchor_58_58'></a><a href='#Footnote_58_58'><sup>[58]</sup></a> + introduced a series of resolutions, +which, under the nickname of "The Spot Resolutions," +attracted some attention. Quoting in his +preamble sundry paragraphs of the President's +message of May 11, 1846, to the purport that +Mexico had "invaded <i>our territory</i>" and had +"shed the blood of our citizens on <i>our own soil</i>" +he then requested the President to state "<i>the spot</i>" +where these and other alleged occurrences had +taken place. His first "little speech" was on "a +post-office question of no general interest;" and +<!-- Image No 98 --><a name='Png098'></a><a name='Page076'></a><span class="pagenum">076</span> +he found himself "about as badly scared and no +worse" than when he spoke in court. So a little +later, January 12, 1848, he ventured to call up his +resolutions and to make an elaborate speech upon +them.<a name='FNanchor_59_59'></a><a href='#Footnote_59_59'><sup>[59]</sup></a> + It was not a very great or remarkable +speech, but it was a good one, and not conceived +in the fervid and florid style which defaced his +youthful efforts; he spoke sensibly, clearly, and +with precision of thought; he sought his strength +in the facts, and went in straight pursuit of the +truth; his best intellectual qualities were plainly +visible. The resolutions were not acted upon, and +doubtless their actual passage had never been expected; +but they were a good shot well placed; +and they were sufficiently noteworthy to save Lincoln +from being left among the herd of the nobodies +of the House.</p> + +<p>In view of his future career, but for no other +reason, a brief paragraph is worth quoting. He +says:—</p> + +<p>"Any people anywhere, being inclined and having +the power, have the <i>right</i> to rise up and shake +off the existing government, and form a new one +that suits them better. This is a most valuable, a +most sacred right,—a right which, we hope and +believe, is to liberate the world. Nor is this right +confined to cases in which the whole people of an +existing government may choose to exercise it. +Any portion of such people, that <i>can</i>, may revolutionize, +and make their <i>own</i> of so much of the +<!-- Image No 99 --><a name='Png099'></a><a name='Page077'></a><span class="pagenum">077</span> +territory as they inhabit." This doctrine, so comfortably +applied to Texas in 1848, seemed unsuitable +for the Confederate States in 1861. But +possibly the point lay in the words, "having the +power," and "can," for the Texans "had the +power" and "could," and the South had it not +and could not; and so Lincoln's practical proviso +saved his theoretical consistency; though he must +still have explained how either Texas or the South +could know whether they "had the power," and +"could," except by trial.</p> + +<p>Lincoln's course concerning the war and the +administration did not please his constituents. +With most of the Whigs he voted for Ashmun's +amendment, which declared that the war had been +"unnecessarily and unconstitutionally commenced +by the President." But soon he heard that the +people in Springfield were offended at a step +which might weaken the administration in time of +stress; and even if the President had transcended +the Constitution, they preferred to deny rather +than to admit the fact. When Douglas afterward +charged Lincoln with lack of patriotism, Lincoln +replied that he had not chosen to "skulk," and, +feeling obliged to vote, he had voted for "the +truth" rather than for "a lie."<a name='FNanchor_60_60'></a><a href='#Footnote_60_60'><sup>[60]</sup></a> + He remarked +also that he, with the Whigs generally, always +voted for the supply bills. He took and maintained +his position with entire manliness and honesty, and +<!-- Image No 100 --><a name='Png100'></a><a name='Page078'></a><span class="pagenum">078</span> +stated his principles with perfect clearness, neither +shading nor abating nor coloring by any conciliatory +or politic phrase. It was a question of conscience, +and he met it point-blank. Many of his +critics remained dissatisfied, and it is believed that +his course cost the next Whig candidate in the district +votes which he could not afford to lose. It is +true that another paid this penalty, yet Lincoln +himself would have liked well to take his chance as +the candidate. To those "who desire that I should +be reflected," he wrote to Herndon, "I can say, as +Mr. Clay said of the annexation of Texas, that +'<i>personally</i> I would not object.' ... If it should +so happen <i>that nobody else wishes to be elected</i>, I +could not refuse the people the right of sending +me again. But to enter myself as a competitor of +others, or to authorize any one so to enter me, is +what my word and honor forbid." It did so happen +that Judge Logan, whose turn it seemed to be, +wished the nomination and received it. He was, +however, defeated, and probably paid the price of +Lincoln's scrupulous honesty.</p> + +<p>In the canvassing of the spring of 1848 Lincoln +was an ardent advocate for the nomination of +General Taylor as the Whig candidate for the +presidency; for he appreciated how much greater +was the strength of the military hero, with all that +could be said against him, than was that of Mr. +Clay, whose destiny was so disappointingly non-presidential. +When the nomination went according +to his wishes, he entered into the campaign +<!-- Image No 101 --><a name='Png101'></a><a name='Page079'></a><span class="pagenum">079</span> +with as much zeal as his congressional duties would +permit,—indeed, with somewhat an excess of zeal, +for he delivered on the floor of the House an +harangue in favor of the general which was little +else than a stump speech, admirably adapted for +a backwoods audience, but grossly out of place +where it was spoken. He closed it with an assault +on General Cass, as a military man, which was +designed to be humorous, and has, therefore, been +quoted with unfortunate frequency. So soon as +Congress adjourned he was able to seek a more +legitimate arena in New England, whither he +went at once and delivered many speeches, none +of which have been preserved.</p> + +<p>Lincoln's position upon the slavery question in +this Congress was that of moderate hostility. In +the preceding Congress, the Twenty-ninth, the +famous Wilmot Proviso, designed to exclude slavery +from any territory which the United States +should acquire from Mexico, had passed the House +and had been killed in the Senate. In the Thirtieth +Congress efforts to the same end were renewed +in various forms, always with Lincoln's favor. +He once said that he had voted for the principle +of the Wilmot Proviso "about forty-two times," +which, if not an accurate mathematical computation, +was a vivid expression of his stanch adherence +to the doctrine. At the second session Mr. +Lincoln voted against a bill to prohibit the slave +trade in the District of Columbia, because he did +not approve its form; and then introduced another +<!-- Image No 102 --><a name='Png102'></a><a name='Page080'></a><span class="pagenum">080</span> +bill, which he himself had drawn. This prohibited +the bringing slaves into the District, except +as household servants by government officials who +were citizens of slave States; it also prohibited +selling them to be taken away from the District; +children born of slave mothers after January 1, +1850, were to be subject to temporary apprenticeship +and finally to be made free; owners of slaves +might collect from the government their full cash +value as the price of their freedom; fugitive slaves +escaping into Washington and Georgetown were +to be returned; finally the measure was to be submitted +to popular vote in the District. This was +by no means a measure of abolitionist coloring, +although Lincoln obtained for it the support of +Joshua R. Giddings, who believed it "as good a +bill as we could get at this time," and was "willing +to pay for slaves in order to save them from +the Southern market." It recognized the right of +property in slaves, which the Abolitionists denied; +also it might conceivably be practicable, a characteristic +which rarely marked the measures of the +Abolitionists, who professed to be pure moralists +rather than practical politicians. From this first +move to the latest which he made in this great +business, Lincoln never once broke connection with +practicability. On this occasion he had actually +succeeded in obtaining from Mr. Seaton, editor +of the "National Intelligencer" and mayor of +Washington, a promise of support, which gave +him a little prospect of success. Later, however, +<!-- Image No 103 --><a name='Png103'></a><a name='Page081'></a><span class="pagenum">081</span> +the Southern Congressmen drew this influential +gentleman to their side, and thereby rendered the +passage of the bill impossible; at the close of the +session it lay with the other corpses in that grave +called "the table."</p> + +<p>When his term of service in Congress was over +Lincoln sought, but failed to obtain, the position +of Commissioner of the General Lands Office. +He was offered the governorship of the newly +organized Territory of Oregon; but this, controlled +by the sensible advice of his wife, he fortunately +declined.</p> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_48_48'></a><a href='#FNanchor_48_48'>[48]</a> + Lamon, pp. 238-252, tells the story of Lincoln's marriage at +great length, sparing nothing; he liberally sets forth the gossip +and the stories; he quotes the statements of witnesses who knew +both parties at the time, and he gives in full much correspondence. +The spirit and the letter of his account find substantial corroboration +in the narrative of Herndon, pp. 206-231. So much original +material and evidence of acquaintances have been gathered by +these two writers, and their own opportunities of knowing the +truth were so good, that one seems not at liberty to reject the <i>substantial</i> +correctness of their version. Messrs. Nicolay and Hay, vol. +i. ch. 11, give a narrative for the most part in their own language. +Their attempt throughout to mitigate all that is disagreeable is +so obvious, not only in substance but in the turn of every phrase, +that it is impossible to accept their chapter as a picture either +free from obscurity or true in color, glad as one might be to do so. +Arnold, pp. 68, 72, and Holland, p. 90, simply mention the marriage, +and other biographers would have done well to imitate this +forbearance; but too much has been said to leave this course now +open.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_49_49'></a><a href='#FNanchor_49_49'>[49]</a> + It is fair to say that my view of this "duel" is not that of +other writers. Lamon, p. 260, says that "the scene is one of +transcendent interest." Herndon, p. 260, calls it a "serio-comic +affair." Holland, pp. 87-89, gives a brief, deprecatory account +of what he calls "certainly a boyish affair." Arnold, pp. 69-72, +treats it simply enough, but puts the whole load of the ridicule +upon Shields. Nicolay and Hay, vol. i. ch. 12, deal with it gravely, +and in the same way in which, in the preceding chapter, they deal +with the marriage; that is to say, they eschew the production of +original documents, and, by their own gloss, make a good story for +Lincoln and a very bad one for Shields; they speak lightly of the +"ludicrousness" of the affair. To my mind the opinion which +Lincoln himself held is far more correct than that expressed by +any of his biographers.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_50_50'></a><a href='#FNanchor_50_50'>[50]</a> + Serious practice only began with him when he formed his +partnership with Judge Logan in 1841; in 1860 his practice came +to an end; in the interval he was for two years a member of +Congress.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_51_51'></a><a href='#FNanchor_51_51'>[51]</a> + A story is told by Lamon, p. 321, which puts Lincoln in a +position absolutely indefensible by any sound reasoning.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_52_52'></a><a href='#FNanchor_52_52'>[52]</a> + For accounts of Lincoln at the bar, as also for many illustrative +and entertaining anecdotes to which the plan of this volume +does not permit space to be given, see Arnold, 55-59, 66, 73, 84-91; +Holland, 72, 73, 76-83, 89; Lamon, 223-225, ch. xiii. 311-332; +N. and H. i. 167-171, 213-216, ch. xvii. 298-309; Herndon, 182-184, +186, 264-266, 306 n., 307-309, 312-319, 323-331, ch. xi. +332-360.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_53_53'></a><a href='#FNanchor_53_53'>[53]</a> + Holland, 95; but <i>per contra</i> see Herndon, 271.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_54_54'></a><a href='#FNanchor_54_54'>[54]</a> + March, 1843.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_55_55'></a><a href='#FNanchor_55_55'>[55]</a> + By way of example of his methods, see letter to Herndon, +June 22, 1848, Lamon, 299.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_56_56'></a><a href='#FNanchor_56_56'>[56]</a> + The treaty of peace, subject to some amendments, was ratified +by the Senate March 10, 1848, and officially promulgated on +July 4.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_57_57'></a><a href='#FNanchor_57_57'>[57]</a> + Von Holst, <i>Const. Hist. of U.S.</i> iii. 336. All historians are +pretty well agreed upon the relation of the Polk administration +to the Mexican war. But the story has never been so clearly and +admirably traced by any other as by von Holst in the third volume +of his history.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_58_58'></a><a href='#FNanchor_58_58'>[58]</a> + December 22, 1847.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_59_59'></a><a href='#FNanchor_59_59'>[59]</a> + Printed by Lamon, 282. See, also, Herndon, 277.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_60_60'></a><a href='#FNanchor_60_60'>[60]</a> + Herndon, 281; see letters given in full by Lamon, 291, 293, +295 (at 296); N. and H. i. 274</p></div> + + + +<hr class='long'/> +<!-- Image No 104 --><a name='Png104'></a><a name='Page082'></a><span class="pagenum">082</span> + +<a name='CHAPTER_IV'></a> +<h2>CHAPTER IV</h2> +<h2>NORTH AND SOUTH</h2> + +<p>The Ordinance of 1787 established that slavery +should never exist in any part of that vast northwestern +territory which had then lately been ceded +by sundry States to the Confederation. This Ordinance +could not be construed otherwise than as +an integral part of the transaction of cession, and +was forever unalterable, because it represented in +a certain way a part of the consideration in a contract, +and was also in the nature of a declaration +of trust undertaken by the Congress of the Confederation +with the granting States. The article +"was agreed to without opposition;" but almost +contemporaneously, in the sessions of that convention +which framed the Constitution, debate waxed +hot upon the topic which was then seen to present +grave obstacles to union. It was true that many +of the wisest Southerners of that generation regarded +the institution as a menacing misfortune; +they however could not ignore the fact that it +was a "misfortune" of that peculiar kind which +was endured with much complacency by those +afflicted by it; and it was equally certain that the +great body of slave-owners would resent any effort +<!-- Image No 105 --><a name='Png105'></a><a name='Page083'></a><span class="pagenum">083</span> +to relieve them of their burden. Hence there were +placed in the Constitution provisions in behalf of +slavery which involved an admission that the institution +needed protection, and should receive it. +The idea of protection implied the existence of +hostility either of men or of circumstances, or of +both. Thus by the Ordinance and the Constitution, +taken together, there was already indirectly +recognized an antagonism between the institutions, +interests, and opinions of the South and those of +the North.</p> + +<p>Slowly this feeling of opposition grew. The +first definite mark of the growth was the struggle +over the admission of Missouri, in 1820. This was +settled by the famous "Compromise," embodied in +the Act of March 6, 1820, whereby the people of +the Territory of Missouri were allowed to frame a +state government with no restriction against slavery; +but a clause also enacted that slavery should +never be permitted in any part of the remainder of +the public territory lying north of the parallel of +36° 30'. By its efficiency during thirty-four years +of constantly increasing strain this legislation was +proved to be a remarkable political achievement; +and as the people saw it perform so long and so +well a service so vital they came to regard it as +only less sacred than the Constitution itself. Even +Douglas, who afterward led in repealing it, declared +that it had an "origin akin to the Constitution," +and that it was "canonized in the hearts +of the American people as a sacred thing." Yet +<!-- Image No 106 --><a name='Png106'></a><a name='Page084'></a><span class="pagenum">084</span> +during the long quietude which it brought, each +section kept a jealous eye upon the other; and +especially was the scrutiny of the South uneasy, +for she saw ever more and more plainly the disturbing +truth that her institution needed protection. +Being in derogation of natural right, it was +peculiarly dependent upon artificial sustention; the +South would not express the condition in this +language, but acted upon the idea none the less. +It was true that the North was not aggressive +towards slavery, but was observing it with much +laxity and indifference; that the crusading spirit +was sleeping soundly, and even the proselyting +temper was feeble. But this state of Northern +feeling could not relieve the South from the harassing +consciousness that slavery needed not only +toleration, but positive <i>protection</i> at the hands of +a population whose institutions were naturally +antagonistic to the slave idea. This being the +case, she must be alarmed at seeing that population +steadily outstripping her own in numbers and +wealth.<a name='FNanchor_61_61'></a><a href='#Footnote_61_61'><sup>[61]</sup></a> + Since she could not possibly even hold +this disproportion stationary, her best resource +seemed to be to endeavor to keep it practically +harmless by maintaining a balance of power in the +government. Thus it became unwritten law that +slave States and free States must be equal in number, +so that the South could not be outvoted in the +<!-- Image No 107 --><a name='Png107'></a><a name='Page085'></a><span class="pagenum">085</span> +Senate. This system was practicable for a while, +yet not a very long while; for the North was filling +up that great northwestern region, which was +eternally dedicated to freedom, and full-grown +communities could not forever be kept outside the +pale of statehood. On the other hand, apart from +any question of numbers, the South could make +no counter-expansion, because she lay against a +foreign country. After a time, however, Texas +opportunely rebelled against Mexico, and then the +opportunity for removing this obstruction was too +obvious and too tempting to be lost. A brief +period of so-called independence on the part of +Texas was followed by the annexation of her territory +to the United States,<a name='FNanchor_62_62'></a><a href='#Footnote_62_62'><sup>[62]</sup></a> + with the proviso that +from her great area might in the future be cut off +still four other States. Slavery had been abolished +in all Mexican territory, and Texas had been properly +a "free" country; but in becoming a part of +the United States she became also a slave State.</p> + +<p>Mexico had declared that annexation of Texas +would constitute a <i>casus belli</i>, yet she was wisely +laggard in beginning vindictive hostilities against +a power which could so easily whip her, and she +probably never would have done so had the United +States rested content with an honest boundary +line. But this President Polk would not do, and +by theft and falsehood he at last fairly drove the +Mexicans into a war, in which they were so excessively +beaten that the administration found itself +<!-- Image No 108 --><a name='Png108'></a><a name='Page086'></a><span class="pagenum">086</span> +able to gather more plunder than it had expected. +By the treaty of peace the United States not only +extended unjustly the southwestern boundary of +Texas, but also got New Mexico and California. +To forward this result, Polk had asked the House +to place $2,000,000 at his disposal. Thereupon, +as an amendment to the bill granting this sum, +Wilmot introduced his famous proviso, prohibiting +slavery in any part of the territory to be acquired. +Repeatedly and in various shapes was the substance +of this proviso voted upon, but always it was voted +down. Though New Mexico had come out from +under the rule of despised Mexico as "free" country, +a contrary destiny was marked out for it in its +American character. A plausible suggestion was +made to extend the sacred line of the Missouri +Compromise westward to the Pacific Ocean; and +very little of the new country lay north of that line. +By all these transactions the South seemed to +be scoring many telling points in its game. They +were definite points, which all could see and estimate; +yet a price, which was considerable, though +less definite, less easy to see and to estimate, had +in fact been paid for them; for the antagonism of +the rich and teeming North to the Southern institution +and to the Southern policy for protecting it +had been spread and intensified to a degree which +involved a menace fully offsetting the Southern +territorial gain. One of the indications of this +state of feeling was the organization of the "Free +Soil" party.</p> + +<p><!-- Image No 109 --><a name='Png109'></a><a name='Page087'></a><span class="pagenum">087</span> +Almost simultaneously with this important advancement +of the Southern policy there occurred +an event, operative upon the other side, which certainly +no statesman could have foreseen. Gold +was discovered in California, and in a few months +a torrent of immigrants poured over the land. +The establishment of an efficient government became +a pressing need. In Congress they debated +the matter hotly; the friends of the Wilmot proviso +met in bitter conflict the advocates of the +westward extension of the line of 36° 30'. Neither +side could prevail, and amid intense excitement +the Thirtieth Congress expired. For the +politicians this was well enough, but for the Californians +organization was such an instant necessity +that they now had to help themselves to it. So +they promptly elected a Constitutional Convention, +which assembled on September 1, 1849, and adjourned +on October 13. Though this body held +fifteen delegates who were immigrants from slave +States, yet it was unanimous in presenting a Constitution +which prohibited slavery, and which was +at once accepted by a popular vote of 12,066 yeas +against 811 nays.</p> + +<p>Great then was the consternation of the Southern +leaders when Californian delegates appeared +immediately upon the assembling of the Thirty-first +Congress, and asked for admission beneath +this unlooked-for "free" charter of statehood. +The shock was aggravated by the fact that New +Mexico, actually instigated thereto by the slaveholding +<!-- Image No 110 --><a name='Png110'></a><a name='Page088'></a><span class="pagenum">088</span> +President Taylor himself, was likely to +follow close in the Californian foot-tracks. The +admission of Texas had for a moment disturbed +the senatorial equilibrium between North and +South, which, however, had quickly been restored +by the admission of Wisconsin. But the South +had nothing to offer to counterbalance California +and New Mexico, which were being suddenly +filched from her confident expectation. In this +emergency those extremists in the South who offset +the Abolitionists at the North fell back upon +the appalling threat of disunion, which could +hardly be regarded as an idle extravagance of the +"hotspurs," since it was substantially certain that +the Senate would never admit California with her +anti-slavery Constitution; and thus a real crisis +seemed at hand. Other questions also were cast +into the seething caldron. Texas, whose boundaries +were as uncertain as the ethics of politicians, +set up a claim which included nearly all New +Mexico, and so would have settled the question +of slavery for that region at least. Further, the +South called for a Fugitive Slave Law sufficiently +stringent to be serviceable. Also, in encountering +the Wilmot proviso, Southern statesmen had asserted +the doctrine, far-reaching and subversive of +established ideas and of enacted laws, that Congress +could not constitutionally interfere with the +property-rights of citizens of the United States +in the Territories, and that slaves were property. +Amid such a confused and violent hurly-burly the +<!-- Image No 111 --><a name='Png111'></a><a name='Page089'></a><span class="pagenum">089</span> +perplexed body of order-loving citizens were, with +reason, seriously alarmed.</p> + +<p>To the great relief of these people and to the +equal disgust of the extremist politicians, Henry +Clay, the "great compromiser," was now announced +to appear once more in the rôle which all felt that +he alone could play. He came with much dramatic +effect; an aged and broken man, he emerged from +the retirement in which he seemed to have sought +a brief rest before death should lay him low, and +it was with an impressive air of sadness and of +earnestness that he devoted the last remnants of +his failing strength to save a country which he had +served so long. His friends feared that he might +not survive even a few months to reach the end of +his patriotic task. On January 29, 1850, he laid +before the Senate his "comprehensive scheme of +adjustment." But it came not as oil upon the +angry waters; every one was offended by one or +another part of it, and at once there opened a war +of debate which is among the most noteworthy and +momentous in American history. Great men who +belonged to the past and great men who were to +belong to the future shared in the exciting controversies, +which were prolonged over a period of +more than half a year. Clay was constantly on +his feet, doing battle with a voice which gained +rather than lost force from its pathetic feebleness. +"I am here," he solemnly said, "expecting soon to +go hence, and owing no responsibility but to my +own conscience and to God." Jefferson Davis +<!-- Image No 112 --><a name='Png112'></a><a name='Page090'></a><span class="pagenum">090</span> +spoke for the extension westward of the Missouri +Compromise line to the Pacific Ocean, with a proviso +positively establishing slavery south of that +line. Calhoun, from the edge of the grave, into +which only a few weeks later he was to fall, once +more faced his old adversaries. On March 4 he +sat beside Mason of Virginia, while that gentleman +read for him to a hushed audience the speech +which he himself was too weak to deliver. Three +days later Webster uttered that speech which made +the seventh day of March almost as famous in +the history of the United States as the Ides of +the same month had been in that of Rome. In the +eyes of the anti-slavery men of New England the +fall of Webster was hardly less momentous than +the fall of Caesar had appeared in the Eternal City. +Seward also spoke a noteworthy speech, bringing +upon himself infinite abuse by his bold phrase, <i>a +higher law than the Constitution</i>. Salmon P. +Chase followed upon the same side, in an exalted +and prophetic strain. In that momentous session +every man gave out what he felt to be his best, +while anxious and excited millions devoured every +word which the newspapers reported to them.</p> + +<p>Clay had imprudently gathered the several matters +of his Compromise into one bill, which was +soon sneeringly nicknamed "the Omnibus Bill." +It was sorely harassed by amendments, and when +at last, on July 31, the Omnibus reached the end +of its journey, it contained only one passenger, viz., +a territorial government for Utah. Its trip had +<!-- Image No 113 --><a name='Png113'></a><a name='Page091'></a><span class="pagenum">091</span> +apparently ended in utter failure. But a careful +study of individual proclivities showed that not +improbably those measures might be passed one +by one which could not be passed in combination. +In this hope, five several bills, being all the ejected +contents of the Omnibus, were brought forward, +and each in turn had the success which had been +denied to them together. First: Texas received +$10,000,000, and for this price magnanimously relinquished +her unfounded claim upon New Mexico. +Second: California was admitted as a free State. +Third: New Mexico was organized as a Territory, +with the proviso that when she should form a state +constitution the slavery question should be determined +by the people, and that during her territorial +existence the question of property in a slave +should be left undisturbed by congressional action, +to be determined by the Supreme Court of the +United States. Fourth: A more efficient Fugitive +Slave Law was passed. Fifth: Slave trading in +the District of Columbia was abolished. Such +were the terms of an arrangement in which every +man saw so much which he himself disliked that +he felt sure that others must be satisfied. Each +plumed himself on his liberality in his concessions +nobly made in behalf of public harmony. "The +broad basis," says von Holst, "on which the compromise +of 1850 rested, was the conviction of the +great majority of the people, both North and South, +that it was fair, reasonable, and patriotic to come +to a friendly understanding."</p> + +<p><!-- Image No 114 --><a name='Png114'></a><a name='Page092'></a><span class="pagenum">092</span> +Thus in the midsummer of 1850 did the nation, +with intense relief, see the imminent disaster of +civil discord averted,—or was it only postponed? +It was ominous that no men who were deeply in +earnest in public affairs were sincerely satisfied. +The South saw no gain which offset the destruction +of the balance of power by the admission of California. +Thinking men at the North were alarmed +at the recognition of the principle of non-intervention +by Congress concerning slavery in the Territories, +a principle which soon, under the seductive +title of "popular sovereignty" in the Territories, +threatened even that partial restriction heretofore +given by the Missouri Compromise. Neither party +felt sufficiently secure of the strength of its legal +position to be altogether pleased at seeing the +doctrine of treating the slave in the Territories as +"property" cast into the lottery of the Supreme +Court. Lincoln recognized the futility of this +whole arrangement, and said truly that the slavery +question could "never be successfully compromised." +Yet he accepted the situation, with +the purpose of making of it the best that was possible. +The mass of the people, less far-sighted, +were highly gratified at the passing of the great +danger; refused to recognize that a more temporary +compromise was never patched up to serve a +turn; and applauded it so zealously that in preparing +for the presidential campaign of 1852 each +party felt compelled to declare emphatically—what +all wise politicians knew to be false—the "finality" +<!-- Image No 115 --><a name='Png115'></a><a name='Page093'></a><span class="pagenum">093</span> +of the great Compromise of 1850. Never, never +more was there to be a revival of the slavery +agitation! Yet, at the same time, it was instinctively +felt that the concord would cease at once if +the nation should not give to the South a Democratic +President! In this campaign Lincoln made +a few speeches in Illinois in favor of Scott; but +Herndon says that they were not very satisfactory +efforts. Franklin Pierce was chosen, and slavery +could have had no better man.</p> + +<p>This doctrine of non-intervention by Congress +with slavery in the Territories lay as the seed of +mortal disease imbedded in the vitals of the great +Compromise even at the hour of its birth. All +the howlings of the political medicine-men in the +halls of Congress, and in the wigwams where the +party platforms were manufactured, could not defer +the inevitable dissolution. The rapid peopling +of the Pacific coast already made it imperative to +provide some sort of governmental organization for +the sparsely inhabited regions lying between these +new lands and the fringe of population near the +Mississippi. Accordingly bills were introduced +to establish as a Territory the region which was +afterward divided between Kansas and Nebraska; +but at two successive sessions they failed to pass, +more, as it seemed, from lack of interest than from +any open hostility. In the course of debate it was +explained, and not contradicted, that slavery was +not mentioned in the bills because the Missouri +Compromise controlled that matter. Yet it was +<!-- Image No 116 --><a name='Png116'></a><a name='Page094'></a><span class="pagenum">094</span> +well known that the Missouri Compromise was no +longer a sure barrier; for one wing of the pro-slavery +party asserted that it was unconstitutional +on the ground that slaves, being property, could +not be touched in the Territories by congressional +enactments; while another wing of the party preferred +the plausible cry of "popular sovereignty," +than which no words could ring truer in American +ears; and no one doubted that, in order to give +that sovereignty full sway, they would at any convenient +moment vote to repeal even the "sacred" +Compromise. It could not be denied that this +was the better course, if it were practicable; and +accordingly, January 16, 1854, Senator Dixon of +Kentucky offered an amendment to the pending +Nebraska bill, which substantially embodied the +repeal. In the Senate Douglas was chairman of +the Committee on Territories, and was induced to +coöperate.<a name='FNanchor_63_63'></a><a href='#Footnote_63_63'><sup>[63]</sup></a> + January 23, 1854, he introduced his +famous "Kansas-Nebraska bill," establishing the +two Territories and declaring the Missouri Compromise +"inoperative" therein. A later amendment +declared the Compromise to be "inconsistent +with the principle of non-intervention by Congress +with slavery in the States and Territories, as +recognized by the legislation of 1850," and therefore +"inoperative and void; it being the true intent +and meaning of this Act not to legislate slavery +into any Territory or State, nor to exclude it therefrom, +<!-- Image No 117 --><a name='Png117'></a><a name='Page095'></a><span class="pagenum">095</span> +but to leave the people thereof perfectly free +to form and regulate their domestic institutions in +their own way, subject only to the Constitution." +After a long and hard fight the bill was passed +with this clause in it, which Benton well stigmatized +as a "stump speech injected into the belly +of the bill." The insertion of the word State was +of momentous significance.</p> + +<p>This repeal set the anti-slavery party all ablaze. +Among the rest Lincoln was fired with strenuous +indignation, and roused from the condition of +apparent indifference to public affairs in which he +had rested since the close of his term in Congress. +Douglas, coming home in the autumn, was so disagreeably +received by an angry audience in Chicago +that he felt it imperative to rehabilitate his stricken +popularity. This difficult task he essayed at the +great gathering of the State Fair in October. +But Lincoln was put forward to answer him, and +was brilliantly successful in doing so, if the highly +colored account of Mr. Herndon may be trusted. +Immediately after Lincoln's close, Owen Lovejoy, +the Abolitionist leader, announced "a meeting in +the same place that evening of all the friends of +freedom." The scheme was to induce Lincoln to +address them, and thus publicly to commit him as +of their faith. But the astute Herndon, though +himself an Abolitionist, felt that for Lincoln personally +this was by no means desirable. So he +hastened to Lincoln and strenuously said: "Go +home at once! Take Bob with you, and drive +<!-- Image No 118 --><a name='Png118'></a><a name='Page096'></a><span class="pagenum">096</span> +somewhere into the country, and stay till this thing +is over;" and Lincoln did take Bob and drove +away to Tazewell Court House "on business." +Herndon congratulates himself upon having "saved +Lincoln," since either joining, or refusing to join, +the Abolitionists at that time would have been +attended with "great danger." Lincoln had upon +his own part a wise instinct and a strong purpose +to keep hard by Douglas and to close with him as +often as opportunity offered. Soon afterward the +two encountered again, and on this occasion it is +narrated that Lincoln gave Douglas so much trouble +that Douglas cried for a truce, proposing that +neither of them should make any more speeches +that autumn, to which Lincoln good-naturedly +assented.</p> + +<p>During this winter Lincoln was elected to the +state legislature, but contrary to his own wish. +For he designed to be a candidate for the United +States Senate, and there might be a question as +to his eligibility if he remained a member of the +electing body. Accordingly he resigned his seat, +which, to his surprise and chagrin, was immediately +filled by a Democrat; for there was a reaction +in Sangamon County. On February 8, 1855, the +legislature began voting to elect a senator. The +"Douglas Democrats" wished to reelect Shields, +the present incumbent. The first ballot stood, +Lincoln, 45, Shields, 41, Lyman Trumbull, 5, +scattering, 5 (or, according to other authority, 8). +After several ballots Shields was thrown over in +<!-- Image No 119 --><a name='Png119'></a><a name='Page097'></a><span class="pagenum">097</span> +favor of a more "practicable" candidate, Governor +Matteson, a "quasi-independent," who, upon the +ninth ballot, showed a strength of 47, while Trumbull +had 35, Lincoln had run down to 15, and +"scattering" caught 1. Lincoln's weakness lay +in the fact that the Abolitionists had too loudly +praised him and publicly counted him as one of +themselves. For this reason five Democrats, disgusted +with Douglas for his attack on the Missouri +Compromise, but equally bitter against Abolitionism, +stubbornly refused ever to vote for a Whig, +above all a Whig smirched by Abolitionist applause. +So it seemed that Owen Lovejoy and his +friends had incumbered Lincoln with a fatal handicap. +The situation was this: Lincoln could count +upon his fifteen adherents to the extremity; but +the five anti-Douglas Democrats were equally +stanch against him, so that his chance was evidently +gone. Trumbull was a Democrat, but he +was opposed to the policy of Douglas's Kansas-Nebraska +bill; his following was not altogether +trustworthy, and a trifling defection from it seemed +likely to occur and to make out Matteson's majority. +Lincoln pondered briefly; then, subjecting +all else to the great principle of "anti-Nebraska," +he urged his friends to transfer their votes to +Trumbull. With grumbling and reluctance they +did so, and by this aid, on the tenth ballot, Trumbull +was elected. In a letter to Washburne, +Lincoln wrote: "I think you would have done +the same under the circumstances, though Judge +<!-- Image No 120 --><a name='Png120'></a><a name='Page098'></a><span class="pagenum">098</span> +Davis, who came down this morning, declares he +never would have consented to the 47 men being +controlled by the 5. I regret my defeat moderately, +but am not nervous about it." If that was +true which was afterwards so frequently reiterated +by Douglas during the campaign of 1858, that +a bargain had been struck between Lincoln and +Trumbull, whereby the former was to succeed +Shields and the latter was to succeed Douglas at +the election two years later, then Lincoln certainly +displayed on this occasion a "generosity" which +deserves more than the very moderate praise which +has been given it, of being "above the range of +the mere politician's vision."<a name='FNanchor_64_64'></a><a href='#Footnote_64_64'><sup>[64]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p>An immediate effect of this repealing legislation +of 1854 was to cast Kansas into the arena as booty +to be won in fight between anti-slavery and pro-slavery. +For this competition the North had the +advantage that its population outnumbered that of +the South in the ratio of three to two, and emigration +was in accord with the habits of the people. +Against this the South offset proximity, of which +the peculiar usefulness soon became apparent. +Then was quickly under way a fair fight, in a certain +sense, but most unfairly fought. Each side +contended after its fashion; Northern anti-slavery +merchants subscribed money to pay the expenses +of free-state immigrants. "Border ruffians" and +members of "Blue Lodges" and of kindred fraternities +came across the border from Missouri to +<!-- Image No 121 --><a name='Png121'></a> +<!-- Image No 122 --><a name='Png122'></a> +<!-- Image No 123 --><a name='Png123'></a><a name='Page099'></a><span class="pagenum">099</span> +take a hand in every politico-belligerent crisis. +The parties were not unequally matched; by temperament +the free-state men were inclined to orderly +and legitimate ways, yet they were willing +and able to fight fire with fire. On the other hand, +the slave-state men had a native preference for the +bowie-knife and the shot-gun, yet showed a kind +of respect for the ballot-box by insisting that it +should be stuffed with votes on their side. Thus +for a long while was waged a dubious, savage, +and peculiar warfare. Imprisonments and rescues, +beatings, shootings, plunderings, burnings, sieges, +and lootings of towns were interspersed with elections +of civil officers, with legislative enactments +in ordinary form, with trials, suits at law, legal +arguments, and decisions of judges. It is impossible +here to sketch in detail this strange phantasmagory +of arson, bloodshed, politics, and law.</p> + +<p class="figure"> +<a href="img/illus0423.jpg"> +<img width="50%" src='img/illus0423.jpg' alt='Lyman Trumbull.'/></a><br/> +Lyman Trumbull. +</p> + +<p>Meantime other occurrences demand mention. +In May, 1854, the seizure in Boston of Anthony +Burns, as an escaped slave, caused a riot in which +the court-house was attacked by a mob, one of +the assailants was killed, and the militia were +called out. Other like seizures elsewhere aroused +the indignation of people who, whatever were their +abstract theories as to the law, revolted at the +actual spectacle of a man dragged back from +freedom into slavery. May 22, 1856, Preston S. +Brooks strode suddenly upon Charles Sumner, +seated and unarmed at his desk in the senate-chamber, +and beat him savagely over the head +<!-- Image No 124 --><a name='Png124'></a><a name='Page100'></a><span class="pagenum">100</span> +with a cane, inflicting very serious injuries. Had +it been a fair fight, or had the South repudiated +the act, the North might have made little of it, for +Sumner was too advanced in his views to be politically +popular. But, although the onslaught was +even more offensive for its cowardice than for +its brutality, nevertheless the South overwhelmed +Brooks with laudation, and by so doing made thousands +upon thousands of Republican votes at the +North. The deed, the enthusiastic greeting, and +the angry resentment marked the alarming height +to which the excitement had risen.</p> + +<p>The presidential campaign of the following summer, +1856, showed a striking disintegration and +re-formation of political groups. Nominally there +were four parties in the field: Democrats, Whigs, +Native Americans or Know-Nothings, and Republicans. +The Know-Nothings had lately won some +state elections, but were of little account as a +national organization, for they stood upon an issue +hopelessly insignificant in comparison with slavery. +Already many had gone over to the Republican +camp; those who remained nominated as their candidates +Millard Fillmore and Andrew J. Donelson. +The Whigs were the feeble remnant of a really +dead party, held together by affection for the old +name; too few to do anything by themselves, they +took by adoption the Know-Nothing candidates. +The Republican party had been born only in 1854. +Its members, differing on other matters, united +upon the one doctrine, which they accepted as a +<!-- Image No 125 --><a name='Png125'></a><a name='Page101'></a><span class="pagenum">101</span> +test: opposition to the extension of slavery. They +nominated John C. Fremont and William L. Dayton, +and made a platform whereby they declared +it to be "both the right and the duty of Congress +to prohibit in the Territories those twin relics of +barbarism, polygamy and slavery;" by which vehement +and abusive language they excited the bitter +resentment of the Southern Democracy. In this +convention 110 votes were cast for Lincoln for +the second place on the ticket. Lamon tells the +little story that when this was told to Lincoln he +replied that he could not have been the person +designated, who was, doubtless, "the great Lincoln +from Massachusetts."<a name='FNanchor_65_65'></a><a href='#Footnote_65_65'><sup>[65]</sup></a> + In the Democratic party +there were two factions. The favorite candidate +of the South was Franklin Pierce, for reëlection, +with Stephen A. Douglas as a substitute or second +choice; the North more generally preferred James +Buchanan, who was understood to be displeased +with the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. The +struggle was sharp, but was won by the friends of +Buchanan, with whom John C. Breckenridge was +coupled. The campaign was eager, for the Republicans +soon developed a strength beyond what had +been expected and which put the Democrats to +their best exertions. The result was</p> + +<div class="display"> +<table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td align="right"><span style='margin-left:1em'>Popular vote</span></td> + <td align="right"><span style='margin-left:1em'>Electoral vote</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Democrats.</td> + <td align="right">1,838,169</td> + <td align="right">174</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Republicans.</td> + <td align="right">1,341,264</td> + <td align="right">114</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Know-Nothings and Whigs.</td> + <td align="right">874,534</td> + <td align="right">8</td> + </tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p><!-- Image No 126 --><a name='Png126'></a><a name='Page102'></a><span class="pagenum">102</span> +Thus James Buchanan became President of the +United States, March 4, 1857,—stigmatized somewhat +too severely as "a Northern man with Southern +principles;" in fact an honest man and of good +abilities, who, in ordinary times, would have left a +fair reputation as a statesman of the second rank; +but a man hopelessly unfit alike in character and +in mind either to comprehend the present emergency +or to rise to its demands.<a name='FNanchor_66_66'></a><a href='#Footnote_66_66'><sup>[66]</sup></a> + Yet, while the +Democrats triumphed, the Republicans enjoyed +the presage of the future; they had polled a total +number of votes which surprised every one; on +the other hand, the Democrats had lost ten States<a name='FNanchor_67_67'></a><a href='#Footnote_67_67'><sup>[67]</sup></a> + +which they had carried in 1852 and had gained +only two others,<a name='FNanchor_68_68'></a><a href='#Footnote_68_68'><sup>[68]</sup></a> + showing a net loss of eight +States; and their electoral votes had dwindled +from 254 to 174.</p> + +<p>On the day following Buchanan's inauguration +that occurred which had been foreshadowed with +ill-advised plainness in his inaugural address. In +the famous case of Dred Scott,<a name='FNanchor_69_69'></a><a href='#Footnote_69_69'><sup>[69]</sup></a> + the Supreme Court +of the United States established as law the doctrine +lately advanced by the Southern Democrats, +<!-- Image No 127 --><a name='Png127'></a><a name='Page103'></a><span class="pagenum">103</span> +that a slave was "property," and that his owner +was entitled to be protected in the possession of +him, as such, in the Territories. This necessarily +demolished the rival theory of "popular sovereignty," +which the Douglas Democrats had adopted, +not without shrewdness, as being far better suited +to the Northern mind. For clearly the people enjoyed +no sovereignty where they had no option. +Consequently in the Territories there was no longer +a slavery question. The indignation of anti-slavery +men of all shades of opinion was intense, and +was unfortunately justifiable. For wholly apart +from the controversy as to whether the law was +better expounded by the chief justice or by Judge +Curtis in his dissenting opinion, there remained +a main fact, undeniable and inexcusable, to wit: +that the court, having decided that the lower court +had no jurisdiction, and being therefore itself +unable to remand the cause for a new trial, had +then outstepped its own proper function and outraged +legal propriety by determining the questions +raised by the rest of the record,—questions which +no longer had any real standing before this tribunal. +This course was well known to have been +pursued with the purpose on the part of the majority +of the judges to settle by judicial authority, +and by a <i>dictum</i> conspicuously <i>obiter</i>, that great +slavery question with which Congress had grappled +in vain. It was a terrible blunder, for the people +were only incensed by a volunteered and unauthorized +interference. Moreover, the reasoning of +<!-- Image No 128 --><a name='Png128'></a><a name='Page104'></a><span class="pagenum">104</span> +Chief Justice Taney was such that the Republicans +began anxiously to inquire why it was not +as applicable to States as to Territories, and why +it must not be extended to States when occasion +should arrive; and in this connection it seemed +now apparent why "States" had been named in +the bill which repealed the Missouri Compromise.<a name='FNanchor_70_70'></a><a href='#Footnote_70_70'><sup>[70]</sup></a> + +In spite of this menace the struggle in Kansas +was not slackened. Time had been counting heavily +in favor of the North. Her multitudinous +population ceaselessly fed the stream of immigrants, +and they were stubborn fellows who came +to stay, and therefore were sure to wear out the +persistence of the boot-and-saddle men from over +the Missouri border. Accordingly, in 1857, the +free-state men so vastly outnumbered the slavery +contingent, that even pro-slavery men had to acknowledge +it. Then the slavery party made its +last desperate effort. Toward the close of that +year the Lecompton Constitution was framed by +a convention chosen at an election in which the +free-state men, perhaps unwisely, had refused to +take part. When this pro-slavery instrument was +offered to the people, they were not allowed to +vote simply Yea or Nay, but only "for the Constitution +with slavery," or "for the Constitution +with no slavery." Again the free-state men refrained +from voting, and on December 21, 6,143 +ballots were declared to have been cast "for the +Constitution with slavery," and 589 "for the Constitution +<!-- Image No 129 --><a name='Png129'></a><a name='Page105'></a><span class="pagenum">105</span> +with no slavery." Much more than one +third of the 6,143 were proved to be fraudulent, but +the residue far exceeded the requisite majority. +January 4, 1858, state officers were to be chosen, +and now the free-state men decided to make an +irregular opportunity to vote, in their turn, simply +for or against the Lecompton Constitution. This +time the pro-slavery men, considering the matter +already lawfully settled, refused to vote, and the +result was that this polling showed 10,226 against +the Constitution, 138 for the Constitution with +slavery, 24 for the Constitution without slavery. +It is an instance of Lincoln's political foresight +that nearly two years and a half before this condition +of affairs came about he had written: "If +Kansas fairly votes herself a slave State, she must +be admitted, or the Union must be dissolved. But +how if she votes herself a slave State unfairly?... Must +she still be admitted, or the Union be +dissolved? That will be the phase of the question +when it first becomes a practical one."<a name='FNanchor_71_71'></a><a href='#Footnote_71_71'><sup>[71]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p>The struggle was now transferred to Washington. +President Buchanan had solemnly pledged +himself to accept the result of the popular vote. +Now he was confronted by two popular votes, of +which the one made somewhat the better technical +and formal showing, and the other undeniably +expressed the true will of a large majority of lawful +voters. He selected the former, and advised +Congress to admit Kansas under the Lecompton +<!-- Image No 130 --><a name='Png130'></a><a name='Page106'></a><span class="pagenum">106</span> +Constitution with slavery. But Douglas took the +other side. The position of Douglas in the nation +and in the Democratic party deserves brief consideration, +for in a way it was the cause of Lincoln's +nomination as the Republican candidate for the +presidency in 1860. From 1852 to 1860 Douglas +was the most noteworthy man in public life in the +country. Webster, Clay, and Calhoun had passed +away. Seward, Chase, and Sumner, still in the +earlier stages of their brilliant careers, were organizing +the great party of the future. This +interval of eight years belonged to Douglas more +than to any other one man. He had been a candidate +for the Democratic nomination for the presidency +in 1852 and again in 1856; and had failed +to secure it in part by reason of that unwritten +rule whereby the leading statesmen are so often +passed over, in order to confer the great prize upon +insignificant and therefore presumably submissive +men. Douglas was not of this type; he had high +spirit, was ambitious, masterful, and self-confident; +he was also an aggressive, brilliant, and tireless +fighter in a political campaign, an orator combining +something of the impressiveness of Webster +with the readiness and roughness of the stump +speaker. He had a thorough familiarity with all +the politics, both the greater and the smaller, of +the time; he was shrewd and adroit as a politician, +and he had as good a right as any man then prominent +in public life to the more dignified title of +statesman. He had the art of popularity, and upon +<!-- Image No 131 --><a name='Png131'></a><a name='Page107'></a><span class="pagenum">107</span> +sufficient occasion could be supple and accommodating +even in the gravest matters of principle. +He had always been a Democrat. He now regarded +himself as properly the leader of the Democratic +party; and of course he still aimed at the +high office which he had twice missed.<a name='FNanchor_72_72'></a><a href='#Footnote_72_72'><sup>[72]</sup></a> + With this +object in view, he had gone very far to retain his +hold upon the South. He told Southerners that +by his happy theory of "popular sovereignty" he +had educated the public mind, and accomplished +the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. When +the Dred Scott decision took the life out of his +"popular sovereignty," he showed his wonted readiness +in adapting himself to the situation. To the +triumphant South he graciously admitted the finality +of a decision which sustained the most extreme +Southern doctrine. To the perturbed and indignant +North he said cheeringly that the decision +was of no practical consequence whatsoever! For +every one knew that slavery could not exist in +any community without the aid of friendly legislation; +and if any anti-slavery community should by +its anti-slavery legislature withhold this essential +friendly legislation, then slavery in that State +might be lawful but would be impossible. So, he +said, there is still in fact "popular sovereignty."<a name='FNanchor_73_73'></a><a href='#Footnote_73_73'><sup>[73]</sup></a> + +When the pro-slavery Lecompton Constitution +<!-- Image No 132 --><a name='Png132'></a><a name='Page108'></a><span class="pagenum">108</span> +came up for consideration Douglas decided not to +rest content with the form of popular approval, +but to stand out for the substance. He quarreled +with Buchanan, and in an angry interview they exchanged +threats and defiance. Douglas felt himself +the greater man of the two in the party, and +audaciously indicated something like contempt for +the rival who was not leader but only President. +Conscience, if one may be allowed gravely to speak +of the conscience of a professional politician, and +policy were in comfortable unison in commending +this choice to Douglas. For his term as senator +was to expire in 1858, and reëlection was not only +in itself desirable, but seemed essential to securing +the presidency in 1860. Heretofore Illinois had +been a Democratic State; the southern part, peopled +by immigrants from neighboring slave States, +was largely pro-slavery; but the northern part, +containing the rapidly growing city of Chicago, +had been filled from the East, and was inclined +to sympathize with the rest of the North. Such +being the situation, an avowal of Democratic principles, +coupled with the repudiation of the Lecompton +fraud, seemed the shrewd and safe course in +view of Douglas's political surroundings, also the +consistent, or may we say honest, course in view of +his antecedent position. If, in thus retaining his +hold on Illinois, he gave to the Southern Democracy +an offense which could never be forgotten or +forgiven, this misfortune was due to the impracticable +situation and not to any lack of skillful straegy +t<!-- Image No 133 --><a name='Png133'></a><a name='Page109'></a><span class="pagenum">109</span> +on his part. In spite of him the bill passed +the Senate, but in the House twenty-two Northern +Democrats went over to the opposition, and carried +a substitute measure, which established that +the Lecompton Constitution must again be submitted +to popular vote. Though this was done by +the body of which Douglas was not a member, yet +every one felt that it was in fact his triumph over +the administration. A Committee of Conference +then brought in the "English bill." Under this +the Kansans were to vote, August 3, 1858, either +to accept the pro-slavery Lecompton Constitution, +with the <i>douceur</i> of a land grant, or to reject it. +If they accepted it, the State was to be admitted +at once; if they rejected it, they were not to be +admitted until the population should reach the +number which was required for electing a member +to the House of Representatives. At present the +population was far short of this number, and therefore +rejection involved a long delay in acquiring +statehood. Douglas very justly assailed the unfairness +of a proposal by which an anti-slavery +vote was thus doubly and very severely handicapped; +but the bill was passed by both Houses +of Congress and was signed by the President. The +Kansans, however, by an enormous majority,<a name='FNanchor_74_74'></a><a href='#Footnote_74_74'><sup>[74]</sup></a> + rejected +the bribes of land and statehood in connection +with slavery. For his action concerning the +<!-- Image No 134 --><a name='Png134'></a><a name='Page110'></a><span class="pagenum">110</span> +Lecompton Constitution and the "English bill" +Douglas afterward took much credit to himself.</p> + +<p>Such was the stage of advancement of the slavery +conflict in the country, and such the position +of Douglas in national and in state politics, when +there took place that great campaign in Illinois +which made him again senator in 1858, and made +Lincoln President in 1860.</p> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_61_61'></a><a href='#FNanchor_61_61'>[61]</a> + For a striking comparison of the condition of the South with +that of the North in 1850, see von Holst's <i>Const. Hist, of U.S.</i> +v. 567-586.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_62_62'></a><a href='#FNanchor_62_62'>[62]</a> + December, 1845.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_63_63'></a><a href='#FNanchor_63_63'>[63]</a> + For a description of Douglas's state of mind, see N. and H. i. 345-351, quoting original authorities.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_64_64'></a><a href='#FNanchor_64_64'>[64]</a> + N. and H. i. 388.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_65_65'></a><a href='#FNanchor_65_65'>[65]</a> + Thus when John Adams first landed in Europe, and was asked +whether he was "the great Mr. Adams," he said: No, the great +Mr. Adams was his cousin, Samuel Adams of Boston.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_66_66'></a><a href='#FNanchor_66_66'>[66]</a> + For a fair and discriminating estimate of Buchanan, see +Blaine, <i>Twenty Years in Congress</i>, vol. i. ch. x., especially pp. 239-241.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_67_67'></a><a href='#FNanchor_67_67'>[67]</a> + Maine, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New +York, Ohio, Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa, all for Fremont; Maryland +for Fillmore.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_68_68'></a><a href='#FNanchor_68_68'>[68]</a> + Tennessee and Kentucky.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_69_69'></a><a href='#FNanchor_69_69'>[69]</a> + Dred Scott, plff. in error, <i>vs.</i> Sandford, Sup. Ct. of U.S. Dec. +Term, 1856, 19 Howard, 393. After the conclusion of this case +Scott was given his freedom by his master.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_70_70'></a><a href='#FNanchor_70_70'>[70]</a> + <i>Ante</i>, pp. 94, 95.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_71_71'></a><a href='#FNanchor_71_71'>[71]</a> + August 24, 1855; Holland, 145.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_72_72'></a><a href='#FNanchor_72_72'>[72]</a> + +For a good sketch of Douglas, see Elaine, <i>Twenty Years of +Congress</i>, i. 144.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_73_73'></a><a href='#FNanchor_73_73'>[73]</a> + +This doctrine was set forth by Douglas in a speech at Springfield, +Ill., June 12, 1857. A fortnight later, June 26, at the same +place, Lincoln answered this speech. N. and H. ii. 85-89.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_74_74'></a><a href='#FNanchor_74_74'>[74]</a> + By 11,300 against 1,788, August 2, 1858. Kansas was admitted +as a State at the close of January, 1861, after many of the +Southern States had already seceded.</p></div> + + + +<hr class='long'/> +<!-- Image No 135 --><a name='Png135'></a><a name='Page111'></a><span class="pagenum">111</span> + +<a name='CHAPTER_V'></a> +<h2>CHAPTER V</h2> +<h2>THE LINCOLN-DOUGLAS JOINT DEBATE</h2> + +<p>About this time Lincoln again became active in +the politics of his State, aiding in the formation of +the Republican party there. On May 29, 1856, a +state convention of "all opponents of anti-Nebraska +legislation" was held at Bloomington. After "a +platform ringing with strong anti-Nebraska sentiments" +had been adopted, Lincoln, "in response +to repeated calls, came forward and delivered a +speech of such earnestness and power that no one +who heard it will ever forget the effect it produced." +It was "never written out or printed," +which is to be regretted; but it lives in one of +those vivid descriptions by Herndon which leave +nothing to the imagination. For the moment this +triumph was gratifying; but when Lincoln, leaving +the hot enthusiasts of Bloomington, came home to +his fellow townsmen at Springfield, he passed into +a chill atmosphere of indifference and disapproval. +An effort was made to gather a mass meeting in +order to ratify the action of the state convention. +But the "mass" consisted of three persons, viz., +Abraham Lincoln, Herndon, and one John Pain. +It was trying, but Lincoln was finely equal to the +<!-- Image No 136 --><a name='Png136'></a><a name='Page112'></a><span class="pagenum">112</span> +occasion; in a few words, passing from jest to +earnest, he said that the meeting was larger than +he <i>knew</i> it would be; for while he knew that he +and his partner would attend, he was not sure of +any one else; and yet another man had been found +brave enough to come out. But, "while all seems +dead, the age itself is not. It liveth as sure as our +Maker liveth. Under all this seeming want of +life and motion the world does move, nevertheless. +Be hopeful, and now let us adjourn and appeal to +the people!"</p> + +<p>In the presidential campaign of 1856 the Republicans +of Illinois put Lincoln on their electoral +ticket, and he entered into the campaign promptly +and very zealously. Traveling untiringly to and +fro, he made about fifty speeches. By the quality +of these, even more than by their number, he became +the champion of the party, so that pressing +demands for him came from the neighboring +States. He was even heard of in the East. But +there he encountered a lack of appreciation and +in some quarters an hostility which he felt to be +hurtful to his prospects as well as unjust towards +a leading Republican of the Northwest. Horace +Greeley, enthusiastic, well meaning, ever blundering, +the editor of the New York "Tribune," cast +the powerful influence of that sheet against him; +and as the senatorial contest of 1858 was approaching, +in which Lincoln hoped to be a principal, this +ill feeling was very unfortunate.<a name='FNanchor_75_75'></a><a href='#Footnote_75_75'><sup>[75]</sup></a> + "I fear," he +<!-- Image No 137 --><a name='Png137'></a><a name='Page113'></a><span class="pagenum">113</span> +said, "that Greeley's attitude will damage me +with Sumner, Seward, Wilson, Phillips, and other +friends in the East,"—and by the way, it is interesting +to note this significant list of political +"friends." Thereupon Herndon, as guardian of +Lincoln's political prospects, went to pass the opening +months of the important year upon a crusade +among the great men of the East, designing to +extinguish the false lights erroneously hung out +by persons ignorant of the truth. Erelong he +cheered Lincoln by encouraging accounts of success, +and of kind words spoken by many Eastern +magnates.</p> + +<p>In 1858, ability, courage, activity, ambition, the +prestige of success, and a plausible moderation in +party politics combined to make Douglas the most +conspicuous individual in the public view. There +was no other way whereby any other man could so +surely attract the close and interested attention of +the whole people as by meeting Douglas in direct +personal competition. If Douglas had not held +the position which he did, or if, holding it, he had +lived in another State than Illinois, Lincoln might +never have been President of the United States. +But the essential facts lay favorably for effecting +that presentation before the people which was indispensable +for his fortunes. In April, 1858, the +<!-- Image No 138 --><a name='Png138'></a><a name='Page114'></a><span class="pagenum">114</span> +Democratic State Convention of Illinois indorsed +the position which Douglas had taken in the Kansas +business. This involved that the party should +present him as its candidate for reëlection to the +national Senate by the legislature whose members +were to be chosen in the following autumn. "In +the very nature of things," says the enthusiastic +Herndon, Lincoln was at once selected by the +Republicans, and on June 16 their convention +resolved that "Hon. Abraham Lincoln is our first +and only choice for United States senator to fill the +vacancy about to be created by the expiration of +Mr. Douglas's term of office." Immediately the +popular excitement gave measure of the estimate +placed upon the two men by those who most accurately +knew their qualities. All Illinoisians looked +forward eagerly to the fine spectacle of a battle +royal between real leaders.</p> + +<p>The general political condition was extremely +confused. The great number of worthy citizens, +who had been wont to save themselves from the +worry of critical thought in political matters by +the simple process of uniform allegiance to a party, +now found the old familiar organizations rapidly +disintegrating. They were dismayed and bewildered +at the scene; everywhere there were new +cries, new standards, new leaders, while small +bodies of recruits, displaying in strange union old +comrades beside old foes, were crossing to and +fro and changing relationships, to the inextricable +confusion of the situation. In such a chaos each +<!-- Image No 139 --><a name='Png139'></a><a name='Page115'></a><span class="pagenum">115</span> +man was driven to do his own thinking, to discover +his genuine beliefs, and to determine in what company +he could stand enduringly in the troublous +times ahead. It was one of those periods in which +small men are laid aside and great leaders are +recognized by popular instinct; when the little +band that is in deepest earnest becomes endowed +with a force which compels the mass of careless, +temporizing human-kind to gravitate towards it. +Such bands were now the Abolitionists at the +North and the Secessionists at the South. Between +them lay the nation, disquieted, contentious, +and more than a little angry at the prevalent discomfort +and alarm. At the North nine men out +of ten cared far less for any principle, moral or +political, than they did for the discovery of some +course whereby this unwelcome conflict between +slavery and freedom could be prevented from disorganizing +the course of daily life and business; +and since the Abolitionists were generally charged +with being in great measure responsible for the +present menacing condition, they were regarded +with bitter animosity by a large number of their +fellow citizens. The Secessionists were not in +equal disfavor at the South, yet they were still +very much in the minority, even in the Gulf +States.</p> + +<p>Illinois had been pretty stanchly Democratic in +times past, but no one could forecast the complexion +which she would put on in the coming campaign. +The Whigs were gone. The Republican +<!-- Image No 140 --><a name='Png140'></a><a name='Page116'></a><span class="pagenum">116</span> +party, though so lately born, yet had already traversed +the period of infancy and perhaps also that +of youth; men guessed wildly how many voters +would now cast its ballot. On the other hand, the +Democrats were suffering from internal quarrels. +The friends of Douglas, and all moderate Democrats, +declared him to be the leader of the Democracy; +but Southern conventions and newspapers +were angrily "reading him out" of the party, and +the singular spectacle was witnessed of the Democratic +administration sending out its orders to all +Federal office-holders in Illinois to oppose the +Democratic nominee, even to the point of giving +the election to the Republicans; for if discipline +was to exist, a defection like that of which Douglas +had been guilty must be punished with utter and +everlasting destruction at any cost. This schism +of course made the numerical uncertainties even +more uncertain than they rightfully should have +been. Yet, in an odd way, the same fact worked +also against Lincoln; for Douglas's recent votes +against the pro-slavery measures of the administration +for the admission of Kansas, together with his +own direct statements on recent occasions, had put +him in a light which misled many Northern anti-slavery +men, whose perception did not penetrate +to the core-truth. For example, not only Greeley, +but Henry Wilson, Burlingame, Washburne, Colfax, +and more, really believed that Douglas was +turning his back upon his whole past career, and +that this brilliant political strategist was actually +<!-- Image No 141 --><a name='Png141'></a><a name='Page117'></a><span class="pagenum">117</span> +bringing into the anti-slavery camp<a name='FNanchor_76_76'></a><a href='#Footnote_76_76'><sup>[76]</sup></a> + all his accumulations +of prestige, popularity, and experience, +all his seductive eloquence, his skill, and his grand +mastery over men. Blinded by the dazzling prospect, +they gave all their influence in favor of this +priceless recruit, forgetting that, if he were in fact +such an apostate as they believed him to be, he +would come to them terribly shrunken in value and +trustworthiness. Some even were so infatuated as +to insist that the Republicans of Illinois ought +to present no candidate against him. Fortunately +the Illinoisians knew their fellow citizen better; +yet in so strange a jumble no one could deny that +it was a doubtful conflict in which these two rivals +were joining.</p> + +<p>Lincoln had expected to be nominated, and during +several weeks he had been thinking over his +speech of acceptance. However otherwise he might +seem at any time to be engaged, he was ceaselessly +turning over this matter in his mind; and frequently +he stopped short to jot down an idea or +expression upon some scrap of paper, which then +he thrust into his hat. Thus, piece by piece, the +accumulation grew alike inside and outside of his +head, and at last he took all his fragments and +with infinite consideration moulded them into +<!-- Image No 142 --><a name='Png142'></a><a name='Page118'></a><span class="pagenum">118</span> +unity. So studiously had he wrought that by the +time of delivery he had unconsciously committed +the whole speech accurately to memory. If so +much painstaking seemed to indicate an exaggerated +notion of the importance of his words, he was +soon vindicated by events; for what he said was +subjected to a dissection and a criticism such as +have not often pursued the winged words of the +orator. When at last the composition was completed, +he gathered a small coterie of his friends +and admirers, and read it to them. The opening +paragraph was as follows:—</p> + +<p>"If we could first know where we are, and +whither we are tending, we could better judge +what to do and how to do it. We are now far +into the fifth year since a policy was initiated with +the avowed object and confident promise of putting +an end to slavery agitation. Under the operation +of that policy, that agitation has not only not +ceased, but has constantly augmented. In my +opinion, it will not cease until a crisis shall have +been reached and passed. 'A house divided against +itself cannot stand.' I believe this government +cannot endure permanently half slave and half +free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved,—I +do not expect the house to fall,—but I do +expect it will cease to be divided. It will become +all one thing or all the other. Either the opponents +of slavery will arrest the further spread of +it, and place it where the public mind shall rest +in the belief that it is in the course of ultimate +<!-- Image No 143 --><a name='Png143'></a><a name='Page119'></a><span class="pagenum">119</span> +extinction; or its advocates will push it forward, +till it shall become alike lawful in all the States, +old as well as new,—North as well as South."</p> + +<p>As the reader watched for the effect of this +exordium he only saw disapproval and consternation. +His assembled advisers and critics, each and +all save only the fiery Herndon, protested that +language so daring and advanced would work a +ruin that might not be mended in years. Lincoln +heard their condemnation with gravity rather than +surprise. But he had worked his way to a conviction, +and he was immovable; all he said was, that +the statement was true, right, and just, that it was +time it should be made, and that he would make it, +even though he might have "to go down with it;" +that he would "rather be defeated with this expression +in the speech ... than to be victorious without +it." Accordingly, on the next day he spoke +the paragraph without the change of a word.</p> + +<p>It is not without effort that we can now appreciate +fully why this utterance was so momentous in +the spring of 1858.<a name='FNanchor_77_77'></a><a href='#Footnote_77_77'><sup>[77]</sup></a> + By it Lincoln came before +the people with a plain statement of precisely that +<!-- Image No 144 --><a name='Png144'></a><a name='Page120'></a><span class="pagenum">120</span> +which more than nine hundred and ninety-nine +persons in every thousand, especially at the North, +were striving with all their might to stamp down +as an untruth; he said to them what they all were +denying with desperation, and with rage against +the asserters. Their bitterness was the greater +because very many, in the bottom of their hearts, +distrusted their own painful and strenuous denial. +No words could be more unpopular than that the +divided house could not permanently stand, when +the whole nation was insisting, with the intensity +of despair, that it could stand, would stand, must +stand. Consequently occurrences soon showed his +friends to be right so far as concerned the near, +practical point: that the paragraph would cost +more voters in Illinois than Lincoln could lose without +losing his election. But beyond that point, +a little farther away in time, much deeper down +amid enduring results, Lincoln's judgment was +ultimately seen to rest upon fundamental wisdom, +politically as well as morally. For Lincoln was +no idealist, sacrificing realities to abstractions; on +the contrary, the right which he saw was always a +practical right, a right which could be compassed. +In this instance, the story goes that he retorted +upon some of those who grumbled about his "mistake," +that in time they "would consider it the +wisest thing he ever said." In this he foretold +truly; that daring and strong utterance was the +first link in the chain of which a more distant link +lay across the threshold of the White House.</p> + +<p><!-- Image No 145 --><a name='Png145'></a><a name='Page121'></a><span class="pagenum">121</span> +A battle opened by so resounding a shot was +sure to be furious. Writers and speakers fell +upon the fateful paragraph and tore it savagely. +They found in it a stimulus which, in fact, was not +needed; for already were present all the elements +of the fiercest struggle,—the best man and the +best fighter in each party at the front, and not +unevenly matched; a canvass most close and doubtful; +and a question which stirred the souls of men +with the passions of crusading days. Douglas +added experience and distinction to gallantry in +attack, adroitness in defense, readiness in personalities, +and natural aptitude for popular oratory. +Lincoln frankly admitted his formidable qualifications. +But the Republican managers had a shrewd +appreciation of both opponents; they saw that +Lincoln's forte lay in hitting out straight, direct, +and hard; and they felt that blows of the kind he +delivered should not go out into the air, but should +alight upon a concrete object,—upon Douglas. +They conceived a wise plan. On July 24, 1858, +Lincoln challenged Douglas to a series of joint +debates. Douglas accepted, and named seven meetings, +which he so arranged that he opened and +closed four times and Lincoln opened and closed +three times; but Lincoln made no point of the inequality; +the arrangement was completed, and this +famous duel constituted another link in that White +House chain.</p> + +<p>The setting of the spectacle had the picturesqueness +of the times and the region. The people +<!-- Image No 146 --><a name='Png146'></a><a name='Page122'></a><span class="pagenum">122</span> +gathered in vast multitudes, to the number of ten +thousand, even of twenty thousand, at the places +named for the speech-making; they came in their +wagons from all the country round, bringing provisions, +and making camps in the groves and +fields. There were bonfires and music, parading +and drinking. He was a singular man in Illinois +who was not present at some one of these encounters.</p> + +<p>Into a competition so momentous Lincoln entered +with a full appreciation of the burden and +responsibility which it put upon him. He had at +once to meet a false gloss of his famous sentence; +and though he had been very precise and accurate +in his phraseology for the express purpose of +escaping misinterpretation, yet it would have been +a marvel in applied political morals if the paraphrases +devised by Douglas had been strictly ingenuous. +The favorite distortion was to alter what +was strictly a forecast into a declaration of a +policy, to make a prediction pass for an avowal of +a purpose to wage war against slavery until either +the "institution" or "Abolitionism" should be +utterly defeated and forever exterminated. It was +said to be a "doctrine" which was "revolutionary +and destructive of this government," and which +"invited a warfare between the North and the +South, to be carried on with ruthless vengeance, +until the one section or the other shall be driven +to the wall and become the victim of the rapacity +of the other." Such misrepresentation annoyed +<!-- Image No 147 --><a name='Png147'></a><a name='Page123'></a><span class="pagenum">123</span> +Lincoln all the more because it was undeserved. +The history of the utterance thus maltreated illustrates +the deliberate, cautious, thorough way in +which his mind worked. So long ago as August +15, 1855, he had closed a letter with the paragraph: +"Our political problem now is: Can we, +as a nation, continue together <i>permanently</i>—<i>forever</i>, +half slave and half free? The problem is +too mighty for me. May God in his mercy superintend +the solution."<a name='FNanchor_78_78'></a><a href='#Footnote_78_78'><sup>[78]</sup></a> + This is one among many +instances which show how studiously Lincoln pondered +until he had got his conclusion into that +simple shape in which it was immutable. When +he had found a form which satisfied him for the +expression of a conviction, he was apt to use it +repeatedly rather than to seek new and varied +shapes, so that substantially identical sentences +often recur at distant intervals of time and place.</p> + +<p>When one has been long studying with much +earnest intensity of thought a perplexing and moving +question, and at last frames a conclusion with +painstaking precision in perfectly clear language, +it is not pleasant to have that accurate utterance +misstated with tireless reiteration, and with infinite +art and plausibility. But for this vexation +Lincoln could find no remedy, and it was in vain +that he again and again called attention to the fact +that he had expressed neither a "doctrine," nor an +"invitation," nor any "purpose" or policy whatsoever. +<!-- Image No 148 --><a name='Png148'></a><a name='Page124'></a><span class="pagenum">124</span> +But as it seemed not altogether courageous +to leave his position in doubt, he said: "Now, it +is singular enough, if you will carefully read that +passage over, that I did not say in it that I was in +favor of anything. I only said what I expected +would take place.... I did not even say that +I desired that slavery should be put in course of +ultimate extinction. I do say so now, however, so +there need be no longer any difficulty about that." +He felt that nothing short of such extinction would +surely prevent the revival of a dispute which had +so often been settled "<i>forever</i>." "We can no more +foretell," he said, "where the end of this slavery +agitation will be than we can see the end of the +world itself.... There is no way of putting an +end to the slavery agitation amongst us but to put +it back upon the basis where our fathers placed it.... +Then the public mind will rest in the belief +that it is in the course of ultimate extinction."</p> + +<p>There was much of this eloquence about "the +fathers," much evocation of the shades of the +great departed, who, having reached the eternal +silence, could be claimed by both sides. The contention +was none the less strenuous because it was +entirely irrelevant; since the opinion of "the fathers" +could not make slavery right or wrong. +Many times therefore did Douglas charge Lincoln +with having said "that the Union could not endure +divided as our fathers made it, with free and +slave States;" as though this were a sort of blasphemy +against the national demigods. Lincoln +<!-- Image No 149 --><a name='Png149'></a><a name='Page125'></a><span class="pagenum">125</span> +aptly retorted that, as matter of fact, these same +distinguished "fathers"—"Washington, Jefferson, +Franklin, Madison, Hamilton, Jay, and the +great men of that day"—did not <i>make</i>, but <i>found</i>, +the nation half slave and half free; that they set +"many clear marks of disapprobation" upon slavery, +and left it so situated that the popular mind +rested in the belief that it was in the course of +ultimate extinction. Unfortunately it had not +been allowed to remain as they had left it; but on +the contrary, "all the trouble and convulsion has +proceeded from the efforts to spread it over more +territory."</p> + +<p>Pursuing this line, Lincoln alleged the purpose +of the pro-slavery men to make slavery "perpetual +and universal" and "national." In his great +speech of acceptance at Springfield he put this +point so well that he never improved upon this +first presentation of it. The repeal of the Missouri +Compromise in 1854 "opened all the national +territory to slavery, and was the first point +gained. But so far Congress only had acted, and +an indorsement by the people, real or imaginary," +was obtained by "the notable argument of 'squatter +sovereignty,' otherwise called 'sacred right of +self-government,' which latter phrase, though expressive +of the only rightful basis of any government, +was so perverted in this attempted use of it +as to amount to just this: that if any <i>one</i> man +choose to enslave <i>another</i>, no <i>third</i> man shall be +permitted to object. That argument was incorporated +<!-- Image No 150 --><a name='Png150'></a><a name='Page126'></a><span class="pagenum">126</span> +into the Nebraska bill." In May, 1854, +this bill was passed. Then the presidential election +came. "Mr. Buchanan was elected, and the +indorsement was secured. That was the second +point gained." Meantime the celebrated case of +the negro, Dred Scott, was pending in the Supreme +Court, and the "President in his inaugural +address fervently exhorted the people to abide by +the forthcoming decision, whatever it might be. +Then in a few days came the decision," which was +at once emphatically indorsed by Douglas, "the +reputed author of the Nebraska bill," and by the +new President.</p> + +<p>"At length a squabble springs up between the +President and the author of the Nebraska bill on +the mere question of <i>fact</i>, whether the Lecompton +Constitution was or was not, in any just sense, +made by the people of Kansas; and in that quarrel +the latter declares that all he wants is a fair +vote for the people, and that he cares not whether +slavery be voted <i>down</i> or voted <i>up</i>.</p> + +<p>... "The several points of the Dred Scott decision +in connection with Senator Douglas's 'care not' +policy constitute the piece of machinery in its +present state of advancement. This was the third +point gained.</p> + +<p>... "We cannot absolutely know that all these exact +adaptations are the result of preconcert. But +when we see a lot of framed timbers, different +<!-- Image No 151 --><a name='Png151'></a><a name='Page127'></a><span class="pagenum">127</span> +portions of which we know have been gotten out at +different times and places and by different workmen, +—Stephen, Franklin, Roger, and James, for +instance,—and when we see these timbers joined +together, and see they exactly make the frame of +a house or a mill, all the tenons and mortices +exactly fitting, and all the lengths and proportions +of the different pieces exactly adapted to their +respective places, and not a piece too many or too +few,—not omitting even scaffolding; or, if a single +piece be lacking, we see the place in the frame +exactly fitted and prepared yet to bring such piece +in,—in such a case, we find it impossible not to +believe that Stephen and Franklin and Roger and +James all understood one another from the beginning, +and all worked upon a common plan or draft +drawn up before the first blow was struck.</p> + +<p>"It should not be overlooked that by the Nebraska +bill the people of a <i>State</i> as well as a Territory +were to be left 'perfectly free,' 'subject only +to the Constitution.' Why mention a <i>State</i>?... +Why is mention of this lugged into this merely +territorial law?</p> + +<p>... "Put this and that together, and we have +another nice little niche, which we may erelong see +filled with another Supreme Court decision, declaring +that the Constitution of the United States +does not permit a <i>State</i> to exclude slavery from +its limits. And this may especially be expected if +the doctrine of 'care not whether slavery be voted +<!-- Image No 152 --><a name='Png152'></a><a name='Page128'></a><span class="pagenum">128</span> +down or voted up' shall gain upon the public mind +sufficiently to give promise that such a decision can +be maintained when made. Such a decision is all +that slavery now lacks of being alike lawful in +all the States." Following out this idea, Lincoln +repeatedly put to Douglas a question to which he +could never get a direct answer from his nimble +antagonist: "If a decision is made, holding that +the people of the <i>States</i> cannot exclude slavery, +will he support it, or not?"</p> + +<p>Even so skillful a dialectician as Douglas found +this compact structure of history and argument a +serious matter. Its simple solidity was not so susceptible +to treatment by the perverting process as +had been the figurative and prophetic utterance +about the "house divided against itself." Neither +could he find a chink between the facts and the +inferences. One aspect of the speech, however, +could not be passed over. Lincoln said that he +had not charged "Stephen and Franklin and +Roger and James" with collusion and conspiracy; +but he admitted that he had "arrayed the evidence +tending to prove," and which he "thought did +prove," these things.<a name='FNanchor_79_79'></a><a href='#Footnote_79_79'><sup>[79]</sup></a> + It was impossible for the +four distinguished gentlemen<a name='FNanchor_80_80'></a><a href='#Footnote_80_80'><sup>[80]</sup></a> + who owned the rest +<!-- Image No 153 --><a name='Png153'></a><a name='Page129'></a><span class="pagenum">129</span> +of these names to refuse to plead. Accordingly +Douglas sneered vehemently at the idea that two +presidents, the chief justice, and he himself had +been concerned in that grave crime against the +State which was imputed to them; and when, by +his lofty indignation, he had brought his auditors +into sympathy, he made the only possible reply: +that the real meaning, the ultimate logical outcome, +of what Lincoln had said was, that a decision +of the Supreme Court was to be set aside by the +political action of the people at the polls. The +Supreme Court had interpreted the Constitution, +and Lincoln was inciting the people to annul that +interpretation by some political process not known +to the law. For himself, he proclaimed with effective +emphasis his allegiance to that great tribunal +in the performance of its constitutional duties. +Lincoln replied that he also bowed to the Dred +Scott decision in the specific case; but he repudiated +it as a binding rule in political action.<a name='FNanchor_81_81'></a><a href='#Footnote_81_81'><sup>[81]</sup></a> + His +point seemed more obscure than was usual with +<!-- Image No 154 --><a name='Png154'></a><a name='Page130'></a><span class="pagenum">130</span> +him, and not satisfactory as an answer to Douglas. +But as matter of fact no one was deceived by the +amusing adage of the profession: that the courts +do not <i>make</i> the law, but only <i>declare what it is</i>. +Every one knew that the law was just what the +judges chose from time to time to say that it was, +and that if judicial <i>declarations</i> of the law were +not reversed quite so often as legislative <i>makings</i> +of the law were repealed, it was only because the +identity of a bench is usually of longer duration +than the identity of a legislative body. If the +people, politically, willed the reversal of the Dred +Scott decision, it was sure in time to be judicially +reversed.<a name='FNanchor_82_82'></a><a href='#Footnote_82_82'><sup>[82]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p>Douglas boasted that the Democrats were a +national party, whereas the "Black Republicans" +were a sectional body whose creed could not be +uttered south of Mason and Dixon's line. He was +assiduous in fastening upon Lincoln the name of +"Abolitionist," and "Black Republican," epithets +so unpopular that those who held the faith often +denied the title, and he only modified them by the +offensive admission that Lincoln's doctrines were +sometimes disingenuously weakened to suit certain +audiences: "His principles in the north [of Illinois] +are jet black; in the centre they are in color +a decent mulatto; and in lower Egypt<a name='FNanchor_83_83'></a><a href='#Footnote_83_83'><sup>[83]</sup></a> + they are +almost white."</p> + +<p><!-- Image No 155 --><a name='Png155'></a><a name='Page131'></a><span class="pagenum">131</span> +Concerning sectionalism, Lincoln countered +fairly enough on his opponent by asking: Was +it, then, the case that it was slavery which was +national, and freedom which was sectional? Or, +"Is it the true test of the soundness of a doctrine +that in some places people won't let you proclaim +it?" But the remainder of Douglas's assault was +by no means to be disposed of by quick retort. +When Lincoln was pushed to formulate accurately +his views concerning the proper status of the negro +in the community, he had need of all his extraordinary +care in statement. Herein lay problems that +were vexing many honest citizens and clever men +besides himself, and were breeding much disagreement +among persons who all were anti-slavery in +a general way, but could by no means reach a comfortable +unison concerning troublesome particulars. +The "all men free and equal" of the Constitution, +and the talk about human brotherhood, gave +the Democrats wide scope for harassing anti-slavery +men with vexatious taunts and embarrassing +cross-interrogatories on practical points. "I +do not question," said Douglas, "Mr. Lincoln's +conscientious belief that the negro was made his +equal, and hence is his brother. But for my own +part, I do not regard the negro as my equal, and +positively deny that he is my brother, or any kin +to me whatever." He said that "the signers of +the Declaration had no reference to the negro,... +or any other inferior and degraded race, when they +spoke of the equality of men," but meant only +"white men, of European birth and descent." +<!-- Image No 156 --><a name='Png156'></a><a name='Page132'></a><span class="pagenum">132</span> +This topic opens the whole subject of Lincoln's +political affiliations and of his opinions concerning +slavery and the negro, opinions which seem to have +undergone no substantial change during the interval +betwixt this campaign and his election to the +presidency. Some selections from what he said +may sufficiently explain his position.</p> + +<p>At Freeport, August 27, replying to a series of +questions from Douglas, he declared that he had +supposed himself, "since the organization of the +Republican party at Bloomington, in May, 1856, +bound as a party man by the platforms of the +party, then and since." He said: "I do not now, +nor ever did, stand in favor of the unconditional +repeal of the Fugitive Slave Law." He believed +that under the Constitution the Southerners were +entitled to such a law; but thought that the existing +law "should have been framed so as to be +free from some of the objections that pertain to it, +without lessening its efficiency." He would not +"introduce it as a new subject of agitation upon +the general question of slavery."</p> + +<p>He should be "exceedingly sorry" ever to have +to pass upon the question of admitting more slave +States into the Union, and exceedingly glad to +know that another never would be admitted. But +"if slavery shall be kept out of the Territories +during the territorial existence of any one given +Territory, and then the people shall, having a fair +chance and a clear field, when they come to adopt +<!-- Image No 157 --><a name='Png157'></a><a name='Page133'></a><span class="pagenum">133</span> +their constitution, do such an extraordinary thing +as to adopt a slave constitution, uninfluenced by +the actual presence of the institution among them, +I see no alternative, if we own the country, but to +admit them into the Union." He should also, he +said, be "exceedingly glad to see slavery abolished +in the District of Columbia," and he believed that +Congress had "constitutional power to abolish it" +there; but he would favor the measure only upon +condition: "First, that the abolition should be +gradual; second, that it should be on a vote of +the majority of qualified voters in the District; +and, third, that compensation should be made to +unwilling owners." As to the abolition of the +slave trade between the different States, he acknowledged +that he had not considered the matter +sufficiently to have reached a conclusion concerning +it. But if he should think that Congress had +power to effect such abolition, he should "not be +in favor of the exercise of that power unless upon +some conservative principle, akin to what I have +said in relation to the abolition of slavery in the +District of Columbia." As to the territorial controversy, +he said: "I am impliedly, if not expressly, +pledged to a belief in the <i>right</i> and <i>duty</i> +of Congress to prohibit slavery in all the United +States Territories." Concerning the acquisition of +new territory he said: "I am not generally opposed +to honest acquisition of territory; and in +any given case I would or would not oppose such +acquisition, according as I might think such acquisition +<!-- Image No 158 --><a name='Png158'></a><a name='Page134'></a><span class="pagenum">134</span> +would or would not aggravate the slavery +question among ourselves." The statement derived +its immediate importance from the well-known +purpose of the administration and a considerable +party in the South very soon to acquire +Cuba. All these utterances were certainly clear +enough, and were far from constituting Abolitionist +doctrine, though they were addressed to +an audience "as strongly tending to Abolitionism +as any audience in the State of Illinois," and Mr. +Lincoln believed that he was saying "that which, +if it would be offensive to any person and render +them enemies to himself, would be offensive to +persons in this audience."</p> + +<p>At Quincy Lincoln gave his views concerning +Republicanism with his usual unmistakable accuracy, +and certainly he again differentiated it widely +from Abolitionism. The Republican party, he +said, think slavery "a moral, a social, and a political +wrong." Any man who does not hold this +opinion "is misplaced and ought to leave us. +While, on the other hand, if there be any man +in the Republican party who is impatient over the +necessity springing from its actual presence, and is +impatient of the constitutional guarantees thrown +around it, and would act in disregard of these, +he, too, is misplaced, standing with us. He will +find his place somewhere else; for we have a due +regard ... for all these things." ... "I have +always hated slavery as much as any Abolitionist,... +but I have always been quiet about it until +<!-- Image No 159 --><a name='Png159'></a><a name='Page135'></a><span class="pagenum">135</span> +this new era of the introduction of the Nebraska +bill again." He repeated often that he had "no +purpose, directly or indirectly, to interfere with +the institution of slavery in the States where it +exists;" that he had "no lawful right to do so," +and "no inclination to do so." He said that his +declarations as to the right of the negro to "life, +liberty, and the pursuit of happiness" were designed +only to refer to legislation "about any new +country which is not already cursed with the actual +presence of the evil,—slavery." He denied having +ever "manifested any impatience with the +necessities that spring from the ... actual existence +of slavery among us, where it does already +exist."</p> + +<p>He dwelt much upon the equality clause of the +Declaration. If we begin "making exceptions to +it, where will it stop? If one man says it does +not mean a negro, why not another say it does not +mean some other man?" Only within three years +past had any one doubted that negroes were included +by this language. But he said that, while +the authors "intended to include <i>all</i> men, they did +not mean to declare all men equal <i>in all respects</i>,... +in color, size, intellect, moral development, or +social capacity," but only "equal in certain inalienable +rights." "Anything that argues me into +his [Douglas's] idea of perfect social and political +equality with the negro is but a specious and +fantastic arrangement of words, by which a man +can prove a horse chestnut to be a chestnut horse.... +<!-- Image No 160 --><a name='Png160'></a><a name='Page136'></a><span class="pagenum">136</span> +I have no purpose to produce political and +social equality between the white and the black +races. There is a physical difference between the +two, which, in my judgment, will probably forever +forbid their living together upon the footing of +perfect equality; and inasmuch as it becomes a necessity +that there must be a difference, I, as well as +Judge Douglas, am in favor of the race to which +I belong having the superior position.... But +I hold that ... there is no reason in the world +why the negro is not entitled to all the natural +rights enumerated in the Declaration of Independence, +the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of +happiness. I hold that he is as much entitled +to these as the white man. I agree with Judge +Douglas that he is not my equal in many respects, +—certainly not in color, perhaps not in moral or +intellectual endowment. But in the right to eat +the bread, without the leave of anybody else, which +his own hand earns, <i>he is my equal, and the equal +of Judge Douglas, and the equal of every living +man</i>." Later at Charleston he reiterated much of +this in almost identical language, and then in his +turn took his fling at Douglas: "I am not in favor +of making voters or jurors of negroes, nor of +qualifying them to hold office, nor to intermarry +with white people.... I do not understand that +because I do not want a negro woman for a slave +I must necessarily want her for a wife. My understanding +is that I can just let her alone.... I +have never had the least apprehension that I or +<!-- Image No 161 --><a name='Png161'></a><a name='Page137'></a><span class="pagenum">137</span> +my friends would marry negroes, if there was no +law to keep them from it; but as Judge Douglas +and his friends seem to be in great apprehension +that <i>they</i> might, if there were no law to keep them +from it, I give him the most solemn pledge that I +will to the very last stand by the law of this State, +which forbids the marrying of white people with +negroes."</p> + +<p>By all this it is made entirely evident that +Lincoln held a faith widely different from that +of the great crusading leaders of Abolitionism at +the East.<a name='FNanchor_84_84'></a><a href='#Footnote_84_84'><sup>[84]</sup></a> + Equally marked was the difference between +him and them in the matters of temper and +of the attitude taken towards opponents. The absence +of any sense of personal hostility towards +those who assailed him with unsparing vindictiveness +was a trait often illustrated in his after life, +and which was now noted with surprise, for it was +rare in the excited politics of those days. In this +especial campaign both contestants honestly intended +to refrain from personalities, but the difference +between their ways of doing so was marked. +Douglas, under the temptation of high ability in +that line, held himself in check by an effort which +was often obvious and not always entirely successful. +<!-- Image No 162 --><a name='Png162'></a><a name='Page138'></a><span class="pagenum">138</span> +But Lincoln never seemed moved by the +desire. "All I have to ask," he said, "is that we +talk reasonably and rationally;" and again: "I +hope to deal in all things fairly with Judge Douglas." +No innuendo, no artifice, in any speech, +gave the lie to these protestations. Besides this, +his denunciations were always against <i>slavery</i>, +and never against <i>slaveholders</i>. The emphasis of +condemnation, the intensity of feeling, were never +expended against persons. By this course, unusual +among the Abolitionists, he not only lost nothing +in force and impressiveness, but, on the contrary, +his attack seemed to gain in effectiveness by being +directed against no personal object, but exclusively +against a practice. His war was against slavery, +not against the men and women of the South who +owned slaves. At Ottawa he read from the Peoria +speech of 1854: "I have no prejudice against the +Southern people. They are just what we would +[should] be in their situation. If slavery did not +now exist among them, they would not introduce +it. If it did now exist among us, we should not +instantly give it up.... It does seem to me that +systems of gradual emancipation might be adopted; +but for their tardiness in this, I will not undertake +to judge our brethren of the South." Repeatedly +he admitted the difficulty of the problem, and fastened +no blame upon those Southerners who excused +themselves for not expelling the evil on the ground +that they did not know how to do so. At Peoria +he said: "If all earthly power were given me, +<!-- Image No 163 --><a name='Png163'></a><a name='Page139'></a><span class="pagenum">139</span> +I should not know what to do as to the existing +institution." He contributed some suggestions +which certainly were nothing better than chimerical. +Deportation to Africa was his favorite +scheme; he also proposed that it would be "best +for all concerned to have the colored population in +a State by themselves." But he did not abuse +men who declined to adopt his methods. Though +he was dealing with a question which was arousing +personal antagonisms as bitter as any that history +records, yet he never condemned any one, nor ever +passed judgment against his fellow men.