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diff --git a/old/1271-h/1271-h.htm b/old/1271-h/1271-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..03fa960 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/1271-h/1271-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,6471 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="iso-8859-1"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <title> + Bygone Beliefs Being a Series of Excursions in the Byways Of Thought, by + Stanley Redgrove + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal; + margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%; + text-align: right;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Bygone Beliefs, by H. Stanley Redgrove + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Bygone Beliefs + +Author: H. Stanley Redgrove + +Release Date: August 15, 2008 [EBook #1271] +Last Updated: January 25, 2013 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BYGONE BELIEFS *** + + + + +Produced by Charles Keller, and David Widger + + + + + +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h1> + BYGONE BELIEFS BEING<br /> A SERIES OF EXCURSIONS<br />IN THE BYWAYS OF + THOUGHT + </h1> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h2> + By H. Stanley Redgrove + </h2> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h5> + <i>Alle Erfahrung ist Magic, und nur magisch erklarbar</i>.<br /> NOVALIS + (Friedrich von Hardenberg).<br /> <br /> Everything possible to be believ'd + is an image of truth.<br /> WILLIAM BLAKE. + </h5> + <h4> + TO MY WIFE + </h4> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p> + Transcriber's Note: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [.] = coordinate covalent bond. + [#s] = subscripted #. + [#S] = superscripted #. + {} mark non-ascii characters. + "Emphasis" <i>italics</i> have a * mark. + @@@ marks a reference to internal page numbers. + Comments and guessed at characters in {braces} need stripped/fixed. + Footnotes have not been re-numbered, however, (#) are moved to EOParagraph. + The footnotes that have duplicate numbers across 2 pages are "a" and "b". + "Protected" indentations have a space before the [Tab]. + EOL - have been converted to ([Soft Hyphen]). + Greek letters are encoded in [gr ] brackets, and the letters are + based on Adobe's Symbol font. + Hebrew letters are encoded in [hb ] brackets. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="link2H_PREF" id="link2H_PREF"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + PREFACE + </h2> + <p> + THESE Excursions in the Byways of Thought were undertaken at different + times and on different occasions; consequently, the reader may be able to + detect in them inequalities of treatment. He may feel that I have lingered + too long in some byways and hurried too rapidly through others, taking, as + it were, but a general view of the road in the latter case, whilst + examining everything that could be seen in the former with, perhaps, undue + care. As a matter of fact, how ever, all these excursions have been + undertaken with one and the same object in view, that, namely, of + understanding aright and appreciating at their true worth some of the more + curious byways along which human thought has travelled. It is easy for the + superficial thinker to dismiss much of the thought of the past (and, + indeed, of the present) as <i>mere</i> superstition, not worth the trouble + of investigation: but it is not scientific. There is a reason for every + belief, even the most fantastic, and it should be our object to discover + this reason. How far, if at all, the reason in any case justifies us in + holding a similar belief is, of course, another question. Some of the + beliefs I have dealt with I have treated at greater length than others, + because it seems to me that the truths of which they are the images—vague + and distorted in many cases though they be—are truths which we have + either forgotten nowadays, or are in danger of forgetting. We moderns may, + indeed, learn something from the thought of the past, even in its most + fantastic aspects. In one excursion at least, namely, the essay on "The + Cambridge Platonists," I have ventured to deal with a higher phase—perhaps + I should say the highest phase—of the thought of a bygone age, to + which the modern world may be completely debtor. + </p> + <p> + "Some Characteristics of Mediaeval Thought," and the two essays on + Alchemy, have appeared in <i>The Journal of the Alchemical Society</i>. In + others I have utilised material I have contributed to <i>The Occult Review</i>, + to the editor of which journal my thanks are due for permission so to do. + I have also to express my gratitude to the Rev. A. H. COLLINS, and others + to be referred to in due course, for permission here to reproduce + illustrations of which they are the copyright holders. I have further to + offer my hearty thanks to Mr B. R. ROWBOTTOM and my wife for valuable + assistance in reading the proofs. H. S. R. + </p> + <p> + BLETCHLEY, BUCKS, <i>December</i> 1919. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <blockquote> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>CONTENTS</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_PREF"> PREFACE </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0002"> <b>BYGONE BELIEFS</b> </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0003"> I. SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF MEDAEVAL THOUGHT + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0004"> II. PYTHAGORAS AND HIS PHILOSOPHY </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0005"> III. MEDICINE AND MAGIC </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0006"> IV. SUPERSTITIONS CONCERNING BIRDS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0007"> V. THE POWDER OF SYMPATHY: A CURIOUS MEDICAL + SUPERSTITION </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0008"> VI. THE BELIEF IN TALISMANS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0009"> VII. CEREMONIAL MAGIC IN THEORY AND PRACTICE + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0010"> VIII. ARCHITECTURAL SYMBOLISM </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0011"> IX. THE QUEST OF THE PHILOSOPHER'S STONE </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0012"> X. THE PHALLIC ELEMENT IN ALCHEMICAL DOCTRINE + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0013"> XI. ROGER BACON: AN APPRECIATION </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0014"> XII. THE CAMBRIDGE PLATONISTS </a> + </p> + </blockquote> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_4_0002" id="link2H_4_0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <h1> + BYGONE BELIEFS + </h1> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0003" id="link2H_4_0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + I. SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF MEDAEVAL THOUGHT + </h2> + <p> + IN the earliest days of his upward evolution man was satisfied with a very + crude explanation of natural phenomena—that to which the name + "animism" has been given. In this stage of mental development all the + various forces of Nature are personified: the rushing torrent, the + devastating fire, the wind rustling the forest leaves—in the mind of + the animistic savage all these are personalities, spirits, like himself, + but animated by motives more or less antagonistic to him. + </p> + <p> + I suppose that no possible exception could be taken to the statement that + modern science renders animism impossible. But let us inquire in exactly + what sense this is true. It is not true that science robs natural + phenomena of their spiritual significance. The mistake is often made of + supposing that science explains, or endeavours to explain, phenomena. But + that is the business of philosophy. The task science attempts is the + simpler one of the correlation of natural phenomena, and in this effort + leaves the ultimate problems of metaphysics untouched. A universe, + however, whose phenomena are not only capable of some degree of + correlation, but present the extraordinary degree of harmony and unity + which science makes manifest in Nature, cannot be, as in animism, the + product of a vast number of inco-ordinated and antagonistic wills, but + must either be the product of one Will, or not the product of will at all. + </p> + <p> + The latter alternative means that the Cosmos is inexplicable, which not + only man's growing experience, but the fact that man and the universe form + essentially a unity, forbid us to believe. The term "anthropomorphic" is + too easily applied to philosophical systems, as if it constituted a + criticism of their validity. For if it be true, as all must admit, that + the unknown can only be explained in terms of the known, then the universe + must either be explained in terms of man—<i>i.e</i>. in terms of + will or desire—or remain incomprehensible. That is to say, a + philosophy must either be anthropomorphic, or no philosophy at all. + </p> + <p> + Thus a metaphysical scrutiny of the results of modern science leads us to + a belief in God. But man felt the need of unity, and crude animism, though + a step in the right direction, failed to satisfy his thought, long before + the days of modern science. The spirits of animism, however, were not + discarded, but were modified, co-ordinated, and worked into a system as + servants of the Most High. Polytheism may mark a stage in this process; + or, perhaps, it was a result of mental degeneracy. + </p> + <p> + What I may term systematised as distinguished from crude animism persisted + throughout the Middle Ages. The work of systematisation had already been + accomplished, to a large extent, by the Neo-Platonists and whoever were + responsible for the Kabala. It is true that these main sources of magical + or animistic philosophy remained hidden during the greater part of the + Middle Ages; but at about their close the youthful and enthusiastic + CORNELIUS AGRIPPA (1486-1535)(1) slaked his thirst thereat and produced + his own attempt at the systematisation of magical belief in the famous <i>Three + Books of Occult Philosophy</i>. But the waters of magical philosophy + reached the mediaeval mind through various devious channels, traditional + on the one hand and literary on the other. And of the latter, the works of + pseudo-DIONYSIUS,(2) whose immense influence upon mediaeval thought has + sometimes been neglected, must certainly be noted. + </p> + <p> + (1) The story of his life has been admirably told by HENRY MORLEY (2 + vols., 1856). + </p> + <p> + (2) These writings were first heard of in the early part of the sixth + century, and were probably the work of a Syrian monk of that date, who + fathered them on to DIONYSIUS the Areopagite as a pious fraud. See Dean + INGE'S <i>Christian Mysticism</i> (1899), pp. 104—122, and VAUGHAN'S + <i>Hours with the Mystics</i> (7th ed., 1895), vol. i. pp. 111-124. The + books have been translated into English by the Rev. JOHN PARKER (2 + vols.1897-1899), who believes in the genuineness of their alleged + authorship. + </p> + <p> + The most obvious example of a mediaeval animistic belief is that in + "elementals"—the spirits which personify the primordial forces of + Nature, and are symbolised by the four elements, immanent in which they + were supposed to exist, and through which they were held to manifest their + powers. And astrology, it must be remembered, is essentially a + systematised animism. The stars, to the ancients, were not material bodies + like the earth, but spiritual beings. PLATO (427-347 B.C.) speaks of them + as "gods". Mediaeval thought did not regard them in quite this way. But + for those who believed in astrology, and few, I think, did not, the stars + were still symbols of spiritual forces operative on man. Evidences of the + wide extent of astrological belief in those days are abundant, many + instances of which we shall doubtless encounter in our excursions. + </p> + <p> + It has been said that the theological and philosophical atmosphere of the + Middle Ages was "scholastic," not mystical. No doubt "mysticism," as a + mode of life aiming at the realisation of the presence of God, is as + distinct from scholasticism as empiricism is from rationalism, or + "tough-minded" philosophy (to use JAMES' happy phrase) is from + "tender-minded". But no philosophy can be absolutely and purely deductive. + It must start from certain empirically determined facts. A man might be an + extreme empiricist in religion (<i>i.e</i>. a mystic), and yet might + attempt to deduce all other forms of knowledge from the results of his + religious experiences, never caring to gather experience in any other + realm. Hence the breach between mysticism and scholasticism is not really + so wide as may appear at first sight. Indeed, scholasticism officially + recognised three branches of theology, of which the MYSTICAL was one. I + think that mysticism and scholasticism both had a profound influence on + the mediaeval mind, sometimes acting as opposing forces, sometimes + operating harmoniously with one another. As Professor WINDELBAND puts it: + "We no longer onesidedly characterise the philosophy of the middle ages as + scholasticism, but rather place mysticism beside it as of equal rank, and + even as being the more fruitful and promising movement."