</p> + +<p>Diagnosis would perhaps show that the trait thus +illustrated was mental rather than moral. This +absence of animosity and reproach as towards individuals +found its root not so much in human +charity as in fairness of thinking. Lincoln's ways +of mental working are not difficult to discover. +He thought slowly, cautiously, profoundly, and +with a most close accuracy; but above all else he +<i>thought fairly</i>. This capacity far transcended, +or, more correctly, differed from, what is ordinarily +called the judicial habit of mind. Many men +can weigh arguments without letting prejudice get +into either scale; but Lincoln carried on the whole +process of thinking, not only with an equal clearness +of perception, but also with an entire impartiality +of liking or disliking for both sides. His +aim, while he was engaged in thinking, was to discover +what was really true; and later when he +spoke to others his purpose was to show them the +<!-- Image No 164 --><a name='Png164'></a><a name='Page140'></a><span class="pagenum">140</span> +truth which he had discovered, and to state to them +on what grounds he believed it to be the truth; it +did not involve a judgment against the individuals +who failed to recognize that truth. His singular +trait of impersonality was not made more apparent +in any other way. His effort never was to defeat +the person who happened to be his adversary, but +always was to overcome the arguments of that adversary. +Primarily he was discussing a topic and +establishing a truth; it was only incidental that in +doing these things he had to oppose a man. It is +noteworthy that his opponents never charged him +with misstating their case in order to make an apparently +effective answer to it. On the contrary, +his hope of success seemed always to lie in having +both sides presented with the highest degree of +clearness and honesty. He had perfect confidence +in the ultimate triumph of the truth; he was always +willing to tie fast to it, according as he could +see it, and then to bide time with it. This being +a genuine faith and not mere lip-service, he used +the same arguments to others which he used to himself, +and staked his final success upon the probability +that what had persuaded his mind would in +time persuade also the minds of other intelligent +men. It has been well said of him by an excellent +judge: "He loved the truth for the truth's sake. +He would not argue from a false premise, or be deceived +himself, or deceive others, by a false conclusion.... +He did not seek to say merely the thing +which was best for that day's debate, but the thing +<!-- Image No 165 --><a name='Png165'></a><a name='Page141'></a><span class="pagenum">141</span> +which would stand the test of time, and square itself +with eternal justice.... His logic was severe +and faultless. He did not resort to fallacy."<a name='FNanchor_85_85'></a><a href='#Footnote_85_85'><sup>[85]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p>To return to the points made in the debate: +Douglas laid down the "great principle of non-interference +and non-intervention by Congress +with slavery in the States and Territories alike;" +which he assured his audience would enable us to +"continue at peace with one another." In the +same connection he endeavored to silver-coat for +Northern palates the bitter pill of the Dred Scott +decision, by declaring that the people of any State +or Territory might withhold that protecting legislation, +those "friendly police regulations," without +which slavery could not exist. But this was, indeed, +a "lame, illogical, evasive answer," which +enabled Lincoln to "secure an advantage in the +national relations of the contest which he held to +the end."</p> + +<p>Lincoln, in replying, agreed that "all the States +have the right to do exactly as they please about +all their domestic relations, including that of slavery." +But he said that the proposition that +slavery could not enter a new country without police +regulations was historically false; and that the +facts of the Dred Scott case itself showed that +there was "vigor enough in slavery to plant itself in +a new country even against unfriendly legislation." +Beyond this issue of historical fact, Douglas had +already taken and still dared to maintain a position +<!-- Image No 166 --><a name='Png166'></a><a name='Page142'></a><span class="pagenum">142</span> +which proved to be singularly ill chosen. The right +to hold slaves as property in the Territories had +lately, to the infinite joy of the South, been declared +by the Supreme Court to be guaranteed by +the Constitution; and now Douglas had the audacity +to repeat that notion of his, so abhorrent to all +friends of slavery,—that this invaluable right could +be made practically worthless by unfriendly local +legislation, or even by the negative hostility of withholding +friendly legislation! From the moment +when this deadly suggestion fell from his ingenious +lips, the Southern Democracy turned upon him +with vindictive hate and marked him for destruction. +He had also given himself into the hands of +his avowed and natural enemies. The doctrine, +said Mr. Lincoln, is "no less than that a thing +may lawfully be driven away from a place where +it has a lawful right to be." "If you were elected +members of the legislature, what would be the first +thing you would have to do, before entering upon +your duties? <i>Swear to support the Constitution +of the United States</i>. Suppose you believe, as +Judge Douglas does, that the Constitution of the +United States guarantees to your neighbor the right +to hold slaves in that Territory,—that they are his +property,—how can you clear your oaths, unless +you give him such legislation as is necessary to +enable him to enjoy that property? What do you +understand by supporting the Constitution of a +State, or of the United States? Is it not to give +such constitutional helps to the rights established +<!-- Image No 167 --><a name='Png167'></a><a name='Page143'></a><span class="pagenum">143</span> +by that Constitution as may be practically needed?... +And what I say here will hold with still more +force against the judge's doctrine of 'unfriendly +legislation.' How could you, having sworn to support +the Constitution, and believing it guaranteed +the right to hold slaves in the Territories, assist in +legislation <i>intended to defeat that right</i>?" "Is +not Congress itself under obligation to give legislative +support to any right that is established under +the United States Constitution?" Upon what +other principle do "many of us, who are opposed +to slavery upon principle, give our acquiescence to +a Fugitive Slave Law?" Does Douglas mean +to say that a territorial legislature, "by passing +unfriendly laws," can "<i>nullify a constitutional +right</i>?" He put to Douglas the direct and embarrassing +query: "If the slaveholding citizens +of a United States Territory should need and demand +congressional legislation for the protection +of their slave property in such Territory, would +you, as a member of Congress, vote for or against +such legislation?" "Repeat that," cried Douglas, +ostentatiously; "I want to answer that question." +But he never composed his reply.</p> + +<p>Another kindred question had already been put +by Lincoln: "Can the people of a United States +Territory, in any lawful way, against the wish of +any citizen of the United States, exclude slavery +from its limits, prior to the formation of a State +Constitution?" Friends advised him not to force +this, as it seemed against the immediate policy of +<!-- Image No 168 --><a name='Png168'></a><a name='Page144'></a><span class="pagenum">144</span> +the present campaign. But it was never his way +to subordinate his own deliberate opinion to the +opinions of advisers; and on this occasion he was +merciless in pressing this question. A story has +been very generally repeated that he told the protesters +that, whatever might be the bearing on the +senatorship, Douglas could not answer that question +and be elected President of the United States +in 1860. "I am killing larger game," he said; +"the battle of 1860 is worth a hundred of this."<a name='FNanchor_86_86'></a><a href='#Footnote_86_86'><sup>[86]</sup></a> + +A few legends of this kind are extant, which tend +to indicate that Lincoln already had in mind the +presidential nomination, and was fighting the present +fight with an eye to that greater one in the +near future. It is not easy to say how much credit +should be given to such tales; they may not be +wholly inventions, but a remark which is uttered +with little thought may later easily take on a strong +color in the light of subsequent developments.</p> + +<p>In presenting the Republican side of the question +Lincoln seemed to feel a duty beyond that +of merely outarguing his opponent. He bore the +weighty burden of a responsibility graver than +personal success. He might prevail in the opinions +of his fellow citizens; without this instant triumph +he might so present his cause that the jury of posterity +would declare that the truth lay with him; +he might even convince both the present and the +<!-- Image No 169 --><a name='Png169'></a><a name='Page145'></a><span class="pagenum">145</span> +coming generations; and though achieving all +these triumphs, he might still fall far short of the +peculiar and exacting requirement of the occasion. +For the winning of the senatorship was the insignificant +part of what he had undertaken; his momentous +charge was to maintain a grand moral +crusade, to stimulate and to vindicate a great uprising +in the cause of humanity and of justice. +His full appreciation of this is entirely manifest in +the tone of his speeches. They have an earnestness, +a gravity, at times even a solemnity, unusual +in such encounters in any era or before any audiences, +but unprecedented "on the stump" before +the uproarious gatherings of the West at that day. +Repeatedly he stigmatized slavery as "a moral, a +social, a political evil." Very impressively he denounced +the positions of an opponent who "cared +not whether slavery was voted down or voted up," +who said that slavery was not to be differentiated +from the many domestic institutions and daily +affairs which civilized societies control by police +regulations. He said that slavery could not be +treated as "only equal to the cranberry laws of +Indiana;" that slaves could not be put "upon a +par with onions and potatoes;" that to Douglas he +supposed that the institution really "looked small," +but that a great proportion of the American people +regarded slavery as "a vast moral evil." "The +real issue in this controversy—the one pressing +upon every mind—is the sentiment on the part of +one class that looks upon the institution of slavery +<!-- Image No 170 --><a name='Png170'></a><a name='Page146'></a><span class="pagenum">146</span> +<i>as a wrong</i>, and of another class that does <i>not</i> look +upon it as a wrong.... No man can logically +say he does not care whether a wrong is voted up +or voted down. He [Douglas] contends that whatever +community wants slaves has a right to have +them. So they have, if it is not a wrong. But if +it is a wrong, he cannot say people have a right to +do wrong. He says that, upon the score of equality, +slaves should be allowed to go into a new Territory, +like other property. This is strictly logical +if there is no difference between it and other property.... +But if you insist that one is wrong and +the other right, there is no use to institute a comparison +between right and wrong.... That is the +real issue. That is the issue that will continue in +this country when these poor tongues of Judge +Douglas and myself shall be silent. It is the eternal +struggle between these two principles, right +and wrong, throughout the world. They are the +two principles that have stood face to face from +the beginning of time, and will ever continue to +struggle. The one is the common right of humanity, +and the other the divine right of kings. It is +the same principle in whatever shape it develops +itself. It is the same spirit that says: 'You work +and toil and earn bread, and I'll eat it.'" "I ask +you if it is not a false philosophy? Is it not a +false statesmanship that undertakes to build up +a system of policy upon the basis of caring nothing +about <i>the very thing that everybody does care the +most about</i>?"</p> + +<p><!-- Image No 171 --><a name='Png171'></a><a name='Page147'></a><span class="pagenum">147</span> +We cannot leave these speeches without a word +concerning their literary quality. In them we +might have looked for vigor that would be a little +uncouth, wit that would be often coarse, a logic +generally sound but always clumsy,—in a word, +tolerably good substance and very poor form. We +are surprised, then, to find many and high excellences +in art. As it is with Bacon's essays, so it +is with these speeches: the more attentively they +are read the more striking appears the closeness +of their texture both in logic and in language. +Clear thought is accurately expressed. Each sentence +has its special errand, and each word its +individual importance. There is never either too +much or too little. The work is done with clean +precision and no waste. Nowhere does one pause +to seek a meaning or to recover a connection; and +an effort to make out a syllabus shows that the +most condensed statement has already been used. +There are scintillations of wit and humor, but they +are not very numerous. When Lincoln was urged +to adopt a more popular style, he replied: "The +occasion is too serious; the issues are too grave. +I do not seek applause, or to amuse the people, but +to convince them." This spirit was upon him +from the beginning to the end. Had he been addressing +a bench of judges, subject to a close limitation +of minutes, he would have won credit by the +combined economy and force which were displayed +in these harangues to general assemblages. To +speak of the lofty tone of these speeches comes +<!-- Image No 172 --><a name='Png172'></a><a name='Page148'></a><span class="pagenum">148</span> +dangerously near to the distasteful phraseology of +extravagant laudation, than which nothing else can +produce upon honest men a worse impression. +Yet it is a truth visible to every reader that at +the outset Lincoln raised the discussion to a very +high plane, and held it there throughout. The +truth which he had to sustain was so great that it +was perfectly simple, and he had the good sense to +utter it with appropriate simplicity. In no speech +was there fervor or enthusiasm or rhetoric; he +talked to the reason and the conscience of his auditors, +not to their passions. Yet the depth of his +feeling may be measured by the story that once in +the canvass he said to a friend: "Sometimes, in +the excitement of speaking, I seem to see the end +of slavery. I feel that the time is soon coming +when the sun shall shine, the rain fall, on no man +who shall go forth to unrequited toil. How this +will come, when it will come, by whom it will +come, I cannot tell,—but that time will surely +come."<a name='FNanchor_87_87'></a><a href='#Footnote_87_87'><sup>[87]</sup></a> + It is just appreciation, and not extravagance, +to say that the cheap and miserable little +volume, now out of print, containing in bad newspaper +type, "The Lincoln and Douglas Debates,"<a name='FNanchor_88_88'></a><a href='#Footnote_88_88'><sup>[88]</sup></a> + +<!-- Image No 173 --><a name='Png173'></a><a name='Page149'></a><span class="pagenum">149</span> +holds some of the masterpieces of oratory of all +ages and nations.</p> + +<p>The immediate result of the campaign was the +triumph of Douglas, who had certainly made not +only a very able and brilliant but a splendidly +gallant fight, with Republicans assailing him in +front and Administrationists in rear.<a name='FNanchor_89_89'></a><a href='#Footnote_89_89'><sup>[89]</sup></a> + Lincoln +was disappointed. His feelings had been so deeply +engaged, he had worked so strenuously, and the +result had been so much in doubt, that defeat +was trying. But he bore it with his wonted resolute +equanimity. He said that he felt "like the +boy that stumped his toe,—'it hurt too bad to +laugh, and he was too big to cry.'" In fact, there +were encouraging elements.<a name='FNanchor_90_90'></a><a href='#Footnote_90_90'><sup>[90]</sup></a> + The popular vote +stood,<a name='FNanchor_91_91'></a><a href='#Footnote_91_91'><sup>[91]</sup></a> + Republicans, 126,084; Douglas Democrats, +121,940; Lecompton Democrats, 5,091. But the +apportionment of districts was such that the legislature +contained a majority for Douglas.<a name='FNanchor_92_92'></a><a href='#Footnote_92_92'><sup>[92]</sup></a> + So +the prestige of victory seemed separated from its +fruits; for the nation, attentively watching this +duel, saw that the new man had convinced upwards +of four thousand voters more than had the great +<!-- Image No 174 --><a name='Png174'></a><a name='Page150'></a><span class="pagenum">150</span> +leader of the Democracy. Douglas is reported to +have said that, during his sixteen years in Congress, +he had found no man in the Senate whom he +would not rather encounter in debate than Lincoln. +If it was true that Lincoln was already dreaming +of the presidency, he was a sufficiently shrewd +politician to see that his prospects were greatly +improved by this campaign. He had worked hard +for what he had gained; he had been traveling +incessantly to and fro and delivering speeches in +unbroken succession during about one hundred +of the hot days of the Western summer, and +speeches not of a commonplace kind, but which +severely taxed the speaker. After all was over, +he was asked by the state committee to contribute +to the campaign purse! He replied: "I am +willing to pay according to my ability, but I am +the poorest hand living to get others to pay. <i>I +have been on expense</i> so long, without earning +anything, that I am absolutely without money now +for even household expenses. Still, if you can put +in $250 for me,... I will allow it when you +and I settle the private matter between us. This, +with what I have already paid,... will exceed +my subscription of $500. This, too, is exclusive +of my ordinary expenses during the campaign, all +of which being added to my loss of time and business +bears pretty heavily upon one no better off +than I am.... You are feeling badly; 'and this, +too, shall pass away;' never fear."</p> + +<p>The platform which, with such precision and +<!-- Image No 175 --><a name='Png175'></a><a name='Page151'></a><span class="pagenum">151</span> +painstaking, Lincoln had constructed for himself +was made by him even more ample and more +strong by a few speeches delivered in the interval +between the close of this great campaign and his +nomination by the Republicans for the presidency. +In Ohio an important canvass for the governorship +took place, and Douglas went there, and +made speeches filled with allusions to Lincoln and +the recent Illinois campaign. Even without this +provocation Lincoln knew, by keen instinct, that +where Douglas was, there he should be also. In +no other way had he yet appeared to such advantage +as in encountering "the Little Giant." To +Ohio, accordingly, he hastened, and spoke at Columbus +and at Cincinnati.<a name='FNanchor_93_93'></a><a href='#Footnote_93_93'><sup>[93]</sup></a> + To the citizens of the +latter place he said: "This is the first time in +my life that I have appeared before an audience +in so great a city as this. I therefore make this +appearance under some degree of embarrassment." +There was little novelty in substance, but much in +treatment. Thus, at Cincinnati, he imagined himself +addressing Kentuckians, and showed them that +their next nominee for the presidency ought to be +his "distinguished friend, Judge Douglas;" for +"in all that there is a difference between you and +him, I understand he is sincerely for you, and +more wisely for you than you are for yourselves." +Through him alone pro-slavery men retained any +hold upon the free States of the North; and in +<!-- Image No 176 --><a name='Png176'></a><a name='Page152'></a><span class="pagenum">152</span> +those States, "in every possible way he can, he +constantly moulds the public opinion to your +ends." Ingeniously but fairly he sketched Douglas +as the most efficient among the pro-slavery +leaders. Perhaps the clever and truthful picture +may have led Mr. Greeley and some other gentlemen +at the East to suspect that they had been +inconsiderate in their choice between the Western +rivals; and perhaps, also, Lincoln, while addressing +imaginary Kentuckians, had before his inner +eye some Eastern auditors. For at the time he +did not know that his voice would ever be heard +at any point nearer to their ears than the hall in +which he then stood. Within a few weeks, however, +this unlooked-for good fortune befell. In +October, 1859, he was invited to speak in the +following winter in New York. That the anti-slavery +men of that city wished to test him by personal +observation signified that his reputation was +national, and that the highest aspirations were, +therefore, not altogether presumptuous. He accepted +gladly, and immediately began to prepare +an address which probably cost him more labor +than any other speech which he ever made. He +found time, however, in December to make a journey +through Kansas, where he delivered several +speeches, which have not been preserved but are +described as "repetitions of those previously made +in Illinois." Lamon tells us that the journey was +an "ovation," and that "wherever Lincoln went, +he was met by vast assemblages of people." The +<!-- Image No 177 --><a name='Png177'></a><a name='Page153'></a><span class="pagenum">153</span> +population of this agricultural State was hardly +in a condition to furnish "vast assemblages" at +numerous points, but doubtless the visitor received +gratifying assurance that upon this battle-ground +of slavery and anti-slavery the winning party +warmly appreciated his advocacy of their cause.</p> + +<p>On Saturday, February 25, 1860, Lincoln arrived +in New York. On Monday his hosts "found +him dressed in a sleek and shining suit of new +black, covered with very apparent creases and +wrinkles, acquired by being packed too closely +and too long in his little valise. He felt uneasy in +his new clothes and a strange place." Certainly +nothing in his previous experience had prepared +him to meet with entire indifference an audience of +metropolitan critics; indeed, had the surroundings +been more familiar, he had enough at stake to tax +his equanimity when William Cullen Bryant introduced +him simply as "an eminent citizen of the +West, hitherto known to you only by reputation." +Probably the first impression made upon those +auditors by the ungainly Westerner in his outlandish +garb were not the same which they carried +home with them a little later. The speech was so +condensed that a sketch of it is not possible. Fortunately +it had the excellent quality of steadily +expanding in interest and improving to the end.</p> + +<p>Of the Dred Scott case he cleverly said that the +courts had decided it "<i>in a sort of way</i>;" but, +after all, the decision was "mainly based upon a +mistaken statement of fact,—the statement in the +<!-- Image No 178 --><a name='Png178'></a><a name='Page154'></a><span class="pagenum">154</span> +opinion that 'the right of property in a slave is +distinctly and expressly affirmed in the Constitution.'"</p> + +<p>In closing, he begged the Republicans, in behalf +of peace and harmony, to "do nothing through +passion and ill-temper;" but he immediately went +on to show the antagonism between Republican +opinion and Democratic opinion with a distinctness +which left no hope of harmony, and very little +hope of peace. To satisfy the Southerners, he +said, we must "cease to call slavery <i>wrong</i>, and +join them in calling it <i>right</i>. And this must be +done thoroughly,—done in <i>acts</i> as well as in +<i>words</i>.... We must arrest and return their +fugitive slaves with greedy pleasure. We must +pull down our free-state Constitutions.... If slavery +is right, all words, acts, laws, and constitutions +against it are themselves wrong, and should +be silenced and swept away. If it is right, we +cannot object to its nationality, its universality; +if it is wrong, they cannot justly insist upon its +extension, its enlargement. All they ask we could +readily grant, if we thought slavery right; all we +ask they could as readily grant, if they thought it +wrong. Their thinking it right and our thinking +it wrong is the precise fact upon which depends +the whole controversy. Thinking it right, as they +do, they are not to blame for desiring its full recognition, +as being right; but thinking it wrong, as +we do, can we yield to them?... Wrong as we +think slavery is, we can yet afford to let it alone +<!-- Image No 179 --><a name='Png179'></a><a name='Page155'></a><span class="pagenum">155</span> +where it is, because that much is due to the necessity +arising from its actual presence in the nation; +but can we, while our votes will prevent it, allow +it to spread into the national Territories, and to +overrun us here in these free States? If our sense +of duty forbids this ... let us be diverted by no +sophistical contrivances, such as groping for some +middle ground between the right and the wrong, +vain as the search for a man who should be neither +a living man nor a dead man; such as a policy of +'don't care' on a question about which all true +men do care; such as Union appeals beseeching +true Union men to yield to Disunionists, reversing +the divine rule and calling not the sinners but the +righteous to repentance."</p> + +<p>The next morning the best newspapers gave full +reports of the speech, with compliments. The +columns of the "Evening Post" were generously +declared to be "indefinitely elastic" for such utterances; +and the "Tribune" expressed commendation +wholly out of accord with the recent notions +of its editor. The rough fellow from the crude +West had made a powerful impression upon the +cultivated gentlemen of the East.</p> + +<p>From New York Lincoln went to Massachusetts, +Rhode Island, New Hampshire, and Connecticut. +In this last-named State he delivered speeches +which are said to have contributed largely to the +Republican success in the closely contested election +then at hand. In Manchester it was noticed that +"he did not abuse the South, the administration, +<!-- Image No 180 --><a name='Png180'></a><a name='Page156'></a><span class="pagenum">156</span> +or the Democrats, or indulge in any personalities, +with the exception of a few hits at Douglas's notions."<a name='FNanchor_94_94'></a><a href='#Footnote_94_94'><sup>[94]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p>These speeches of 1858, 1859, and 1860 have a +very great value as contributions to history. During +that period every dweller in the United States +was hotly concerned about this absorbing question +of slavery, advancing his own views, weighing or +encountering the arguments of others, quarreling, +perhaps, with his oldest friends and his nearest +kindred,—for about this matter men easily quarreled +and rarely compromised. Every man who +fancied that he could speak in public got upon +some platform in city, town, or village, and secured +an audience by his topic if not by his ability; every +one who thought that he could write found some +way to print what he had to say upon a subject of +which readers never tired; and for whatever purpose +two or three men were gathered together, they +were not likely to separate without a few words +about North and South, pro-slavery and anti-slavery. +Never was any matter more harried and +ransacked by disputation. Now to all the speaking +and writing of the Republicans Lincoln's condensed +speeches were what a syllabus is to an elaborate +discourse, what a lawyer's brief is to his verbal +argument. Perhaps they may better be likened to +an anti-slavery gospel; as the New Testament is +supposed to cover the whole ground of Christian +doctrines and Christian ethics, so that theologians +<!-- Image No 181 --><a name='Png181'></a><a name='Page157'></a><span class="pagenum">157</span> +and preachers innumerable have only been able to +make elaborations or glosses upon the original text, +so Lincoln's speeches contain the whole basis of +the anti-slavery cause as maintained by the Republican +party. They also set forth a considerable +part of the Southern position, doubtless as fairly +as the machinations of the Devil are set forth in +Holy Writ. They only rather gingerly refrain +from speaking of the small body of ultra-Abolitionists, +—for while Lincoln was far from agreeing +with these zealots, he felt that it was undesirable +to widen by any excavation upon his side the chasm +between them and the Republicans. So the fact +is that the whole doctrine of Republicanism, as it +existed during the political campaign which resulted +in the election of Lincoln, also all the historical +facts supporting that doctrine, were clearly +and accurately stated in these speeches. Specific +points were more elaborated by other persons; but +every seed was to be found in this granary.</p> + +<p>This being the case, it is worth noticing that +both Lincoln and Douglas confined their disputation +closely to the slavery question. Disunion +and secession were words familiar in every ear, +yet Lincoln referred to these things only twice +or thrice, and incidentally, while Douglas ignored +them. This fact is fraught with meaning. American +writers and American readers have always +met upon the tacit understanding that the Union +was the chief cause of, and the best justification +for, the war. An age may come when historians, +<!-- Image No 182 --><a name='Png182'></a><a name='Page158'></a><span class="pagenum">158</span> +treating our history as we treat that of Greece, +stirred by no emotion at the sight of the "Stars +and Stripes," moved by no patriotism at the name +of the United States of America, will seek a deeper +philosophy to explain this obstinate, bloody, costly +struggle. Such writers may say that a rich, civilized +multitude of human beings, possessors of the +quarter of a continent, believing it best for their +interests to set up an independent government for +themselves, fell back upon the right of revolution, +though they chose not to call it by that name. +Now, even if it be possible to go so far as to say +that every nation has always a right to preserve +by force, if it can, its own integrity, certainly it +cannot be stated as a further truth that no portion +of a nation can ever be justified in endeavoring +to obtain an independent national existence; +no citizen of this country can admit this, but must +say that such an endeavor is justifiable or not justifiable +according as its cause and basis are right +or wrong. Far down, then, at the very bottom +lay the question whether the Southerners had a +sufficient cause upon which to base a revolution. +Now this question was hardly conclusively answered +by the perfectly true statement that the North had +not interfered with Southern rights. Southerners +might admit this, and still believe that their welfare +could be best subserved by a government wholly +their own. So the very bottom question of all still +remained: Was the South endeavoring to establish +a government of its own for a justifiable reason +<!-- Image No 183 --><a name='Png183'></a><a name='Page159'></a><span class="pagenum">159</span> +and a right purpose? Now the avowed purpose +was to establish on an enduring foundation a +permanent slave empire; and the declared reason +was, that slavery was not safe within the Union. +Underneath the question of the Union therefore +lay, logically, the question of slavery.</p> + +<p>Lincoln and the other Republican leaders said +that, if slavery extension was prevented, then slavery +was in the way of extinction. If the assertion +was true, it pretty clearly followed that the South +could retain slavery only by independence and a +complete imperial control within the limits of its +own homogeneous nationality; for undeniably the +preponderant Northern mass was becoming firmly +resolved that slavery should not be extended, however +it might be tolerated within its present limits. +So still, by anti-slavery statement itself, the +ultimate question was: whether or not the preservation +of slavery was a right and sufficient cause +or purpose for establishing an independent nationality. +Lincoln, therefore, went direct to the logical +heart of the contention, when he said that the real +dispute was whether slavery was a right thing or +a wrong thing. If slavery was a right thing, a +Union conducted upon a policy which was believed +to doom it to "ultimate extinction" was not +a right thing. But if slavery was a wrong thing, +a revolution undertaken with the purpose of making +it perpetual was also a wrong thing. Therefore, +from beginning to end, Lincoln talked about +slavery. By so doing he did what he could to give +<!-- Image No 184 --><a name='Png184'></a><a name='Page160'></a><span class="pagenum">160</span> +to the war a character far higher even than a war +of patriotism, for he extended its meaning far beyond +the age and the country of its occurrence, +and made of it, not a war for the United States +alone, but a war for humanity, a war for ages and +peoples yet to come. In like manner, he himself +also gained the right to be regarded as much more +than a great party leader, even more than a great +patriot; for he became a champion of mankind and +the defender of the chief right of man. I do not +mean to say that he saw these things in this light +at the moment, or that he accurately formulated +the precise relationship and fundamental significance +of all that was then in process of saying and +doing. Time must elapse, and distance must enable +one to get a comprehensive view, before the +philosophy of an era like that of the civil war +becomes intelligible. But the philosophy is not +the less correct because those who were framing +it piece by piece did not at any one moment project +before their mental vision the whole in its +finished proportions and relationship.</p> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_75_75'></a><a href='#FNanchor_75_75'>[75]</a> + As an example of Greeley's position, see letter quoted by +N. and H. ii. 140, note. The fact that he was strenuously pro-Douglas +and anti-Lincoln is well known. Yet afterward he said +that it "was hardly in human nature" for Republicans to treat +Douglas as a friend. Greeley's <i>American Conflict</i>, i. 301.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_76_76'></a><a href='#FNanchor_76_76'>[76]</a> + Wilson, <i>Rise and Fall of the Slave Power</i>, ii. 567; for sketches +of Douglas's position, see Blaine, <i>Twenty Years of Congress</i>, i. 141-144; +von Holst, <i>Const. Hist. of U.S.</i> vi. 280-286; Herndon, 391-395; +N. and H. ii. 138-143; Lamon, 390-395; Holland, 158. +Crittenden was one of the old Whigs, who now sorely disappointed +Lincoln by preferring Douglas. N. and H. ii. 142.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_77_77'></a><a href='#FNanchor_77_77'>[77]</a> + Several months afterward, October 25, 1858, Mr. Seward made +the speech at Rochester which contained the famous sentence: +"It is an irrepressible conflict between opposing and enduring +forces, and it means that the United States must and will, sooner +or later, become either entirely a slaveholding nation or entirely +a free-labor nation." Seward's <i>Works</i>, new edition, 1884, iv. 292. +But Seward ranked among the extremists and the agitators. See +<i>Lincoln and Douglas Deb.</i> 244. After all, the idea had already +found expression in the Richmond <i>Enquirer</i>, May 6, 1856, quoted +by von Hoist, vi. 299, also referred to by Lincoln; see <i>Lincoln and +Douglas Deb.</i> 262.</p></div> + +<a name='Footnote_78_78'></a> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a href='#FNanchor_78_78'>[78]</a> Letter to Hon. Geo. Robertson, N. and H. i. 392; and see +Lamon, 398; also see remarks of von Holst, vi. 277.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_79_79'></a><a href='#FNanchor_79_79'>[79]</a> + <i>Lincoln and Douglas Deb.</i> 93. W.P. Fessenden, "who," +says Mr. Blaine, "always spoke with precision and never with +passion," expressed his opinion that if Fremont had been elected +instead of Buchanan, that decision would never have been given. +<i>Twenty Years of Congress</i>, i. 133.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_80_80'></a><a href='#FNanchor_80_80'>[80]</a> + Stephen A. Douglas, Franklin Pierce, Roger B. Taney, James Buchanan.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_81_81'></a><a href='#FNanchor_81_81'>[81]</a> + <i>Lincoln and Douglas Deb.</i> 198. At Chicago he said that he +would vote for the prohibition of slavery in a new Territory "in +spite of the Dred Scott decision." <i>Lincoln and Douglas Deb.</i> 20; +and see the rest of his speech on the same page. The Illinois +Republican Convention, June 16. 1858, expressed "condemnation +of the principles and tendencies of the extra-judicial opinions of a +majority of the judges," as putting forth a "political heresy." +Holland, 159. +</p><p> +Years ago Salmon P. Chase had dared to say that, if the courts +would not overthrow the pro-slavery construction of the Constitution, +the people would do so, even if it should be "necessary to +overthrow the courts also." Warden's <i>Life of Chase</i>, 313.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_82_82'></a><a href='#FNanchor_82_82'>[82]</a> + For Lincoln's explanation of his position concerning the Dred +Scott decision, see <i>Lincoln and Douglas Deb.</i> 20.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_83_83'></a><a href='#FNanchor_83_83'>[83]</a> + A nickname for the southern part of Illinois.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_84_84'></a><a href='#FNanchor_84_84'>[84]</a> + Henry Wilson has made his criticism in the words that "some +of his [Lincoln's] assertions and admissions were both unsatisfactory +and offensive to anti-slavery men; betrayed too much of the +spirit of caste and prejudice against color, and sound harshly dissonant +by the side of the Proclamation of Emancipation and the +grand utterances of his later state papers." <i>Rise and Fall of the +Slave Power</i>, ii. 576.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_85_85'></a><a href='#FNanchor_85_85'>[85]</a> + Blaine, <i>Twenty Years of Congress</i>, i. 145</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_86_86'></a><a href='#FNanchor_86_86'>[86]</a> + N. and H. ii. 159, 160, 163; Arnold, 151; Lamon, 415, 416, +and see 406; Holland, 189; Wilson, <i>Rise and Fall of the Slave +Power</i>, ii. 576; Blaine, <i>Twenty Years of Congress</i>, i. 148.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_87_87'></a><a href='#FNanchor_87_87'>[87]</a> + Arnold, 144. This writer speaks with discriminating praise +concerning Lincoln's oratory, p. 139. It is an illustration of Lincoln's +habit of adopting for permanent use any expression that +pleased him, that this same phrase had been used by him in a +speech made two years before this time. Holland, 151.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_88_88'></a><a href='#FNanchor_88_88'>[88]</a> + Published in Columbus, in 1860, for campaign purposes, from +copies furnished by Lincoln; see his letter to Central Exec. +Comm., December 19, 1859, on fly-leaf.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_89_89'></a><a href='#FNanchor_89_89'>[89]</a> + Many tributes have been paid to Douglas by writers who +oppose his opinions; <i>e.g.</i>, Arnold says: "There is, on the whole, +hardly any greater personal triumph in the history of American +politics than his reëlection," pp. 149, 150; Blaine, <i>Twenty Years +of Congress</i>, i. 149.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_90_90'></a><a href='#FNanchor_90_90'>[90]</a> + See Lincoln's letter to Judd, quoted N. and H. ii. 167; also +<i>Ibid.</i> 169.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_91_91'></a><a href='#FNanchor_91_91'>[91]</a> + Raymond, 76.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_92_92'></a><a href='#FNanchor_92_92'>[92]</a> + The Senate showed 14 Democrats, 11 Republicans; the +House, 40 Democrats, 35 Republicans.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_93_93'></a><a href='#FNanchor_93_93'>[93]</a> + In September, 1859. These are included in the volume of +<i>The Lincoln and Douglas Debates</i>, printed at Columbus, 1860.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_94_94'></a><a href='#FNanchor_94_94'>[94]</a> + <i>The Mirror</i>, quoted by Lamon, 442.</p></div> + + + +<hr class='long'/> +<!-- Image No 185 --><a name='Png185'></a><a name='Page161'></a><span class="pagenum">161</span> + +<a name='CHAPTER_VI'></a> +<h2>CHAPTER VI</h2> +<h2>ELECTION</h2> + +<p>Mr. J.W. Fell, a leading citizen of Illinois, +says that after the debates of 1858 he urged Lincoln +to seek the Republican nomination for the +presidency in 1860. Lincoln, however, replied +curtly that men like Seward and Chase were entitled +to take precedence, and that no such "good +luck" was in store for him. In March, 1859, he +wrote to another person: "In regard to the other +matter that you speak of, I beg that you will not +give it further mention. I do not think I am +fit for the presidency." He said the same to the +editor of the "Central Illinois Gazette;" but this +gentleman "brought him out in the issue of May +4," and "thence the movement spread rapidly and +strongly."<a name='FNanchor_95_97'></a><a href='#Footnote_95_97'><sup>[95]</sup></a> + In the winter of 1859-60 sundry +"intimate friends," active politicians of Illinois, +pressed him to consent to be mentioned as a candidate. +He considered the matter over night and +then gave them the desired permission, at the same +time saying that he would not accept the vice-presidency.</p> + +<p>Being now fairly started in the race, he used all +his well-known skill as a politician to forward his +<!-- Image No 186 --><a name='Png186'></a><a name='Page162'></a><span class="pagenum">162</span> +campaign, though nothing derogatory is to be inferred +from these words as to his conduct or methods. +February 9, 1860, he wrote to Mr. Judd: +"I am not in a position where it would hurt much +for me not to be nominated on the national ticket; +but I am where it would hurt some for me not to +get the Illinois delegates.... Can you help me a +little in this matter at your end of the vineyard?" +This point of the allegiance of his own State was +soon made right. The Republican State Convention +met in the "Wigwam" at Decatur, May 9 +and 10, 1860. Governor Oglesby, who presided, +suggested that a distinguished citizen, whom Illinois +delighted to honor, was present, and that he +should be invited to a place on the stand; and +at once, amid a tumult of applause, Lincoln was +lifted over the heads of the crowd to the platform. +John Hanks then theatrically entered, bearing a +couple of fence rails, and a flag with the legend +that they were from a "lot made by Abraham +Lincoln and John Hanks in the Sangamon Bottom, +in the year 1830." The sympathetic roar +rose again. Then Lincoln made a "speech," appropriate +to the occasion. At last, attention was +given to business, and the convention resolved +that Abraham Lincoln was the first choice of the +Republican party of Illinois for the presidency, +and instructed their delegates to the nominating +convention "to use all honorable means to secure +his nomination, and to cast the vote of the State as +a unit for him."</p> + +<p><!-- Image No 187 --><a name='Png187'></a><a name='Page163'></a><span class="pagenum">163</span> +With the opening of the spring of 1860 the several +parties began the campaign in earnest. The +Democratic Convention met first, at Charleston, +April 23; and immediately the line of disruption +opened. Upon the one side stood Douglas, with +the moderate men and nearly all the Northern +delegates, while against him were the advocates +of extreme Southern doctrines, supported by the +administration and by most of the delegates from +the "Cotton States." The majority of the committee +appointed to draft the platform were anti-Douglas +men; but their report was rejected, and +that offered by the pro-Douglas minority was substituted, +165 yeas to 138 nays.<a name='FNanchor_96_98'></a><a href='#Footnote_96_98'><sup>[96]</sup></a> + Thereupon the +delegations of Alabama, Mississippi, Florida, and +Texas, and sundry delegates from other States, +withdrew from the convention,<a name='FNanchor_97_99'></a><a href='#Footnote_97_99'><sup>[97]</sup></a> + taking away 45 +votes out of a total of 303. Those who remained +declared the vote of two thirds of a full convention, +<i>i.e.</i>, 202 votes, to be necessary for a choice. +Then during three days fifty-seven ballots were +cast, Douglas being always far in the lead, but +never polling more than 1521/2 votes. At last, on +May 3, an adjournment was had until June 18, +at Baltimore. At this second meeting contesting +<!-- Image No 188 --><a name='Png188'></a><a name='Page164'></a><span class="pagenum">164</span> +delegations appeared, and the decisions were uniformly +in favor of the Douglas men, which provoked +another secession of the extremist Southern +men. A ballot showed 1731/2 votes for Douglas out +of a total of 1911/2; the total was less than two +thirds of the full number of the original convention, +and therefore it was decided that any person +receiving two thirds of the votes cast by the +delegates present should be deemed the nominee. +The next ballot gave Douglass 1811/2. Herschel V. +Johnson of Georgia was nominated for vice-president.</p> + +<p>On June 28, also at Baltimore, there came together +a collection composed of original seceders +at Charleston, and of some who had been rejected +and others who had seceded at Baltimore. Very +few Northern men were present, and the body in +fact represented the Southern wing of the Democracy. +Having, like its competitor, the merit of +knowing its own mind, it promptly nominated +John C. Breckenridge of Kentucky and Joseph +Lane of Oregon, and adopted the radical platform +which had been reported at Charleston.</p> + +<p>These doings opened, so that it could never be +closed, that seam of which the thread had long +been visible athwart the surface of the old Democratic +party. The great record of discipline and +of triumph, which the party had made when united +beneath the dominion of imperious leaders, was +over, and forever. Those questions which Lincoln +obstinately and against advice had insisted upon +<!-- Image No 189 --><a name='Png189'></a><a name='Page165'></a><span class="pagenum">165</span> +pushing in 1858 had forced this disastrous development +of irreconcilable differences. The answers, +which Douglas could not shirk, had alienated the +most implacable of men, the dictators of the Southern +Democracy. His "looking-both-ways" theory +would not fit with their policy, and their policy +was and must be immutable; modification was in +itself defeat. On the other hand, what he said +constituted the doctrine to which the mass of the +Northern Democracy firmly held. So now, although +Republicans admitted that it was "morally +certain" that the Democratic party, holding +together, could carry the election,<a name='FNanchor_98_100'></a><a href='#Footnote_98_100'><sup>[98]</sup></a> + yet these men +from the Cotton States could not take victory and +Douglas together.<a name='FNanchor_99_101'></a><a href='#Footnote_99_101'><sup>[99]</sup></a> + It had actually come to this, +that, in spite of all that Douglas had done for the +slaveholders, they now marked him for destruction +at any cost. Many also believe that they had another +motive; that they had matured their plans +for secession; and that they did not mean to have +the scheme disturbed or postponed by an ostensibly +Democratic triumph in the shape of the election of +Douglas.</p> + +<p>In May the convention of the Constitutional +Union party met, also at Baltimore. This organization +was a sudden outgrowth designed only to +meet the present emergency. Its whole political +doctrine lay in the opening words of the one resolution +which constituted its platform: "That it is +<!-- Image No 190 --><a name='Png190'></a><a name='Page166'></a><span class="pagenum">166</span> +both the part of patriotism and of duty to recognize +no political principle other than the Constitution +of the country, the union of the States, and the +enforcement of the laws." This party gathered +nearly all the peaceable elements of the community; +it assumed a deprecatory attitude between +angry contestants, and of course received the abuse +and contempt of both; it was devoid of combative +force, yet had some numerical strength. The Republicans +especially mocked at these "trimmers," +as if their only platform was moral cowardice, +which, however, was an unfair statement of their +position. The party died, of necessity, upon the +day when Lincoln was elected, and its members +were then distributed between the Republicans, +the Secessionists, and the Copperheads. John +Bell of Tennessee, the candidate for the presidency, +joined the Confederacy; Edward Everett +of Massachusetts, the candidate for the vice-presidency, +became a Republican. The party never +had a hope of electing its men; but its existence +increased the chance of throwing the election into +Congress; and this hope inspired exertions far +beyond what its own prospects warranted.</p> + +<p>On May 16 the Republican Convention came +together at Chicago, where the great "Wigwam" +had been built to hold 10,000 persons. The intense +interest with which its action was watched +indicated the popular belief that probably it would +name the next President of the United States. +Many candidates were named, chiefly Seward, Lincoln, +<!-- Image No 191 --><a name='Png191'></a><a name='Page167'></a><span class="pagenum">167</span> +Chase, Cameron, Edward Bates of Missouri, +and William L. Dayton of New Jersey. Thurlow +Weed was Seward's lieutenant. Horace Greeley, +chiefly bent upon the defeat of Seward, would +have liked to achieve it by the success of Bates. +David Davis, aided by Judge Logan and a band +of personal friends from Illinois, was manager for +Lincoln. Primarily the contest lay between Seward +and Lincoln, and only a dead-lock between +these two could give a chance to some one of +the others. But Seward's friends hoped, and +Lincoln's friends dreaded, that the New Yorker +might win by a rush on the first ballot. George +Ashmun of Massachusetts presided. With little +discussion a platform was adopted, long and ill-written, +overloaded with adjectives and rhetoric, +sacrificing dignity to the supreme pleasure of +abusing the Democracy, but honest in stating +Republican doctrines, and clearly displaying the +temper of an earnest, aggressive party, hot for the +fight and confident of victory. The vote of acceptance +was greeted with such a cheering that "a +herd of buffaloes or lions could not have made a +more tremendous roaring."</p> + +<p>The details of the brief but sharp contest for +the nomination are not altogether gratifying. The +partisans of Seward set about winning votes by +much parading in the streets with banners and +music, and by out-yelling all competitors within +the walls of the convention. For this intelligent +purpose they had engaged Tom Hyer, the prize +<!-- Image No 192 --><a name='Png192'></a><a name='Page168'></a><span class="pagenum">168</span> +fighter, with a gang of roughs, to hold possession +of the Wigwam, and to howl illimitably at appropriate +moments. But they had undertaken a difficult +task in trying to outdo the great West, in one +of its own cities, at a game of this kind. The Lincoln +leaders in their turn secured a couple of stentorian +yellers (one of them a Democrat), instructed +them carefully, and then filled the Wigwam full +actually at daybreak, while the Seward men were +marching; so in the next yelling match the West +won magnificently. How great was the real efficiency +of these tactics in affecting the choice of +the ruler of a great nation commonly accounted +intelligent, it is difficult to say with accuracy; but +it is certain that the expert managers spared no +pains about this scenic business of "enthusiasm."</p> + +<p>Meanwhile other work, entirely quiet, was being +done elsewhere. The objection to Seward was that +he was too radical, too far in advance of the party. +The Bates following were pushing their candidate +as a moderate man, who would be acceptable to +"Union men." But Bates's chance was small, +and any tendency towards a moderate candidate +was likely to carry his friends to Lincoln rather +than to Seward; for Lincoln was generally supposed, +however erroneously,<a name='FNanchor_100_102'></a><a href='#Footnote_100_102'><sup>[100]</sup></a> + to be more remote +from Abolitionism than Seward was. To counteract +this, a Seward delegate telegraphed to the +<!-- Image No 193 --><a name='Png193'></a><a name='Page169'></a><span class="pagenum">169</span> +Bates men at St. Louis that Lincoln was as radical +as Seward. Lincoln, at Springfield, saw this dispatch, +and at once wrote a message to David +Davis: "Lincoln agrees with Seward in his irrepressible-conflict +idea, and in Negro Equality; but +he is opposed to Seward's Higher Law. <i>Make no +contracts that will bind me</i>." He underscored the +last sentence; but when his managers saw it, they +recognized that such independence did not accord +with the situation, and so they set it aside.</p> + +<p>The first vote was:—</p> + +<div class="display"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td>Whole number</td> + <td align="right"> 465</td> + <td align="left"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Necessary for choice</td> + <td align="right">233</td> + <td align="left"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td align="right"> </td> + <td align="left"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>William H. Seward of New + York</td> + <td align="right">173</td> + <td align="left">1/2</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Abraham Lincoln of Illinois</td> + <td align="right">102</td> + <td align="left"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Simon Cameron of + Pennsylvania</td> + <td align="right">50</td> + <td align="left">1/2</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Salmon P. Chase of Ohio </td> + <td align="right">49</td> + <td align="left"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Edward Bates of Missouri </td> + <td align="right">48</td> + <td align="left"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>William L. Dayton of New + Jersey</td> + <td align="right">14</td> + <td align="left"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>John McLean of Ohio</td> + <td align="right">12</td> + <td align="left"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Jacob Collamer of Vermont</td> + <td align="right">10</td> + <td align="left"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td align="right"> </td> + <td align="left"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Scattering</td> + <td align="right">6</td> + <td align="left"> </td> + </tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p>The fact was, and Lincoln's friends perfectly +understood it, that Cameron held that peculiar +kind of power which gave him no real prospect +of success, yet had a considerable salable value. +Could they refrain from trying the market? They +asked the owners of the 501/2 Cameron votes what +was their price. The owners said: The Treasury +Department. Lincoln's friends declared this +extravagant. Then they all chaffered. Finally +<!-- Image No 194 --><a name='Png194'></a><a name='Page170'></a><span class="pagenum">170</span> +Cameron's men took a place in the cabinet, without +further specification. Lamon says that another +smaller contract was made with the friends +of Caleb B. Smith. Then the Lincoln managers +rested in a pleasing sense of security.</p> + +<p>The second ballot showed slight changes:—</p> + +<div class="display"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + + <tr> + <td>Seward</td> + <td align="right"> 184</td> + <td align="left">1/2</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Lincoln</td> + <td align="right">181</td> + <td align="left"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Cameron</td> + <td align="right">2</td> + <td align="left"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Chase</td> + <td align="right">42</td> + <td align="left">1/2</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Bates</td> + <td align="right">5</td> + <td align="left"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Dayton</td> + <td align="right">10</td> + <td align="left"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>McLean</td> + <td align="right">8</td> + <td align="left"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td align="right"> </td> + <td align="left"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Scattering</td> + <td align="right">2</td> + <td align="left"> </td> + </tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p>Upon the third ballot delivery was made of what +Mr. Davis had bought. That epidemic foreknowledge, +which sometimes so unaccountably foreruns +an event, told the convention that the decision was +at hand. A dead silence reigned save for the click +of the telegraphic instruments and the low scratching +of hundreds of pencils checking off the votes +as the roll was called. Those who were keeping +the tally saw that it stood:—</p> + + +<div class="display"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + + <tr> + <td>Seward</td> + <td align="right"> 180</td> + <td align="left"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Lincoln</td> + <td align="right">231</td> + <td align="left">1/2</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Chase</td> + <td align="right">24</td> + <td align="left">1/2</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Bates</td> + <td align="right">22</td> + <td align="left"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Dayton</td> + <td align="right">1</td> + <td align="left"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>McLean</td> + <td align="right">5</td> + <td align="left"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td align="right"> </td> + <td align="left"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Scattering</td> + <td align="right">1</td> + <td align="left"> </td> + </tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p>Cameron was out of the race; Lincoln was +within 11/2 votes of the goal. Before the count +could be announced, a delegate from Ohio transferred +four votes to Lincoln. This settled the +matter; and then other delegations followed, till +Lincoln's score rose to 354. At once the "enthusiasm" +of 10,000 men again reduced to insignificance +<!-- Image No 195 --><a name='Png195'></a><a name='Page171'></a><span class="pagenum">171</span> +a "herd of buffaloes or lions." When at last +quiet was restored, William M. Evarts, who had +led for Seward, offered the usual motion to make +the nomination of Abraham Lincoln unanimous. +It was done. Again the "tremendous roaring" +arose. Later in the day the convention nominated +Hannibal Hamlin<a name='FNanchor_101_103'></a><a href='#Footnote_101_103'><sup>[101]</sup></a> + of Maine, on the second ballot, +by 367 votes, for the vice-presidency. Then for +many hours, till exhaustion brought rest, Chicago +was given over to the wonted follies; cannon +boomed, music resounded, and streets and barrooms +were filled with the howling and drinking +crowds of the intelligent promoters of one of the +great moral crusades of the human race.</p> + +<p>Lamon says that the committee deputed to wait +upon Lincoln at Springfield found him "sad and +dejected. The reaction from excessive joy to deep +despondency—a process peculiar to his constitution—had +already set in."<a name='FNanchor_102_104'></a><a href='#Footnote_102_104'><sup>[102]</sup></a> + His remarks to these +gentlemen were brief and colorless. His letter +afterward was little more than a simple acceptance +of the platform.</p> + +<hr class='short'/> + +<p>Since white men first landed on this continent, +the selection of Washington to lead the army of +the Revolution is the only event to be compared +in good fortune with this nomination of Abraham +<!-- Image No 196 --><a name='Png196'></a><a name='Page172'></a><span class="pagenum">172</span> +Lincoln. Yet the convention deserved no credit +for its action. It did not know the true ratio between +Seward and Lincoln, which only the future +was to make plain. By all that it did know, it +ought to have given the honor to Seward, who +merited it by the high offices which he had held +with distinction and without blemish, by the leadership +which he had acquired in the party through +long-continued constancy and courage, by the force +and clearness with which he had maintained its +principles, by his experience and supposed natural +aptitude in the higher walks of statesmanship. +Yet actually by reason of these very qualifications<a name='FNanchor_103_105'></a><a href='#Footnote_103_105'><sup>[103]</sup></a> + +it was now admitted that the all-important +"October States" of Indiana and Pennsylvania +could not be carried by the Republicans if Seward +were nominated; while Greeley, sitting in the +convention as a substitute for a delegate from +Oregon, cast as much of the weight of New York +as he could lift into the anti-Seward scale. In +plain fact, the convention, by its choice, paid no +compliment either to Lincoln or to the voters of +the party. They took him because he was "available," +and the reason that he was "available" lay +not in any popular appreciation of his merits, but +in the contrary truth,—that the mass of people +could place no intelligent estimate upon him at +all, either for good or for ill. Outside of Illinois +<!-- Image No 197 --><a name='Png197'></a><a name='Page173'></a><span class="pagenum">173</span> +a few men, who had studied his speeches, esteemed +him an able man in debate; more had a vague +notion of him as an effective stump speaker of the +West; far the greatest number had to find out +about him.<a name='FNanchor_104_106'></a><a href='#Footnote_104_106'><sup>[104]</sup></a> + In a word, Mr. Lincoln gained the +nomination because Mr. Seward had been "too +conspicuous," whereas he himself was so little +known that it was possible for Wendell Phillips +to inquire indignantly: "Who is this huckster in +politics? Who is this county court advocate?"<a name='FNanchor_105_107'></a><a href='#Footnote_105_107'><sup>[105]</sup></a> + +For these singular reasons he was the most "available" +candidate who could be offered before the +citizens of the United States!</p> + +<p>It cannot be said that the nomination was received +with much satisfaction. "Honest old Abe +the rail-splitter!" might sound well in the ear of +the masses; but the Republican party was laden +with the burden of an immense responsibility, and +the men who did its thinking could not reasonably +feel certain that rail-splitting was an altogether +satisfactory training for the leader in such an era +as was now at hand. Nevertheless, nearly<a name='FNanchor_106_108'></a><a href='#Footnote_106_108'><sup>[106]</sup></a> + all +came to the work of the campaign with as much +zeal as if they had surely known the full value +of their candidate. Shutting their minds against +doubts, they made the most spirited and energetic +canvass which has ever taken place in the country. +<!-- Image No 198 --><a name='Png198'></a><a name='Page174'></a><span class="pagenum">174</span> +The organization of the "Wide-Awake" clubs was +an effective success.<a name='FNanchor_107_109'></a><a href='#Footnote_107_109'><sup>[107]</sup></a> + None who saw will ever forget +the spectacle presented by these processions +wherein many thousands of men, singing the campaign +songs, clad in uniform capes of red or white +oil-cloth, each with a flaming torch or a colored +lantern, marched nightly in every city and town +of the North, in apparently endless numbers and +with military precision, making the streets a brilliant +river of variously tinted flame. Torchlight +parades have become mere conventional affairs +since those days, when there was a spirit in them +which nothing has ever stirred more lately. They +were a good preparation for the more serious +marching and severer drill which were soon to +come, though the Republicans scoffed at all anticipations +of such a future, and sneered at the timid +ones who croaked of war and bloodshed.</p> + +<p>Almost from the beginning it was highly probable +that the Republicans would win, and it was +substantially certain that none of their competitors +could do so. The only contrary chance was that +no election might be made by the people, and that +it might be thrown into Congress. Douglas with +his wonted spirit made a vigorous fight, traveling +to and fro, speaking constantly in the North and +a few times in the South, but defiant rather than +conciliatory in tone. He did not show one whit +the less energy because it was obvious that he +waged a contest without hope. If there were any +road to Democratic success, which it now seems +<!-- Image No 199 --><a name='Png199'></a><a name='Page175'></a><span class="pagenum">175</span> +that there was not, it lay in uniting the sundered +party. An attempt was made to arrange that +whichever Democratic candidate should ultimately +display the greater strength should receive the full +support of the party. Projects for a fusion ticket +met with some success in New York. In Pennsylvania +like schemes were imperfectly successful. +In other Northern States they were received with +scant favor. Except some followers of Bell and +Everett, men were in no temper for compromise. +At the South fusion was not even attempted; the +Breckenridge men would not hear of it; the voters +in that section were controlled by leaders, and +these leaders probably had a very distinct policy, +which would be seriously interfered with by the +triumph of the Douglas ticket.</p> + +<p>The chief anxiety of Lincoln and the Republican +leaders was lest some voters, who disagreed +with them only on less important issues, might stay +away from the polls. All the platforms, except +that of the Constitutional Union party, touched +upon other topics besides the question of slavery +in the Territories; the tariff, native Americanism, +acquisition of Cuba, a transcontinental railway, +public lands, internal improvements, all found +mention. The Know-Nothing party still by occasional +twitchings showed that life had not quite +taken flight, and endeavors were made to induce +Lincoln to express his views. But he evaded it.<a name='FNanchor_108_110'></a><a href='#Footnote_108_110'><sup>[108]</sup></a> + +<!-- Image No 200 --><a name='Png200'></a><a name='Page176'></a><span class="pagenum">176</span> +For above all else he wished to avoid the stirring +of any dissension upon side issues or minor +points; his hope was to see all opponents of the +extension of slavery put aside for a while all other +matters, refrain from discussing troublesome details, +and unite for the one broad end of putting +slavery where "the fathers" had left it, so that the +"public mind should rest in the belief that it was +in the way of ultimate extinction." He felt it to +be fair and right that he should receive the votes +of all anti-slavery men; and ultimately he did, +with the exception only of the thorough-going +Abolitionists.</p> + +<p>It was not so very long since he had spoken of +the Abolitionist leaders as "friends;" but they +did not reciprocate the feeling, nor indeed could +reasonably be expected to do so, or to vote the +Republican ticket. They were even less willing +to vote it with Lincoln at the head of it than if +Seward had been there.<a name='FNanchor_109_111'></a><a href='#Footnote_109_111'><sup>[109]</sup></a> + But Republicanism itself +under any leader was distinctly at odds with their +views; for when they said "<i>abolition</i>" they meant +accurately what they said, and abolition certainly +was impossible under the Constitution. The Republicans, +and Lincoln personally, with equal directness +acknowledged the supremacy of the Constitution. +Lincoln, therefore, plainly asserted a +policy which the Abolitionists equally plainly condemned. +In their eyes, to be a party to a contract +maintaining slavery throughout a third of a continent +<!-- Image No 201 --><a name='Png201'></a><a name='Page177'></a><span class="pagenum">177</span> +was only a trifle less criminal than aiding to +extend it over another third. Yet it should be +said that the Abolitionists were not all of one +mind, and some voted the Republican ticket as being +at least a step in the right direction. Joshua +R. Giddings was a member of the Republican Convention +which nominated Lincoln. But Wendell +Phillips, always an extremist among extremists, +published an article entitled "Abraham Lincoln, +the Slave-hound of Illinois," whereof the keynote +was struck in this introductory sentence: "We +gibbet a Northern hound to-day, side by side with +the infamous Mason of Virginia." Mr. Garrison, +a man of far larger and sounder intellectual powers +than belonged to Phillips, did not fancy this +sort of diatribe, though five months earlier he had +accused the Republican party of "slavish subserviency +to the Union," and declared it to be "still +insanely engaged in glorifying the Union and +pledging itself to frown upon all attempts to dissolve +it." Undeniably men who held these views +could not honestly vote for Mr. Lincoln.</p> + +<p>The popular vote and the electoral vote were as +follows:<a name='FNanchor_110_112'></a><a href='#Footnote_110_112'><sup>[110]</sup></a> +—</p> + +<div class="display"> + +<p> +<!-- Image No 202 --><a name='Png202'></a><a name='Page178'></a><span class="pagenum">178</span> + +Li: Abraham Lincoln, Illinois.<br/> +Do: Stephen A. Douglas, Illinois.<br/> +Br: John C. Breckenridge, Kentucky.<br/> +Be: John Bell, Tennessee. +</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2"> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td colspan="4" align="center">Popular Vote</td> + <td colspan="4" align="center">Electoral Vote</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td align="center">Li</td> + <td align="center">Do</td> + <td align="center">Br</td> + <td align="center">Be</td> + <td align="center">Li</td> + <td align="center">Do</td> + <td align="center">Br</td> + <td align="center">Be</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Maine</td> + <td align="right">62,811</td> + <td align="right">26,693</td> + <td align="right">6,368</td> + <td align="right">2,046</td> + <td align="right">8</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>New Hampshire</td> + <td align="right">37,519</td> + <td align="right">25,881</td> + <td align="right">2,112</td> + <td align="right">441</td> + <td align="right">5</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Vermont</td> + <td align="right">33,808</td> + <td align="right">6,849</td> + <td align="right">218</td> + <td align="right">1,969</td> + <td align="right">5</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Massachusetts</td> + <td align="right">106,533</td> + <td align="right">34,372</td> + <td align="right">5,939</td> + <td align="right">22,231</td> + <td align="right">13</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Rhode Island</td> + <td align="right">12,244</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Footnote_B_96"><sup>[B]</sup></a>7,707</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">4</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Connecticut</td> + <td align="right">43,792</td> + <td align="right">15,522</td> + <td align="right">14,641</td> + <td align="right">3,291</td> + <td align="right">6</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>New York</td> + <td align="right">362,646</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Footnote_B_96"><sup>[B]</sup></a>312,510</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">35</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>New Jersey</td> + <td align="right">58,324</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Footnote_B_96"><sup>[B]</sup></a>62,801</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">4</td> + <td align="right">3</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Pennsylvania</td> + <td align="right">268,030</td> + <td align="right">16,765</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Footnote_B_96"><sup>[B]</sup></a>178,871</td> + <td align="right">12,776</td> + <td align="right">27</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Delaware</td> + <td align="right">3,815</td> + <td align="right">1,023</td> + <td align="right">7,337</td> + <td align="right">3,864</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">3</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Maryland</td> + <td align="right">2,294</td> + <td align="right">5,966</td> + <td align="right">42,482</td> + <td align="right">41,760</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">8</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Virginia</td> + <td align="right">1,929</td> + <td align="right">16,290</td> + <td align="right">74,323</td> + <td align="right">74,681</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">15</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>North Carolina</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">2,701</td> + <td align="right">48,539</td> + <td align="right">44,990</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">10</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>South Carolina<a href="#Footnote_A_95"><sup>[A]</sup></a></td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">8</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Georgia</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">11,590</td> + <td align="right">51,889</td> + <td align="right">42,886</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">10</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Florida</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">367</td> + <td align="right">8,543</td> + <td align="right">5,437</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">3</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Alabama</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">13,651</td> + <td align="right">48,831</td> + <td align="right">27,875</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">9</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Mississippi</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">3,283</td> + <td align="right">40,797</td> + <td align="right">25,040</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">7</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Louisiana</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">7,625</td> + <td align="right">22,861</td> + <td align="right">20,204</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">6</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Texas</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">47,548</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Footnote_B_96"><sup>[B]</sup></a>15,438</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">4</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Arkansas</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">5,227</td> + <td align="right">28,732</td> + <td align="right">20,094</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">4</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Missouri</td> + <td align="right">17,028</td> + <td align="right">58,801</td> + <td align="right">31,317</td> + <td align="right">58,372</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">9</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Tennessee</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">11,350</td> + <td align="right">64,709</td> + <td align="right">69,274</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">12</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Kentucky</td> + <td align="right">1,364</td> + <td align="right">25,651</td> + <td align="right">53,143</td> + <td align="right">66,058</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">12</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Ohio</td> + <td align="right">231,610</td> + <td align="right">187,232</td> + <td align="right">11,405</td> + <td align="right">12,194</td> + <td align="right">23</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Michigan</td> + <td align="right">88,480</td> + <td align="right">65,057</td> + <td align="right">805</td> + <td align="right">405</td> + <td align="right">6</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Indiana</td> + <td align="right">139,033</td> + <td align="right">115,509</td> + <td align="right">12,295</td> + <td align="right">5,306</td> + <td align="right">13</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Illinois</td> + <td align="right">172,161</td> + <td align="right">160,215</td> + <td align="right">2,404</td> + <td align="right">4,913</td> + <td align="right">11</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Wisconsin</td> + <td align="right">86,110</td> + <td align="right">65,021</td> + <td align="right">888</td> + <td align="right">161</td> + <td align="right">5</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Minnesota</td> + <td align="right">22,069</td> + <td align="right">11,920</td> + <td align="right">748</td> + <td align="right">62</td> + <td align="right">4</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Iowa</td> + <td align="right">70,409</td> + <td align="right">55,111</td> + <td align="right">1,048</td> + <td align="right">1,763</td> + <td align="right">4</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>California</td> + <td align="right">39,173</td> + <td align="right">38,516</td> + <td align="right">34,334</td> + <td align="right">6,817</td> + <td align="right">4</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Oregon</td> + <td align="right">5,270</td> + <td align="right">3,951</td> + <td align="right">5,006</td> + <td align="right">183</td> + <td align="right">3</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + <td align="right">—</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td align="right"> </td> + <td align="right"> </td> + <td align="right"> </td> + <td align="right"> </td> + <td align="right"> </td> + <td align="right"> </td> + <td align="right"> </td> + <td align="right"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Totals</td> + <td align="right">1,866,452</td> + <td align="right">1,375,157</td> + <td align="right">847,953</td> + <td align="right">590,631</td> + <td align="right">180</td> + <td align="right">12</td> + <td align="right">72</td> + <td align="right">39</td> + </tr> +</table> + + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_A_95'></a>[A] By legislature.</p> +</div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_B_96'></a>[B] Fusion electoral tickets.</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>Messrs. Nicolay and Hay say that Lincoln was +the "indisputable choice of the American people," +and by way of sustaining the statement say that, if +the "whole voting strength of the three opposing +parties had been united upon a single candidate, +<!-- Image No 203 --><a name='Png203'></a><a name='Page179'></a><span class="pagenum">179</span> +Lincoln would nevertheless have been chosen with +only a trifling diminution of his electoral majority."<a name='FNanchor_111_113'></a><a href='#Footnote_111_113'><sup>[111]</sup></a> + +It might be better to say that Lincoln was +the "indisputable choice" of the electoral college. +The "American people" fell enormously short of +showing a majority in his favor. His career as +president was made infinitely more difficult as well +as greatly more creditable to him by reason of the +very fact that he was <i>not</i> the choice of the American +people, but of less than half of them,—and +this, too, even if the Confederate States be excluded +from the computation.<a name='FNanchor_112_114'></a><a href='#Footnote_112_114'><sup>[112]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p>The election of Lincoln was "hailed with delight" +by the extremists in South Carolina; for it +signified secession, and the underlying and real +desire of these people was secession, and not either +compromise or postponement.<a name='FNanchor_113_115'></a><a href='#Footnote_113_115'><sup>[113]</sup></a> +</p> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_95_97'></a><a href='#FNanchor_95_97'>[95]</a> + Lamon, 422.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_96_98'></a><a href='#FNanchor_96_98'>[96]</a> + The majority report was supported by 15 slave States and 2 +free States, casting 127 electoral votes; the minority report was +supported by 15 free States, casting 176 electoral votes. N. and +H. ii. 234.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_97_99'></a><a href='#FNanchor_97_99'>[97]</a> + This action was soon afterward approved in a manifesto signed +by Jefferson Davis, Toombs, Iverson, Slidell, Benjamin, Mason, +and others. <i>Ibid.</i> 245.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_98_100'></a><a href='#FNanchor_98_100'>[98]</a> + Greeley's <i>Amer. Conflict</i>, i. 326.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_99_101'></a><a href='#FNanchor_99_101'>[99]</a> + <i>Ibid.</i> i. 306, 307.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_100_102'></a><a href='#FNanchor_100_102'>[100]</a> + Mr. Blaine says that Lincoln "was chosen in spite of expressions +far more radical than those of Mr. Seward." <i>Twenty Years +of Congress</i>, i. 169.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_101_103'></a><a href='#FNanchor_101_103'>[101]</a> + "In strong common sense, in sagacity and sound judgment, +in rugged integrity of character, Mr. Hamlin has had no superior +among public men." Blaine, <i>Twenty Years of Congress</i>, i. 170.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_102_104'></a><a href='#FNanchor_102_104'>[102]</a> + Lamon, 453.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_103_105'></a><a href='#FNanchor_103_105'>[103]</a> + McClure adds, or rather mentions as the chief cause, Seward's +position on the public-school question in New York. <i>Lincoln and +Men of War-Times</i>, 28, 29.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_104_106'></a><a href='#FNanchor_104_106'>[104]</a> + "To the country at large he was an obscure, not to say an +unknown man." <i>Life of W.L. Garrison</i>, by his children, iii. 503.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_105_107'></a><a href='#FNanchor_105_107'>[105]</a> + <i>Life of W.L. Garrison</i>, by his children, iii. 503.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_106_108'></a><a href='#FNanchor_106_108'>[106]</a> + See remarks of McClure, <i>Lincoln and Men of War-Times</i>, 28, 29.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_107_109'></a><a href='#FNanchor_107_109'>[107]</a> + See N. and H. ii. 284 n.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_108_110'></a><a href='#FNanchor_108_110'>[108]</a> + See letter of May 17, 1859, to Dr. Canisius, Holland, 196; +N. and H. ii. 181.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_109_111'></a><a href='#FNanchor_109_111'>[109]</a> + <i>Life of W.L. Garrison</i>, by his children, iii. 502.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_110_112'></a><a href='#FNanchor_110_112'>[110]</a> + This table is taken from Stanwood's <i>History of Presidential +Elections</i>.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_111_113'></a><a href='#FNanchor_111_113'>[111]</a> + N. and H. iii. 146.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_112_114'></a><a href='#FNanchor_112_114'>[112]</a> + +The total popular vote was 4,680,193. Lincoln had 1,866,452. +In North Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, +Texas, Arkansas, and Tennessee, no vote was cast for the +Lincoln ticket; in Virginia only 1929 voted it. Adding the total +popular vote of all these States (except the 1929), we get 854,775; +deducting this from the total popular vote leaves a balance of +3,825,418, of which one half is 1,912,709; so that even outside of +the States of the Confederacy Lincoln did not get one half of the +popular vote. South Carolina is not included in any calculation +concerning the popular vote, because she chose electors by her +legislature.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_113_115'></a><a href='#FNanchor_113_115'>[113]</a> + +Letter of Henry A. Wise of Virginia, May 28, 1858, quoted +N. and H. ii. 302 n.</p></div> + + + +<hr class='long'/> +<!-- Image No 204 --><a name='Png204'></a><a name='Page180'></a><span class="pagenum">180</span> + +<a name='CHAPTER_VII'></a> +<h2>CHAPTER VII</h2> +<h2>INTERREGNUM</h2> + +<p>For a while now the people of the Northern +States were compelled passively to behold a spectacle +which they could not easily reconcile with the +theory of the supreme excellence and wisdom of +their system of government. Abraham Lincoln +was chosen President of the United States November +6, 1860; he was to be inaugurated March 4, +1861. During the intervening four months the +government must be conducted by a chief whose +political creed was condemned by an overwhelming +majority of the nation.<a name='FNanchor_114_116'></a><a href='#Footnote_114_116'><sup>[114]</sup></a> + The situation was as unfair +for Mr. Buchanan as it was hurtful for the +people. As head of a republic, or, in the more +popular phrase, as the chief "servant of the people," +he must respect the popular will, yet he could +not now administer the public business according +to that will without being untrue to all his own +convictions, and repudiating all his trusted counselors. +In a situation so intrinsically false efficient +government was impossible, no matter what +<!-- Image No 205 --><a name='Png205'></a><a name='Page181'></a><span class="pagenum">181</span> +was the strength or weakness of the hand at the +helm. Therefore there was every reason for displacing +Buchanan from control of the national +affairs in the autumn, and every reason against +continuing him in that control through the winter; +yet the law of the land ordained the latter course. +It seemed neither sensible nor even safe. During +this doleful period all descriptions of him agree: +he seemed, says Chittenden, "shaken in body and +uncertain in mind,... an old man worn out by +worry;" while the Southerners also declared him +as "incapable of purpose as a child." To the like +purport spoke nearly all who saw him.</p> + +<p>During the same time Lincoln's position was +equally absurd and more trying. After the lapse +of four months he was, by the brief ceremony of an +hour, to become the leader of a great nation under +an exceptionally awful responsibility; but during +those four months he could play no other part than +simply to watch, in utter powerlessness, the swift +succession of crowding events, which all were tending +to make his administration of the government +difficult, or even impossible. Throughout all this +long time, the third part of a year, which statutes +scarcely less venerable than the Constitution itself +freely presented to the disunion leaders, they safely +completed their civil and military organization, +while the Northerners, under a ruler whom they +had discredited, but of whom they could not get +rid, were paralyzed for all purposes of counter +preparation.</p> + +<p><!-- Image No 206 --><a name='Png206'></a><a name='Page182'></a><span class="pagenum">182</span> +As a trifling compensation for its existence this +costly interregnum presents to later generations a +curious spectacle. A volume might be made of the +public utterances put forth in that time by men of +familiar names and more or less high repute, and +it would show many of them in most strange and +unexpected characters, so entirely out of keeping +with the years which they had lived before, and the +years which they were to live afterward, that the +reader would gaze in hopeless bewilderment. In +the "solid" South, so soon to be a great rebelling +unit, he would find perhaps half of the people +opposed to disunion; in the North he would hear +everywhere words of compromise and concession, +while coercion would be mentioned only to be denounced. +If these four months were useful in +bringing the men of the North to the fighting +point, on the other hand they gave an indispensable +opportunity for proselyting, by whirl and excitement, +great numbers at the South. Even in +the autumn of 1860 and in the Gulf States secession +was still so much the scheme of leaders that +there was no popular preponderance in favor of +disunion doctrines. In evidence of this are the +responses of governors to a circular letter of Governor +Gist of South Carolina, addressed to them +October 5, 1860, and seeking information as to the +feeling among the people. From North Carolina, +Louisiana, Georgia, and Alabama came replies that +secession was not likely to be favorably received. +Mississippi was non-committal. Louisiana, Georgia, +<!-- Image No 207 --><a name='Png207'></a><a name='Page183'></a><span class="pagenum">183</span> +and Alabama desired a convention of the discontented +States, and might be influenced by its +action. North Carolina, Louisiana, and Alabama +would oppose forcible coercion of a seceding State. +Florida alone was rhetorically belligerent. These +reports were discouraging in the ears of the extremist +governor; but against them he could set +the fact that the disunionists had the advantage +of being the aggressive, propagandist body, homogeneous, +and pursuing an accurate policy in entire +concert. They were willing to take any amount +of pains to manipulate and control the election of +delegates and the formal action of conventions, and +in all cases except that of Texas the question was +conclusively passed upon by conventions. By every +means they "fired the Southern heart," which was +notoriously combustible; they stirred up a great tumult +of sentiment; they made thunderous speeches; +they kept distinguished emissaries moving to and +fro; they celebrated each success with an uproar +of cannonading, with bonfires, illuminations, and +processions; they appealed to those chivalrous virtues +supposed to be peculiar to Southerners; they +preached devotion to the State, love of the state +flag, generous loyalty to sister slave-communities; +sometimes they used insult, abuse, and intimidation; +occasionally they argued seductively. Thus +Mr. Cobb's assertion, that "we can make better +terms out of the Union than in it," was, in the +opinion of Alexander H. Stephens, the chief influence +which carried Georgia out of the Union. In +<!-- Image No 208 --><a name='Png208'></a><a name='Page184'></a><span class="pagenum">184</span> +the main, however, it was the principle of state +sovereignty and state patriotism which proved the +one entirely trustworthy influence to bring over +the reluctant. "I abhor disunion, but I go with +my State," was the common saying; and the States +were under skillful and resolute leadership. So, +though the popular discontent was far short of +the revolutionary point, yet individuals, one after +another, yielded to that sympathetic, emotional instinct +which tempts each man to fall in with the +big procession. In this way it was that during +the Buchanan interregnum the people of the Gulf +States became genuinely fused in rebellion.</p> + +<p>It is not correct to say that the election of Lincoln +was the cause of the Rebellion; it was rather +the signal. To the Southern leaders, it was the +striking of the appointed hour. His defeat would +have meant only postponement. South Carolina +led the way. On December 17, 1860, her convention +came together, the Palmetto flag waving over +its chamber of conference, and on December 20 +it issued its "Ordinance."<a name='FNanchor_115_117'></a><a href='#Footnote_115_117'><sup>[115]</sup></a> + This declared that +the Ordinance of May 23, 1788, ratifying the Constitution, +is "hereby repealed," and the "Union +now subsisting between South Carolina and other +States, under the name of the United States of +America, is hereby dissolved." A Declaration of +Causes said that South Carolina had "resumed +her position among the nations of the world as a +<!-- Image No 209 --><a name='Png209'></a><a name='Page185'></a><span class="pagenum">185</span> +separate and independent State." The language +used was appropriate for the revocation of a power +of attorney. The people hailed this action with +noisy joy, unaccompanied by any regret or solemnity +at the severance of the old relationship. The +newspapers at once began to publish "Foreign +News" from the other States. The new governor, +Pickens, a fiery Secessionist, and described as one +"born insensible to fear,"—presumably the condition +of most persons at that early period of existence,—had +already suggested to Mr. Buchanan +the impropriety of reinforcing the national garrisons +in the forts in Charleston harbor. He now +accredited to the President three commissioners to +treat with him for the delivery of the "forts, magazines, +lighthouses, and other real estate, with their +appurtenances, in the limits of South Carolina; +and also for an apportionment of the public debt, +and for a division of all other property held by the +government of the United States as agent of the +Confederate States of which South Carolina was +recently a member." This position, as of the dissolution +of a copartnership, or the revocation of an +agency, and an accounting of debts and assets, was +at least simple; and by way of expediting it an appraisal +of the "real estate" and "appurtenances" +within the state limits had been made by the state +government. Meanwhile there was in the harbor +of Charleston a sort of armed truce, which might +at any moment break into war. Major Anderson +in Fort Moultrie, and the state commander in the +<!-- Image No 210 --><a name='Png210'></a><a name='Page186'></a><span class="pagenum">186</span> +city, watched each other like two suspicious animals, +neither sure when the other will spring. In short, +in all the overt acts, the demeanor and the language +of this excitable State, there was such insolence, +besides hostility, that her emissaries must have +been surprised at the urbane courtesy with which +they were received, even by a President of Mr. +Buchanan's views.</p> + +<p>After the secession of South Carolina the other +Gulf States hesitated briefly. Mississippi followed +first; her convention assembled January 7, 1861, +and on January 9 passed the ordinance, 84 yeas to +15 nays, subsequently making the vote unanimous. +The Florida convention met January 3, and on +January 10 decreed the State to be "a sovereign +and independent nation," 62 yeas to 7 nays. The +Alabama convention passed its ordinance on January +11 by 61 yeas to 39 nays; the President announced +that the idea of reconstruction must be +forever "dismissed." Yet the northern part of the +State appeared to be substantially anti-secession. +In Georgia the Secessionists doubted whether they +could control a convention, yet felt obliged to call +one. Toombs, Cobb, and Iverson labored with +tireless zeal throughout the State; but in spite of +all their proselyting, Unionist feeling ran high and +debate was hot. The members from the southern +part of the State ventured to menace and dragoon +those from the northern part, who were largely +Unionists. The latter retorted angrily; a schism +and personal collisions were narrowly avoided. +<!-- Image No 211 --><a name='Png211'></a><a name='Page187'></a><span class="pagenum">187</span> +Alexander H. Stephens spoke for the Union with +a warmth and logic not surpassed by anything +that was said at the North. He and Herschel +V. Johnson both voted against secession; yet, on +January 18, when the vote was taken, it showed +208 yeas against 89 nays. On January 26 Louisiana +followed, the vote of the convention being 113 +yeas to 17 nays; but it refused to submit the ordinance +to the people for ratification. The action +of Texas, the only other State which seceded prior +to the inauguration of Lincoln, was delayed until +February 1. There Governor Houston was opposing +secession with such vigor as remained to a +broken old man, whereby he provoked Senator Iverson +to utter the threat of assassination: "Some +Texan Brutus may arise to rid his country of this +old hoary-headed traitor." But in the convention, +when it came to voting, the yeas were 166, the nays +only 7.</p> + +<p>By the light that was in him Mr. Buchanan was +a Unionist, but it was a sadly false and flickering +light, and beneath its feeble illumination his steps +staggered woefully. For two months he diverged +little from the path which the Secessionist leaders +would have marked out for him, had they controlled +his movements. At the time of the election his +cabinet was:—</p> + +<div class="display"> +<p> +Lewis Cass of Michigan, secretary of state.<br /> +Howell Cobb of Georgia, secretary of the treasury.<br /> +John B. Floyd of Virginia, secretary of war.<br /> +Isaac Toucey of Connecticut, secretary of the navy.<br /> +Jacob Thompson of Mississippi, secretary of the interior.<br /> +<!-- Image No 212 --><a name='Png212'></a><a name='Page188'></a><span class="pagenum">188</span> +Aaron V. Brown of Tennessee, postmaster-general.<br /> +Jeremiah S. Black of Pennsylvania, attorney-general.</p> +</div> + +<p>Of these men Cobb, Floyd, and Thompson were +extreme Secessionists. Many felt that Cobb should +have been made President of the Southern Confederacy +instead of Davis. In December Thompson +went as commissioner from Mississippi to North +Carolina to persuade that State to secede, and did +not resign his place in the cabinet because, as he +said, Mr. Buchanan approved his mission.</p> + +<p>Betwixt his own predilections and the influence +of these advisers Mr. Buchanan composed for the +Thirty-sixth Congress a message which carried consternation +among all Unionists. It was of little +consequence that he declared the present situation +to be the "natural effect" of the "long-continued +and intemperate interference" of the Northern +people with slavery. But it was of the most serious +consequence that, while he condemned secession +as unconstitutional, he also declared himself powerless +to prevent it. His duty "to take care that +the laws be faithfully executed" he knew no other +way to perform except by aiding federal officers +in the performance of their duties. But where, +as in South Carolina, the federal officers had all +resigned, so that none remained to be aided, what +was he to do? This was practically to take the +position that half a dozen men, by resigning their +offices, could make the preservation of the Union +<!-- Image No 213 --><a name='Png213'></a><a name='Page189'></a><span class="pagenum">189</span> +by its chief executive impossible!<a name='FNanchor_116_118'></a><a href='#Footnote_116_118'><sup>[116]</sup></a> + Besides this, +Mr. Buchanan said that he had "no authority to +decide what should be the relations between the +Federal government and South Carolina." He +afterward said that he desired to avoid a collision +of arms "between this and any other government." +He did not seem to reflect that he had no right to +recognize a State of the Union as being an "other +government," in the sense in which he used the +phrase, and that, by his very abstention from the +measures necessary for maintaining unchanged that +relationship which had hitherto existed, he became +a party to the establishment of a new relationship, +and that, too, of a character which he himself +alleged-to be unconstitutional. In truth, his chief +purpose was to rid himself of any responsibility +and to lay it all upon Congress. Yet he was willing +to advise Congress as to its powers and duties +in the business which he shirked in favor of that +body, saying that the power to coerce a seceding +State had not been delegated to it, and adding the +warning that "the Union can never be cemented +by the blood of its citizens shed in civil war." So +the nation learned that its ruler was of opinion that +to resist the destruction of its nationality was both +unlawful and inexpedient.</p> + +<p>If the conclusions of the message aroused alarm +<!-- Image No 214 --><a name='Png214'></a><a name='Page190'></a><span class="pagenum">190</span> +and indignation, its logic excited ridicule. Senator +Hale gave a not unfair synopsis: The President, +he said, declares: 1. That South Carolina +has just cause for seceding. 2. That she has no +right to secede. 3. That we have no right to prevent +her from seceding; and that the power of +the government is "a power to do nothing at all." +Another wit said that Buchanan was willing to +give up a <i>part</i> of the Constitution, and, if necessary, +the <i>whole</i>, in order to preserve the <i>remainder</i>! +But while this message of Mr. Buchanan has +been bitterly denounced, and with entire justice, +from the hour of its transmission to the present +day, yet a palliating consideration ought to be +noted: he had little reason to believe that, if he +asserted the right and duty of forcible coercion, +he would find at his back the indispensable force, +moral and physical, of the people. Demoralization +at the North was widespread. After the lapse +of a few months this condition passed, and then +those who had been beneath its influence desired +to forget the humiliating fact, and hoped that +others might either forget or never know the +measure of their weakness. In order that they +might save their good names, it was natural that +they should seek to suppress all evidence which +had not already found its way upon the public +record; but enough remains to show how grievously +for a while the knees were weakened under many +who enjoy—and rightfully, by reason of the rest +of their lives—the reputation of stalwart patriots. +<!-- Image No 215 --><a name='Png215'></a><a name='Page191'></a><span class="pagenum">191</span> +For example, late in October, General Scott suggested +to the President a division of the country +into four separate confederacies, roughly outlining +their boundaries. Scott was a dull man, but he +was the head of the army and enjoyed a certain +prestige, so that it was impossible to say that his +notions, however foolish in themselves, were of no +consequence. But if the blunders of General Scott +could not fatally wound the Union cause, the blunders +of Horace Greeley might conceivably do so. +If there had been in the Northern States any newspaper—apart +from Mr. Garrison's "Liberator"—which +was thoroughly committed to the anti-slavery +cause, it was the New York "Tribune," +under the guidance of that distinguished editor. +Republicans everywhere throughout the land had +been educated by his teachings, and had become +accustomed to take a large part of their knowledge +and their opinions in matters political from his +writings. It was a misfortune for Abraham Lincoln, +which cannot be overrated, that from the +moment of his nomination to the day of his death +the "Tribune" was largely engaged in criticising +his measures and in condemning his policy.</p> + +<p>No sooner did all that, which Mr. Greeley had +been striving during many years to bring about, +seem to be on the point of consummation, than the +demoralized and panic-stricken reformer became +desirous to undo his own achievements, and to use +for the purpose of effecting a sudden retrogression +all the influence which he had gained by +<!-- Image No 216 --><a name='Png216'></a><a name='Page192'></a><span class="pagenum">192</span> +bold leadership. November 9, 1860, it was appalling +to read in the editorial columns of his sheet, +that "if the Cotton States shall decide that they +can do better out of the Union than in it, we insist +on letting them go in peace;" that, while the +"Tribune" denied the right of nullification, yet it +would admit that "to withdraw from the Union +is quite another matter;" that "whenever a considerable +section of our Union shall deliberately +resolve to go out, we shall resist all coercive measures +designed to keep it in."<a name='FNanchor_117_119'></a><a href='#Footnote_117_119'><sup>[117]</sup></a> + At the end of +another month the "Tribune's" famous editor was +still in the same frame of mind, declaring himself +"averse to the employment of military force to +fasten one section of our confederacy to the other," +and saying that, "if eight States, having five millions +of people, choose to separate from us, they +cannot be permanently withheld from so doing by +federal cannon." On December 17 he even said +that the South had as good a right to secede from +the Union as the colonies had to secede from +Great Britain, and that he "would not stand up +for coercion, for subjugation," because he did not +"think it would be just." On February 23, 1861, +he said that if the Cotton States, or the Gulf +States, "choose to form an independent nation, +they have a clear moral right to do so," and if +<!-- Image No 217 --><a name='Png217'></a><a name='Page193'></a><span class="pagenum">193</span> +the "great body of the Southern people" become +alienated from the Union and wish to "escape +from it, we will do our best to forward their +views." A volume could be filled with the like +writing of his prolific pen at this time, and every +sentence of such purport was the casting of a new +stone to create an almost impassable obstruction in +the path along which the new President must soon +endeavor to move. Thurlow Weed, editor of the +Albany "Evening Journal," and the confidential +adviser of Seward, wrote in favor of concessions; +he declared that "a victorious party can afford to +be tolerant;" and he advocated a convention to +revise the Constitution, on the ground that, "after +more than seventy years of wear and tear, of collision +and abrasion, it should be no cause of wonder +that the machinery of government is found +weakened, or out of repair, or even defective." +Frequently he uttered the wish, vague and of fine +sound, but enervating, that the Republicans might +"meet secession as patriots and not as partisans." +On November 9 the Democratic New York "Herald," +discussing the election of Lincoln, said: +"For far less than this our fathers seceded from +Great Britain;" it also declared coercion to be +"out of the question," and laid down the principle +that each State possesses "the right to break the +tie of the confederacy, as a nation might break a +treaty, and to repel coercion as a nation might +repel invasion."</p> + +<p>Local elections in New York and Massachusetts +"showed a striking and general reduction of Republican +<!