(1) + </p> + <p> + (1) Professor WILHELM WINDELBAND, Ph.D.: "Present-Day Mysticism," <i>The + Quest</i>, vol. iv. (1913), P. 205. + </p> + <p> + Alchemy, with its four Aristotelian or scholastic elements and its three + mystical principles—sulphur, mercury, salt,—must be cited as + the outstanding product of the combined influence of mysticism and + scholasticism: of mysticism, which postulated the unity of the Cosmos, and + hence taught that everything natural is the expressive image and type of + some supernatural reality; of scholasticism, which taught men to rely upon + deduction and to restrict experimentation to the smallest possible limits. + </p> + <p> + The mind naturally proceeds from the known, or from what is supposed to be + known, to the unknown. Indeed, as I have already indicated, it must so + proceed if truth is to be gained. Now what did the men of the Middle Ages + regard as falling into the category of the known? Why, surely, the truths + of revealed religion, whether accepted upon authority or upon the evidence + of their own experience. The realm of spiritual and moral reality: there, + they felt, they were on firm ground. Nature was a realm unknown; but they + had analogy to guide, or, rather, misguide them. Nevertheless if, as we + know, it misguided, this was not, I think, because the mystical doctrine + of the correspondence between the spiritual and the natural is unsound, + but because these ancient seekers into Nature's secrets knew so little, + and so frequently misapplied what they did know. So alchemical philosophy + arose and became systematised, with its wonderful endeavour to perfect the + base metals by the Philosopher's Stone—the concentrated Essence of + Nature,—as man's soul is perfected through the life-giving power of + JESUS CHRIST. + </p> + <p> + I want, in conclusion to these brief introductory remarks, to say a few + words concerning phallicism in connection with my topic. For some + "tender-minded"(1) and, to my thought, obscure, reason the subject is + tabooed. Even the British Museum does not include works on phallicism in + its catalogue, and special permission has to be obtained to consult them. + Yet the subject is of vast importance as concerns the origin and + development of religion and philosophy, and the extent of phallic worship + may be gathered from the widespread occurrence of obelisks and similar + objects amongst ancient relics. Our own maypole dances may be instanced as + one survival of the ancient worship of the male generative principle. + </p> + <p> + (1) I here use the term with the extended meaning Mr H. G. WELLS has given + to it. See <i>The New Machiavelli</i>. + </p> + <p> + What could be more easy to understand than that, when man first questioned + as to the creation of the earth, he should suppose it to have been + generated by some process analogous to that which he saw held in the case + of man? How else could he account for its origin, if knowledge must + proceed from the known to the unknown? No one questions at all that the + worship of the human generative organs as symbols of the dual generative + principle of Nature degenerated into orgies of the most frightful + character, but the view of Nature which thus degenerated is not, I think, + an altogether unsound one, and very interesting remnants of it are to be + found in mediaeval philosophy. + </p> + <p> + These remnants are very marked in alchemy. The metals, as I have + suggested, are there regarded as types of man; hence they are produced + from seed, through the combination of male and female principles—mercury + and sulphur, which on the spiritual plane are intelligence and love. The + same is true of that Stone which is perfect Man. As BERNARD of TREVISAN + (1406-1490) wrote in the fifteenth century: "This Stone then is compounded + of a Body and Spirit, or of a volatile and fixed Substance, and that is + therefore done, because nothing in the World can be generated and brought + to light without these two Substances, to wit, a Male and Female: From + whence it appeareth, that although these two Substances are not of one and + the same species, yet one Stone doth thence arise, and although they + appear and are said to be two Substances, yet in truth it is but one, to + wit, <i>Argent-vive</i>."(1) No doubt this sounds fantastic; but with all + their seeming intellectual follies these old thinkers were no fools. The + fact of sex is the most fundamental fact of the universe, and is a + spiritual and physical as well as a physiological fact. I shall deal with + the subject as concerns the speculations of the alchemists in some detail + in a later excursion. + </p> + <p> + (1) BERNARD, Earl of TREVISAN: <i>A Treatise of the Philosopher's Stone</i>, + 1683. (See <i>Collectanea Chymica: A Collection of Ten Several Treatises + in Chemistry</i>, 1684, p. 91.) + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0004" id="link2H_4_0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + II. PYTHAGORAS AND HIS PHILOSOPHY + </h2> + <p> + IT is a matter for enduring regret that so little is known to us + concerning PYTHAGORAS. What little we do know serves but to enhance for us + the interest of the man and his philosophy, to make him, in many ways, the + most attractive of Greek thinkers; and, basing our estimate on the extent + of his influence on the thought of succeeding ages, we recognise in him + one of the world's master-minds. + </p> + <p> + PYTHAGORAS was born about 582 B.C. at Samos, one of the Grecian isles. In + his youth he came in contact with THALES—the Father of Geometry, as + he is well called,—and though he did not become a member of THALES' + school, his contact with the latter no doubt helped to turn his mind + towards the study of geometry. This interest found the right ground for + its development in Egypt, which he visited when still young. Egypt is + generally regarded as the birthplace of geometry, the subject having, it + is supposed, been forced on the minds of the Egyptians by the necessity of + fixing the boundaries of lands against the annual overflowing of the Nile. + But the Egyptians were what is called an essentially practical people, and + their geometrical knowledge did not extend beyond a few empirical rules + useful for fixing these boundaries and in constructing their temples. + Striking evidence of this fact is supplied by the AHMES papyrus, compiled + some little time before 1700 B.C. from an older work dating from about + 3400 B.C.,(1) a papyrus which almost certainly represents the highest + mathematical knowledge reached by the Egyptians of that day. Geometry is + treated very superficially and as of subsidiary interest to arithmetic; + there is no ordered series of reasoned geometrical propositions given—nothing, + indeed, beyond isolated rules, and of these some are wanting in accuracy. + </p> + <p> + (1) See AUGUST EISENLOHR: <i>Ein mathematisches Handbuch der alten + Aegypter</i> (1877); J. Gow: <i>A Short History of Greek Mathematics</i> + (1884); and V. E. JOHNSON: <i>Egyptian Science from the Monuments and + Ancient Books</i> (1891). + </p> + <p> + One geometrical fact known to the Egyptians was that if a triangle be + constructed having its sides 3, 4, and 5 units long respectively, then the + angle opposite the longest side is exactly a right angle; and the Egyptian + builders used this rule for constructing walls perpendicular to each + other, employing a cord graduated in the required manner. The Greek mind + was not, however, satisfied with the bald statement of mere facts—it + cared little for practical applications, but sought above all for the + underlying REASON of everything. Nowadays we are beginning to realise that + the results achieved by this type of mind, the general laws of Nature's + behaviour formulated by its endeavours, are frequently of immense + practical importance—of far more importance than the mere + rules-of-thumb beyond which so-called practical minds never advance. The + classic example of the utility of seemingly useless knowledge is afforded + by Sir WILLIAM HAMILTON'S discovery, or, rather, invention of + Quarternions, but no better example of the utilitarian triumph of the + theoretical over the so-called practical mind can be adduced than that + afforded by PYTHAGORAS. Given this rule for constructing a right angle, + about whose reason the Egyptian who used it never bothered himself, and + the mind of PYTHAGORAS, searching for its full significance, made that + gigantic geometrical discovery which is to this day known as the Theorem + of PYTHAGORAS—the law that in every right-angled triangle the square + on the side opposite the right angle is equal in area to the sum of the + squares on the other two sides.(1) The importance of this discovery can + hardly be overestimated. It is of fundamental importance in most branches + of geometry, and the basis of the whole of trigonometry—the special + branch of geometry that deals with the practical mensuration of triangles. + EUCLID devoted the whole of the first book of his <i>Elements of Geometry</i> + to establishing the truth of this theorem; how PYTHAGORAS demonstrated it + we unfortunately do not know. + </p> + <p> + (1) Fig. 3 affords an interesting practical demonstration of the truth of + this theorem. If the reader will copy this figure, cut out the squares on + the two shorter sides of the triangle and divide them along the lines AD, + BE, EF, he will find that the five pieces so obtained can be made exactly + to fit the square on the longest side as shown by the dotted lines. The + size and shape of the triangle ABC, so long as it has a right angle at C, + is immaterial. The lines AD, BE are obtained by continuing the sides of + the square on the side AB, <i>i.e</i>. the side opposite the right angle, + and EF is drawn at right angles to BE. + </p> + <p> + After absorbing what knowledge was to be gained in Egypt, PYTHAGORAS + journeyed to Babylon, where he probably came into contact with even + greater traditions and more potent influences and sources of knowledge + than in Egypt, for there is reason for believing that the ancient + Chaldeans were the builders of the Pyramids and in many ways the + intellectual superiors of the Egyptians. + </p> + <p> + At last, after having travelled still further East, probably as far as + India, PYTHAGORAS returned to his birthplace to teach the men of his + native land the knowledge he had gained. But CROESUS was tyrant over + Samos, and so oppressive was his rule that none had leisure in which to + learn. Not a student came to PYTHAGORAS, until, in despair, so the story + runs, he offered to pay an artisan if he would but learn geometry. The man + accepted, and later, when PYTHAGORAS pretended inability any longer to + continue the payments, he offered, so fascinating did he find the subject, + to pay his teacher instead if the lessons might only be continued. + PYTHAGORAS no doubt was much gratified at this; and the motto he adopted + for his great Brotherhood, of which we shall make the acquaintance in a + moment, was in all likelihood based on this event. It ran, "Honour a + figure and a step before a figure and a tribolus"; or, as a freer + translation renders it:— + </p> + <p> + "A figure and a step onward Not a figure and a florin." + </p> + <p> + "At all events," as Mr FRANKLAND remarks, "the motto is a lasting witness + to a very singular devotion to knowledge for its own sake."(1) + </p> + <p> + (1) W. B. FRANKLAND, M.A.: <i>The Story of Euclid</i> (1902), p. 33 + </p> + <p> + But PYTHAGORAS needed a greater audience than one man, however + enthusiastic a pupil he might be, and he left Samos for Southern Italy, + the rich inhabitants of whose cities had both the leisure and inclination + to study. Delphi, far-famed for its Oracles, was visited <i>en route</i>, + and PYTHAGORAS, after a sojourn at Tarentum, settled at Croton, where he + gathered about him a great band of pupils, mainly young people of the + aristocratic class. By consent of the Senate of Croton, he formed out of + these a great philosophical brotherhood, whose members lived apart from + the ordinary people, forming, as it were, a separate community. They were + bound to PYTHAGORAS by the closest ties of admiration and reverence, and, + for years after his death, discoveries made by Pythagoreans were + invariably attributed to the Master, a fact which makes it very difficult + exactly to gauge the extent of PYTHAGORAS' own knowledge and achievements. + The regime of the Brotherhood, or Pythagorean Order, was a strict one, + entailing "high thinking and low living" at all times. A restricted diet, + the exact nature of which is in dispute, was observed by all members, and + long periods of silence, as conducive to deep thinking, were imposed on + novices. Women were admitted to the Order, and PYTHAGORAS' asceticism did + not prohibit romance, for we read that one of his fair pupils won her way + to his heart, and, declaring her affection for him, found it reciprocated + and became his wife. + </p> + <p> + SCHURE writes: "By his marriage with Theano, Pythagoras affixed <i>the + seal of realization</i> to his work. The union and fusion of the two lives + was complete. One day when the master's wife was asked what length of time + elapsed before a woman could become pure after intercourse with a man, she + replied: 'If it is with her husband, she is pure all the time; if with + another man, she is never pure.'" "Many women," adds the writer, "would + smilingly remark that to give such a reply one must be the wife of + Pythagoras, and love him as Theano did. And they would be in the right, + for it is not marriage that sanctifies love, it is love which justifies + marriage."(1) + </p> + <p> + (1) EDOUARD SCHURE: <i>Pythagoras and the Delphic Mysteries</i>, trans. by + F. ROTHWELL, B.A. (1906), pp. 164 and 165. + </p> + <p> + PYTHAGORAS was not merely a mathematician, he was first and foremost a + philosopher, whose philosophy found in number the basis of all things, + because number, for him, alone possessed stability of relationship. As I + have remarked on a former occasion, "The theory that the Cosmos has its + origin and explanation in Number... is one for which it is not difficult + to account if we take into consideration the nature of the times in which + it was formulated. The Greek of the period, looking upon Nature, beheld no + picture of harmony, uniformity and fundamental unity. The outer world + appeared to him rather as a discordant chaos, the mere sport and plaything + of the gods. The theory of the uniformity of Nature—that Nature is + ever like to herself—the very essence of the modern scientific + spirit, had yet to be born of years of unwearied labour and unceasing + delving into Nature's innermost secrets. Only in Mathematics—in the + properties of geometrical figures, and of numbers—was the reign of + law, the principle of harmony, perceivable. Even at this present day when + the marvellous has become commonplace, that property of right-angled + triangles... already discussed... comes to the mind as a remarkable and + notable fact: it must have seemed a stupendous marvel to its discoverer, + to whom, it appears, the regular alternation of the odd and even numbers, + a fact so obvious to us that we are inclined to attach no importance to + it, seemed, itself, to be something wonderful. Here in Geometry and + Arithmetic, here was order and harmony unsurpassed and unsurpassable. What + wonder then that Pythagoras concluded that the solution of the mighty + riddle of the Universe was contained in the mysteries of Geometry? What + wonder that he read mystic meanings into the laws of Arithmetic, and + believed Number to be the explanation and origin of all that is?"