-- Image No 218 --><a name='Png218'></a><a name='Page194'></a><span class="pagenum">194</span> +strength." In December the mayor of +Philadelphia, though that city had polled a heavy +Republican majority, told a mass meeting in Independence +Square that denunciations of slavery +were inconsistent with national brotherhood, and +"must be frowned down by a just and law-abiding +people." The Bell and Everett men, generally, +desired peace at any price. The business men of +the North, alarmed at the prospect of disorder, +became loudly solicitous for concession, compromise, +even surrender.<a name='FNanchor_118_120'></a><a href='#Footnote_118_120'><sup>[118]</sup></a> + In Democratic meetings a +threatening tone was adopted. One proposal was +to reconstruct the Union, leaving out the New +England States. So late even as January 21, +1861, before an immense and noteworthy gathering +in New York, an orator ventured to say: "If +a revolution of force is to begin, it shall be inaugurated +at home;" and the words were cheered. +The distinguished Chancellor Walworth said that +it would be "as brutal to send men to butcher our +own brothers of the Southern States as it would be +to massacre them in the Northern States." When +DeWitt Clinton's son, George, spoke of secession +as "rebellion," the multitude hailed the word with +cries of dissent. Even at Faneuil Hall, in Boston, +"a very large and respectable meeting" was emphatically +in favor of compromise. It was impossible +<!-- Image No 219 --><a name='Png219'></a><a name='Page195'></a><span class="pagenum">195</span> +to measure accurately the extent and force +of all this demoralization; but the symptoms were +that vast numbers were infected with such sentiments, +and that they would have been worse than +useless as backers of a vigorous policy on the part +of the government.</p> + +<p>With the North wavering and ready to retreat, +and the South aggressive and confident, it was +exacting to expect Mr. Buchanan to stand up for +a fight. Why should he, with his old-time Democratic +principles, now by a firm, defiant attitude +precipitate a crisis, possibly a civil war, when +Horace Greeley and Wendell Phillips were conspicuously +running away from the consequences +of their own teachings, and were loudly crying +"Peace! peace!" after they themselves had long +been doing all in their power to bring the North +up to the fighting point? When these leaders +faced to the rear, it was hard to say who could +be counted upon to fill the front rank. In truth, +it was a situation which might have discouraged a +more combative patriot than Buchanan. Meanwhile, +while the Northerners talked chiefly of yielding, +the hot and florid rhetoric of the Southern orators, +often laden with contemptuous insult, smote +with disturbing menace upon the ears even of the +most courageous Unionists. It was said at the +South and feared at the North that secession had +a "Spartan band in every Northern State," and +that blood would flow in Northern cities at least as +soon and as freely as on the Southern plantations, +<!-- Image No 220 --><a name='Png220'></a><a name='Page196'></a><span class="pagenum">196</span> +if forcible coercion should be attempted. Was it +possible to be sure that this was all rodomontade? +To many good citizens there seemed some reason +to think that the best hope for avoiding the fulfillment +at the North of these sanguinary threats +might lie in the probability that the anti-slavery +agitators would not stand up to encounter a genuinely +mortal peril.</p> + +<p>When the Star of the West retired, a little +ignominiously, from her task of reinforcing Fort +Sumter, Senator Wigfall jeered insolently. "Your +flag has been insulted," he said; "redress it if you +dare! You have submitted to it for two months, +and you will submit forever.... We have dissolved +the Union; mend it if you can; cement it +with blood; try the experiment!" Mr. Chestnut +of South Carolina wished to "unfurl the Palmetto +flag, fling it to the breeze ... and ring the clarion +notes of defiance in the ears of an insolent foe." +Such bombastic but confident language, of which a +great quantity was uttered in this winter of 1860-61, +may exasperate or intimidate according to the +present temper of the opponent whose ear it assaults; +for a while the North was more in condition +to be awestruck than to be angered. Her +spokesmen failed to answer back, and left her to +listen not without anxiety to fierce predictions that +Southern flags would soon be floating over the +dome of the Capitol and even over Faneuil Hall, +if she should be so imprudent as to test Southern +valor and Southern resources.</p> + +<p><!-- Image No 221 --><a name='Png221'></a><a name='Page197'></a><span class="pagenum">197</span> +Matters looked even worse for the Union cause +in Congress than in the country. Occasionally +some irritated Northern Republican shot out words +of spirit; but the prevalent desire was for conciliation, +compromise, and concession, while some actually +adopted secession doctrines. For example, +Daniel E. Sickles, in the House, threatened that +the secession of the Southern States should be followed +by that of New York city; and in fact the +scheme had been recommended by the Democratic +mayor, Fernando Wood, in a message to the Common +Council of the city on January 6; and General +Dix conceived it to be a possibility. In the +Senate Simon Cameron declared himself desirous +to preserve the Union "by any sacrifice of feeling, +and I may say of principle." A sacrifice of political +principle by Cameron was not, perhaps, a serious +matter; but he intended the phrase to be emphatic, +and he was a leading Republican politician, had +been a candidate for the presidential nomination, +and was dictator in Pennsylvania. Even Seward, +in the better days of the middle of January, felt +that he could "afford to meet prejudice with conciliation, +exaction with concession which surrenders +no principle, and violence with the right hand of +peace;" and he was "willing, after the excitement +of rebellion and secession should have passed away, +to call a convention for amending the Constitution."</p> + +<p>This message of Buchanan marked the lowest +point to which the temperature of his patriotism +<!-- Image No 222 --><a name='Png222'></a><a name='Page198'></a><span class="pagenum">198</span> +fell. Soon afterward, stimulated by heat applied +from outside, it began to rise. The first intimation +which impressed upon his anxious mind that +he was being too acquiescent towards the South +came from General Cass. That steadfast Democrat, +of the old Jacksonian school, like many of +his party at the North, was fully as good a patriot +and Union man as most of the Republicans were +approving themselves to be during these winter +months of vacillation, alarm, and compromise. In +November he was strenuously in favor of forcibly +coercing a seceding State, but later assented to +the tenor of Mr. Buchanan's message. The frame +of mind which induced this assent, however, was +transitory; for immediately he began to insist upon +the reinforcement of the garrisons of the Southern +forts, and on December 13 he resigned because the +President refused to accede to his views. A few +days earlier Howell Cobb had had the grace to +resign from the Treasury, which he left entirely +empty. In the reorganization Philip F. Thomas +of Maryland, a Secessionist also, succeeded Cobb; +Judge Black was moved into the State Department; +and Edwin M. Stanton of Pennsylvania +followed Black as attorney-general. Mr. Floyd, +than whom no Secessionist has left a name in worse +odor at the North, had at first advised against any +"rash movement" in the way of secession, on the +ground that Mr. Lincoln's administration would +"fail, and be regarded as impotent for good or +evil, within four months after his inauguration." +<!-- Image No 223 --><a name='Png223'></a><a name='Page199'></a><span class="pagenum">199</span> +None the less he had long been using his official +position in the War Department to send arms into +the Southern States, and to make all possible arrangements +for putting them in an advantageous +position for hostilities. Fortunately about this +time the famous defalcation in the Indian Department, +in which he was guiltily involved, destroyed +his credit with the President, and at the same time +he quarreled with his associates concerning Anderson's +removal to Fort Sumter. On December 29 +he resigned, and the duties of his place were laid +for a while upon Judge Holt, the postmaster-general.</p> + +<p>On Sunday morning, December 30, there was +what has been properly called a cabinet crisis. +The South Carolina commissioners, just arrived in +Washington, were demanding recognition, and to +treat with the government as if they were representatives +of a foreign power. The President declined +to receive them in a diplomatic character, +but offered to act as go-between betwixt them and +Congress. The President's advisers, however, were +in a far less amiable frame of mind, for their blood +had been stirred wholesomely by the secession of +South Carolina and the presence of these emissaries +with their insolent demands. Mr. Black, now at +the head of the State Department, had gone through +much the same phases of feeling as General Cass. +In November he had been "emphatic in his advocacy +of coercion," but afterward had approved the +President's message and even declared forcible +<!-- Image No 224 --><a name='Png224'></a><a name='Page200'></a><span class="pagenum">200</span> +coercion to be "<i>ipso facto</i> an expulsion" of the +State from the Union; since then he had drifted +back and made fast at his earlier moorings. On +this important Sunday morning Mr. Buchanan +learned with dismay that either his reply to the +South Carolinians must be substantially modified, +or Mr. Black and Mr. Stanton would retire from +the cabinet. Under this pressure he yielded. Mr. +Black drafted a new reply to the commissioners, +Mr. Stanton copied it, Holt concurred in it, and, +in substance, Mr. Buchanan accepted it. This +affair constituted, as Messrs. Nicolay and Hay +well say, "the President's virtual abdication," and +thereafterward began the "cabinet régime." Upon +the commissioners this chill gust from the North +struck so disagreeably that, on January 2, they +hastened home to their "independent nation." +From this time forth the South covered Mr. Buchanan +with contumely and abuse; Mr. Benjamin +called him "a senile executive, under the sinister +influence of insane counsels;" and the poor old +man, really wishing to do right, but stripped of +friends and of his familiar advisers, and confounded +by the views of new counselors, presented a spectacle +for pity.</p> + +<p>On January 8 Mr. Thompson, secretary of the +interior, resigned, and the vacancy was left unfilled. +A more important change took place on the following +day, when Mr. Thomas left the Treasury +Department, and the New York bankers, whose aid +was essential, forced the President, sorely against +<!-- Image No 225 --><a name='Png225'></a><a name='Page201'></a><span class="pagenum">201</span> +his will, to give the place to General John A. Dix. +This proved an excellent appointment. General +Dix was an old Democrat, but of the high-spirited +type; he could have tolerated secession by peaceable +agreement, but rose in anger at menaces +against the flag and the Union. He conducted his +department with entire success, and also rendered +to the country perhaps the greatest service that +was done by any man during that winter. On +January 29 he sent the telegram which closed with +the famous words: "If any one attempts to haul +down the American flag, shoot him on the spot."<a name='FNanchor_119_121'></a><a href='#Footnote_119_121'><sup>[119]</sup></a> + +This rung out as the first cheering, stimulating +indication of a fighting temper at the North. It +was a tonic which came at a time of sore need, and +for too long a while it remained the solitary dose!</p> + +<p>So much of the President's message as concerned +the condition of the country was referred in the +House to a Committee of Thirty-three, composed +by appointing one member from each State. Other +resolutions and motions upon the same subject, to +the number of twenty-five, were also sent to this +committee. It had many sessions from December +11 to January 14, but never made an approach +to evolving anything distantly approaching agreement. +When, on January 14, the report came, it +was an absurd fiasco: it contained six propositions, +of which each had the assent of a majority +of a quorum; but seven minority reports, bearing +<!-- Image No 226 --><a name='Png226'></a><a name='Page202'></a><span class="pagenum">202</span> +together the signatures of fourteen members, were +also submitted; and the members of the seceding +States refused to act. The only actual fruit was a +proposed amendment to the Constitution: "That +no amendment shall be made to the Constitution +which will authorize or give to Congress the +power to abolish or interfere, within any State, +with the domestic institutions thereof, including +that of persons held to labor or service by the +laws of said State." In the expiring hours of +the Thirty-sixth Congress this was passed by the +House, and then by the Senate, and was signed by +the President. Lincoln, in his inaugural address, +said of it: "Holding such a provision to be now +constitutional law, I have no objection to its being +made express and irrevocable." This view of it +was correct; it had no real significance, and the +ill-written sentence never disfigured the Constitution; +it simply sank out of sight, forgotten by +every one.</p> + +<p>Collaterally with the sitting of this House committee, +a Committee of Thirteen was appointed in +the Senate. To these gentlemen also "a string of +Union-saving devices" was presented, but on the +last day of the year they reported that they had +"not been able to agree upon any general plan of +adjustment."</p> + +<p>The earnest effort of the venerable Crittenden +to Affect a compromise aroused a faint hope. But +he offered little else than an extension westward +of the Missouri Compromise line; and he never +<!-- Image No 227 --><a name='Png227'></a><a name='Page203'></a><span class="pagenum">203</span> +really had the slightest chance of effecting that +consummation, which in fact <i>could not be</i> effected. +His plan was finally defeated on the last evening +of the session.</p> + +<p>Collaterally with these congressional debates +there were also proceeding in Washington the sessions +of the Peace Congress, another futile effort +to concoct a cure for an incurable condition. It +met on February 4, 1861, but only twenty-one +States out of thirty-four were represented. The +seven States which had seceded said that they +could not come, being "Foreign Nations." Six +other States<a name='FNanchor_120_122'></a><a href='#Footnote_120_122'><sup>[120]</sup></a> + held aloof. Those Northern States +which sent delegates selected "their most conservative +and compromising men," and so great +a tendency towards concession was shown that +Unionists soon condemned the scheme as merely a +deceitful cover devised by the Southerners behind +which they could the more securely carry on their +processes of secession. These gentlemen talked a +great deal and finally presented a report or plan to +Congress five days before the end of the session; +the House refused to receive it, the Senate rejected +it by 7 ayes to 28 nays. The only usefulness of +the gathering was as evidence of the unwillingness +of the South to compromise. In fact the Southern +leaders were entirely frank and outspoken in +acknowledging their position; they had said, from +the beginning, that they did not wish the Committee +of Thirty-three to accomplish anything; and +<!-- Image No 228 --><a name='Png228'></a><a name='Page204'></a><span class="pagenum">204</span> +they had endeavored to dissuade Southerners from +accepting positions upon it. Hawkins of Florida +said that "the time of compromise had passed forever." +South Carolina refused to share in the +Peace Congress, because she did "not deem it +advisable to initiate negotiations when she had no +desire or intention to promote the object in view." +Governor Peters of Mississippi, in poetic language, +suggested another difficulty: "When sparks cease +to fly upwards," he said, "Comanches respect treaties, +and wolves kill sheep no more, the oath of a +Black Republican might be of some value as a +protection to slave property." Jefferson Davis +contemptuously stigmatized all the schemes of compromise +as "quack nostrums," and he sneered +justly enough at those who spun fine arguments +of legal texture, and consumed time "discussing +abstract questions, reading patchwork from the +opinions of men now mingled with the dust."</p> + +<p>It is not known by what logic gentlemen who +held these views defended their conduct in retaining +their positions in the government of the nation +for the purpose of destroying it. Senator Yulee +of Florida shamelessly gave his motive for staying +in the Senate: "It is thought we can keep the +hands of Mr. Buchanan tied and disable the Republicans +from effecting any legislation which will +strengthen the hands of the incoming administration." +Mr. Toombs of Georgia, speaking and +voting at his desk in the Senate, declared himself +"as good a rebel and as good a traitor as ever +<!-- Image No 229 --><a name='Png229'></a><a name='Page205'></a><span class="pagenum">205</span> +descended from Revolutionary loins," and said +that the Union was already dissolved,—by which +assertion he made his position in the Senate absolutely +indefensible. The South Carolina senators +resigned before their State ordained itself a "foreign +nation," and incurred censure for being so +"precipitate." In a word, the general desire was +to remain in office, hampering and obstructing the +government, until March 4, 1861, and at a caucus +of disunionists it was agreed to do so. But the +pace became too rapid, and resignations followed +pretty close upon the formal acts of secession.</p> + +<p>On the same day on which the Peace Congress +opened its sessions in Washington, there came together +at Montgomery, in Alabama, delegates from +six States for the purpose of forming a Southern +Confederacy. On the third day thereafter a plan +for a provisional government, substantially identical +with the Constitution of the United States, was +adopted. On February 9 the oath of allegiance +was taken, and Jefferson Davis and Alexander H. +Stephens were elected respectively President and +Vice-President. On February 13 the military and +naval committees were directed to report plans +for organizing an army and navy. Mr. Davis +promptly journeyed to Montgomery, making on +the way many speeches, in which he told his +hearers that no plan for a reconstruction of the +old Union would be entertained; and promised +that those who should interfere with the new nation +would have to "smell Southern powder and +<!-- Image No 230 --><a name='Png230'></a><a name='Page206'></a><span class="pagenum">206</span> +to feel Southern steel." On February 18 he was +inaugurated, and in his address again referred to +the "arbitrament of the sword." Immediately +afterward he announced his cabinet as follows:—</p> + +<div class="display"> +<p> +Robert Toombs of Georgia, secretary of state.<br /> +C.G. Memminger of South Carolina, secretary of the treasury.<br /> +L.P. Walker of Alabama, secretary of war.<br /> +S.R. Mallory of Florida, secretary of the navy.<br /> +J.H. Reagan of Texas, postmaster-general.<br /> +Judah P. Benjamin of Louisiana, attorney-general.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p>On March 11 the permanent Constitution was +adopted.<a name='FNanchor_121_123'></a><a href='#Footnote_121_123'><sup>[121]</sup></a> + Thus the machine of the new government +was set in working order. Mr. Greeley gives +some interesting figures showing the comparative +numerical strength of the sections of the country +at this time:<a name='FNanchor_122_124'></a><a href='#Footnote_122_124'><sup>[122]</sup></a> +—</p> + + +<div class="display"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td>The free population of the + seven States which had seceded, was</td> + <td> 2,656,948</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>The free population of the + eight slave States<a name='FNanchor_123_125'></a><a href="#Footnote_123_125"><sup>[123]</sup></a> + which had not seceded, was</td> + <td align="right">5,633,005</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Total </td> + <td align="right">8,289,953</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>The slaves in the States of + the first list were</td> + <td align="right">2,312,046</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>The slaves in the States of + the second list were</td> + <td align="right">1,638,297</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Total of slaves</td> + <td align="right">3,950,343</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>The population of the whole + Union by the census of 1860, was</td> + <td align="right">31,443,321</td> + </tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p><!-- Image No 231 --><a name='Png231'></a> + + +<p class="figure"> +<a href="img/illus0425.jpg"> +<img width="50%" src='img/illus0425.jpg' alt='Alexander H. Stephens.'/></a><br/> +Alexander H. Stephens. +</p> + +<!-- Image No 232 --><a name='Png232'></a> +<!-- Image No 233 --><a name='Png233'></a><a name='Page207'></a><span class="pagenum">207</span> + +<p>The disproportion would have discouraged the +fathers of the new nation, if they had anticipated +that the North would be resolute in using its overwhelming +resources. But how could they believe +that this would be the case when they read the +New York "Tribune" and the reports of Mr. +Phillips's harangues?</p> + +<hr class='short'/> + +<p>On February 13 the electoral vote was to be +counted in Congress. Rumors were abroad that +the Secessionists intended to interfere with this by +tumults and violence; but the evidence is insufficient +to prove that any such scheme was definitely +matured; it was talked of, but ultimately it seems +to have been laid aside with a view to action at a +later date. Naturally enough, however, the country +was disquieted. In the emergency the action +of General Scott was watched with deep anxiety. +A Southerner by birth and by social sympathies, +he had been expected by the Secessionists to join +their movement. But the old soldier—though +broken by age and infirmities, and though he had +proposed the folly of voluntarily quartering the +country, like the corpse of a traitor—had his patriotism +and his temper at once aroused when violence +was threatened. On and after October 29 +he had repeatedly advised reinforcement of the +Southern garrisons; though it must be admitted, +in Buchanan's behalf, that the general made no +suggestion as to how or where the troops could be +obtained for this purpose. In the same spirit he +<!-- Image No 234 --><a name='Png234'></a><a name='Page208'></a><span class="pagenum">208</span> +now said, with stern resolution, that there should +be ample military preparations to insure both the +count and the inauguration; and he told some of +the Southerners that he would blow traitors to +pieces at the cannon's mouth without hesitation. +Disturbed at his vehemence, they denounced him +bitterly, and sent him frequent notices of assassination. +Floyd distributed orders concerning +troops and munitions directly from the War Department, +and carefully concealed them from the +general who was the head of the army. But +secrecy and intimidation were in vain. The aged +warrior was fiercely in earnest; if there was going +to be any outbreak in Washington he was +going to put it down with bullets and bayonets, +and he gathered his soldiers and instructed his +officers accordingly. But happily the preparation +of these things was sufficient to render the use of +them unnecessary. When the day came Vice-President +Breckenridge performed his duty, however +unwelcome, without flinching. He presided +over the joint session and conducted the count +with the air of a man determined to enforce law +and order, and at the close declared the election of +Abraham Lincoln and Hannibal Hamlin.</p> + +<p>Still only the smaller crisis had been passed. +Much more alarming stories now flew from mouth +to mouth,—of plots to seize the capital and to +prevent the inauguration, even to assassinate Lincoln +on his journey to Washington. How much +foundation there was for these is not accurately +<!-- Image No 235 --><a name='Png235'></a><a name='Page209'></a><span class="pagenum">209</span> +known. That the idea of capturing Washington +had fascinated the Southern fancy is certain. "I +see no reason," said Senator Iverson, "why Washington +city should not be continued the capital +of the Southern Confederacy." The Richmond +"Examiner" railed grossly: "That filthy cage of +unclean birds must and will assuredly be purified +by fire.... Our people can take it,—they will +take it.... Scott, the arch-traitor, and Lincoln, +the beast, combined, cannot prevent it. The 'Illinois +Ape' must retrace his journey more rapidly +than he came." The abundant talk of this sort +created uneasiness; and Judge Holt said that +there was cause for alarm. But a committee of +Congress reported that, though it was difficult to +speak positively, yet they found no evidence sufficient +to prove "the existence of a secret organization." +Alexander H. Stephens has denied that +there was any intention to attack the city, and +probably the notion of seizure did not pass beyond +the stage of talk.</p> + +<p>But the alleged plot to assassinate Mr. Lincoln +was more definite. He had been spending the +winter quietly in Springfield, where he had been +overrun by visitors, who wished to look at him, +to advise him, and to secure promises of office; +fortunately the tedious procession had lost part of +its offensiveness by touching his sense of humor. +Anxious people made well-meaning but useless +efforts to induce him to say something for effect +upon the popular mind; but he resolutely and +<!-- Image No 236 --><a name='Png236'></a><a name='Page210'></a><span class="pagenum">210</span> +wisely maintained silence. His position and opinions, +he said, had already been declared in his +speeches with all the clearness he could give to +them, and the people had appeared to understand +and approve them. He could not improve and did +not desire to change these utterances. Occasionally +he privately expressed his dislike to the conceding +and compromising temper which threatened +to undo, for an indefinite future, all which the +long and weary struggle of anti-slavery men had +accomplished. In this line he wrote a letter of +protest to Greeley, which inspired that gentleman +to a singular expression of sympathy; let the +Union go to pieces, exclaimed the emotional editor, +let presidents be assassinated, let the Republican +party suffer crushing defeat, but let there not be +"another nasty compromise." To Mr. Kellogg, the +Illinoisian on the House Committee of Thirty-three, +Lincoln wrote: "Entertain no proposition for a +compromise in regard to the extension of slavery. +The instant you do, they have us under again; all +our labor is lost, and sooner or later must be done +over again." He repeated almost the same words +to E.B. Washburne, a member of the House. +Duff Green tried hard to get something out of +him for the comfort of Mr. Buchanan, but failed +to extort more than commonplace generalities. +To Seward he wrote that he did not wish to interfere +with the present status, or to meddle with +slavery as it now lawfully existed. To like purport +he wrote to Alexander H. Stephens, induced +<!-- Image No 237 --><a name='Png237'></a><a name='Page211'></a><span class="pagenum">211</span> +thereto by the famous Union speech of that gentleman. +He eschewed hostile feeling, saying: "I +never have been, am not now, and probably never +shall be, in a mood of harassing the people, either +North or South." Nevertheless, while he said that +all were "brothers of a common country," he was +perfectly resolved that the country should remain +"common," even if the bond of brotherhood had +to be riveted by force. He admitted that this +necessity would be "an ugly point;" but he was +perfectly clear that "the right of a State to secede +is not an open or debatable question." He desired +that General Scott should be prepared either +to "hold or retake" the Southern forts, if need +should be, at or after the inauguration; but on +his journey to Washington he said to many audiences +that he wished no war and no bloodshed, +and that these evils could be avoided if people +would only "keep cool" and "keep their temper, +on both sides of the line."</p> + +<p>On Monday, February 11, 1861, Mr. Lincoln +spoke to his fellow citizens of Springfield a very +brief farewell, so solemn as to sound ominous in +the ears of those who know what afterward occurred. +It was arranged that he should stop at +various points upon the somewhat circuitous route +which had been laid out, and that he should arrive +in Washington on Saturday, February 23. The +programme, was pursued accurately till near the +close; he made, of course, many speeches, but none +added anything to what was already known as to +his views.</p> + +<p><!-- Image No 238 --><a name='Png238'></a><a name='Page212'></a><span class="pagenum">212</span> +Meantime the thick rumors of violence were +bringing much uneasiness to persons who were +under responsibilities. Baltimore was the place +where, and its villainous "Plug Uglies" were the +persons by whom, the plot, if there was one, was +to be executed. Mr. Felton, president of the +Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore Railroad +Company, engaged Allan Pinkerton to explore the +matter, and the report of this skillful detective +indicated a probability of an attack with the purpose +of assassination. At that time the cars were +drawn by horses across town from the northern to +the southern station, and during the passage an +assault could be made with ease and with great +chance of success. As yet there was no indication +that the authorities intended to make, even if they +could make,<a name='FNanchor_124_126'></a><a href='#Footnote_124_126'><sup>[124]</sup></a> + any adequate arrangements for the +protection of the traveler. At Philadelphia Mr. +Lincoln was told of the fears of his friends, and +talked with Mr. Pinkerton, but he refused to change +his plan. On February 22 he was to assist at a +flag-raising in Philadelphia, and was then to go on +to Harrisburg, and on the following day he was to +go from there to Baltimore. He declined to alter +either route or hours.</p> + +<p>But other persons besides Mr. Felton had been +busy with independent detective investigations, the +result of which was in full accord with the report +of Mr. Pinkerton. On February 22 Mr. Frederick +<!-- Image No 239 --><a name='Png239'></a><a name='Page213'></a><span class="pagenum">213</span> +W. Seward, sent by his father and General Scott, +both then at Washington, delivered to Mr. Lincoln, +at Philadelphia, the message that there was +"serious danger" to his life if the time of his +passage through Baltimore should be known. Yet +Lincoln still remained obdurate. He declared that +if an escorting delegation from Baltimore should +meet him at Harrisburg, he would go on with it. +But at Harrisburg no such escort presented itself. +Then the few who knew the situation discussed +further as to what should be done, Norman B. +Judd being chief spokesman for evading the danger +by a change of programme. Naturally the +objection of seeming timid and of exciting ridicule +was present in the minds of all, and it was put +somewhat emphatically by Colonel Sumner. Mr. +Lincoln at last settled the dispute; he said: "I +have thought over this matter considerably since +I went over the ground with Pinkerton last night. +The appearance of Mr. Frederick Seward, with +warning from another source, confirms Mr. Pinkerton's +belief. Unless there are some other reasons +besides fear of ridicule, I am disposed to +carry out Judd's plan."</p> + +<p>This plan was accordingly carried out with the +success which its simplicity insured. Mr. Lincoln +and his stalwart friend, Colonel Lamon, slipped +out of a side door to a hackney carriage, were +driven to the railway station, and returned by the +train to Philadelphia. Their departure was not +noticed, but had it been, news of it could not +<!-- Image No 240 --><a name='Png240'></a><a name='Page214'></a><span class="pagenum">214</span> +have been sent away, for Mr. Felton had had the +telegraph wires secretly cut outside the town. He +also ordered, upon a plausible pretext, that the +southward-bound night train on his road should +be held back until the arrival of this train from +Harrisburg. Mr. Lincoln and Colonel Lamon +passed from the one train to the other without +recognition, and rolled into Washington early on +the following morning. Mr. Seward and Mr. +Washburne met Lincoln at the station and went +with him to Willard's Hotel. Soon afterward the +country was astonished, and perhaps some persons +were discomfited, as the telegraph carried abroad +the news of his arrival.</p> + +<p>Those who were disappointed at this safe conclusion +of his journey, if in fact there were any such, +together with many who would have contemned +assassination, at once showered upon him sneers +and ridicule. They said that Lincoln had put on +a disguise and had shown the white feather, when +there had been no real danger. But this was not +just. Whether or not there was the completed +machinery of a definite, organized plot for assault +and assassination is uncertain; that is to say, this +is not <i>proved</i>; yet the evidence is so strong that +the majority of investigators seem to agree in the +opinion that <i>probably</i> there was a plan thoroughly +concerted and ready for execution. Even if there +was not, it was very likely that a riot might be +suddenly started, which would be as fatal in its +consequences as a premeditated scheme. But, after +<!-- Image No 241 --><a name='Png241'></a><a name='Page215'></a><span class="pagenum">215</span> +all, the question of the plot is one of mere curiosity +and quite aside from the true issue. That issue, +so far as it presented itself for determination by +Mr. Lincoln, was simply whether a case of such +probability of danger was made out that as a prudent +man he should overrule the only real objection,—that +of exciting ridicule,—and avoid a +peril which the best judges believed to exist, and +which, if it did exist, involved consequences of immeasurable +seriousness not only to himself but to +the nation. For a wise man only one conclusion +was possible. The story of the disguise was a silly +slander, based upon the trifling fact that for this +night journey Lincoln wore a traveling cap instead +of his hat.</p> + +<p>Lincoln's own opinion as to the danger is not +quite clear.<a name='FNanchor_125_127'></a><a href='#Footnote_125_127'><sup>[125]</sup></a> + He said to Mr. Lossing that, after +hearing Mr. Seward, he believed "such a plot to +be in existence." But he also said: "I did not +then, nor do I now, believe I should have been +assassinated, had I gone through Baltimore as first +contemplated; but I thought it wise to run no +risk, where no risk was necessary."</p> + +<p>The reflection can hardly fail to occur, how +grossly unfair it was that Mr. Lincoln should be +put into the position in which he was put at this +time, and then that fault should be found with him +even if his prudence was overstrained. Many millions +<!-- Image No 242 --><a name='Png242'></a><a name='Page216'></a><span class="pagenum">216</span> +of people in the country hated him with a +hatred unutterable; among them might well be +many fanatics, to whom assassination would seem +a noble act, many desperadoes who would regard it +as a pleasing excitement; and he was to go through +a city which men of this stamp could at any time +dominate. The custom of the country compelled +this man, whom it had long since selected as its +ruler, to make a journey of extreme danger without +any species of protection whatsoever. So far +as peril went, no other individual in the United +States had ever, presumably, been in a peril like +that which beset him; so far as safeguards went, +he had no more than any other traveler. A few +friends volunteered to make the journey with him, +but they were useless as guardians; and he and +they were so hustled and jammed in the railway +stations that one of them actually had his arm +broken. This extraordinary spectacle may have +indicated folly on the part of the nation which +permitted it, but certainly it did not involve the +disgrace of the individual who had no choice about +it. The people put Mr. Lincoln in a position in +which he was subjected to the most appalling, as it +is the most vague, of all dangers, and then left him +to take care of himself as best he could. It was +ungenerous afterward to criticise him for exercising +prudence in the performance of that duty +which he ought never to have been called upon to +perform at all.<a name='FNanchor_126_128'></a><a href='#Footnote_126_128'><sup>[126]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p><!-- Image No 243 --><a name='Png243'></a><a name='Page217'></a><span class="pagenum">217</span> +Immediately after his arrival in Washington +Mr. Lincoln received a visit from the members of +the Peace Congress. Grotesque and ridiculous +<!-- Image No 244 --><a name='Png244'></a><a name='Page218'></a><span class="pagenum">218</span> +descriptions of him, as if he had been a Caliban +in education, manners, and aspect, had been rife +among Southerners, and the story goes that the +Southern delegates expected to be at once amused +and shocked by the sight of a clodhopper whose +conversation would be redolent of the barnyard, +not to say of the pigsty. Those of them who had +any skill in reading character were surprised,— +as the tradition is,—discomfited, even a little +alarmed, at what in fact they beheld; for Mr. Lincoln +appeared before them a self-possessed man, +expressing to them such clear convictions and such +a distinct and firm purpose as compelled them into +<!-- Image No 245 --><a name='Png245'></a><a name='Page219'></a><span class="pagenum">219</span> +new notions of his capacity and told them of much +trouble ahead. His remark to Mr. Rives, coming +from one who spoke accurately, had an ominous +sound in rebellious ears: "My course is as plain +as a turnpike road. It is marked out by the Constitution. +I am in no doubt which way to go." +The wiser Southerners withdrew from this reception +quite sober and thoughtful, with some new +ideas about the man with whom their relationship +seemed on the verge of becoming hostile. After +abundant allowance is made for the enthusiasm of +Northern admirers, it remains certain that Lincoln +bore well this severe ordeal of criticism on the part +of those who would have been glad to despise him. +Ungainly they saw him, but not undignified, and +the strange impressive sadness seldom dwelt so +strikingly upon his face as at this time, as though +all the weight of misery, which the millions of his +fellow citizens were to endure throughout the coming +years, already burdened the soul of the ruler +who had been chosen to play the most responsible +part in the crisis and the anguish.</p> + +<p>March 4, 1861, inauguration day, was fine and +sunny. If there had ever been any real danger +of trouble, the fear of it had almost entirely subsided. +Northerners and Southerners had found +out in good season that General Scott was not in +a temporizing mood; he had in the city two batteries, +a few companies of regulars,—653 men, +exclusive of some marines,—and the corps of +picked Washington Volunteers. He said that this +<!-- Image No 246 --><a name='Png246'></a><a name='Page220'></a><span class="pagenum">220</span> +force was all he wanted. President Buchanan left +the White House in an open carriage, escorted by +a company of sappers and miners under Captain +Duane. At Willard's Hotel Mr. Lincoln entered +the carriage, and the two gentlemen passed along +the avenue, through crowds which cheered but +made no disturbance, to the Capitol. General +Scott with his regulars marched, "flanking the +movement, in parallel streets." His two batteries, +while not made unpleasantly conspicuous, yet controlled +the plateau which extends before the east +front of the Capitol. Mr. Lincoln was simply +introduced by Senator Baker of Oregon, and delivered +his inaugural address. His voice had great +carrying capacity, and the vast crowd heard with +ease a speech of which every sentence was fraught +with an importance and scrutinized with an anxiety +far beyond that of any other speech ever delivered +in the United States. At its close the venerable +Chief Justice Taney administered the oath of office, +thereby informally but effectually reversing +the most famous opinion delivered by him during +his long incumbency in his high office.</p> + +<p>The inaugural address was simple, earnest, and +direct, unincumbered by that rhetorical ornamentation +which the American people have always +admired as the highest form of eloquence. Those +Northerners who had expected magniloquent periods +and exaggerated outbursts of patriotism were +disappointed; and as they listened in vain for the +scream of the eagle, many grumbled at the absence +<!-- Image No 247 --><a name='Png247'></a><a name='Page221'></a><span class="pagenum">221</span> +of what they conceived to be <i>force</i>. Yet the general +feeling was of satisfaction, which grew as the +address was more thoroughly studied. The Southerners, +upon their part, looking anxiously to see +whether or not they must fight for their purpose, +construed the words of the new President correctly. +They heard him say: "The union of these +States is perpetual." "No State upon its own +mere motion can lawfully get out of the Union." +"I shall take care, as the Constitution itself expressly +enjoins upon me, that the laws of the +Union be faithfully executed in all the States." +He also declared his purpose "to hold, occupy, and +possess the property and places belonging to the +government, and to collect the duties and imposts." +These sentences made up the issue directly with +secession, and the South, reading them, knew that, +if the North was ready to back the President, war +was inevitable; none the less so because Mr. Lincoln +closed with patriotic and generous words: +"We are not enemies, but friends. We must not +be enemies. Though passion may have strained, it +must not break our bonds of affection."</p> + +<p>Until after the election of Mr. Lincoln in November, +1860, the sole issue between the North and +the South, between Republicans on the one hand +and Democrats and Compromisers on the other, +had related to slavery. Logically, the position of +the Republicans was impregnable. Their platforms +and their leaders agreed that the party +intended strictly to respect the Constitution, and +<!-- Image No 248 --><a name='Png248'></a><a name='Page222'></a><span class="pagenum">222</span> +not to interfere at all with slavery in the States +within which it now lawfully existed. They said +with truth that they had in no case deprived the +slaveholding communities of their rights, and they +denied the truth of the charge that they cherished +an inchoate design to interfere with those rights; +adding very truly that, at worst, a mere design, +which did not find expression in an overt act, could +give no right of action to the South. Mr. Lincoln +had been most explicit in declaring that the opposition +to slavery was not to go beyond efforts +to prevent its <i>extension</i>, which efforts would be +wholly within the Constitution and the law. He +repeated these things in his inaugural.</p> + +<p>But while these incontrovertible allegations gave +the Republicans a logical advantage of which they +properly made the most, the South claimed a right +to make other collateral and equally undeniable +facts the ground of action. The only public matter +in connection with which Mr. Lincoln had won +any reputation was that of slavery. No one could +deny that he had been elected because the Republican +party had been pleased with his expression +of opinion on this subject. Now his most pointed +and frequently reiterated expression of that opinion +was that slavery was a "moral, social, and political +evil;" and this language was a fair equivalent +of the statement of the Republican platform of +1856, classing Slavery and Mormonism together, +as "twin relics of barbarism." That the North +was willing, or would long be willing, to remain in +<!-- Image No 249 --><a name='Png249'></a><a name='Page223'></a><span class="pagenum">223</span> +amicable social and political bonds with a moral, +social, and political evil, and a relic of barbarism, +was intrinsically improbable, and was made more +improbable by the symptoms of the times.<a name='FNanchor_127_129'></a><a href='#Footnote_127_129'><sup>[127]</sup></a> + Indeed, +Mr. Seward had said, in famous words, that +his section would not play this unworthy part; he +had proclaimed already the existence of an "irrepressible +conflict;" and therefore the South had +the word of the Republican leader that, in spite of +the Republican respect for the law, an anti-slavery +crusade was already in existence. The Southern +chiefs distinctly recognized and accepted this situation.<a name='FNanchor_128_130'></a><a href='#Footnote_128_130'><sup>[128]</sup></a> + +There was an avowed Northern condemnation +<!-- Image No 250 --><a name='Png250'></a><a name='Page224'></a><span class="pagenum">224</span> +of their institution; there was an acknowledged +"conflict." Such being the case, it was the +opinion of the chief men at the South that the +position taken by the North, of strict performance +of clear constitutional duties concerning an odious +institution, would not suffice for the safe perpetuation +of that institution.<a name='FNanchor_129_131'></a><a href='#Footnote_129_131'><sup>[129]</sup></a> + This, their judgment, +appeared to be in a certain way also the judgment +of Mr. Lincoln; for he also conceived that to put +slavery where the "fathers" had left it was to +put it "in the way of ultimate extinction;" and +he had, in the most famous utterance of his life, +given his forecast of the future to the effect that +the country would in time be "all free." The +only logical deduction was that he, and the Republican +party which had agreed with him sufficiently +to make him president, believed that the South +had no lawful recourse by which this result, however +unwelcome or ruinous, could in the long run +and the fullness of time be escaped. Under such +circumstances Southern political leaders now decided +that the time for separation had come. In +speaking of their scheme they called it "secession," +and said that secession was a lawful act because +the Constitution was a compact revocable by any +of the parties. They might have called it "revolution,"<a name='FNanchor_130_132'></a><a href='#Footnote_130_132'><sup>[130]</sup></a> +<!-- Image No 251 --><a name='Png251'></a><a name='Page225'></a><span class="pagenum">225</span> +and have defended it upon the general +right of any large body of people, dissatisfied with +the government under which they find themselves, +to cast it off. But, if the step was <i>revolution</i>, +then the burden of proof was upon them; whereas +they said that <i>secession</i> was their lawful right, +without any regard whatsoever to the motive which +induced them to exercise it.<a name='FNanchor_131_133'></a><a href='#Footnote_131_133'><sup>[131]</sup></a> + Such was the character +of the issue between the North and the South +prior to the first ordinance of secession. The +action of South Carolina, followed by the other +Gulf States, at once changed that issue, shifting +it from pro-slavery versus anti-slavery to union +versus disunion. This alteration quickly compelled +great numbers of men, both at the North and at +the South, to reconsider and, upon a new issue, to +place themselves also anew.</p> + +<p>It has been said by all writers that in the seven +seceding States there was, in the four months following +the election, a very large proportion of +"Union men." The name only signified that +these men did not think that the present inducements +to disunion were sufficient to render it a wise +measure. It did not signify that they thought +disunion unlawful, unconstitutional, and treasonable. +When, however, state conventions decided +the question of advisability against their opinions, +and they had to choose between allegiance to the +State and allegiance to the Union, they immediately +<!-- Image No 252 --><a name='Png252'></a><a name='Page226'></a><span class="pagenum">226</span> +adhered to the State, and this none the less +because they feared that she had taken an ill-advised +step. That is to say, at the South a "Union +man" <i>wished</i> to preserve the Union, whereas at +the North a "Union man" recognized a supreme +<i>obligation</i> to do so.</p> + +<p>While the South, by political alchemy, was becoming +solidified and homogeneous, a corresponding +change was going on at the North. In that +section the great numbers—of whom some would +have re-made the Constitution, others would have +agreed to peaceable separation, and still others +would have made any concession to retain the integrity +of the Union—now saw that these were +indeed, as Jefferson Davis had said, "quack +nostrums," and that the choice lay between permitting +a secession accompanied with insulting +menaces and some degree of actual violence, and +maintaining the Union by coercion. In this dilemma +great multitudes of Northern Democrats, +whose consciences had never been in the least disturbed +by the existence of slavery in the country +or even by efforts to extend it, became "Union +men" in the Northern sense of the word, which +made it about equivalent to coercionists. Their +simple creed was the integrity and perpetuity of +the nation.</p> + +<p>Mr. Lincoln showed in his inaugural his accurate +appreciation of the new situation. Owing +all that he had become in the world to a few +anti-slavery speeches, elevated to the presidency +<!-- Image No 253 --><a name='Png253'></a><a name='Page227'></a><span class="pagenum">227</span> +by votes which really meant little else than hostility +to slavery, what was more natural than that +he should at this moment revert to this great topic +and make the old dispute the main part and real +substance of his address? But this fatal error he +avoided. With unerring judgment he dwelt little +on that momentous issue which had only just been +displaced, and took his stand fairly upon that still +more momentous one which had so newly come up. +He spoke for the Union; upon that basis a united +North <i>ought</i> to support him; upon that basis the +more northern of the slave States might remain +loyal. As matter of fact, Union had suddenly +become the real issue, but it needed at the hands +of the President to be publicly and explicitly announced +as such; this recognition was essential; +he gave it on this earliest opportunity, and the announcement +was the first great service of the new +Republican ruler. It seems now as though he +could hardly have done otherwise, or have fallen +into the error of allying himself with bygone or +false issues. It may be admitted that he could +not have passed this new one by; but the important +matter was that of proportion and relation, +and in this it was easy to blunder. In truth it +was a crisis when blundering was so easy that +nearly all the really able men of the North had +been doing it badly for three or four months past, +and not a few of them were going to continue it +for two or three months to come. Therefore the +sound conception of the inaugural deserves to be +<!-- Image No 254 --><a name='Png254'></a><a name='Page228'></a><span class="pagenum">228</span> +considered as an indication, one among many, of +Lincoln's capacity for seeing with entire distinctness +the great main fact, and for recognizing it as +such. Other matters, which lay over and around +such a fact, side issues, questions of detail, affairs +of disguise or deception, never confused or misled +him. He knew with unerring accuracy where the +biggest fact lay, and he always anchored fast to it +and stayed with it. For many years he had been +anchored to anti-slavery; now, in the face of the +nation, he shifted his anchorage to the Union; +and each time he held securely.</p> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_114_116'></a><a href='#FNanchor_114_116'>[114]</a> + Breckenridge was the legitimate representative of the administrationists, +and his ticket received only 847,953 votes out of +4,680,193. Douglas and Buchanan were at open war.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_115_117'></a><a href='#FNanchor_115_117'>[115]</a> + See remarks of Mr. Elaine upon use of this word. <i>Twenty +Years of Congress</i>, i. 219.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_116_118'></a><a href='#FNanchor_116_118'>[116]</a> + But it should be said that Attorney-General Black supported +these views in a very elaborate opinion, which he had furnished to +the President, and which was transmitted to Congress at the same +time with the message.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_117_119'></a><a href='#FNanchor_117_119'>[117]</a> + Greeley afterwards truly said that his journal had plenty of +company in these sentiments, even among the Republican sheets. +<i>Amer. Conflict</i>, i. 359. Reference is made in the text to the +utterances of the <i>Tribune</i> more because it was so prominent and +influential than because it was very peculiar in its position.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_118_120'></a><a href='#FNanchor_118_120'>[118]</a> + Wilson, <i>Rise and Fall of Slave Power</i>, iii. 63-69; N. and H. +in. 255. See account of "the Pine Street meeting," New York, +in Dix's <i>Memoirs of Dix</i>, i. 347.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_119_121'></a><a href='#FNanchor_119_121'>[119]</a> + For an account of this by General Dix himself, see <i>Memoirs +of John A. Dix</i>, by Morgan Dix, i. 370-373.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_120_122'></a><a href='#FNanchor_120_122'>[120]</a> + Arkansas, California, Michigan, Minnesota, Oregon, and Wisconsin</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_121_123'></a><a href='#FNanchor_121_123'>[121]</a> + It differed from that of the United States very little, save in +containing a distinct recognition of slavery, and in being made +by the States instead of by the people.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_122_124'></a><a href='#FNanchor_122_124'>[122]</a> + <i>American Conflict</i>, i. 351.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_123_125'></a><a href='#FNanchor_123_125'>[123]</a> + This includes Delaware, 110,420, and Maryland, 599,846.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_124_126'></a><a href='#FNanchor_124_126'>[124]</a> + Marshal Kane and most of the police were reported to be +Secessionists. Pinkerton, <i>Spy of the Rebellion</i>, 50, 61.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_125_127'></a><a href='#FNanchor_125_127'>[125]</a> + Lamon says that Mr. Lincoln afterwards regretted this journey, +and became convinced "that he had committed a grave mistake." +Lamon, 527. So also McClure, 45, 48.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_126_128'></a><a href='#FNanchor_126_128'>[126]</a> + For accounts of this journey and statements of the evidence +of a plot, see Schouler, <i>Hist. of Mass. in Civil War</i>, i. 59-65 +(account by Samuel M. Felton, Prest. P.W. & B.R.R. Co.); +N. and H. iii. ch. 19 and 20; Chittenden, <i>Recoll. of Lincoln</i>, x.; +Holland, 275; Arnold, 183-187; Lamon, ch. xx. (this account +ought to be, and doubtless is, the most trustworthy); Herndon, +492 (a bit of gossip which sounds improbable); Pinkerton, <i>Spy +of the Rebellion</i>, 45-103. On the anti-plot side of the question +the most important evidence is the little volume, <i>Baltimore and +the Nineteenth of April</i>, 1861, by George William Brown. This +witness, whose strict veracity is beyond question, was mayor of +the city. One of his statements, especially, is of the greatest +importance. It is obvious that, if the plot existed, one of two +things ought to occur on the morning of February 23, viz.: either +the plotters and the mobsmen should know that Mr. Lincoln had +escaped them, or else they should be at the station at the hour set +for his arrival. In fact they were not at the station; there was +no sudden assault on the cars, nor other indication of assassins +and a mob. Had they, then, received knowledge of what had occurred? +Those who sustain the plot-theory say that the news had +spread through the city, so that all the assassins and the gangs of +the "Plug Uglies" knew that their game was up. This was <i>possible</i>, +for Mr. Lincoln had arrived in the Washington station a few +minutes after six o'clock in the morning, and the train which was +expected to bring him to Baltimore did not arrive in Baltimore +until half after eleven o'clock. But, on the other hand, the news +was not dispatched from Washington immediately upon his arrival; +somewhat later, though still early in the morning, the detectives +telegraphed to the friends of Mr. Lincoln, but in cipher. +Just at what time intelligible telegrams, which would inform the +public, were sent out cannot be learned; but upon any arrangement +of hours it is obvious that the time was exceedingly short +for distributing the news throughout the lower quarters of Baltimore +by word of mouth, and there is no pretense of any publication. +But while the believers in the plot say, nevertheless, that +this had been done and that the story of the journey had spread +through the city so that all the assassins and "Plug Uglies" +knew it in time to avoid assembling at the railway station about +eleven o'clock, yet it appears that Mr. Brown, the mayor, knew +nothing about it. On the contrary, he tells us that in anticipation +of Mr. Lincoln's arrival he, "as mayor of the city, accompanied +by the police commissioners and supported by a strong force of +police, was at the Calvert Street station on Saturday morning, +February 23, at 11.30 o'clock ... ready to receive with due +respect the incoming President. An open carriage was in waiting, +in which I was to have the honor of escorting Mr. Lincoln through +the city to the Washington station, and of sharing in any danger +which he might encounter. It is hardly necessary to say that I +apprehended none." To the "great astonishment" of Mr. Brown, +however, the train brought only "Mrs. Lincoln and her three +sons," and "it was then announced that he had passed through +the city <i>incognito</i> in the night train." This is a small bit of evidence +to set against the elaborate stories of the believers in the +plot, yet to some it will seem like the little obstruction which +suffices to throw a whole railway train from the track. I would +rather let any reader, who is sufficiently interested to examine +the matter, reach his own conclusion, than endeavor to furnish one +for him; for I think that a dispute more difficult of really conclusive +settlement will not easily be found.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_127_129'></a><a href='#FNanchor_127_129'>[127]</a> + Some of the Southern members of Congress collected and +recited sundry noteworthy utterances of Republicans concerning +slavery, and certainly there was little in them to induce a sense of +security on the part of slaveholders. Wilson, <i>Rise and Fall of +Slave Power</i>, iii. 97, 154.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_128_130'></a><a href='#FNanchor_128_130'>[128]</a> + Toombs declared, as Lincoln had said, that what was wanted +was that the North should <i>call slavery right</i>. Wilson, <i>Rise and +Fall of Slave Power</i>, iii. 76. Stephens declared the "corner-stone" +of the new government to be "the great truth that the negro is +not equal to the white man; that slavery ... is his natural and +normal condition;" and said that it was the first government "in +the history of the world based upon this great physical, philosophical, +and moral truth." N. and H. iii. 203; and see his letter +to Lincoln, <i>ibid.</i> 272, 273. Mississippi, in declaring the causes of +her secession, said: "Our position is thoroughly identical with the +institution of slavery,—the greatest material interest in the world." +N. and H. iii. 201. Senator Mason of Virginia said: "It is a war +of sentiment, of opinion; a war of one form of society against +another form of society." Wilson, <i>Rise and Fall of Slave Power</i>, +iii. 26. Green of Missouri ascribed the trouble to the "vitiated +and corrupted state of public sentiment." <i>Ibid.</i> 23. Iverson of +Georgia said it was the "public sentiment" at the North, not the +"overt acts" of the Republican administration, that was feared; +and said that there was ineradicable enmity between the two sections, +which had not lived together in peace, were not so living +now, and could not be expected to do so in the future. <i>Ibid.</i> 17.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_129_131'></a><a href='#FNanchor_129_131'>[129]</a> + Historians generally seem to admit that the South had to +choose between making the fight now, and seeing its favorite +institution gradually become extinct.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_130_132'></a><a href='#FNanchor_130_132'>[130]</a> + Sometimes, though very rarely, the word was used.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_131_133'></a><a href='#FNanchor_131_133'>[131]</a> + See Lincoln's message to Congress, July 4, 1861.</p></div> + + + +<hr class='long'/> +<!-- Image No 255 --><a name='Png255'></a><a name='Page229'></a><span class="pagenum">229</span> + +<a name='CHAPTER_VIII'></a> +<h2>CHAPTER VIII</h2> +<h2>THE BEGINNING OF WAR</h2> + +<p>From the inaugural ceremonies Lincoln drove +quietly back through Pennsylvania Avenue and +entered the White House, the President of the +United States,—alas, united no longer. Many +an anxious citizen breathed more freely when the +dreaded hours had passed without disturbance. +But burdens a thousand fold heavier than any +which were lifted from others descended upon the +new ruler. Save, however, that the thoughtful, +far-away expression of sadness had of late seemed +deeper and more impressive than ever before, Lincoln +gave no sign of inward trouble. His singular +temperament armed him with a rare and peculiar +strength beneath responsibility and in the face of +duty. He has been seen, with entire tranquillity, +not only seeking, but seeming to assume as his +natural due or destiny, positions which appeared +preposterously out of accord alike with his early +career and with his later opportunities for development. +In trying to explain this, it is easier to say +what was <i>not</i> the underlying quality than what it +was. Certainly there was no taint whatsoever of +that vulgar self-confidence which is so apt to lead +<!-- Image No 256 --><a name='Png256'></a><a name='Page230'></a><span class="pagenum">230</span> +the "free and equal" citizens of the great republic +into grotesque positions. Perhaps it was a +grand simplicity of faith; a profound instinctive +confidence that by patient, honest thinking it +would be possible to know the right road, and by +earnest enduring courage to follow it. Perhaps it +was that so-called divine inspiration which seems +always a part of the highest human fitness. The +fact which is distinctly visible is, that a fair, plain +and honest method of thinking saved him from +the perplexities which beset subtle dialecticians in +politics and in constitutional law. He had lately +said that his course was "as plain as a turnpike +road;" it was, to execute the public laws.</p> + +<p>His duty was simple; his understanding of it +was unclouded by doubt or sophistry; his resolution +to do it was firm; but whether his hands +would be strengthened sufficiently to enable him +to do it was a question of grave anxiety. The +president of a republic can do everything if the +people are at his back, and almost nothing if the +people are not at his back. Where, then, were +now the people of the United States? In seven +States they were openly and unitedly against him; +in at least seven more they were under a very +strong temptation to range themselves against +him in case of a conflict; and as for the Republican +States of the North, on that fourth day of +March, 1861, no man could say to what point they +would sustain the administration. There had as +yet come slight indications of any change in the +<!-- Image No 257 --><a name='Png257'></a><a name='Page231'></a><span class="pagenum">231</span> +conceding, compromising temper of that section. +Greeley and Seward and Wendell Phillips, representative +men, were little better than Secessionists. +The statement sounds ridiculous, yet the proof +against each comes from his own mouth. The +"Tribune" had retracted none of those disunion +sentiments, of which examples have been given. +Even so late as April 10, 1861, Mr. Seward wrote +officially to Mr. C.F. Adams, minister to England: +"Only an imperial and despotic government +could subjugate thoroughly disaffected and insurrectionary +members of the state. This federal, republican +country of ours is, of all forms of government, +the very one which is the most unfitted for +such a labor." He had been and still was favoring +delay and conciliation, in the visionary hope that +the seceders would follow the scriptural precedent +of the prodigal son. On April 9 the rumor of a +fight at Sumter being spread abroad, Mr. Phillips +said:<a name='FNanchor_132_134'></a><a href='#Footnote_132_134'><sup>[132]</sup></a> + "Here are a series of States, girding the +Gulf, who think that their peculiar institutions +require that they should have a separate government. +They have a right to decide that question +without appealing to you or me.... Standing +with the principles of '76 behind us, who can deny +them the right?... Abraham Lincoln has no +right to a soldier in Fort Sumter.... There is +no longer a Union.... Mr. Jefferson Davis is +<!-- Image No 258 --><a name='Png258'></a><a name='Page232'></a><span class="pagenum">232</span> +angry, and Mr. Abraham Lincoln is mad, and +they agree to fight.... You cannot go through +Massachusetts and recruit men to bombard Charleston +or New Orleans.... We are in no condition +to fight.... Nothing but madness can provoke +war with the Gulf States;"—with much more to +the same effect.</p> + +<p>If the veterans of the old anti-slavery contest +were in this frame of mind in April, Lincoln could +hardly place much dependence upon the people at +large in March. If he could not "recruit men" +in Massachusetts, in what State could he reasonably +expect to do so? Against such discouragement +it can only be said that he had a singular +instinct for the underlying popular feeling, that he +could scent it in the distance and in hiding; moreover, +that he was always willing to run the chance +of any consequences which might follow the performance +of a clear duty. Still, as he looked over +the dreary Northern field in those chill days of +early March, he must have had a marvelous sensitiveness +in order to perceive the generative heat +and force in the depths beneath the cheerless surface +and awaiting only the fullness of the near +spring season to burst forth in sudden universal +vigor. Yet such was his knowledge and such his +faith concerning the people that we may fancy, if +we will, that he foresaw the great transformation. +But there were still other matters which disturbed +him. Before his inauguration, he had heard much +of his coming official isolation. One of the arguments +<!-- Image No 259 --><a name='Png259'></a><a name='Page233'></a><span class="pagenum">233</span> +reiterated alike by Southern Unionists and +by Northerners had been that the Republican +President would be powerless, because the Senate, +the House, and the Supreme Court were all opposed +to him. But the supposed lack of political +sympathy on the part of these bodies, however it +might beget anxiety for the future, was for the +present of much less moment than another fact, +viz., that none of the distinguished men, leaders in +his own party, whom Lincoln found about him at +Washington, were in a frame of mind to assist him +efficiently. If all did not actually distrust his +capacity and character,—which, doubtless, many +honestly did,—at least they were profoundly ignorant +concerning both. Therefore they could not +yet, and did not, place genuine, implicit confidence +in him; they could not yet, and did not, advise and +aid him at all in the same spirit and with the same +usefulness as later they were able to do. They +were not to blame for this; on the contrary, the +condition had been brought about distinctly against +their will, since certainly few of them had looked +with favor upon the selection of an unknown, inexperienced, +ill-educated man as the Republican +candidate for the presidency. How much Lincoln +felt his loneliness will never be known; for, reticent +and self-contained at all times, he gave no +outward sign. That he felt it less than other men +would have done may be regarded as certain; for, +as has already appeared to some extent, and as +will appear much more in this narrative, he was +<!-- Image No 260 --><a name='Png260'></a><a name='Page234'></a><span class="pagenum">234</span> +singularly self-reliant, and, at least in appearance, +was strangely indifferent to any counsel or support +which could be brought to him by others. Yet, +marked as was this trait in him, he could hardly +have been human had he not felt oppressed by the +personal solitude and political isolation of his position +when the responsibility of his great office +rested newly upon him. Under all these circumstances, +if this lonely man moved slowly and cautiously +during the early weeks of his administration, +it was not at his door that the people had the +right to lay the reproach of weakness or hesitation.</p> + +<p>Mr. Buchanan, for the convenience of his successor, +had called an extra session of the Senate, +and on March 5 President Lincoln sent in the +nominations for his cabinet. All were immediately +confirmed, as follows:—</p> + +<div class="display"> +<p> +William H. Seward, New York, secretary of state.<br /> +Salmon P. Chase, Ohio, secretary of the treasury.<br /> +Simon Cameron, Pennsylvania, secretary of war.<br /> +Gideon Welles, Connecticut, secretary of the navy.<br /> +Caleb B. Smith, Indiana, secretary of the interior.<br /> +Edward Bates, Missouri, attorney-general.<br /> +Montgomery Blair, Maryland, postmaster-general. +</p> +</div> + +<p>It is matter of course that a cabinet slate should +fail to give general satisfaction; and this one encountered +fully the average measure of criticism. +The body certainly was somewhat heterogeneous +in its composition, yet the same was true of the +Republican party which it represented. Nor was +it by any means so heterogeneous as Mr. Lincoln +<!-- Image No 261 --><a name='Png261'></a><a name='Page235'></a><span class="pagenum">235</span> +had designed to have it, for he had made efforts +to place in it a Southern spokesman for Southern +views; and he had not desisted from the purpose +until its futility was made apparent by the direct +refusal of Mr. Gilmer of North Carolina, and by +indications of a like unwillingness on the part of +one or two other Southerners who were distantly +sounded on the subject. Seward, Chase, Bates, +and Cameron were the four men who had manifested +the greatest popularity, after Lincoln, in +the national convention, and the selection of them, +therefore, showed that Mr. Lincoln was seeking +strength rather than amity in his cabinet; for it +was certainly true that each one of them had a following +which was far from being wholly in sympathy +with the following of any one of the others. +The President evidently believed that it was of +more importance that each great body of Northern +men should feel that its opinions were fairly presented, +than that his cabinet officers should always +comfortably unite in looking at questions from +one and the same point of view. Judge Davis +says that Lincoln's original design was to appoint +Democrats and Republicans alike to office. He +carried this theory so far that the radical Republicans +regarded the make-up of the cabinet as a +"disgraceful surrender to the South;" while men +of less extreme views saw with some alarm that he +had called to his advisory council four ex-Democrats +and only three ex-Whigs, a criticism which +he met by saying that he himself was an "old-line +<!-- Image No 262 --><a name='Png262'></a><a name='Page236'></a><span class="pagenum">236</span> +Whig" and should be there to make the parties +even. On the other hand, the Republicans of the +middle line of States grumbled much at the selection +of Bates and Blair as representatives of their +section.</p> + +<p>The cabinet had not been brought together without +some jarring and friction, especially in the +case of Cameron. On December 31 Mr. Lincoln +intimated to him that he should have either the +Treasury or the War Department, but on January +3 requested him to "decline the appointment." +Cameron, however, had already mentioned the +matter to many friends, without any suggestion +that he should not be glad to accept either position, +and therefore, even if he were willing to accede to +the sudden, strange, and unexplained request of +Mr. Lincoln, he would have found it difficult to +do so without giving rise to much embarrassing +gossip. Accordingly he did not decline, and thereupon +ensued much wire-pulling. Pennsylvania +protectionists wanted Cameron in the Treasury, +and strenuously objected to Chase as an ex-Democrat +of free-trade proclivities. On the other hand, +Lincoln gradually hardened into the resolution that +Chase should have the Treasury. He made the +tender, and it was accepted. He then offered +consolation to Pennsylvania by giving the War +portfolio to Cameron, which was accepted with +something of chagrin. How far this Cameron +episode was affected by the bargain declared by +Lamon to have been made at Chicago cannot be +<!-- Image No 263 --><a name='Png263'></a><a name='Page237'></a><span class="pagenum">237</span> +told. Other biographers ignore this story, but I +do not see how the direct testimony furnished by +Lamon and corroborated by Colonel McClure can +justly be treated in this way; neither is the temptation +so to treat it apparent, since the evidence +entirely absolves Lincoln from any complicity at +the time of making the alleged "trade," while he +could hardly be blamed if he felt somewhat hampered +by it afterward.</p> + +<p>Seward also gave trouble which he ought not +to have given. On December 8 Lincoln wrote to +him that he would nominate him as secretary of +state. Mr. Seward assented and the matter remained +thus comfortably settled until so late as +March 2, 1861, when Seward wrote a brief note +asking "leave to withdraw his consent." Apparently +the Democratic complexion of the cabinet, +and the suggestions of suspicious friends, made +him fear that his influence in the ministry would +be inferior to that of Chase. Coming at this +eleventh hour, which already had its weighty +burden of many anxieties, this brief destructive +note was both embarrassing and exasperating. It +meant the entire reconstruction of the cabinet. +Never did Lincoln's tranquil indifference to personal +provocation stand him in better stead than +in this crisis,—for a crisis it was when Seward, +in discontent and distrust, desired to draw aloof +from the administration. He held the note of the +recalcitrant politician for two days unanswered, +then he wrote a few lines: "Your note," he said, +"is the subject of the most painful solicitude with +<!-- Image No 264 --><a name='Png264'></a><a name='Page238'></a><span class="pagenum">238</span> +me; and I feel constrained to beg that you will +countermand the withdrawal. The public interest, +I think, demands that you should; and my personal +feelings are deeply enlisted in the same direction." +These words set Mr. Seward right again; on +March 5 he withdrew his letter of March 2, and +in a few hours was appointed.</p> + +<p>Immediately after the installation of the new +government three commissioners from the Confederacy +came to Washington, and requested an official +audience. They said that seven States of the +American Union had withdrawn therefrom, had +reassumed sovereign power, and were now an independent +nation in fact and in right; that, in +order to adjust upon terms of amity and good-will +all questions growing out of this political separation, +they were instructed to make overtures for +opening negotiations, with the assurance that the +Confederate government earnestly desired a peaceful +solution and would make no demand not +founded in strictest justice, neither do any act to +injure their late confederates. From the Confederate +point of view these approaches were dignified +and conciliatory; from the Northern point of view +they were treasonable and insolent. Probably the +best fruit which Mr. Davis hoped from them was +that Mr. Seward, who was well known to be desirous +of finding some peace-assuring middle course, +might be led into a discussion of the situation, +inevitably provoking divisions in the cabinet, in +<!-- Image No 265 --><a name='Png265'></a><a name='Page239'></a><span class="pagenum">239</span> +the Republican party, and in the country. But +though Seward's frame of mind about this time +was such as to put him in great jeopardy of committing +hurtful blunders, he was fortunate enough +to escape quite doing so. To the agent of the commissioners +he replied that he must "consult the +President," and the next day he wrote, in terms of +personal civility, that he could not receive them. +Nevertheless they remained in Washington a few +weeks longer, gathering and forwarding to the +Confederate government such information as they +could. In this they were aided by Judge Campbell +of Alabama, a Secessionist, who still retained +his seat upon the bench of the Supreme Court. +This gentleman now became a messenger between +the commissioners and Mr. Seward, with the purpose +of eliciting news and even pledges from the +latter for the use of the former. His errands +especially related to Fort Sumter, and he gradually +drew from Mr. Seward strong expressions of +opinion that Sumter would in time be evacuated, +even declarations substantially to the effect that +this was the arranged policy of the government. +Words which fell in so agreeably with the wishes +of the judge and the commissioners were received +with that warm welcome which often outruns correct +construction, and later were construed by them +as actual assurances, at least in substance, whereby +they conceived themselves to have been "abused +and overreached," and they charged the government +with "equivocating conduct." In the second +<!-- Image No 266 --><a name='Png266'></a><a name='Page240'></a><span class="pagenum">240</span> +week in April, contemporaneously with the Sumter +crisis, they addressed to Mr. Seward a high-flown +missive of reproach, in which they ostentatiously +washed the hands of the South, as it were, +and shook from their own departing feet the dust +of the obdurate North, where they had not been +met "in the conciliatory and peaceful spirit" in +which they had come. They invoked "impartial +history" to place the responsibility of blood and +mourning upon those who had denied the great +fundamental doctrine of American liberty; and +they declared it "clear that Mr. Lincoln had determined +to appeal to the sword to reduce the people +of the Confederate States to the will of the +section or party whose President he is." In this +dust-cloud of glowing rhetoric vanished the last +deceit of peaceful settlement.</p> + +<p>About the same time, April 13, sundry commissioners +from the Virginia convention waited upon +Lincoln with the request that he would communicate +the policy which he intended to pursue towards +the Confederate States. Lincoln replied +with a patient civility that cloaked satire: "Having +at the beginning of my official term expressed +my intended policy as plainly as I was able, it is +with deep regret and some mortification I now +learn that there is great and injurious uncertainty +in the public mind as to what that policy is, and +what course I intend to pursue." To this ratification +of the plain position taken in his inaugural, +he added that he might see fit to repossess himself +<!-- Image No 267 --><a name='Png267'></a><a name='Page241'></a><span class="pagenum">241</span> +of the public property, and that possibly he +might withdraw the mail service from the seceding +States.</p> + +<p>The inauguration of Mr. Lincoln was followed +by a lull which endured for several weeks. A +like repose reigned contemporaneously in the Confederate +States. For a while the people in both +sections received with content this reaction of quiescence. +But as the same laws of human nature +were operative equally at the North and at the +South, it soon came about that both at the North +and at the South there broke forth almost simultaneously +strong manifestations of impatience. The +genuine President at Washington and the sham +President at Montgomery were assailed by the +like pressing demand: Why did they not do something +to settle this matter? Southern irascibility +found the situation exceedingly trying. The imposing +and dramatic attitude of the Confederate +States had not achieved an appropriate result. +They had organized a government and posed as an +independent nation, but no power in the civilized +world had yet recognized them in this character; +on the contrary, Abraham Lincoln, living hard +by in the White House, was explicitly denying it, +contumaciously alleging himself to be their lawful +ruler, and waiting with an exasperating patience +to see what they were really going to do in the +business which they had undertaken. They must +make some move or they would become ridiculous, +and their revolution would die and their confederacy +<!-- Image No 268 --><a name='Png268'></a><a name='Page242'></a><span class="pagenum">242</span> +would dissolve from sheer inanition. The +newspapers told their leaders this plainly; and +a prominent gentleman of Alabama said to Mr. +Davis: "Sir, unless you sprinkle blood in the +face of the people of Alabama, they will be back +in the Union in ten days." On the other hand, +the people of the North were as energetic as the +sons of the South were excitable, and with equal +urgency they also demanded a conclusion. If the +Union was to be enforced, why did not Mr. Lincoln +enforce it? How long did he mean placidly +to suffer treason and a rival government to rest +undisturbed within the country?</p> + +<p>With this state of feeling growing rapidly more +intense in both sections, action was inevitable. +Yet neither leader wished to act first, even for the +important purpose of gratifying the popular will. +As where two men are resolved to fight, yet have +an uneasy vision of a judge and jury in waiting +for them, each seeks to make the other the assailant +and himself to be upon his defense, so these +two rulers took prudent thought of the tribunal +of public sentiment not in America alone but in +Europe also, with perhaps a slight forward glance +towards posterity. If Mr. Lincoln did not like +to "invade" the Southern territory, Mr. Davis +was equally reluctant to make the Southern "withdrawal" +actively belligerent through operations of +military offense. Both men were capable of statesmanlike +waiting to score a point that was worth +waiting for; Davis had been for years biding the +<!-- Image No 269 --><a name='Png269'></a><a name='Page243'></a><span class="pagenum">243</span> +ripeness of time, but Lincoln had the capacity of +patience beyond any precedent on record.</p> + +<p>The spot where the strain came, where this +question of the first blow must be settled, was at +Fort Sumter, in the mid-throat of Charleston harbor. +On December 27, 1860, by a skillful movement +at night, Major Anderson, the commander +at Fort Moultrie, had transferred his scanty force +from that dilapidated and untenable post on the +shore to the more defensible and more important +position of Fort Sumter. Thereafter a precarious +relationship betwixt peace and war had subsisted +between him and the South Carolinians. It was +distinctly understood that, sooner or later, by negotiation +or by force, South Carolina intended to +possess herself of this fortress. From her point of +view it certainly was preposterous and unendurable +that the key to her chief harbor and city should be +permanently held by a "foreign" power. Gradually +she erected batteries on the neighboring mainland, +and kept a close surveillance upon the troops +now more than half besieged in the fort.</p> + +<p>Under the Buchanan régime the purpose of the +United States government had been less plain +than it became after Mr. Lincoln's accession; for +Buchanan had not the courage either to order a +surrender, or to provoke real warfare by reinforcing +the place. In vain did the unfortunate Major +Anderson seek distinct instructions; the replies +which he received were contradictory and more +obscure than Delphic oracles. This unfair, vacillating, +<!-- Image No 270 --><a name='Png270'></a><a name='Page244'></a><span class="pagenum">244</span> +and contemptible conduct indicated the desire +to lay upon him alone the whole responsibility +of the situation, with a politic and selfish reservation +to the government of the advantage of disavowing +and discrediting him, whatever he might +do. On January 9 a futile effort at communication +was made by the steamer Star of the West; +it failed, and left matters worse rather than better. +On March 3, 1861, the Confederate government +put General Beauregard in command at Charleston, +thereby emphasizing the resolution to have +Sumter ere long. Such was the situation on +March 4, when Mr. Lincoln came into control +and declared a policy which bound him to "hold, +occupy, and possess" Sumter. On the same day +there came a letter from Major Anderson, describing +his position. There were shut up in the fort +together a certain number of men and a certain +quantity of biscuit and of pork; when the men +should have eaten the biscuit and the pork, which +they would probably do in about four weeks, they +would have to go away. The problem thus became +direct, simple, and urgent.</p> + +<p>Lincoln sought an opinion from Scott, and was +told that "evacuation seems almost inevitable." +He requested a more thorough investigation, and +a reply to specific questions: "To what point of +time can Anderson maintain his position in Sumter? +Can you, with present means, relieve him in +that time? What additional means would enable +you to do so?" The general answered that four +<!-- Image No 271 --><a name='Png271'></a><a name='Page245'></a><span class="pagenum">245</span> +months would be necessary to prepare the naval +force, and an even longer time to get together the +5000 regular troops and 20,000 volunteers that +would be needed, to say nothing of obtaining +proper legislation from Congress. Equally discouraging +were the opinions of the cabinet officers. +On March 15 Lincoln put to them the question: +"Assuming it to be possible to now provision Fort +Sumter, under all the circumstances is it wise to +attempt it?" Only Chase and Blair replied that +it would be wise; Seward, Cameron, Wells, Smith, +and Bates were against it.</p> + +<p>The form of this question indicated that Lincoln +contemplated a possibility of being compelled to +recede from the policy expressed in his inaugural. +Yet it was not his temperament to abandon a +purpose deliberately matured and definitely announced, +except under absolute necessity. To determine +now this question of necessity he sent an +emissary to Sumter and another to Charleston, +and meantime stayed offensive action on the part +of the Confederates by authorizing Seward to give +assurance through Judge Campbell that no provisioning +or reinforcement should be attempted without +warning. Thus he secured, or continued, a +sort of truce, irregular and informal, but practical. +Meantime he was encouraged by the earnest propositions +of Mr. G.V. Fox, until lately an officer +of the navy, who was ready to undertake the relief +of the fort. Eager discussions ensued, wherein +naval men backed the project of Mr. Fox, and +<!-- Image No 272 --><a name='Png272'></a><a name='Page246'></a><span class="pagenum">246</span> +army men condemned it. Such difference of expert +opinion was trying, for the problem was of a +kind which Mr. Lincoln's previous experience in +life did not make it easy for him to solve with any +confidence in the correctness of his own judgment.</p> + +<p>Amid this puzzlement day after day glided by, +and the question remained unsettled. Yet during +this lapse of time sentiment was ripening, and perhaps +this was the real purpose of Lincoln's patient +waiting. On March 29 his ministers again put +their opinions in writing, and now Chase, Welles, +and Blair favored an effort at reinforcement; +Bates modified his previous opposition so far as +to say that the time had come either to evacuate +or relieve the fort; Smith favored evacuation, but +only on the ground of military necessity; and +Seward alone advocated evacuation in part on the +ground of policy; he deemed it unwise to "provoke +a civil war," especially "in rescue of an untenable +position."</p> + +<p>Was it courtesy or curiosity that induced the +President to sit and listen to this warm debate +between his chosen advisers? They would have +been angry had they known that they were bringing +their counsel to a chief who had already made +his decision. They did not yet know that upon +every occasion of great importance Lincoln would +make up his mind for and by himself, yet would +not announce his decision, or save his counselors +the trouble of counseling, until such time as he +should see fit to act. So in this instance he had +<!-- Image No 273 --><a name='Png273'></a><a name='Page247'></a><span class="pagenum">247</span> +already, the day before the meeting of the cabinet, +directed Fox to draw up an order for such ships, +men, and supplies as he would require, and when +the meeting broke up he at once issued formal +orders to the secretaries of the navy and of war to +enter upon the necessary preparation.</p> + +<p>Contemporaneously with this there was also undertaken +another enterprise for the relief of Fort +Pickens at Pensacola. It was, however, kept so +strictly secret that the President did not even +communicate it to Mr. Welles. Apparently his +only reason for such extreme reticence lay in the +proverb: "If you wish your secret kept, keep it." +But proverbial wisdom had an unfortunate result +upon this occasion. Both the President and Mr. +Welles set the eye of desire upon the warship +Powhatan, lying in New York harbor. The secretary +designed her for the Sumter fleet; the President +meant to send her to Pensacola. Of the +Sumter expedition she was an absolutely essential +part; for the Pensacola plan she was not altogether +indispensable.</p> + +<p>On April 6 Captain Mercer, on board the Powhatan +as his flagship, and on the very point of +weighing anchor to sail in command of the Sumter +reinforcement, under orders from Secretary +Welles, was astounded to find himself dispossessed +and superseded by Lieutenant Porter, who suddenly +came upon the deck bringing an order signed +by the President himself. A few hours later, at +Washington, a telegram startled Mr. Welles with +<!-- Image No 274 --><a name='Png274'></a><a name='Page248'></a><span class="pagenum">248</span> +the news. Utterly confounded, he hastened, in +the early night-time, to the White House, and +obtained an audience of the President. Then Mr. +Lincoln learned what a disastrous blunder he +had made; greatly mortified, he requested Mr. +Seward to telegraph with all haste to New York +that the Powhatan must be immediately restored +to Mercer for Sumter. Lieutenant Porter was +already far down the bay, when he was overtaken +by a swift tug bringing this message. But unfortunately +Mr. Seward had so phrased the dispatch +that it did not purport to convey an order either +from the President or the secretary of the navy, +and he had signed his own name: "Give up the +Powhatan to Mercer. SEWARD." To Porter, hurriedly +considering this unintelligible occurrence, +it seemed better to go forward under the President's +order than to obey the order of an official +who had no apparent authority to command him. +So he steamed on for Pensacola.</p> + +<p>On April 8, discharging the obligation of warning, +Mr. Lincoln notified General Beauregard that +an attempt would be made to put provisions into +Sumter, but not at present to put in men, arms, +or ammunition, unless the fort should be attacked. +Thereupon Beauregard, at two o'clock P.M. on +April 11, sent to Anderson a request for a surrender. +Anderson refused, remarking incidentally +that he should be starved out in a few days. At +3.20 A.M., on April 12, Beauregard notified Anderson +that he should open fire in one hour. That +<!-- Image No 275 --><a name='Png275'></a><a name='Page249'></a><span class="pagenum">249</span> +morning the occupants of Sumter, 9 commissioned +officers, 68 non-commissioned officers and privates, +8 musicians, and 43 laborers, breakfasted on pork +and water, the last rations in the fort. Before +daybreak the Confederate batteries were pouring +shot and shell against the walls. Response was +made from as many guns as the small body of +defenders could handle. But the fort was more +easily damaged than were the works on the mainland, +and on the morning of the 13th, the officers' +quarters having caught fire, and the magazine being +so imperiled that it had to be closed and covered +with earth, the fort became untenable. Early +in the evening terms of capitulation were agreed +upon.</p> + +<p>Meantime three transports of the relief expedition +were lying outside the bar. The first arrived +shortly before the bombardment began, the other +two came only a trifle later. All day long these +vessels lay to, wondering why the Powhatan did +not appear. Had she been there upon the critical +night of the 12th, the needed supplies could have +been thrown into the fort, for the weather was so +dark that the rebel patrol was useless, and it was +actually believed in Charleston that the relief had +been accomplished. But the Powhatan was far +away steaming at full speed for Pensacola. For +this sad blunder Lincoln generously, but fairly +enough, took the blame to himself. The only +excuse which has ever been advanced in behalf of +Mr. Lincoln is that he allowed himself to be led +<!-- Image No 276 --><a name='Png276'></a><a name='Page250'></a><span class="pagenum">250</span> +blindfold through this important business by Mr. +Seward, and that he signed such papers as the secretary +of state presented to him without learning +their purport and bearing. But such an excuse, +even if it can be believed, seems fully as bad as +the blunder which it is designed to palliate.</p> + +<p>Other blame also has been laid upon Lincoln +on the ground that he was dilatory in reaching +the determination to relieve the fort. That the +decision should have been reached and the expedition +dispatched more promptly is entirely evident; +but whether or not Lincoln was in fault is quite +another question. Three facts are to be considered: +1. The highest military authority in the +country advised him, a civilian, that evacuation +was a necessity. 2. Most of his ministers were +at first against reinforcement, and they never +unanimously recommended it; especially his secretary +of state condemned it as bad policy. 3. The +almost universal feeling of the people of the +North, so far as it could then be divined, was +compromising, conciliatory, and thoroughly opposed +to any act of war. Under such circumstances it +was rather an exhibition of independence and +courage that Lincoln reached the conclusion of +relieving the fort at all, than it was a cause of +fault-finding that he did not come to the conclusion +sooner. He could not know in March how +the people were going to feel after the 13th of +April; in fact, if they had fancied that he was +provoking hostilities, their feeling might not even +<!-- Image No 277 --><a name='Png277'></a><a name='Page251'></a><span class="pagenum">251</span> +then have developed as it did. Finally, he gained +his point in forcing the Confederacy into the position +of assailant, and there is every reason to +believe that he bought that point cheaply at the +price of the fortress.</p> + +<p>The news of the capture of Sumter had an instant +and tremendous effect. The States which +had seceded were thrown into a pleasurable ferment +of triumph; the Northern States arose in +fierce wrath; the Middle States, still balancing +dubiously between the two parties, were rent +with passionate discussion. For the moment the +North seemed a unit; there had been Southern +sympathizers before, and Southern sympathizers +appeared in considerable numbers later, but for +a little while just now they were very scarce. +Douglas at once called upon the President, and +the telegraph carried to his numerous followers +throughout the land the news that he had pledged +himself "to sustain the President in the exercise +of all his constitutional functions to preserve the +Union, and maintain the government, and defend +the Federal capital." By this prompt and generous +action he warded off the peril of a divided +North. Douglas is not in quite such good repute +with posterity as he deserves to be; his attitude +towards slavery was bad, but his attitude towards +the country was that of a zealous patriot. His +veins were full of fighting blood, and he was really +much more ready to go to war for the Union than +were great numbers of Republicans whose names +<!-- Image No 278 --><a name='Png278'></a><a name='Page252'></a><span class="pagenum">252</span> +survive in the strong odor of patriotism. During +the presidential campaign he had been speaking +out with defiant courage regardless of personal +considerations, and in this present juncture he did +not hesitate an instant to bring to his successful +rival an aid which at the time and under the circumstances +was invaluable.</p> + +<p>In every town and village there were now mass +meetings, ardent speeches, patriotic resolutions, a +confusing stir and tumult of words that would become +deeds as fast as definite plans could furnish +opportunity. The difficulty lay in utilizing this +abundant, this exuberant zeal. Historians say +rhetorically that the North sprang to arms; and +it really would have done so if there had been +any arms to spring to; but muskets were scarce, +and that there were any at all was chiefly due to +the fact that antiquated and unserviceable weapons +had been allowed to accumulate undestroyed. +Moreover, no one knew even the manual of arms; +and there were no uniforms, or accoutrements, or +camp equipment of any sort. There was, however, +the will which makes the way. Simultaneously +with the story of Sumter came also the President's +proclamation of April 15. He called for +seventy-five thousand volunteers to serve for three +months,—an insignificant body of men, as it now +seems, and a period of time not sufficient to +change them from civilians into soldiers. Yet for +the work immediately visible the demand seemed +adequate. Moreover, as the law stood, a much +<!-- Image No 279 --><a name='Png279'></a><a name='Page253'></a><span class="pagenum">253</span> +longer term could not have been named,<a name='FNanchor_133_135'></a><a href='#Footnote_133_135'><sup>[133]</sup></a> + and an +apparently disproportionate requisition in point of +numbers might have been of injurious effect; for +nearly every one was cheerfully saying that the +war would be no such very great affair after all. +In his own mind the President may or may not +have forecast the future more accurately than most +others were doing; but his idea plainly was to ask +no more than was necessary for the visible occasion. +He stated that the troops would be used to +"repossess the forts, places, and property which +had been seized from the Union," and that great +care would be taken not to disturb peaceful citizens. +Amid all the prophesying and theorizing, +and the fanciful comparisons of the respective +fighting qualities of the Northern and Southern +populations, a sensible remark is attributed to +Lincoln: "We must not forget that the people of +the seceded States, like those of the loyal States, +are American citizens with essentially the same +characteristics and powers. Exceptional advantages +on one side are counterbalanced by exceptional +advantages on the other. We must make +up our minds that man for man the soldier from +the South will be a match for the soldier from the +North, and <i>vice versa</i>." This was good common +sense, seasonably offsetting the prevalent but foolish +<!-- Image No 280 --><a name='Png280'></a><a name='Page254'></a><span class="pagenum">254</span> +notion that the Southerners were naturally a +better fighting race than the Northerners. Facts +ultimately sustained Lincoln's just estimate of +equality; for though the North employed far +greater numbers than did the South, it was because +the North had the burdens of attack and +conquest upon exterior lines of great extent, because +it had to detail large bodies of troops for +mere garrison and quasi-police duty, and because +during the latter part of the war it took miserable +throngs of bounty-bought foreigners into its ranks. +Man for man, as Lincoln said at the outset, the +war proved that Northern Americans and Southern +Americans were closely matched.<a name='FNanchor_134_136'></a><a href='#Footnote_134_136'><sup>[134]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p>By the same instrument the President summoned +Congress to assemble in extra session on July 4. +It seemed a distant date; and many thought that +the Executive Department ought not to endeavor +to handle alone all the possible novel developments +of so long a period. But Mr. Lincoln had his +purposes. By July 4 he and circumstances, together, +would have wrought out definite conditions, +which certainly did not exist at present; perhaps +also, like most men who find themselves face to +face with difficult practical affairs, he dreaded the +<!-- Image No 281 --><a name='Png281'></a><a name='Page255'></a><span class="pagenum">255</span> +conclaves of the law-makers; but especially he +wished to give Kentucky a chance to hold a special +election for choosing members of this Congress, +because the moral and political value of Kentucky +could hardly be overestimated, and the most tactful +manoeuvring was necessary to control her.</p> + +<p>The Confederate cabinet was said to have +greeted Mr. Lincoln's proclamation with "bursts +of laughter." The governors of Kentucky, North +Carolina, Arkansas, Tennessee, and Missouri telegraphed +that no troops would be furnished by +their respective States, using language clearly +designed to be offensive and menacing. The +Northern States, however, responded promptly and +enthusiastically. Men thronged to enlist. Hundreds +of thousands offered themselves where only +75,000 could be accepted. Of the human raw +material there was excess; but discipline and +equipment could not be created by any measure +of mere willingness. Yet there was great need +of dispatch. Both geographically and politically +Washington lay as an advanced outpost in immediate +peril. General Scott had been collecting the +few companies within reach; but all, he said on +April 8, "may be too late for this place." By +April 15, however, he believed himself able to +hold the city till reinforcements should arrive. +The total nominal strength of the United States +army, officers and men, was only 17,113, of whom +not two thirds could be counted upon the Union +side, and even these were scattered over a vast +<!-- Image No 282 --><a name='Png282'></a><a name='Page256'></a><span class="pagenum">256</span> +expanse of country, playing police for Indians, +and garrisoning distant posts. Rumors of Southern +schemes to attack Washington caused widespread +alarm; the government had no more definite +information than the people, and all alike +feared that there was to be a race for the capital, +and that the South, being near and prepared, +would get there first. As matter of fact, the +Southern leaders had laid no military plan for +this enterprise, and the danger was exaggerated. +The Northerners, however, did not know this, and +made desperate haste.</p> + +<p>The first men to arrive came from Philadelphia, +460 troops, as they were called, though they came +"almost entirely without arms." In Massachusetts, +Governor Andrew, an anti-slavery leader, +enthusiastic, energetic, and of great executive +ability, had been for many months preparing the +militia for precisely this crisis, weeding out the +holiday soldiers and thoroughly equipping his regiments +for service in the field. For this he had +been merrily ridiculed by the aristocracy of Boston +during the winter; but inexorable facts now +declared for him and against the local aristocrats. +On April 15 he received the call from Washington, +and immediately sent forth his own summons +through the State. All day on the 16th, amid a +fierce northeasterly storm, the troops poured into +Boston, and by six o'clock on that day three full +regiments were ready to start.<a name='FNanchor_135_137'></a><a href='#Footnote_135_137'><sup>[135]</sup></a> + Three days before +<!-- Image No 283 --><a name='Png283'></a><a name='Page257'></a><span class="pagenum">257</span> +this the governor had asked Secretary Cameron +for 2000 rifled muskets from the national armory +at Springfield, in the State. The secretary refused, +and the governor managed to supply his +regiment with the most improved arms<a name='FNanchor_136_138'></a><a href='#Footnote_136_138'><sup>[136]</sup></a> + without +aid from the national government. On the forenoon +of the 17th, the Sixth Regiment started for +Washington. Steamers were ready to take it to +Annapolis; but the secretary of war, with astonishing +ignorance of facts easily to be known, ordered +it to come through Baltimore. Accordingly +the regiment reached Baltimore on the 19th, the +anniversary of the battle of Lexington. Seven +companies were transported in horse-cars from +the northern to the southern station without serious +hindrance; but then the tracks of the street +railway were torn up, and the remaining four +companies had to leave the cars and march. A +furious mob of "Plug Uglies" and Secessionists +assailed them with paving-stones, brickbats, and +pistol-shots. The mayor and the marshal of the +police force performed fairly their official duty, +but were far from quelling the riot. The troops, +therefore, thrown on their own resources, justifiably +fired upon their assailants. The result of +the conflict was that 4 soldiers were killed and 36 +were wounded, and of the rioters 12 were killed, +and the number of wounded could not be ascertained. +The troops reached Washington at five +o'clock in the afternoon, the first armed rescuers +<!-- Image No 284 --><a name='Png284'></a><a name='Page258'></a><span class="pagenum">258</span> +of the capital; their presence brought a comforting +sense of relief, and they were quartered in the +senate chamber itself.</p> + +<hr class='short'/> + +<p>What would be the effect of the proclamation, +of the mustering of troops in the capital, and of +the bloodshed at Baltimore upon the slave States +which still remained in the Union, was a problem +of immeasurable importance. The President, who +had been obliged to take the responsibility of precipitating +the crisis in these States, appreciated +more accurately than any one else the magnitude of +the stake involved in their allegiance. He watched +them with the deepest anxiety, and brought the +utmost care and tact of his nature to the task of +influencing them. The geographical position of +Maryland, separating the District of Columbia +from the loyal North, made it of the first consequence. +The situation there, precarious at best, +seemed to be rendered actually hopeless by what +had occurred. A tempest of uncontrollable rage +whirled away the people and prostrated all Union +feeling. Mayor Brown admits that "for some days +it looked very much as if Baltimore had taken her +stand decisively with the South;" and this was +putting it mildly, when the Secessionist Marshal +Kane was telegraphing: "Streets red with Maryland +blood. Send express over the mountains of +Maryland and Virginia for the riflemen to come +without delay." Governor Hicks was opposed to +secession, but he was shaken like a reed by this +<!-- Image No 285 --><a name='Png285'></a><a name='Page259'></a><span class="pagenum">259</span> +violent blast. Later on this same April 19, Mayor +Brown sent three gentlemen to President Lincoln, +bearing a letter from himself, in which he +said that it was "not possible for more soldiers +to pass through Baltimore unless they fight their +way at every step." That night he caused the +northward railroad bridges to be burned and disabled; +and soon afterward the telegraph wires +were cut.</p> + +<p>The President met the emergency with coolness +and straightforward simplicity, abiding firmly by +his main purpose, but conciliatory as to means. +He wrote to the governor and the mayor: "For +the future troops <i>must</i> be brought here, but I +make no point of bringing them <i>through</i> Baltimore;" +he would "march them <i>around</i> Baltimore," +if, as he hoped, General Scott should find +it feasible to do so. In fulfillment of this promise +he ordered a detachment, which had arrived at a +station near Baltimore, to go all the way back to +Philadelphia and come around by water. He only +demurred when the protests were extended to include +the whole "sacred" soil of Maryland,—for +it appeared that the presence of slavery accomplished +the consecration of soil! His troops, he +said, could neither fly over the State, nor burrow +under it; therefore they must cross it, and the +Marylanders must learn that "there was no piece +of American soil too good to be pressed by the +foot of a loyal soldier on his march to the defense +of the capital of his country." For a while, however, +<!-- Image No 286 --><a name='Png286'></a><a name='Page260'></a><span class="pagenum">260</span> +until conditions in Baltimore changed, Eastern +regiments came by way of Annapolis, though +with difficulty and delay. Yet, even upon this +route, conflict was narrowly avoided.</p> + +<p>Soon, however, these embarrassments came to +an end, and the President's policy was vindicated +by its fruits. It had been strictly his own; he +alone ruled the occasion, and he did so in the face +of severe pressure to do otherwise, some of which +came even from members of his cabinet. Firmness, +reasonableness, and patience brought things +right; Lincoln spoke sensibly to the Marylanders, +and gave them time to consider the situation. Such +treatment started a reaction; Unionism revived +and Unionists regained courage. Moreover, the +sure pressure of material considerations was doing +its work. Baltimore, as an isolated secession outpost, +found, even in the short space of a week, that +business was destroyed and that she was suffering +every day financial loss. In a word, by the end of +the month, "the tide had turned." Baltimore, if +not quite a Union city, at least ceased to be secessionist. +On May 9 Northern troops passed unmolested +through it. On May 13 General Butler with +a body of troops took possession of Federal Hill, +which commands the harbor and city, and fortified +it. If the Baltimore question was still open at that +time, this settled it. Early in the same month the +state legislature came together, Mr. Lincoln refusing +to accept the suggestion of interfering with it. +This body was by no means Unionist, for it "protested +<!-- Image No 287 --><a name='Png287'></a><a name='Page261'></a><span class="pagenum">261</span> +against the war as unjust and unconstitutional, +announced a determination to take no part +in its prosecution, and expressed a desire for the +immediate recognition of the Confederate States." +Yet practically it put a veto on secession by voting +that it was inexpedient to summon a convention; +it called on all good citizens "to abstain from violent +and unlawful interference with the troops." +Thus early in May this brand, though badly +scorched, was saved from the conflagration; and +its saving was a piece of good fortune of which +the importance cannot be exaggerated; for without +Maryland Washington could hardly have been +held, and with the national capital in the hands +of the rebels European recognition probably could +not have been prevented. These momentous perils +were in the mind of the administration during +those anxious days, and great indeed was the relief +when the ultimate turn of affairs became assured. +For a week officials in Washington were painfully +taught what it would mean to have Baltimore a +rebel city and Maryland a debatable territory and +battle-ground. For a week Mr. Lincoln and his +advisers lived almost in a state of siege; they were +utterly cut off from communication with the North; +they could get no news; they could not learn what +was doing for their rescue, nor how serious were +the obstructions in the way of such efforts; in place +of correct information they heard only the most +alarming rumors. In a word, they were governing +a country to which they really had no access. The +<!-- Image No 288 --><a name='Png288'></a><a name='Page262'></a><span class="pagenum">262</span> +tension of those days was awful; and it was with +infinite comfort that they became certain that, +whatever other strain might come, this one at +least could not be repeated. Henceforth the loyalty +of Maryland, so carefully nurtured, gradually +grew in strength to the end. Many individuals +long remained in their hearts disloyal, and thousands<a name='FNanchor_137_139'></a><a href='#Footnote_137_139'><sup>[137]</sup></a> + +joined the Confederate ranks; but they +had to leave their State in order to get beneath a +secessionist standard, for Maryland was distinctly +and conclusively in the Union.</p> + +<p>The situation, resources, and prestige of Virginia +made her next to Maryland in importance among +the doubtful States. Her Unionists were numerically +preponderant; and accordingly the convention, +which assembled early in January, was opposed +to secession by the overwhelming majority +of 89 to 45. But the Secessionists here as elsewhere +in the South were propagandists, fiery with +enthusiasm and energy, and they controlled the +community although they were outnumbered by +those who held, in a more quiet way, contrary +opinions. When the decisive conflict came it was +short and sharp and carried with a rush. By intrigue, +by menace, by passionate appeals seasonably +applied with sudden intensity of effort at the time +of the assault upon Sumter, the convention was +induced to pass an ordinance of secession. Those +who could not bring themselves to vote in the +<!-- Image No 289 --><a name='Png289'></a><a name='Page263'></a><span class="pagenum">263</span> +affirmative were told that they might "absent +themselves or be hanged." On the other hand, +there were almost no lines along which the President +could project any influence into the State to +encourage the Union sentiment. He sought an interview +with a political leader, but the gentleman +only sent a substitute, and the colloquy amounted +to nothing. He fell in with the scheme of General +Scott concerning Robert E. Lee, which might +have saved Virginia; but this also miscarried. +General Lee has always been kindly spoken of at +the North, whether deservedly or not is a matter not +to be discussed here. Only a few bare facts and +dates can be given: April 17, by a vote of 88 to +55, the dragooned convention passed an "ordinance +to repeal the ratification of the Constitution of +the United States," but provided that this action +should for the present be kept secret, and that it +might be annulled by the people at a popular voting, +which should be had upon it on the fourth +Thursday in May. The injunction of secrecy was +immediately broken, and before the polls were to +be opened for the balloting Virginia was held by +the military forces of the Confederacy, so that the +vote was a farce. April 18 Mr. F.P. Blair, Jr., +had an interview in Washington with Lee, in which +he intimated to Lee that the President and General +Scott designed to place him in command of the +army which had just been summoned.<a name='FNanchor_138_140'></a><a href='#Footnote_138_140'><sup>[138]</sup></a> + Accounts +<!-- Image No 290 --><a name='Png290'></a><a name='Page264'></a><span class="pagenum">264</span> +of this conversation, otherwise inconsistent, all +agree that Lee expressed himself as opposed to +secession,<a name='FNanchor_139_141'></a><a href='#Footnote_139_141'><sup>[139]</sup></a> + but as unwilling to occupy the position +designed for him, because he "could take no part +in an invasion of the Southern States." April 20 +he tendered his resignation of his commission in +the army, closing with the words, "Save in defense +of my native State, I never desire again to draw +my sword."<a name='FNanchor_140_142'></a><a href='#Footnote_140_142'><sup>[140]</sup></a> + On April 22-23 he was appointed +to, and accepted, the command of the state forces. +In so accepting he said: "I devote myself to the +service of my native State, in whose behalf alone +will I ever again draw my sword."<a name='FNanchor_141_143'></a><a href='#Footnote_141_143'><sup>[141]</sup></a> + April 24 a +military league was formed between Virginia and +the Confederate States, and her forces were placed +under the command of Jefferson Davis; also an +invitation was given, and promptly accepted, to +make Richmond the Confederate capital. May +16 Virginia formally entered the Confederacy, and +Lee became a general—the third in rank—in the +service of the Confederate States, though the secession +of his State was still only inchoate and might +<!-- Image No 291 --><a name='Png291'></a><a name='Page265'></a><span class="pagenum">265</span> +never become complete, since the day set for the +popular vote had not arrived, and it was still a +possibility that the Unionists might find courage +to go to the polls. Thus a rapid succession of +events settled it that the President could save +neither Virginia nor Robert E. Lee for the Union. +Yet the failure was not entire. The northwestern +counties were strongly Union in their proclivities, +and soon followed to a good end an evil example; +for they in turn seceded from Virginia, established +a state government, sought admission into the +Union, and became the State of West Virginia.</p> + +<p>Next in order of importance came Kentucky. +The Secessionists, using here the tactics so successful +in other States, endeavored to drive through +by rush and whirl a formal act of secession. But +the Unionists of Kentucky were of more resolute +and belligerent temper than those of Georgia and +Virginia, and would not submit to be swept away +by a torrent really of less volume than their own.<a name='FNanchor_142_144'></a><a href='#Footnote_142_144'><sup>[142]</sup></a> + +Yet in spite of the spirited head thus made by the +loyalists the condition in the State long remained +such as to require the most skillful treatment by +the President; during several critical weeks one +error of judgment, a single imprudence, upon his +part might have proved fatal. For the condition +was anomalous and perplexing, and the conflict +of opinion in the State had finally led to the +<!-- Image No 292 --><a name='Png292'></a><a name='Page266'></a><span class="pagenum">266</span> +evolution of a theory or scheme of so-called "neutrality." +A similar notion had been imperfectly +developed in Maryland, when her legislature declared +that she would take no part in a war. The +idea was illogical to the point of absurdity, for by +it the "neutral" State would at once stay in the +Union and stand aloof from it. Neutrality really +signified a refusal to perform those obligations +which nevertheless were admitted to be binding, +and it made of the State a defensive barrier for +the South, not to be traversed by Northern troops +on an errand of hostility against Confederate Secessionists. +It was practical "non-coercion" under +a name of fairer sound, and it involved the +inconsequence of declaring that the dissolution of +an indissoluble Union should not be prevented; it +was the proverbial folly of being "for the law but +ag'in the enforcement of it." In the words of a +resolution passed by a public meeting in Louisville: +it was the "duty" of Kentucky to maintain +her "independent position," taking sides neither +with the administration nor with the seceding +States, "<i>but with the Union against them both</i>."</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, though both logic and geography +made neutrality impracticable, yet at least the +desire to be neutral indicated a wavering condition, +and therefore it was Mr. Lincoln's task so to +arrange matters that, when the State should at last +see that it could by no possibility avoid casting its +lot with one side or the other, it should cast it with +the North. For many weeks the two Presidents +<!-- Image No 293 --><a name='Png293'></a><a name='Page267'></a><span class="pagenum">267</span> +played the game for this invaluable stake with all +the tact and skill of which each was master. It +proved to be a repetition of the fable of the sun +and the wind striving to see which could the better +make the traveler take off his cloak, and fortunately +the patience of Mr. Lincoln represented +the warmth of the sun. He gave the Kentuckians +time to learn by observation and the march of +events that neutrality was an impossibility, also to +determine with which side lay the probable advantages +for themselves; also he respected the borders +of the State during its sensitive days, though +in doing so he had to forego some military advantages +of time and position. Deliberation brought +a sound conclusion. Kentucky never passed an +ordinance of secession, but maintained her representation +in Congress and contributed her quota +to the armies; and these invaluable results were +largely due to this wise policy of the President. +Many of her citizens, of course, fought upon the +Southern side, as was the case in all these debatable +Border States, where friends and even families +divided against each other, and each man placed +himself according to his own convictions. It may +seem, therefore, in view of this individual independence +of action, that the ordinance of secession +was a formality which would not have greatly +affected practical conditions; and many critics of +Mr. Lincoln at the time could not appreciate the +value of his "border-state policy," and thought +that he was making sacrifices and paying prices +<!-- Image No 294 --><a name='Png294'></a><a name='Page268'></a><span class="pagenum">268</span> +wholly against wisdom, and out of proportion to +anything that could be gained thereby. But he +understood the situation and comparative values +correctly. Loyalty to the State governed multitudes; +preference of the State over the United +States cost the nation vast numbers of would-be +Unionists in the seceding States, and in fact made +secession possible; and the same feeling, erroneous +though it was from the Unionist point of view, +yet saved for the Unionist party very great numbers +in these doubtful States which never in fact +seceded. Mr. Davis appreciated this just as much +as Mr. Lincoln did; both were shrewd men, and +were wasting no foolish efforts when they strove +so hard to carry or to prevent formal state action. +They appreciated very well that success in passing +an ordinance would gain for the South throngs of +adherents whose allegiance was, by their peculiar +political creed, due to the winner in this local contest.</p> + +<p>In Tennessee the Unionist majority, as indicated +early in February, was overwhelming. Out of a +total vote of less than 92,000, more than 67,000 +opposed a state convention. The mountaineers of +the eastern region especially were stalwart loyalists, +and later held to their faith through the +severe ordeal of a peculiarly cruel invasion. But +the political value of these scattered settlements +was small; and in the more populous parts the +Secessionists pursued their usual aggressive and +enterprising tactics with success. Ultimately the +<!-- Image No 295 --><a name='Png295'></a><a name='Page269'></a><span class="pagenum">269</span> +governor and the legislature despotically compelled +secession. It was not decreed by a popular +vote, not even by a convention, but by votes of +the legislature cast in secret session, a proceeding +clearly <i>ultra vires</i> of that body. Finally, on June +8, when a popular vote was taken, the State was +in the military control of the Confederacy.</p> + +<p>Very similar was the case of North Carolina. +The people of the uplands, like their neighbors of +Tennessee, were Unionists, and in the rest of the +State there was a prevalent Union sentiment; but +the influence of the political leaders, their direct +usurpations of power, and the customary energetic +propagandism, ultimately won. After a convention +had been once voted down by popular vote, a +second effort to bring one together was successfully +made, and an ordinance of secession was passed +on May 20. Arkansas was swept along with the +stream, seceding on May 6, although prior to that +time the votes both for holding a state convention +and afterward in the convention itself had shown +a decided Unionist preponderance. These three +States, Tennessee, North Carolina, and Arkansas, +were entirely beyond the reach of the President. +He had absolutely no lines of influence along which +he could work to restrain or to guide them.</p> + +<p>Missouri had a career peculiar to herself. In +St. Louis there was a strong Unionist majority, +and especially the numerous German population +was thoroughly anti-slavery, and was vigorously +led by F.P. Blair, Jr. But away from her riverfront +<!-- Image No 296 --><a name='Png296'></a><a name='Page270'></a><span class="pagenum">270</span> +the State had a sparse population preserving +the rough propensities of frontiersmen; these men +were not unevenly divided between loyalty and +secession and they were an independent, fighting +set of fellows, each one of whom intended to follow +his own fancy. The result was that Missouri +for a long while carried on a little war of her own +within her own borders, on too large a scale to +be called "bushwhacking," and yet with a strong +flavor of that irregular style of conflict. The President +interested himself a good deal in the early +efforts of the loyalists, and amid a puzzling snarl +of angry "personal politics" he tried to extend to +them aid and countenance, though with imperfect +success. It was fortunate that Missouri was away +on the outskirts, for she was the most vexatious +and perplexing part of the country. Her population +had little feeling of state allegiance, or, indeed, +of any allegiance at all, but what small +amount there was fell upon the side of the Union; +for though the governor and a majority of the +legislature declared for secession, yet the state +convention voted for the Union by a large majority. +It is true that a sham convention passed a sham +ordinance, but this had no weight with any except +those who were already Secessionists.</p> + +<p>Thus by the close of May, 1861, President Lincoln +looked forth upon a spectacle tolerably definite +at last, and certainly as depressing as ever +met the eyes of a great ruler. Eleven States, +with area, population, and resources abundant for +<!-- Image No 297 --><a name='Png297'></a><a name='Page271'></a><span class="pagenum">271</span> +constituting a powerful nation and sustaining an +awful war, were organized in rebellion; their +people were welded into entire unity of feeling, +were enthusiastically resolute, and were believed to +be exceptionally good fighters. The population of +three Border States was divided between loyalty +and disloyalty. The Northern States, teeming +with men and money, had absolutely no experience +whatsoever to enable them to utilize their +vast resources with the promptitude needful in the +instant emergency. There was a notion, prevalent +even among themselves, that they were by temperament +not very well fitted for war; but this +fancy Mr. Lincoln quietly set aside, knowing better. +He also had confidence in the efficiency of +Northern men in practical affairs of any kind +whatsoever, and he had not to tax his patience to +see this confidence vindicated. His appeal for +military support seemed the marvelous word of +a magician, and wrought instant transformation +throughout the vast loyal territory. One half of +the male population began to practice the manual, +to drill, and to study the text-books of military +science; the remainder put at least equal energy +into the preparations for equipment; every manufacturer +in the land set the proverbial Yankee +enterprise and ingenuity at work in the adaptation +of his machinery to the production of munitions of +war and all the various outfit for troops. Every +foundry, every mill, and every shipyard was at +once diverted from its accustomed industries in +<!-- Image No 298 --><a name='Png298'></a><a name='Page272'></a><span class="pagenum">272</span> +order to supply military demands; patriotism and +profit combined to stimulate sleepless toil and invention. +In a hard-working community no one +had ever before worked nearly so hard as now. +The whole North was in a ferment, and every human +being strained his abilities of mind and of +body to the utmost in one serviceable direction +or another; the wise and the foolish, the men of +words and the men of deeds, the projectors of +valuable schemes and the venders of ridiculous +inventions, the applicants for military commissions +and the seekers after the government's contracts, +all hustled and crowded each other in feverish +eagerness to get at work in the new condition of +things. It was going to take time for all this +energy to produce results,—yet not a very long +time; the President had more patience than would +be needed, and the spirit of his people reassured +him. If the lukewarm, compromising temper of +the past winter had caused him to feel any lurking +anxious doubts as to how the crisis would be met, +such illusive mists were now cleared away in a moment +before the sweeping gale of patriotism.</p> + + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_132_134'></a><a href='#FNanchor_132_134'>[132]</a> + At New Bedford, in a lecture "which was interrupted by +frequent hisses." Schouler, <i>Hist. of Mass. in the Civil War</i>, i. +44-47.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_133_135'></a><a href='#FNanchor_133_135'>[133]</a> + The Act of 1795 only permitted the use of the militia until +thirty days after the next session of Congress; this session being +now summoned for July 4, the period of service extended only +until August 3.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_134_136'></a><a href='#FNanchor_134_136'>[134]</a> + When General Grant took command of the Eastern armies he +said that the country should be cautioned against expecting too +great success, because the loyal and rebel armies were made up +of men of the same race, having about the same experience in +war, and neither able justly to claim any great superiority over +the other in endurance, courage, or discipline. Chittenden, <i>Recoll.</i> +320.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_135_137'></a><a href='#FNanchor_135_137'>[135]</a> + The third, fourth, and sixth. Schouler, <i>Mass. in the Civil +War</i>, i. 52.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_136_138'></a><a href='#FNanchor_136_138'>[136]</a> + Schouler, <i>Mass. in the Civil War</i>, i. 72.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_137_139'></a><a href='#FNanchor_137_139'>[137]</a> + Mayor Brown thinks that the estimate of these at 20,000 is +too great. Brown, <i>Baltimore and Nineteenth April</i>, 1861, p. 85.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_138_140'></a><a href='#FNanchor_138_140'>[138]</a> + N. and H. iv. 98; Chittenden, 102; Lee's biographer, Childe, +says that "President Lincoln offered him the effective command +of the Union Army," and that Scott "conjured him ... not to +quit the army." Childe, <i>Lee</i>, 30.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_139_141'></a><a href='#FNanchor_139_141'>[139]</a> + Shortly before this time he had written to his son that it was +"idle to talk of secession," that it was "nothing but revolution" +and "anarchy." N. and H. iv. 99.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_140_142'></a><a href='#FNanchor_140_142'>[140]</a> + Childe, <i>Lee</i>, 32; Mr. Childe, p. 33, says that Lee's resignation +was accepted on the 20th (the very day on which his letter +was dated!), so that he "ceased to be a member of the United +States Army" before he took command of the state forces. <i>Per +contra</i>, N. and H. iv. 101.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_141_143'></a><a href='#FNanchor_141_143'>[141]</a> + Childe, <i>Lee</i>, 34.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_142_144'></a><a href='#FNanchor_142_144'>[142]</a> + Greeley in his <i>Amer. Conflict</i>, i. 349, says that the "open +Secessionists were but a handful." This, however, is clearly an +exaggerated statement.</p></div> + + + +<hr class='long'/> +<!-- Image No 299 --><a name='Png299'></a><a name='Page273'></a><span class="pagenum">273</span> + +<a name='CHAPTER_IX'></a> +<h2>CHAPTER IX</h2> +<h2>A REAL PRESIDENT, AND NOT A REAL BATTLE</h2> + +<p>The capture of Fort Sumter and the call for +troops established one fact. There was to be a +war. The period of speculation was over and the +period of action had begun. The transition meant +much. The talking men of the country had not +appeared to advantage during the few months in +which they had been busy chiefly in giving weak +advice and in concocting prophecies. They now +retired before the men of affairs, who were to do +better. To the Anglo-Saxon temperament it was +a relief to have done with waiting and to begin to +do something. Activity cleared the minds of men, +and gave to each his appropriate duty.</p> + +<p>The gravity of the crisis being undeniable, the +people of the North queried, with more anxiety +than ever before, as to what kind of a chief they +had taken to carry them through it. But the question +which all asked none could answer. Mr. Lincoln +had achieved a good reputation as a politician +and a stump speaker. Whatever a few might +<i>think</i>, this was all that any one <i>knew</i>. The narrow +limitations of his actual experience certainly did +not encourage a belief in his probable fitness to +<!-- Image No 300 --><a name='Png300'></a><a name='Page274'></a><span class="pagenum">274</span> +encounter duties more varied, pressing, numerous, +novel, and difficult than had ever come so suddenly +to confound any ruler within recorded time. Later +on, when it was seen with what rare capacity he +met demands so exacting, many astonished and excitable +observers began to cry out that he was inspired. +This, however, was sheer nonsense. That +the very peculiar requirements of these four years +found a president so well responding to them may +be fairly regarded, by those who so please, as a +specific Providential interference,—a striking one +among many less striking. But, in fact, nothing +in Mr. Lincoln's life requires, for its explanation, +the notion of divine inspiration. His doings, one +and all, were perfectly intelligible as the outcome +of honesty of purpose, strong common sense, clear +reasoning powers, and a singular sagacity in reading +the popular mind. Intellectually speaking, a +clear and vigorous thinking capacity was his chief +trait. This sounds commonplace and uninteresting, +but a more serviceable qualification could not +have been given him. The truth is, that it was +part of the good fortune of the country that the +President was not a brilliant man. Moreover, he +was cool, shrewd, dispassionate, and self-possessed, +and was endowed really in an extraordinary degree +with an intermingling of patience and courage, +whereby he was enabled both to await and to endure +results. Above all he was a masterful man; +not all the time and in small matters, and not +often in an opinionated way; but, from beginning +<!-- Image No 301 --><a name='Png301'></a><a name='Page275'></a><span class="pagenum">275</span> +to end, whenever he saw fit to be master, master +he was.<a name='FNanchor_143_145'></a><a href='#Footnote_143_145'><sup>[143]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p>This last fact, when it became known, answered +another question which people were asking: In +whose hands were the destinies of the North to be? +In those of Mr. Lincoln? or in those of the cabinet? +or in those of influential advisers, something +like what have been called "favorites" in Europe, +and "kitchen cabinet" in the more homely phrase +of the United States? The early impression was +that Mr. Lincoln did not know a great deal. How +could he? Where and how could he have learned +much? It must be admitted that it was entirely +natural that his advisers, and other influential +men concerned in public affairs, should adopt and +act upon the theory that Mr. Lincoln, emerging +so sharply from such a past as his had been, into +such a crisis as was now present, must need a vast +amount of instruction, guidance, suggestion. Accordingly +there were many gentlemen who stood +ready, not to say eager, to supply these fancied +wants, and who could have supplied them very +well had they existed. Therefore one of the first +things which Mr. Lincoln had to do was, without +antagonizing Mr. Seward and Mr. Chase, to indicate +to them that they were to be not only in name +but also in rigid fact his secretaries, and that he +was in fact as well as by title President. This +<!-- Image No 302 --><a name='Png302'></a><a name='Page276'></a><span class="pagenum">276</span> +delicate business was done so soon as opportunity +offered, not in any disguised way but with plain +simplicity. Mr. Chase never took the disposition +quite pleasantly. He managed his department +with splendid ability, but in the personal relation +of a cabinet adviser upon the various matters of +governmental policy he was always somewhat uncomfortable +to get along with, inclined to fault-finding, +ever ready with discordant suggestions, +and in time also disturbed by ambition.</p> + +<p>Mr. Seward behaved far better. After the +question of supremacy had been settled, though in +a way quite contrary to his anticipation, he frankly +accepted the subordinate position, and discharged +his duties with hearty good-will. Indeed, this settlement +had already come, before the time which +this narrative has reached; but the people did +not know it; it was a private matter betwixt the +two men who had been parties to it. Only Mr. +Lincoln and Mr. Seward knew that the secretary +had suggested his willingness to run the government +for the President, and that the President +had replied that he intended to run it himself. +It came about in this way: on April 1 Mr. Seward +presented, in writing, "Some thoughts for the +President's consideration." He opened with the +statement, not conciliatory, that "We are at the +end of a month's administration, and yet without +a policy, either domestic or foreign." He then +proceeded to offer suggestions for each. For the +"policy at home" he proposed, as the "ruling +<!-- Image No 303 --><a name='Png303'></a><a name='Page277'></a><span class="pagenum">277</span> +idea:" "Change the question before the public +from one upon slavery, or about slavery, for a question +upon Union or Disunion." It was odd and +not complimentary that he should seem to forget +or ignore that precisely this thing had already +been attempted by Mr. Lincoln in his inaugural +address. Also within a few days, as we all know +now, events were to show that the attempt had +been successful. Further comment upon the domestic +policy of Mr. Seward is, therefore, needless. +But his scheme "For Foreign Nations" is more +startling:—</p> + +<p>"I would demand explanations from Spain and +France categorically at once.</p> + +<p>"I would seek explanations from Great Britain +and Russia, and send agents into Canada, Mexico, +and Central America, to rouse a vigorous spirit of +independence on this continent against European +intervention.</p> + +<p>"And, if satisfactory explanations are not received +from Spain and France,</p> + +<p>"Would convene Congress and declare war +against them.</p> + +<p>"But whatever policy we adopt, there must be +an energetic prosecution of it.</p> + +<p>"For this purpose it must be somebody's business +to pursue and direct it incessantly.</p> + +<p>"Either the President must do it himself, and +be all the while active in it, or</p> + +<p>"Devolve it on some member of his cabinet.</p> + +<p>"Once adopted, debates on it must end, and all +agree and abide.</p> + +<p>"<!-- Image No 304 --><a name='Png304'></a><a name='Page278'></a><span class="pagenum">278</span> +It is not in my especial province.</p> + +<p>"But I neither seek to evade nor assume responsibility."</p> + +<p>Suggestions so wild could not properly constitute +material for "consideration" by the President; +but much consideration on the part of students +of those times and men is provoked by the +fact that such counsel emanated from such a source. +The secretary of state, heretofore the most distinguished +leader in the great Republican movement, +who should by merit of actual achievement +have been the Republican candidate for the presidency, +and who was expected by a large part of +the country to save an ignorant president from +bad blunders, was advancing a proposition to create +pretexts whereby to force into existence a foreign +war upon a basis which was likely to set one +half of the civilized world against the other half. +The purpose for which he was willing to do this +awful thing was: to paralyze for a while domestic +discussions, and to undo and leave to be done anew +by the next generation all that vast work which he +himself, and the President whom he advised, and +the leaders of the great multitude whom they both +represented, had for years been engaged in prosecuting +with all the might that was in them. But +the explanation is simple: like many another at +that trying moment, the secretary was smitten +with sudden panic at the condition which had been +brought about so largely by his own efforts. It +was strictly a panic, for it passed away rapidly as +panics do.</p> + +<p><!-- Image No 305 --><a name='Png305'></a><a name='Page279'></a><span class="pagenum">279</span> +The biographer of Mr. Seward may fairly +enough glide lightly over this episode, since it was +nothing more than an episode; but one who writes +of Mr. Lincoln must, in justice, call attention to +this spectacle of the sage statesman from whom, +if from any one, this "green hand," this inexperienced +President, must seek guidance, thus in +deliberate writing pointing out a course which was +ridiculous and impossible, and which, if it had been +possible, would have been an intolerably humiliating +retreat. The anxious people, who thought +that their untried President might, upon the worst +estimate of his own abilities, get on fairly well by +the aid of wise and skilled advisers, would have +been aghast had they known that, inside of the +government, the pending question was: not whether +Mr. Lincoln would accept sound instruction, but +whether he would have sense to recognize bad +advice, and independence to reject it. Before Mr. +Seward went to bed on that night of April 1, he +was perhaps the only man in the country who +knew the solution of this problem. But he knew +it, for Mr. Lincoln had already answered his letter. +It had not taken the President long! The secretary's +extraordinary offer to assume the responsibility +of pursuing and directing the policy of the +government was rejected within a few hours after +it was made; rejected not offensively, but briefly, +clearly, decisively, and without thanks. Concerning +the proposed policies, domestic and foreign, +the President said as little as was called for; he +<!-- Image No 306 --><a name='Png306'></a><a name='Page280'></a><span class="pagenum">280</span> +actually did not even refer to the scheme for inaugurating +gratuitously a war with a large part of +Europe, in order for a while to distract attention +from slavery.</p> + +<p>To us, to-day, it seems that the President could +not have missed a course so obvious; yet Mr. +Seward, who suggested the absurdity, was a great +statesman. In truth, the President had shown not +only sense but nerve. For the difference between +Seward's past opportunities and experience and +his own was appreciated by him as fully as by any +one. He knew perfectly well that what seemed +the less was controlling what seemed the greater +when he overruled his secretary. It took courage +on the part of a thoughtful man to put himself +in such a position. Other solemn reflections also +could not be avoided. Not less interested than +any other citizen in the fate of the nation, he had +also a personal relation to the ultimate event which +was exclusively his own. For he himself might +be called, in a certain sense, the very cause of rebellion; +of course the people who had elected him +carried the real responsibility; but he stood as the +token of the difference, the concrete provocation +to the fight. The South had said: <i>Abraham Lincoln</i> +brings secession. It was frightful to think +that, as he was in fact the signal, so posterity +might mistake him for the very cause of the rending +of a great nation, the failure of a grand experiment. +It might be that this destiny was before +him, for the outcome of this struggle no one could +<!-- Image No 307 --><a name='Png307'></a><a name='Page281'></a><span class="pagenum">281</span> +foretell; it might be his sad lot to mark the end of +the line of Presidents of the United States. Lincoln +was not a man who could escape the full +weight of these reflections, and it is to be remembered +that all actions were taken beneath that +weight. It was a strong man, then, who stood up +and said, This is my load and I will carry it; and +who did carry it, when others offered to shift much +of it upon their own shoulders; also who would +not give an hour's thought to a scheme which promised +to lift it away entirely, and to leave it for +some other who by and by should come after him.</p> + +<p>It is worth while to remember that Mr. Lincoln +was the most advised man, often the worst advised +man, in the annals of mankind. The torrent must +have been terribly confusing! Another instance +deserves mention: shortly before Mr. Seward's +strange proposal, Governor Hicks, distracted at +the tumult in Maryland, had suggested that the +quarrel between North and South should be referred +to Lord Lyons as arbitrator! It was difficult +to know whether to be amused or resentful +before a proposition at once so silly and so ignominious. +Yet it came from an important official, +and it was only one instance among thousands. +With war as an actuality, such vagaries as those +of Hicks and Seward came sharply to an end. +People wondered and talked somewhat as to how +long hostilities would last, how much they would +cost, how they would end; and were not more correct +in these speculations than they had been in +<!-- Image No 308 --><a name='Png308'></a><a name='Page282'></a><span class="pagenum">282</span> +others. But though the day of gross absurdities +was over, the era of advice endured permanently. +That peculiar national trait whereby every American +knows at least as much on every subject +whatsoever as is known by any other living man, +produced its full results during the war. Every +clergyman and humanitarian, every village politician +and every city wire-puller, every one who +conned the maps of Virginia and imbibed the military +wisdom of the newspapers, every merchant +who put his name to a subscription paper, considered +it his privilege and his duty to set the President +right upon every question of moral principle, +of politics, of strategy, and of finance. In one +point of view it was not flattering that he should +seem to stand in need of so much instruction; and +this was equally true whether it came bitterly, as +criticism from enemies, or sugar-coated, as advice +from friends. That friends felt obliged to advise +so much was in itself a criticism. Probably, however, +Mr. Lincoln was not troubled by this view, +for he keenly appreciated the idiosyncrasies as +well as the better qualities of the people. They, +however, were a long while in understanding him +sufficiently to recognize that there was never a +man whom it was less worth while to advise.</p> + +<hr class='short'/> + +<p>Business crowded upon Mr. Lincoln, and the +variety and novelty of it was without limit. On +April 17 Jefferson Davis issued a proclamation +offering "letters of marque and reprisal" to owners +<!-- Image No 309 --><a name='Png309'></a><a name='Page283'></a><span class="pagenum">283</span> +of private armed vessels. Two days later the +President retorted by proclaiming a blockade of +Confederate ports.<a name='FNanchor_144_146'></a><a href='#Footnote_144_146'><sup>[144]</sup></a> + Of course this could not be +made effective upon the moment. On March 4 +the nominal total of vessels in the navy was 90. +Of these, 69 were classed as "available;" but only +42 were actually in commission; and even of these +many were in Southern harbors, and fell into the +hands of the Confederates; many more were upon +foreign and distant stations. Indeed, the dispersion +was so great that it was commonly charged as +having been intentionally arranged by secessionist +officials under Mr. Buchanan. Also, at the very +moment when this proclamation was being read +throughout the country, the great navy yard of +Gosport, at Norfolk, Virginia, "always the favored +depot" of the government, with all its workshops +and a great store of cannon and other munitions, +was passing into the hands of the enemy. +Most of the vessels and some other property +were destroyed by Federals before the seizure was +consummated; nevertheless, the loss was severe. +Moreover, even had all the vessels of the regular +navy been present, they would have had other duties +besides lying off Southern ports. Blockading +squadrons, therefore, had to be improvised, and +orders at once issued for the purchase and equipment +of steam vessels from the merchant marine +<!-- Image No 310 --><a name='Png310'></a><a name='Page284'></a><span class="pagenum">284</span> +and the coasting service. Fortunately the summer +season was at hand, so that these makeshifts +were serviceable for many months, during which +better craft were rapidly got together by alteration +and building. Three thousand miles of coast and +many harbors were included within the blockade +limits, and were distributed into departments under +different commanders. Each commander was +instructed to declare his blockade in force as soon +as he felt able to make it tolerably effective, with +the expectation of rapidly improving its efficiency. +The beginning was, therefore, ragged, and was +naturally criticised in a very jealous and hostile +spirit by those foreign nations who suffered by it. +Dangerous disputes threatened to arise, but were +fortunately escaped, and in a surprisingly short +time "Yankee" enterprise made the blockade too +thorough for question.</p> + +<p>Amid the first haste and pressure it was ingeniously +suggested that, since the government +claimed jurisdiction over the whole country and +recognized only a rebellion strictly so called, therefore +the President could by proclamation simply +<i>close</i> ports at will. Secretary Welles favored this +course, and in the extra session of the summer of +1861 Congress passed a bill giving authority to +Mr. Lincoln to pursue it, in his discretion. Mr. +Seward, with better judgment, said that it might +be legal, but would certainly be unwise. The position +probably could have been successfully maintained +by lawyers before a bench of judges; but +<!-- Image No 311 --><a name='Png311'></a><a name='Page285'></a><span class="pagenum">285</span> +to have relied upon it in the teeth of the commercial +interests and unfriendly sentiment of England +and France would have been a fatal blunder. +Happily it was avoided; and the President had +the shrewdness to keep within a line which shut +out technical discussion. Already he saw that, so +far as relations with foreigners were concerned, +the domestic theory of a rebellion, pure and simple, +must be very greatly modified. In a word, +that which began as rebellion soon developed into +civil war; the two were closely akin, but with +some important differences.</p> + +<p>Nice points of domestic constitutional law also +arose with the first necessity for action, opening +the broad question as to what course should be +pursued in doubtful cases, and worse still in those +cases where the government could not fairly claim +the benefit of a real doubt. The plain truth was +that, in a condition faintly contemplated in the +Constitution, many things not permitted by the +Constitution must be done to preserve the Constitution. +The present crisis had been very scantily +and vaguely provided for by "the fathers." The +instant that action became necessary to save the +Union under the Constitution, it was perfectly obvious +that the Constitution must be stretched, transcended, +and most liberally interlined, in a fashion +which would furnish annoying arguments to the +disaffected. The President looked over the situation, +and decided, in the proverbial phrase, to take +the bull by the horns; that which clearly ought to +<!-- Image No 312 --><a name='Png312'></a><a name='Page286'></a><span class="pagenum">286</span> +be done he would do, law or no law, doubt or no +doubt. He would have faith that the people would +sustain him; and that the courts and the lawyers, +among whose functions it is to see to it that laws +and statutes do not interfere too seriously with +the convenience of the community, would arrive, +in what subtle and roundabout way they might +choose, at the conclusion that whatever must be +done might be done. These learned gentlemen +did their duty, and developed the "war powers" +under the Constitution in a manner equally ingenious, +comical, and sensible. But the fundamental +basis was, that necessity knows no law; every man +in the country knew this, but the well-intentioned +denied it, as matter of policy, while the ill-intentioned +made such use of the opportunities thus +afforded to them as might have been expected. +Among the "war Democrats," however, there was +at least ostensible liberality.</p> + +<p>An early question related to the writ of habeas +corpus. The Maryland legislature was to meet +on April 26, 1861, and was expected to guide the +State in the direction of secession. Many influential +men urged the President to arrest the members +before they could do this. He, however, conceived +such an interference with a state government, in +the present condition of popular feeling, to be impolitic. +"We cannot know in advance," he said, +"that the action will not be lawful and peaceful;" +and he instructed General Scott to watch them, +and, in case they should make a movement towards +<!-- Image No 313 --><a name='Png313'></a><a name='Page287'></a><span class="pagenum">287</span> +arraying the people against the United States, to +counteract it by "the bombardment of their cities, +and, in the extremest necessity, the suspension of +the writ of habeas corpus." This intimation that +the suspension of the venerated writ was a measure +graver than even bombarding a city, surely indicated +sufficient respect for laws and statutes. The +legislators restrained their rebellious ardor and +proved the wisdom of Mr. Lincoln's moderation. +In the autumn, however, the crisis recurred, and +then the arrests seemed the only means of preventing +the passage of an ordinance of secession. +Accordingly the order was issued and executed. +Public opinion upheld it, and Governor Hicks +afterward declared his belief that only by this action +had Maryland been saved from destruction.</p> + +<p>The privilege of habeas corpus could obviously, +however, be made dangerously serviceable to disaffected +citizens. Therefore, April 27, the President +instructed General Scott: "If at any point +on or in the vicinity of any military line which is +now, or which shall be, used between the city of +Philadelphia and the city of Washington, you find +it necessary to suspend the writ of habeas corpus +for the public safety, you ... are authorized to +suspend that writ." Several weeks elapsed before +action was taken under this authority. Then, on +May 25, John Merryman, recruiting in Maryland +for the Confederate service, was seized and imprisoned +in Fort McHenry. Chief Justice Taney +granted a writ of habeas corpus. General Cadwalader +<!-- Image No 314 --><a name='Png314'></a><a name='Page288'></a><span class="pagenum">288</span> +replied that he held Merryman upon a +charge of treason, and that he had authority under +the President's letter to suspend the writ. The +chief justice thereupon issued against the general +an attachment for contempt, but the marshal was +refused admittance to the fort. The chief justice +then filed with the clerk, and also sent to the President, +his written opinion, in which he said: "I +understand that the President not only claims the +right to suspend the writ of habeas corpus at his +discretion, but to delegate that discretionary power +to a military officer;" whereas, according to the +view of his honor, the power did not lie even with +the President himself, but only with Congress. +Warming to the discussion, he used pretty strong +language, to the effect that, if authority intrusted +to other departments could thus "be usurped by +the military power at its discretion, the people ... +are no longer living under a government of +laws; but every citizen holds life, liberty, and property +at the will and pleasure of the army officer +in whose military district he may happen to be +found." It was unfortunate that the country +should hear such phrases launched by the chief +justice against the President, or at least against +acts done under orders of the President. Direct +retort was of course impossible, and the dispute +was in abeyance for a short time.<a name='FNanchor_145_147'></a><a href='#Footnote_145_147'><sup>[145]</sup></a> +But the predilections +<!-- Image No 315 --><a name='Png315'></a><a name='Page289'></a><span class="pagenum">289</span> +of the judicial hero of the Dred Scott decision +were such as to give rise to grave doubts as +to whether or not the Union could be saved by any +process which would not often run counter to his +ideas of the law; therefore in this matter the President +continued to exercise the useful and probably +essential power, though taking care, for the +future, to have somewhat more regard for form. +Thus, on May 10, instead of simply writing a +letter, he issued through the State Department a +proclamation authorizing the Federal commander +on the Florida coast, "if he shall find it necessary, +to suspend there the writ of habeas corpus."</p> + +<p>In due time the assembling of Congress gave +Mr. Lincoln the opportunity to present his side of +the case. In his message he said that arrests, and +suspension of the writ, had been made "very sparingly;" +and that, if authority had been stretched, +at least the question was pertinent: "Are all +the laws but one to go unexecuted, and the government +itself to go to pieces, lest that one be +violated?" He, however, believed that in fact this +question was not presented, and that the law had +not been violated. "The provision of the Constitution, +that the privilege of the writ of habeas +corpus shall not be suspended unless when, in +cases of rebellion or invasion, the public safety +may require it, is equivalent to a provision that +such privilege may be suspended when, in cases of +<!-- Image No 316 --><a name='Png316'></a><a name='Page290'></a><span class="pagenum">290</span> +rebellion or invasion, the public safety does require +it." As between Congress and the executive, +"the Constitution itself is silent as to which +or who is to exercise the power; and as the provision +was plainly made for a dangerous emergency +it cannot be believed that the framers of the instrument +intended that in every case the danger +should run its course until Congress could be +called together, the very assembling of which +might be prevented, as was intended in this case +by the rebellion."</p> + +<p>If it was difficult, it was also undesirable to +confute the President's logic. The necessity for +military arrests and for indefinite detention of the +arrested persons was undeniable. Congress therefore +recognized the legality of what had been done, +and the power was frequently exercised thereafter, +and to great advantage. Of course mistakes occurred, +and subordinates made some arrests which +had better have been left unmade; but these bore +only upon discretion in individual cases, not upon +inherent right. The topic, however, was in itself +a tempting one, not only for the seriously disaffected, +but for the far larger body of the quarrelsome, +who really wanted the government to do its +work, yet maliciously liked to make the process +of doing it just as difficult and as disagreeable +as possible. Later on, when the malcontent class +acquired the organization of a distinct political +body, no other charge against the administration +proved so plausible and so continuously serviceable +<!-- Image No 317 --><a name='Png317'></a><a name='Page291'></a><span class="pagenum">291</span> +as this. It invited to florid declamation profusely +illustrated with impressive historical allusions, +and to the free use of vague but grand and +sonorous phrases concerning "usurpation," "the +subjection of the life, liberty, and property of every +citizen to the mere will of a military commander," +and other like terrors. Unfortunately men much +more deserving of respect than the Copperheads, +men of sound loyalty and high ability, but of anxious +and conservative temperament, were led by +their fears to criticise severely arrests of men who +were as dangerous to the government as if they had +been soldiers of the Confederacy.</p> + +<p>May 3, 1861, by which time military exigencies +had become better understood, Mr. Lincoln called +"into the service of the United States 42,034 +volunteers," and directed that the regular army +should be increased by an aggregate of 22,714 +officers and enlisted men. More suggestive than +the mere increase was the fact that the volunteers +were now required "to serve for a period of three +years, unless sooner discharged." The opinion of +the government as to the magnitude of the task in +hand was thus for the first time conveyed to the +people. They received it seriously and without +faltering.</p> + +<p>July 4, 1861, the Thirty-seventh Congress met +in extra session, and the soundness of the President's +judgment in setting a day which had at first +been condemned as too distant was proved. In the +interval, nothing had been lost which could have +<!-- Image No 318 --><a name='Png318'></a><a name='Page292'></a><span class="pagenum">292</span> +been saved by the sitting of Congress; while, on +the other hand, the members had had the great +advantage of having time to think soberly concerning +the business before them, and to learn the +temper and wishes of their constituents.</p> + +<p>Mr. Lincoln took great pains with his message, +which he felt to be a very important document. +It was his purpose to say simply what events had +occurred, what questions had been opened, and +what necessities had arisen; to display the situation +and to state facts fairly and fully, but not +apparently to argue the case of the North. Yet it +was essential for him so to do this that no doubt +could be left as to where the right lay. This +peculiar process of argument by statement had +constituted his special strength at the bar, and he +now gave an excellent instance of it. He briefly +sketched the condition of public affairs at the +time when he assumed the government; he told +the story of Sumter, and of the peculiar process +whereby Virginia had been linked to the Confederacy. +With a tinge of irony he remarked that, +whether the sudden change of feeling among +the members of the Virginian Convention was +"wrought by their great approval of the assault +upon Sumter, or their great resentment at the +government's resistance to that assault, is not definitely +known."</p> + +<p>He explained the effect of the neutrality theory +of the Border States. "This," he said, "would +be disunion completed. Figuratively speaking, it +<!-- Image No 319 --><a name='Png319'></a><a name='Page293'></a><span class="pagenum">293</span> +would be the building of an impassable wall along +the line of separation,—and yet not quite an impassable +one, for under the guise of neutrality it +would tie the hands of the Union men, and freely +pass supplies to the insurrectionists.... At a +stroke it would take all the trouble off the hands +of secession, except what proceeds from the external +blockade." It would give to the disunionists +"disunion, without a struggle of their own."</p> + +<p>Of the blockade and the calls for troops, he +said: "These measures, whether strictly legal or +not, were ventured upon under what appeared to +be a popular demand and a public necessity, trusting +then, as now, that Congress would ratify +them." At the same time he stated the matter of +the suspension of the writ of habeas corpus, which +has been already referred to.</p> + +<p>Speaking of the doctrine that secession was +lawful under the Constitution, and that it was not +rebellion, he made plain the genuine significance +of the issue thus raised: "It presents ... the +question whether a Constitutional Republic or +Democracy, a government of the people by the +same people, can or cannot maintain its territorial +integrity against its own domestic foes. It +presents the question whether discontented individuals, +too few in numbers to control the administration +according to the organic law in any case, +can always, upon the pretenses made in this case, +or any other pretenses, or arbitrarily without any +pretense, break up their government, and thus +<!-- Image No 320 --><a name='Png320'></a><a name='Page294'></a><span class="pagenum">294</span> +practically put an end to free government upon +the earth. It forces us to ask: Is there in all +Republics this inherent fatal weakness? Must a +government of necessity be too strong for the liberties +of its own people, or too weak to maintain +its own existence?" The Constitution of the Confederacy +was a paraphrase with convenient adaptations +of the Constitution of the United States. +A significant one of these adaptations was the +striking out of the first three words, "We, the +people," and the substitution of the words, "We, +the deputies of the sovereign and independent +States." "Why," said Mr. Lincoln, "why this +deliberate pressing out of view the rights of men +and the authority of the people? This is essentially +a people's contest. On the side of the +Union it is a struggle for maintaining in the +world that form and substance of government +whose leading object is to elevate the condition of +men ... to afford to all an unfettered start and +a fair chance in the race of life.... This is the +leading object of the government for whose existence +we contend. I am most happy to believe that +the plain people understand and appreciate this."</p> + +<p>Many persons, not gifted with the power of +thinking clearly, were disturbed at what seemed to +them a purpose to "invade" and to "subjugate" +sovereign States,—as though a government could +invade its own country or subjugate its own subjects! +These phrases, he said, were producing +"uneasiness in the minds of candid men" as to +<!-- Image No 321 --><a name='Png321'></a><a name='Page295'></a><span class="pagenum">295</span> +what would be the course of the government toward +the Southern States after the suppression of the +rebellion. The President assured them that he +had no expectation of changing the views set forth +in his inaugural address; that he desired "to preserve +the government, that it may be administered +for all as it was administered by the men who +made it. Loyal citizens everywhere have a right +to expect this,... and the government has no +right to withhold or neglect it. It is not perceived +that in giving it there is any coercion, any conquest, +or any subjugation."</p> + +<p>In closing he said that it was with the deepest +regret that he had used the war power; but "in +defense of the government, forced upon him, he +could but perform this duty or surrender the existence +of the government." Compromise would +have been useless, for "no popular government can +long survive a marked precedent that those who +carry an election can only save the government +from immediate destruction by giving up the main +point upon which the people gave the election." +To those who would have had him compromise he +explained that only the people themselves, not +their servants, can safely reverse their own deliberate +decisions. He had no power to agree to +divide the country which he had the duty to govern. +"As a private citizen the executive could +not have consented that these institutions shall +perish; much less could he, in betrayal of so vast +and so sacred a trust as these free people have +<!-- Image No 322 --><a name='Png322'></a><a name='Page296'></a><span class="pagenum">296</span> +confided to him. He felt that he had no moral +right to shrink, nor even to count the chances of +his own life in what might follow."</p> + +<p>The only direct request made in the message +was that, to make "this contest a short and decisive +one," Congress would "place at the control of +the government for the work at least 400,000 men, +and $400,000,000. That number of men is about +one tenth of those of proper ages within the regions +where apparently all are willing to engage, +and the sum is less than a twenty-third part of the +money value owned by the men who seem ready to +devote the whole."</p> + +<p>The message was well received by the people, as +it deserved to be.</p> + +<p>The proceedings of Congress can only be referred +to with brevity. Yet a mere recital of the +names of the more noteworthy members of the +Senate and the House must be intruded, if merely +for the flavor of reminiscence which it will bring +to readers who recall those times. In the Senate, +upon the Republican side, there were: Lyman +Trumbull from Illinois, James Harlan and James +W. Grimes from Iowa, William P. Fessenden +from Maine, Charles Sumner and Henry Wilson +from Massachusetts, Zachariah Chandler from +Michigan, John P. Hale from New Hampshire, +Benjamin F. Wade from Ohio, and John Sherman, +who was elected to fill the vacancy created +by the appointment of Salmon P. Chase to the +Treasury Department, David Wilmot from Pennsylvania, +<!-- Image No 323 --><a name='Png323'></a><a name='Page297'></a><span class="pagenum">297</span> +filling the place of Simon Cameron, +Henry B. Anthony from Rhode Island, Andrew +Johnson from Tennessee, Jacob Collamer from +Vermont, and James R. Doolittle from Wisconsin. +On the Democratic side, there were: James A. +McDougall of California, James A. Bayard and +William Saulsbury of Delaware, Jesse D. Bright +of Indiana, who was expelled February 5, 1862, +John C. Breckenridge of Kentucky, who a little +later openly joined the Secessionists, and was formally +expelled December 4, 1861; he was succeeded +by Garrett Davis, an "American or Old +Line Whig," by which name he and two senators +from Maryland preferred to be described; James +W. Nesmith of Oregon. Lane and Pomeroy, the +first senators from the free State of Kansas, were +seated. In the House Galusha A. Grow of Pennsylvania, +who had lately knocked down Mr. Keitt +of South Carolina in a fisticuff encounter on the +floor of the chamber, was chosen speaker, over +Francis P. Blair, Jr., of Missouri. Thaddeus +Stevens of Pennsylvania was the most prominent +man in the body. Among many familiar names +in running down the list the eye lights upon +James E. English of Connecticut; E.B. Washburne, +Isaac N. Arnold, and Owen Lovejoy of Illinois; +Julian, Voorhees, and Schuyler Colfax of +Indiana; Crittenden of Kentucky; Roscoe Conkling, +Reuben E. Fenton, and Erastus Corning of +New York; George H. Pendleton, Vallandigham, +Ashley, Shellabarger, and S.S. Cox of Ohio; +<!-- Image No 324 --><a name='Png324'></a><a name='Page298'></a><span class="pagenum">298</span> +Covode of Pennsylvania; Maynard of Tennessee. +The members came together in very good temper; +and the great preponderance of Republicans secured +dispatch in the conduct of business; for the +cliques which soon produced intestine discomfort +in that dominant party were not yet developed. +No ordinary legislation was entered upon; but in +twenty-nine working days seventy-six public Acts +were passed, of which all but four bore directly +upon the extraordinary emergency. The demands +of the President were met, with additions: 500,000 +men and $500,000,000 were voted; $207,000,000 +were appropriated to the army, and $56,000,000 +to the navy. August 6 Congress adjourned.</p> + +<hr class='short'/> + +<p>The law-makers were treated, during their session, +to what was regarded, in the inexperience of +those days, as a spectacle of real war. During a +couple of months past large bodies of men had +been gathering together, living in tents, shouldering +guns, and taking the name of armies. General +Butler was in command at Fortress Monroe, and +was faced by Colonel Magruder, who held the +peninsula between the York and the James rivers. +Early in June the lieutenants of these two commanders +performed the comical fiasco of the "battle" +of Big Bethel. In this skirmish the Federal +regiments fired into each other, and then retreated, +while the Confederates withdrew; but in language +of absurd extravagance the Confederate colonel +reported that he had won a great victory, and +<!-- Image No 325 --><a name='Png325'></a><a name='Page299'></a><span class="pagenum">299</span> +Northern men flushed beneath the ridicule incurred +by the blunder of their troops.</p> + +<p>A smaller affair at Vienna was more ridiculous; +several hundred soldiers, aboard a train of cars, +started upon a reconnoissance, as if it had been a +picnic. The Confederates fired upon them with +a couple of small cannon, and they hastily took to +the woods. When they got home they talked +wisely about "masked batteries." But the shrewdness +and humor of the people were not thus turned +aside, and the "masked battery" long made the +point of many a bitter jest.</p> + +<p>Up the river, Harper's Ferry was held by +"Stonewall" Jackson, who was soon succeeded by +J.E. Johnston. Confronting and watching this +force was General Patterson, at Chambersburg, +Pennsylvania, with a body of men rapidly growing +to considerable numbers by the daily coming of +recruits. Not very far away, southeastward, the +main body of the Confederate army, under Beauregard, +lay at Manassas, and the main body of the +Federal army, under McDowell, was encamped +along the Potomac. On May 23 the Northern advance +crossed that river, took possession of Arlington +Heights and of Alexandria, and began work +upon permanent defensive intrenchments in front +of the capital.</p> + +<p>The people of the North knew nothing about +war or armies. Wild with enthusiasm and excitement, +they cheered the departing regiments, +which, as they vaguely and eagerly fancied, were to +<!-- Image No 326 --><a name='Png326'></a><a name='Page300'></a><span class="pagenum">300</span> +begin fighting at once. Yet it was true that no +one would stake his money on a "football team" +which should go into a game trained in a time so +short as that which had been allowed for bringing +into condition for the manoeuvres and battlefields +of a campaign an army of thirty or forty thousand +men, with staff and commissariat, and arms of infantry, +cavalry, and artillery, altogether constituting +an organization vast, difficult, and complex in +the highest degree of human coöperation. Nevertheless +"On to Richmond!" rolled up the imperious +cry from every part of the North. The government, +either sharing in this madness, or feeling +that it must be yielded to, passed the word to the +commander, and McDowell very reluctantly obeyed +orders and started with his army in that direction,—not, +however, with any real hope of reaching +this nominal objective; for he was an intelligent +man and a good soldier, and was perfectly aware of +the unfitness of his army. But when, protesting, +he suggested that his troops were "green," he was +told to remember that the Southern troops were of +the same tint; for, in a word, the North was bound +to have a fight, and would by no means endure +that the three months' men should come home without +doing something more positive than merely +preventing the capture of Washington.</p> + +<p>On July 16, therefore, McDowell began his advance, +having with him about 35,000 men, and by +the 19th he was at the stream of Bull Run, behind +which the Confederates lay. He planned his +<!-- Image No 327 --><a name='Png327'></a><a name='Page301'></a><span class="pagenum">301</span> +battle skillfully, and began his attack on the morning +of the 21st. On the other hand, Beauregard +was at the double disadvantage of misapprehending +his opponent's purpose, and of failing to get +his orders conveyed to his lieutenants until the +fight was far advanced. The result was, that at +the beginning of the afternoon the Federals had +almost won a victory which they fully deserved. +That they did not finally secure it was due to the +inefficiency of General Patterson. This general +had crossed the Potomac a few days before and +had been instructed to watch Johnston, who had +drawn back near Winchester, and either to prevent +him from moving his force from the Shenandoah +Valley to Manassas, or, failing this, to keep close +to him and unite with McDowell. But Patterson +neither detained nor followed his opponent. On +July 18 Beauregard telegraphed to Johnston: "If +you wish to help me, now is the time." If Patterson +wished to help McDowell, then, also, was the +time. The Southern general seized his opportunity, +and the Northern general let his opportunity +go. Johnston, uninterrupted and unfollowed by +Patterson, brought his troops in from Manassas +Junction upon the right wing of the Federals at +the very moment and crisis when the battle was +actually in the process of going in their favor. +Directly all was changed. Older troops would not +have stood, and these untried ones were defeated +as soon as they were attacked. Speedily retreat +became rout, and rout became panic. At a great +<!-- Image No 328 --><a name='Png328'></a><a name='Page302'></a><span class="pagenum">302</span> +speed the frightened soldiers, resolved into a mere +disorganized mob of individuals, made their way +back to the camps on the Potomac; many thought +Washington safer, and some did not stop short of +their distant Northern homes.</p> + +<p>The Southerners, who had been on the point of +running away when the Northerners anticipated +them in so doing, now triumphed immoderately, +and uttered boastings magniloquent enough for +Homeric heroes. Yet they were, as General Johnston +said, "almost as much disorganized by victory +as were the Federals by defeat." Many of them +also hastened to their homes, spreading everywhere +the cheering tidings that the war was over and the +South had won.</p> + +<p>In point of fact, it was a stage of the war when +defeat was more wholesome than victory. Fortunately, +too, the North was not even momentarily +discouraged. The people had sense enough to see +that what had happened was precisely what should +have been expected. A little humiliated at their +own folly, about as much vexed with themselves +as angry with their enemies, they turned to their +work in a new spirit. Persistence displaced excitement, +as three years' men replaced three months' +men. The people settled down to a long, hard +task. Besides this, they had now some idea of +what was necessary to be done in order to succeed +in that task. Invaluable lessons had been learned, +and no lives which were lost in the war bore fruit +of greater usefulness than did those which seemed +to have been foolishly thrown away at Bull Run.</p> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_143_145'></a><a href='#FNanchor_143_145'>[143]</a> + So said Hon. George W. Julian, somewhat ruefully acknowledging +that Lincoln "was always himself the President." <i>Polit. +Recoll.</i> 190.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_144_146'></a><a href='#FNanchor_144_146'>[144]</a> + South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana, +and Texas were covered by this proclamation; on April +27, North Carolina and Virginia were added.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_145_147'></a><a href='#FNanchor_145_147'>[145]</a> + For the documents in this case, and also for some of the +more famous professional opinions thereon, see McPherson, <i>Hist, +of Rebellion, 154 et seq.</i>; also (of course from the side of the chief +justice), Tyler's <i>Taney</i>, 420-431; and see original draft of the +President's message on this subject; N. and H. iv. 176.</p></div> + + + +<hr class='long'/> +<!-- Image No 329 --><a name='Png329'></a><a name='Page303'></a><span class="pagenum">303</span> + +<a name='CHAPTER_X'></a> +<h2>CHAPTER X</h2> +<h2>THE FIRST ACT OF THE MCCLELLAN DRAMA</h2> + +<p>On the day after the battle of Bull Run General +George B. McClellan was summoned to Washington, +where he arrived on July 26. On the 25th +he had been assigned to the command of the army +of the Potomac. By all the light which President +Lincoln had at the time of making this appointment, +it seemed the best that was possible; +and in fact it was so, in view of the immediate +sphere of usefulness of a commanding general in +Virginia. McClellan was thirty-four years old, of +vigorous physique and fine address. After his +graduation at West Point, in 1846, he was attached +to the Engineer Corps; he served through the +Mexican war, and for merit received a captaincy. +In 1855 he was sent by Jefferson Davis, then secretary +of war, to Europe to study the organizing +and handling of armies in active service; and he +was for a while at the British headquarters during +the siege of Sebastopol, observing their system in +operation. In January, 1857, he resigned from +the army; but with the first threatenings of the +civil war he made ready to play an active part. +April 23, 1861, he was appointed by the governor +<!-- Image No 330 --><a name='Png330'></a><a name='Page304'></a><span class="pagenum">304</span> +of Ohio a major-general, with command of all +the state forces. May 13, by an order from the +national government, he took command of the +Department of the Ohio, in which shortly afterward +Western Virginia was included. He found +the sturdy mountaineers of this inaccessible region +for the most part loyalists, but overawed by rebel +troops, and toward the close of May, upon his own +sole responsibility, he inaugurated a campaign for +their relief. In this he had the good fortune to be +entirely successful. By some small engagements +he cleared the country of armed Secessionists and +returned it to the Union; and in so doing he +showed energy and good tactical ability. These +achievements, which later in the war would have +seemed inconsiderable, now led to confidence and +promotion.</p> + +<p>In his new and exalted position McClellan became +commander of a great number of men, but +not of a great army. The agglomeration of civilians, +who had run away from Manassas under the +impression that they had fought and lost a real +battle, was utterly disorganized and demoralized. +Some had already reached the sweet safety of the +villages of the North; others were lounging in the +streets of Washington and swelling the receipts of +its numerous barrooms. The majority, it is true, +were in camp across the Potomac, but in no condition +to render service. All, having been enlisted +for three months, now had only a trifling remnant +of so-called military life before them, in which it +<!-- Image No 331 --><a name='Png331'></a><a name='Page305'></a><span class="pagenum">305</span> +seemed to many hardly worth while to run risks. +The new call for volunteers for three years had +just gone forth, and though troops began to arrive +under it with surprising promptitude and many +three months' men reënlisted, yet a long time had +to elapse before the new levies were all on hand. +Thus betwixt departing and coming hosts McClellan's +duty was not to use an army, but to +create one.</p> + +<p>The task looked immeasurable, but there was +a fortunate fitness for it upon both sides. The +men who in this awful crisis were answering the +summons of President Lincoln constituted a raw +material of a kind such as never poured into any +camp save possibly into that of Cromwell. For +the most part they were courageous, intelligent, +self-respecting citizens, who were under the noble +compulsion of conscience and patriotism in leaving +reputable and prosperous callings for a military +career. The moral, mental, and physical average +of such a body of men was a long way above that +of professional armies, and insured readiness in +acquiring their new calling. But admirable as +were the latent possibilities, and apt as each individual +might be, these multitudes arrived wholly +uninstructed; few had even so much as seen a real +soldier; none had any notion at all of what military +discipline was, or how to handle arms, or to +manoeuvre, or to take care of their health. Nor +could they easily get instruction in these things, +for officers knew no more than privates; indeed, +<!-- Image No 332 --><a name='Png332'></a><a name='Page306'></a><span class="pagenum">306</span> +for that matter, one of the great difficulties at first +encountered lay in the large proportion of utterly +unfit men who had succeeded in getting commissions, +and who had to be toilfully eliminated.</p> + +<p>That which was to be done, McClellan was well +able to do. He had a passion for organization, +and fine capacity for work; he showed tact and +skill in dealing with subordinates; he had a thorough +knowledge and a high ideal of what an +army should be. He seemed the Genius of Order +as he educated and arranged the chaotic gathering +of human beings, who came before him to be +transmuted from farmers, merchants, clerks, shopkeepers, +and what not into soldiers of all arms and +into leaders of soldiers. To that host in chrysalis +he was what each skillful drill-master is to his +awkward squad. Under his influence privates +learned how to obey and officers how to command; +each individual merged the sense of individuality +in that of homogeneousness and cohesion, until +the original loose association of units became one +grand unit endowed with the solidarity and machine-like +quality of an efficient army. Patient +labor produced a result so excellent that General +Meade said long afterward: "Had there been no +McClellan there could have been no Grant, for the +army made no essential improvement under any of +his successors."</p> + +<p>That the formation of this great complex machine +was indispensable, and that it would take +much time, were facts which the disaster at Bull +<!-- Image No 333 --><a name='Png333'></a><a name='Page307'></a><span class="pagenum">307</span> +Run had compelled both the administration and +the people to appreciate moderately well. Accordingly +they resolutely set themselves to be patient. +The cry of "On to Richmond!" no longer sounded +through the land, and the restraint imposed by +the excited masses upon their own ardor was the +strongest evidence of their profound earnestness. +In a steady stream they poured men and material +into the camps in Virginia, and they heard +with satisfaction of the advance of the levies in +discipline and soldierly efficiency. For a while +the scene was pleasant and without danger. "It +was," says Arnold, describing that of which he had +been an eye-witness, "the era of brilliant reviews +and magnificent military displays, of parades, festive +parties, and junketings." Members of Congress +found excursions to the camps attractive for +themselves and their visitors. Glancing arms, new +uniforms, drill, and music constituted a fine show. +Thus the rest of the summer passed away, and +autumn came and was passing, too. Then here +and there signs of impatience began again to be +manifested. It was observed with discontent that +the glorious days of the Indian Summer, the +perfect season for military operations, were gliding +by as tranquilly as if there were not a great war +on hand, and still the citizen at home read each +morning in his newspaper the stereotyped bulletin, +"All quiet on the Potomac;" the phrase passed +into a byword and a sneer. By this time, too, +to a nation which had not European standards of +<!-- Image No 334 --><a name='Png334'></a><a name='Page308'></a><span class="pagenum">308</span> +excellence, the army seemed to have reached a +high state of efficiency, and to be abundantly able +to take the field. Why did not its commander +move? Amid all the drilling and band-playing +the troops had been doing hard work: a chain of +strong fortifications scientifically constructed had +been completed around the capital, and rendered it +easy of defense. It could be left in safety. Why, +then, was it not left? Why did the troops still +linger?</p> + +<p>For a moment this monotony was interrupted by +the ill-conducted engagement at Ball's Bluff. On +October 21 nearly 2000 troops were sent across the +Potomac by the local commander, with the foolish +expectation of achieving something brilliant.<a name='FNanchor_146_148'></a><a href='#Footnote_146_148'><sup>[146]</sup></a> + The +actual result was that they were corralled in an open +field; in their rear the precipitous bank dropped +sharply to the river, upon which floated only the +two or three little boats which had ferried them +across in small parties; in front and flank from +the shelter of thick woods an outnumbering force +of rebels poured a steady fire upon them. They +were in a cruel snare, and suffered terribly in +killed and drowned, wounded and captured. The +affair was, and the country at once saw that it was, +a gross blunder. The responsibility lay upon General +Stone and Colonel Baker. Stone, a military +man by education, deserved censure, but he was +<!-- Image No 335 --><a name='Png335'></a><a name='Page309'></a><span class="pagenum">309</span> +treated in a manner so cruel, so unjust, and so disproportionate +to his deserts, that his error has been +condoned in sympathy for his wrongs. The injustice +was chargeable chiefly to Stanton, in part to +the Committee on the Conduct of the War. Apparently +Mr. Lincoln desired to know as little as +possible about a wrong which he could not set +right without injury to the public interests. He +said to Stanton concerning the arrest: "I suppose +you have good reasons for it, and having good reasons +I am glad I knew nothing of it until it was +done." To General Stone himself he said that, +if he should tell all he knew about it, he should +not tell much. Colonel Baker, senator from Oregon, +a personal friend of the President, a brilliant +orator, and a man beloved and admired by all who +knew him, was a favorable specimen of the great +body of new civilian officers. While brimming +over with gallantry and enthusiasm, he was entirely +ignorant of the military art. In the conduct +of this enterprise a considerable discretion +had been reposed in him, and he had, as was altogether +natural, failed in everything except courage. +But as he paid with his life on the battlefield the +penalty of his daring and his inexperience, he was +thought of only with tenderness and regret.</p> + +<p>This skirmish illustrated the scant trust which +could yet be reposed in the skill and judgment of +subordinate officers. The men behaved with encouraging +spirit and constancy under severe trial. +But could a commander venture upon a campaign +<!-- Image No 336 --><a name='Png336'></a><a name='Page310'></a><span class="pagenum">310</span> +with brigadier-generals and colonels so unfit to +assume responsibility?</p> + +<p>Nevertheless impatience hardly received a momentary +check from this lesson. With some inconsistency, +people placed unlimited confidence in +McClellan's capacity to beat the enemy, but no +confidence at all in his judgment as to the feasibility +of a forward movement. The grumbling +did not, however, indicate that faith in him was +shaken, for just now he was given promotion by +Mr. Lincoln, and it met with general approval. +For some time past it had been a cause of discomfort +that he did not get on altogether smoothly +with General Scott; the elder was irascible and +jealous, the younger certainly not submissive. At +last, on October 31, the old veteran regretfully +but quite wisely availed himself of his right to +be placed upon the retired list, and immediately, +November 1, General McClellan succeeded him in +the distinguished position of commander-in-chief +(under the President) of all the armies of the +United States. On the same day Mr. Lincoln +courteously hastened out to headquarters to make +in person congratulations which were unquestionably +as sincere as they were generous. Every one +felt that a magnificent opportunity was given to +a favorite general. But unfortunately among all +his admirers there was not one who believed in him +quite so fully as he believed in himself; he lost all +sense of perspective and proportion, and felt upon +a pinnacle from which he could look down even +<!-- Image No 337 --><a name='Png337'></a><a name='Page311'></a><span class="pagenum">311</span> +on a president.<a name='FNanchor_147_149'></a><a href='#Footnote_147_149'><sup>[147]</sup></a> + Being in this masterful temper, +he haughtily disregarded the growing demand for +an advance. On the other hand the politicians, +always eager to minister to the gratification of the +people, began to be importunate; they harried the +President, and went out to camp to prick their +civilian spurs into the general himself. But McClellan +had a soldierly contempt for such intermeddling +in matters military, and was wholly +unimpressible. When Senator Wade said that an +unsuccessful battle was preferable to delay, for +that a defeat would easily be repaired by swarming +recruits, the general tartly replied that he preferred +a few recruits before a victory to a great +many after a defeat. But, however cleverly and +fairly the military man might counter upon the +politician, there was no doubt that discontent was +developing dangerously. The people had conscientiously +intended to do their part fully, and a +large proportion of them now sincerely believed +that they had done it. They knew that they had +been lavish of men, money, and supplies; and they +thought that they had been not less liberal of time; +wherefore they rebelled against the contrary opinion +of the general, whose ideal of a trustworthy army +had by no means been reached, and who, being of +a stubborn temperament, would not stir till it had +been.</p> + +<p>It is difficult to satisfy one's self of the real +<!-- Image No 338 --><a name='Png338'></a><a name='Page312'></a><span class="pagenum">312</span> +fitness of the army to move at or about this time,—that +is to say, in or near the month of November, +1861,—for the evidence is mixed and conflicting. +The Committee on the Conduct of the War +asserted that "the army of the Potomac was well +armed and equipped and had reached a high state +of discipline by the last of September or first of +October;" but the committee was not composed +of experts. Less florid commendation is given by +the Comte de Paris, of date October 15. McClellan +himself said: "It certainly was not till +late in November that the army was in any condition +to move, nor even then were they capable +of assaulting intrenched positions." At that time +winter was at hand, and advance was said to be +impracticable. That these statements were as favorable +as possible seems probable; for it is familiar +knowledge that the call for these troops did +not issue until July, that at the close of November +the recruits were still continuing "to pour in, to +be assigned and equipped and instructed;"<a name='FNanchor_148_150'></a><a href='#Footnote_148_150'><sup>[148]</sup></a> + that +many came unarmed or with useless weapons; and +that these "civilians, suddenly called to arms as +soldiers and officers, did not take kindly to the +subordination and restraints of the camp."<a name='FNanchor_149_151'></a><a href='#Footnote_149_151'><sup>[149]</sup></a> + Now +McClellan's temperament did not lead him to run +risks in the effort to force achievements with +means of dubious adequacy. His purpose was to +create a machine perfect in every part, sure and +irresistible in operation, and then to set it in +<!-- Image No 339 --><a name='Png339'></a><a name='Page313'></a><span class="pagenum">313</span> +motion with a certainty of success. He wrote to +Lincoln: "I have ever regarded our true policy as +being that of fully preparing ourselves, and then +seeking for the most decisive results."<a name='FNanchor_150_152'></a><a href='#Footnote_150_152'><sup>[150]</sup></a> + Under +favoring circumstances this plan might have been +the best. But circumstances were not favoring. +Neither he nor the government itself, nor indeed +both together, could afford long or far to disregard +popular feeling. Before the close of November +that popular feeling was such that the people +would have endured without flinching the discouragement +of a defeat, but would not endure the +severe tax of inaction, and from this time forth +their impatience gathered volume until it became +a controlling element in the situation. Themselves +intending to be reasonable, they grew more +and more convinced that McClellan was unreasonable. +General and people confronted each other: +the North would fight, at the risk of defeat; McClellan +would not fight, because he was not sure +to win. Any one who comprehended the conditions, +the institutions of the country, the character +of the nation, especially its temper concerning the +present conflict, also the necessities beneath which +that conflict must be waged, if it was to be waged +at all, would have seen that the people must be +deferred to. The question was not whether they +were right or wrong. Assuming them to be +wrong, it would still be a mistake to withstand +them beyond a certain point. If yielding to them +<!-- Image No 340 --><a name='Png340'></a><a name='Page314'></a><span class="pagenum">314</span> +should result in disastrous consequences, they must +be called upon to rally, and could be trusted to do +so, instructed but undismayed by their experience. +All this McClellan utterly failed to appreciate, +thereby leading Mr. Swinton very justly to remark +that he was lacking in "the statesmanlike qualities +that enter into the composition of a great general."<a name='FNanchor_151_153'></a><a href='#Footnote_151_153'><sup>[151]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p>On the other hand, no man ever lived more +capable than Mr. Lincoln of precisely appreciating +the present facts, or more sure to avoid those +peculiar blunders which entrapped the military +commander. He was very loyal in living up to his +pledge to give the general full support, and by his +conduct during many months to come he proved +his readiness to abide to the last possible point. +He knew, however, with unerring accuracy just +where that last point lay, and he saw with disquietude +that it was being approached too rapidly. +He was getting sufficient knowledge of McClellan's +character to see that the day was not distant when +he must interfere. Meantime he kept his sensitive +finger upon the popular pulse, as an expert +physician watches a patient in a fever. With the +growth of the impatience his anxiety grew, for +the people's war would not be successfully fought +by a dissatisfied people. Repeatedly he tested the +<!-- Image No 341 --><a name='Png341'></a><a name='Page315'></a><span class="pagenum">315</span> +situation in the hope that a movement could be +forced without undue imprudence; but he was +always met by objections from McClellan. In +weighing the Northern and the Southern armies +against each other, the general perhaps undervalued +his own resources and certainly overvalued +those of his opponent. He believed that the Confederate +"discipline and drill were far better than +our own;" wherein he was probably in error, for +General Lee admitted that, while the Southerners +would always fight well, they were refractory under +discipline. Moreover, they were at this time very +ill provided with equipment and transportation. +Also McClellan said that the Southern army had +thrown up intrenchments at Manassas and Centreville, +and therefore the "problem was to attack +victorious and finely drilled troops in intrenchment." +But the most discouraging and inexplicable +assertion, which he emphatically reiterated, +concerned the relative numerical strength. He +not only declared that he himself could not put +into the field the numbers shown by the official +returns to be with him, but also he exaggerated +the Southern numbers till he became extravagant +to the point of absurdity. So it had been from +the outset, and so it continued to be to the time +when he was at last relieved of his command. +Thus, on August 15, he conceived himself to be +"in a terrible place; the enemy have three or +four times my force." September 9 he imagined +Johnston to have 130,000 men, against his own +<!-- Image No 342 --><a name='Png342'></a><a name='Page316'></a><span class="pagenum">316</span> +85,000; and he argued that Johnston could move +upon Baltimore a column 100,000 strong, which +he could meet with only 60,000 or 70,000. Later +in October he marked the Confederates up to +150,000. He estimated his own requirement at +a "total effective force" of 208,000 men, which +implied "an aggregate, present and absent, of +about 240,000 men." Of these he designed +150,000 as a "column of active operations;" the +rest were for garrisons and guards. He said that +in fact he had a gross aggregate of 168,318, and +the "force present for duty was 147,695." Since +the garrisons and the guards were a fixed number, +the reduction fell wholly upon the movable column, +and reduced "the number disposable for an +advance to 76,285." Thus he made himself out +to be fatally overmatched. But he was excessively +in error. In the autumn Johnston's effective +force was only 41,000 men, and on December +1, 1861, it was 47,000.<a name='FNanchor_152_154'></a><a href='#Footnote_152_154'><sup>[152]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p>Such comparisons, advanced with positiveness +by the highest authority, puzzled Mr. Lincoln. +They seemed very strange, yet he could not disprove +them, and was therefore obliged to face the +perplexing choice which was mercilessly set before +him: "either to go into winter quarters, or to +assume the offensive with forces greatly inferior in +<!-- Image No 343 --><a name='Png343'></a><a name='Page317'></a><span class="pagenum">317</span> +number" to what was "desirable and necessary." +"If political considerations render the first course +unadvisable, the second alone remains." The general's +most cheering admission was that, by stripping +all other armies down to the lowest numbers +absolutely necessary for a strict defensive, and by +concentrating all the forces of the nation and all +the attention of the government upon "the vital +point" in Virginia, it might yet be possible for +this "main army, whose destiny it [was] to decide +the controversy,... to move with a reasonable +prospect of success before the winter is fairly upon +us." A direct assertion of impossibility, provocative +of denial or discussion, would have been less +disheartening.</p> + +<p>In passing, it may be remarked that McClellan's +prevision that the ultimate arbitrament of +the struggle must occur in Virginia was correct. +But in another point he was wrong, and unfortunately +this was of more immediate consequence, +because it corroborated him in his purpose to delay +till he could make success a certainty. He hoped +that when he moved, he should be able to win one +or two overwhelming victories, to capture Richmond, +and to crush the rebellion in a few weeks. +It was a brilliant and captivating programme,<a name='FNanchor_153_155'></a><a href='#Footnote_153_155'><sup>[153]</sup></a> + +<!-- Image No 344 --><a name='Png344'></a><a name='Page318'></a><span class="pagenum">318</span> +but impracticable and undesirable. Even had the +Southerners been quelled by so great a disaster,—which +was not likely,—they would not have +been thoroughly conquered, nor would slavery +have been disposed of, and both these events were +indispensable to a definitive peace between the two +sections. Whether the President shared this notion +of his general is not evident. Apparently he +was not putting his mind upon theories reaching +into the future so much as he was devoting his +whole thought to dealing with the urgent problems +of the present. If this was the case, he was +pursuing the wise and sound course. In the situation, +it was more desirable to fight a great battle +at the earliest possible moment than to await a +great victory many months hence.</p> + +<p>It is commonplace wisdom that it is foolish for +a civilian to undertake the direction of a war. +Yet our Constitution ordains that "the President +shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy +of the United States, and of the militia of the +several States, when called into the actual service +of the United States." It is not supposable that +the delegates who suggested this function, or the +people who ordained it, anticipated that presidents +generally would be men skilled in military science. +Therefore Mr. Lincoln could not escape the obligation +on the ground of unfitness for the duty +which was imperatively placed upon him. It might +be true that to set him in charge of military operations +was like ordering a merchant to paint a picture +<!-- Image No 345 --><a name='Png345'></a><a name='Page319'></a><span class="pagenum">319</span> +or a jockey to sail a ship, but it was also true +that he was so set in charge. He could not shirk +it, nor did he try to shirk it. In consequence +hostile critics have dealt mercilessly with his actions, +and the history of this winter and spring of +1861-62 is a painful and confusing story of bitter +controversy and crimination. Further it is to be +remembered that, apart from the obligation imposed +on the President by the Constitution, it was +true that if civilians could not make rapid progress +in the military art, the war might as well be +abandoned. They were already supposed to be +doing so; General Banks, a politician, and General +Butler, a lawyer, were already conducting important +movements. Still it remains undeniable that +finally it was only the professional soldiers who, +undergoing successfully the severe test of time, +composed the illustrious front rank of strategists +when the close of the war left every man in his +established place. In discussing this perplexing +period, extremists upon one side attribute the miscarriages +and failure of McClellan's campaign to +ceaseless, thwarting interference by the President, +the secretary of war, and other civil officials. Extremists +upon the other side allege the marvel that +a sudden development of unerring judgment upon +every question involving the practical application +of military science took place on Mr. Lincoln's +part.<a name='FNanchor_154_156'></a><a href='#Footnote_154_156'><sup>[154]</sup></a> +Perhaps the truth lies between the disputants, +<!-- Image No 346 --><a name='Png346'></a><a name='Page320'></a><span class="pagenum">320</span> +but it is not likely ever to be definitely +agreed upon so long as the controversy excites +interest; for the discussion bristles with <i>ifs</i>, and +where this is the case no advocate can be irremediably +vanquished.</p> + +<p>It seems right, at this place, to note one fact +concerning Mr. Lincoln which ought not to be +overlooked and which cannot be denied. This is +his entire <i>political unselfishness</i>, the rarest moral +quality among men in public life. In those days +of trouble and distrust slanders were rife in a +degree which can hardly be appreciated by men +whose experience has been only with quieter times. +Sometimes purposes and sometimes methods were +assailed; and those prominent in civil life, and a +few also in military life, were believed to be artfully +and darkly seeking to interlace their personal +political fortunes in the web of public affairs, naturally +subordinating the latter fabric. Alliances, +enmities, intrigues, schemes, and every form of +putting the interest of self before that of the nation, +were insinuated with a bitter malevolence +unknown except amid such abnormal conditions. +The few who escaped charges of this kind were +believed to cherish their own peculiar fanaticisms, +desires, and purposes concerning the object and +results of the struggle, which they were resolved +to satisfy at almost any cost and by almost any +means. While posterity is endeavoring very +wisely to discredit and to forget a great part of +these painful criminations, it is cheering to find +<!-- Image No 347 --><a name='Png347'></a><a name='Page321'></a><span class="pagenum">321</span> +that no effort has to be made to forget anything +about the President. In his case injurious gossip +has long since died away and been buried. Whatever +may be said of him in other respects, at least +the purity and the singleness of his patriotism +shine brilliant and luminous through all this cloud-dust +of derogation. By his position he had more +at stake, both in his lifetime and before the tribunal +of the future, than any other person in the +country. But there was only one idea in his +mind, and that was,—not that <i>he should save the +country</i>, but <i>that the country should be saved</i>. +Not the faintest shadow of self ever fell for an +instant across this simple purpose. He was intent +to play his part out faithfully, with all the ability +he could bring to it; but any one else, who could, +might win and wear the title of savior. He chiefly +cared that the saving should be done. Never +once did he manipulate any covert magnet to draw +toward himself the credit or the glory of a measure +or a move. To his own future he seemed to give +no thought. It would be unjust to allow the dread +of appearing to utter eulogy rather than historic +truth to betray a biographer into overlooking this +genuine magnanimity.</p> + +<hr class='short'/> + +<p>It was in December, 1861, that Congress created +the famous Committee on the Conduct of the War, +to some of whose doings it has already been necessary +to allude. The gentlemen who were placed +upon it were selected partly of course for political +<!-- Image No 348 --><a name='Png348'></a><a name='Page322'></a><span class="pagenum">322</span> +reasons, and were all men who had made themselves +conspicuous for their enthusiasm and vehemence; +not one of them had any military knowledge. +The committee magnified its office almost +beyond limit,—investigated everything; haled +whom it chose to testify before it; made reports, +expressed opinions, insisted upon policies and +measures in matters military; and all with a dictatorial +assumption and self-confidence which could +not be devoid of effect, although every one knew +that each individual member was absolutely without +fitness for this business. So the committee +made itself a great power, and therefore also a +great complication, in the war machinery; and +though it was sometimes useful, yet, upon a final +balancing of its long account, it failed to justify +its existence, as, indeed, was to have been expected +from the outset.<a name='FNanchor_155_157'></a><a href='#Footnote_155_157'><sup>[155]</sup></a> + In the present discussions concerning +an advance of the army, its members strenuously +insisted upon immediate action, and their +official influence brought much strength to that +side.</p> + +<p>The first act indicating an intention on the +part of the President to interfere occurred almost +simultaneously with the beginning of the general's +illness. About December 21, 1861, he handed to +McClellan a brief memorandum: "If it were determined +to make a forward movement of the army +<!