(1) + </p> + <p> + (1) <i>A Mathematical Theory of Spirit</i> (1912), pp. 64-65. + </p> + <p> + No doubt the Pythagorean theory suffers from a defect similar to that of + the Kabalistic doctrine, which, starting from the fact that all words are + composed of letters, representing the primary sounds of language, + maintained that all the things represented by these words were created by + God by means of the twenty-two letters of the Hebrew alphabet. But at the + same time the Pythagorean theory certainly embodies a considerable element + of truth. Modern science demonstrates nothing more clearly than the + importance of numerical relationships. Indeed, "the history of science + shows us the gradual transformation of crude facts of experience into + increasingly exact generalisations by the application to them of + mathematics. The enormous advances that have been made in recent years in + physics and chemistry are very largely due to mathematical methods of + interpreting and co-ordinating facts experimentally revealed, whereby + further experiments have been suggested, the results of which have + themselves been mathematically interpreted. Both physics and chemistry, + especially the former, are now highly mathematical. In the biological + sciences and especially in psychology it is true that mathematical methods + are, as yet, not so largely employed. But these sciences are far less + highly developed, far less exact and systematic, that is to say, far less + scientific, at present, than is either physics or chemistry. However, the + application of statistical methods promises good results, and there are + not wanting generalisations already arrived at which are expressible + mathematically; Weber's Law in psychology, and the law concerning the + arrangement of the leaves about the stems of plants in biology, may be + instanced as cases in point."(1) + </p> + <p> + (1) Quoted from a lecture by the present writer on "The Law of + Correspondences Mathematically Considered," delivered before The + Theological and Philosophical Society on 26th April 1912, and published in + <i>Morning Light</i>, vol. xxxv (1912), p. 434 <i>et seq</i>. + </p> + <p> + The Pythagorean doctrine of the Cosmos, in its most reasonable form, + however, is confronted with one great difficulty which it seems incapable + of overcoming, namely, that of continuity. Modern science, with its atomic + theories of matter and electricity, does, indeed, show us that the + apparent continuity of material things is spurious, that all material + things consist of discrete particles, and are hence measurable in + numerical terms. But modern science is also obliged to postulate an ether + behind these atoms, an ether which is wholly continuous, and hence + transcends the domain of number.(1) It is true that, in quite recent + times, a certain school of thought has argued that the ether is also + atomic in constitution—that all things, indeed, have a grained + structure, even forces being made up of a large number of quantums or + indivisible units of force. But this view has not gained general + acceptance, and it seems to necessitate the postulation of an ether beyond + the ether, filling the interspaces between its atoms, to obviate the + difficulty of conceiving of action at a distance. + </p> + <p> + (1) Cf. chap. iii., "On Nature as the Embodiment of Number," of my <i>A + Mathematical Theory of Spirit</i>, to which reference has already been + made. + </p> + <p> + According to BERGSON, life—the reality that can only be lived, not + understood—is absolutely continuous (<i>i.e</i>. not amenable to + numerical treatment). It is because life is absolutely continuous that we + cannot, he says, understand it; for reason acts discontinuously, grasping + only, so to speak, a cinematographic view of life, made up of an immense + number of instantaneous glimpses. All that passes between the glimpses is + lost, and so the true whole, reason can never synthesise from that which + it possesses. On the other hand, one might also argue—extending, in + a way, the teaching of the physical sciences of the period between the + postulation of DALTON'S atomic theory and the discovery of the + significance of the ether of space—that reality is essentially + discontinuous, our idea that it is continuous being a mere illusion + arising from the coarseness of our senses. That might provide a complete + vindication of the Pythagorean view; but a better vindication, if not of + that theory, at any rate of PYTHAGORAS' philosophical attitude, is + forthcoming, I think, in the fact that modern mathematics has transcended + the shackles of number, and has enlarged her kingdom, so as to include + quantities other than numerical. PYTHAGORAS, had he been born in these + latter centuries, would surely have rejoiced in this, enlargement, whereby + the continuous as well as the discontinuous is brought, if not under the + rule of number, under the rule of mathematics indeed. + </p> + <p> + PYTHAGORAS' foremost achievement in mathematics I have already mentioned. + Another notable piece of work in the same department was the discovery of + a method of constructing a parallelogram having a side equal to a given + line, an angle equal to a given angle, and its area equal to that of a + given triangle. PYTHAGORAS is said to have celebrated this discovery by + the sacrifice of a whole ox. The problem appears in the first book of + EUCLID'S <i>Elements of Geometry</i> as proposition 44. In fact, many of + the propositions of EUCLID'S first, second, fourth, and sixth books were + worked out by PYTHAGORAS and the Pythagoreans; but, curiously enough, they + seem greatly to have neglected the geometry of the circle. + </p> + <p> + The symmetrical solids were regarded by PYTHAGORAS, and by the Greek + thinkers after him, as of the greatest importance. To be perfectly + symmetrical or regular, a solid must have an equal number of faces meeting + at each of its angles, and these faces must be equal regular polygons, <i>i.e</i>. + figures whose sides and angles are all equal. PYTHAGORAS, perhaps, may be + credited with the great discovery that there are only five such solids. + These are as follows:— + </p> + <p> + The Tetrahedron, having four equilateral triangles as faces. + </p> + <p> + The Cube, having six squares as faces. + </p> + <p> + The Octahedron, having eight equilateral triangles as faces. + </p> + <p> + The Dodecahedron, having twelve regular pentagons (or five-sided figures) + as faces. + </p> + <p> + The Icosahedron, having twenty equilateral triangles as faces.(1) + </p> + <p> + (1) If the reader will copy figs. 4 to 8 on cardboard or stiff paper, bend + each along the dotted lines so as to form a solid, fastening together the + free edges with gummed paper, he will be in possession of models of the + five solids in question. + </p> + <p> + Now, the Greeks believed the world to be composed of four elements—earth, + air, fire, water,—and to the Greek mind the conclusion was + inevitable(2a) that the shapes of the particles of the elements were those + of the regular solids. Earth-particles were cubical, the cube being the + regular solid possessed of greatest stability; fire-particles were + tetrahedral, the tetrahedron being the simplest and, hence, lightest + solid. Water-particles were icosahedral for exactly the reverse reason, + whilst air-particles, as intermediate between the two latter, were + octahedral. The dodecahedron was, to these ancient mathematicians, the + most mysterious of the solids: it was by far the most difficult to + construct, the accurate drawing of the regular pentagon necessitating a + rather elaborate application of PYTHAGORAS' great theorem.(1) Hence the + conclusion, as PLATO put it, that "this (the regular dodecahedron) the + Deity employed in tracing the plan of the Universe."(2b) Hence also the + high esteem in which the pentagon was held by the Pythagoreans. By + producing each side of this latter figure the five-pointed star (fig. 9), + known as the pentagram, is obtained. This was adopted by the Pythagoreans + as the badge of their Society, and for many ages was held as a symbol + possessed of magic powers. The mediaeval magicians made use of it in their + evocations, and as a talisman it was held in the highest esteem. + </p> + <p> + (2a) <i>Cf</i>. PLATO: The Timaeus, SESE xxviii—xxx. + </p> + <p> + (1) In reference to this matter FRANKLAND remarks: "In those early days + the innermost secrets of nature lay in the lap of geometry, and the + extraordinary inference follows that Euclid's <i>Elements</i>, which are + devoted to the investigation of the regular solids, are therefore in + reality and at bottom an attempt to 'solve the universe.' Euclid, in fact, + made this goal of the Pythagoreans the aim of his <i>Elements</i>."—<i>Op. + cit</i>., p. 35. + </p> + <p> + (2b) <i>Op. cit</i>., SE xxix. + </p> + <p> + Music played an important part in the curriculum of the Pythagorean + Brotherhood, and the important discovery that the relations between the + notes of musical scales can be expressed by means of numbers is a + Pythagorean one. It must have seemed to its discoverer—as, in a + sense, it indeed is—a striking confirmation of the numerical theory + of the Cosmos. The Pythagoreans held that the positions of the heavenly + bodies were governed by similar numerical relations, and that in + consequence their motion was productive of celestial music. This concept + of "the harmony of the spheres" is among the most celebrated of the + Pythagorean doctrines, and has found ready acceptance in many + mystically-speculative minds. "Look how the floor of heaven," says Lorenzo + in SHAKESPEARE'S <i>The Merchant of Venice</i>— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "... Look how the floor of heaven + Is thick inlaid with patines of bright gold: + There's not the smallest orb which thou behold's" + But in his motion like an angel sings, + Still quiring to the young-eyed cherubins; + Such harmony is in immortal souls; + But whilst this muddy vesture of decay + Doth grossly close it in, we cannot hear it."(1) +</pre> + <p> + (1) Act v. scene i. + </p> + <p> + Or, as KINGSLEY writes in one of his letters, "When I walk the fields I am + oppressed every now and then with an innate feeling that everything I see + has a meaning, if I could but understand it. And this feeling of being + surrounded with truths which I cannot grasp, amounts to an indescribable + awe sometimes! Everything seems to be full of God's reflex, if we could + but see it. Oh! how I have prayed to have the mystery unfolded, at least + hereafter. To see, if but for a moment, the whole harmony of the great + system! To hear once the music which the whole universe makes as it + performs His bidding!"(1) In this connection may be mentioned the very + significant fact that the Pythagoreans did not consider the earth, in + accordance with current opinion, to be a stationary body, but believed + that it and the other planets revolved about a central point, or fire, as + they called it. + </p> + <p> + (1) CHARLES KINGSLEY: <i>His Letters and Memories of His Life</i>, edited + by his wife (1883), p. 28. + </p> + <p> + As concerns PYTHAGORAS' ethical teaching, judging from the so-called <i>Golden + Verses</i> attributed to him, and no doubt written by one of his + disciples,(2) this would appear to be in some respects similar to that of + the Stoics who came later, but free from the materialism of the Stoic + doctrines. Due regard for oneself is blended with regard for the gods and + for other men, the atmosphere of the whole being at once rational and + austere. One verse—"Thou shalt likewise know, according to Justice, + that the nature of this Universe is in all things alike"(3)—is of + particular interest, as showing PYTHAGORAS' belief in that principle of + analogy—that "What is below is as that which is above, what is above + is as that which is below"—which held so dominant a sway over the + minds of ancient and mediaeval philosophers, leading them—in spite, + I suggest, of its fundamental truth—into so many fantastic errors, + as we shall see in future excursions. Metempsychosis was another of the + Pythagorean tenets, a fact which is interesting in view of the modern + revival of this doctrine. PYTHAGORAS, no doubt, derived it from the East, + apparently introducing it for the first time to Western thought. + </p> + <p> + (2) It seems probable, though not certain, that PYTHAGORAS wrote nothing + himself, but taught always by the oral method. + </p> + <p> + (3) Cf. the remarks of HIEROCLES on this verse in his <i>Commentary</i>. + </p> + <p> + Such, in brief, were the outstanding doctrines of the Pythagorean + Brotherhood. Their teachings included, as we have seen, what may justly be + called scientific discoveries of the first importance, as well as + doctrines which, though we may feel compelled—perhaps rightly—to + regard them as fantastic now, had an immense influence on the thought of + succeeding ages, especially on Greek philosophy as represented by PLATO + and the Neo-Platonists, and the more speculative minds—the occult + philosophers, shall I say?