-- Image No 349 --><a name='Png349'></a><a name='Page323'></a><span class="pagenum">323</span> +of the Potomac, without awaiting further increase +of numbers or better drill and discipline, how long +would it require to actually get in motion? After +leaving all that would be necessary, how many +troops could join the movement from southwest +of the river? How many from northeast of it?" +Then he proceeded briefly to hint rather than distinctly +to suggest that plan of a direct advance by +way of Centreville and Manassas, which later on +he persistently advocated. Ten days elapsed before +McClellan returned answers, which then came +in a shape too curt to be respectful. Almost immediately +afterward the general fell ill, an occurrence +which seemed to his detractors a most aggravating +and unjustifiable intervention of Nature +herself in behalf of his policy of delay.</p> + +<p>On January 10 a dispatch from General Halleck +represented in his department also a condition of +check and helplessness. Lincoln noted upon it: +"Exceedingly discouraging. As everywhere else, +nothing can be done." Yet something must be +done, for the game was not to be abandoned. +Under this pressure, on this same day, he visited +McClellan, but could not see him; nor could he +get any definite idea how long might be the duration +of the typhoid fever, the lingering and uncertain +disease which had laid the general low. +Accordingly he summoned General McDowell and +General Franklin to discuss with him that evening +the military situation. The secretaries of state +and of the treasury, and the assistant secretary of +<!-- Image No 350 --><a name='Png350'></a><a name='Page324'></a><span class="pagenum">324</span> +war, also came. The President, says McDowell, +"was greatly disturbed at the state of affairs," +"was in great distress," and said that, "if something +was not soon done, the bottom would be out +of the whole affair; and if General McClellan did +not want to use the army, he would like to '<i>borrow +it</i>,' provided he could see how it could be made to +do something." The two generals were directed +to inform themselves concerning the "actual condition +of the army," and to come again the next +day. Conferences followed on January 11 and +12, Postmaster-General Blair and General Meigs +being added to the council. The postmaster-general +condemned a direct advance as "strategically +defective," while Chase descanted on the "moral +power" of a victory. The picture of the two civilians +injecting their military suggestions is not +reassuring. Meigs is somewhat vaguely reported +to have favored a "battle in front."</p> + +<p>McDowell and Franklin had not felt justified +in communicating these occurrences to McClellan, +because the President had marked his order to +them "private and confidential." But the commander +heard rumors of what was going forward,<a name='FNanchor_156_158'></a><a href='#Footnote_156_158'><sup>[156]</sup></a> + +and on January 12 he came from his sick-room +to see the President; he was "looking quite well," +and apparently was "able to assume the charge of +the army." The apparition put a different complexion +upon the pending discussions. On the +13th the same gentlemen met, but now with the +<!-- Image No 351 --><a name='Png351'></a><a name='Page325'></a><span class="pagenum">325</span> +addition of General McClellan. The situation +was embarrassing. McClellan took scant pains to +conceal his resentment. McDowell, at the request +of the President, explained what he thought could +be done, closing "by saying something apologetic;" +to which McClellan replied, "somewhat +coldly if not curtly: 'You are entitled to have any +opinion you please.'" Secretary Chase, a leader +among the anti-McClellanites, bluntly asked the +general to explain his military plans in detail; +but McClellan declined to be interrogated except +by the President, or by the secretary of war, +who was not present. Finally, according to McClellan's +account, which differs a little but not +essentially from that of McDowell, Mr. Lincoln +suggested<a name='FNanchor_157_159'></a><a href='#Footnote_157_159'><sup>[157]</sup></a> + that he should tell what his plans were. +McClellan replied, in substance, that this would +be imprudent and seemed unnecessary, and that he +would only give information if the President would +order him in writing to do so, and would assume +the responsibility for the results.<a name='FNanchor_158_160'></a><a href='#Footnote_158_160'><sup>[158]</sup></a> + McDowell adds +(but McClellan does not), that the President then +asked McClellan "if he had counted upon any +particular time; he did not ask what that time +was, but had he in his own mind any particular +time fixed, when a movement could be commenced. +He replied, he had. 'Then,' rejoined the President, +<!-- Image No 352 --><a name='Png352'></a><a name='Page326'></a><span class="pagenum">326</span> +'I will adjourn this meeting.'" This unfortunate +episode aggravated the discord, and removed +confidence and coöperation farther away than ever +before.</p> + +<p>The absence of the secretary of war from these +meetings was due to the fact that a change in the +War Department was in process contemporaneously +with them. The President had been allowed +to understand that Mr. Cameron did not find his +duties agreeable, and might prefer a diplomatic +post. Accordingly, with no show of reluctance, +Mr. Lincoln, on January 11, 1862, offered to Mr. +Cameron the post of minister to Russia. It was +promptly accepted, and on January 13 Edwin M. +Stanton was nominated and confirmed to fill the +vacancy.<a name='FNanchor_159_161'></a><a href='#Footnote_159_161'><sup>[159]</sup></a> + The selection was a striking instance +of the utter absence of vindictiveness which so +distinguished Mr. Lincoln, who, in fact, was simply +insensible to personal feeling as an influence. +In choosing incumbents for public trusts, he knew +no foe, perhaps no friend; but as dispassionately +as if he were manoeuvring pieces on a chessboard, +he considered only which available piece would +serve best in the square which he had to fill. In +1859 he and Stanton had met as associate counsel +in perhaps the most important lawsuit in which +Mr. Lincoln had ever been concerned, and Stanton +had treated Lincoln with his habitual insolence.<a name='FNanchor_160_162'></a><a href='#Footnote_160_162'><sup>[160]</sup></a> + +<!-- Image No 353 --><a name='Png353'></a> +<!-- Image No 354 --><a name='Png354'></a> +<!-- Image No 355 --><a name='Png355'></a><a name='Page327'></a><span class="pagenum">327</span> +Later, in the trying months which closed the year +1861, Stanton had abused the administration with +violence, and had carried his revilings of the President +even to the point of coarse personal insults.<a name='FNanchor_161_163'></a><a href='#Footnote_161_163'><sup>[161]</sup></a> + +No man, not being a rebel, had less right to expect +an invitation to become an adviser of the President; +and most men, who had felt or expressed +the opinions held by Mr. Stanton, would have had +scruples or delicacy about coming into the close +relationship of confidential adviser with the object +of their contempt; but neither scruples nor delicacy +delayed him; his acceptance was prompt.<a name='FNanchor_162_164'></a><a href='#Footnote_162_164'><sup>[162]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p class="figure"> +<a href="img/illus0427.jpg"> +<img width="50%" src='img/illus0427.jpg' alt='Edwin M. Stanton.'/></a><br/> +Edwin M. Stanton. +</p> + +<p>So Mr. Lincoln had chosen his secretary solely +upon the belief of the peculiar fitness of the individual +for the special duties of the war office. +Upon the whole the choice was wisely made, and +was evidence of Mr. Lincoln's insight into the +aptitudes and the uses of men. Stanton's abilities +commanded some respect, though his character +never excited either respect or liking; just now, +however, all his good qualities and many of his +faults seemed precisely adapted to the present requirements +of his department. He had been a +Democrat, but was now zealous to extremity in +patriotism; in his dealings with men he was capable +of much duplicity, yet in matters of business he +was rigidly honest, and it was his pleasure to protect +the treasury against the contractors; he loved +<!-- Image No 356 --><a name='Png356'></a><a name='Page328'></a><span class="pagenum">328</span> +work, and never wearied amid the driest and most +exacting toil; he was prompt and decisive rather +than judicial or correct in his judgments concerning +men and things; he was arbitrary, harsh, bad-tempered, +and impulsive; he often committed acts +of injustice or cruelty, for which he rarely made +amends, and still more rarely seemed disturbed by +remorse or regret. These traits bore hard upon +individuals; but ready and unscrupulous severity +was supposed to have its usefulness in a civil war. +Many a time he taxed the forbearance of the President +to a degree that would have seemed to transcend +the uttermost limit of human patience, if Mr. +Lincoln had not taken these occasions to show to +the world how forbearing and patient it is possible +for man to be. But those who knew the relations +of the two men are agreed that Stanton, however +browbeating he was to others, recognized a master +in the President, and, though often grumbling +and insolent, always submitted if a crisis came. +Undoubtedly Mr. Lincoln was the only ruler +known to history who could have coöperated for +years with such a minister. He succeeded in doing +so because he believed it to be for the good of +the cause, to which he could easily subordinate all +personal considerations; and posterity, agreeing +with him, concedes to Stanton credit for efficiency +in the conduct of his department.</p> + +<p>It is worth while here to pause long enough to +read part of a letter which, on this same crowded +thirteenth day of January, 1862, the President sent +<!-- Image No 357 --><a name='Png357'></a><a name='Page329'></a><span class="pagenum">329</span> +to General Halleck, in the West: "For my own +views: I have not offered, and do not now offer, +them as orders; and while I am glad to have them +respectfully considered, I would blame you to follow +them contrary to your own clear judgment, +unless I should put them in the form of orders.... +With this preliminary, I state my general +idea of this war to be that we have the greater +numbers and the enemy has the greater facility +of concentrating forces upon points of collision; +that we must fail unless we can find some way of +making our advantage an overmatch for his; and +that this can only be done by menacing him with +superior forces at different points at the same +time, so that we can safely attack one or both +if he makes no change; and if he weakens one +to strengthen the other, forbear to attack the +strengthened one, but seize and hold the weakened +one, gaining so much."</p> + +<p>In a personal point of view this short letter is +pregnant with interest and suggestion. The writer's +sad face, eloquent of the charge and burden +of one of the most awful destinies of human-kind, +rises before us as we read the expression of his +modest self-distrust amid the strange duties of +military affairs. But closely following this comes +the intimation that in due time "<i>orders</i>" will +come. Such was the quiet, unflinching way in +which Lincoln always faced every test, apparently +with a tranquil and assured faith that, whatever +might seem his lack of fitting preparation, his best +<!-- Image No 358 --><a name='Png358'></a><a name='Page330'></a><span class="pagenum">330</span> +would be adequate to the occasion. The habit has +led many to fancy that he believed himself divinely +chosen, and therefore sure of infallible guidance; +but it is observable far back, almost from +the beginning of his life; it was a trait of mind +and character, nothing else. The letter closes +with a broad general theory concerning the war, +wrought out by that careful process of thinking +whereby he was wont to make his way to the big, +simple, and fundamental truth. The whole is worth +holding in memory through the narrative of the +coming weeks.</p> + +<p>The conference of January 13 developed a serious +difference of opinion as to the plan of campaign, +whenever a campaign should be entered +upon. The President's notion, already shadowed +forth in his memorandum of December, was to +move directly upon the rebel army at Centreville +and Manassas and to press it back upon Richmond, +with the purpose of capturing that city. +But McClellan presented as his project a movement +by Urbana and West Point, using the York +River as a base of supplies. General McDowell +and Secretary Chase favored the President's plan; +General Franklin and Postmaster Blair thought +better of McClellan's. The President had a +strong fancy for his own scheme, because by it the +Union army was kept between the enemy and +Washington; and therefore the supreme point of +importance, the safety of the national capital, was +insured. The discussion, which was thus opened +<!-- Image No 359 --><a name='Png359'></a><a name='Page331'></a><span class="pagenum">331</span> +and which remained long unsettled, had, among +other ill effects, that of sustaining the vexatious +delay. While the anti-McClellan faction—for +the matter was becoming one of factions<a name='FNanchor_163_165'></a><a href='#Footnote_163_165'><sup>[163]</sup></a> +—grew +louder in denunciation of his inaction, and fastened +upon him the contemptuous nickname of "the +Virginia creeper," the friends of the general retorted +that the President, meddling in what he +did not understand, would not let the military commander +manage the war.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless Mr. Lincoln, dispassionate and +fair-minded as usual, allowed neither their personal +difference of opinion nor this abusive outcry +to inveigle into his mind any prejudice against +McClellan. The Southerner who, in February, +1861, predicted that Lincoln "would do his own +thinking," read character well. Lincoln was now +doing precisely this thing, in his silent, thorough, +independent way, neither provoked by McClellan's +cavalier assumption of superior knowledge, nor +<!-- Image No 360 --><a name='Png360'></a><a name='Page332'></a><span class="pagenum">332</span> +alarmed by the danger of offending the politicians. +In fact, he decided to go counter to both the disputants; +for he resolved, on the one hand, to compel +McClellan to act; on the other, to maintain +him in his command. He did not, however, abandon +his own plan of campaign. On January 27, +as commander-in-chief of the army, he issued his +"General War Order No. 1." In this he directed +"that the 22d day of February, 1862, be +the day for a general movement of the land and +naval forces of the United States against the insurgent +forces;" and said that heads of departments +and military and naval commanders would +"be held to their strict and full responsibilities +for prompt execution of this order." By this he +practically repudiated McClellan's scheme, because +transportation and other preparations for pursuing +the route by Urbana could not be made ready by +the date named.</p> + +<p>Critics of the President have pointed to this +document as a fine instance of the follies to be expected +from a civil ruler who conducts a war. To +order an advance all along a line from the Mississippi +to the Atlantic, upon a day certain, without +regard to differing local conditions and exigencies, +and to notify the enemy of the purpose nearly a +month beforehand, were acts preposterous according +to military science. But the criticism was not +so fair as it was obvious. The order really bore +in part the character of a manifesto; to the people +of the North, whose confidence must be kept and +<!-- Image No 361 --><a name='Png361'></a><a name='Page333'></a><span class="pagenum">333</span> +their spirit sustained, it said that the administration +meant action at once; to commanding officers +it was a fillip, warning them to bestir themselves, +obstacles to the contrary notwithstanding. It was +a reveille. Further, in a general way it undoubtedly +laid out a sound plan of campaign, substantially +in accordance with that which McClellan +also was evolving, viz.: to press the enemy all +along the western and middle line, and thus to +prevent his making too formidable a concentration +in Virginia. In the end, however, practicable or +impracticable, wise or foolish, the order was never +fulfilled. The armies in Virginia did nothing till +many weeks after the anniversary of Washington's +birthday; whereas, in the West, Admiral Foote +and General Grant did not conceive that they were +enforced to rest in idleness until that historic date. +Before it arrived they had performed the brilliant +exploits of capturing Fort Henry and Fort Donelson.</p> + +<p>On January 31 the President issued "Special +War Order No. 1," directing the army of the Potomac +to seize and occupy "a point upon the railroad +southwestward of what is known as Manassas Junction;... the +expedition to move before or on the +22d day of February next." This was the distinct, +as the general order had been the indirect, adoption +of his own plan of campaign, and the overruling +of that of the general. McClellan at once +remonstrated, and the two rival plans thus came +face to face for immediate and definitive settlement. +<!-- Image No 362 --><a name='Png362'></a><a name='Page334'></a><span class="pagenum">334</span> +It must be assumed that the President's +order had been really designed only to force exactly +this issue; for on February 3, so soon as he +received the remonstrance, he invited argument +from the general by writing to him a letter which +foreshadowed an open-minded reception for views +opposed to his own:—</p> + +<p>"If you will give satisfactory answers to the +following questions, I shall gladly yield my plan +to yours:—</p> + +<p>"1st. Does not your plan involve a greatly +larger expenditure of <i>time</i> and <i>money</i> than mine?</p> + +<p>"2d. Wherein is a victory <i>more certain</i> by your +plan than mine?</p> + +<p>"3d. Wherein is a victory <i>more valuable</i> by +your plan than mine?</p> + +<p>"4th. In fact, would it not be <i>less</i> valuable in +this: that it would break no great line of the +enemy's communications, while mine would?</p> + +<p>"5th. In case of disaster would not a retreat be +more difficult by your plan than mine?"</p> + +<p>To these queries McClellan replied by a long +and elaborate exposition of his views. He said +that, if the President's plan should be pursued +successfully, the "results would be confined to the +possession of the field of battle, the evacuation of +the line of the upper Potomac by the enemy, and +the moral effect of the victory." On the other +hand, a movement in force by the route which he +advocated "obliges the enemy to abandon his intrenched +position at Manassas, in order to hasten +<!-- Image No 363 --><a name='Png363'></a><a name='Page335'></a><span class="pagenum">335</span> +to cover Richmond and Norfolk." That is to say, +he expected to achieve by a manoeuvre what the +President designed to effect by a battle, to be +fought by inexperienced troops against an intrenched +enemy. He continued: "This movement, +if successful, gives us the capital, the communications, +the supplies, of the rebels; Norfolk +would fall; all the waters of the Chesapeake +would be ours; all Virginia would be in our power, +and the enemy forced to abandon Tennessee and +North Carolina. The alternative presented to the +enemy would be, to beat us in a position selected +by ourselves, disperse, or pass beneath the Caudine +forks." In case of defeat the Union army would +have a "perfectly secure retreat down the Peninsula +upon Fort Monroe." "This letter," he afterward +wrote, "must have produced some effect upon +the mind of the President!" The slur was unjust. +The President now and always considered +the views of the general with a liberality of mind +rarely to be met with in any man, and certainly +never in McClellan himself. In this instance the +letter did in fact produce so much "effect upon +the mind of the President" that he prepared to +yield views which he held very strongly to views +which he was charged with not being able to +understand, and which he certainly could not bring +himself actually to believe in.</p> + +<p>Yet before quite taking this step he demanded +that a council of the generals of division should be +summoned to express their opinions. This was +<!-- Image No 364 --><a name='Png364'></a><a name='Page336'></a><span class="pagenum">336</span> +done, with the result that McDowell, Sumner, +Heintzelman, and Barnard voted against McClellan's +plan; Keyes voted for it, with the proviso +"that no change should be made until the rebels +were driven from their batteries on the Potomac." +Fitz-John Porter, Franklin, W.F. Smith, McCall, +Blenker, Andrew Porter, and Naglee (of Hooker's +division) voted for it. Stanton afterward said of +this: "We saw ten generals afraid to fight." The +insult, delivered in the snug personal safety which +was suspected to be very dear to Stanton, was +ridiculous as aimed at men who soon handled some +of the most desperate battles of the war; but it is +interesting as an expression of the unreasoning +bitterness of the controversy then waging over the +situation in Virginia, a controversy causing animosities +vastly more fierce than any between Union +soldiers and Confederates, animosities which have +unfortunately lasted longer, and which can never +be brought to the like final and conclusive arbitrament. +The purely military question quickly became +snarled up with politics and was reduced to +very inferior proportions in the noxious competition. +"Politics entered and strategy retired," +says General Webb, too truly. McClellan himself +conceived that the politicians were leagued to destroy +him, and would rather see him discredited +than the rebels whipped. In later days the strong +partisan loves and hatreds of our historical writers +have perpetuated and increased all this bad blood, +confusion, and obscurity.</p> + +<p><!-- Image No 365 --><a name='Png365'></a><a name='Page337'></a><span class="pagenum">337</span> +The action of the council of generals was conclusive. +The President accepted McClellan's plan. +Therein he did right; for undeniably it was his +duty to allow his own inexperience to be controlled +by the deliberate opinion of the best military +experts in the country; and this fact is +wholly independent of any opinion concerning the +intrinsic or the comparative merits of the plans +themselves. Indeed, Mr. Lincoln had never expressed +positive disapproval of McClellan's plan +<i>per se</i>, but only had been alarmed at what seemed +to him its indirect result in exposing the capital. +To cover this point, he now made an imperative +preliminary condition that this safety should be +placed beyond a question. He was emphatic and +distinct in reiterating this proviso as fundamental. +The preponderance of professional testimony, from +that day to this, has been to the effect that McClellan's +strategy was sound and able, and that +Mr. Lincoln's anxiety for the capital was groundless. +But in spite of all argument, and though +military men may shed ink as if it were mere +blood, in spite even of the contempt and almost +ridicule which the President incurred at the pen +of McClellan,<a name='FNanchor_164_166'></a><a href='#Footnote_164_166'><sup>[164]</sup></a> + the civilian will retain a lurking +sympathy with the President's preference. It is +<!-- Image No 366 --><a name='Png366'></a><a name='Page338'></a><span class="pagenum">338</span> +impossible not to reflect that precisely in proportion +as the safety of the capital, for many weighty +reasons, immeasurably outweighed any other possible +consideration in the minds of the Northerners, +so the desire to capture it would be equally overmastering +in the estimation of the Southerners. +Why might not the rebels permit McClellan to +march into Richmond, provided that at the same +time they were marching into Washington? Why +might they not, in the language afterward used by +General Lee, "swap Queens?" They would have +a thousand fold the better of the exchange. The +Northern Queen was an incalculably more valuable +piece on the board than was her Southern rival. +With the Northern government in flight, Maryland +would go to the Confederacy, and European +recognition would be sure and immediate; and +these two facts might, almost surely would, be +conclusive against the Northern cause. Moreover, +memory will obstinately bring up the fact that +long afterward, when General Grant was pursuing +a route to Richmond strategically not dissimilar +to that proposed by McClellan, and when all +the circumstances made the danger of a successful +attack upon Washington much less than it was +in the spring of 1862, the rebels actually all but +captured the city; and it was saved not alone by +a rapidity of movement which would have been +impossible in the early stages of the war, but also +by what must be called the aid of good luck. It +is difficult to see why General Jackson in 1862 +<!-- Image No 367 --><a name='Png367'></a><a name='Page339'></a><span class="pagenum">339</span> +might not have played in fatal earnest a game +which in 1864 General Early played merely for +the chances. Pondering upon these things, it is +probable that no array of military scientists will +ever persuade the non-military world that Mr. +Lincoln was so timid, or so dull-witted, or so +unreasonable, as General McClellan declared him +to be.</p> + +<p>Another consideration is suggested by some +remarks of Mr. Swinton. It is tolerably obvious +that, whether McClellan's plan was or was not the +better, the President's plan was entirely possible; +all that could be said against it was that it promised +somewhat poorer results at somewhat higher +cost. This being the case, and in view of the fact +that the President's disquietude concerning Washington +was so profound and his distrust of McClellan's +plan so ineradicable, it would have been +much better to have had the yielding come from +the general than from the President. A man of +less stubborn temper and of broader intellect than +belonged to McClellan would have appreciated +this. In fact, it was in a certain sense even poor +generalship to enter upon a campaign of such +magnitude, when a thorough and hearty coöperation +was really not to be expected. For after all +might be ostensibly settled and agreed upon, and +however honest might be Mr. Lincoln's intentions +to support the commanding general, one thing still +remained certain: that the safety of the capital +was Mr. Lincoln's weightiest responsibility, that it +<!-- Image No 368 --><a name='Png368'></a><a name='Page340'></a><span class="pagenum">340</span> +was a matter concerning which he was sensitively +anxious, and that he was perfectly sure in any moment +of alarm concerning that safety to insure +it by any means in his power and at any sacrifice +whatsoever. In a word, that which soon did happen +was precisely that which ought to have been +foreseen as likely to happen. For it was entirely +obvious that Mr. Lincoln did not abandon his own +scheme because his own reason was convinced of +the excellence of McClellan's; in fact, he never +was and never pretended to be thus convinced. +To his mind, McClellan's reasoning never overcame +his own reasoning; he only gave way before +professional authority; and, while he sincerely +meant to give McClellan the most efficient aid and +backing in his power, the anxiety about Washington +rested immovable in his thought. If the two +interests should ever, in his opinion, come into +competition, no one could doubt which would be +sacrificed. To push forward the Peninsula campaign +under these conditions was a terrible mistake +of judgment on McClellan's part. Far better +would it have been to have taken the Manassas +route; for even if its inherent demerits were +really so great as McClellan had depicted, they +would have been more than offset by preserving +the undiminished coöperation of the administration. +The personal elements in the problem ought +to have been conclusive.</p> + +<p>An indication of the error of forcing the President +into a course not commended by his judgment, +<!-- Image No 369 --><a name='Png369'></a><a name='Page341'></a><span class="pagenum">341</span> +in a matter where his responsibility was so +grave, was seen immediately. On March 8 he +issued General War Order No. 3: That no change +of base should be made "without leaving in and +about Washington such a force as, in the opinion +of the general-in-chief and the commanders of +army corps, shall leave said city entirely secure;" +that not more than two corps (about 50,000 men) +should be moved en route for a new base until the +Potomac, below Washington, should be freed from +the Confederate batteries; that any movement of +the army via Chesapeake Bay should begin as +early as March 18, and that the general-in-chief +should be "responsible that it moves as early as +that day." This greatly aggravated McClellan's +dissatisfaction; for it expressed the survival of +the President's anxiety, it hampered the general, +and by its last clause it placed upon him a responsibility +not properly his own.</p> + +<p>Yet at this very moment weighty evidence came +to impeach the soundness of McClellan's opinion +concerning the military situation. On February +27 Secretary Chase wrote that the time had come +for dealing decisively with the "army in front of +us," which he conceived to be already so weakened +that "a victory over it is deprived of half its +honor." Not many days after this writing, the +civilian strategists, the President and his friends, +seemed entitled to triumph. For on March 7, 8, +and 9 the North was astonished by news of the +evacuation of Manassas by Johnston. At once +<!-- Image No 370 --><a name='Png370'></a><a name='Page342'></a><span class="pagenum">342</span> +the cry of McClellan's assailants went up: If +McClellan had only moved upon the place! What +a cheap victory he would have won, and attended +with what invaluable "moral effects"! Yet, forsooth, +he had been afraid to move upon these +very intrenched positions which it now appeared +that the Confederates dared not hold even when +unthreatened! But McClellan retorted that the +rebels had taken this backward step precisely because +they had got some hint of his designs for +advancing by Urbana, and that it was the exact +fulfillment, though inconveniently premature, of +his predictions. This explanation, however, wholly +failed to prevent the civilian mind from believing +that a great point had been scored on behalf of +the President's plan. Further than this, there +were many persons, including even a majority of +the members of the Committee on the Conduct +of the War, who did not content themselves with +mere abuse of McClellan's military intelligence, +but who actually charged him with being disaffected +and nearly, if not quite, a traitor. None +the less Mr. Lincoln generously and patiently +adhered to his agreement to let McClellan have +his own way.</p> + +<p>Precisely at the same time that this evacuation +of Manassas gave to McClellan's enemies an argument +against him which they deemed fair and +forcible and he deemed unfair and ignorant, two +other occurrences added to the strain of the situation. +McClellan immediately put his entire force +<!-- Image No 371 --><a name='Png371'></a><a name='Page343'></a><span class="pagenum">343</span> +in motion towards the lines abandoned by the Confederates, +not with the design of pressing the retreating +foe, which the "almost impassable roads" +prevented, but to strip off redundancies and to +train the troops in marching. On March 11, immediately +after he had started, the President issued +his Special War Order No. 3: "Major-General +McClellan having personally taken the field at +the head of the army of the Potomac,... he is +relieved from the command of the other military +departments, he retaining command of the Department +of the Potomac." McClellan at once wrote +that he should continue to "work just as cheerfully +as before;" but he felt that the removal was very +unhandsomely made just as he was entering upon +active operations. Lincoln, on the other hand, undoubtedly +looked upon it in precisely the opposite +light, and conceived that the opportunity of the +moment deprived of any apparent sting a change +which he had determined to make. The duties +which were thus taken from McClellan were assumed +during several months by Mr. Stanton. He +was utterly incompetent for them, and, whether or +not it was wise to displace the general, it was certainly +very unwise to let the secretary practically +succeed him.<a name='FNanchor_165_167'></a><a href='#Footnote_165_167'><sup>[165]</sup></a> + The way in which, both at the East +and West, our forces were distributed into many +independent commands, with no competent chief +who could compel all to coöperate and to become +subsidiary to one comprehensive scheme, was a +<!-- Image No 372 --><a name='Png372'></a><a name='Page344'></a><span class="pagenum">344</span> +serious mistake in general policy, which cost very +dear before it was recognized.<a name='FNanchor_166_168'></a><a href='#Footnote_166_168'><sup>[166]</sup></a> + McClellan had +made some efforts to effect this combination or +unity in purpose, but Stanton gave no indication +even of understanding that it was desirable.</p> + +<p>The other matter was the division of the army +of the Potomac into four army corps, to be commanded +respectively by the four senior generals +of division, viz., McDowell, Sumner, Heintzelman, +and Keyes. The propriety of this action had +been for some time under consideration, and the +step was now forced upon Mr. Lincoln by the +strenuous insistence of the Committee on the Conduct +of the War. That so large an army required +organization by corps was admitted; but McClellan +had desired to defer the arrangement until his +generals of division should have had some actual +experience in the field, whereby their comparative +fitness for higher responsibilities could be +measured. An incapable corps commander was a +much more dangerous man than an incapable commander +of a division or brigade. The commander +naturally felt the action now taken by the President +to be a slight, and he attributed it to +pressure by the band of civilian advisers whose +untiring hostility he returned with unutterable +contempt. Not only was the taking of the step at +this time contrary to his advice, but he was not +even consulted in the selection of his own subordinates, +<!-- Image No 373 --><a name='Png373'></a><a name='Page345'></a><span class="pagenum">345</span> +who were set in these important positions by +the blind rule of seniority, and not in accordance +with his opinion of comparative merit. His irritation +was perhaps not entirely unjustifiable.</p> + + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_146_148'></a><a href='#FNanchor_146_148'>[146]</a> + A reconnoissance or "slight demonstration" ordered for the +day before by McClellan had been completed, and is not to be confounded +with this movement, for which he was not responsible.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_147_149'></a><a href='#FNanchor_147_149'>[147]</a> + For example, see his <i>Own Story</i>, 82; but, unfortunately, one +may refer to that book <i>passim</i> for evidence of the statement.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_148_150'></a><a href='#FNanchor_148_150'>[148]</a> + N. and H. iv. 469.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_149_151'></a><a href='#FNanchor_149_151'>[149]</a> + <i>Ibid.</i> v. 140.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_150_152'></a><a href='#FNanchor_150_152'>[150]</a> + Letter to Lincoln, February 3, 1862.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_151_153'></a><a href='#FNanchor_151_153'>[151]</a> + <i>Army of Potomac</i>, 97. Swinton says: "He should have made +the lightest possible draft on the indulgence of the people." +<i>Ibid.</i> 69. General Webb says: "He drew too heavily upon the +faith of the public." <i>The Peninsula</i>, 12.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_152_154'></a><a href='#FNanchor_152_154'>[152]</a> + The Southern generals had a similar propensity to overestimate +the opposing force; <i>e.g.</i>, Johnston's <i>Narrative</i>, 108, where +he puts the Northern force at 140,000, when in fact it was 58,000; +and on p. 112 his statement is even worse.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_153_155'></a><a href='#FNanchor_153_155'>[153]</a> + The Southerners also had the same notion, hoping by one +great victory to discourage and convince the North and make +peace on the basis of independence; <i>e.g.</i>, see Johnston's <i>Narrative</i> +113, 115. Grant likewise had the notion of a decisive battle. +<i>Memoirs</i>, i. 368.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_154_156'></a><a href='#FNanchor_154_156'>[154]</a> + The position taken by Messrs. Nicolay and Hay, I think, fully +warrants this language.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_155_157'></a><a href='#FNanchor_155_157'>[155]</a> + General Palfrey says of this committee that "the worst spirit +of the Inquisition characterized their doings." <i>The Antietam and +Fredericksburg</i> (Campaigns of Civil War Series), 182.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_156_158'></a><a href='#FNanchor_156_158'>[156]</a> + Through Stanton; McClellan, <i>Own Story</i>, 156.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_157_159'></a><a href='#FNanchor_157_159'>[157]</a> + Only a few days before this time Lincoln had said that he +had no "right" to insist upon knowing the general's plans. +Julian, <i>Polit. Recoll.</i> 201.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_158_160'></a><a href='#FNanchor_158_160'>[158]</a> + It appears that he feared that what he said would leak out, +and ultimately reach the enemy.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_159_161'></a><a href='#FNanchor_159_161'>[159]</a> + For an interesting account of these incidents, from Secretary +Chase's Diary, see Warden, 401.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_160_162'></a><a href='#FNanchor_160_162'>[160]</a> + Lamon, 332; Herndon, 353-356; N. and H. try to mitigate +this story, v. 133.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_161_163'></a><a href='#FNanchor_161_163'>[161]</a> + He did not always feel his tongue tied afterward by the obligations +of office; <i>e.g.</i>, see Julian, <i>Polit. Recoll.</i> 210.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_162_164'></a><a href='#FNanchor_162_164'>[162]</a> + For a singular tale, see McClellan, <i>Own Story</i>, 153.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_163_165'></a><a href='#FNanchor_163_165'>[163]</a> + In fact, the feeling against McClellan was getting so strong +that some of his enemies were wild enough about this time to +accuse him of disloyalty. He himself narrates a dramatic tale, +which would seem incredible if his veracity were not beyond +question, of an interview, occurring March 8, 1862, in which the +President told him, apparently with the air of expecting an explanation, +that he was charged with laying his plans with the +traitorous intent of leaving Washington defenseless. McClellan's +<i>Own Story</i>, 195. On the other hand, McClellan retaliated by believing +that his detractors wished, for political and personal motives, +to prevent the war from being brought to an early and +successful close, and that they intentionally withheld from him +the means of success; also that Stanton especially sought by underhand +means to sow misunderstanding between him and the +President. <i>Ibid.</i> 195.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_164_166'></a><a href='#FNanchor_164_166'>[164]</a> + McClellan afterward wrote that the administration "had +neither courage nor military insight to understand the effect of +the plan I desired to carry out." <i>Own Story</i>, 194. This is perhaps +a mild example of many remarks to the same purport which +fell from the general at one time and another.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_165_167'></a><a href='#FNanchor_165_167'>[165]</a> + See remarks of Mr. Blaine, <i>Twenty Years of Congress</i>, i. 368.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_166_168'></a><a href='#FNanchor_166_168'>[166]</a> + <i>E.g.</i>, McClellan, <i>Rep.</i> (per Keyes), 82; Grant, <i>Mem.</i> i. 322; +and indeed all writers agree upon this.</p></div> + + + +<hr class='long'/> +<!-- Image No 374 --><a name='Png374'></a><a name='Page346'></a><span class="pagenum">346</span> + +<a name='CHAPTER_XI'></a> +<h2>CHAPTER XI</h2> +<h2>MILITARY MATTERS OUTSIDE OF VIRGINIA</h2> + +<p>The man who first raised the cry "On to Richmond!" +uttered the formula of the war. Richmond +was the gage of victory. Thus it happened, +as has been seen, that every one at the North, +from the President down, had his attention fast +bound to the melancholy procession of delays and +miscarriages in Virginia. At the West there +were important things to be done; the States of +Kentucky, Tennessee, and Missouri, trembling in +the balance, were to be lost or won for the Union; +the passage down the Mississippi to the Gulf was +at stake, and with it the prosperity and development +of the boundless regions of the Northwest. +Surely these were interests of some moment, and +worthy of liberal expenditure of thought and energy, +men and money; yet the swarm of politicians +gave them only side glances, being unable for +many minutes in any day to withdraw their eyes +from the Old Dominion. The consequence was +that at the East matters military and matters political, +generals and "public men" of all varieties +were mixed in a snarl of backbiting and quarreling, +which presented a spectacle most melancholy +<!-- Image No 375 --><a name='Png375'></a><a name='Page347'></a><span class="pagenum">347</span> +and discouraging. On the other hand, the West +throve surprisingly well in the absence of political +nourishment, and certain local commanders +achieved cheering successes without any aid from +the military civilians of Washington. The contrast +seems suggestive, yet perhaps it is incorrect +to attach to these facts any sinister significance, or +any connection of cause and effect. Other reasons +than civilian assistance may account for the Virginia +failures, while Western successes may have +been won in spite of neglect rather than by reason +of it. Still, simply as naked facts, these things +were so.</p> + +<p>Upon occurrences outside of Virginia Mr. Lincoln +bestowed more thought than was fashionable +in Washington, and maintained an oversight +strongly in contrast to the indifference of those +who seemed to recognize no other duty than to +discuss the demerits of General McClellan. The +President had at least the good sense to see the +value of unity of plan and coöperation along the +whole line, from the Atlantic seaboard to the extreme +West. Also at the West as at the East he +was bent upon advancing, pressing the enemy, +and doing something positive. He had not occasion +to use the spur at the West either so often or +so severely as at the East; yet Halleck and Buell +needed it and got it more than once. The Western +commanders, like those at the East, and with +better reason, were importunate for more men and +more equipment. The President could not, by +<!-- Image No 376 --><a name='Png376'></a><a name='Page348'></a><span class="pagenum">348</span> +any effort, meet their requirements. He wrote to +McClernand after the battle of Belmont: "Much, +very much, goes undone; but it is because we have +not the power to do it faster than we do." Some +troops were without arms; but, he said, "the plain +matter of fact is, our good people have rushed to +the rescue of the government faster than the government +can find arms to put in their hands." +Yet, withal, it is true that Mr. Lincoln's actual +interferences at the South and West were so occasional +and incidental, that, since this writing is a +biography of him and not a history of the war, +there is need only for a list of the events which +were befalling outside of that absorbing domain +which lay around the rival capitals.</p> + +<p>Along the southern Atlantic coast some rather +easy successes were rapidly won. August 29, +1861, Hatteras Inlet was taken, with little fighting. +November 7, Port Royal followed. Lying +nearly midway between Charleston and Savannah, +and being a very fine harbor, this was a prize of +value. January 7, 1862, General Burnside was +directed to take command of the Department of +North Carolina. February 8, Roanoke Island was +seized by the Federal forces. March 14, Newbern +fell. April 11, Fort Pulaski, at the mouth +of the Savannah River, was taken. April 26, +Beaufort was occupied. The blockade of the +other Atlantic ports having long since been made +effective, the Eastern seaboard thus early became +a prison wall for the Confederacy.</p> + +<p><!-- Image No 377 --><a name='Png377'></a><a name='Page349'></a><span class="pagenum">349</span> +At the extreme West Missouri gave the President +some trouble. The bushwhacking citizens of +that frontier State, divided not unequally between +the Union and Disunion sides, entered upon an +irregular but energetic warfare with ready zeal if +not actually with pleasure. Northerners in general +hardly paused to read the newspaper accounts +of these rough encounters, but the President was +much concerned to save the State. As it lay over +against Illinois along the banks of the Mississippi +River, and for the most part above the important +strategic point where Cairo controls the junction +of that river with the Ohio, possession of it appeared +to him exceedingly desirable. In the hope +of helping matters forward, on July 3, 1861, he +created the Department of the West, and placed +it under command of General Fremont. But the +choice proved unfortunate. Fremont soon showed +himself inefficient and troublesome. At first the +President endeavored to allay the local bickerings; +on September 9, 1861, he wrote to General +Hunter: "General Fremont needs assistance +which it is difficult to give him. He is losing the +confidence of men near him.... His cardinal +mistake is that he isolates himself;... he does +not know what is going on.... He needs to have +by his side a man of large experience. Will you +not, for me, take that place? Your rank is one +grade too high;... but will you not serve the +country, and oblige me, by taking it voluntarily?" +Kindly consideration, however, was thrown away +<!-- Image No 378 --><a name='Png378'></a><a name='Page350'></a><span class="pagenum">350</span> +upon Fremont, whose self-esteem was so great that +he could not see that he ought to be grateful, or +that he must be subordinate. He owed his appointment +largely to the friendly urgency of the +Blair family; and now Postmaster-General Blair, +puzzled at the disagreeable stories about him, went +to St. Louis on an errand of investigation. Fremont +promptly placed him under arrest. At the +same time Mrs. Fremont was journeying to Washington, +where she had an extraordinary interview +with the President. "She sought an audience +with me at midnight," wrote Lincoln, "and taxed +me so violently with many things that I had to +exercise all the awkward tact I have to avoid +quarreling with her.... She more than once +intimated that if General Fremont should decide +to try conclusions with me, he could set up for +himself." Naturally the angry lady's threats of +treason, instead of seeming a palliation of her +husband's shortcomings, tended to make his displacement +more inevitable. Yet the necessity of +being rid of him was unfortunate, because he was +the pet hero of the Abolitionists, who stood by +him without the slightest regard to reason. Lincoln +was loath to offend them, but he felt that he +had no choice, and therefore ordered the removal. +He preserved, however, that habitual strange freedom +from personal resentment which made his +feelings, like his action, seem to be strictly official. +After the matter was all over he uttered a fair +judgment: "I thought well of Fremont. Even +<!-- Image No 379 --><a name='Png379'></a><a name='Page351'></a><span class="pagenum">351</span> +now I think well of his impulses. I only think +he is the prey of wicked and designing men; and +I think he has absolutely no military capacity." +For a short while General Hunter filled Fremont's +place, until, in November, General Henry W. +Halleck was assigned to command the Department +of Missouri. In February, 1862, General Curtis +drove the only regular and considerable rebel force +across the border into Arkansas; and soon afterward, +March 7 and 8, within this latter State, he +won the victory of Pea Ridge.</p> + +<p>In Tennessee the vote upon secession had indicated +that more than two thirds of the dwellers +in the mountainous eastern region were Unionists. +Mr. Lincoln had it much at heart to sustain these +men, and aside from the personal feeling of loyalty +to them it was also a point of great military consequence +to hold this district. Near the boundary +separating the northeastern corner of the State +from Kentucky, the famous Cumberland Gap gave +passage through the Cumberland Mountains for +the East Tennessee and Virginia Railroad, "the +artery that supplied the rebellion." The President +saw, as many others did, and appreciated +much more than others seemed to do, the desirability +of gaining this place. To hold it would be +to cut in halves, between east and west, the northern +line of the Confederacy. In the early days a +movement towards the Gap seemed imprudent in +face of Kentucky's theory of "neutrality." But +this foolish notion was in time effectually disposed +<!-- Image No 380 --><a name='Png380'></a><a name='Page352'></a><span class="pagenum">352</span> +of by the Confederates. Unable to resist the +temptation offered by the important position of +Columbus at the western end of the State on the +Mississippi River, they seized that place in September, +1861. The state legislature, incensed at +the intrusion, immediately embraced the Union +cause and welcomed the Union forces within the +state lines.</p> + +<p>This action opened the way for the President to +make strenuous efforts for the protection of the +East Tennesseeans and the possession of the Gap. +In his annual message he urged upon Congress +the construction of a military railroad to the Gap, +and afterward appeared in person to advocate this +measure before a committee of the Senate. If the +place had been in Virginia, he might have gained +for his project an attention which, as matters +stood, the politicians never accorded to it. He +also endeavored to stir to action General Buell, +who commanded in Kentucky. Buell, an appointee +and personal friend of General McClellan, +resembled his chief somewhat too closely both in +character and history. Just as Mr. Lincoln had +to prick McClellan in Virginia, he now had to +prick Buell in Kentucky; and just as McClellan, +failed to respond in Virginia, Buell also failed in +Kentucky. Further, Buell, like McClellan, had +with him a force very much greater than that +before him; but Buell, like McClellan, would not +admit that his troops were in condition to move. +The result was that Jefferson Davis, more active +<!-- Image No 381 --><a name='Png381'></a><a name='Page353'></a><span class="pagenum">353</span> +to protect a crucial point than the North was to +assail it, in December, 1861, sent into East Tennessee +a force which imprisoned, deported, and +hanged the loyal residents there, harried the country +without mercy, and held it with the iron hand. +The poor mountaineers, with good reason, concluded +that the hostility of the South was a terribly +serious evil, whereas the friendship of the +North was a sadly useless good. The President +was bitterly chagrined, although certainly the +blame did not rest with him. Then the parallel +between Buell and McClellan was continued even +one step farther; for Buell at last intimated that +he did not approve of the plan of campaign suggested +for him, but thought it would be better +tactics to move upon Nashville. It so happened, +however, that when he expressed these views McClellan +was commander-in-chief of all the armies, +and that general, being little tolerant of criticism +from subordinates when he himself was the superior, +responded very tartly and imperiously. Lincoln, +on the other hand, according to his wont, +wrote modestly: "Your dispatch ... disappoints +and distresses me.... I am not competent to +criticise your views." Then, in the rest of the letter, +he maintained with convincing clearness both +the military and the political soundness of his own +opinions.</p> + +<p>In offset of this disappointment caused by Buell's +inaction, the western end of Kentucky became +the theatre of gratifying operations. So soon as +<!-- Image No 382 --><a name='Png382'></a><a name='Page354'></a><span class="pagenum">354</span> +policy ceased to compel recognition of the "neutrality" +of the State, General Grant, on September +6, 1861, entered Paducah at the confluence of +the Ohio and Tennessee rivers. By this move he +checked the water communication hitherto freely +used by the rebels, and neutralized the advantage +which they had expected to gain by their possession +of Columbus. But this was only a first and +easy step. Farther to the southward, just within +the boundaries of Tennessee, lay Fort Henry on the +Tennessee River and Fort Donelson on the Cumberland, +presenting a kind of temptation which +Grant was less able to resist than were most of +the Union generals at this time. Accordingly he +arranged with Admiral Foote, who commanded +the new gunboats on the Mississippi, for a joint +excursion against these places. On February 6, +Fort Henry fell, chiefly through the work of the +river navy. Ten days later, February 16, Fort +Donelson was taken, the laurels on this occasion +falling to the land forces. Floyd and Pillow were +in the place when the Federals came to it, but +when they saw that capture was inevitable they +furtively slipped away, and thus shifted upon General +Buckner the humiliation of the surrender. +This mean behavior excited the bitter resentment +of that general, which was not alleviated by what +followed. For when he proposed to discuss terms +of capitulation, General Grant made that famous +reply which gave rise to his popular nickname: +"No terms except unconditional and immediate +<!-- Image No 383 --><a name='Png383'></a><a name='Page355'></a><span class="pagenum">355</span> +surrender can be accepted. I propose to move +immediately upon your works."</p> + +<p>Halleck telegraphed the pleasant news that the +capture of Fort Donelson carried with it "12,000 +to 15,000 prisoners, including Generals Buckner +and Bushrod R. Johnson, also about 20,000 stands +of arms, 48 pieces of artillery, 17 heavy guns, +from 2000 to 4000 horses, and large quantities +of commissary stores." He also advised: "Make +Buell, Grant, and Pope major-generals of volunteers, +and give me command in the West. I ask +this in return for Forts Henry and Donelson." +Halleck was one of those who expect to reap +where others sow. The achievements of Grant +and Foote also led him, by some strange process +of reasoning, to conclude that General C.W. +Smith was the most able general in his department.</p> + +<p>Congress, highly gratified at these cheering +events, ordered a grand illumination at Washington +for February 22; but the death of the President's +little son, at the White House, a day or +two before that date, checked a rejoicing which +in other respects also would not have been altogether +timely.</p> + +<p>The Federal possession of these two forts rendered +Columbus untenable for the Confederates, +and on March 2 they evacuated it. This was followed +by the fall of New Madrid on March 13, +and of Island No. 10 on April 7. At the latter +place between 6000 and 7000 Confederates surrendered. +<!-- Image No 384 --><a name='Png384'></a><a name='Page356'></a><span class="pagenum">356</span> +Thus was the Federal wedge being +driven steadily deeper down the channel of the +Mississippi.</p> + +<p>Soon after this good service of the gunboats on +the Western rivers, the salt-water navy came in for +its share of glory. On March 8 the ram Virginia, +late Merrimac, which had been taking on her mysterious +iron raiment at the Norfolk navy yard, +issued from her concealment, an ugly and clumsy, +but also a novel and terrible monster. Straight +she steamed against the frigate Cumberland, and +with one fell rush cut the poor wooden vessel in +halves and sent her, with all on board, to the +bottom of the sea. Turning then, she mercilessly +battered the frigate Congress, drove her ashore, +and burned her. All this while the shot which +had rained upon her iron sides had rolled off harmless, +and she returned to her anchorage, having her +prow broken by impact with the Cumberland, but +otherwise unhurt. Her armor had stood the test, +and now the Federal government contemplated with +grave anxiety the further possible achievements +of this strange and potent destroyer.</p> + +<p>But the death of the Merrimac was to follow +close upon her birth; she was the portent of a few +weeks only. For, during a short time past, there +had been also rapidly building in a Connecticut +yard the Northern marvel, the famous Monitor. +When the ingenious Swede, John Ericsson, proposed +his scheme for an impregnable floating battery, +his hearers were divided between distrust +<!-- Image No 385 --><a name='Png385'></a><a name='Page357'></a><span class="pagenum">357</span> +and hope; but fortunately the President's favorable +opinion secured the trial of the experiment. +The work was zealously pushed, and the artisans +actually went to sea with the craft in order to +finish her as she made her voyage southward. It +was well that such haste was made, for she came +into Hampton Roads actually by the light of the +burning Congress. On the next day, being Sunday, +March 9, the Southern monster again steamed +forth, intending this time to make the Minnesota +her prey; but a little boat, that looked like a +"cheese-box" afloat, pushed forward to interfere +with this plan. Then occurred a duel which, in +the annals of naval science, ranks as the most important +engagement which ever took place. It did +not actually result in the destruction of the Merrimac +then and there, for, though much battered, +she was able to make her way back to the friendly +shelter of the Norfolk yard. But she was more +than neutralized; it was evident that the Monitor +was the better craft of the two, and that in a +combat <i>à outrance</i> she would win. The significance +of this day's work on the waters of Virginia +cannot be exaggerated. By the armor-clad Merrimac +and the Monitor there was accomplished in +the course of an hour a revolution which differentiated +the naval warfare of the past from that +of the future by a chasm as great as that which +separated the ancient Greek trireme from the flagship +of Lord Nelson.</p> + +<p>As early as the middle of November, 1861, Mr. +<!-- Image No 386 --><a name='Png386'></a><a name='Page358'></a><span class="pagenum">358</span> +Lincoln was discussing the feasibility of capturing +New Orleans. Already Ship Island, off the Mississippi +coast, with its uncompleted equipment, had +been seized as a Gulf station, and could be used as +a base. The naval force was prepared as rapidly +as possible, but it was not until February 3 that +Captain Farragut, the commander of the expedition, +steamed out of Hampton Roads in his flagship, +the screw steam sloop Hartford. On April +18 he began to bombard forts St. Philip and Jackson, +which lie on the river banks seventy-five miles +below New Orleans, guarding the approach. Soon, +becoming impatient of this tardy process, he resolved +upon the bold and original enterprise of +running by the forts. This he achieved in the +night of April 24; and on April 27 the stars and +stripes floated over the Mint in New Orleans. +Still two days of shilly-shallying on the part of +the mayor ensued, delaying a formal surrender, +until Farragut, who had no fancy for nonsense, +sharply put a stop to it, and New Orleans, in form +and substance, passed under Northern control. On +April 28 the two forts, isolated by what had taken +place, surrendered. On May 1 General Butler +began in the city that efficient régime which so +exasperated the men of the South. On May 7 +Baton Rouge, the state capital, was occupied, without +resistance; and Natchez followed in the procession +on May 12.</p> + + +<p class="figure"> +<a href="img/illus0429.jpg"> +<img width="100%" src='img/illus0429.jpg' alt='The Fight Between The Monitor And The Merrimac.'/></a><br/> +The Fight Between The Monitor And The Merrimac. +</p> + +<p>With one Union fleet at the mouth of the Mississippi +and another at Island No. 10, and the +<!-- Image No 387 --><a name='Png387'></a> +<!-- Image No 388 --><a name='Png388'></a> +<!-- Image No 389 --><a name='Png389'></a><a name='Page359'></a><span class="pagenum">359</span> +Union army not far from the riverside in Kentucky +and Tennessee, the opening and repossession +of the whole stream by the Federals became a +thing which ought soon to be achieved. On June +5 the gunboat fleet from up the river came down +to within two miles of Memphis, engaged in a hard +fight and won a complete victory, and on the next +day Memphis was held by the Union troops. Farragut +also, working in his usual style, forced his +way up to Vicksburg, and exchanged shots with the +Confederate batteries on the bluffs. He found, +however, that without the coöperation of a land +force he could do nothing, and had to drop back +again to New Orleans, arriving there on June 1. +In a few weeks he returned in stronger force, and +on June 27 he was bombarding the rebel works. +On June 28, repeating the operation which had +been so successful below New Orleans, he ran some +of his vessels by the batteries and got above the +city. But there was still no army on the land, and +so the vessels which had run by, up stream, had to +make the dangerous gauntlet again, down stream, +and a second time the fleet descended to New Orleans.</p> + +<p>General Halleck had arrived at St. Louis on +November 18, 1861, to take command of the Western +Department. Perhaps a more energetic commander +would have been found ready to coöperate +with Farragut at Vicksburg by the end of June, +1862; for matters had been going excellently with +the Unionists northeast of that place, and it would +<!-- Image No 390 --><a name='Png390'></a><a name='Page360'></a><span class="pagenum">360</span> +seem that a powerful and victorious army might +have been moving thither during that month. +Early in March, however, General Halleck reported +that Grant's army was as much demoralized +by victory as the army at Bull Run had been by +defeat. He said that Grant "richly deserved" +censure, and that he himself was worn out by +Grant's neglect and inefficiency. By such charges +he obtained from McClellan orders relieving General +Grant from duty, ordering an investigation, +and even authorizing his arrest. But a few days +later, March 13, more correct information caused +the reversal of these orders, and March 17 found +Grant again in command. He at once began to +busy himself with arrangements for moving upon +Corinth. General Buell meanwhile, after sustaining +McClellan's rebuke and being taught his place, +had afterward been successful in obtaining for his +own plan preference over that of the administration, +had easily possessed himself of Nashville toward +the end of February, and was now ready to +march westward and coöperate with General Grant +in this enterprise. Corinth, lying just across the +Mississippi border, was "the great strategic position" +at this part of the West. The Mobile and +Ohio Railroad ran through it north and south; the +Memphis and Charleston Railroad passed through +east and west. If it could be taken and held, it +would leave, as the only connection open through +the Confederacy from the Mississippi River to the +Atlantic coast, the railroad line which started from +<!-- Image No 391 --><a name='Png391'></a><a name='Page361'></a><span class="pagenum">361</span> +Vicksburg. The Confederates also had shown their +estimation of Corinth by fortifying it strongly, and +manifesting plainly their determination to fight a +great battle to hold it. Grant, aiming towards it, +had his army at Pittsburg Landing, on the west +bank of the Tennessee, and there awaited Buell, +who was moving thither from Nashville with +40,000 men. Such being the status, Grant expected +General A.S. Johnston to await in his +intrenchments the assault of the Union army. +But Johnston, in an aggressive mood, laid well +and boldly his plan to whip Grant before Buell +could join him, then to whip Buell, and, having +thus disposed of the Northern forces in detail, to +carry the war up to, or even across, the Ohio. So +he came suddenly out from Corinth and marched +straight upon Pittsburg Landing, and precipitated +that famous battle which has been named after the +church of Shiloh, because about that church the +most desperate and bloody fighting was done.</p> + +<p>The conflict began on Sunday, April 6, and +lasted all day. There was not much plan about +it; the troops went at each other somewhat indiscriminately +and did simple stubborn fighting. The +Federals lost much ground all along their line, and +were crowded back towards the river. Some say +that the Confederates closed that day on the way +to victory; but General Grant says that he felt +assured of winning on Monday, and that he instructed +all his division commanders to open with +an assault in the morning. The doubt, if doubt +<!-- Image No 392 --><a name='Png392'></a><a name='Page362'></a><span class="pagenum">362</span> +there was, was settled by the arrival of General +Buell, whose fresh forces, coming in as good an +hour as the Prussians came at Waterloo, were put +in during the evening upon the Federal left. On +Sunday the Confederates had greatly outnumbered +the Federals, but this reinforcement reversed the +proportions, so that on Monday the Federals were +in the greater force. Again the conflict was fierce +and obstinate, but again the greater numbers +whipped the smaller, and by afternoon the Confederates +were in full retreat. Shiloh, says General +Grant, "was the severest battle fought at +the West during the war, and but few in the East +equaled it for hard, determined fighting." It +ended in a complete Union victory. General A.S. +Johnston was killed and Beauregard retreated +to Corinth, while the North first exulted because +he was compelled to do so, and then grumbled because +he was allowed to do so. It was soon said +that Grant had been surprised, that he was entitled +to no credit for winning clumsily a battle which he +had not expected to fight, and that he was blameworthy +for not following up the retreating foe +more sharply. The discussion survives among +those quarrels of the war in which the disputants +have fought over again the contested field, with +harmless fierceness, and without any especial result. +Congress took up the dispute, and did a vast deal +of talking, in the course of which there occurred +one sensible remark. This was made by Mr. Richardson +of Illinois, who said that the armies would +<!-- Image No 393 --><a name='Png393'></a><a name='Page363'></a><span class="pagenum">363</span> +get along much better if the Riot Act could be +read, and the members of Congress dispersed and +sent home.</p> + +<p>General Grant found that General Halleck was +even more obstinately in the way of his winning +any success than were the Confederates themselves. +As commander of the department, Halleck now +conceived that it was his fair privilege to do the +visible taking of that conspicuous prize which his +lieutenant had brought within sure reach. Accordingly, +on April 11, he arrived and assumed +command for the purpose of moving on Corinth. +Still he was sedulous in his endeavors to neglect, +suppress, and even insult General Grant, whom +he put nominally second in command, but practically +reduced to insignificance, until Grant, finding +his position "unendurable," asked to be relieved. +This conduct on the part of Halleck has +of course been attributed to jealousy; but more +probably it was due chiefly to the personal prejudice +of a dull man, perhaps a little stimulated +by a natural desire for reputation. Having taken +charge of the advance, he conducted it slowly and +cautiously, intrenching as he went, and moving +with pick and shovel, in the phrase of General +Sherman, who commanded a division in the army. +"The movement," says General Grant, "was a +siege from the start to the close." Such tactics +had not hitherto been tried at the West, and apparently +did not meet approval. There were only +about twenty-two miles to be traversed, yet four +<!-- Image No 394 --><a name='Png394'></a><a name='Page364'></a><span class="pagenum">364</span> +weeks elapsed in the process. The army started +on April 30; twice Pope got near the enemy, first +on May 4, and again on May 8, and each time +he was ordered back. It was actually May 28, +according to General Grant, when "the investment +of Corinth was complete, or as complete as it was +ever made." But already, on May 26, Beauregard +had issued orders for evacuating the place, +which was accomplished with much skill. On +May 30 Halleck drew up his army in battle array +and "announced in orders that there was every +indication that our left was to be attacked that +morning." A few hours later his troops marched +unopposed into empty works.</p> + +<p>Halleck now commanded in Corinth a powerful +army,—the forces of Grant, Buell, and Pope, +combined,—not far from 100,000 strong, and he +was threatened by no Southern force at all able +to face him. According to the views of General +Grant, he had great opportunities; and among +these certainly was the advance of a strong column +upon Vicksburg. If he could be induced to do +this, it seemed reasonable to expect that he and +Farragut together would be able to open the whole +Mississippi River, and to cut the last remaining +east-and-west line of railroad communication. But +he did nothing, and ultimately the disposition +made of this splendid collection of troops was to +distribute and dissipate it in such a manner that +the loss of the points already gained became much +more probable than the acquisition of others.</p> + +<p><!-- Image No 395 --><a name='Png395'></a><a name='Page365'></a><span class="pagenum">365</span> +Early in July, as has been elsewhere said, Halleck +was called to Washington to take the place +of general-in-chief of all the armies of the North; +and at this point perhaps it is worth while to devote +a paragraph to comparing the retirement of +McClellan with the promotion of Halleck. Some +similarities and dissimilarities in their careers are +striking. The dissimilarities were: that McClellan +had organized the finest army which the country +had yet seen, or was to see; also that he had +at least made a plan for a great campaign; and he +had not suppressed any one abler than himself; +that Halleck on the other hand had done little +to organize an army or to plan a campaign, had +failed to find out the qualities of General W.T. +Sherman, who was in his department, and had +done all in his power to drive General Grant into +retirement. The similarities are more worthy of +observation. Each general had wearied the administration +with demands for reinforcements when +each already outnumbered his opponent so much +that it was almost disgraceful to desire to increase +the odds. If McClellan had been reprehensibly +slow in moving upon Yorktown, and had blundered +by besieging instead of trying an assault, +certainly the snail-like approach upon Corinth had +been equally deliberate and wasteful of time and +opportunity; and if McClellan had marched into +deserted intrenchments, so also had Halleck. If +McClellan had captured "Quaker guns" at Manassas, +Halleck had found the like peaceful weapons +<!-- Image No 396 --><a name='Png396'></a><a name='Page366'></a><span class="pagenum">366</span> +frowning from the ramparts of Corinth. If +McClellan had held inactive a powerful force when +it ought to have been marching to Manassas, Halleck +had also held inactive another powerful force, +a part of which might have helped to take Vicksburg. +If the records of these two men were stated +in parallel columns, it would be difficult to see +why one should have been taken and the other +left. But the explanation exists and is instructive, +and it is wholly for the sake of the explanation +that the comparison has been made. McClellan +was "in politics," and Halleck was not; +McClellan, therefore, had a host of active, unsparing +enemies in Washington, which Halleck had +not; the Virginia field of operations was ceaselessly +and microscopically inspected; the Western +field attracted occasional glances not conducive to +a full knowledge. Halleck, as commander in a department +where victories were won, seemed to have +won the victories, and no politicians cared to deny +his right to the glory; whereas the politicians, +whose hatred of McClellan had, by the admission +of one of themselves, become a mania,<a name='FNanchor_167_169'></a><a href='#Footnote_167_169'><sup>[167]</sup></a> + were entirely +happy to have any one set over his head, +and would not imperil their pleasure by too close +an inspection of the new aspirant's merits. These +remarks are not designed to have any significance +upon the merits or demerits of McClellan, which +have been elsewhere discussed, nor upon the merits +or demerits of Halleck, which are not worth discussing; +<!-- Image No 397 --><a name='Png397'></a><a name='Page367'></a><span class="pagenum">367</span> +but they are made simply because they +afford so forcible an illustration of certain important +conditions at Washington at this time. The +truth is that the ensnarlment of the Eastern military +affairs with politics made success in that field +impossible for the North. The condition made it +practically inevitable that a Union commander in +Virginia should have his thoughts at least as much +occupied with the members of Congress in the capital +behind him as with the Confederate soldiers in +camp before him. Such division of his attention +was ruinous. At and before the outbreak of the +rebellion the South had expected to be aided +efficiently by a great body of sympathizers at the +North. As yet they had been disappointed in this; +but almost simultaneously with this disappointment +they were surprised by a valuable and unexpected +assistance, growing out of the open feuds, the covert +malice, the bad blood, the partisanship, and +the wire-pulling introduced by the loyal political +fraternity into campaigning business. The quarreling +politicians were doing, very efficiently, the +work which Southern sympathizers had been expected +to do.</p> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_167_169'></a><a href='#FNanchor_167_169'>[167]</a> + George W. Julian, <i>Polit. Recoll.</i> 204.</p></div> + + + +<hr class='long'/> +<!-- Image No 398 --><a name='Png398'></a><a name='Page368'></a><span class="pagenum">368</span> + +<a name='CHAPTER_XII'></a> +<h2>CHAPTER XII</h2> +<h2>FOREIGN AFFAIRS</h2> + +<p>To the people who had been engaged in changing +Illinois from a wilderness into a civilized State, +Europe had been an abstraction, a mere colored +spot upon a map, which in their lives meant nothing. +Though England had been the home of +their ancestors, it was really less interesting than +the west coast of Africa, which was the home of +the negroes; for the negroes were just now of +vastly more consequence than the ancestors. So +even Dahomey had some claim to be regarded as +a more important place than Great Britain, and +the early settlers wasted little thought on the +affairs of Queen Victoria. Amid these conditions, +absorbed even more than his neighbors in the +exciting questions of domestic politics, and having +no tastes or pursuits which guided his thoughts +abroad, Mr. Lincoln had never had occasion to +consider the foreign relations of the United States, +up to the time when he was suddenly obliged to +take an active part in managing them.</p> + +<p>At an early stage of the civil dissensions each +side hoped for the good-will of England. For +obvious reasons, that island counted to the United +<!-- Image No 399 --><a name='Png399'></a><a name='Page369'></a><span class="pagenum">369</span> +States for more than the whole continent of Europe; +indeed, the continental nations were likely +to await and to follow her lead. Southern orators, +advocating secession, assured their hearers +that "King Cotton" would be the supreme power, +and would compel that realm of spinners and +weavers to friendship if not to alliance with the +Confederacy. Northern men, on the other hand, +expressed confidence that a people with the record +of Englishmen against slavery would not countenance +a war conducted in behalf of that institution; +nor did they allow their hopes to be at all +impaired by the consideration that, in order to +found them upon this support, they had to overlook +the fact that they were at the same time distinctly +declaring that slavery really had nothing +to do with the war, in which only and strictly the +question of the Union, the integrity of the nation, +was at stake. When the issue was pressing for +actual decision, each side was disappointed; and +each found that it had counted upon a motive +which fell far short of exerting the anticipated influence. +It was, of course, the case that England +suffered much from the short supply of cotton; +but she made shift to procure it elsewhere, while +the working people, sympathizing with the North, +were surprisingly patient. Thus the political pressure +arising from commercial distress was much +less than had been expected, and the South learned +that cotton was only a spurious monarch. Not +less did the North find itself deceived; for the +<!-- Image No 400 --><a name='Png400'></a><a name='Page370'></a><span class="pagenum">370</span> +upper and middle classes of Great Britain appeared +absolutely indifferent to the humanitarian +element which, as they were assured, underlay the +struggle. Perhaps they were not to be blamed for +setting aside these assurances, and accepting in +place thereof the belief that the American leaders +spoke the truth when they solemnly told the North +that the question at issue was purely and simply of +"the Union." The unfortunate fact was that it +was necessary to say one thing to Englishmen and +a different thing to Americans.</p> + +<p>That which really did inspire the feelings and +the wishes, and which did influence, though it +could not be permitted fully to control, the action +of England, had not been counted upon by either +section of the country; perhaps its existence had +not been appreciated. This was the intense dislike +felt for the American republic by nearly all +Englishmen who were above the social grade of +mechanics and mill operatives. The extent and +force of this antipathy and even contempt were +for the first time given free expression under the +irresistible provocation which arose out of the delightful +likelihood of the destruction of the United +States. The situation at least gave to the people +of that imperiled country a chance to find out in +what estimation they were held across the water. +The behavior of the English government and the +attitude of the English press during the early part +of the civil war have been ascribed by different +historians to one or another dignified political or +<!-- Image No 401 --><a name='Png401'></a><a name='Page371'></a><span class="pagenum">371</span> +commercial motive. But while these influences +were certainly not absent, yet the English newspapers +poured an inundating flood of evidence +to show that genuine and deep-seated dislike, not +to say downright hatred, was by very much the +principal motive. This truth is so painful and unfortunate +that many have thought best to suppress +or deny it; but no historian is entitled to use such +discretion. From an early period, therefore, in +the administration of Mr. Lincoln, he and Mr. +Seward had to endeavor to preserve friendly relations +with a power which, if she could only make +entirely sure of the worldly wisdom of yielding to +her wishes, would instantly recognize the independence +of the South. This being the case, it was +matter for regret that the rules of international +law concerning blockades, contraband of war, and +rights of neutrals were perilously vague and unsettled.</p> + +<p>Earl<a name='FNanchor_168_170'></a><a href='#Footnote_168_170'><sup>[168]</sup></a> + Russell was at this time in charge of +her majesty's foreign affairs. Because in matters +domestic he was liberal-minded, Americans had +been inclined to expect his good-will; but he now +disappointed them by appearing to share the prejudices +of his class against the republic. A series +of events soon revealed his temper. So soon as +there purported to be a Confederacy, an understanding +had been reached betwixt him and the +French emperor that both powers should take the +<!-- Image No 402 --><a name='Png402'></a><a name='Page372'></a><span class="pagenum">372</span> +same course as to recognizing it. About May 1 +he admitted three Southern commissioners to an +audience with him, though not "officially." May +13 there was published a proclamation, whereby +Queen Victoria charged and commanded all her +"loving subjects to observe a strict neutrality" in +and during the hostilities which had "unhappily +commenced between the government of the United +States and certain States styling themselves 'the +Confederate States of America.'" This action— +this assumption of a position of "neutrality," as +between enemies—taken while the "hostilities" +had extended only to the single incident of Fort +Sumter, gave surprise and some offense to the +North. It was a recognition of belligerency; that +is to say, while not in any other respect recognizing +the revolting States as an independent power, +it accorded to them the rights of a belligerent. +The magnitude very quickly reached by the struggle +would have made this step necessary and +proper, so that, if England had only gone a trifle +more slowly, she would soon have reached the same +point without exciting any anger; but now the +North felt that the queen's government had been +altogether too forward in assuming this position at +a time when the question of a real war was still in +embryo. Moreover, the unfriendliness was aggravated +by the fact that the proclamation was issued +almost at the very hour of the arrival in London +of Mr. Charles Francis Adams, the new minister +sent by Mr. Lincoln to the court of St. James. +<!-- Image No 403 --><a name='Png403'></a><a name='Page373'></a><span class="pagenum">373</span> +It seemed, therefore, not open to reasonable doubt +that Earl Russell had purposely hastened to take +his position before he could hear from the Lincoln +administration.</p> + +<p>When Mr. Seward got news of this, his temper +gave way; so that, being still new to diplomacy, +he wrote a dispatch to Mr. Adams wherein occurred +words and phrases not so carefully selected +as they should have been. He carried it to Mr. +Lincoln, and soon received it back revised and +corrected, instructively. <i>A priori</i>, one would have +anticipated the converse of this.</p> + +<p>The essential points of the paper were:—</p> + +<p>That Mr. Adams would "desist from all intercourse +whatever, unofficial as well as official, with +the British government, so long as it shall continue +intercourse of either kind with the domestic +enemies of this country."</p> + +<p>That the United States had a "right to expect a +more independent if not a more friendly course" +than was indicated by the understanding between +England and France; but that Mr. Adams would +"take no notice of that or any other alliance."</p> + +<p>He was to pass by the question as to whether the +blockade must be respected in case it should not +be maintained by a competent force, and was to +state that the "blockade is now, and will continue +to be, so maintained, and therefore we expect it to +be respected."</p> + +<p>As to recognition of the Confederacy, either by +publishing an acknowledgment of its sovereignty, +<!-- Image No 404 --><a name='Png404'></a><a name='Page374'></a><span class="pagenum">374</span> +or officially receiving its representatives, he was +to inform the earl that "no one of these proceedings +will pass unquestioned." Also, he might +suggest that "a concession of belligerent rights +is liable to be construed as a recognition" of the +Confederate States. Recognition, he was to say, +could be based only on the assumption that these +States were a self-sustaining power. But now, +after long forbearance, the United States having +set their forces in motion to suppress the insurrection, +"the true character of the pretended new +state is at once revealed. It is seen to be a power +existing in pronunciamento only. It has never +won a field. It has obtained no forts that were +not virtually betrayed into its hands or seized in +breach of trust. It commands not a single port +on the coast, nor any highway out from its pretended +capital by land. Under these circumstances, +Great Britain is called upon to intervene, and give +it body and independence by resisting our measures +of suppression. British recognition would +be British intervention to create within our own +territory a hostile state by overthrowing this republic +itself." In Mr. Seward's draft a menacing +sentence followed these words, but Mr. Lincoln +drew his pen through it.</p> + +<p>Mr. Adams was to say that the treatment of +insurgent privateers was "a question exclusively +our own," and that we intended to treat them as +pirates.<a name='FNanchor_169_171'></a><a href='#Footnote_169_171'><sup>[169]</sup></a> + If Great Britain should recognize them +<!-- Image No 405 --><a name='Png405'></a><a name='Page375'></a><span class="pagenum">375</span> +as lawful belligerents and give them shelter, "the +laws of nations afford an adequate and proper +remedy;"—"<i>and we shall avail ourselves of it</i>," +added Mr. Seward; but again Mr. Lincoln's prudent +pen went through these words of provocation.</p> + +<p>Finally Mr. Adams was instructed to offer the +adhesion of the United States to the famous Declaration +of the Congress of Paris, of 1856, which +concerned sundry matters of neutrality.</p> + +<p>The letter ended with two paragraphs of that +patriotic rodomontade which seems eminently +adapted to domestic consumption in the United +States, but which, if it ever came beneath the +eye of the British minister, probably produced an +effect very different from that which was aimed at. +Mr. Lincoln had the good taste to write on the +margin: "Drop all from this line to the end;" +but later he was induced to permit the nonsense +to stand, since it was really harmless.</p> + +<p>The amendments made by the President in point +of quantity were trifling, but in respect of importance +were very great. All that he did was here +and there to change or to omit a phrase, which +established no position, but which in the strained +state of feeling might have had serious results. +The condition calls to mind the description of the +summit of the Alleghany Ridge, where the impulses +given by almost imperceptible inequalities +<!-- Image No 406 --><a name='Png406'></a><a name='Page376'></a><span class="pagenum">376</span> +in the surface of the rock have for their ultimate +result the dispatching of mighty rivers either +through the Atlantic slope to the ocean, or down +the Mississippi valley to the Gulf of Mexico. A +few adjectives, two or three ever so little sentences, +in this dispatch, might have led to peace or to +war; and peace or war with England almost surely +meant, respectively, Union or Disunion in the +United States. In fact, no more important state +paper was issued by Mr. Seward. It established +our relations with Great Britain, and by consequence +also with France and with the rest of +Europe, during the whole period of the civil war. +Its positions, moderate in themselves, and resolutely +laid down, were never materially departed +from. The English minister did not afterward +give either official or unofficial audiences to accredited +rebel emissaries; the blockade was maintained +by a force so competent that the British +government acquiesced in it; no recognition of the +Confederacy was ever made, either in the ways +prohibited or in any way whatsoever; it is true +that bitter controversies arose concerning Confederate +privateers, and to some extent England +failed to meet our position in this matter; but it +was rather the application of our rule than the +rule itself which was in dispute; and she afterward, +under the Geneva award, made full payment +for her derelictions. The behavior and the proposal +of terms, which constituted a practical exclusion +of the United States from the benefits of the +<!-- Image No 407 --><a name='Png407'></a><a name='Page377'></a><span class="pagenum">377</span> +Treaty of Paris, certainly involved something of +indignity; but in this the country had no actual +<i>rights</i>; and to speak frankly, since she had refused +to come in when invited, she could hardly +complain of an inhospitable reception when, under +the influence of immediate and stringent self-interest, +her diplomatists saw fit to change their +course. So, on the whole, it is not to be denied +that delicate and novel business in the untried department +of foreign diplomacy was managed with +great skill, under trying circumstances. A few +months later, in his message to Congress, at the +beginning of December, 1861, the President referred +to our foreign relations in the following +paragraphs:—</p> + +<p>"The disloyal citizens of the United States, who +have offered the ruin of our country in return +for the aid and comfort which they have invoked +abroad, have received less patronage and encouragement +than they probably expected. If it were +just to suppose, as the insurgents have seemed to +assume, that foreign nations, in this case, discarding +all moral, social, and treaty obligations, would +act solely and selfishly for the speedy restoration +of commerce, including especially the acquisition +of cotton, those nations appear as yet not to have +seen their way to their object more directly or +clearly through the destruction than through the +preservation of the Union. If we could dare to +believe that foreign nations are actuated by no +higher principle than this, I am quite sure a sound +<!-- Image No 408 --><a name='Png408'></a><a name='Page378'></a><span class="pagenum">378</span> +argument could be made to show them that they +can reach their aim more readily and easily by +aiding to crush this rebellion than by giving encouragement +to it.</p> + +<p>"The principal lever relied on by these insurgents +for exciting foreign nations to hostility +against us, as already intimated, is the embarrassment +of commerce. Those nations, however, not +improbably saw from the first that it was the +Union which made as well our foreign as our domestic +commerce. They can scarcely have failed +to perceive that the effort for disunion produces +the existing difficulty; and that one strong nation +promises more durable peace and a more extensive, +valuable, and reliable commerce than can the same +nation broken into hostile fragments.</p> + +<p>"It is not my purpose to review our discussions +with foreign states; because, whatever might be +their wishes or dispositions, the integrity of our +country and the stability of our government mainly +depend not upon them but on the loyalty, virtue, +patriotism, and intelligence of the American people. +The correspondence itself with the usual reservations +is herewith submitted. I venture to hope it +will appear that we have practiced prudence and +liberality toward foreign powers, averting causes +of irritation, and with firmness maintaining our +own rights and honor."</p> + +<p>While this carefully measured language certainly +fell far short of expressing indifference +concerning European action, it was equally far +<!-- Image No 409 --><a name='Png409'></a><a name='Page379'></a><span class="pagenum">379</span> +from betraying any sense of awe or dependence as +towards the great nations across the Atlantic. Yet +in fact beneath its self-contained moderation there +unquestionably was politic concealment of very +profound anxiety. Since the war did in fact maintain +to the end an entirely domestic character, it +is now difficult fully to appreciate the apprehensions +which were felt, especially in its earlier +stages, lest England or France or both might +interfere with conclusive effect in favor of the +Confederacy. It was very well for Mr. Lincoln to +state the matter in such a way that it would seem +an unworthy act upon their part to encourage a +rebellion, especially a pro-slavery rebellion; and +very well for him also to suggest that their commerce +could be better conducted with one nation +than with two. In plain fact, they were considering +nothing more lofty than their own material +interests, and upon this point their distinguished +statesmen did not feel the need of seeking information +or advice from the Western lawyer who had +just been so freakishly picked out of a frontier +town to take charge of the destinies of the United +States. The only matter which they contemplated +with some interest, and upon which they could +gather enlightenment from his words, related to +the greater or less degree of firmness and confidence +with which he was likely to meet them; for +even in their eyes this must be admitted to constitute +one of the elements in the situation. It was, +therefore, fortunate that Mr. Lincoln successfully +<!-- Image No 410 --><a name='Png410'></a><a name='Page380'></a><span class="pagenum">380</span> +avoided an appearance either of alarm or of defiance.</p> + +<p>But, difficult as it may have been skillfully to +compose the sentences of the message so far as it +concerned foreign relationships, some occurrences +were taking place, at this very time of the composition, +which reduced verbal manoeuvring to insignificance. +A sudden and unexpected menace was +happily turned into a substantial aid and advantage; +and the administration, not long after it +had firmly declared its resolution to maintain its +clear and lawful rights, was given the opportunity +greatly to strengthen its position by an event +which, at first, seemed untoward enough. In the +face of very severe temptation to do otherwise, it +had the good sense to seize this opportunity, and to +show that it had upon its own part the will not +only to respect, but to construe liberally as against +itself, the rights of neutrals; also that it had the +power to enforce its will, upon the instant, even at +the cost of bitterly disappointing the whole body +of loyal citizens in the very hour of their rejoicing.</p> + +<p>The story of Mason and Slidell is familiar: +accredited as envoys of the Confederacy to England +and France, in the autumn of 1861, they ran +the blockade at Charleston and came to Havana. +There they did not conceal their purpose to sail +for England, by the British royal mail steamship +Trent, on November 7. Captain Wilkes of the +United States steam sloop of war San Jacinto, +hearing all this, lay in wait in the Bahama Channel, +<!-- Image No 411 --><a name='Png411'></a><a name='Page381'></a><span class="pagenum">381</span> +sighted the Trent on November 8, fired a shot +across her bows, and brought her to. He then sent +on board a force of marines to search her and +fetch off the rebels. This was done against the +angry protests of the Englishman, and with such +slight force as constituted technical compulsion, +but without violence. The Trent was then left +to proceed on her voyage. The envoys, or "missionaries," +as they were called by way of avoiding +the recognition of an official character, were soon +in confinement in Fort Warren, in Boston Harbor. +Everywhere at the North the news produced an +outburst of joy and triumph. Captain Wilkes was +the hero of the hour, and received every kind +of honor and compliment. The secretary of the +navy wrote to him a letter of congratulation, declaring +that his conduct was "marked by intelligence, +ability, decision, and firmness, and has the +emphatic approval of this department." Secretary +Stanton was outspoken in his praise. When +Congress convened, on December 1, almost the +first thing done by the House of Representatives +was to hurry through a vote of thanks to the captain +for his "brave, adroit, and patriotic conduct." +The newspaper press, public meetings, private +conversation throughout the country, all reechoed +these joyous sentiments. The people were in a +fever of pleasurable excitement. It called for +some nerve on the part of Mr. Lincoln and Mr. +Seward suddenly to plunge them into a chilling +bath of disappointment.</p> + +<p><!-- Image No 412 --><a name='Png412'></a><a name='Page382'></a><span class="pagenum">382</span> +Statements differ as to what was Mr. Seward's +earliest opinion in the matter.<a name='FNanchor_170_172'></a><a href='#Footnote_170_172'><sup>[170]</sup></a> + But all writers +agree that Mr. Lincoln did not move with the current +of triumph. He was scarcely even non-committal. +On the contrary, he is said at once to +have remarked that it did not look right to stop +the vessel of a friendly power on the high seas and +take passengers out of her; that he did not understand +whence Captain Wilkes derived authority to +turn his quarter-deck into a court of admiralty; +that he was afraid the captives might prove to be +white elephants on our hands; that we had fought +Great Britain on the ground of like doings upon +her part, and that now we must stick to American +principles; that, if England insisted upon our surrendering +the prisoners, we must do so, and must +apologize, and so bind her over to keep the peace +in relation to neutrals, and to admit that she had +been wrong for sixty years.</p> + +<p>The English demand came quickly, forcibly, +and almost offensively. The news brought to +England by the Trent set the whole nation in a +blaze of fury,—and naturally enough, it must be +admitted. The government sent out to the navy +yards orders to make immediate preparations for +war; the newspapers were filled with abuse and +menace against the United States; the extravagance +<!-- Image No 413 --><a name='Png413'></a><a name='Page383'></a><span class="pagenum">383</span> +of their language will not be imagined +without actual reference to their pages. Lord +Palmerston hastily sketched a dispatch to Lord +Lyons, the British minister at Washington, demanding +instant reparation, but couched in language +so threatening and insolent as to make compliance +scarcely possible. Fortunately, in like +manner as Mr. Seward had taken to Mr. Lincoln +his letter of instructions to Mr. Adams, so Lord +Palmerston also felt obliged to lay his missive +before the queen, and the results in both cases +were alike; for once at least royalty did a good +turn to the American republic. Prince Albert, +ill with the disease which only a few days later +carried him to his grave, labored hard over that +important document, with the result that the royal +desire to eliminate passion sufficiently to make a +peaceable settlement possible was made unmistakably +plain, and therefore the letter, as ultimately +revised by Earl Russell, though still disagreeably +peremptory in tone, left room for the United +States to set itself right without loss of self-respect. +The most annoying feature was that Great +Britain insisted upon instant action; if Lord +Lyons did not receive a favorable reply within +seven days after formally preferring his demand +for reparation, he was to call for his passports. +In other words, delay by diplomatic correspondence +and such ordinary shilly-shallying meant war. As +the London "Times" expressed it, America was +not to be allowed "to retain what she had taken +<!-- Image No 414 --><a name='Png414'></a><a name='Page384'></a><span class="pagenum">384</span> +from us, at the cheap price of an interminable correspondence."</p> + +<p>December 19 this dispatch reached Lord Lyons; +he talked its contents over with Mr. Seward informally, +and deferred the formal communication +until the 23d. Mr. Lincoln drew up a proposal +for submission to arbitration. But it could not be +considered; the instructions to Lord Lyons gave +no time and no discretion. It was aggravating to +concede what was demanded under such pressure; +but the President, as has been said, had already expressed +his opinion upon the cardinal point,—that +England had the strength of the case. Moreover +he remarked, with good common sense, "One war +at a time." So it was settled that the emissaries +must be surrendered. The "prime minister of +the <i>Northern States of America</i>," as the London +"Times" insultingly called Mr. Seward, was wise +enough to agree; for, under the circumstances, to +allow discourtesy to induce war was unjustifiable. +On December 25 a long cabinet council was held, +and the draft of Seward's reply was accepted, +though with sore reluctance. The necessity was +cruel, but fortunately it was not humiliating; for +the President had pointed to the road of honorable +exit in those words which Mr. Lossing heard +uttered by him on the very day that the news +arrived. In 1812 the United States had fought +with England because she had insisted, and they +had denied, that she had the right to stop their +vessels on the high seas, to search them, and to +<!-- Image No 415 --><a name='Png415'></a><a name='Page385'></a><span class="pagenum">385</span> +take from them British subjects found on board +them. Mr. Seward now said that the country +still adhered to the ancient principle for which it +had once fought, and was glad to find England +renouncing her old-time error. Captain Wilkes, +not acting under instructions, had made a mistake. +If he had captured the Trent and brought +her in for adjudication as prize in our admiralty +courts, a case might have been maintained and the +prisoners held. He had refrained from this course +out of kindly consideration for the many innocent +persons to whom it would have caused serious inconvenience; +and, since England elected to stand +upon the strict rights which his humane conduct +gave to her, the United States must be bound by +their own principles at any cost to themselves. +Accordingly the "envoys" were handed over to +the commander of the English gunboat Rinaldo, at +Provincetown, on January 1, 1862.</p> + +<p>The decision of the President and the secretary +of state was thoroughly wise. Much hung upon +it; "no one," says Arnold, "can calculate the results +which would have followed upon a refusal +to surrender these men." An almost certain result +would have been a war with England; and a +highly probable result would have been that erelong +France also would find pretext for hostilities, +since she was committed to friendship with England +in this matter, and moreover the emperor +seemed to have a restless desire to interfere against +the North. What then would have been the likelihood +<!-- Image No 416 --><a name='Png416'></a><a name='Page386'></a><span class="pagenum">386</span> +of ultimate success in that domestic struggle, +which, by itself, though it did not exhaust, yet +very severely taxed both Northern endurance and +Northern resources? It is fair also to these two +men to say that, in reaching their decision, instead +of receiving aid or encouragement from outside, +they had the reverse. Popular feeling may be +estimated from the utterances which, even after +there had been time for reflection, were made by +men whose positions curbed them with the grave +responsibilities of leadership. In the House of +Representatives Owen Lovejoy pledged himself to +"inextinguishable hatred" of Great Britain, and +promised to bequeath it as a legacy to his children; +and, while he was not engaging in the war +for the integrity of his own country, he vowed that +if a war with England should come, he would +"carry a musket" in it. Senator Hale, in thunderous +oratory, notified the members of the administration +that if they would "not listen to the +voice of the people, they would find themselves +engulfed in a fire that would consume them like +stubble; they would be helpless before a power +that would hurl them from their places." The +great majority at the North, though perhaps incapable +of such felicity of expression, was undoubtedly +not very much misrepresented by the vindictive +representative and the exuberant senator. +Yet a brief period, in which to consider the logic +of the position, sufficed to bring nearly all to intelligent +conclusions; and then it was seen that what +<!-- Image No 417 --><a name='Png417'></a><a name='Page387'></a><span class="pagenum">387</span> +had been done had been rightly and wisely done. +There was even a sense of pride in doing fairly +and honestly, without the shuffling evasions of +diplomacy, an act of strict right; and the harder +the act the greater was the honor. The behavior +of the people was generous and intelligent, and +greatly strengthened the government in the eyes +of foreigners. By the fullness and readiness of +this reparation England was put under a moral +obligation to treat the United States as honorably +as the United States treated her. She did not do +so, it is true; but in more ways than one she ultimately +paid for not doing so. At any rate, for the +time being, after this action it would have been +nothing less than indecent for her to recognise the +Confederacy at once; and a little later prudence +had the like restraining effect. Yet though recognition +and war were avoided they never entirely +ceased to threaten, and Mr. Chittenden is perfectly +correct in saying that "every act of our government +was performed under the impending danger +of a recognition of the Confederacy, a disregard of +the blockade, and the actual intervention of Great +Britain in our attempt to suppress an insurrection +upon our own territory."</p> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_168_170'></a><a href='#FNanchor_168_170'>[168]</a> + Lord John Russell was raised to the peerage, as Earl Russell, +just after this time, <i>i.e.</i>, in July, 1861.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_169_171'></a><a href='#FNanchor_169_171'>[169]</a> + An effort was made to carry out this theory in the case of the +crew of the privateer Savannah; but the jury failed to agree, and +the attempt was not afterward renewed, privateersmen being +exchanged like other prisoners of war.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'> +<p><a name='Footnote_170_172'></a><a href='#FNanchor_170_172'>[170]</a> + Mr. Welles declares that Seward at first opposed the surrender; +but Mr. Chittenden asserts that he knows that Mr. Seward's +first opinion coincided with his later action; see Mr. Welles's <i>Lincoln +and Seward</i>, and Chittenden's <i>Recollections</i>, 148.</p></div> + +<hr class='long'/> +<a name='INDEX'></a> +<h2>INDEX</h2> + +<p style='text-align: center;'> +<a href='#INDEX_A'>A</a> +<a href='#INDEX_B'>B</a> +<a href='#INDEX_C'>C</a> +<a href='#INDEX_D'>D</a> +<a href='#INDEX_E'>E</a> +<a href='#INDEX_F'>F</a> +<a href='#INDEX_G'>G</a> +<a href='#INDEX_H'>H</a> +<a href='#INDEX_I'>I</a> +<a href='#INDEX_J'>J</a> +<a href='#INDEX_K'>K</a> +<a href='#INDEX_L'>L</a> +<a href='#INDEX_M'>M</a> +<a href='#INDEX_N'>N</a> +<a href='#INDEX_O'>O</a> +<a href='#INDEX_P'>P</a> +Q +<a href='#INDEX_R'>R</a> +<a href='#INDEX_S'>S</a> +<a href='#INDEX_T'>T</a> +<a href='#INDEX_U'>U</a> +<a href='#INDEX_V'>V</a> +<a href='#INDEX_W'>W</a> +X +<a href='#INDEX_Y'>Y</a> +Z +</p> + + + +<a name='INDEX_A'></a> +<p class='indexterm'>Abolitionists,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>denounced by Illinois legislature, i. <a href='#Page055'>55</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>disapprove emancipation with compensation, <a href='#Page080'>80</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wish to induce Lincoln to join them, <a href='#Page095'>95</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>unpopular at North, <a href='#Page115'>115</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>difference of Lincoln from, <a href='#Page137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page138'>138</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuse to support Lincoln in 1860, <a href='#Page176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page177'>177</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>urge peaceful secession in 1861, <a href='#Page231'>231</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>denounce Lincoln for not making war an anti-slavery crusade, ii. 98, 99;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>demand a proclamation of emancipation, 99;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>unwisdom of their course, 102;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>unappeased, even after emancipation proclamation, 119, 120;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>their small numbers, 121;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>their attitude toward Lincoln, 255-257.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Adams, Charles Francis,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>letter of Seward to, on impossibility of war, i. <a href='#Page231'>231</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>appointed minister to England, <a href='#Page372'>372</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>instructions, <a href='#Page373'>373</a>-<a href='#Page375'>375</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>complains to England of privateers, ii. 171;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>complains of the Alabama, 172.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Adams, Charles F., Jr.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>enters Richmond with negro cavalry regiment, ii. 335.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Adams, John Quincy,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Congress with Lincoln, i. <a href='#Page074'>74</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Alabama,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>not ready to secede, but opposed to coercion, i. <a href='#Page182'>182</a>, <a href='#Page183'>183</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes Southern convention, <a href='#Page183'>183</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>secedes, <a href='#Page186'>186</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Alabama,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Confederate privateer, ii. 172;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sunk by Kearsarge, 301.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Albert, Prince,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>revises Palmerston's dispatch on Trent affair, i. <a href='#Page383'>383</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Anderson, Robert,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>signs Lincoln's certificate of discharge in Black Hawk war, i. <a href='#Page036'>36</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>commands at Fort Moultrie in 1860, <a href='#Page185'>185</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>moves forces to Sumter, <a href='#Page243'>243</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>asks instructions in vain, <a href='#Page343'>343</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>appeals to Lincoln, <a href='#Page244'>244</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses to surrender Sumter, <a href='#Page248'>248</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Andrew, Governor John A.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>prepares Massachusetts militia, i. <a href='#Page256'>256</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>asks United States for muskets, <a href='#Page257'>257</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sends on troops, <a href='#Page257'>257</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Anthony, Henry B.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Senate in 1861, i. <a href='#Page297'>297</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Antietam,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>battle of, ii. 85, 86.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Arkansas,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses to furnish Lincoln troops, i. <a href='#Page255'>255</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>at first Unionist, finally secedes, <a href='#Page269'>269</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>campaign of Curtis in, <a href='#Page351'>351</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>reconstructed, ii. 295;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>chooses electors, 295.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Armstrong, Jack,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his wrestling match with Lincoln, i. <a href='#Page018'>18</a>, <a href='#Page019'>19</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his later friendship with Lincoln, <a href='#Page019'>19</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>aids him in politics, <a href='#Page019'>19</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Arnold, Isaac N.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in House in 1861, i. <a href='#Page297'>297</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>describes drilling of Army of Potomac, <a href='#Page307'>307</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on importance of Lincoln's action in Trent case, <a href='#Page385'>385</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>introduces bill abolishing slavery under federal jurisdiction, ii. 13;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on composition of Gettysburg address, 213;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>dreads danger in election of 1864, 245;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Lincoln's only supporter in Congress, 247;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refusal of Lincoln to help in campaign, 289;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on Lincoln's attempt to push thirteenth amendment through Congress, 318;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on second vote on thirteenth amendment, 325.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Arnold, Samuel,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>accomplice of Booth, tried and condemned, ii. 351.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Ashley, James M.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in House in 1861, i. <a href='#Page297'>297</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>moves to reconsider thirteenth amendment, ii. 318.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Ashmun, George,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>presides over Republican Convention of 1860, i. <a href='#Page167'>167</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Assassination of Lincoln,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>plot of 1861, i. <a href='#Page209'>209</a>-<a href='#Page216'>216</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>threats during term of office, ii. 342-344;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>successful plot of 1865, 345-353;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>death of Booth, 349;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>trial and punishment of other persons concerned, 350-353.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Atlanta,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>battle of, ii. 283.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Atzerodt, Geo. A.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>accomplice of Booth, tried and condemned, ii. 350-352.</p> + + +<a name='INDEX_B'></a> +<p class='indexterm'>Baker, Edward D.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'> in Illinois campaign of 1838, i. <a href='#Page059'>59</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'> at Illinois bar, <a href='#Page068'>68</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'> candidate for Congress, <a href='#Page071'>71</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'> elected, <a href='#Page072'>72</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'> his agreement with Lincoln and others, <a href='#Page072'>72</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'> introduces Lincoln at inauguration, <a href='#Page220'>220</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'> killed at Ball's Bluff, <a href='#Page308'>308</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'> responsible for disaster, <a href='#Page309'>309</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Ball's Bluff,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>battle of, i. <a href='#Page308'>308</a>, <a href='#Page309'>309</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Banks, Nathaniel P.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Federal army, i. <a href='#Page319'>319</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his corps in 1862, ii. 44;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>defeated by Jackson, 54;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>takes Port Hudson, 162.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Barnard, General John G.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>opposes McClellan's plan of campaign, i. <a href='#Page336'>336</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on impossibility of taking Yorktown, ii. 38.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Bates, Edward,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>candidate for Republican nomination, i. <a href='#Page167'>167</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>favored by Greeley, <a href='#Page167'>167</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his chances as a moderate candidate, <a href='#Page168'>168</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>vote for, <a href='#Page169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page170'>170</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>attorney-general, <a href='#Page234'>234</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>opposes reinforcing Sumter, <a href='#Page245'>245</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Bayard, James A.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Senate in 1861, i. <a href='#Page297'>297</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Beauregard, General P.G.T.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>commands at Charleston i. <a href='#Page244'>244</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>notified by Lincoln of purpose to reinforce Sumter, <a href='#Page248'>248</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>requests surrender of Sumter, <a href='#Page248'>248</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>commands bombardment, <a href='#Page249'>249</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>commands Confederate army at Manassas, <a href='#Page299'>299</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>at battle of Bull Run, <a href='#Page301'>301</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>at battle of Shiloh, <a href='#Page362'>362</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>evacuates Corinth, <a href='#Page364'>364</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Bell, John,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>candidate of Constitutional Union party, i. <a href='#Page166'>166</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>vote for, <a href='#Page178'>178</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Benjamin, Judah P.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>denounces Buchanan, i. <a href='#Page200'>200</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Confederate cabinet, <a href='#Page206'>206</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Bentonsville,</p> +<p class='indexentry'> battle of, ii. 331.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Berry, Wm. F.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his partnership with Lincoln, and failure, i. <a href='#Page039'>39</a>, <a href='#Page040'>40</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Big Bethel,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>battle of, i. <a href='#Page298'>298</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Black, Jeremiah S.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Buchanan's cabinet, i. <a href='#Page188'>188</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>succeeds Cass in State Department, <a href='#Page198'>198</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>after vacillation turns toward coercion, <a href='#Page199'>199</a>, <a href='#Page200'>200</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>forces Buchanan to alter reply to South Carolina commissioners, <a href='#Page200'>200</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Black Hawk war, i. <a href='#Page035'>35</a>, <a href='#Page036'>36</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Blaine, James G.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on purpose of war, ii. 4;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on Lincoln's order to McDowell to pursue Jackson, 53;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on crisis in congressional elections of 1862, 122;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on admission of West Virginia, 181;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on Vallandigham case, 187.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Blair, F.P., Jr.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>tries to keep Lee in Union army, i. <a href='#Page263'>263</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>leads Unionist party in Missouri, <a href='#Page269'>269</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in House in 1861, <a href='#Page297'>297</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>confers with Davis, ii. 304.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Blair, Montgomery,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Lincoln's cabinet, i. <a href='#Page234'>234</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes to relieve Sumter, <a href='#Page245'>245</a>, <a href='#Page246'>246</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>at council of war, <a href='#Page324'>324</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>favors McClellan's plan of war, <a href='#Page330'>330</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>visits Missouri to investigate Fremont, <a href='#Page350'>350</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>arrested by Fremont, <a href='#Page350'>350</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>warns Lincoln that emancipation proclamation will lose fall elections, ii. 123;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>hated by radicals, 287;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his dismissal urged, 287;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>upheld by Lincoln, 288;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>resigns at Lincoln's request, 288;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes chief-justiceship, 298.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Blenker, General Louis,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>favors McClellan's plan of campaign, i. <a href='#Page336'>336</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sent to strengthen Fremont, ii. 35.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Booth, John Wilkes,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>murders Lincoln, ii. 346, 347;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his character, 347, 348;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his end, 348, 349.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Border States,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>necessity of retaining in Union, i. <a href='#Page255'>255</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>dealings of Lincoln with, in 1861, <a href='#Page265'>265</a>-<a href='#Page268'>268</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>their neutrality policy explained in annual message, <a href='#Page292'>292</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>both pro-slavery and Unionist, ii. 3;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>desire to conciliate controls Lincoln's policy, 3;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>with their slave property guaranteed by North, 3;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>oppose bill freeing slaves used in war, 5;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>oppose other anti-slavery bills, 11-15;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>irritated by congressional policy, 18, 19;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>urged by Lincoln to agree to emancipation, 21, 22, 24-27;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuse to approve, 22, 26, 27;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Lincoln's policy toward, denounced by Abolitionists, 103, 104;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>their support in 1862 saves Lincoln, 125.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Boutwell, George S.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>urges emancipation upon Lincoln, ii. 116.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Bragg, General Braxton,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>invades Kentucky, ii. 154;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>outmarched by Buell, 154;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>at battle of Stone's River, 155;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>retreats, 156;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>reinforced, 163;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>at battle of Chickamauga, 164;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>besieges Chattanooga, 165;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>defeated by Grant, 166, 167.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Breckenridge, John C.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>elected Vice-President, i. <a href='#Page101'>101</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>nominated by South for President, <a href='#Page164'>164</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>carries Southern States, <a href='#Page178'>178</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>announces election of Lincoln, <a href='#Page208'>208</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>expelled from Senate, <a href='#Page297'>297</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Bright, Jesse D.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>expelled from Senate, i. <a href='#Page297'>297</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Brooks, Preston S.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>assaults Sumner, i. <a href='#Page099'>99</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>praised at the South, <a href='#Page100'>100</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Brough, John,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>nominated for governor in Ohio and elected, ii. 192.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Brown, Aaron V.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Buchanan's cabinet, i. <a href='#Page188'>188</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Brown, B. Gratz,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>supports Fremont against Lincoln in 1864, ii. 255.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Brown, Mayor Geo. W.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>thinks Maryland will secede, i. <a href='#Page258'>258</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>burns bridges and cuts wires north of Baltimore, <a href='#Page259'>259</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Browning, O.H.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>at Illinois bar, i. <a href='#Page068'>68</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Bryant, William Cullen,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>introduces Lincoln in New York, i. <a href='#Page153'>153</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>favors postponement of Republican convention in 1864, ii. 261.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Buchanan, James,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>nominated by Democrats, i. <a href='#Page101'>101</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>elected President, his character, <a href='#Page102'>102</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refers to Dred Scott decision in inaugural address, <a href='#Page102'>102</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his recognition of Lecompton Constitution in Kansas, <a href='#Page105'>105</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>despised by Douglas, <a href='#Page108'>108</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>accused by Lincoln of plotting to make slavery national, <a href='#Page126'>126</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his hard situation in 1860, <a href='#Page180'>180</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>distracted in body and mind, <a href='#Page181'>181</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>receives secession commissioners of South Carolina, <a href='#Page186'>186</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>a Unionist in feeling, <a href='#Page187'>187</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his message on secession, <a href='#Page188'>188</a>, <a href='#Page189'>189</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes to shirk responsibility, <a href='#Page189'>189</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>declares coercion unconstitutional, <a href='#Page189'>189</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>ridiculed by Republicans, <a href='#Page190'>190</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>excuse for his position, <a href='#Page190'>190</a>, <a href='#Page195'>195</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>declines to receive Southern commissioners, <a href='#Page199'>199</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>virtually abdicates power to cabinet, <a href='#Page200'>200</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>denounced by South, <a href='#Page200'>200</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>forced to appoint Dix to Treasury Department, <a href='#Page200'>200</a>, <a href='#Page201'>201</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>calls extra session of Senate to aid Lincoln, <a href='#Page234'>234</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his futile policy towards Fort Sumter, <a href='#Page243'>243</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Buckner, General Simon B.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>surrenders Fort Donelson, i. <a href='#Page354'>354</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Buell, General D.C.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his resemblance in character to McClellan, i. <a href='#Page352'>352</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses to seize East Tennessee, <a href='#Page352'>352</a>, <a href='#Page353'>353</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>snubbed by McClellan, <a href='#Page353'>353</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>recommended by Halleck for promotion, <a href='#Page355'>355</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>takes Nashville, <a href='#Page360'>360</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>saves battle of Shiloh, <a href='#Page362'>362</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>allows slave-owners to reclaim fugitives, ii. 8;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>seizes Louisville before Bragg, 154;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>opposes Halleck's plan to invade Tennessee, 155;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>resigns, 155.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Bull Run,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>first battle of, i. <a href='#Page300'>300</a>-<a href='#Page302'>302</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>second battle of, ii. 77.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Burlingame, Anson D.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>hopes that Douglas will join Republicans, i. <a href='#Page116'>116</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Burns, Anthony,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>seized as a slave in Boston, i. <a href='#Page099'>99</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Burnside, General Ambrose E.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>commands in North Carolina, i. <a href='#Page348'>348</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>given command of Army of Potomac, ii. 92;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>at Fredericksburg, 136, 137;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>loses confidence of army, 137, 138;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>ordered by Lincoln to do nothing without informing him, 138;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>offers to resign, 138;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes to dismiss several generals, 138;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>resigns, 138;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his campaign in East Tennessee, 163, 164;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>relieved by Sherman, 167;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>alarmed at Copperheads, 184;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>commands in Ohio, 185;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>issues order threatening traitors, 185;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>tries and condemns Vallandigham, 186;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>comment of Lincoln on, 187;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>offers resignation, 187.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Butler, Benjamin F.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>takes possession of hill commanding Baltimore, i. <a href='#Page260'>260</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>commands at Fortress Monroe, <a href='#Page298'>298</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>commands at New Orleans, <a href='#Page358'>358</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>keeps slaves as "contraband of war," ii. 5;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>"bottled" at Bermuda Hundred, 280.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Butterfield, Justin,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>at Illinois bar, i. <a href='#Page068'>68</a>.</p> + + +<a name='INDEX_C'></a> +<p class='indexterm'>Cadwalader, General George,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses to liberate Merryman on Taney's writ, i. <a href='#Page288'>288</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Calhoun, John,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>appoints Lincoln deputy surveyor, i. <a href='#Page041'>41</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Calhoun, John C.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his speech on Compromise of 1850, i. <a href='#Page090'>90</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>California,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>annexed, i. <a href='#Page086'>86</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>gold fever in, <a href='#Page087'>87</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>asks admission as State, <a href='#Page087'>87</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>prohibits slavery, <a href='#Page087'>87</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refusal of South to admit, <a href='#Page088'>88</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>admitted, <a href='#Page091'>91</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Cameron, Simon,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>candidate for Republican presidential nomination in 1860, i. <a href='#Page167'>167</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sells his vote for promise of a place in cabinet, <a href='#Page169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page170'>170</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>willing to sacrifice anything to save Union, <a href='#Page197'>197</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>secretary of war, <a href='#Page234'>234</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>difficulty over his appointment, <a href='#Page236'>236</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>opposes relieving Fort Sumter, <a href='#Page245'>245</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses muskets to Massachusetts militia, <a href='#Page257'>257</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes to leave War Department, <a href='#Page326'>326</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>appointed minister to Russia, <a href='#Page326'>326</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>instructs Butler not to return slaves, ii. 5;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>authorizes Sherman to use negroes, 8;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>suggests arming slaves in annual report, 9;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his report suppressed by Lincoln, 9;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>supports Lincoln for reëlection, 260.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Campbell, Judge John A.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>acts as intermediary between Seward and Confederate commissioners, i. <a href='#Page239'>239</a>, <a href='#Page245'>245</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on Confederate Peace Commission, ii. 305.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Cartwright, Peter,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>defeated by Lincoln for Congress, i. <a href='#Page073'>73</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his character as itinerant preacher, <a href='#Page073'>73</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Cass, Lewis,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>attacked by Lincoln in Congress, i. <a href='#Page079'>79</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Buchanan's cabinet, <a href='#Page187'>187</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes to coerce South, <a href='#Page198'>198</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>resigns when Buchanan refuses to garrison Southern forts, <a href='#Page198'>198</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Caucus,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>denounced by Whigs in Illinois, i. <a href='#Page049'>49</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Cedar Mountain,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>battle of, ii. 76.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Chambrun, Comte de,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on Lincoln's magnanimity, ii. 344.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Chancellorsville,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>battle of, ii. 141, 142.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Chandler, Zachariah,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Senate in 1861, i. <a href='#Page296'>296</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>denounces conservatives, ii. 213;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>threatens Lincoln, 232.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Chase, Salmon P.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in debate on Compromise, i. <a href='#Page090'>90</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>candidate for Republican nomination in 1860, <a href='#Page167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page170'>170</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>secretary of treasury, <a href='#Page234'>234</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>objected to by Pennsylvania protectionists, <a href='#Page236'>236</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes to reinforce Sumter, <a href='#Page245'>245</a>, <a href='#Page246'>246</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>dislikes subordination to Lincoln, <a href='#Page275'>275</a>, <a href='#Page276'>276</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes McClellan to advance, <a href='#Page324'>324</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>asks him his plans and is snubbed, <a href='#Page325'>325</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>favors Lincoln's plan of campaign, <a href='#Page330'>330</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on ease of a victory, <a href='#Page341'>341</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>considers Lincoln inefficient, ii. 104;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>leader of discontented Republicans, 109, 176;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on Lincoln's responsibility for emancipation proclamation, 117, 118;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>suggests an addition to it, 131;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes to present bankers to Lincoln, 170;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>left undisturbed in control of Treasury, 170, 171;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his resignation taken by Lincoln, 177;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>letter of Lincoln to, 178;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>hesitates to withdraw resignation, 178;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>finally does so, 179;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>irritated by Lincoln's independence, 247;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>becomes candidate for Republican nomination, 248;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>not feared by Lincoln, 248, 249;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his offer to resign declined, 250;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>fails to obtain support, 251;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>withdraws name, 251;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>continues to dislike Lincoln, 252;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>frequently offers resignation, 253;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>finally leaves office, 253;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on bad terms with Blair, 287;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>appointed chief justice, 298, 299.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Chestnut, James,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>defies North in 1860, i. <a href='#Page196'>196</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Chickamauga,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>battle of, ii. 164.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Chittenden, L.E.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on danger of a recognition of Confederacy by England, i. <a href='#Page387'>387</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Cisco, John J.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>quarrel over appointment of his successor, ii. 253.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Clay, Henry,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>admired by Lincoln, i. <a href='#Page071'>71</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>less admired after his visit at Ashland, <a href='#Page071'>71</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>offers Compromise of 1850, <a href='#Page089'>89</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Clinton, George,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>denounced in New York for calling secession "rebellion," i. <a href='#Page194'>194</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Cobb, Howell,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Congress with Lincoln, i. <a href='#Page074'>74</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on "making better terms out of the Union than in it," <a href='#Page183'>183</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Buchanan's cabinet, <a href='#Page187'>187</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>candidate for presidency of South, <a href='#Page188'>188</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>resigns from cabinet, <a href='#Page198'>198</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Cochrane, General John,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>nominated for Vice-President, ii. 258.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Cold Harbor,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>battle of, ii. 280.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Colfax, Schuyler,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>expects Douglas to join Republicans, i. <a href='#Page116'>116</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in House in 1861, <a href='#Page297'>297</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on Lincoln's tenacity, ii. 114;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>announces passage of thirteenth amendment, 326.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Collamer, Jacob,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Congress with Lincoln, i. <a href='#Page074'>74</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>vote for, in Republican Convention of 1860, <a href='#Page169'>169</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Senate in 1861, <a href='#Page297'>297</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Colonization,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>favored by Lincoln, i. <a href='#Page139'>139</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>ii. <a href='#Page011'>11</a>, <a href='#Page126'>126</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Compromise of 1850,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>history of, i. <a href='#Page089'>89</a>-<a href='#Page091'>91</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Confederate States,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>formed by convention, i. <a href='#Page205'>205</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>organization of, <a href='#Page205'>205</a>, <a href='#Page206'>206</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sends commissioners to United States, <a href='#Page238'>238</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>its envoys rejected by Lincoln, <a href='#Page238'>238</a>-<a href='#Page240'>240</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>prepares to seize Fort Sumter, <a href='#Page244'>244</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>amused at Lincoln's call for volunteers, <a href='#Page255'>255</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>receives Virginia, <a href='#Page264'>264</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>belligerency of, recognized by England and France, <a href='#Page371'>371</a>, <a href='#Page372'>372</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refusal of Lincoln to receive Stephens embassy from, ii. 152, 153;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sells bonds in England, 172, 173;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>dealings of supposed emissaries from, with Greeley, 268-270;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refusal of Lincoln to negotiate with, 302;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>dealings of Blair with, 304;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sends commissioners, 305;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>conference of Lincoln and Seward with commissioners of, 305, 306;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>government of, collapses, 333, 334.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Congress,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>proposes amendment to Constitution to protect slavery, i. <a href='#Page201'>201</a>, <a href='#Page202'>202</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>counts electoral votes, <a href='#Page207'>207</a>, <a href='#Page208'>208</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>extra session called, <a href='#Page254'>254</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>votes to support Lincoln, <a href='#Page298'>298</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>creates Committee on Conduct of War, <a href='#Page321'>321</a>, <a href='#Page322'>322</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>discusses battle of Shiloh, <a href='#Page362'>362</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>passes Crittenden resolution disavowing slavery as cause of war, ii. 4;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>passes bill freeing slaves used in war, 5;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses to reaffirm Crittenden resolution, 11;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>passes bill for emancipation in District, 11;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>prohibits officers to return fugitive slaves, 12;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>abolishes slavery in Territories, etc., 13, 14;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>passes act freeing slaves of rebels, 14;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>passes act to arm negroes, 15-17;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>fails to provide equal pay, 18;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>ignores Lincoln's wishes to conciliate Border States, 20;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>passes resolution to cooperate with States adopting emancipation, 23;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>unpopularity of Lincoln with, 104, 105;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>continues in 1862 to oppose Lincoln, 126;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>fails to pass bill offering compensated emancipation to Missouri, 129;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>character of, in 1863, 212, 213;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>accepts Representatives from reconstructed Louisiana, 220;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>jealous of Lincoln's plan of reconstruction, 227;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>desires to control matter itself, 228;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>passes reconstruction bill, 230-232;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes to supplant Lincoln by Chase, 246-248;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>creates lieutenant-general, 276;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses to recognize electors from Southern reconstructed States, 295, 296;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>fails to adopt thirteenth amendment, 318;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>after election of 1864, passes amendment, 324-327.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Conkling, James C.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>letter of Lincoln to, ii. 201-207.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Conkling, Roscoe,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in House in 1861, i. <a href='#Page297'>297</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Constitution,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>slavery compromises in, i. <a href='#Page082'>82</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in relation to doctrine of non-intervention, <a href='#Page088'>88</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in relation to slavery in States, <a href='#Page132'>132</a>, <a href='#Page133'>133</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in relation to emancipation, <a href='#Page133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page134'>134</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in relation to popular sovereignty and Dred Scott decision, <a href='#Page142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page143'>143</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>attitude of Abolitionists and Republicans toward, <a href='#Page176'>176</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>its relation to secession, Buchanan's view, <a href='#Page188'>188</a>-<a href='#Page190'>190</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>proposal to amend, in 1861, <a href='#Page201'>201</a>, <a href='#Page202'>202</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>its relation to secession, Lincoln's view, <a href='#Page219'>219</a>, <a href='#Page221'>221</a>, <a href='#Page293'>293</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in relation to blockade, <a href='#Page284'>284</a>, <a href='#Page285'>285</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>strained by civil war, <a href='#Page285'>285</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>war powers of, used by Lincoln, <a href='#Page285'>285</a>, <a href='#Page286'>286</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in connection with suspension of habeas corpus, <a href='#Page286'>286</a>-<a href='#Page291'>291</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>makes President commander-in-chief, <a href='#Page318'>318</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in relation to act abolishing slavery in Territories, ii. 14;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>desire of Abolitionists to ignore, 100, 109;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Lincoln's view of, as forcing issue of war to be the Union, 101, 102, 107, 108;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in relation to emancipation proclamation, 111, 113, 315;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>strained by admission of West Virginia, 180, 181;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>really in abeyance, 208;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in relation to reconstruction, 216, 217;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>justifies "military governors," 217, 218;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in regard to relative powers of executive and Congress in reconstruction, 232;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>as to power of Congress over electoral count, 296, 297;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>proposal to amend so as to abolish slavery, 317, 318;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>passage of thirteenth amendment by Congress, 324-327.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Constitutional Union party,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>its origin and aims, i. <a href='#Page165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page166'>166</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>its subsequent fate, <a href='#Page166'>166</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>its vote in 1860, <a href='#Page178'>178</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexentry'>"Copperheads,"</p> +<p class='indexentry'>developed in second year of war, ii. 95;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>their principles and policy, 95, 96;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>active after Chancellorsville, 143;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>organization of, to oppose war, 181-183;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>feared in Indiana, 183;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>fail to accomplish anything, 183, 184;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>despised by Lincoln, 184;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>led by Vallandigham, 185;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>attempt to put down, 186, 187;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Lincoln's opinion of, 190, 191;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>demand revocation of emancipation proclamation, 319.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Corbett, Boston,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>kills Booth, ii. 349.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Covode, John,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in House in 1861, i. <a href='#Page298'>298</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Cox, Samuel S.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in House in 1861, i. <a href='#Page297'>297</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Crittenden, John J.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>offers compromise in 1861, i. <a href='#Page202'>202</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in House in 1861, <a href='#Page297'>297</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>offers resolution that war is not against slavery, ii. 4;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>opposes Lincoln's plan of emancipation in Kentucky, 22.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Curtin, Governor Andrew G.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>invites governors to meet at Altoona, ii. 117;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on connection of conference with emancipation proclamation, 118;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>reflected, 201.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Curtis, Benjamin R.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his opinion in Dred Scott case, i. <a href='#Page103'>103</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Curtis, General Samuel R.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his campaign in Missouri and Arkansas, i. <a href='#Page351'>351</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Cushing, Lieutenant William B.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>destroys the Albemarle, ii. 301.</p> + + +<a name='INDEX_D'></a> +<p class='indexterm'>Davis, David,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>at Illinois bar, i. <a href='#Page068'>68</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>disgusted at election of Trumbull in 1855, <a href='#Page098'>98</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Lincoln's manager in convention of 1860, <a href='#Page167'>167</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Davis, Garrett,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>succeeds Breckenridge in Senate, i. <a href='#Page297'>297</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his plea against arming negroes, ii. 16.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Davis, Henry Winter,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>introduces reconstruction bill, ii. 230, 231;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>issues address denouncing Lincoln for vetoing bill, 234;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>obliged to support Lincoln rather than McClellan, 265.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Davis, Jefferson,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>advocates extension of Missouri Compromise in 1850, i. <a href='#Page089'>89</a>, <a href='#Page090'>90</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sneers at attempted compromise in 1861, <a href='#Page204'>204</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>elected President of Confederate States, <a href='#Page205'>205</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>defies North, <a href='#Page205'>205</a>, <a href='#Page206'>206</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>hopes to entrap Seward into debate with commissioners, <a href='#Page238'>238</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>urged by South to do something, <a href='#Page241'>241</a>, <a href='#Page242'>242</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>prefers to make North aggressor, <a href='#Page242'>242</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>tries to win over Kentucky, <a href='#Page266'>266</a>, <a href='#Page268'>268</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>offers to issue "letters of marque and reprisal," <a href='#Page282'>282</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>when secretary of war, sent McClellan to Europe, <a href='#Page303'>303</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sends troops to seize East Tennessee, <a href='#Page353'>353</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes to free Kentucky, ii. 154;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his escape wished by Lincoln, 238;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>replaces Johnston by Hood, 283;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>proposition of Blair to, 304;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>expresses willingness to treat for peace, 304;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>nominates commissioners to treat for peace with independence, 305;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>notified by Lee of approaching fall of Richmond, 330;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>escapes from city, 334;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>makes himself ridiculous and escapes punishment, 340;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>suspected of complicity in Booth's plot, 352.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Dawson, ——,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>leads Lincoln in vote for legislature in 1834, <a href='#Page042'>42</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Dayton, William L.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>nominated by Republicans in 1856, i. <a href='#Page101'>101</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>candidate for nomination in 1860, <a href='#Page167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page170'>170</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Democratic party,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>controls Illinois, i. <a href='#Page038'>38</a>, <a href='#Page059'>59</a>-<a href='#Page061'>61</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wins in 1852, <a href='#Page093'>93</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>factions in, <a href='#Page101'>101</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>elects Buchanan in 1856, <a href='#Page101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page102'>102</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in. Illinois, nominates Douglas for Senate, <a href='#Page114'>114</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>torn with factions, <a href='#Page116'>116</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>breaks up in 1860 into Northern and Southern wings, <a href='#Page163'>163</a>-<a href='#Page165'>165</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>nominates two sets of candidates, <a href='#Page164'>164</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>campaign of, in 1860, <a href='#Page174'>174</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>attempts to reunite, <a href='#Page175'>175</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in North, members of, become Union men, <a href='#Page226'>226</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>effort of Lincoln to placate, by giving recognition in cabinet, <a href='#Page235'>235</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Copperhead and other factions of, ii. 95-97;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>"War Democrats," 97;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>makes campaign in 1862 on opposition to anti-slavery legislation, 121-123;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>gains in Congressional elections, 124, 125;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes Lincoln to compromise, 152;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>denounces seizure of Vallandigham, 186;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>agitates against military tyranny, 188;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>commits error in opposing war, 192;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>loses ground in 1863, 201;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>applauds Fremont's candidacy, 258;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>hopes for success in 1864, 264;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>denounces war as failure and nominates McClellan, 264, 265;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>war faction of, hesitates to vote for Lincoln, on slavery grounds, 270;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>divided over peace plank, 274, 275;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>damaged by Federal military successes, 285, 286;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>hurt by Southern approval, 286, 287;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>defeated in election, 291;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>members of, in Congress, aid in passage of thirteenth amendment, 325, 326.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Dennison, William,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>succeeds Blair as postmaster-general, ii. 288.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Dickinson, Daniel S.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>candidate for vice-presidential nomination, ii. 264.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Diplomatic history,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Seward's proposed foreign wars to prevent disunion, i. <a href='#Page276'>276</a>-<a href='#Page278'>278</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>recognition of Southern belligerency by England and France, <a href='#Page371'>371</a>, <a href='#Page372'>372</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>instructions of Seward to Adams, <a href='#Page373'>373</a>-<a href='#Page375'>375</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>difficulties over English privateers, <a href='#Page376'>376</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>message of Lincoln on foreign relations, <a href='#Page377'>377</a>, <a href='#Page378'>378</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>the Trent affair, <a href='#Page380'>380</a>-<a href='#Page387'>387</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>the Oreto affair, ii. 171;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>the Alabama affair, 172.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>District of Columbia,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>bill to emancipate slaves in, advocated by Lincoln, i. <a href='#Page080'>80</a>, <a href='#Page081'>81</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>slave trade in, abolished, <a href='#Page091'>91</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>abolition in, favored by Lincoln, <a href='#Page133'>133</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>emancipation in, carried, ii. 11, 12.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Dix, John A.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on possible secession of New York, i. <a href='#Page197'>197</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>appointed to Treasury Department, <a href='#Page200'>200</a>, <a href='#Page201'>201</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his order to protect American flag, <a href='#Page201'>201</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Dixon, Archibald,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>offers amendment repealing Missouri Compromise, i. <a href='#Page094'>94</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Donelson, Andrew J.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>nominated for presidency by Whigs and Know-Nothings, i. <a href='#Page100'>100</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Donelson, Fort,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>battle of, i. <a href='#Page354'>354</a>, <a href='#Page355'>355</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Doolittle, James R.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Senate in 1861, i. <a href='#Page297'>297</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Doubleday, General Abner,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on Hooker's plan in Chancellorsville campaign, ii. 140.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Douglas, Stephen A.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>meets Lincoln in 1835, i. <a href='#Page043'>43</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>encounters him in campaign of 1840, <a href='#Page061'>61</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Lincoln's rival in love affair, <a href='#Page063'>63</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his position at Illinois bar, <a href='#Page068'>68</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>charges Lincoln with lacking patriotism in opposing Mexican war, <a href='#Page077'>77</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>introduces Kansas-Nebraska Bill, <a href='#Page094'>94</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>mobbed in Chicago, <a href='#Page095'>95</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>debates with Lincoln in campaign of 1854, <a href='#Page095'>95</a>, <a href='#Page096'>96</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>proposes a truce, <a href='#Page096'>96</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>candidate for Democratic nomination in 1856, <a href='#Page101'>101</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>opposes Lecompton Constitution, <a href='#Page106'>106</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>leading figure in public life, <a href='#Page106'>106</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his character and ability, <a href='#Page106'>106</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his doctrine of "popular sovereignty," <a href='#Page107'>107</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>avoids consequences of Dred Scott decision, <a href='#Page107'>107</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>defies Buchanan, <a href='#Page108'>108</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his conduct in Lecompton case dictated by desire to secure reëlection to Senate, <a href='#Page108'>108</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>attacks "English Bill" as unfair, <a href='#Page109'>109</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his candidacy for reëlection gives Lincoln opportunity, <a href='#Page113'>113</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>renominated by Democrats, <a href='#Page114'>114</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>denounced by South, <a href='#Page116'>116</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>opposed by administration, <a href='#Page116'>116</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>accepts Lincoln's challenge to joint debates, <a href='#Page121'>121</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his attacks upon Lincoln, <a href='#Page124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page130'>130</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>accused by Lincoln of a plot to make slavery national, <a href='#Page126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page128'>128</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>denies any plot, <a href='#Page129'>129</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on status of negro under Declaration of Independence, <a href='#Page131'>131</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sneered at by Lincoln, <a href='#Page137'>137</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>keeps temper with difficulty, <a href='#Page137'>137</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>attempts to reconcile Dred Scott decision with popular sovereignty, <a href='#Page141'>141</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>fails to satisfy South, <a href='#Page142'>142</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>cornered by Lincoln, <a href='#Page143'>143</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>gains reëlection, <a href='#Page149'>149</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on difficulty of debating with Lincoln, <a href='#Page150'>150</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>speaks in Ohio, <a href='#Page151'>151</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in debate ignores secession, <a href='#Page157'>157</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>nominated by Democrats in 1860, <a href='#Page163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page164'>164</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>reasons why repudiated by South, <a href='#Page164'>164</a>, <a href='#Page165'>165</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his vigorous canvass in 1860, <a href='#Page174'>174</a>, <a href='#Page175'>175</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>vote for, <a href='#Page178'>178</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>offers to aid Lincoln after fall of Sumter, <a href='#Page251'>251</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>value of his assistance, <a href='#Page251'>251</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Dred Scott case,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>decision in, i. <a href='#Page102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page103'>103</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>equivocal attitude of Douglas toward, <a href='#Page107'>107</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>discussed by Lincoln, <a href='#Page126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page128'>128</a>-<a href='#Page130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page141'>141</a>-<a href='#Page143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page153'>153</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Duane, Captain,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>escorts Lincoln at inauguration, i. <a href='#Page220'>220</a>.</p> + + +<a name='INDEX_E'></a> +<p class='indexterm'>Early, General Jubal A.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>tries to capture Washington, ii. 281;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>repulsed, 282;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>retreats, 283;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>defeated by Sheridan, 284, 285.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>East,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>ignorant of Lincoln, i. <a href='#Page113'>113</a>, <a href='#Page173'>173</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>led to respect Lincoln by his speeches, <a href='#Page152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page155'>155</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Edwards, Ninian W.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in frontier political debates, i. <a href='#Page051'>51</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>member of Illinois bar, <a href='#Page068'>68</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Emancipation,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Lincoln's plan for, in 1849, i. <a href='#Page080'>80</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>compensation for, wished by Lincoln, <a href='#Page133'>133</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>again proposed by Lincoln with compensation and colonization, ii. 10, 20-22, 24-27;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>discussion of Lincoln's proposal, 28-30;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>demanded instantly by Abolitionists, 99;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>question of its constitutionality, 100, 101, 111;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>opposition to, in North, 103;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>demanded by clergymen, 110;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>gradual decision of Lincoln to proclaim, 112-115;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>reasons for caution in issuing proclamation, 114;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>delay urged by Seward, 115;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>preliminary declaration of, after battle of Antietam, 116, 117;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>not influenced by Altoona conference, 117, 118;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>its effect upon North, 119-121;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>urged again, with compensation, by Lincoln, 126-129;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>repudiated by Missouri, 129, 130;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>final proclamation of, issued, 130;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>condemned by rulers of England, though approved by people, 132;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>renewed scheme of Lincoln to gain, by compensation, 309, 310.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>England,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>ignorance of, in West, i. <a href='#Page368'>368</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>its aid hoped by South, <a href='#Page369'>369</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>its sympathy expected by North, <a href='#Page369'>369</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>its upper classes dislike America, <a href='#Page370'>370</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>rejoices in anticipated destruction of United States, <a href='#Page370'>370</a>, <a href='#Page371'>371</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>recognizes belligerency of South, <a href='#Page372'>372</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>attitude of Seward toward, <a href='#Page373'>373</a>-<a href='#Page375'>375</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>later dealings with, <a href='#Page376'>376</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>acquiesces in blockade, <a href='#Page376'>376</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>enraged at Trent affair, <a href='#Page382'>382</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>demands reparation, <a href='#Page383'>383</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>admitted by Lincoln to be in the right, <a href='#Page384'>384</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>reply of Seward, <a href='#Page384'>384</a>, <a href='#Page385'>385</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Northern hatred of, <a href='#Page385'>385</a>, <a href='#Page386'>386</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wisdom of Lincoln's attitude toward, <a href='#Page386'>386</a>, <a href='#Page387'>387</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>people of, gratified by emancipation proclamation, ii. 132;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>fails to detain Oreto and Alabama, 172, 173;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>subscribes to Confederate loan, 172, 173.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>English, James E.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in House in 1861, i. <a href='#Page297'>297</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>votes for thirteenth amendment, ii. 326.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Ericsson, John,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>designs the Monitor, i. <a href='#Page356'>356</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Evarts, William M.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>moves to make Lincoln's nomination unanimous, i. <a href='#Page171'>171</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Everett, Edward,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>nominated for Vice-President by Constitutional Union party, i. <a href='#Page166'>166</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>delivers oration at Gettysburg, ii. 213, 214.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Ewell, General R.S.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>enters Shenandoah Valley, ii. 143;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>enters Pennsylvania, 144.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Ewing, ——,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>defeats Lincoln for speakership in Illinois legislature, i. <a href='#Page060'>60</a>.</p> + + +<a name='INDEX_F'></a> +<p class='indexterm'>Farragut, Captain D.G.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>takes New Orleans, i. <a href='#Page358'>358</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his campaign on Mississippi, <a href='#Page358'>358</a>, <a href='#Page359'>359</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>takes Mobile, ii. 284.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Fell, J.W.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>asks Lincoln concerning his ancestry, i. <a href='#Page001'>1</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>urges Lincoln to seek presidential nomination, <a href='#Page161'>161</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Felton, Samuel M.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>fears plot to assassinate Lincoln, i. <a href='#Page212'>212</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>has wires cut to avoid sending news, <a href='#Page214'>214</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Fenton, Reuben E.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in House in 1861, i. <a href='#Page297'>297</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Fessenden, William P.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Senate in 1861, i. <a href='#Page296'>296</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>reluctantly accepts Treasury Department, ii. 253;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his success, 254.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Fillmore, Millard,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>nominated for presidency by Know-Nothings and Whigs in 1856, i. <a href='#Page101'>101</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Financial history,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Chase's conduct of Treasury, ii. 170, 171.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Five Forks,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>battle of, ii. 333.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Florida,</p> +<p class='indexentry'> ready to secede in 1860, i. <a href='#Page183'>183</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>secedes, <a href='#Page186'>186</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Florida,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Confederate privateer, ii. 171, 172.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Floyd, John B.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Buchanan's cabinet, i. <a href='#Page187'>187</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes secession delayed, <a href='#Page198'>198</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sends arms into South, <a href='#Page199'>199</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>involved in defalcation, <a href='#Page199'>199</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>quarrels on question of reinforcing Sumter and resigns, <a href='#Page199'>199</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>runs away from Fort Donelson, <a href='#Page354'>354</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Foote, Admiral Andrew H.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his operations in 1862, i. <a href='#Page333'>333</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>captures Fort Henry, <a href='#Page354'>354</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Ford, Governor,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>remark on Lincoln's political luck, i. <a href='#Page054'>54</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Forney, John W.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on Republican Convention of 1864, ii. 262.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Forquer, George,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>taunts Lincoln with youth, i. <a href='#Page051'>51</a>, <a href='#Page052'>52</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>retort of Lincoln to, <a href='#Page052'>52</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Fox, G.V.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his plan to relieve Fort Sumter, i. <a href='#Page245'>245</a>, <a href='#Page247'>247</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Franklin, General William B.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>summoned by Lincoln to consultation, i. <a href='#Page323'>323</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>does not tell McClellan, <a href='#Page324'>324</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>favors McClellan's plan of attack, <a href='#Page330'>330</a>, <a href='#Page336'>336</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his division sent to McClellan, but not used, ii. 47;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his force occupies West Point, 48.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Fremont, Mrs. Jessie Benton,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>her interview with Lincoln, i. <a href='#Page350'>350</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Fremont, John C.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>nominated for presidency by Republicans, i. <a href='#Page101'>101</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>appointed to command in Missouri, <a href='#Page349'>349</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his quarrelsomeness and inefficiency, <a href='#Page349'>349</a>, <a href='#Page350'>350</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>arrests Blair, <a href='#Page350'>350</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>the idol of Abolitionists, <a href='#Page350'>350</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>removed, <a href='#Page350'>350</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>declares slaves of rebels free in Missouri, ii. 6;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>asked by Lincoln to modify order, 6;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses, and becomes enemy of Lincoln, 7;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>reinforced by Lincoln under political pressure, 35;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>commands force in West Virginia, 54;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>ordered to catch Jackson, 55;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>fails, 56;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>resigns, 74;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>upheld by Lincoln's enemies in Missouri, as rival for presidency, 255;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>nominated for presidency, 258;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>failure of his candidacy, 258;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>withdraws, 259;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his followers hate Blair, 287.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>France,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>recognizes belligerency of South, i. <a href='#Page371'>371</a>, <a href='#Page372'>372</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>would have joined England in case of war, <a href='#Page385'>385</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>proposes mediation, ii. 173.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Fredericksburg,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>battle of, ii. 137.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Free Soil party,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>origin of, i. <a href='#Page086'>86</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Fugitive Slave Law,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>passed, i. <a href='#Page091'>91</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Lincoln's opinion of, <a href='#Page132'>132</a>.</p> + + +<a name='INDEX_G'></a> +<p class='indexterm'>Garrison, William Lloyd,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>disapproves of Republican party, i. <a href='#Page177'>177</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>supports Lincoln in 1864, ii. 256.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Georgia,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>not ready for secession, i. <a href='#Page182'>182</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes a Southern convention, <a href='#Page183'>183</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>how led to secede, <a href='#Page183'>183</a>, <a href='#Page186'>186</a>, <a href='#Page187'>187</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Union minority in, <a href='#Page186'>186</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Gettysburg,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>battle of, ii. 147, 148;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Lincoln's address at, 213-215.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Giddings, Joshua R.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>favors Lincoln's emancipation bill in 1849, i. <a href='#Page080'>80</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>member of Republican Convention of 1860, <a href='#Page177'>177</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Gilmer, John A.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses to enter Lincoln's cabinet, i. <a href='#Page235'>235</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Gist,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>governor of South Carolina, sends circular letter asking about secession feeling in South, i. <a href='#Page182'>182</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Grant, Ulysses S.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his operations in 1862, i. <a href='#Page333'>333</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>captures Forts Henry and Donelson, <a href='#Page354'>354</a>, <a href='#Page355'>355</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>recommended by Halleck for promotion, <a href='#Page355'>355</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>condemned by Halleck and relieved from command, <a href='#Page360'>360</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>reinstated, <a href='#Page360'>360</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>advances to Pittsburg Landing, <a href='#Page361'>361</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>attacked by Johnston, <a href='#Page361'>361</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>does not admit defeat at Shiloh, <a href='#Page361'>361</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on severity of battle, <a href='#Page362'>362</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his conduct of battle criticised, <a href='#Page362'>362</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>harassed by Halleck, asks to be relieved, <a href='#Page363'>363</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on Halleck's mistakes, <a href='#Page363'>363</a>, <a href='#Page364'>364</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on Copperheads, ii. 96;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>forms plan to take Vicksburg, 157;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>tries to approach city from south, 158, 159;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>besieges and takes Vicksburg, 159, 160;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his credit for campaign, 160;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his relations with Lincoln, 160, 161;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>accused of drunkenness, 161;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>congratulated by Lincoln, 161, 162;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>given command of the West, 165;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>orders Thomas to hold Chattanooga, 165;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>relieves siege, 166;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wins battle of Chattanooga, 166, 167;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sends Sherman to relieve Burnside, 167;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on reconstruction, 229, 230;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his conference with Lincoln, 237;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>movement to nominate for President in 1864, 259, 263;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>appointed lieutenant-general, 276, 277;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>given free control, 277;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>prepares plan of campaign, 277;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>correspondence with Lincoln, 278;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his campaigns in Virginia, 279, 280;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sends force to hold Washington against Early, 282;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sends Sheridan against Early, 284;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>character of his military methods, 300;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>reports proposal of Lee for a conference, 329;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>ordered by Lincoln to refuse, 329;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on desertions from Lee's army, 330;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his plan to entrap Lee's army, 330, 331;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes to capture Lee without Sherman's aid, 333;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>enters Petersburg, 334;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>pursues Lee, 336-338;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>urges Lee to surrender, 337;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his liberal terms to Lee, 338;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>praised by Lincoln, 340;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>unable to accept Lincoln's invitation to theatre the evening of his assassination, 345.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Greeley, Horace,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>prefers Douglas to Lincoln in 1858, i. <a href='#Page112'>112</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in convention of 1860, works against Seward, <a href='#Page167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page172'>172</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his influence used against Lincoln, <a href='#Page191'>191</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>willing to admit peaceable secession, <a href='#Page191'>191</a>-<a href='#Page193'>193</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on comparative strength of North and South, <a href='#Page206'>206</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>suddenly denounces compromise, <a href='#Page210'>210</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>a secessionist in 1861, <a href='#Page231'>231</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>publishes address to President, ii. 105;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his influence, 106;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>answered by Lincoln, 107, 108;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his abusive retort, 108, 109;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>suggests French mediation, 174;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>condemns Lincoln in 1864, 260;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on movement to delay nomination, 261;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his political creed, 266;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>claims to be a Republican while denouncing Lincoln, 266;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>favors Fremont, 267;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes peace at any price, 267;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes to treat with Confederates, 268;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>authorized to do so by Lincoln, 268;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>conditions named by Lincoln, 269;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>abuses Lincoln for causing failure of negotiations, 269.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Green, Duff,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>tries to induce Lincoln to support Buchanan, i. <a href='#Page210'>210</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Greene, Bolin,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>lends Lincoln money, i. <a href='#Page042'>42</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Grimes, James W.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Senate in 1861, i. <a href='#Page296'>296</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Grow, Galusha A.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>speaker of House in 1861, i. <a href='#Page297'>297</a>.</p> + + +<a name='INDEX_H'></a> +<p class='indexterm'>Habeas Corpus,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>suspension of, by Lincoln, i. <a href='#Page286'>286</a>-<a href='#Page291'>291</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Hale, John P.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sums up Buchanan's secession doctrine, i. <a href='#Page190'>190</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Senate in 1861, <a href='#Page296'>296</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>denounces administration in Trent affair, <a href='#Page386'>386</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Halleck, General Henry W.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>letter of Lincoln to, on plan of war, i. <a href='#Page329'>329</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>commands in Missouri, <a href='#Page351'>351</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sends news of capture of Fort Donelson and asks for command in West, <a href='#Page355'>355</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>assumes command, <a href='#Page359'>359</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>complains of Grant, <a href='#Page360'>360</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>drives Grant to request to be relieved, <a href='#Page363'>363</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his slow advance upon Corinth, <a href='#Page363'>363</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses to fight, <a href='#Page364'>364</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>enters Corinth unopposed, <a href='#Page364'>364</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>fails to use powerful army, <a href='#Page364'>364</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>appointed general-in-chief, 365, ii. 65;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>compared with McClellan, i. 365;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>gains advancement because unopposed and unnoticed by politicians, 366;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>expels slaves from camp, ii. 8;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>favors recall of McClellan from Peninsula, 65, 66;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>allowed free hand by Lincoln, 73;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>inferior to McClellan, 74;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his telegraphic dispute with McClellan, 78, 79;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>begs McClellan's assistance after Pope's defeat, 80;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>instructs McClellan to command defences of Washington, 83;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>alarmed over safety of capital, 84;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>has friction with Hooker, 145;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses to give Hooker garrison of Harper's Ferry, 146;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>urges Meade to attack after Gettysburg, 149;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes Buell and Rosecrans</p> +<p class='indexentry'>to invade Tennessee, 155;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>superseded by Grant, 276;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on bad terms with Blair, 287, 288.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Hamlin, Hannibal,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>nominated for Vice-President, i. <a href='#Page171'>171</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>reasons why not renominated, ii. 263.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Hanks, John,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>aids Lincoln to split rails, i. <a href='#Page016'>16</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on Lincoln's first sight of slavery, <a href='#Page017'>17</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>brings rails split by Lincoln into Republican Convention, <a href='#Page162'>162</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Hanks, Nancy,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>mother of Lincoln, i. <a href='#Page002'>2</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>descends from a "poor white" family, <a href='#Page007'>7</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>her character, <a href='#Page007'>7</a>, <a href='#Page008'>8</a>, <a href='#Page009'>9</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>marries Thomas Lincoln, <a href='#Page008'>8</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>her death, <a href='#Page011'>11</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Hardin, Colonel John J.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>defeats Lincoln and Baker for Congress, i. <a href='#Page071'>71</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>defeated by Lincoln, <a href='#Page073'>73</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Harlan, James,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Senate in 1861, i. <a href='#Page296'>296</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Harrison, W.H.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>campaign for, in 1840, i. <a href='#Page061'>61</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Hawkins, George S.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>opposes compromise in 1861 as futile, i. <a href='#Page204'>204</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Hayti,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>recognized, ii. 18.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Heintzelman, General Samuel P.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>opposes McClellan's plan of campaign, i. <a href='#Page336'>336</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>appointed corps commander, <a href='#Page344'>344</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on force necessary to protect Washington, ii. 32.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Henderson, John B.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>approves Lincoln's emancipation scheme, ii. 27.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Henry, Fort,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>captured, i. <a href='#Page354'>354</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Herndon, William H.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>law partner of Lincoln, i. <a href='#Page067'>67</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>prevents Lincoln from association with Abolitionists, <a href='#Page095'>95</a>, <a href='#Page096'>96</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>aids Lincoln in organizing Republican party, <a href='#Page111'>111</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>visits East to counteract Greeley's influence against Lincoln, <a href='#Page113'>113</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Herold, David E.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>tried for assassination of Lincoln, ii. 350-352;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>hanged, 352.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Hickman, John,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>calls Lincoln's emancipation scheme unmanly, ii. 23.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Hicks, Governor Thomas H.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>opposed to secession, i. <a href='#Page258'>258</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>suggests referring troubles to Lord Lyons as arbitrator, <a href='#Page281'>281</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>"Higher Law,"</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Seward's doctrine of, i. <a href='#Page090'>90</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Hitchcock, General Ethan A.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>considers Washington insufficiently protected, ii. 40.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Holt, Joseph,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>succeeds Floyd in Buchanan's cabinet, i. <a href='#Page199'>199</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>joins Black and Stanton in coercing Buchanan, <a href='#Page200'>200</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>fears attempt of South to seize Washington, <a href='#Page209'>209</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Hood, General John Bell,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>succeeds Johnston, ii. 283;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>defeated by Sherman, 283.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Hooker, General Joseph,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>allows slave owners to reclaim fugitives, ii. 8;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>replaces Burnside in command, 138;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>letter of Lincoln to, 139, 140;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his abilities, 140;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Chancellorsville campaign, 140-142;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>throws away chance of success, 141;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>fails to use all of troops, 142;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>orders retreat, 142;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes to resume attack, 143;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>first prevented, then urged by Lincoln, 143, 144;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes to capture Richmond, 144;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>follows Lee to North, 145;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>instructed by Lincoln to obey Halleck, 145, 146;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>irritated by Halleck, resigns, 146;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sent to aid Rosecrans, 165;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>storms Lookout Mountain, 166, 167.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>House of Representatives,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>election of Lincoln to, and career in, i. <a href='#Page073'>73</a>-<a href='#Page081'>81</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>members of, <a href='#Page074'>74</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>debates Mexican war, <a href='#Page074'>74</a>, <a href='#Page075'>75</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>struggles in, over Wilmot proviso, <a href='#Page079'>79</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses to pass Lincoln's emancipation bill of 1849, <a href='#Page079'>79</a>-<a href='#Page081'>81</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>settles question of admission of Kansas, <a href='#Page109'>109</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>proposes Constitutional amendment in 1861, <a href='#Page202'>202</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>rejects plan of Peace Congress, <a href='#Page203'>203</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>leaders of, in 1861, <a href='#Page297'>297</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>thanks Captain Wilkes, <a href='#Page381'>381</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>approves emancipation proclamation, ii. 120;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>fails to pass thirteenth amendment, 318;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>later passes amendment, 325-327.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Houston, Samuel,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>opposes secession in Texas, i. <a href='#Page187'>187</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Hunter, General David,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>asked by Lincoln to aid Fremont, i. <a href='#Page349'>349</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>succeeds Fremont, <a href='#Page351'>351</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>proclaims martial law and abolishes slavery in Georgia, Florida, and South Carolina, ii. 7;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his order revoked, 7;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>organizes a negro regiment, 15.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Hunter, R.M.T.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on Confederate peace commission, ii. 305;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>retort of Lincoln to, 307.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Hyer, Tom,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>hired by Seward's supporters in Republican Convention, i. <a href='#Page167'>167</a>.</p> + + +<a name='INDEX_I'></a> +<p class='indexterm'>Illinois,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>early settlers and society of, i. <a href='#Page017'>17</a>-<a href='#Page030'>30</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Black Hawk war, <a href='#Page035'>35</a>, <a href='#Page036'>36</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>early politics in, <a href='#Page037'>37</a>-<a href='#Page039'>39</a>, <a href='#Page050'>50</a>, <a href='#Page059'>59</a>, <a href='#Page060'>60</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>land speculation in, <a href='#Page041'>41</a>, <a href='#Page042'>42</a>, <a href='#Page053'>53</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>career of Lincoln in legislature of, <a href='#Page043'>43</a>-<a href='#Page060'>60</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>the career of "Long Nine" in, <a href='#Page052'>52</a>-<a href='#Page055'>55</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>internal improvement craze in, <a href='#Page053'>53</a>, <a href='#Page054'>54</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>adopts resolutions condemning Abolitionists and emancipation in the District, <a href='#Page055'>55</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>suffers from financial collapse, <a href='#Page059'>59</a>, <a href='#Page060'>60</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>carried by Van Buren against Harrison, <a href='#Page061'>61</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>legal profession in, <a href='#Page067'>67</a>, <a href='#Page068'>68</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>carried by Democrats in 1844, <a href='#Page071'>71</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>upholds Mexican war, <a href='#Page077'>77</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>denounces Kansas-Nebraska Act, <a href='#Page095'>95</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>senatorial election of 1855 in, <a href='#Page096'>96</a>-<a href='#Page098'>98</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>popular feeling in, concerning Kansas, <a href='#Page108'>108</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in campaign of 1856, <a href='#Page112'>112</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>political situation in, during 1858, <a href='#Page113'>113</a>-<a href='#Page116'>116</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>prestige of Douglas in, <a href='#Page116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page117'>117</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>senatorial campaign in, <a href='#Page121'>121</a>-<a href='#Page150'>150</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>carried by Douglas, <a href='#Page149'>149</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>movement in, to nominate Lincoln for President, <a href='#Page161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page162'>162</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>carried by Democrats in 1862, ii. 124.