—of the latter mediaeval period and + succeeding centuries. The Brotherhood, however, was not destined to + continue its days in peace. As I have indicated, it was a philosophical, + not a political, association; but naturally PYTHAGORAS' philosophy + included political doctrines. At any rate, the Brotherhood acquired a + considerable share in the government of Croton, a fact which was greatly + resented by the members of the democratic party, who feared the loss of + their rights; and, urged thereto, it is said, by a rejected applicant for + membership of the Order, the mob made an onslaught on the Brotherhood's + place of assembly and burnt it to the ground. One account has it that + PYTHAGORAS himself died in the conflagration, a sacrifice to the mad fury + of the mob. According to another account—and we like to believe that + this is the true one—he escaped to Tarentum, from which he was + banished, to find an asylum in Metapontum, where he lived his last years + in peace. + </p> + <p> + The Pythagorean Order was broken up, but the bonds of brotherhood still + existed between its members. "One of them who had fallen upon sickness and + poverty was kindly taken in by an innkeeper. Before dying he traced a few + mysterious signs (the pentagram, no doubt) on the door of the inn and said + to the host: 'Do not be uneasy, one of my brothers will pay my debts.' A + year afterwards, as a stranger was passing by this inn he saw the signs + and said to the host: 'I am a Pythagorean; one of my brothers died here; + tell me what I owe you on his account.'"(1) + </p> + <p> + (1) EDOUARD SCHURE: <i>Op. cit</i>., p. 174. + </p> + <p> + In endeavouring to estimate the worth of PYTHAGORAS' discoveries and + teaching, Mr FRANKLAND writes, with reference to his achievements in + geometry: "Even after making a considerable allowance for his pupils' + share, the Master's geometrical work calls for much admiration"; and, "... + it cannot be far wrong to suppose that it was Pythagoras' wont to insist + upon proofs, and so to secure that rigour which gives to mathematics its + honourable position amongst the sciences." And of his work in arithmetic, + music, and astronomy, the same author writes: "... everywhere he appears + to have inaugurated genuinely scientific methods, and to have laid the + foundations of a high and liberal education"; adding, "For nearly a score + of centuries, to the very close of the Middle Ages, the four Pythagorean + subjects of study—arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music—were + the staple educational course, and were bound together into a fourfold way + of knowledge—the Quadrivium."(1) With these words of due praise, our + present excursion may fittingly close. + </p> + <p> + (1) <i>Op. cit</i>., pp. 35, 37, and 38. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0005" id="link2H_4_0005"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + III. MEDICINE AND MAGIC + </h2> + <p> + THERE are few tasks at once so instructive and so fascinating as the + tracing of the development of the human mind as manifested in the + evolution of scientific and philosophical theories. And this is, perhaps, + especially true when, as in the case of medicine, this evolution has + followed paths so tortuous, intersected by so many fantastic byways, that + one is not infrequently doubtful as to the true road. The history of + medicine is at once the history of human wisdom and the history of human + credulity and folly, and the romantic element (to use the expression in + its popular acceptation) thus introduced, whilst making the subject more + entertaining, by no means detracts from its importance considered + psychologically. + </p> + <p> + To whom the honour of having first invented medicines is due is unknown, + the origins of pharmacy being lost in the twilight of myth. OSIRIS and + ISIS, BACCHUS, APOLLO father of the famous physician AESCULAPIUS, and + CHIRON the Centaur, tutor of the latter, are among the many mythological + personages who have been accredited with the invention of physic. It is + certain that the art of compounding medicines is extraordinarily ancient. + There is a papyrus in the British Museum containing medical prescriptions + which was written about 1200 B.C.; and the famous EBERS papyrus, which is + devoted to medical matters, is reckoned to date from about the year 1550 + B.C. It is interesting to note that in the prescriptions given in this + latter papyrus, as seems to have been the case throughout the history of + medicine, the principle that the efficacy of a medicine is in proportion + to its nastiness appears to have been the main idea. Indeed, many old + medicines contained ingredients of the most disgusting nature imaginable: + a mediaeval remedy known as oil of puppies, made by cutting up two + newly-born puppies and boiling them with one pound of live earthworms, may + be cited as a comparatively pleasant example of the remedies (?) used in + the days when all sorts of excreta were prescribed as medicines.(1) + </p> + <p> + (1) See the late Mr A. C. WOOTTON'S excellent work, <i>Chronicles of + Pharmacy</i> (2 vols, 1910), to which I gladly acknowledge my + indebtedness. + </p> + <p> + Presumably the oldest theory concerning the causation of disease is that + which attributes all the ills of mankind to the malignant operations of + evil spirits, a theory which someone has rather fancifully suggested is + not so erroneous after all, if we may be allowed to apply the term "evil + spirits" to the microbes of modern bacteriology. Remnants of this theory + (which does—shall I say?—conceal a transcendental truth), that + is, in its original form, still survive to the present day in various + superstitious customs, whose absurdity does not need emphasising: for + example, the use of red flannel by old-fashioned folk with which to tie up + sore throats—red having once been supposed to be a colour very + angatonistic to evil spirits; so much so that at one time red cloth hung + in the patient's room was much employed as a cure for smallpox! + </p> + <p> + Medicine and magic have always been closely associated. Indeed, the + greatest name in the history of pharmacy is also what is probably the + greatest name in the history of magic—the reference, of course, + being to PARACELSUS (1493-1541). Until PARACELSUS, partly by his vigorous + invective and partly by his remarkable cures of various diseases, + demolished the old school of medicine, no one dared contest the authority + of GALEN (130-<i>circa</i> 205) and AVICENNA (980—1037). GALEN'S + theory of disease was largely based upon that of the four humours in man—bile, + blood, phlegm, and black bile,—which were regarded as related to + (but not identical with) the four elements—fire, air, water, and + earth,—being supposed to have characters similar to these. Thus, to + bile, as to fire, were attributed the properties of hotness and dryness; + to blood and air those of hotness and moistness; to phlegm and water those + of coldness and moistness; and, finally, black bile, like earth, was said + to be cold and dry. GALEN supposed that an alteration in the due + proportion of these humours gives rise to disease, though he did not + consider this to be its only cause; thus, cancer, it was thought, might + result from an excess of black bile, and rheumatism from an excess of + phlegm. Drugs, GALEN argued, are of efficiency in the curing of disease, + according as they possess one or more of these so-called fundamental + properties, hotness, dryness, coldness, and moistness, whereby it was + considered that an excess of any humour might be counteracted; moreover, + it was further assumed that four degrees of each property exist, and that + only those drugs are of use in curing a disease which contain the + necessary property or properties in the degree proportionate to that in + which the opposite humour or humours are in excess in the patient's + system. + </p> + <p> + PARACELSUS' views were based upon his theory (undoubtedly true in a sense) + that man is a microcosm, a world in miniature.(1) Now, all things + material, taught PARACELSUS, contain the three principles termed in + alchemistic phraseology salt, sulphur, and mercury. This is true, + therefore, of man: the healthy body, he argued, is a sort of chemical + compound in which these three principles are harmoniously blended (as in + the Macrocosm) in due proportion, whilst disease is due to a preponderance + of one principle, fevers, for example, being the result of an excess of + sulphur (<i>i.e</i>. the fiery principle), <i>etc</i>. PARACELSUS, + although his theory was not so different from that of GALEN, whose views + he denounced, was thus led to seek for CHEMICAL remedies, containing these + principles in varying proportions; he was not content with medicinal herbs + and minerals in their crude state, but attempted to extract their + effective essences; indeed, he maintained that the preparation of new and + better drugs is the chief business of chemistry. + </p> + <p> + (1) See the "Note on the Paracelsian Doctrine of the Microcosm" below. + </p> + <p> + This theory of disease and of the efficacy of drugs was complicated by + many fantastic additions;(1) thus there is the "Archaeus," a sort of + benevolent demon, supposed by PARACELSUS to look after all the unconscious + functions of the bodily organism, who has to be taken into account. + PARACELSUS also held the Doctrine of Signatures, according to which the + medicinal value of plants and minerals is indicated by their external + form, or by some sign impressed upon them by the operation of the stars. A + very old example of this belief is to be found in the use of mandrake + (whose roots resemble the human form) by the Hebrews and Greeks as a cure + for sterility; or, to give an instance which is still accredited by some, + the use of eye-bright (<i>Euphrasia officinalis</i>, L., a plant with a + black pupil-like spot in its corolla) for complaints of the eyes.(2) + Allied to this doctrine are such beliefs, once held, as that the lungs of + foxes are good for bronchial troubles, or that the heart of a lion will + endow one with courage; as CORNELIUS AGRIPPA put it, "It is well known + amongst physicians that brain helps the brain, and lungs the lungs."(3) + </p> + <p> + (1) The question of PARACELSUS' pharmacy is further complicated by the + fact that this eccentric genius coined many new words (without regard to + the principles of etymology) as names for his medicines, and often used + the same term to stand for quite different bodies. Some of his disciples + maintained that he must not always be understood in a literal sense, in + which probably there is an element of truth. See, for instance, <i>A + Golden and Blessed Casket of Nature's Marvels</i>, by BENEDICTUS FIGULUS + (trans. by A. E. WAITE, 1893). + </p> + <p> + (2) See Dr ALFRED C. HADDON'S <i>Magic and Fetishism</i> (1906), p. 15. + </p> + <p> + (3) HENRY CORNELIUS AGRIPPA: <i>Occult Philosophy</i>, bk. i. chap. xv. + (WHITEHEAD'S edition, Chicago, 1898, P. 72). + </p> + <p> + In modern times homoeopathy—according to which a drug is a cure, if + administered in small doses, for that disease whose symptoms it produces, + if given in large doses to a healthy person—-seems to bear some + resemblance to these old medical theories concerning the curing of like by + like. That the system of HAHNEMANN (1755—1843), the founder of + homoeopathy, is free from error could be scarcely maintained, but certain + recent discoveries in connection with serum-therapy appear to indicate + that the last word has not yet been said on the subject, and the formula + "like cures like" may still have another lease of life to run. + </p> + <p> + To return to PARACELSUS, however. It may be thought that his views were + not so great an advance on those of GALEN; but whether or not this be the + case, his union of chemistry and medicine was of immense benefit to each + science, and marked a new era in pharmacy. Even if his theories were + highly fantastic, it was he who freed medicine from the shackles of + traditionalism, and rendered progress in medical science possible. + </p> + <p> + I must not conclude these brief notes without some reference to the + medical theory of the medicinal efficacy of words. The EBERS papyrus + already mentioned gives various formulas which must be pronounced when + preparing and when administering a drug; and there is a draught used by + the Eastern Jews as a cure for bronchial complaints prepared by writing + certain words on a plate, washing them off with wine, and adding three + grains of a citron which has been used at the Tabernacle festival. But + enough for our present excursion; we must hie us back to the modern world, + with its alkaloids, serums, and anti-toxins—another day we will, + perhaps, wander again down the by-paths of Medicinal Magic. + </p> + <p> + NOTE ON THE PARACELSIAN DOCTRINE OF THE MICROCOSM + </p> + <p> + "Man's nature," writes CORNELIUS AGRIPPA, "<i>is the most complete Image + of the whole Universe</i>."(1) This theory, especially connected with the + name of PARACELSUS, is worthy of more than passing reference; but as the + consideration of it leads us from medicine to metaphysics, I have thought + it preferable to deal with the subject in a note. + </p> + <p> + (1) H. C. AGRIPPA: <i>Occult Philosophy</i>, bk. i. chap. xxxiii. + (WHITEHEAD'S edition, p. 111). + </p> + <p> + Man, taught the old mystical philosophers, is threefold in nature, + consisting of spirit, soul, and body. The Paracelsian mercury, sulphur, + and salt were the mineral analogues of these. "As to the Spirit," writes + VALENTINE WEIGEL (1533—1588), a disciple of PARACELSUS, "we are of + God, move in God, and live in God, and are nourished of God. Hence God is + in us and we are in God; God hath put and placed Himself in us, and we are + put and placed in God. As to the Soul, we are from the Firmament and + Stars, we live and move therein, and are nourished thereof. Hence the + Firmament with its astralic virtues and operations is in us, and we in it. + The Firmament is put and placed in us, and we are put and placed in the + Firmament. As to the Body, we are of the elements, we move and live + therein, and are nourished of them:—hence the elements are in us, + and we in them. The elements, by the slime, are put and placed in us, and + we are put and placed in them."