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Indiana,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>carried by Democrats in 1862, ii. 124;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Copperheads in, 183, 184.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Internal improvements,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>craze over, in Western States, i. <a href='#Page053'>53</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Iverson, Alfred,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>works in Georgia for secession, i. <a href='#Page186'>186</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>threatens Houston with assassination, <a href='#Page187'>187</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes to keep Washington as capital of Confederacy, <a href='#Page209'>209</a>.</p> + + +<a name='INDEX_J'></a> +<p class='indexterm'>Jackson, Andrew,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>popularity of, in Illinois, i. <a href='#Page038'>38</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>attitude of Lincoln toward, <a href='#Page038'>38</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Jackson, Thomas Jonathan, "Stonewall,"</p> +<p class='indexentry'>commands at Harper's Ferry, i. <a href='#Page299'>299</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Shenandoah valley, ii. 53;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his raid down valley in 1862, 54;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>escapes pursuing forces, 56;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>joins Johnston and attacks McClellan, 58;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>compels McClellan to retreat to James River, 61;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>defeats Banks, 76;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>reinforced, 76;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>marches around Pope, 76;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on too good condition of Federal armies, 87;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>breaks Federal right at Chancellorsville, 141;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>accidentally shot by his own soldiers, 141.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Johnson, Andrew,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Congress with Lincoln, i. <a href='#Page074'>74</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Senate in 1861, <a href='#Page297'>297</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>instructed by Lincoln to reorganize government in Tennessee, ii. 219;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>stern opinion of treason, 229;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>repudiates Sherman's terms with Johnston, 239;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his nomination for vice-presidency aided by Lincoln, 263, 264;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>protested against, by Tennesseeans, 295;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his accession to presidency welcomed by radicals, 349;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses to commute Mrs. Surratt's sentence, 352.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Johnson, Bushrod R.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>captured at Fort Donelson, i. <a href='#Page355'>355</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Johnson, Herschel V.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>nominated for Vice-President in 1860, i. <a href='#Page164'>164</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>votes against secession in 1860, <a href='#Page187'>187</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Johnson, Oliver,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>supports Lincoln in 1864, ii. 256.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Johnston, General A.S.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>plans to crush Grant and Buell in detail, i. <a href='#Page361'>361</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>commands at battle of Shiloh, <a href='#Page361'>361</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>killed, <a href='#Page362'>362</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Johnston, Joseph</p> +<p class='indexentry'>succeeds Jackson at Harper's Ferry, i. <a href='#Page299'>299</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>aids Beauregard at Bull Run, <a href='#Page301'>301</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on condition of Confederate army, <a href='#Page302'>302</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>evacuates Manassas, <a href='#Page341'>341</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>fears that McClellan will storm Yorktown, ii. 38;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>begins attack on McClellan, 58;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>retreats from Sherman after Vicksburg, 162;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>terms of Sherman with, in 1865, 238, 239, 240;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>campaign against Sherman in 1864, 283;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>removed by Davis, 283;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>campaign against Sherman in Carolinas, 331;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>plan of Lee to join, 331;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>surrenders, 340.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Johnston, Sally,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>marries Thomas Lincoln, i. <a href='#Page011'>11</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>her character, <a href='#Page011'>11</a>, <a href='#Page012'>12</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Jones, Abraham,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>ancestor of Lincoln, i. <a href='#Page004'>4</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Judd, N.B.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>asked by Lincoln to help his canvass in 1860, i. <a href='#Page162'>162</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>urges Lincoln to avoid danger of assassination, <a href='#Page213'>213</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Julian, George W.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in House in 1861, i. <a href='#Page297'>297</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on Republican dissatisfaction with Lincoln, ii. 104, 105, 246.</p> + + +<a name='INDEX_K'></a> +<p class='indexterm'>Kane, Marshal Geo. P.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>telegraphs for Southern aid to oppose passage of troops through Baltimore, i. <a href='#Page258'>258</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Kansas,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>struggle in, between free and slave-state men, i. <a href='#Page098'>98</a>, <a href='#Page099'>99</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>rival constitutions of, <a href='#Page104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page105'>105</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>admission of, under Lecompton Constitution, urged by Buchanan, <a href='#Page105'>105</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>opposed by Douglas, <a href='#Page101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page108'>108</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>attempt of Congress to bribe into acceptance of Lecompton Constitution, <a href='#Page109'>109</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>rejects offer, <a href='#Page109'>109</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>speeches of Lincoln in, <a href='#Page152'>152</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Kansas-Nebraska bill,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>introduced, i. <a href='#Page093'>93</a>, <a href='#Page094'>94</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>repeals Missouri Compromise, <a href='#Page094'>94</a>, <a href='#Page095'>95</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Keitt, Lawrence M.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his fight with Grow, i. <a href='#Page297'>297</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Kellogg, Win. Pitt,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>letter of Lincoln to, on extension of slavery, i. <a href='#Page210'>210</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Kentucky,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>desire of Lincoln to retain in Union, i. <a href='#Page255'>255</a>, <a href='#Page265'>265</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses to furnish troops, <a href='#Page255'>255</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>attempt of Secessionists to carry, <a href='#Page265'>265</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes to be neutral, <a href='#Page266'>266</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>thereby intends to aid South, <a href='#Page266'>266</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>skillful dealings of Lincoln with, <a href='#Page266'>266</a>, <a href='#Page267'>267</a>, <a href='#Page268'>268</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>remains in Union, <a href='#Page267'>267</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>saved by State loyalty, <a href='#Page268'>268</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>its neutrality violated by South, joins North, <a href='#Page352'>352</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>campaign of Grant in, <a href='#Page354'>354</a>, <a href='#Page355'>355</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>invaded by Bragg, ii. 154.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Keyes, General Erasmus D.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>favors McClellan's plan of campaign, i. <a href='#Page336'>336</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>appointed corps commander, <a href='#Page344'>344</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on force necessary to protect Washington, ii. 32;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on impossibility of taking Yorktown, 38.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Know-Nothings,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>their career in 1854-1856, i. <a href='#Page100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page101'>101</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>attempt to draw out Lincoln in 1860, <a href='#Page175'>175</a>.</p> + + +<a name='INDEX_L'></a> +<p class='indexterm'>Lamon, Colonel Ward H.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>connection with assassination story, i. <a href='#Page213'>213</a>, <a href='#Page214'>214</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Lane, James H.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>senator from Kansas, i. <a href='#Page297'>297</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Lane, Joseph,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>nominated for Vice-President on Breckinridge ticket in 1860, i. <a href='#Page164'>164</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Lee, Robert E.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>offered command of Union army, i. <a href='#Page263'>263</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>opposes secession, <a href='#Page264'>264</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>resigns from army and accepts command of State troops, <a href='#Page264'>264</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>becomes Confederate general, <a href='#Page264'>264</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>commands against Pope, ii. 76;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>prepares to invade Maryland, 84;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his contempt for McClellan, 84;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>at Antietam, 85-87;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>at Fredericksburg, 136, 137;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>outmanoeuvred by Hooker, 141;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>at Chancellorsville, 141, 142;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>hopes to conquer a peace, 143;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>enters Pennsylvania, 145;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>retreats after Gettysburg, 148;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sends reinforcements to Bragg, 163;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>campaign in Virginia against Meade, 168, 169;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his campaign against Grant, 279, 280;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>suggests a conference with Grant, 329;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>notifies Davis that Richmond must fall, 330, 333;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his chance of escape, 331;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>attacks Federal lines, 332;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>tries to escape, 336, 337;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>surrenders at Appomattox, 338, 339;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>asks for food, 339.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Liberia,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>recognized, ii. 18.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Lincoln, Abraham,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his ignorance concerning his ancestry i. <a href='#Page001'>1</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sensitive regarding it, <a href='#Page001'>1</a>, <a href='#Page002'>2</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his own statements, <a href='#Page002'>2</a>, <a href='#Page006'>6</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>anxious to appear of respectable stock, <a href='#Page002'>2</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his genealogy as established later, <a href='#Page003'>3</a>-<a href='#Page006'>6</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his reputed illegitimacy, <a href='#Page007'>7</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his birth, <a href='#Page008'>8</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his references to his mother, <a href='#Page008'>8</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his childhood, <a href='#Page008'>8</a>, <a href='#Page009'>9</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>befriended by his step-mother, <a href='#Page012'>12</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his education, <a href='#Page012'>12</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>early reading, <a href='#Page012'>12</a>, <a href='#Page013'>13</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>early attempts at humorous writing, <a href='#Page013'>13</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>storytelling, <a href='#Page014'>14</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>youthful exploits, <a href='#Page014'>14</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>let out by his father, <a href='#Page015'>15</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>helps his father settle in Sangamon County, Ill., <a href='#Page016'>16</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>works for himself, <a href='#Page016'>16</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his trip to New Orleans for Offut, <a href='#Page016'>16</a>, <a href='#Page017'>17</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>impressed with slavery, <a href='#Page017'>17</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Offut's store, <a href='#Page018'>18</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>fights Armstrong, <a href='#Page018'>18</a>, <a href='#Page019'>19</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>later friendship with Armstrong, <a href='#Page019'>19</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>borrows a grammar, <a href='#Page019'>19</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his honesty, <a href='#Page019'>19</a>, <a href='#Page020'>20</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>loses situation, <a href='#Page020'>20</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>involved in border quarrels, <a href='#Page024'>24</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his temperance considered eccentric, <a href='#Page025'>25</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>careless habits of dress, <a href='#Page026'>26</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in the country groceries, <a href='#Page028'>28</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>coarseness of speech, <a href='#Page028'>28</a>, <a href='#Page029'>29</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his sympathetic understanding of the people, <a href='#Page031'>31</a>-<a href='#Page034'>34</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his standards dependent on surroundings, <a href='#Page032'>32</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>enlists in Black Hawk war, <a href='#Page035'>35</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>chosen captain, <a href='#Page035'>35</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his services, <a href='#Page036'>36</a>.</p> +<p class='indexentry'> </p> + +<p class='indexentry'><b><i>Frontier Politician</i></b>.</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Announces himself a candidate for the legislature, <a href='#Page037'>37</a>, <a href='#Page038'>38</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>a "Clay man," <a href='#Page038'>38</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his campaign and defeat, <a href='#Page039'>39</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>enters grocery store, fails, <a href='#Page039'>39</a>, <a href='#Page040'>40</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>pays off debt, <a href='#Page040'>40</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>studies law, <a href='#Page040'>40</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>postmaster at New Salem, <a href='#Page040'>40</a>, <a href='#Page041'>41</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>settles account with government, <a href='#Page041'>41</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>surveyor, <a href='#Page041'>41</a>, <a href='#Page042'>42</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>elected to legislature, <a href='#Page042'>42</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>borrows money to ride to capital, <a href='#Page043'>43</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his career in legislature, <a href='#Page043'>43</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>love affair with Ann Rutledge, <a href='#Page043'>43</a>, <a href='#Page044'>44</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his gloom, <a href='#Page044'>44</a>-<a href='#Page047'>47</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>its inexplicable character, <a href='#Page046'>46</a>, <a href='#Page047'>47</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>affair with Mary Owens, <a href='#Page048'>48</a> and n.;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>again a candidate, his platform, <a href='#Page049'>49</a>, <a href='#Page050'>50</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>calms excitement in campaign, <a href='#Page050'>50</a>, <a href='#Page051'>51</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his fairness, <a href='#Page051'>51</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his retort to Forquer, <a href='#Page052'>52</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>elected as one of "Long Nine," <a href='#Page052'>52</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>favors unlimited internal improvements, <a href='#Page053'>53</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>acknowledges his blunder, <a href='#Page054'>54</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his skill as log-roller, <a href='#Page054'>54</a>, <a href='#Page055'>55</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>gains popularity in county, <a href='#Page055'>55</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>protests against anti-abolition resolutions, <a href='#Page056'>56</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>admitted to bar, settles in Springfield, <a href='#Page056'>56</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>partnership with Stuart, <a href='#Page057'>57</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>studies debating, <a href='#Page057'>57</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>political ambitions, <a href='#Page057'>57</a>, <a href='#Page058'>58</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>shows evidences of high ideals, <a href='#Page058'>58</a>, <a href='#Page059'>59</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>incidents of his canvass in 1838, <a href='#Page059'>59</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>opposes repudiation, in legislature, <a href='#Page059'>59</a>, <a href='#Page060'>60</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>reflected in 1840, unsuccessful candidate for speaker, <a href='#Page060'>60</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>jumps out of window to break a quorum, <a href='#Page060'>60</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in campaign of 1840, <a href='#Page061'>61</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his courtship of Mary Todd, <a href='#Page062'>62</a>, <a href='#Page063'>63</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>fails to appear on wedding day, <a href='#Page063'>63</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>married, <a href='#Page063'>63</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>character of his married life, <a href='#Page064'>64</a>, <a href='#Page065'>65</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>quarrels with Shields, <a href='#Page065'>65</a>, <a href='#Page066'>66</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>later ashamed of it, <a href='#Page066'>66</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>improves prospects by a partnership with Logan, <a href='#Page067'>67</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>later joins with Herndon, <a href='#Page067'>67</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his competitors at the bar, <a href='#Page068'>68</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>considers law secondary to politics, <a href='#Page068'>68</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his legal ability, <a href='#Page068'>68</a>-<a href='#Page070'>70</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>a "case lawyer," <a href='#Page068'>68</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his ability as jury lawyer, <a href='#Page069'>69</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses to conduct a bad case, <a href='#Page070'>70</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on Whig electoral ticket in 1844, <a href='#Page071'>71</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>later disillusioned with Clay, <a href='#Page071'>71</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>fails to get nomination to Congress, <a href='#Page071'>71</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>alleged understanding with Baker and others, <a href='#Page072'>72</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>renews candidacy in 1846, <a href='#Page072'>72</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>nominated, <a href='#Page073'>73</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>elected, his vote, <a href='#Page073'>73</a>.</p> +<p class='indexentry'> </p> + +<p class='indexentry'><b><i>In Congress</i></b>.</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Agrees with Whig programme on Mexican war, <a href='#Page075'>75</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>introduces "Spot Resolutions" against Polk, <a href='#Page075'>75</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his speech, <a href='#Page076'>76</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his doctrine of right of revolution, <a href='#Page076'>76</a>, <a href='#Page077'>77</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>votes for Ashmun's amendment condemning war, <a href='#Page077'>77</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>defends himself from charge of lack of patriotism, <a href='#Page077'>77</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his honesty, <a href='#Page077'>77</a>, <a href='#Page078'>78</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>damages Whigs in Illinois, <a href='#Page078'>78</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>favors candidacy of Taylor, <a href='#Page078'>78</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his speech in House for Taylor against Cass, <a href='#Page079'>79</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>votes for Wilmot Proviso, <a href='#Page079'>79</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his bill to prohibit slave trade in District of Columbia, <a href='#Page079'>79</a>, <a href='#Page080'>80</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>obtains support of Giddings, <a href='#Page080'>80</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>fails to obtain commissionership in Land Office, <a href='#Page081'>81</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>declines governorship of Oregon, <a href='#Page081'>81</a>.</p> +<p class='indexentry'> </p> + +<p class='indexentry'><b><i>Candidate for Senate</i></b>.</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Accepts compromise although recognizing its futility, <a href='#Page092'>92</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>favors Scott in 1852, <a href='#Page093'>93</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>answers Douglas's defense of Nebraska bill, <a href='#Page095'>95</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>escapes connection with Abolitionists, <a href='#Page095'>95</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>renews attack upon Douglas, <a href='#Page096'>96</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>candidate for Senate, <a href='#Page096'>96</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>leads in first ballots, <a href='#Page096'>96</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>injured by Abolitionist praise, <a href='#Page097'>97</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>urges friends to secure election of Trumbull, <a href='#Page097'>97</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his alleged bargain with Trumbull, <a href='#Page098'>98</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>receives vote for Vice-President in Republican National Convention, <a href='#Page101'>101</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his surprise, <a href='#Page101'>101</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his opinion of Kansas question, <a href='#Page105'>105</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>delivers speech at organization of Republican party, <a href='#Page111'>111</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>meets disapproval at Springfield, <a href='#Page111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page112'>112</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in campaign of 1856, <a href='#Page112'>112</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>encounters hostility of Greeley in the East, <a href='#Page112'>112</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>journey of Herndon in his behalf, <a href='#Page113'>113</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>nominated by State Convention for senatorship, <a href='#Page114'>114</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>damaged by Whig support of Douglas, <a href='#Page116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page117'>117</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>prepares letter of acceptance, <a href='#Page117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page118'>118</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>reads paragraph on situation to friends, <a href='#Page118'>118</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>alarms advisers by his plainness of utterance, <a href='#Page119'>119</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>insists on asserting the irrepressible conflict, <a href='#Page119'>119</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>statesmanship of his course, <a href='#Page120'>120</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>challenges Douglas to joint debate, <a href='#Page121'>121</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>misrepresentations of his position on slavery, <a href='#Page122'>122</a>-<a href='#Page124'>124</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his appeal to "the fathers," <a href='#Page124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page125'>125</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his accusation against the South, <a href='#Page125'>125</a>-<a href='#Page128'>128</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his crucial question to Douglas, <a href='#Page128'>128</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Douglas's reply, <a href='#Page128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page129'>129</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his position on Dred Scott decision, <a href='#Page129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page130'>130</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>accused of duplicity, <a href='#Page130'>130</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his views as to slavery under the Constitution considered, <a href='#Page131'>131</a>-<a href='#Page136'>136</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on Abolitionists, <a href='#Page134'>134</a>, <a href='#Page135'>135</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on negro race, <a href='#Page136'>136</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his freedom from animosity toward opponents or slaveholders, <a href='#Page137'>137</a>-<a href='#Page139'>139</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>does not denounce slaveholders, <a href='#Page138'>138</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his fairness a mental trait, <a href='#Page139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page140'>140</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on popular sovereignty, <a href='#Page141'>141</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>convicts Douglas of ambiguity, <a href='#Page142'>142</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>alleged purpose to discredit Douglas as presidential candidate, <a href='#Page143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page144'>144</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>feels himself upholder of a great cause, <a href='#Page144'>144</a>-<a href='#Page146'>146</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his moral denunciation of slavery, <a href='#Page145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page146'>146</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his literary form, <a href='#Page147'>147</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>elevation of tone, <a href='#Page147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page148'>148</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>disappointed at defeat by Douglas, <a href='#Page149'>149</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>exhausted by his efforts, <a href='#Page150'>150</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>asked to contribute to campaign fund, <a href='#Page150'>150</a>.</p> +<p class='indexentry'> </p> + +<p class='indexentry'><b><i>Candidate for Presidency</i></b>.</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Makes speeches in Ohio, <a href='#Page151'>151</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>calls Douglas pro-slavery, <a href='#Page151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page152'>152</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>invited to speak in New York, prepares address, <a href='#Page152'>152</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>journey through Kansas, <a href='#Page152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page153'>153</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his New York address, <a href='#Page153'>153</a>-<a href='#Page155'>155</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>states the situation, <a href='#Page154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page155'>155</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>praised by newspapers, <a href='#Page155'>155</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>tour in New England, <a href='#Page155'>155</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>comprehensive nature of his speeches, <a href='#Page156'>156</a>, <a href='#Page157'>157</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>ignores disunion, <a href='#Page157'>157</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>by dwelling on wrong of slavery, makes disunion wrong, <a href='#Page159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page160'>160</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>slow to admit publicly a desire for presidency, <a href='#Page161'>161</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>enters field in 1859, <a href='#Page160'>160</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>nominated as candidate by Illinois Republican Convention, <a href='#Page162'>162</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his managers at National Convention, <a href='#Page167'>167</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>yelled for by hired shouters, <a href='#Page168'>168</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>supposed to be more moderate than Seward, <a href='#Page168'>168</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his own statement of principles, <a href='#Page169'>169</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>votes secured for, by bargains, <a href='#Page169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page170'>170</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>nominated on third ballot, <a href='#Page170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page171'>171</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>accepts nomination in dejection, <a href='#Page171'>171</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his nomination a result of "availability," <a href='#Page172'>172</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>little known in country at large, <a href='#Page173'>173</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>anxious to avoid discussion of side issues, <a href='#Page175'>175</a>, <a href='#Page176'>176</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>opposed by Abolitionists, <a href='#Page176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page177'>177</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>supported by Giddings, <a href='#Page177'>177</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>elected, <a href='#Page178'>178</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>the choice of a minority, <a href='#Page178'>178</a>, <a href='#Page179'>179</a>.</p> +<p class='indexentry'> </p> + + +<p class='indexentry'><b><i>President-elect.</i></b></p> +<p class='indexentry'>His trying position during interregnum, <a href='#Page181'>181</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his election the signal for secession, <a href='#Page184'>184</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>damaged by persistent opposition of New York "Tribune," <a href='#Page191'>191</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his opinion of the proposed constitutional amendment to guarantee slavery, <a href='#Page202'>202</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>declared elected by electoral count, <a href='#Page208'>208</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>alleged plot to assassinate, <a href='#Page208'>208</a>, <a href='#Page210'>210</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>maintains silence during winter, <a href='#Page209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page210'>210</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>privately expresses dislike of compromise, <a href='#Page210'>210</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>declares against interfering with slavery, <a href='#Page210'>210</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>pronounces for coercing seceded States, <a href='#Page211'>211</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his journey to Washington, <a href='#Page211'>211</a>-<a href='#Page214'>214</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>warned of plot against, <a href='#Page212'>212</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>speeches in Pennsylvania, <a href='#Page212'>212</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>induced to avoid danger, <a href='#Page213'>213</a>, <a href='#Page214'>214</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>accused of cowardice, <a href='#Page214'>214</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his own opinion as to plot, <a href='#Page215'>215</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>question of his real danger, <a href='#Page215'>215</a>-<a href='#Page217'>217</a> and n.;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>visited by Peace Congress, <a href='#Page217'>217</a>-<a href='#Page219'>219</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>impresses visitors by his appearance, <a href='#Page219'>219</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>inauguration of, <a href='#Page219'>219</a>-<a href='#Page222'>222</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his address, <a href='#Page220'>220</a>, <a href='#Page221'>221</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>states intention to enforce laws, <a href='#Page221'>221</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>repeats opposition to extension only of slavery, <a href='#Page222'>222</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his previous denunciations remembered by South, <a href='#Page223'>223</a>, <a href='#Page224'>224</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>shows statesmanship in emphasizing Union, <a href='#Page227'>227</a>, <a href='#Page228'>228</a>.</p> +<p class='indexentry'> </p> + + +<p class='indexentry'><b><i>President--First Term</i></b>.</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Appears tranquil after entering office, <a href='#Page228'>228</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>not over-confident, but resolved on doing his duty, <a href='#Page230'>230</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>disheartened by lack of support at North, <a href='#Page231'>231</a>, <a href='#Page232'>232</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>not trusted by leaders of Republican party, <a href='#Page232'>232</a>, <a href='#Page233'>233</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>feels isolation, <a href='#Page233'>233</a>, <a href='#Page234'>234</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his cabinet, <a href='#Page234'>234</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>seeks representatives of all views, <a href='#Page234'>234</a>, <a href='#Page235'>235</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>prefers individual strength to unity in cabinet, <a href='#Page235'>235</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>criticised by radical Republicans, <a href='#Page235'>235</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>has difficulties in satisfying Cameron, <a href='#Page236'>236</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>dissuades Seward from refusing to join cabinet, <a href='#Page237'>237</a>, <a href='#Page238'>238</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his statement of purpose to Virginia commissioners, <a href='#Page240'>240</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>annoys South by failing to notice it, <a href='#Page241'>241</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>irritates Northern extremists, <a href='#Page242'>242</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>asks opinion of Scott as to relieving Sumter, <a href='#Page244'>244</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>asks advice of cabinet, <a href='#Page245'>245</a>, <a href='#Page246'>246</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>promises South to take no action without warning, <a href='#Page245'>245</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>again asks cabinet, <a href='#Page246'>246</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>forms plan to relieve Fort Pickens, <a href='#Page247'>247</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>spoils plan to relieve Sumter by sending Powhatan to Pensacola, <a href='#Page248'>248</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>announces intention to provision Sumter, <a href='#Page248'>248</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>admits blame for failure, <a href='#Page249'>249</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>question of his fault in delaying to relieve fort, <a href='#Page250'>250</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>issues proclamation calling for volunteers for three months, <a href='#Page252'>252</a>, <a href='#Page253'>253</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his purpose, <a href='#Page253'>253</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>expects Northerners to equal Southerners as fighters, <a href='#Page253'>253</a>, <a href='#Page254'>254</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>calls Congress for special session, <a href='#Page254'>254</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes to gain Kentucky, <a href='#Page254'>254</a>, <a href='#Page255'>255</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>dreads effect of Baltimore riot on Border States, <a href='#Page258'>258</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>offers to send troops around Baltimore, <a href='#Page259'>259</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>soothes Maryland, <a href='#Page260'>260</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>cut off from North for a week, <a href='#Page261'>261</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>tries in vain to prevent Virginia from seceding, <a href='#Page263'>263</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>tries to secure Lee, <a href='#Page263'>263</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>successful in his policy for retaining Kentucky in Union, <a href='#Page267'>267</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>unable to reach North Carolina, Tennessee, or Arkansas, <a href='#Page269'>269</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>tries to aid Missouri loyalists, <a href='#Page270'>270</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>confident in efficiency of North, <a href='#Page271'>271</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his capacities unknown to people, <a href='#Page273'>273</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>question of his "inspiration," <a href='#Page274'>274</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his masterfulness not realized, <a href='#Page274'>274</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>question as to his relations with advisers, <a href='#Page275'>275</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>obliged to restrain Chase and Seward, <a href='#Page275'>275</a>-<a href='#Page280'>280</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his relations with Chase, <a href='#Page276'>276</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>receives Seward's "Thoughts," <a href='#Page276'>276</a>, <a href='#Page277'>277</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his reply to Seward, <a href='#Page279'>279</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>realizes his own responsibility and accepts it, <a href='#Page280'>280</a>, <a href='#Page281'>281</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>receives absurd advice, <a href='#Page281'>281</a>, <a href='#Page282'>282</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>proclaims blockade of Southern ports, <a href='#Page283'>283</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>advised to "close" ports, <a href='#Page284'>284</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sees necessity of admitting war, <a href='#Page285'>285</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>decides to act efficiently without regard to Constitution, <a href='#Page285'>285</a>, <a href='#Page286'>286</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>instructs Scott to watch Maryland legislature, <a href='#Page286'>286</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>issues order to arrest Maryland secessionists, <a href='#Page287'>287</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>orders Scott to suspend writ of habeas corpus, <a href='#Page287'>287</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>denounced by Taney, <a href='#Page288'>288</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>issues proclamation authorizing further suspension, <a href='#Page289'>289</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>states his argument to Congress, <a href='#Page289'>289</a>, <a href='#Page290'>290</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>calls for more volunteers, <a href='#Page291'>291</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>takes pains with message which he sends to Congress, <a href='#Page292'>292</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on neutrality of Kentucky, <a href='#Page292'>292</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on blockade, <a href='#Page293'>293</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on secession, <a href='#Page293'>293</a>-<a href='#Page295'>295</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>appeals for ample means to end war, <a href='#Page296'>296</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>appoints McClellan to command Army of Potomac, <a href='#Page303'>303</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>avoids connection with Ball's Bluff affair, <a href='#Page309'>309</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>appoints McClellan to succeed Scott, <a href='#Page310'>310</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sees that popular demand for action must be followed, <a href='#Page314'>314</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>puzzled by McClellan's refusal to move, <a href='#Page316'>316</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>forced to bear military responsibility, <a href='#Page318'>318</a>, <a href='#Page319'>319</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his freedom from self-seeking, <a href='#Page320'>320</a>, <a href='#Page321'>321</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>urges McClellan to advance, <a href='#Page322'>322</a>, <a href='#Page323'>323</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>discouraged by McClellan's illness, consults McDowell and Franklin, <a href='#Page323'>323</a>, <a href='#Page324'>324</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>consults McClellan, <a href='#Page325'>325</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>exasperates McClellan by his action, <a href='#Page325'>325</a>, <a href='#Page326'>326</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>appoints Stanton to succeed Cameron, <a href='#Page326'>326</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his lack of personal feeling against Stanton, <a href='#Page326'>326</a>, <a href='#Page327'>327</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his patience toward Stanton, <a href='#Page328'>328</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his letter to Halleck, <a href='#Page327'>327</a>, <a href='#Page328'>328</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes a direct attack, <a href='#Page330'>330</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>accused by McClellan's friends of meddling, <a href='#Page331'>331</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>decides to force action, <a href='#Page331'>331</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>issues General War Order No. <a href='#Page001'>1</a>, <a href='#Page332'>332</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>its purpose political rather than military, <a href='#Page332'>332</a>, <a href='#Page333'>333</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>orders McClellan to move South, <a href='#Page333'>333</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>asks McClellan to justify his plan, <a href='#Page334'>334</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>calls council of generals, <a href='#Page335'>335</a>, <a href='#Page336'>336</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>accepts McClellan's plan, <a href='#Page337'>337</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>insists on preservation of capital, <a href='#Page337'>337</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>political reasons for his anxiety to hold Washington, <a href='#Page337'>337</a>-<a href='#Page339'>339</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>reasons why his plan should have been adopted, <a href='#Page339'>339</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>never convinced of superiority of McClellan's scheme, <a href='#Page340'>340</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>issues General War Order to secure Washington, <a href='#Page341'>341</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>unmoved by abuse of McClellan's enemies, <a href='#Page342'>342</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>relieves McClellan of general command, <a href='#Page343'>343</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>forced by Congress to divide Army of Potomac into corps, <a href='#Page344'>344</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>appreciates importance of Western operations, <a href='#Page347'>347</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>urges on Western generals, <a href='#Page347'>347</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>unable to supply troops, <a href='#Page348'>348</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>appoints Fremont to command Department of West, <a href='#Page349'>349</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>tries to guide Fremont, <a href='#Page349'>349</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>appealed to by Mrs. Fremont, <a href='#Page350'>350</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>removes Fremont, his reasons, <a href='#Page350'>350</a>, <a href='#Page351'>351</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sees military importance of Cumberland Gap, <a href='#Page351'>351</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>urges construction of a railroad there, <a href='#Page352'>352</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>urges Buell on, <a href='#Page352'>352</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>annoyed by Buell's refusal to move, <a href='#Page353'>353</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>death of his son, <a href='#Page355'>355</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>discusses plan to capture New Orleans, <a href='#Page358'>358</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>suddenly obliged to consider foreign affairs, <a href='#Page368'>368</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his corrections on Seward's instructions to Adams, <a href='#Page373'>373</a>, <a href='#Page375'>375</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his statement of foreign relations in message of December, 1861, <a href='#Page377'>377</a>, <a href='#Page378'>378</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>avoids either timidity or defiance, <a href='#Page379'>379</a>, <a href='#Page380'>380</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>objects from beginning to seizure of Mason and Slidell, <a href='#Page382'>382</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>proposes to arbitrate the matter, <a href='#Page384'>384</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>thinks England's claim just, <a href='#Page384'>384</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wisdom of his course in surrendering the envoys, <a href='#Page385'>385</a>-<a href='#Page387'>387</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>unable to prevent slavery from entering into war, ii. 2;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>disapproves of Fremont's order freeing slaves of rebels, 6, 7;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>by rescinding it, makes an enemy of Fremont, 7;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>revokes order of Hunter freeing slaves, 7;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>takes responsibility of matter upon himself, 8;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>prevents Cameron from urging arming of negroes, 9;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>advises recognition of Hayti and Liberia, 10;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in message suggests compensated emancipation and colonization, 10, 11;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>approves bill abolishing slavery, with compensation, in District, 11, 12;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>signs bill prohibiting return of fugitive slaves, 13;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>signs bill abolishing slavery in United States Territories, 13, 14;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>signs bill to emancipate slaves of rebels, 14, 15;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>slow to execute bill to enlist slaves, 17;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>finally recognizes value of black troops, 17;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his conciliatory policy not followed by Congress, 18;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his reasons for advocating compensated emancipation, 19;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>hopes to induce Border States to emancipate voluntarily, 19;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sends special message urging gradual emancipation, 20-22;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>practically warns Border State men, 22;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>denounced by both sides, 22, 23;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>tries in vain to persuade Border State representatives, 24-26;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his plans repudiated, 26, 27;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>repeats appeal in proclamation, 27, 28;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his scheme impracticable, but magnanimous, 28, 29;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sees future better than others, 29;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refrains from filling vacancies on Supreme Bench with Northern men, 30;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>agrees to McClellan's peninsular campaign, 33;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>still worried over safety of capital, 33;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>neglects to demand any specific force to protect it, 33, 34;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>forced to detach troops from McClellan to reinforce Fremont, 35;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>nearly orders McClellan to attack, 37;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his plan better than McClellan's, 38;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>orders McDowell to return to Washington, 39;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>alarmed at condition of defenses of capital, 40;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>question of his error in retaining McDowell, 41-43;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>shows apparent vacillation, 42, 43;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>explains situation in letter to McClellan, 44-46;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>urges him to strike, 46;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>annoyed by politicians, 47;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>tries to forward troops, 48;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>orders McDowell to join McClellan without uncovering capital, 50, 51;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>criticised by McClellan, 51;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses to let McDowell move in time, 52;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sends McDowell to rescue Banks, 52;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>loses his head, 53, 54;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>insists on McDowell's movement, 55;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his blunder a fatal one, 56;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>not a quick thinker, 57;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>ruins McClellan's campaign, 57, 58;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>begins to lose patience with McClellan's inaction, 60;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>appoints Halleck commander-in-chief, 65;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his constancy in support of McClellan, 66;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>does not sacrifice McClellan as scapegoat, 67;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>visits Harrison's Landing, 67;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>avoids any partisanship in whole affair, 68;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>appears better than McClellan in campaign, 69;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>yet makes bad blunders, 69, 70;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>stands alone in failure, 71;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>remains silent, 72;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>allows Halleck a free hand, 73;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his reasons for appointing Halleck and Pope, 74, 75;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>decides to reappoint McClellan, 81, 82;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>shows sound judgment, 82;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>places everything in McClellan's hands, 83;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>indignant at slight results from Antietam, 85;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>urges McClellan to pursue, 86;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his order ignored by McClellan, 87;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>writes McClellan a blunt letter insinuating sluggishness or cowardice, 88-91;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>replaces McClellan by Burnside, 92;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his extreme reticence as to his motives, 92-94;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>attacked by Copperheads, 95;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>criticised by defenders of the Constitution, 96, 97;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>harassed by extreme Abolitionists, 98, 99;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>denounced for not issuing a proclamation of emancipation, 99;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his reasons for refusing, 100-102;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>explains his attitude as President toward slavery, 101, 102;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>struggles to hold Border States, 103;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>general dissatisfaction with, in 1862, 104;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>held inefficient by Chase, 104;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>and by Congressmen, 104, 105;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>but believed in by people, 105;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>addressed by Greeley with "Prayer of 20,000,000," 105, 106;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his reply to Greeley, 107, 108;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his reply to Abolitionist clergymen, 110-112;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>points out folly of a mere proclamation, 111;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>thinks silently for himself under floods of advice, 112, 113;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>writes draft of Emancipation Proclamation, 113;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>questions expediency of issuing, 114;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>reads proclamation to cabinet, 114;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>adopts Seward's suggestion to postpone until a victory, 115, 116;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>issues preliminary proclamation after Antietam, 116;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>takes entire responsibility, 117;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>not influenced by meeting of governors, 117, 118;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>fails to appease extremists, 119;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>supported by party, 120;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>thinks an earlier proclamation would not have been sustained, 120;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>warned that he will cause loss of fall elections, 123;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>always willing to trust people on a moral question, 123, 124;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>supported by Border States in election, 125;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>renews proposals for compensated emancipation, 126, 127;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>favors it as a peaceful measure, 127;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his argument, 127-129;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>fails to persuade Missouri to accept plan, 130;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>issues definite proclamation, 130, 131;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his remark on signing, 131;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>tries to stimulate enlistment of blacks, 132;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>threatens retaliation for Southern excesses, 133;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>shows signs of care and fatigue, 134;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>never asks for sympathy, 135;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>slow to displace McClellan until sure of a better man, 135;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>doubtful as to Burnside's plan of attack, 136;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses to accept Burnside's resignation after Fredericksburg, 138;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>declines to ratify Burnside's dismissals, 138;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his letter to Hooker, 139, 140;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>suggestions to Hooker after Chancellorsville, 143, 144;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>opposes plan to dash at Richmond, 144;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>directs Hooker to obey Halleck, 145, 146;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>appoints Meade to succeed Hooker, 146, 147;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>urges Meade to attack Lee after Gettysburg, 149;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>angry at Meade's failure, 150;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his letter to Meade, 150-152;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>annoyed by Democratic proposals for peace, 152;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses to receive Stephens. 153;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>annoyed by inaction of Rosecrans, 156;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>urged to remove Grant, 161;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses to disturb him, 161;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his letter to Grant after Vicksburg, 161, 162;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes Rosecrans to unite with Burnside, 163, 164;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>tries to encourage Rosecrans after Chickamauga, 164, 165;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sends aid to Rosecrans, 165;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>replaces him by Thomas and puts Grant in command in West, 165;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes Meade to attack in Virginia, 168;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses to interfere in finances, 170, 171;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his attitude in Alabama affair, 172;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses foreign arbitration, 173;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>asked by radicals to dismiss Seward, 176, 177;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>secures resignations of Chase and Seward, and then urges them to resume duties, 178;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his wisdom in avoiding a rupture, 179, 180;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>asks opinion of cabinet on admission of West Virginia, 180;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his reasons for signing bill, 181;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>not alarmed by Copperhead societies, 183, 184;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his relation to Vallandigham case, 186, 187;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>supports Burnside, 187;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sends Vallandigham within Confederate lines, 187;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>replies to addresses condemning martial law, 189-191;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>obliged to begin draft, 195;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>insists upon its execution, 196, 197;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his letter to Illinois Union Convention, 201-207;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>shows necessity of war, 202;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>impossibility of compromise, 203;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>justifies emancipation, 203-206;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>points to successes, 206, 207;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>really controls government autocratically, 208, 209;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>able to, because supported by people, 208;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>gains military experience, 210;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>has measure of generals, 211;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>henceforward supervises rather than specifically orders, 211;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>begged by Chandler to disregard conservatives, 213;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>prepares address for Gettysburg, 213, 214;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>the address, 214, 215;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his theory of "reconstruction," 216;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>recognizes a state government of Virginia, 217;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>appoints military governors for conquered States, 217, 218;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>urges them to organize state governments, 219;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes only Union men to act, 219;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes bona fide elections, 220;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>instructs new State organizers to recognize emancipation, 221;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>fails to prevent quarrels, 221, 222;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>issues amnesty proclamation, 222;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>proposes reconstruction by one tenth of voters, 223-226;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>at first generally applauded, 227;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>later opposed by Congress, 227;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on negro suffrage, 230;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>doubts power of Congress over slavery in States, 232, 233;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses to sign reconstruction bill, 233;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>denounced by radicals, 234, 235;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>defends his course, 236, 237;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his conference with Sherman, Grant, and Porter, 237;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes to let Davis escape, 238;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his authority appealed to by Sherman later, 240, 241;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>question of practicability of his plan, 242;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>its generosity and humanity, 243, 244.</p> +<p class='indexentry'> </p> + + +<p class='indexentry'><b><i>Reëlection</i></b>.</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Opposition to his reëlection in Republican party, 245, 246;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>exasperates Congressmen by his independence, 246, 247;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>not disquieted by Chase's candidacy, 248;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>desires reëlection, 248, 249;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>trusts in popular support, 249;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>letter of Pomeroy against, 250;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses Chase's resignation, 250, 251;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>renominated by Ohio and Rhode Island Republicans, 251;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>opposition to, collapses, 252;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>relations with Chase strained, 252;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>accepts Chase's resignation, 253;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>nominates as successor, Tod, who declines, 253;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>forces Fessenden to accept Treasury, 253;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>angers Missourians by refusing to remove Schofield, 254;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>denounced by them and by Phillips, 255;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>gradually wins support of Abolitionists, 256, 257;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>witty remark on Fremont's nomination, 258;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>remark on Grant's candidacy, 259;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>generally supported by local party organizations, 260;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>the "people's candidate," 261;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses to interfere actively to secure renomination, 262;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>desires admission of delegates from South, 262;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>nominated, 263;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>question of his having dictated nomination of Johnson, 263;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>accepts nomination, 264;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>feels need of some military success, 265;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>assailed by Greeley, 266;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>embarrassed by Greeley's dealings with Confederate emissaries, 268;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>authorizes Greeley to confer, 269;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>charged by Greeley with failure, 269;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>asked if he intends to insist on abolition, 271;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>for political reasons, does not reply, 271, 272;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>renews call for soldiers, 274;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>waits for military success, 275;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>appoints Grant lieutenant-general, 276;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>agrees not to interfere with Grant, 277;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes Grant success, 278;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>astonished by a civil reply, 278;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>under fire during Early's attack on Washington, 282;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>discredited by fact of Washington's being still in danger, 283;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>thanks Sherman for victory of Atlanta, 283;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>rewards Sheridan for defeating Early, 285;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his election secured by these successes, 286;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>urged by radicals to remove Blair, 287;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses at first, later does so, 288;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses to interfere in campaign, 289;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses to postpone call for more troops, 289;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refutes campaign slanders, 290;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>prepares for defeat, 291;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>re-elected easily, 291, 292;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his remarks on election, 292-294;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses to intervene to secure counting of electoral</p> +<p class='indexentry'> votes of Border States, 295;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>signs bill rejecting elections in Southern States,</p> +<p class='indexentry'> his reasons, 296, 297;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>shows magnanimity in appointing Chase chief justice, 298, 299;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses to try to hasten matters, 301;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses to negotiate with Davis, 302, 303;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>permits Blair to see Davis, 304;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sends Seward to confer with Southern peace commissioners, 306;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>later himself confers with them, 306, 307;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>insists on complete submission, 306;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>other positions, 307, 308;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>recognizes decline of Confederacy, 308;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes to hasten peace by offer of money compensation and</p> +<p class='indexentry'> an amnesty proclamation, 309;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his scheme disapproved by cabinet, 310;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his second inaugural address, 311-314.</p> +<p class='indexentry'> </p> + + +<p class='indexentry'><b><i>Second Term</i></b>.</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Possibly thinks Emancipation Proclamation unconstitutional, 315;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on its practical results, 316;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>unable to touch institution of slavery, 316;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes a constitutional amendment, 317;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes it mentioned in Republican platform, 319;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on impossibility of renewing slavery, 320;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>led to make war on slavery by situation, 321;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sees necessity of its abolition to secure results of war, 322;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>unable to treat with seceded States, 322, 323;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>renews appeal for Constitutional amendment in 1864, 324;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>exerts influence with Congressmen, 325;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>congratulates crowd on passage of amendment, 326;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his responsibility in last weeks of war, 328;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>forbids Grant to treat with Lee on political matters, 329;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>conference with Grant, Sherman, and Porter, 332;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>enters Petersburg, 334;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>visits Richmond, 335;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>speech on returning to White House, 340, 341;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his disgust with office-seekers, 341;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>superstitious concerning assassination, 341, 342;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>receives threats, but ignores them, 343;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>persuaded to accept a guard, 343;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his remarks, 343, 344;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses to consider Americans as his enemies, 344, 345;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>visits theatre, is assassinated, 345-347;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>effect of his death upon history, 353, 354;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>general view of his character, 354-357.</p> +<p class='indexentry'> </p> + + +<p class='indexentry'><b><i>Personal Characteristics</i></b>.</p> +<p class='indexentry'>General view, ii. 353-357;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>unfriendly views, i. <a href='#Page127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page218'>218</a>, ii. 104, 234, 235, 246, 255;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>abstemiousness, i. <a href='#Page025'>25</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>ambition, i. <a href='#Page036'>36</a>, <a href='#Page037'>37</a>, <a href='#Page057'>57</a>, <a href='#Page072'>72</a>, <a href='#Page078'>78</a>, ii. 248;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>business inefficiency, i. <a href='#Page040'>40</a>, ii. 28;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>coarseness, i. <a href='#Page013'>13</a>, <a href='#Page028'>28</a>, <a href='#Page033'>33</a>, <a href='#Page048'>48</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>coolness, i. <a href='#Page237'>237</a>, <a href='#Page259'>259</a>, <a href='#Page375'>375</a>, ii. 248, 259;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>courage, i. <a href='#Page119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page212'>212</a>, <a href='#Page214'>214</a>, <a href='#Page274'>274</a>, ii. 54, 164, 274, 289, 335, 341-344;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>development through life, i. <a href='#Page131'>131</a>-<a href='#Page134'>134</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>education, i. <a href='#Page012'>12</a>, <a href='#Page013'>13</a>, <a href='#Page019'>19</a>, <a href='#Page040'>40</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>eloquence, i. <a href='#Page057'>57</a>, <a href='#Page061'>61</a>, <a href='#Page076'>76</a>, <a href='#Page147'>147</a>-<a href='#Page149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page221'>221</a>, ii. 219, 313;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>far-sightedness, i. <a href='#Page120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page226'>226</a>, <a href='#Page274'>274</a>, ii. 29;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>honesty, i. <a href='#Page009'>9</a>, <a href='#Page019'>19</a>, <a href='#Page020'>20</a>, <a href='#Page040'>40</a>, <a href='#Page051'>51</a>, <a href='#Page069'>69</a>, <a href='#Page070'>70</a>, <a href='#Page139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page230'>230</a>, <a href='#Page249'>249</a>, ii. 262;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>humor, i. <a href='#Page013'>13</a>, <a href='#Page014'>14</a>, <a href='#Page028'>28</a>, <a href='#Page149'>149</a>, ii. 179, 258, 260;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>kindliness, i. <a href='#Page014'>14</a>, ii. 28, 133, 146, 184, 243;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>legal ability, i. <a href='#Page067'>67</a>-<a href='#Page070'>70</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>loyalty, i. <a href='#Page314'>314</a>, <a href='#Page342'>342</a>, ii. 66, 161, 288;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>magnanimity, i. <a href='#Page051'>51</a>, <a href='#Page139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page237'>237</a>, <a href='#Page320'>320</a>, <a href='#Page327'>327</a>, <a href='#Page350'>350</a>, ii. 7, 30, 60, 62, 81, 94, 184, 238, 250, 298, 299, 344;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>masterfulness, i. <a href='#Page274'>274</a>, <a href='#Page279'>279</a>, <a href='#Page329'>329</a>, ii. 66, 114, 208, 226, 247;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>melancholy, i. <a href='#Page044'>44</a>, <a href='#Page045'>45</a>, <a href='#Page063'>63</a>, <a href='#Page171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page229'>229</a>, ii. 134;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>military ability, i. <a href='#Page250'>250</a>, <a href='#Page337'>337</a>, ii. 54, 56-58, 69, 70, 144, 210;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>modesty, i. <a href='#Page101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page329'>329</a>, ii. 146, 161, 162, 292;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>morbidness, i. <a href='#Page048'>48</a>, <a href='#Page063'>63</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>patience, i. <a href='#Page240'>240</a>, <a href='#Page242'>242</a>, <a href='#Page267'>267</a>, <a href='#Page274'>274</a>, <a href='#Page328'>328</a>, <a href='#Page349'>349</a>, ii. 61, 66, 87, 138, 152, 156, 252;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>physical strength, i. <a href='#Page014'>14</a>, <a href='#Page018'>18</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>popular insight, i. <a href='#Page031'>31</a>-<a href='#Page034'>34</a>, <a href='#Page232'>232</a>, <a href='#Page271'>271</a>, <a href='#Page314'>314</a>, <a href='#Page332'>332</a>, ii. 2, 29, 123, 249;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>reticence, i. <a href='#Page246'>246</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>ii. 60, 71, 72, 81, 92, 93, 112, 135;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>shrewdness, i. <a href='#Page210'>210</a>, <a href='#Page226'>226</a>-<a href='#Page228'>228</a>, <a href='#Page253'>253</a>, <a href='#Page267'>267</a>, ii. 82, 124, 139, 140, 153, 177, 178, 187, 268, 279;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>superstition, ii. 52, 118, 342, 345;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>tenacity, i. <a href='#Page219'>219</a>, <a href='#Page229'>229</a>, <a href='#Page246'>246</a>, <a href='#Page259'>259</a>, ii. 55, 114, 208, 236;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>unselfishness, i. <a href='#Page320'>320</a>, <a href='#Page321'>321</a>, <a href='#Page326'>326</a>, ii. 278;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>women, relations with, i. <a href='#Page043'>43</a>, <a href='#Page048'>48</a>, <a href='#Page062'>62</a>-<a href='#Page065'>65</a>.</p> +<p class='indexentry'> </p> + + +<p class='indexentry'><b><i>Political Opinions</i></b>.</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Blockade, i. <a href='#Page285'>285</a>, <a href='#Page293'>293</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Border State policy, i. <a href='#Page267'>267</a>, <a href='#Page292'>292</a>, <a href='#Page352'>352</a>, ii. 19, 21, 24-26, 103, 125, 129, 130;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Compromise of 1850, i. <a href='#Page092'>92</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Constitution, i. <a href='#Page132'>132</a>, <a href='#Page133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page221'>221</a>, <a href='#Page287'>287</a>, ii. 109, 111, 113, 181, 232, 315;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Copperheads, ii. 184, 187-191;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>disunion, i. <a href='#Page151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page221'>221</a>, <a href='#Page293'>293</a>-<a href='#Page295'>295</a>, ii. 10, 107, 108, 233;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>draft, ii. 196;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Dred Scott case, i. <a href='#Page127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page141'>141</a>-<a href='#Page143'>143</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>emancipation, i. <a href='#Page080'>80</a>, <a href='#Page139'>139</a>, ii. 7, 11, 20-22, 24-26, 27-29, 110-119, 126-131, 204-206, 224, 309, 317-321, 324-326;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>England, i. <a href='#Page371'>371</a>, <a href='#Page377'>377</a>, <a href='#Page378'>378</a>, ii. 172, 175;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>finance, i. <a href='#Page037'>37</a>, <a href='#Page043'>43</a>, <a href='#Page063'>63</a>, <a href='#Page054'>54</a>, <a href='#Page080'>80</a>, ii. 170, 171;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>habeas corpus, suspension of, i. <a href='#Page289'>289</a>, <a href='#Page290'>290</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>"house divided against itself," i. <a href='#Page118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page224'>224</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>internal improvements, i. <a href='#Page037'>37</a>, <a href='#Page050'>50</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Kansas-Nebraska Bill, i. <a href='#Page095'>95</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Mexican war, i. <a href='#Page075'>75</a>, <a href='#Page077'>77</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>military events of war of Rebellion, ii. 33, 37, 39, 40, 42, 44-46, 50, 52-58, 67, 85, 87, 88-91, 143, 144, 149-152, 155, 163, 165, 227;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>negro soldiers, ii. 17, 132, 207, 230, 316;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>negro suffrage, ii. 230;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>office-seekers, ii. 341;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>party management, i. <a href='#Page038'>38</a>, <a href='#Page051'>51</a>, <a href='#Page054'>54</a>, <a href='#Page059'>59</a>, <a href='#Page060'>60</a>, <a href='#Page072'>72</a>, <a href='#Page097'>97</a>, <a href='#Page162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page235'>235</a>, ii. 263, 289;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>peace, terms of, ii. 304-307, 311, 322, 329;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>reconstruction, ii. 217-220, 222-227, 232-234, 236-238, 240, 242, 295-297, 303, 309;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>slavery, i. <a href='#Page017'>17</a>, <a href='#Page056'>56</a>, <a href='#Page058'>58</a>, <a href='#Page131'>131</a>-<a href='#Page139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page146'>146</a>, <a href='#Page154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page210'>210</a>, ii. 19, 101, 102, 108, 204;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Southern policy, i. <a href='#Page125'>125</a>-<a href='#Page127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page154'>154</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>States' rights, i. <a href='#Page141'>141</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>suffrage, i. <a href='#Page050'>50</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Trent affair, i. <a href='#Page382'>382</a>, <a href='#Page384'>384</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>war, purpose of, ii. 187, 202-207, 271, 290, 293, 294, 302, 312, 313;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Wilmot Proviso, i. <a href='#Page079'>79</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Lincoln, Abraham,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>grandfather of Lincoln, emigrates to Kentucky, i. <a href='#Page002'>2</a>, <a href='#Page005'>5</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his marriage, <a href='#Page005'>5</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>shot by Indians, <a href='#Page005'>5</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Lincoln, John,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>son of Mordecai, inherits property in New Jersey, i. <a href='#Page004'>4</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>moves to Virginia, <a href='#Page005'>5</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his descendants, <a href='#Page005'>5</a>, <a href='#Page006'>6</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Lincoln, Mordecai,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>son of Samuel, lives in Scituate, Mass., i. <a href='#Page014'>14</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his descendants, <a href='#Page004'>4</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Lincoln, Mordecai,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>son of Mordecai, moves to Pennsylvania, i. <a href='#Page004'>4</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his property, <a href='#Page004'>4</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Lincoln, Mordecai,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>son of Abraham, saves life of Thomas Lincoln, i. <a href='#Page005'>5</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Lincoln, Samuel,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>ancestor of Lincoln, emigrates to New England, i. <a href='#Page003'>3</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Lincoln, Solomon,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>establishes Lincoln's pedigree, i. <a href='#Page003'>3</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Lincoln, Thomas,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>father of Abraham, i. <a href='#Page005'>5</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>life saved from Indians, <a href='#Page005'>5</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>denies Puritan or Quaker ancestry, <a href='#Page006'>6</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his parentage of Abraham denied, <a href='#Page007'>7</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>marries Nancy Hanks, <a href='#Page008'>8</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his children, <a href='#Page008'>8</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>moves from Kentucky to Indiana, <a href='#Page010'>10</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>marries again, <a href='#Page011'>11</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>moves to Illinois, <a href='#Page015'>15</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>later relations with Abraham, <a href='#Page016'>16</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his manner of fighting, <a href='#Page024'>24</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Logan, Stephen T.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>partnership with, and influence upon, Lincoln, i. <a href='#Page067'>67</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>leader of Illinois bar, <a href='#Page067'>67</a>, <a href='#Page068'>68</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>agrees with Lincoln to receive election to House in turn, <a href='#Page072'>72</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>defeated for Congress, <a href='#Page078'>78</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>manages Lincoln's candidacy in Republican Convention of 1860, <a href='#Page167'>167</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Longstreet, General James,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sent to reinforce Jackson, ii. 76;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>enters Pennsylvania, 145;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sent to reinforce Bragg, 163;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>at battle of Chickamauga, 164;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sent to crush Burnside, 167;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>retreats from Sherman, 167.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Louisiana,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>not ready for secession, i. <a href='#Page182'>182</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>but prepared to resist coercion, <a href='#Page183'>183</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>plan of Lincoln to reconstruct, ii. 219, 220.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Lovejoy, Elijah P.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>killed at Alton, i. <a href='#Page056'>56</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Lovejoy, Owen,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>tries to commit Lincoln to joining Abolitionists, i. <a href='#Page095'>95</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>prevents Lincoln's election as senator, <a href='#Page097'>97</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in House in 1861, <a href='#Page297'>297</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his rage after Trent affair, <a href='#Page386'>386</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>supports Lincoln in 1864, ii. 256, 257.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Lyons, Lord,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>suggested by Hicks as arbitrator between North and South, i. <a href='#Page281'>281</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>instructed to insist on instant reply in Trent affair, <a href='#Page383'>383</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>confers with Seward, <a href='#Page384'>384</a>.</p> + + +<a name='INDEX_M'></a> +<p class='indexterm'>McCall, General George A.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>favors McClellan's plan of campaign, i. <a href='#Page336'>336</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his division sent to aid McClellan, ii. 59.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>McClellan, George B.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>given command of Army of Potomac, i. <a href='#Page303'>303</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his record prior to 1861, <a href='#Page303'>303</a>, <a href='#Page304'>304</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his organizing ability, <a href='#Page306'>306</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>promoted to succeed Scott, <a href='#Page310'>310</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his arrogance and contempt for civilians, <a href='#Page310'>310</a>, <a href='#Page311'>311</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>causes discontent by inactivity, <a href='#Page310'>310</a>, <a href='#Page311'>311</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>considers army unfit to move, <a href='#Page312'>312</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>unwilling from temperament to take any risks, <a href='#Page312'>312</a>, <a href='#Page313'>313</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>fails to appreciate political situation, <a href='#Page313'>313</a>, <a href='#Page314'>314</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>overestimates preparations of Confederates, <a href='#Page315'>315</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>overestimates Confederate numbers, <a href='#Page315'>315</a>, <a href='#Page316'>316</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes to end war by a crushing campaign, <a href='#Page317'>317</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>ignores Lincoln's suggestion to move, <a href='#Page323'>323</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>falls ill, <a href='#Page323'>323</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>hearing of conferences, becomes well and makes appearance, <a href='#Page324'>324</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>snubs McDowell and Chase, <a href='#Page325'>325</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>objects to a direct attack on Confederates, <a href='#Page330'>330</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his plan, <a href='#Page330'>330</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his opponents become a recognized faction, <a href='#Page331'>331</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his scheme repudiated by Lincoln, <a href='#Page332'>332</a>, <a href='#Page333'>333</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>protests and explains views, <a href='#Page333'>333</a>-<a href='#Page335'>335</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>liberality of Lincoln towards, <a href='#Page335'>335</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>thinks politicians plot to destroy him, <a href='#Page336'>336</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his plan accepted by Lincoln, <a href='#Page337'>337</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>discussion of its merit, <a href='#Page337'>337</a>-<a href='#Page339'>339</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>makes mistake in insisting on his plan against Lincoln's wish, <a href='#Page339'>339</a>-<a href='#Page341'>341</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>hampered by Lincoln's detaching men to protect Washington, <a href='#Page341'>341</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>discredited by Johnston's evacuation of Manassas, <a href='#Page342'>342</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>denounced Committee on Conduct of War, <a href='#Page342'>342</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>begins advance, <a href='#Page343'>343</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>annoyed at being relieved from general command, <a href='#Page343'>343</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>exasperated at action of Lincoln in forming corps and appointing commanders, <a href='#Page344'>344</a>, <a href='#Page345'>345</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>authorizes Halleck to arrest Grant, <a href='#Page360'>360</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>approves Buell's plan, <a href='#Page360'>360</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his career compared with Halleck's, <a href='#Page365'>365</a>, <a href='#Page366'>366</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>promises to put down any slave insurrection, ii. 8;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in spite of evacuation of Manassas, insists on Peninsular campaign, 31;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>approved by corps commanders, 32;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>estimate of forces needed to defend Washington, 34;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>fears no danger from Manassas, 35;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>protests against removal of Blenker's brigade, 35;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>begins campaign at Fortress Monroe, 36;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>besieges Yorktown, 37;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sneers at Lincoln's suggestion of storming it, 37, 38;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his excuses always good, 38;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>exasperated at retention of McDowell before Washington, 39, 41;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>question of his responsibility, 41, 42;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>not really trusted by Lincoln, 43;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>still outnumbers enemy, 44;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>letter of Lincoln to, answering his complaints, 44-46;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>takes Yorktown, 48;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>advances slowly, 48;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>predicts Confederate evacuation of Norfolk, 48;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>continues advance, 49, 50;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>forbidden to use McDowell so as to uncover Washington, 51;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>protests, 51;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>follows Lincoln's plan and extends right wing to meet McDowell, 51;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>informed by Lincoln of withdrawal of McDowell to pursue Jackson, 52, 56;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>attacked by Johnston and Jackson, 58;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses to move for two weeks, 59;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wears out Lincoln's patience by delay, 60;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>retorts sharply to suggestions, 61;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>retreats to James River, 61;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>writes bitter letter to Stanton, 62;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>proves his incapacity to attack, 64;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes to resume offensive by James River, 64;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his prestige ruined at Washington, 65;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his recall demanded by Pope and Halleck, 65, 66;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>supported by Lincoln in spite of attacks, 66, 67;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>finally ordered to retreat, 68;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>discussion of his conduct, 69;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>beloved by army, 75;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>predicts defeat of Pope, 78;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>accused of failing to support Pope, 78;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>exchanges telegrams with Halleck, 78, 79;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his aid asked by Halleck after Pope's defeat, 80;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>kept inactive during Pope's campaign, 81;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>appointed by Lincoln, in spite of protests, to command in Washington, 81, 82;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his fitness to reorganize army, 82;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>describes steps taken to put him in command, 83;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>cautious attitude toward Lee, 84;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>at Antietam, 85;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>welcomed by troops, 85;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>fails to use advantages, 86;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>urged by Lincoln to pursue, 86;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>disappoints country by inaction, 86, 87;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>ordered by Lincoln to advance, 87;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>letter of Lincoln to, 88-91;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>fails to move, 91;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>relieved from command, 92;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>conduct of Lincoln towards, 92-94, 135;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>praised by conservative Democrats, 97;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>endangers of emancipation, 103;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>nominated for President, 265;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>repudiates peace plank, 275;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his election hoped for by South, 286, 287.