(1) Or, to quote from PARACELSUS himself, + in his <i>Hermetic Astronomy</i> he writes: "God took the body out of + which He built up man from those things which He created from nothingness + into something... Hence man is now a microcosm, or a little world, because + he is an extract from all the stars and planets of the whole firmament, + from the earth and the elements, and so he is their quintessence.... But + between the macrocosm and the microcosm this difference occurs, that the + form, image, species, and substance of man are diverse therefrom. In man + the earth is flesh, the water is blood, fire is the heat thereof, and air + is the balsam. These properties have not been changed but only the + substance of the body. So man is man, not a world, yet made from the + world, made in the likeness, not of the world, but of God. Yet man + comprises in himself all the qualities of the world.... His body is from + the world, and therefore must be fed and nourished by that world from + which he has sprung.... He has been taken from the earth and from the + elements, and therefore, must be nourished by these.... Now, man is not + only flesh and blood, but there is within the intellect which does not, + like the complexion, come from the elements, but from the stars. And the + condition of the stars is this, that all the wisdom, intelligence, + industry of the animal, and all the arts peculiar to man are contained in + them. From the stars man has these same things, and that is called the + light of Nature; in fact, it is whatever man has found by the light of + Nature.... Such, then, is the condition of man, that, out of the great + universe he needs both elements and stars, seeing that he himself is + constituted in that way."(1b) + </p> + <p> + (1) VALENTINE WEIGEL: "<i>Astrology Theologised": The Spiritual + Hermeneutics of Astrology and Holy Writ</i>, ed. by ANNA BONUS KINGSFORD + (1886), p. 59. + </p> + <p> + (1b) <i>The Hermetic and Alchemical Writings of</i> PARACELSUS, ed. by A. + E. WAITE (1894), vol. ii. pp. 289-291. + </p> + <p> + It is not difficult to discern a certain truth in all this, making + allowances for modes of thought which are not those of the present day. + The Swedish philosopher SWEDENBORG (1688-1772) reaffirmed the theory in + later years; but, as he points out,(2) the reason that man is a microcosm + lies deeper than in the facts that his body is of the elements of this + earth and is nourished thereby. According to this profound thinker, FORM, + spiritually understood, is the expression of USE, the uses of things being + indicated by their forms. Now, the human form is the highest of all forms, + because it subserves the highest of all uses. Hence, both the world of + matter and the world of spirit are in the human form, because there is a + correspondence in use between man and the Cosmos. We may, therefore, call + man as to his body a microcosm, or little world; as to his soul a + micro-uranos, or little heaven. Or we may speak of the macrocosm, or great + world, as the Grand Man, and we may say that the Soul of this Grand Man, + the self-existent, substantial, and efficient cause of all things, at once + immanent within yet transcending all things, is God. + </p> + <p> + (2) See especially his <i>Divine Love and Wisdom</i>, SESE 251 and 319. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0006" id="link2H_4_0006"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + IV. SUPERSTITIONS CONCERNING BIRDS + </h2> + <p> + AMONGST the most remarkable of natural occurrences must be included many + of the phenomena connected with the behaviour of birds. Undoubtedly + numerous species of birds are susceptible to atmospheric changes (of an + electrical and barometric nature) too slight to be observed by man's + unaided senses; thus only is to be explained the phenomenon of migration + and also the many other peculiarities in the behaviour of birds whereby + approaching changes in the weather may be foretold. Probably, also, this + fact has much to do with the extraordinary homing instinct of pigeons. + But, of course, in the days when meteorological science had yet to be + born, no such explanation as this could be known. The ancients observed + that birds by their migrations or by other peculiarities in their + behaviour prognosticated coming changes in the seasons of the year and + other changes connected with the weather (such as storms, <i>etc</i>.); + they saw, too, in the homing instincts of pigeons an apparent exhibition + of intelligence exceeding that of man. What more natural, then, for them + to attribute foresight to birds, and to suppose that all sorts of coming + events (other than those of an atmospheric nature) might be foretold by + careful observation of their flight and song? + </p> + <p> + Augury—that is, the art of divination by observing the behaviour of + birds—was extensively cultivated by the Etrurians and Romans.(1) It + is still used, I believe, by the natives of Samoa. The Romans had an + official college of augurs, the members of which were originally three + patricians. About 300 B.C. the number of patrician augurs was increased by + one, and five plebeian augurs were added. Later the number was again + increased to fifteen. The object of augury was not so much to foretell the + future as to indicate what line of action should be followed, in any given + circumstances, by the nation. The augurs were consulted on all matters of + importance, and the position of augur was thus one of great consequence. + In what appears to be the oldest method, the augur, arrayed in a special + costume, and carrying a staff with which to mark out the visible heavens + into houses, proceeded to an elevated piece of ground, where a sacrifice + was made and a prayer repeated. Then, gazing towards the sky, he waited + until a bird appeared. The point in the heavens where it first made its + appearance was carefully noted, also the manner and direction of its + flight, and the point where it was lost sight of. From these particulars + an augury was derived, but, in order to be of effect, it had to be + confirmed by a further one. + </p> + <p> + (1) This is not quite an accurate definition, as "auguries" were also + obtained from other animals and from celestial phenomena (<i>e.g</i>. + lightning), <i>etc</i>. + </p> + <p> + Auguries were also drawn from the notes of birds, birds being divided by + the augurs into two classes: (i) <i>oscines</i>, "those which give omens + by their note," and (ii) <i>alites</i>, "those which afford presages by + their flight."(1) Another method of augury was performed by the feeding of + chickens specially kept for this purpose. This was done just before + sunrise by the <i>pullarius</i> or feeder, strict silence being observed. + If the birds manifested no desire for their food, the omen was of a most + direful nature. On the other hand, if from the greediness of the chickens + the grain fell from their beaks and rebounded from the ground, the augury + was most favourable. This latter augury was known as <i>tripudium + solistimum</i>. "Any fraud practiced by the 'pullarius'," writes the Rev. + EDWARD SMEDLEY, "reverted to his own head. Of this we have a memorable + instance in the great battle between Papirius Cursor and the Samnites in + the year of Rome 459. So anxious were the troops for battle, that the + 'pullarius' dared to announce to the consul a 'tripudium solistimum,' + although the chickens refused to eat. Papirius unhesitatingly gave the + signal for fight, when his son, having discovered the false augury, + hastened to communicate it to his father. 'Do thy part well,' was his + reply, 'and let the deceit of the augur fall on himself. The "tripudium" + has been announced to me, and no omen could be better for the Roman army + and people!' As the troops advanced, a javelin thrown at random struck the + 'pullatius' dead. 'The hand of heaven is in the battle,' cried Papirius; + 'the guilty is punished!' and he advanced and conquered."(1b) A + coincidence of this sort, if it really occurred, would very greatly + strengthen the popular belief in auguries. + </p> + <p> + (1) PLINY: <i>Natural History</i>, bk. x. chap. xxii. (BOSTOCK and RILEY'S + trans., vol. ii., 1855, p. 495). + </p> + <p> + (1b) Rev. EDWARD SMEDLEY, M.A.: <i>The Occult Sciences</i> (<i>Encyclopaedia + Metropolitana</i>), ed. by ELIHU RICH (1855), p. 144. + </p> + <p> + The <i>cock</i> has always been reckoned a bird possessed of magic power. + At its crowing, we are told, all unquiet spirits who roam the earth depart + to their dismal abodes, and the orgies of the Witches' Sabbath terminate. + A cock is the favourite sacrifice offered to evil spirits in Ceylon and + elsewhere. Alectromancy(2) was an ancient and peculiarly senseless method + of divination (so called) in which a cock was employed. The bird had to be + young and quite white. Its feet were cut off and crammed down its throat + with a piece of parchment on which were written certain Hebrew words. The + cock, after the repetition of a prayer by the operator, was placed in a + circle divided into parts corresponding to the letters of the alphabet, in + each of which a grain of wheat was placed. A certain psalm was recited, + and then the letters were noted from which the cock picked up the grains, + a fresh grain being put down for each one picked up. These letters, + properly arranged, were said to give the answer to the inquiry for which + divination was made. I am not sure what one was supposed to do if, as + seems likely, the cock refused to act in the required manner. + </p> + <p> + (2) Cf. ARTHUR EDWARD WAITE: <i>The Occult Sciences</i> (1891), pp. 124 + and 125. + </p> + <p> + The <i>owl</i> was reckoned a bird of evil omen with the Romans, who + derived this opinion from the Etrurians, along with much else of their + so-called science of augury. It was particularly dreaded if seen in a + city, or, indeed, anywhere by day. PLINY (Caius Plinius Secundus, A.D. + 61-before 115) informs us that on one occasion "a horned owl entered the + very sanctuary of the Capitol;... in consequence of which, Rome was + purified on the nones of March in that year."(1) + </p> + <p> + (1) PLINY: <i>Natural History</i>, bk. x. chap. xvi. (BOSTOCK and RILEY'S + trans., vol. ii., 1855, p. 492). + </p> + <p> + The folk-lore of the British Isles abounds with quaint beliefs and stories + concerning birds. There is a charming Welsh legend concerning the <i>robin</i>, + which the Rev. T. F. T. DYER quotes from <i>Notes and Queries</i>:—"Far, + far away, is a land of woe, darkness, spirits of evil, and fire. Day by + day does this little bird bear in his bill a drop of water to quench the + flame. So near the burning stream does he fly, that his dear little + feathers are SCORCHED; and hence he is named Brou-rhuddyn (Breast-burnt). + To serve little children, the robin dares approach the infernal pit. No + good child will hurt the devoted benefactor of man. The robin returns from + the land of fire, and therefore he feels the cold of winter far more than + his brother birds. He shivers in the brumal blast; hungry, he chirps + before your door."(2) + </p> + <p> + (2) T. F. THISELTON DYER, M.A.: <i>English Folk-Lore</i> (1878), pp. 65 + and 66. + </p> + <p> + Another legend accounts for the robin's red breast by supposing this bird + to have tried to pluck a thorn from the crown encircling the brow of the + crucified CHRIST, in order to alleviate His sufferings. No doubt it is on + account of these legends that it is considered a crime, which will be + punished with great misfortune, to kill a robin. In some places the same + prohibition extends to the <i>wren</i>, which is popularly believed to be + the wife of the robin. In other parts, however, the wren is (or at least + was) cruelly hunted on certain days. In the Isle of Man the wren-hunt took + place on Christmas Eve and St Stephen's Day, and is accounted for by a + legend concerning an evil fairy who lured many men to destruction, but had + to assume the form of a wren to escape punishment at the hands of an + ingenious knight-errant. + </p> + <p> + For several centuries there was prevalent over the whole of civilised + Europe a most extraordinary superstition concerning the small Arctic bird + resembling, but not so large as, the common wild goose, known as the <i>barnacle</i> + or <i>bernicle goose</i>. MAX MUELLER(1) has suggested that this word was + really derived from <i>Hibernicula</i>, the name thus referring to + Ireland, where the birds were caught; but common opinion associated the + barnacle goose with the shell-fish known as the barnacle (which is found + on timber exposed to the sea), supposing that the former was generated out + of the latter. Thus in one old medical writer we find: "There are founde + in the north parts of Scotland, and the Ilands adjacent, called Orchades + (Orkney Islands), certain trees, whereon doe growe certaine shell fishes, + of a white colour tending to russet; wherein are conteined little liuing + creatures: which shells in time of maturitie doe open, and out of them + grow those little living things; which falling into the water, doe become + foules, whom we call Barnakles... but the other that do fall vpon the + land, perish and come to nothing: this much by the writings of others, and + also from the mouths of the people of those parts...."(1b) + </p> + <p> + (1) See F. MAX MUELLER'S <i>Lectures on the Science of Language</i> + (1885), where a very full account of the tradition concerning the origin + of the barnacle goose will be found. + </p> + <p> + (1b) JOHN GERARDE: <i>The Herball; or, Generall Historie of Plantes</i> + (1597). 1391. + </p> + <p> + The writer, however, who was a well-known surgeon and botanist of his day, + adds that he had personally examined certain shell-fish from Lancashire, + and on opening the shells had observed within birds in various stages of + development. No doubt he was deceived by some purely superficial + resemblances—for example, the feet of the barnacle fish resemble + somewhat the feathers of a bird. He gives an imaginative illustration of + the barnacle fowl escaping from its shell, which is reproduced in fig. 12. + </p> + <p> + Turning now from superstitions concerning actual birds to legends of those + that are purely mythical, passing reference must be made to the <i>roc</i>, + a bird existing in Arabian legend, which we meet in the <i>Arabian Nights</i>, + and which is chiefly remarkable for its size and strength. + </p> + <p> + The <i>phoenix</i>, perhaps, is of more interest. Of "that famous bird of + Arabia," PLINY writes as follows, prefixing his description of it with the + cautious remark, "I am not quite sure that its existence is not all a + fable." "It is said that there is only one in existence in the whole + world, and that that one has not been seen very often. We are told that + this bird is of the size of an eagle, and has a brilliant golden plumage + around the neck, while the rest of the body is of a purple colour; except + the tail, which is azure, with long feathers intermingled of a roseate + hue; the throat is adorned with a crest, and the head with a tuft of + feathers. The first Roman who described this bird... was the senator + Manilius.... He tells us that no person has ever seen this bird eat, that + in Arabia it is looked upon as sacred to the sun, that it lives five + hundred and forty years, that when it becomes old it builds a nest of + cassia and sprigs of incense, which it fills with perfumes, and then lays + its body down upon them to die; that from its bones and marrow there + springs at first a sort of small worm, which in time changes into a little + bird; that the first thing that it does is to perform the obsequies of its + predecessor, and to carry the nest entire to the city of the Sun near + Panchaia, and there deposit it upon the altar of that divinity. + </p> + <p> + "The same Manilius states also, that the revolution of the great year is + completed with the life of this bird, and that then a new cycle comes + round again with the same characteristics as the former one, in the + seasons and the appearance of the stars. ... This bird was brought to Rome + in the censorship of the Emperor Claudius... and was exposed to public + view.... This fact is attested by the public Annals, but there is no one + that doubts that it was a fictitious phoenix only."(1) + </p> + <p> + (1) PLINY: <i>Natural History</i>, bk. x. chap. ii. (BOSTOCK and RILEY'S + trans., vol. ii., 1855, PP. 479-481). + </p> + <p> + The description of the plumage, <i>etc</i>., of this bird applies fairly + well, as CUVIER has pointed out,(2) to the golden pheasant, and a specimen + of the latter may have been the "fictitious phoenix" referred to above. + That this bird should have been credited with the extraordinary and wholly + fabulous properties related by PLINY and others is not, however, easy to + understand. The phoenix was frequently used to illustrate the doctrine of + the immortality of the soul (<i>e.g</i>. in CLEMENT'S <i>First Epistle to + the Corinthians</i>), and it is not impossible that originally it was + nothing more than a symbol of immortality which in time became to be + believed in as a really existing bird. The fact, however, that there was + supposed to be only one phoenix, and also that the length of each of its + lives coincided with what the ancients termed a "great year," may indicate + that the phoenix was a symbol of cosmological periodicity. On the other + hand, some ancient writers (e<i>.g</i>. TACITUS, A.D. 55-120) explicitly + refer to the phoenix as a symbol of the sun, and in the minds of the + ancients the sun was closely connected with the idea of immortality. + Certainly the accounts of the gorgeous colours of the plumage of the + phoenix might well be descriptions of the rising sun. It appears, + moreover, that the Egyptian hieroglyphic <i>benu</i>, {glyph}, which is a + figure of a heron or crane (and thus akin to the phoenix), was employed to + designate the rising sun. + </p> + <p> + (2) See CUVIER'S <i>The Animal Kingdom</i>, GRIFFITH'S trans., vol. viii. + (1829), p. 23. + </p> + <p> + There are some curious Jewish legends to account for the supposed + immortality of the phoenix. According to one, it was the sole animal that + refused to eat of the forbidden tree when tempted by EVE. According to + another, its immortality was conferred on it by NOAH because of its + considerate behaviour in the Ark, the phoenix not clamouring for food like + the other animals.(1) + </p> + <p> + (1) The existence of such fables as these shows how grossly the real + meanings of the Sacred Writings have been misunderstood. + </p> + <p> + There is a celebrated bird in Chinese tradition, the <i>Fung Hwang</i>, + which some sinologues identify with the phoenix of the West.(2) According + to a commentator on the '<i>Rh Ya</i>, this "felicitous and perfect bird + has a cock's head, a snake's neck, a swallow's beak, a tortoise's back, is + of five different colours and more than six feet high." + </p> + <p> + (2) Mr CHAS. GOULD, B.A., to whose book <i>Mythical Monsters</i> (1886) I + am very largely indebted for my account of this bird, and from which I + have culled extracts from the Chinese, is not of this opinion. Certainly + the fact that we read of Fung Hwangs in the plural, whilst tradition + asserts that there is only one phoenix, seems to point to a difference in + origin. + </p> + <p> + Another account (that in the <i>Lun Yu Tseh Shwai Shing</i>) tells us that + "its head resembles heaven, its eye the sun, its back the moon, its wings + the wind, its foot the ground, and its tail the woof." Furthermore, "its + mouth contains commands, its heart is conformable to regulations, its ear + is thoroughly acute in hearing, its tongue utters sincerity, its colour is + luminous, its comb resembles uprightness, its spur is sharp and curved, + its voice is sonorous, and its belly is the treasure of literature." Like + the dragon, tortoise, and unicorn, it was considered to be a spiritual + creature; but, unlike the Western phoenix, more than one Fung Hwang was, + as I have pointed out, believed to exist. The birds were not always to be + seen, but, according to Chinese records, they made their appearance during + the reigns of certain sovereigns. The Fung Hwang is regarded by the + Chinese as an omen of great happiness and prosperity, and its likeness is + embroidered on the robes of empresses to ensure success. Probably, if the + bird is not to be regarded as purely mythological and symbolic in origin, + we have in the stories of it no more than exaggerated accounts of some + species of pheasant. Japanese literature contains similar stories. + </p> + <p> + Of other fabulous bird-forms mention may be made of the <i>griffin</i> and + the <i>harpy</i>. The former was a creature half eagle, half lion, + popularly supposed to be the progeny of the union of these two latter. It + is described in the so-called <i>Voiage and Travaile of Sir</i> JOHN + MAUNDEVILLE in the following terms(1): "Sum men seyn, that thei ben the + Body upward, as an Egle, and benethe as a Lyoun: and treuly thei seyn + sothe, that thei ben of that schapp. But o Griffoun hathe the body more + gret and is more strong thanne 8 Lyouns, of suche Lyouns as ben o this + half; and more gret and strongere, than an 100 Egles, suche as we ben + amonges us. For o Griffoun there will bere, fleynge to his Nest, a gret + Hors, or 2 Oxen zoked to gidere, as thei gon at the Plowghe. For he hathe + his Talouns so longe and so large and grete, upon his Feet, as thoughe + thei weren Hornes of grete Oxen or of Bugles or of Kyzn; so that men maken + Cuppes of hem, to drynken of: and of hire Ribbes and of the Pennes of hire + Wenges, men maken Bowes fulle strong, to schote with Arwes and Quarelle." + The special characteristic of the griffin was its watchfulness, its chief + function being thought to be that of guarding secret treasure. This + characteristic, no doubt, accounts for its frequent use in heraldry as a + supporter to the arms. It was sacred to APOLLO, the sun-god, whose chariot + was, according to early sculptures, drawn by griffins. PLINY, who speaks + of it as a bird having long ears and a hooked beak, regarded it as + fabulous. + </p> + <p> + (1) <i>The Voiage and Travaile of Sir</i> JOHN MAUNDEVILLE, <i>Kt. Which + treateth of the Way to Hierusalem; and of Marvayles of Inde, with other + Ilands and Countryes. Now Publish'd entire from an Original MS. in The + Cotton Library</i> (London, 1727), cap. xxvi. pp. 325 and 326. + </p> + <p> + "This work is mainly a compilation from the writings of William of + Boldensele, Friar Odoric of Pordenone, Hetoum of Armenia, Vincent de + Beauvais, and other geographers. It is probable that the name John de + Mandeville should be regarded as a pseudonym concealing the identity of + Jean de Bourgogne, a physician at Liege, mentioned under the name of + Joannes ad Barbam in the vulgate Latin version of the Travels." (Note in + British Museum Catalogue). The work, which was first published in French + during the latter part of the fourteenth century, achieved an immense + popularity, the marvels that it relates being readily received by the + credulous folk of that and many a succeeding day. + </p> + <p> + The harpies (<i>i.e</i>. snatchers) in Greek mythology are creatures like + vultures as to their bodies, but with the faces of women, and armed with + sharp claws. + </p> + <p> + "Of Monsters all, most Monstrous this; no greater Wrath God sends 'mongst + Men; it comes from depth of pitchy Hell: And Virgin's Face, but Womb like + Gulf unsatiate hath, Her Hands are griping Claws, her Colour pale and + fell."(1) + </p> + <p> + (1) Quoted from VERGIL by JOHN GUILLIM in his <i>A Display of Heraldry</i> + (sixth edition, 1724), p. 271. + </p> + <p> + We meet with the harpies in the story of PHINEUS, a son of AGENOR, King of + Thrace. At the bidding of his jealous wife, IDAEA, daughter of DARDANUS, + PHINEUS put out the sight of his children by his former wife, CLEOPATRA, + daughter of BOREAS. To punish this cruelty, the gods caused him to become + blind, and the harpies were sent continually to harass and affright him, + and to snatch away his food or defile it by their presence. They were + afterwards driven away by his brothers-in-law, ZETES and CALAIS. It has + been suggested that originally the harpies were nothing more than + personifications of the swift storm-winds; and few of the old naturalists, + credulous as they were, regarded them as real creatures, though this + cannot be said of all. Some other fabulous bird-forms are to be met with + in Greek and Arabian mythologies, <i>etc</i>., but they are not of any + particular interest. And it is time for us to conclude our present + excursion, and to seek for other byways. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0007" id="link2H_4_0007"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + V. THE POWDER OF SYMPATHY: A CURIOUS MEDICAL SUPERSTITION + </h2> + <p> + OUT of the superstitions of the past the science of the present has + gradually evolved. In the Middle Ages, what by courtesy we may term + medical science was, as we have seen, little better than a heterogeneous + collection of superstitions, and although various reforms were instituted + with the passing of time, superstition still continued for long to play a + prominent part in medical practice. + </p> + <p> + One of the most curious of these old medical (or perhaps I should say + surgical) superstitions was that relating to the Powder of Sympathy, a + remedy (?) chiefly remembered in connection with the name of Sir KENELM + DIGBY (1603-1665), though he was probably not the first to employ it. The + Powder itself, which was used as a cure for wounds, was, in fact, nothing + else than common vitriol,(1) though an improved and more elegant form (if + one may so describe it) was composed of vitriol desiccated by the sun's + rays, mixed with <i>gum tragacanth</i>. It was in the application of the + Powder that the remedy was peculiar. It was not, as one might expect, + applied to the wound itself, but any article that might have blood from + the wound upon it was either sprinkled with the Powder or else placed in a + basin of water in which the Powder had been dissolved, and maintained at a + temperate heat. Meanwhile, the wound was kept clean and cool. + </p> + <p> + (1) Green vitriol, ferrous sulphate heptahydrate, a compound of iron, + sulphur, and oxygen, crystallised with seven molecules of water, + represented by the formula FeSO4[.]7H2O. On exposure to the air it loses + water, and is gradually converted into basic ferric sulphate. For long, + green vitriol was confused with blue vitriol, which generally occurs as an + impurity in crude green vitriol. Blue vitriol is copper sulphate + pentahydrate, CuSO4[.]5H2O. + </p> + <p> + Sir KENELM DIGBY appears to have delivered a discourse dealing with the + famous Powder before a learned assembly at Montpellier in France; at least + a work purporting to be a translation of such a discourse was published in + 1658,(1) and further editions appeared in 1660 and 1664. KENELM was a son + of the Sir EVERARD DIGBY (1578-1606) who was executed for his share in the + Gunpowder Plot. In spite of this fact, however, JAMES I. appears to have + regarded him with favour. He was a man of romantic temperament, possessed + of charming manners, considerable learning, and even greater credulity. + His contemporaries seem to have differed in their opinions concerning him. + EVELYN (1620-1706), the diarist, after inspecting his chemical laboratory, + rather harshly speaks of him as "an errant mountebank". Elsewhere he well + refers to him as "a teller of strange things"—this was on the + occasion of DIGBY'S relating a story of a lady who had such an aversion to + roses that one laid on her cheek produced a blister! + </p> + <p> + (1) <i>A late Discourse... by Sir</i> KENELM DIGBY, <i>Kt.