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>McClernand, General John A.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>letter of Lincoln to, on difficulties of equipping armies, i. <a href='#Page348'>348</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>McClure, A.K.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on influence of New York "Tribune," ii. 106.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>McDougall, James A.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Congress in 1861, i. <a href='#Page297'>297</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>McDowell, General Irwin,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>commands Federal army, i. <a href='#Page299'>299</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>obliged to attack, <a href='#Page300'>300</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>at battle of Bull Run, <a href='#Page300'>300</a>, <a href='#Page301'>301</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>summoned by Lincoln to consultation, <a href='#Page323'>323</a>, <a href='#Page324'>324</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>does not tell McClellan, <a href='#Page324'>324</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>describes McClellan's appearance at conference, <a href='#Page325'>325</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>favors Lincoln's plan of campaign, <a href='#Page330'>330</a>, <a href='#Page336'>336</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>appointed to command a corps, <a href='#Page344'>344</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on force necessary to defend Washington, ii. 32;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his corps retained at Washington, 39, 49;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>reasons of Lincoln for retaining, 44, 45;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>again ordered to support McClellan, 48, 50;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>ordered not to uncover Washington, 50, 51;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>prevented from advancing by Lincoln's superstition, 52;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>ordered to turn and pursue Jackson, 52;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>protests vigorously, 55;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>obliged to abandon McClellan, 56;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>foretells that Jackson will escape, 58.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>McLean, John,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>candidate for Republican nomination in 1860, i. <a href='#Page169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page170'>170</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Magruder, General J.B.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>confronts McClellan at Yorktown, ii. 37;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>evacuates Yorktown, 47.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Maine,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Democratic gains in, during 1862, ii. 124.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Mallory, S.R.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Confederate cabinet, i. <a href='#Page206'>206</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Malvern Hill,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>battle of, ii. 61.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Maryland,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>passage of troops through, i. <a href='#Page257'>257</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>effect of Baltimore conflict upon, <a href='#Page258'>258</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>danger of its secession, <a href='#Page258'>258</a>, <a href='#Page259'>259</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>determines to stand neutral, <a href='#Page260'>260</a>, <a href='#Page261'>261</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>importance of its action, <a href='#Page261'>261</a>, <a href='#Page262'>262</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>furnishes South with troops, <a href='#Page262'>262</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>military arrests in, to prevent secession, <a href='#Page286'>286</a>, <a href='#Page287'>287</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Lee's invasion of, ii. 84-86.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Mason, James M.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>captured by Wilkes, i. <a href='#Page380'>380</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>imprisoned in Port Warren, <a href='#Page381'>381</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>surrendered, <a href='#Page385'>385</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Massachusetts,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>prepared for war by Governor Andrew, i. <a href='#Page256'>256</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sends troops to front, <a href='#Page256'>256</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Matteson, Governor Joel A.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Democratic candidate for Senator in Illinois, i. <a href='#Page097'>97</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Maynard, Horace,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in House in 1861, i. <a href='#Page298'>298</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>approves Lincoln's emancipation scheme, ii. 27.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Meade, General George G.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on McClellan's organizing ability, i. <a href='#Page306'>306</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>replaces Burnside in command, ii. 146;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>question of his powers, 146, 147;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>at Gettysburg, 147, 148;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>fails to attack, 148, 149;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>irritation of Lincoln with, 150-152;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>offers to resign, 150;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>urged in vain by Lincoln to attack, 168;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>"campaign in mud," 169;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>enters Petersburg, 334;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>at Appomattox, 338.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Meigs, General Montgomery C.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>at Lincoln's council of war in January, 1862, i. <a href='#Page324'>324</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Memminger, C.G.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Confederate cabinet, i. <a href='#Page206'>206</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Mercer, Captain, Samuel,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>superseded by Porter under Lincoln's orders, i. <a href='#Page247'>247</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Mercier, M. Henri,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>letter of Greeley to, ii. 174.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Merryman, John,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>arrested in Maryland, i. <a href='#Page287'>287</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>attempt of Taney to liberate, <a href='#Page287'>287</a>, <a href='#Page288'>288</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Mexican war,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>denounced by Whigs, i. <a href='#Page074'>74</a>, <a href='#Page077'>77</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>character of, <a href='#Page074'>74</a>, <a href='#Page075'>75</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Mexico,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>driven into war, i. <a href='#Page074'>74</a>, <a href='#Page085'>85</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>abolishes slavery, <a href='#Page085'>85</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Michigan,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Republican losses in election of 1862, ii. 125.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Miles, Colonel Dixon S.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>at Harper's Ferry, ii. 84.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Miller, Mrs. Nancy,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>bargains with Lincoln to make a pair of trousers, i. <a href='#Page016'>16</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Mississippi,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>not ready to secede, i. <a href='#Page182'>182</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>secedes, <a href='#Page186'>186</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sends commissioner to persuade North Carolina, <a href='#Page188'>188</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Missouri,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses to furnish Lincoln with troops, i. <a href='#Page255'>255</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Unionist and Southern elements in, <a href='#Page269'>269</a>, <a href='#Page270'>270</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>civil war in, <a href='#Page270'>270</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses to secede, <a href='#Page270'>270</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Fremont's career in, <a href='#Page349'>349</a>-<a href='#Page351'>351</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>saved from South by General Curtis, <a href='#Page351'>351</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses compensated emancipation, ii. 129, 130;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>factional quarrels in, 254;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>declares for Fremont against Lincoln, 255;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>delegates from, in Republican Convention, 262, 263.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Missouri Compromise,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>its sacred character, i. <a href='#Page083'>83</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>its extension demanded in 1850, <a href='#Page086'>86</a>, <a href='#Page090'>90</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>questioned by South, <a href='#Page093'>93</a>, <a href='#Page094'>94</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>repealed, <a href='#Page094'>94</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Morgan, Edwin D.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>urged by Lincoln to put emancipation plank in Republican platform, ii. 318.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Morton, Governor Oliver P.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>harassed by Copperheads, ii. 183;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>tries to alarm Lincoln, 184.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Mudd, Samuel,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>accomplice of Booth, tried and condemned, ii. 351, 352.</p> + + +<a name='INDEX_N'></a> +<p class='indexterm'>Naglee, General Henry M.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>favors McClellan's plan of campaign, i. <a href='#Page336'>336</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Napoleon I.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Lincoln contrasted with, ii. 354.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Napoleon III.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>agrees with Earl Russell to recognize belligerency of South, i. <a href='#Page372'>372</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>offers mediation, ii. 173;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his course suggested by Greeley, 174.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Negroes,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>equality of, Lincoln's feeling toward, i. <a href='#Page131'>131</a>-<a href='#Page137'>137</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Nesmith, James W.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Senate in 1861, i. <a href='#Page297'>297</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>New England,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>speeches of Lincoln in, i. <a href='#Page155'>155</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>New Jersey,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>carried by Democrats in 1862, ii. 125.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>New Mexico,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>plan of South to occupy as slave territory, i. <a href='#Page086'>86</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>urged by Taylor to ask for admission as a State, <a href='#Page087'>87</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>organized as a Territory, <a href='#Page091'>91</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>New York,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Lincoln's speech in, i. <a href='#Page153'>153</a>-<a href='#Page155'>155</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>secession threatened in, <a href='#Page197'>197</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>carried by Democrats in 1862, ii. 124;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>tries to evade draft, 196;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>draft riots in, 196, 197.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>North,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>surpasses South in development, i. <a href='#Page084'>84</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>begins to oppose spread of slavery, <a href='#Page086'>86</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>denounces Kansas-Nebraska Act, <a href='#Page095'>95</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>anti-Southern feeling in, <a href='#Page099'>99</a>, <a href='#Page100'>100</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>enraged at Dred Scott decision, <a href='#Page103'>103</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>annoyed at both Secessionists and Abolitionists, <a href='#Page115'>115</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>effect of Lincoln's "House divided" speech upon, <a href='#Page120'>120</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>effect of Lincoln's speeches in, <a href='#Page156'>156</a>, <a href='#Page157'>157</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>its attitude toward slavery the real cause of secession, <a href='#Page159'>159</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>carried by Republicans in 1860, <a href='#Page178'>178</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>its condition between Lincoln's election and his inauguration, <a href='#Page181'>181</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>panic in, during 1860, <a href='#Page190'>190</a>-<a href='#Page195'>195</a>, <a href='#Page231'>231</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>urged to let South secede in peace, <a href='#Page192'>192</a>, <a href='#Page193'>193</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>proposals in, to compromise with South, <a href='#Page194'>194</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>led by Lincoln to oppose South on grounds of union, not slavery, <a href='#Page226'>226</a>-<a href='#Page228'>228</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>irritated at inaction of Lincoln, <a href='#Page242'>242</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>effect of capture of Fort Sumter upon, <a href='#Page251'>251</a>, <a href='#Page252'>252</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>rushes to arms, <a href='#Page252'>252</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>compared with South infighting qualities, <a href='#Page253'>253</a>, <a href='#Page254'>254</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>responds to Lincoln's call for troops, <a href='#Page255'>255</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>military enthusiasm, <a href='#Page271'>271</a>, <a href='#Page272'>272</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>doubtful as to Lincoln's ability, <a href='#Page273'>273</a>-<a href='#Page275'>275</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes to crush South without delay, <a href='#Page299'>299</a>, <a href='#Page300'>300</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>forces McDowell to advance, <a href='#Page300'>300</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>enlightened by Bull Run, <a href='#Page302'>302</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>impatient with slowness of McClellan to advance, <a href='#Page311'>311</a>-<a href='#Page314'>314</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>expects sympathy of England, <a href='#Page369'>369</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>annoyed at recognition of Southern belligerency by England, <a href='#Page372'>372</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>rejoices at capture of Mason and Slidell, <a href='#Page381'>381</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>its hatred of England, <a href='#Page386'>386</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>unity of, in 1861, ii. 1;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>inevitably led to break on slavery question, 2, 3;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>depressed by Peninsular campaign, 70, 71;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>opponents of the war in, 95-97;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>public men of, condemn Lincoln, 104;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>popular opinion supports him, 105;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>effect of Emancipation Proclamation upon, 121;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>forced by Lincoln to choose between emancipation and failure of war, 123;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>depressed after Chancellorsville, 142, 143;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>discouraged by European offers of mediation, 174, 175;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>adjusts itself to war, 194;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>waning patriotism in, 194;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>tries to evade draft, 195, 196;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>draft riots in, 196, 197;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>bounty-jumping in, 197, 198;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Republican gains in, 200, 201;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>really under Lincoln's dictatorship, 208;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>relieved from gloom by successes of 1864, 286;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>rejoicings in 1865, 328, 340.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>North Carolina,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>not at first in favor of secession, i. <a href='#Page182'>182</a>, <a href='#Page269'>269</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>ready to oppose coercion, <a href='#Page183'>183</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>urged by Mississippi to secede, <a href='#Page188'>188</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses to furnish Lincoln troops, <a href='#Page255'>255</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>finally secedes, <a href='#Page269'>269</a>.</p> + +<a name='INDEX_O'></a> +<p class='indexterm'>Offut, Denton, sends Lincoln to New Orleans with a cargo, i. <a href='#Page016'>16</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>makes Lincoln manager of a store, <a href='#Page018'>18</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>brags of Lincoln's abilities, <a href='#Page018'>18</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>fails and moves away, <a href='#Page020'>20</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Oglesby, Governor R.J.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>presides over Illinois Republican Convention, i. <a href='#Page162'>162</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Ohio,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>campaign of 1858 in, i. <a href='#Page151'>151</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>carried by Democrats in 1862, ii. 124;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>career of Vallandigham in, 184, 185;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>reply of Lincoln to Democrats of, 191;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>election of 1863 in, 192;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>renominates Lincoln in 1864, 251.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>O'Laughlin, Michael,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>accomplice of Booth, tried and condemned, ii. 350-352.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Ordinance of 1787,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>its adoption and effect, i. <a href='#Page082'>82</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Owens, Mary,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>rejects Lincoln, i. <a href='#Page048'>48</a>.</p> + + +<a name='INDEX_P'></a> +<p class='indexterm'>Pain, John,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Lincoln's only hearer at "mass meeting" to organize Republican party, i. <a href='#Page111'>111</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Palmerston, Lord,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>drafts British ultimatum in Mason and Slidell case, i. <a href='#Page383'>383</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>shows it to Queen, <a href='#Page383'>383</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Paris, Comte de,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on condition of Union army in 1861, i. <a href='#Page312'>312</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on McDowell's advance from Washington to aid McClellan, ii. 50.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Patterson, General Robert,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>commands force in Pennsylvania, i. <a href='#Page299'>299</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>fails to watch Johnston, <a href='#Page301'>301</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Payne, Lewis,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>accomplice of Booth, tried and hanged, ii. 350-352.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Peace Congress,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>its composition and action, i. <a href='#Page203'>203</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>repudiated by South, <a href='#Page203'>203</a>, <a href='#Page204'>204</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Pea Ridge,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>battle of, i. <a href='#Page351'>351</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Pemberton, General John C.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>surrenders Vicksburg, ii. 159, 160.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Pendleton, George H.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in House in 1861, i. <a href='#Page297'>297</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Pennsylvania,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>carried by Democrats in 1862, ii. 124;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>regained by Republicans, 201;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>renominates Lincoln, 260.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Penrose, Captain ——,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on Lincoln's rashness in entering Richmond, ii. 336.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Perryville,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>battle of, ii. 154.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Peters, ——,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses to trust a Republican, i. <a href='#Page204'>204</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Phillips, Wendell,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>remark on nomination of Lincoln, i. <a href='#Page173'>173</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>denounces Lincoln, <a href='#Page177'>177</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>welcomes secession, <a href='#Page195'>195</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>upholds right of South to secede, <a href='#Page231'>231</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>opposes Lincoln's renomination, ii. 255.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Pickens, Fort,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>relief of, in 1861, i. <a href='#Page247'>247</a>, <a href='#Page248'>248</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Pickens, Governor F.W.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sends commissioners to Buchanan regarding dissolution of Union by South Carolina, i. <a href='#Page185'>185</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Pierce, Franklin,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>elected President, i. <a href='#Page093'>93</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>defeated for renomination, <a href='#Page101'>101</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Pierpoint, Francis H.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>recognized as governor of Virginia, ii. 217.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Pillow, Fort,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>massacre at, ii. 133.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Pillow, General Gideon J.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>runs away from Fort Donelson, i. <a href='#Page354'>354</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Pinkerton, Allan,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>discovers plot to assassinate Lincoln, i. <a href='#Page212'>212</a></p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Plug Uglies,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>feared in 1861, i. <a href='#Page212'>212</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>mob Massachusetts troops, <a href='#Page257'>257</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Polk, James K.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>carries Illinois in 1844, i. <a href='#Page071'>71</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>brings on Mexican war, <a href='#Page074'>74</a>, <a href='#Page085'>85</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his policy attacked by Lincoln's "Spot Resolutions," <a href='#Page075'>75</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>asks for two millions to buy territory, <a href='#Page086'>86</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Pomeroy, Samuel C.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>senator from Kansas, i. <a href='#Page297'>297</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>an enemy of Lincoln, ii. 250;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>urges Chase's friends to organize to oppose Lincoln's renomination, 250.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Pope, General John,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>recommended by Halleck for promotion, i. <a href='#Page355'>355</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>prevented by Halleck from fighting, <a href='#Page364'>364</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>urges recall of McClellan from Peninsula, ii. 65;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his military abilities, 74;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>commands Army of Virginia, 74;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>shows arrogance and lack of tact, 74, 75;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>fails to cut off Jackson from Lee, 76, 77;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>insists on fighting, 77;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>beaten at Bull Run, 77;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>discredited, 80.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Popular sovereignty,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>doctrine of, in Compromise of 1850, i. <a href='#Page091'>91</a>, <a href='#Page092'>92</a>, <a href='#Page094'>94</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>used by Douglas to justify repeal of Missouri Compromise, <a href='#Page094'>94</a>, <a href='#Page095'>95</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>theory of, destroyed by Dred Scott decision, <a href='#Page103'>103</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>attempt of Douglas to reconcile, with Dred Scott case, <a href='#Page107'>107</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Porter, General Andrew,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>favors McClellan's</p> +<p class='indexentry'>plan of campaign, i. <a href='#Page336'>336</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Porter, David D.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>takes Powhatan under Lincoln's orders, i. <a href='#Page247'>247</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses to obey Seward's order, <a href='#Page248'>248</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>aids Grant at Vicksburg, ii. 159;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>confers with Lincoln, 237;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>upholds Sherman in referring to Lincoln as authorizing Johnston's terms of surrender, 240.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Porter, General Fitz-John,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>favors McClellan's plan of campaign, i. <a href='#Page336'>336</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sent to meet McDowell, ii. 51.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Powell, L.W.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>denounces Lincoln's emancipation scheme, ii. 23.</p> + + +<a name='INDEX_R'></a> +<p class='indexterm'>Rathbone, Major Henry R.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>at Lincoln's assassination, ii. 346.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Raymond, Henry J.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>warns Lincoln of danger done to Republican party by emancipation policy, ii. 273;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>reply of Lincoln to, 274.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Reagan, J.H.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Confederate cabinet, i. <a href='#Page206'>206</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Reconstruction,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>constitutional theory of, ii. 216, 217;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>begun by appointment of military governors, 217, 218;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Lincoln's plan for, 219, 220;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>blocked by refusal of Congress to receive representatives, 221;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>usually associated with new constitutions, 221, 222;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>method laid down in amnesty proclamation, 222-226;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>difficulties in way of, 228, 229;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>extremist proposals concerning, 229;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Reconstruction bill passed, 230-232;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>bill for, vetoed by Lincoln, 233, 334;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>later statements of Lincoln concerning, 236-238;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>involved in Sherman's terms of surrender given to Johnston, 238, 239;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Lincoln's scheme discussed, 242-244;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>problem of, in 1865, 328, 329;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>intention of Lincoln to keep, in his own control, 329, 330.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Republican party,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>its origin, i. <a href='#Page100'>100</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in campaign of 1856, <a href='#Page101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page102'>102</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>organized in Illinois, <a href='#Page111'>111</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>defined by Lincoln, <a href='#Page134'>134</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>its programme put forth by Lincoln, <a href='#Page150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page156'>156</a>, <a href='#Page157'>157</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Illinois, nominates Lincoln for presidency, <a href='#Page161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page162'>162</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>convention of, in 1860, <a href='#Page166'>166</a>-<a href='#Page171'>171</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>candidates before, <a href='#Page166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page167'>167</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>balloting, in convention, <a href='#Page169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page170'>170</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>nominates Lincoln, <a href='#Page171'>171</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>chooses Lincoln because available, <a href='#Page172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page173'>173</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>its campaign methods, <a href='#Page173'>173</a>, <a href='#Page174'>174</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>denounced by Abolitionists, <a href='#Page177'>177</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>elects Lincoln, <a href='#Page178'>178</a>, <a href='#Page179'>179</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>its moral attitude toward slavery the real cause of secession, <a href='#Page222'>222</a>-<a href='#Page224'>224</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>its legal position on slavery, <a href='#Page221'>221</a>, <a href='#Page222'>222</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>its leaders distrust Lincoln, <a href='#Page233'>233</a>, <a href='#Page234'>234</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>dissatisfied with Lincoln's cabinet, <a href='#Page235'>235</a>, <a href='#Page236'>236</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>dissatisfied with Lincoln's emancipation policy, ii. 22, 23;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>torn by factions, 97-99;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Abolitionist members of, denounce Lincoln, 98, 99;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>leaders of, condemn Lincoln, 104;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>majority of, continues to support him, 105;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>influence of Greeley upon, 105-107;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>upholds Emancipation Proclamation, 120;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>loses in congressional elections of 1862, 124, 125;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>radical wing of, demands dismissal of Seward, 176, 177;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>regains ground in 1863, 201;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>extreme faction of, still distrusts Lincoln and Seward, 213;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>members of, denounce Lincoln for vetoing reconstruction bill, 234, 235;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>movement in, to nominate Chase, 245-252;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>movement in, to nominate Fremont, 255-258;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>masses of, adhere to Lincoln, 260, 261;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>fails to postpone nominating convention, 261;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>nominates Lincoln, 262, 263;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>nominates Johnson for Vice-President, 263, 264;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>receives reluctant support of radicals, 265;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>damaged by Greeley's denunciations of Lincoln, 266, 267, 270;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>dreads defeat in summer of 1864, 273, 274;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>damaged by draft, 274;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>radical element of, forces dismissal of Blair, 287, 288;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>conduct of campaign by, 289, 290;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>gains election in 1864, 291, 292;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>makes thirteenth amendment a plank in platform, 318, 319;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>radical members of, rejoice at accession of Johnson after murder of Lincoln, 349.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Reynolds, Governor,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>calls for volunteers in Black Hawk war, i. <a href='#Page035'>35</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Rhode Island,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>renominates Lincoln, ii. 251.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Richardson, W.A.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>remark on congressional interference with armies, i. <a href='#Page362'>362</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Rives, W.C.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>remark of Lincoln to, on coercion, i. <a href='#Page219'>219</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Rosecrans, General William S.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>succeeds Buell, ii. 155;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>disapproves Halleck's plan to invade East Tennessee, 155;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>fights battle of Stone's River, 155;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>reluctant to advance, 156;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>drives Bragg out of Tennessee, 156, 157;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses to move, 163;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>finally advances to Chattanooga, 163, 164;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>defeated at Chickamauga, 164;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>unnerved after Chickamauga, 164;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>cheered by Lincoln, 164;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>besieged in Chattanooga, 165;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>relieved by Grant, 165.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Russell, Earl,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his prejudices in favor of South, i. <a href='#Page371'>371</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>recognizes belligerency of South, i. <a href='#Page372'>372</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>revises Palmerston's dispatch in Trent affair, <a href='#Page383'>383</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>condemns Emancipation Proclamation, ii. 132;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>calls Alabama affair a scandal, 172.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Rutledge, Ann,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>love affair of Lincoln with, i. <a href='#Page043'>43</a>, <a href='#Page044'>44</a>.</p> + + +<a name='INDEX_S'></a> +<p class='indexterm'>Saulsbury, Willard,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Senate in 1861, i. <a href='#Page297'>297</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Saxton, General Rufus,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>permitted to raise negro troops, ii. 17.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Schofield, General John M.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>treats with Johnston, ii. 240;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his removal from Missouri refused by Lincoln, 254.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Schurz, General Carl,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refused permission by Lincoln</p> +<p class='indexentry'>to leave army to support his canvass, ii. 262.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Scott, Winfield,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Mexican war, i. <a href='#Page075'>75</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>supported by Lincoln for President, <a href='#Page093'>93</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>suggests division of country into four parts, <a href='#Page191'>191</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his help expected by Secessionists, <a href='#Page207'>207</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>advises reinforcement of Southern garrisons, <a href='#Page207'>207</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>threatens Southerners with violence, <a href='#Page208'>208</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>warns Lincoln of plot to murder, <a href='#Page213'>213</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his military preparations, <a href='#Page219'>219</a>, <a href='#Page220'>220</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>thinks Sumter must be abandoned, <a href='#Page244'>244</a>, <a href='#Page245'>245</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>assembles troops at Washington, <a href='#Page255'>255</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes to induce Lee to command Northern army, <a href='#Page263'>263</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>instructed to watch Maryland legislature, <a href='#Page286'>286</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>authorized to suspend writ of habeas corpus, <a href='#Page287'>287</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>has difficulties with McClellan, <a href='#Page310'>310</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>retires, <a href='#Page310'>310</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Seaton, William W.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>promises to help Lincoln's emancipation bill, i. <a href='#Page080'>80</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Secession,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>mention of, avoided by Douglas and Lincoln, i. <a href='#Page157'>157</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>question of its justification in 1860, <a href='#Page158'>158</a>-<a href='#Page160'>160</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>process of, in 1860-<a href='#Page061'>61</a>, <a href='#Page182'>182</a>-<a href='#Page187'>187</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>discussed by Buchanan, <a href='#Page188'>188</a>-<a href='#Page190'>190</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>admitted by Northern leaders, <a href='#Page192'>192</a>, <a href='#Page193'>193</a>, <a href='#Page231'>231</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>threatened by New York Democrats, <a href='#Page197'>197</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Lincoln's view of, <a href='#Page221'>221</a>, <a href='#Page293'>293</a>, <a href='#Page294'>294</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Southern theory of, <a href='#Page224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page225'>225</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>its success makes union, not slavery, the issue at stake, <a href='#Page226'>226</a>-<a href='#Page228'>228</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>renewed by Border States, <a href='#Page262'>262</a>-<a href='#Page269'>269</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>recognized as not the ultimate cause of war, ii. 2;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>again asserted by Lincoln to be cause of war, 107, 108.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Sedgwick, General John,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>beaten at Chancellorsville, ii. 142.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Semmes, Captain Raphael,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his career with the Alabama, ii. 172.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Senate of United States,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>proposes "Union-saving devices," i. <a href='#Page202'>202</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>defeats Crittenden compromise, <a href='#Page203'>203</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>rejects plan of Peace Congress, <a href='#Page203'>203</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>leaders of, in 1861, <a href='#Page296'>296</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>passes thirteenth amendment, ii. 318.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Seward, Frederick,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>warns Lincoln of plot in 1861, i. <a href='#Page213'>213</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Seward, W.H.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>appeals to higher law, i. <a href='#Page090'>90</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>candidate for Republican nomination to presidency, <a href='#Page166'>166</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>opposed by Greeley, <a href='#Page167'>167</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>methods of his supporters, <a href='#Page167'>167</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>considered too radical, <a href='#Page168'>168</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>defeated by a combination, <a href='#Page169'>169</a>-<a href='#Page171'>171</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>deserves the nomination, <a href='#Page172'>172</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>adopts conciliatory attitude in 1860, <a href='#Page197'>197</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sends son to warn Lincoln, <a href='#Page213'>213</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>meets Lincoln at Washington, <a href='#Page214'>214</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his theory of irrepressible conflict, <a href='#Page223'>223</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes to submit to South, <a href='#Page231'>231</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>secretary of state, <a href='#Page234'>234</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>tries to withdraw consent, <a href='#Page237'>237</a>, <a href='#Page238'>238</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>attempt of Davis to involve, in discussion with Confederate commissioners, <a href='#Page238'>238</a>, <a href='#Page239'>239</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses to receive them, <a href='#Page239'>239</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>announces that Sumter will be evacuated, <a href='#Page239'>239</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>reproached by commissioners, <a href='#Page240'>240</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>opposes reinforcing Sumter, <a href='#Page245'>245</a>, <a href='#Page246'>246</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>authorized to inform Confederates that Lincoln will not act without warning, <a href='#Page245'>245</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>makes mistake in order concerning Powhatan, <a href='#Page248'>248</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>said to have led Lincoln to sign papers without understanding contents, <a href='#Page250'>250</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>made to feel subordination by Lincoln, <a href='#Page276'>276</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>submits thoughts for President's consideration, <a href='#Page276'>276</a>-<a href='#Page278'>278</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes foreign war, <a href='#Page277'>277</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>offers to direct the government, <a href='#Page277'>277</a>, <a href='#Page278'>278</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>reasons for his actions, <a href='#Page278'>278</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>repressed by Lincoln, <a href='#Page279'>279</a>, <a href='#Page280'>280</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>advises against a paper blockade, <a href='#Page284'>284</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes to maintain friendly relations with England, <a href='#Page371'>371</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>angered at Russell's conduct, <a href='#Page373'>373</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>writes menacing instructions to Adams, <a href='#Page373'>373</a>-<a href='#Page375'>375</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his attitude in Mason and Slidell affair, <a href='#Page382'>382</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>drafts reply to England's ultimatum, <a href='#Page384'>384</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>disavows Wilkes's act and surrenders envoys, <a href='#Page385'>385</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>advises Lincoln to withhold Emancipation Proclamation until after a victory, ii. 115;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>suggests promise to maintain freedom of slaves, 131;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>dealings with England, 171, 172;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>rejects offer of French mediation, 173;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>denounced by radicals, 176;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>plan to force his resignation, 176;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>offers resignation, 177;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>withdraws it at Lincoln's request, 178;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on Copperhead societies, 182;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>denounced by Chandler, 213;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on bad terms with Blair, 287;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his remarks used against Lincoln, 290;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sent by Lincoln to confer with Confederate peace commission, his instructions, 306;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>shown Lincoln's dispatch to Grant, 329;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>attempt to assassinate, 350.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Seymour, Horatio,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>elected governor of New York, ii. 124;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>denounces tyranny of Lincoln, 189;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>tries to prevent draft, 196;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>asks Lincoln to delay enforcement until Supreme Court gives judgment, 196;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>inefficient at time of draft riots, 197.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Shackford, Samuel,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>investigates Lincoln's ancestry, i. <a href='#Page003'>3</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Shellabarger, Samuel,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in House in 1861, i. <a href='#Page297'>297</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Shepley, Governor G.F.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>remark of Lincoln to, ii. 220.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Sheridan, General Philip H.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>at battle of Chattanooga, ii. 166, 167;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his campaign against Early, 284, 285;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>plans to cut off Lee, 232;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wins Five Forks, 333;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>at Appomattox, 337, 338.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Sherman, John,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Senate in 1861, i. <a href='#Page296'>296</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Sherman, General W.T.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>unappreciated by Halleck, i. <a href='#Page365'>365</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>authorized by Cameron to use slaves, ii. 8;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>assaults Vicksburg, 158;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>pursues Johnston, 162;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sent to reinforce Rosecrans, 165;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>storms Missionary Ridge, 167;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>relieves Burnside, 167;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>confers with Lincoln, 238;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his terms to Johnston in 1865 involve political reconstruction, 238, 239;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his terms annulled by Stanton 239;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>shows resentment toward Stanton, 240;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>makes terms with Johnston, 240;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refers to Lincoln as authority, 240;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his terms disapproved by Grant, 241;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>appointed to command in West, 277;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>drives Johnston southward, 283;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>defeats Hood at Atlanta, 283;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>thanked by Lincoln, 283;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>marches to the sea, 300;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>marches north through Carolinas, 331;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>ready to join Grant, 333.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Shields, General James A.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>paper duel of Lincoln with, i. <a href='#Page065'>65</a>, <a href='#Page066'>66</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>loses reëlection to Senate, <a href='#Page096'>96</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his force joined to McDowell's, ii. 51.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Shipley, Mary,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>ancestor of Lincoln, i. <a href='#Page005'>5</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Short, James,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>lends Lincoln money, i. <a href='#Page042'>42</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Sickles, Daniel E.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>threatens secession of New York city, i. <a href='#Page197'>197</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Sigel, General Franz,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>replaces Fremont, ii. 74.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Slavery,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>its entrance into politics described, i. <a href='#Page082'>82</a>-<a href='#Page086'>86</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>compromises concerning, in Constitution, <a href='#Page083'>83</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>settled by Missouri Compromise, <a href='#Page083'>83</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>attitude of South toward, <a href='#Page084'>84</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>necessity of extending area of, in order to preserve, <a href='#Page084'>84</a>, <a href='#Page085'>85</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Lincoln's description of struggle over, <a href='#Page124'>124</a>-<a href='#Page132'>132</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>attitude of Lincoln toward, <a href='#Page145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page146'>146</a>, <a href='#Page159'>159</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>moral condemnation of, by North, the real cause of secession, <a href='#Page222'>222</a>-<a href='#Page224'>224</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wisdom of Lincoln in passing over, as cause of war, <a href='#Page226'>226</a>-<a href='#Page228'>228</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>forced to front as real cause of war, ii. 2, 3;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>comes into question through action of Federal generals, 5-9;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>attempts of Fremont and Hunter to abolish, revoked by Lincoln, 6, 7;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>acts of Congress affecting, 11-15;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Emancipation Proclamation against, 110-119, 130;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>regard for, hinders War Democrats from supporting Lincoln, 272;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>not touched as an institution by Emancipation Proclamation, 316;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>necessity of a constitutional amendment to abolish, 317;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>desire of Copperheads to reëstablish, 319, 320.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Slaves,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>during Civil War, called "contraband" by Butler, ii. 5;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>escape to Northern armies, 6;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>declared free by Fremont, 6;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>this declaration revoked by Lincoln, 6, 7;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>declared free by Hunter, 7;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>inconsistent attitude of generals toward, 8;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>proposal of Cameron to arm, cancelled by Lincoln, 8, 9;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>protected from return to owners by Congress, 12;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>armed, 15-18, 315, 316;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>not paid equally with whites until 1864, 18;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>armed in 1863, 132, 133;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>threatened with death by South, 133.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Slidell, John,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>seized by Wilkes, i. <a href='#Page380'>380</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>imprisoned in Fort Warren, <a href='#Page381'>381</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>released, <a href='#Page385'>385</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Smith, Caleb B.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>delivers votes to Lincoln in convention of 1860, i. <a href='#Page170'>170</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>secretary of interior, <a href='#Page234'>234</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>opposes relieving Sumter, <a href='#Page245'>245</a>, <a href='#Page246'>246</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Smith, General C.W.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>praised by Halleck, i. <a href='#Page355'>355</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Smith, General W.F.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>favors McClellan's plan of campaign, i. <a href='#Page336'>336</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Smoot, Coleman,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>lends Lincoln money, i. <a href='#Page043'>43</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>South,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>its early sectionalism, i. <a href='#Page083'>83</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>demands political equality with North, <a href='#Page084'>84</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>its inferior development, <a href='#Page084'>84</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>gains by annexation of Texas, <a href='#Page085'>85</a>, <a href='#Page086'>86</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>enraged at organization of California as a free State, <a href='#Page087'>87</a>, <a href='#Page088'>88</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>threatens disunion, <a href='#Page088'>88</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>demands Fugitive Slave Law, <a href='#Page088'>88</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>asserts doctrine of non-intervention in Territories, <a href='#Page088'>88</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>not satisfied with Compromise of 1850, <a href='#Page092'>92</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>fails to secure Kansas, <a href='#Page098'>98</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>applauds Brooks for his assault on Sunnier, <a href='#Page100'>100</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>enraged at Douglas's opposition to Lecompton Constitution. <a href='#Page108'>108</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>reads Douglas out of party, <a href='#Page116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page142'>142</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>its policy described by Lincoln, <a href='#Page125'>125</a>-<a href='#Page128'>128</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>fairness of Lincoln toward, <a href='#Page138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page139'>139</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>demands that North cease to call slavery wrong, <a href='#Page154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page155'>155</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>question of its justification in seceding, <a href='#Page158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page159'>159</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>its delegates disrupt Democratic party, <a href='#Page163'>163</a>-<a href='#Page165'>165</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>scatters vote in 1860, <a href='#Page178'>178</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>process of secession in, <a href='#Page182'>182</a>-<a href='#Page187'>187</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>agitation of dis-unionists in, <a href='#Page183'>183</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>State loyalty in, <a href='#Page184'>184</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>justified by Greeley and others, <a href='#Page192'>192</a>, <a href='#Page193'>193</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>threatens North, <a href='#Page195'>195</a>, <a href='#Page196'>196</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>repudiates Peace Congress, <a href='#Page203'>203</a>, <a href='#Page204'>204</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>its leaders in Congress remain to hamper government, <a href='#Page204'>204</a>, <a href='#Page205'>205</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>forms Confederacy, <a href='#Page205'>205</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>expects Scott to aid, <a href='#Page207'>207</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes to seize Washington, <a href='#Page209'>209</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>impressed by Lincoln's inaugural, <a href='#Page221'>221</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>its real grievance the refusal of North to admit validity of slavery, <a href='#Page222'>222</a>-<a href='#Page224'>224</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>its doctrine of secession, <a href='#Page224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page225'>225</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>"Union men" in, <a href='#Page225'>225</a>, <a href='#Page226'>226</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>makes secession, not slavery, the ground of war, <a href='#Page225'>225</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>irritated at failure of secession to affect North, <a href='#Page241'>241</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>purpose of Lincoln to put in the wrong, <a href='#Page242'>242</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>rejoices over capture of Sumter, <a href='#Page251'>251</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>compared with North in fighting qualities, <a href='#Page253'>253</a>, <a href='#Page254'>254</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>elated over Bull Bun, <a href='#Page302'>302</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>its strength overestimated by McClellan, <a href='#Page315'>315</a>, <a href='#Page316'>316</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>expects aid from Northern sympathizers, <a href='#Page367'>367</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>hopes of aid from England disappointed, <a href='#Page369'>369</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>after Chancellorsville, wishes to invade North and conquer a peace, ii. 143;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>welcomes Vallandigham, 187, 188;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>economically exhausted in 1863, 199, 200;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>reconstruction in, 216-244;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>applauds McClellan, 286, 287;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>evidently exhausted in 1864, 300, 308;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>hopes of Lincoln to make its surrender easy, 308, 309.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>South Carolina,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>desires secession, i. <a href='#Page179'>179</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>suggests it to other States, <a href='#Page182'>182</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>secedes, <a href='#Page184'>184</a>, <a href='#Page185'>185</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sends commissioners to treat for division of property with United States, <a href='#Page185'>185</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refusal of Buchanan to receive, <a href='#Page199'>199</a>, <a href='#Page200'>200</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses to participate in Peace Congress, <a href='#Page204'>204</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>besieges Fort Sumter, <a href='#Page243'>243</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Spangler, Edward,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>aids Booth to escape, ii. 347;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>tried by court martial, 350, 351;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>condemned, 352.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Speed, Joshua,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>letter of Lincoln to, on slavery, i. <a href='#Page017'>17</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>goes with Lincoln to Kentucky, <a href='#Page063'>63</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Spottsylvania,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>battle of, ii. 279.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Sprague, Governor William,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>of Rhode Island, ii. 251.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Stanton, Edwin M.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>attorney-general under Buchanan, i. <a href='#Page198'>198</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>joins Black in forcing Buchanan to alter reply to South Carolina Commissioners, <a href='#Page200'>200</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>share in Stone's punishment, <a href='#Page309'>309</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>appointed secretary of war, <a href='#Page326'>326</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his previous insulting attitude toward Lincoln, <a href='#Page326'>326</a>, <a href='#Page327'>327</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>discussion of his qualities, good and bad, <a href='#Page327'>327</a>, <a href='#Page328'>328</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>an efficient secretary, <a href='#Page328'>328</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sneers at generals who favor McClellan's plans, <a href='#Page336'>336</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>shows incompetence in organizing army, <a href='#Page343'>343</a>, <a href='#Page344'>344</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>praises Wilkes for capturing Mason and Slidell, <a href='#Page381'>381</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>communicates Lincoln's approval to McClellan, ii. 32;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>loses head during Jackson's raid, 53;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>bitter letter of McClellan to, 62;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>becomes McClellan's merciless enemy, 63;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>tries to prevent reappointment of McClellan, 81;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes to take troops from Meade for Rosecrans, 168;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>repudiates Sherman's terms with Johnston, 239;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>insults Sherman, 239, 240;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his relations with Grant, 277;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>at time of Early's attack on Washington, 281;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on bad terms with Blair, 287;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>persuades Lincoln to use an escort, 343;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>plan to assassinate, 350.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Stephens, Alexander H.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Congress with Lincoln, i. <a href='#Page074'>74</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on reasons for Georgia's secession, <a href='#Page183'>183</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>opposes secession, <a href='#Page187'>187</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>elected Vice-President of Confederate States, <a href='#Page205'>205</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>denies plot to seize Washington, <a href='#Page209'>209</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>letter of Lincoln to, <a href='#Page210'>210</a>, <a href='#Page211'>211</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes to treat for peace with Lincoln, ii. 152;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his attempt foiled by Lincoln, 153;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>admits desire to place Lincoln in false position, 153;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>nominated by Davis on peace commission, 305.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Stevens, Thaddeus,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>leader of House in 1861, i. <a href='#Page297'>297</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>denounces Lincoln's emancipation scheme, ii. 22;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>considers Constitution destroyed, 109;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on admission of West Virginia, 181;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on unpopularity of Lincoln in Congress, 247;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>admits Lincoln to be better than McClellan, 265.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Stone, General Charles P.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>commands at Ball's Bluff, i. <a href='#Page308'>308</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his punishment, <a href='#Page308'>308</a>, <a href='#Page309'>309</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Stuart, John T.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>law partnership of Lincoln with, i. <a href='#Page056'>56</a>, <a href='#Page067'>67</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Stuart, General J.E.B.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>rides around Federal army, ii. 60;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>repeats feat after Antietam, 87.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Sumner, Charles,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>assaulted by Brooks, i. <a href='#Page099'>99</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Senate in 1861, <a href='#Page296'>296</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Sumner, General Edwin V.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>objects to Lincoln's trying</p> +<p class='indexentry'>to avoid murder plot, on ground of cowardice, i. <a href='#Page213'>213</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>opposes plan of Peninsular campaign, <a href='#Page336'>336</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>appointed corps commander, <a href='#Page344'>344</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on force necessary to protect Washington, ii. 32.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Sumter, Fort,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>question of its retention in 1861, i. <a href='#Page185'>185</a>, <a href='#Page239'>239</a>, <a href='#Page243'>243</a>-<a href='#Page251'>251</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Supreme Court,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>left to determine status of slavery in Territories, i. <a href='#Page091'>91</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Dred Scott case, <a href='#Page102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page103'>103</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Merryman case, <a href='#Page287'>287</a>-<a href='#Page289'>289</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>reluctance of Lincoln to fill, exclusively with Northern men, ii. 30;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Chase appointed chief justice of, 298, 299.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Surratt, John H.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>escapes punishment for complicity in assassination plot, ii. 352.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Surratt, Mary E.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>accomplice of Booth, tried and executed, ii. 351, 352.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Swinton, William,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on McClellan's self-sufficiency, i. <a href='#Page314'>314</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on campaign of 1862, <a href='#Page339'>339</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on extraordinary powers given Meade, ii. 146.</p> + + +<a name='INDEX_T'></a> +<p class='indexterm'>Tanet, Roger B.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his opinion in Dred Scott case discussed, i. <a href='#Page102'>102</a>-<a href='#Page104'>104</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>administers inaugural oath to Lincoln, <a href='#Page220'>220</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>attempts to liberate Merryman by habeas corpus, <a href='#Page287'>287</a>, <a href='#Page288'>288</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>denounces Lincoln's action as unconstitutional, <a href='#Page288'>288</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>succeeded by Chase, ii. 298.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Tatnall, Captain Josiah,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>destroys Merrimac, ii. 49.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Taylor, Dick,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>amusingly tricked by Lincoln, i. <a href='#Page059'>59</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Taylor, General Zachary,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his victories in Mexican war, i. <a href='#Page075'>75</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>supported by Lincoln for President, <a href='#Page078'>78</a>, <a href='#Page079'>79</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>urges New Mexico to apply for admission as a State, <a href='#Page088'>88</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Tennessee,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>refuses to furnish Lincoln with troops, i. <a href='#Page255'>255</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>at first opposed to secession, <a href='#Page268'>268</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>eastern counties of, Unionist, <a href='#Page268'>268</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>forced to secede, <a href='#Page269'>269</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>desire of Lincoln to save eastern counties of, <a href='#Page351'>351</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>prevented from Northern interference by Kentucky's "neutrality," <a href='#Page351'>351</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>seized by South, <a href='#Page353'>353</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>plan of Halleck to invade, ii. 155;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>eastern counties freed from Confederates, 167;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>plan of Lincoln to reconstruct, 219;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>chooses presidential electors, 295.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Texas,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>its rebellion and annexation, i. <a href='#Page085'>85</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>claims New Mexico, <a href='#Page088'>88</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>compensated, <a href='#Page091'>91</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>secedes, <a href='#Page187'>187</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Thomas, General George H.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>considers Washington insufficiently protected, ii. 40;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>at Chickamauga, 164;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>replaces Rosecrans, 165;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>prepares to hold Chattanooga, 166;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>defeats Hood at Nashville, ii. 300, 301.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Thomas, Philip F.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>succeeds Cobb in Buchanan's cabinet, i. <a href='#Page198'>198</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>resigns from Treasury Department, <a href='#Page200'>200</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Thompson, Jacob,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Buchanan's cabinet, i. <a href='#Page188'>188</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>acts as Mississippi commissioner to persuade Georgia to secede, <a href='#Page188'>188</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>claims Buchanan's approval, <a href='#Page188'>188</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>resigns, <a href='#Page200'>200</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Thompson, Colonel Samuel,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Black Hawk war, i. <a href='#Page036'>36</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Tod, David,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>declines offer of Treasury Department, ii. 253.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Todd, Mary,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>her character, i. <a href='#Page062'>62</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>morbid courtship of, by Lincoln, <a href='#Page063'>63</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>marries Lincoln, <a href='#Page063'>63</a>, <a href='#Page064'>64</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>her married life with Lincoln, <a href='#Page064'>64</a>, <a href='#Page065'>65</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>involves Lincoln in quarrel with Shields, <a href='#Page065'>65</a>, <a href='#Page066'>66</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Toombs, Robert,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Congress with Lincoln, i. <a href='#Page074'>74</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>works for secession in 1860, <a href='#Page186'>186</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>declares himself a rebel in the Senate, <a href='#Page204'>204</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>secretary of state under Jefferson Davis, <a href='#Page206'>206</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Toucey, Isaac,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Buchanan's cabinet, i. <a href='#Page187'>187</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>"Tribune," New York.</p> +<p class='indexentry'>See Greeley, Horace.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Trumbull, Lyman,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>leader of Illinois bar, i. <a href='#Page068'>68</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>elected senator from Illinois through Lincoln's influence, <a href='#Page096'>96</a>-<a href='#Page098'>98</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>said to have bargained with Lincoln, <a href='#Page098'>98</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Senate in 1861, <a href='#Page296'>296</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>introduces bill to confiscate slaves of rebels, ii. 14.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Tucker, John,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>prepares for transportation of Army of Potomac to Fortress Monroe, ii. 36.</p> + + +<a name='INDEX_U'></a> +<p class='indexterm'>Utah,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>organized as a Territory, i. <a href='#Page090'>90</a>.</p> + + +<a name='INDEX_V'></a> +<p class='indexterm'>Vallandigham, Clement L.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in House in 1861, i. <a href='#Page297'>297</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his speeches in 1863, ii. 185;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>tried and condemned for treason, 186;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>imprisoned in Fort Warren, 186;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sent by Lincoln to Confederate lines, 187;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>goes to Canada, nominated for governor in Ohio, 188;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>opinion of Lincoln on, 190, 191;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>defeated, 192;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>forces peace plank into National Democratic platform, 275.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Vicksburg,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>siege of, ii. 157-160.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Virginia,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>at first opposed to secession, i. <a href='#Page262'>262</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>carried by Secessionists, <a href='#Page262'>262</a>, <a href='#Page263'>263</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>makes military league with Confederate States, <a href='#Page264'>264</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>becomes member of Confederacy, <a href='#Page264'>264</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>northwestern counties of, secede from, <a href='#Page265'>265</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>comment of Lincoln on, <a href='#Page292'>292</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>nominal State government of, ii. 217.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Voorhees, Daniel W.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in House in 1861, i. <a href='#Page297'>297</a>.</p> + + +<a name='INDEX_W'></a> +<p class='indexterm'>Wade, Benjamin F.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Senate in 1861, i. <a href='#Page296'>296</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>thinks country ruined in 1862, ii. 104;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>issues address denouncing Lincoln for veto of reconstruction bill, 234;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>obliged to support Lincoln rather than McClellan, 265.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Wadsworth, General James S.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>commands forces to protect Washington, ii. 34;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>considers troops insufficient, 40.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Walker, L.P.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Confederate cabinet, i. <a href='#Page206'>206</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Walworth, Chancellor R.H.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>denounces coercion, i. <a href='#Page194'>194</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>War of Rebellion,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>first call for volunteers, i. <a href='#Page252'>252</a>, <a href='#Page255'>255</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>protection of Washington, <a href='#Page255'>255</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>passage of Massachusetts troops through Baltimore, <a href='#Page256'>256</a>-<a href='#Page258'>258</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>proclamation of blockade, <a href='#Page283'>283</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>naval situation, <a href='#Page283'>283</a>, <a href='#Page284'>284</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>second call for volunteers, army increased, <a href='#Page291'>291</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>military episodes of 1861, <a href='#Page298'>298</a>, <a href='#Page299'>299</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>campaign of Bull Run, <a href='#Page300'>300</a>-<a href='#Page302'>302</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>character and organization of Northern armies, <a href='#Page304'>304</a>-<a href='#Page308'>308</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>McClellan commander-in-chief, <a href='#Page310'>310</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>civilian officers in, <a href='#Page319'>319</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>attempt to force McClellan to advance, <a href='#Page322'>322</a>-<a href='#Page326'>326</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>administration of War Department by Stanton, <a href='#Page326'>326</a>-<a href='#Page328'>328</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Lincoln's plan for, <a href='#Page329'>329</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>debate as to plan of Virginia campaign, <a href='#Page330'>330</a>-<a href='#Page336'>336</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>General War Order No. I, <a href='#Page332'>332</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>adoption of McClellan's plan, <a href='#Page334'>334</a>-<a href='#Page336'>336</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>discussion of McClellan's and Lincoln's plans, <a href='#Page337'>337</a>-<a href='#Page340'>340</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>evacuation of Manassas, <a href='#Page341'>341</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>removal of McClellan from chief command, <a href='#Page343'>343</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>creation of army corps, <a href='#Page344'>344</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>character of Western military operations, <a href='#Page346'>346</a>-<a href='#Page348'>348</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Northern successes along the coast, <a href='#Page348'>348</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>campaign in Missouri and Arkansas, <a href='#Page351'>351</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>operations in Kentucky, <a href='#Page354'>354</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>campaign of Forts Henry and Donelson, <a href='#Page354'>354</a>, <a href='#Page355'>355</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>capture of New Madrid and Island No. <a href='#Page010'>10</a>, <a href='#Page355'>355</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>career of the ram Merrimac, <a href='#Page356'>356</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>battle of Merrimac and Monitor, <a href='#Page357'>357</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>capture of New Orleans, <a href='#Page358'>358</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>battle of Memphis, <a href='#Page359'>359</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>cruise of Farragut on Mississippi, <a href='#Page359'>359</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Halleck commander in West, <a href='#Page359'>359</a>, <a href='#Page360'>360</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>advance of Grant and Buell on Corinth, <a href='#Page360'>360</a>, <a href='#Page361'>361</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>battle of Shiloh, <a href='#Page361'>361</a>, <a href='#Page362'>362</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Halleck's advance on Corinth, <a href='#Page363'>363</a>, <a href='#Page364'>364</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>part played in war by politics, <a href='#Page365'>365</a>-<a href='#Page367'>367</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>question of protection of Washington, ii. 31-35;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>reinforcement of Fremont, 35;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Peninsular campaign, 36-72;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>transportation to Fortress Monroe, 36;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Yorktown, 36-47;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>retention of McDowell before Washington, 39-44;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>advance of McClellan, 47-51;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Jackson's raid on Harper's Ferry, 52-56;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>McDowell ordered to pursue Jackson, 55, 56;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>criticism of Lincoln's orders, 56-58;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Seven Pines and Fair Oaks, 58;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>halt and retreat of McClellan, 59-61;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Malvern Hill, 61;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>retreat continued, 63;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>discussion of campaign, 64-71;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Halleck commander-in-chief, 65, 66, 71;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>abandonment of campaign, 68;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Army of Virginia formed under Pope, 74, 75;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Pope's campaign in Virginia, 75-78;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Cedar Mountain, 76;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>second battle of Bull Run, 77;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>quarrels between officers, 78, 79;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>reinstatement of McClellan, 80-82;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>reorganization of army, 82-84;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Lee's campaign in Maryland, 84;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Antietam, 85, 86;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>McClellan fails to pursue Lee, 86-88;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Lincoln's proposals, 88-91;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>McClellan superseded by Burnside, 92, 136;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Fredericksburg campaign, 136, 137;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>quarrels in army, 137, 138;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Burnside succeeded by Hooker, 138-140;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Chancellorsville campaign, 140-142;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>failure of Hooker to fight Lee in detail, 143, 144;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Lee's invasion of Pennsylvania, 144-146;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Hooker replaced by Meade, 146;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>battle of Gettysburg, 147-149;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>failure of Meade to pursue Lee, 149-152;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Bragg's invasion of Kentucky, 154;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>battle of Perryville, 154;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Buell replaced by Rosecrans, 155;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>battle of Stone's River, 155;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Rosecrans drives Bragg out of Tennessee, 156, 157;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>siege and capture of Vicksburg, 157-160;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>fall of Port Hudson, 162;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Rosecrans' Chattanooga campaign, 163, 164;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>battle of Chickamauga, 164;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>siege of Chattanooga, 165;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Rosecrans replaced by Thomas, Grant given command of West, 165;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>battle of Chattanooga, 166, 167;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>liberation of East Tennessee, 167;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Meade's campaign in mud, 168, 169;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>steps leading to draft, 193-196;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>diminishing influence of politicians in, 209, 210;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Grant made lieutenant-general, 276, 277;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>new plan of campaign, 277, 278;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Grant's Virginia campaign, 278-281;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>battle of Wilderness, 279;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>battle at Spottsylvania, 279;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>battle of Cold Harbor, 280;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Butler "bottled up," 280;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Early's raid against Washington, 281-283;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Sherman's Atlanta campaign, 283;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>capture of Mobile, 284;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Sheridan's Valley campaign, 284, 285;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Sherman's march to the sea, 300;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Thomas's destruction of Hood's army, 300, 301;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>sinking of the Alabama and of the Albemarle, 301;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>decay of Confederate army in 1865, 330;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>siege of Petersburg, 330-332;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>march of Sherman through Carolinas, 331;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Bentonsville, 331;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>attempts of Lee to escape, 331, 332;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Five Forks, 333;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>abandonment of Petersburg and Richmond, 333-335;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>flight of Lee to Southwest, 336, 337;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Appomattox, 337, 338;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>surrender of Lee, 338, 339;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>surrender of Johnston, 340.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Washburne, Elihu B.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>letters of Lincoln to, on senatorial election of 1855, i. <a href='#Page097'>97</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on compromise in 1861, <a href='#Page210'>210</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>meets Lincoln at Washington, <a href='#Page214'>214</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in House in 1861, <a href='#Page297'>297</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Washington, George,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>futility of attempt to compare Lincoln with, ii. 357.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Webb, General A.S.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on effects of politics in Virginia campaigns, i. <a href='#Page336'>336</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on the consequences of Lincoln's relation to McClellan, ii. 43;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on McClellan's change of base, 61-68.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Webster, Daniel,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>his 7th of March speech, i. <a href='#Page090'>90</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Weed, Thurlow,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>advocates revision of Constitution in 1860, i. <a href='#Page193'>193</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Weitzel, General Godfrey,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>enters Richmond, ii. 334.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Welles, Gideon,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>secretary of navy, i. <a href='#Page234'>234</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>opposes relieving Sumter, <a href='#Page245'>245</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>changes opinion, <a href='#Page246'>246</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>not told by Lincoln of plan to relieve Pensacola, <a href='#Page247'>247</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>learns that Lincoln has spoiled his plan to relieve Sumter, <a href='#Page247'>247</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes Lincoln to close Southern ports by proclamation, <a href='#Page284'>284</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>disapproves of Lincoln's scheme of amnesty, ii. 310.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>West,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>social characteristics of frontier life in, i. <a href='#Page017'>17</a>-<a href='#Page030'>30</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>democracy in, <a href='#Page022'>22</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>vagrants in, <a href='#Page023'>23</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>violence and barbarity of, <a href='#Page024'>24</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>manners and customs, <a href='#Page024'>24</a>-<a href='#Page026'>26</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>grows in civilization, <a href='#Page026'>26</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>economic conditions of, <a href='#Page027'>27</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>frontier law and politics, <a href='#Page028'>28</a>-<a href='#Page030'>30</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>popular eloquence in, <a href='#Page057'>57</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>its ignorance of foreign countries, <a href='#Page368'>368</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>West Virginia,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>origin of, i. <a href='#Page265'>265</a>; campaign of McClellan in, <a href='#Page304'>304</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>forms a state Constitution, ii. 180;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>question of its admission, 180, 181;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>its vote counted in 1864, 297.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Whigs,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>character of, in Illinois, i. <a href='#Page038'>38</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>support Lincoln for speaker, <a href='#Page059'>59</a>, <a href='#Page060'>60</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>fail to carry Illinois in 1840, <a href='#Page061'>61</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>and in 1844, <a href='#Page071'>71</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>elect Lincoln to Congress, <a href='#Page073'>73</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>oppose Mexican war, <a href='#Page074'>74</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>elect Taylor, <a href='#Page079'>79</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>defeated in 1852, <a href='#Page093'>93</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>join Know-Nothings in 1856, <a href='#Page100'>100</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>White, Hugh L.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>supported by Lincoln in 1836, i. <a href='#Page050'>50</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Whiteside, General Samuel,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Black Hawk war, i. <a href='#Page036'>36</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Wigfall, Lewis T.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>jeers at North in 1860, i. <a href='#Page196'>196</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Wilderness,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>battle of, ii. 279.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Wilkes, Captain Charles,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>seizes Mason and Slidell, i. <a href='#Page380'>380</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>applauded in North, <a href='#Page381'>381</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>condemned by Lincoln, <a href='#Page382'>382</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Wilmot, David,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Congress with Lincoln, i. <a href='#Page074'>74</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Senate in 1861, <a href='#Page296'>296</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Wilson, Henry,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>hopes that Douglas will become Republican in 1858, i. <a href='#Page116'>116</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>in Senate in 1861, <a href='#Page296'>296</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>introduces bill to emancipate slaves in District, ii. 11;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>on negro troops, 17;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>admits small number of radical emancipationists, 121;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>denounces Blair to Lincoln, 287.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Winthrop, Robert C.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>chosen speaker of House, i. <a href='#Page074'>74</a>.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Wisconsin,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>admitted as free State to balance Texas, i. <a href='#Page088'>88</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>Democratic gains in, ii. 125.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Wood, Fernando,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>advocates secession of New York City, i. <a href='#Page197'>197</a>;</p> +<p class='indexentry'>wishes Lincoln to compromise, ii. 152.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Wool, General John E.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>commands at Fortress Monroe, ii. 45.</p> + + +<a name='INDEX_Y'></a> +<p class='indexterm'>Yorktown,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>siege of, ii. 36-47.</p> + +<p class='indexterm'>Yulee, David L.,</p> +<p class='indexentry'>remains in Senate in 1861 to embarrass government, i. <a href='#Page204'>204</a>.</p> + + + + + + + + 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