&c. Touching + the Cure of Wounds by the Powder of Sympathy...rendered... out of French + into English by</i> R. WHITE, Gent. (1658). This is entitled the second + edition, but appears to have been the first. + </p> + <p> + To return to the <i>Late Discourse</i>: after some preliminary remarks, + Sir KENELM records a cure which he claims to have effected by means of the + Powder. It appears that JAMES HOWELL (1594-1666, afterwards + historiographer royal to CHARLES II.), had, in the attempt to separate two + friends engaged in a duel, received two serious wounds in the hand. To + proceed in the writer's own words:—"It was my chance to be lodged + hard by him; and four or five days after, as I was making myself ready, he + (Mr Howell) came to my House, and prayed me to view his wounds; for I + understand, said he, that you have extraordinary remedies upon such + occasions, and my Surgeons apprehend some fear, that it may grow to a + Gangrene, and so the hand must be cut off.... + </p> + <p> + "I asked him then for any thing that had the blood upon it, so he + presently sent for his Garter, wherewith his hand was first bound: and + having called for a Bason of water, as if I would wash my hands; I took an + handfull of Powder of Vitrol, which I had in my study, and presently + dissolved it. As soon as the bloody garter was brought me, I put it within + the Bason, observing in the interim what Mr <i>Howel</i> did, who stood + talking with a Gentleman in the corner of my Chamber, not regarding at all + what I was doing: but he started suddenly, as if he had found some strange + alteration in himself; I asked him what he ailed? I know not what ailes + me, but I find that I feel no more pain, methinks that a pleasing kind of + freshnesse, as it were a wet cold Napkin did spread over my hand, which + hath taken away the inflammation that tormented me before; I replied, + since that you feel already so good an effect of my medicament, I advise + you to cast away all your Plaisters, onely keep the wound clean, and in a + moderate temper 'twixt heat and cold. This was presently reported to the + Duke of <i>Buckingham</i>, and a little after to the King (James I.), who + were both very curious to know the issue of the businesse, which was, that + after dinner I took the garter out of the water, and put it to dry before + a great fire; it was scarce dry, but Mr <i>Howels</i> servant came running + (and told me), that his Master felt as much burning as ever he had done, + if not more, for the heat was such, as if his hand were betwixt coales of + fire: I answered, that although that had happened at present, yet he + should find ease in a short time; for I knew the reason of this new + accident, and I would provide accordingly, for his Master should be free + from that inflammation, it may be, before he could possibly return unto + him: but in case he found no ease, I wished him to come presently back + again, if not he might forbear coming. Thereupon he went, and at the + instant I did put again the garter into the water; thereupon he found his + Master without any pain at all. To be brief, there was no sense of pain + afterward: but within five or six dayes the wounds were cicatrized, and + entirely healed."(1) + </p> + <p> + (1) <i>Ibid</i>., pp. 7-11. + </p> + <p> + Sir KENELM proceeds, in this discourse, to relate that he obtained the + secret of the Powder from a Carmelite who had learnt it in the East. Sir + KENELM says that he told it only to King JAMES and his celebrated + physician, Sir THEODORE MAYERNE (1573-1655). The latter disclosed it to + the Duke of MAYERNE, whose surgeon sold the secret to various persons, + until ultimately, as Sir KENELM remarks, it became known to every country + barber. However, DIGBY'S real connection with the Powder has been + questioned. In an Appendix to Dr NATHANAEL HIGHMORE'S (1613-1685) <i>The + History of Generation</i>, published in 1651, entitled <i>A Discourse of + the Cure of Wounds by Sympathy</i>, the Powder is referred to as Sir + GILBERT TALBOT'S Powder; nor does it appear to have been DIGBY who brought + the claims of the Sympathetic Powder before the notice of the then + recently-formed Royal Society, although he was a by no means inactive + member of the Society. HIGHMORE, however, in the Appendix to the work + referred to above, does refer to DIGBY'S reputed cure of HOWELL'S wounds + already mentioned; and after the publication of DIGBY'S <i>Discourse</i> + the Powder became generally known as Sir KENELM DIGBY'S Sympathetic + Powder. As such it is referred to in an advertisement appended to <i>Wit + and Drollery</i> (1661) by the bookseller, NATHANAEL BROOK.(1) + </p> + <p> + (1) This advertisement is as follows: "These are to give notice, that Sir + <i>Kenelme Digbies</i> Sympathetical Powder prepar'd by Promethean fire, + curing all green wounds that come within the compass of a Remedy; and + likewise the Tooth-ache infallibly in a very short time: Is to be had at + Mr <i>Nathanael Brook's</i> at the Angel in <i>Cornhil</i>." + </p> + <p> + The belief in cure by sympathy, however, is much older than DIGBY'S or + TALBOT'S Sympathetic Powder. PARACELSUS described an ointment consisting + essentially of the moss on the skull of a man who had died a violent + death, combined with boar's and bear's fat, burnt worms, dried boar's + brain, red sandal-wood and mummy, which was used to cure (?) wounds in a + similar manner, being applied to the weapon with which the hurt had been + inflicted. With reference to this ointment, readers will probably recall + the passage in SCOTT'S <i>Lay of the Last Minstrel</i> (canto 3, stanza + 23), respecting the magical cure of WILLIAM of DELORAINE'S wound by "the + Ladye of Branksome":— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "She drew the splinter from the wound + And with a charm she stanch'd the blood; + She bade the gash be cleans'd and bound: + No longer by his couch she stood; + But she had ta'en the broken lance, + And washed it from the clotted gore + And salved the splinter o'er and o'er. + William of Deloraine, in trance, + Whene'er she turned it round and round, + Twisted as if she gall'd his wound. + Then to her maidens she did say + That he should be whole man and sound + Within the course of a night and day. + Full long she toil'd; for she did rue + Mishap to friend so stout and true." +</pre> + <p> + FRANCIS BACON (1561-1626) writes of sympathetic cures as follows:—"It + is constantly Received, and Avouched, that the <i>Anointing</i> of the <i>Weapon</i>, + that maketh the <i>Wound</i>, wil heale the <i>Wound</i> it selfe. In this + <i>Experiment</i>, upon the Relation of <i>Men of Credit</i>, (though my + selfe, as yet, am not fully inclined to beleeve it,) you shal note the <i>Points</i> + following; First, the <i>Ointment</i>... is made of Divers <i>ingredients</i>; + whereof the Strangest and Hardest to come by, are the Mosse upon the <i>Skull</i> + of a <i>dead Man, Vnburied</i>; And the <i>Fats</i> of a <i>Boare</i>, and + a <i>Beare</i>, killed in the <i>Act of Generation</i>. These Two last I + could easily suspect to be prescribed as a Starting Hole; That if the <i>Experiment</i> + proved not, it mought be pretended, that the <i>Beasts</i> were not killed + in due Time; For as for the <i>Mosse</i>, it is certain there is great + Quantity of it in <i>Ireland</i>, upon <i>Slain Bodies</i>, laid on <i>Heaps, + Vnburied</i>. The other <i>Ingredients</i> are, the <i>Bloud-Stone</i> in + <i>Powder</i>, and some other <i>Things</i>, which seeme to have a <i>Vertue</i> + to <i>Stanch Bloud</i>; As also the <i>Mosse</i> hath.... Secondly, the + same <i>kind</i> of <i>Ointment</i>, applied to the Hurt it selfe, worketh + not the <i>Effect</i>; but onely applied to the <i>Weapon</i>..... + Fourthly, it may be applied to the <i>Weapon</i>, though the Party Hurt be + at a great Distance. Fifthly, it seemeth the <i>Imagination</i> of the + Party, to be <i>Cured</i>, is not needfull to Concurre; For it may be done + without the knowledge of the <i>Party Wounded</i>; And thus much hath been + tried, that the <i>Ointment</i> (for <i>Experiments</i> sake,) hath been + wiped off the <i>Weapon</i>, without the knowledge of the <i>Party Hurt</i>, + and presently the <i>Party Hurt</i>, hath been in great <i>Rage of Paine</i>, + till the <i>Weapon</i> was <i>Reannointed</i>. Sixthly, it is affirmed, + that if you cannot get the <i>Weapon</i>, yet if you put an <i>Instrument</i> + of <i>Iron</i>, or <i>Wood</i>, resembling the <i>Weapon</i>, into the <i>Wound</i>, + whereby it bleedeth, the <i>Annointing</i> of that <i>Instrument</i> will + serve, and work the <i>Effect</i>. This I doubt should be a Device, to + keep this strange <i>Forme of Cure</i>, in Request, and Use; Because many + times you cannot come by the <i>Weapon</i> it selve. Seventhly, the <i>Wound</i> + be at first <i>Washed clean</i> with <i>White Wine</i> or the <i>Parties</i> + own <i>Water</i>; And then bound up close in <i>Fine Linen</i> and no more + <i>Dressing</i> renewed, till it be <i>whole</i>."(1) + </p> + <p> + (1) FRANCIS BACON: <i>Sylva Sylvarum: or, A Natural History... Published + after the Authors death... The sixt Edition</i> ù.. (1651), p. 217. + </p> + <p> + Owing to the demand for making this ointment, quite a considerable trade + was done in skulls from Ireland upon which moss had grown owing to their + exposure to the atmosphere, high prices being obtained for fine specimens. + </p> + <p> + The idea underlying the belief in the efficacy of sympathetic remedies, + namely, that by acting on part of a thing or on a symbol of it, one + thereby acts magically on the whole or the thing symbolised, is the + root-idea of all magic, and is of extreme antiquity. DIGBY and others, + however, tried to give a natural explanation to the supposed efficacy of + the Powder. They argued that particles of the blood would ascend from the + bloody cloth or weapon, only coming to rest when they had reached their + natural home in the wound from which they had originally issued. These + particles would carry with them the more volatile part of the vitriol, + which would effect a cure more readily than when combined with the grosser + part of the vitriol. In the days when there was hardly any knowledge of + chemistry and physics, this theory no doubt bore every semblance of truth. + In passing, however, it is interesting to note that DIGBY'S <i>Discourse</i> + called forth a reply from J. F. HELVETIUS (or SCHWETTZER, 1625-1709), + physician to the Prince of Orange, who afterwards became celebrated as an + alchemist who had achieved the magnum opus.(1) + </p> + <p> + (1) See my <i>Alchemy: Ancient and Modern</i> (1911), SESE 63-67. + </p> + <p> + Writing of the Sympathetic Powder, Professor DE MORGAN wittily argues that + it must have been quite efficacious. He says: "The directions were to keep + the wound clean and cool, and to take care of diet, rubbing the salve on + the knife or sword. If we remember the dreadful notions upon drugs which + prevailed, both as to quantity and quality, we shall readily see that any + way of NOT dressing the wound would have been useful. If the physicians + had taken the hint, had been careful of diet, <i>etc</i>., and had poured + the little barrels of medicine down the throat of a practicable doll, THEY + would have had their magical cures as well as the surgeons."(2) As Dr + PETTIGREW has pointed out,(3) Nature exhibits very remarkable powers in + effecting the healing of wounds by adhesion, when her processes are not + impeded. In fact, many cases have been recorded in which noses, ears, and + fingers severed from the body have been rejoined thereto, merely by + washing the parts, placing them in close continuity, and allowing the + natural powers of the body to effect the healing. Moreover, in spite of + BACON'S remarks on this point, the effect of the imagination of the + patient, who was usually not ignorant that a sympathetic cure was to be + attempted, must be taken into account; for, without going to the excesses + of "Christian Science" in this respect, the fact must be recognised that + the state of the mind exercises a powerful effect on the natural forces of + the body, and a firm faith is undoubtedly helpful in effecting the cure of + any sort of ill. + </p> + <p> + (2) Professor AUGUSTUS DE MORGAN: <i>A Budget of Paradoxes</i> (1872), p + 66. + </p> + <p> + (3) THOMAS JOSEPH PETTIGREW, F.R.S.: <i>On Superstitions connected with + the History and Practice of Medicine and Surgery</i> (1844), pp. 164-167. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0008" id="link2H_4_0008"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + VI. THE BELIEF IN TALISMANS + </h2> + <p> + THE word "talisman" is derived from the Arabic "tilsam," "a magical + image," through the plural form "tilsamen." This Arabic word is itself + probably derived from the Greek telesma in its late meaning of "a + religious mystery" or "consecrated object". The term is often employed to + designate amulets in general, but, correctly speaking, it has a more + restricted and special significance. A talisman may be defined briefly as + an astrological or other symbol expressive of the influence and power of + one of the planets, engraved on a sympathetic stone or metal (or inscribed + on specially prepared parchment) under the auspices of this planet. + </p> + <p> + Before proceeding to an account of the preparation of talismans proper, it + will not be out of place to notice some of the more interesting and + curious of other amulets. All sorts of substances have been employed as + charms, sometimes of a very unpleasant nature, such as dried toads. + Generally, however, amulets consist of stones, herbs, or passages from + Sacred Writings written on paper. This latter class are sometimes called + "characts," as an example of which may be mentioned the Jewish + phylacteries. + </p> + <p> + Every precious stone was supposed to exercise its own peculiar virtue; for + instance, amber was regarded as a good remedy for throat troubles, and + agate was thought to preserve from snake-bites. ELIHU RICH(1) gives a very + full list of stones and their supposed virtues. Each sign of the zodiac + was supposed to have its own particular stone(2) (as shown in the annexed + table), and hence the superstitious though not inartistic custom of + wearing one's birth- + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Month (com- + Astrological mencing 21st + Sign of the Zodiac. of preceding + Symbol. month). Stone. +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Aries, the Ram . {} April Sardonyx. + Taurus the Bull . {} May Cornelian. + Gemini the Twins . {} June Topaz. + Cancer, the Crab . {} July Chalcedony. + Leo, the Lion . . {} August Jasper. + Virgo, the Virgin . {} September Emerald. + Libra, the Balance . {} October Beryl. + Scorpio, the Scorpion {} November Amethyst. + Sagittarius, the Archer {} December Hyacinth (=Sapphire). + Capricorn, the Goat . {} January Chrysoprase. + Aquarius, the Water- {} February Crystal. + bearer + Pisces, the Fishes . {} March Sapphire.(=Lapis lazuli). +</pre> + <p> + stone for "luck". The belief in the occult powers of certain stones is by + no means non-existent at the present day; for even in these enlightened + times there are not wanting those who fear the beautiful opal, and put + their faith in the virtues of New Zealand green-stone. + </p> + <p> + (1) ELIHU RICH: <i>The Occult Sciences (Encyclopaedia Metropolitana</i>, + 1855), pp. 348 <i>et seq</i>. + </p> + <p> + (2) With regard to these stones, however, there is much confusion and + difference of opinion. The arrangement adopted in the table here given is + that of CORNELIUS AGRIPPA (<i>Occult Philosophy</i>, bk. ii.). A + comparatively recent work, esteemed by modern occultists, namely, <i>The + Light of Egypt, or the Science of the Soul and the Stars</i> (1889), gives + the following scheme:— + </p> + <p> + {}=Amethyst. {}=Emerald. {}=Diamond. {}=Onyx (Chalcedony). + </p> + <p> + {}=Agate. {}=Ruby. {}=Topaz. {}=Sapphire (skyblue). + </p> + <p> + {}=Beryl. {}=Jasper. {}=Carbuncle. {}=Chrysolite. + </p> + <p> + Common superstitious opinion regarding birth-stones, as reflected, for + example, in the "lucky birth charms" exhibited in the windows of the + jewellers' shops, considerably diverges in this matter from the views of + both these authorities. The usual scheme is as follows:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Jan.=Garnet. May =Emerald. Sept.=Sapphire, + Feb.=Amethyst. June=Agate. Oct. =Opal. + Mar.=Bloodstone. July=Ruby. Nov. =Topaz. + Apr.=Diamond. Aug.=Sardonyx. Dec. =Turquoise. +</pre> + <p> + The bloodstone is frequently assigned either to Aries or Scorpio, owing to + its symbolical connection with Mars; and the opal to Cancer, which in + astrology is the constellation of the moon. + </p> + <p> + Confusion is rendered still worse by the fact that the ancients whilst in + some cases using the same names as ourselves, applied them to different + stones; thus their "hyacinth" is our "sapphire," whilst their "sapphire" + is our "lapis lazuli". + </p> + <p> + Certain herbs, culled at favourable conjunctions of the planets and worn + as amulets, were held to be very efficacious against various diseases. + Precious stones and metals were also taken internally for the same purpose—"remedies" + which in certain cases must have proved exceedingly harmful. One theory + put forward for the supposed medical value of amulets was the Doctrine of + Effluvia. This theory supposes the amulets to give off vapours or effluvia + which penetrate into the body and effect a cure. It is, of course, true + that certain herbs, <i>etc</i>., might, under the heat of the body, give + off such effluvia, but the theory on the whole is manifestly absurd. The + Doctrine of Signatures, which we have already encountered in our + excursions,(1) may also be mentioned in this connection as a complementary + and equally untenable hypothesis. + </p> + <p> + According to ELIHU RICH,(2) the following were the commonest Egyptian + amulets:— + </p> + <p> + 1. Those inscribed with the figure of <i>Serapis</i>, used to preserve + against evils inflicted by earth. + </p> + <p> + 2. Figure of <i>Canopus</i>, against evil by water. + </p> + <p> + 3. Figure of a <i>hawk</i>, against evil from the air. + </p> + <p> + 4. Figure of an <i>asp</i>, against evil by fire. + </p> + <p> + PARACELSUS believed there to be much occult virtue in an alloy of the + seven chief metals, which he called <i>Electrum</i>. Certain definite + proportions of these metals had to be taken, and each was to be added + during a favourable conjunction of the planets. From this electrum he + supposed that valuable amulets and magic mirrors could be prepared. + </p> + <p> + (1) See "Medicine and Magic." (2) <i>Op. Cit</i>., p. 343 + </p> + <p> + A curious and ancient amulet for the cure of various diseases, + particularly the ague, was a triangle formed of the letters of the word + "Abracadabra." The usual form was that shown in fig. 19, and that shown in + fig. 20 was also known. The origin of this magical word is lost in + obscurity. + </p> + <p> + The belief in the horn as a powerful amulet, especially prevalent in + Italy, where is it the custom of the common people to make the sign of the + <i>mano cornuto</i> to avoid the consequence of the dreaded <i>jettatore</i> + or evil eye, can be traced to the fact that the horn was the symbol of the + Goddess of the Moon. Probably the belief in the powers of the horse-shoe + had a similar origin. Indeed, it seems likely that not only this, but most + other amulets, like talismans proper—as will appear below,—were + originally designed as appeals to gods and other powerful spiritual + beings. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + \ ABRACADABRA / \ ABRACADABRA | + \ ABRACADABR / \ BRACADABRA | + \ ABRACADAB / \ RACADABRA | + \ ABRACADA / \ ACADABRA | + \ ABRACAD / \ CADABRA | + \ ABRACA / \ ADABRA | + \ ABRAC / \ DABRA | + \ ABRA / \ ABRA | + \ ABR / \ BRA | + \ AB / \ RA | + \ A/ \ A | + \/ \ | +</pre> + <p> + (1) See FREDERICK T. ELWORTHY'S <i>Horns of Honour</i> (1900), especially + pp. 56 <i>et seq</i>. + </p> + <p> + To turn our attention, however, to the art of preparing talismans proper: + I may remark at the outset that it was necessary for the talisman to be + prepared by one's own self—a task by no means easy as a rule. + Indeed, the right mental attitude of the occultist was insisted upon as + essential to the operation. + </p> + <p> + As to the various signs to be engraver on the talismans, various + authorities differ, though there are certain points connected with the art + of talismanic magic on which they all agree. It so happened that the + ancients were acquainted with seven metals and seven planets (including + the sun and moon as planets), and the days of the week are also seven. It + was concluded, therefore, that there was some occult connection between + the planets, metals, and days of the week. Each of the seven days of the + week was supposed to be under the auspices of the spirits of one of the + planets; so also was the generation in the womb of Nature of each of the + seven chief metals. + </p> + <p> + In the following table are shown these particulars in detail:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Planet. Symbol. Day of Metal. Colour. + + Sun. {} Sunday Gold Gold or yellow. + Moon. {} Monday Silver Silver or white. + Mars. {} Tuesday Iron Red. + Mercury {} Wednesday (1)Mercury Mixed colours or purple. + Jupiter {} Thursday Tin Violet or blue. + Venus {} Friday Copper Turquoise or green. + Saturn. {} Saturday Lead Black. +</pre> + <p> + (1) Used in the form of a solid amalgam for talismans. + </p> + <p> + Consequently, the metal of which a talisman was to be made, and also the + time of its preparation, had to be chosen with due regard to the planet + under which it was to be prepared.(1) The power of such a talisman was + thought to be due to the genie of this planet—a talisman, was, in + fact, a silent evocation of an astral spirit. Examples of the belief that + a genie can be bound up in an amulet in some way are afforded by the story + of ALADDIN'S lamp and ring and other stories in the <i>Thousand and One + Nights</i>. Sometimes the talismanic signs were engraved on precious + stones, sometimes they were inscribed on parchment; in both cases the same + principle held good, the nature of the stone chosen, or the colour of the + ink employed, being that in correspondence with the planet under whose + auspices the talisman was prepared. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +(1) In this connection a rather surprising discovery made by Mr W. +GORNOLD (see his <i>A Manual of Occultism</i>, 1911, pp. 7 and 8) must be +mentioned. The ancient Chaldeans appear invariably to have enumerated +the planets in the following order: Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Sun, Venus, +Mercury, Moon—which order was adopted by the mediaeval astrologers. +Let us commence with the Sun in the above sequence, and write down every +third planet; we then have— Sun . . . . Sunday. + Moon. . . . Monday. + Mars. . . . Tuesday. + Mercury. . . . Wednesday. + Jupiter.. . . Thursday. + Venus. . . . Friday. + Saturn. . . . Saturday. +</pre> + <p> + That is to say, we have the planets in the order in which they were + supposed to rule over the days of the week. This is perhaps, not so + surprising, because it seems probable that, each day being first divided + into twenty-four hours, it was assumed that the planets ruled for one hour + in turn, in the order first mentioned above. Each day was then named after + the planet which ruled during its first hour. It will be found that if we + start with the Sun and write down every twenty-fourth planet, the result + is exactly the same as if we write down every third. But Mr OLD points out + further, doing so by means of a diagram which seems to be rather + cumbersome that if we start with Saturn in the first place, and write down + every fifth planet, and then for each planet substitute the metal over + which it was supposed to rule, we then have these metals arranged in + descending order of atomic weights, thus:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Saturn . . . Lead (=207). + Mercury . . . Mercury (=200). + Sun. . . . Gold (=197). + Jupiter . . . Tin (=119). + Moon. . . . Silver (=108). + Venus . . Copper (=64). + Mars. . . . Iron (=56). +</pre> + <p> + Similarly we can, starting from any one of these orders, pass to the other + two. The fact is a very surprising one, because the ancients could not + possibly have been acquainted with the atomic weights of the metals, and, + it is important to note, the order of the densities of these metals, which + might possibly have been known to them, is by no means the same as the + order of their atomic weights. Whether the fact indicates a real + relationship between the planets and the metals, or whether there is some + other explanation, I am not prepared to say. Certainly some explanation is + needed: to say that the fact is mere coincidence is unsatisfactory, seeing + that the odds against, not merely this, but any such regularity occurring + by chance—as calculated by the mathematical theory of probability—are + 119 to 1. + </p> + <p> + All the instruments employed in the art had to be specially prepared and + consecrated. Special robes had to be worn, perfumes and incense burnt, and + invocations, conjurations, <i>etc</i>., recited, all of which depended on + the planet ruling the operation. A description of a few typical talismans + in detail will not here be out of place. + </p> + <p> + In <i>The Key of Solomon the King</i> (translated by S. L. M. MATHERS, + 1889)(1) are described five, six, or seven talismans for each planet. Each + of these was supposed to have its own peculiar virtues, and many of them + are stated to be of use in the evocation of spirits. The majority of them + consist of a central design encircled by a verse of Hebrew Scripture. The + central designs are of a varied character, generally geometrical figures + and Hebrew letters or words, or magical characters. Five of these + talismans are here portrayed, the first three described differing from the + above. The translations of the Hebrew verses, <i>etc</i>., given below are + due to Mr MATHERS. + </p> + <p> + (1) The <i>Clavicula Salomonis</i>, or <i>Key of Solomon the King</i>, + consists mainly of an elaborate ritual for the evocation of the various + planetary spirits, in which process the use of talismans or pentacles + plays a prominent part. It is claimed to be a work of white magic, but, + inasmuch as it, like other old books making the same claim, gives + descriptions of a pentacle for causing ruin, destruction, and death, and + another for causing earthquakes—to give only two examples,—the + distinction between black and white magic, which we shall no doubt + encounter again in later excursions, appears to be somewhat arbitrary. + </p> + <p> + Regarding the authorship of the work, Mr MATHERS, translator and editor of + the first printed copy of the book, says, "I see no reason to doubt the + tradition which assigns the authorship of the 'Key' to King Solomon." If + this view be accepted, however, it is abundantly evident that the <i>Key</i> + as it stands at present (in which we find S. JOHN quoted, and mention made + of SS. PETER and PAUL) must have received some considerable alterations + and additions at the hands of later editors. But even if we are compelled + to assign the <i>Clavicula Salomonis</i> in its present form to the + fourteenth or fifteenth century, we must, I think, allow that it was based + upon traditions of the past, and, of course, the possibility remains that + it might have been based upon some earlier work. With regard to the + antiquity of the planetary sigils, Mr MATHERS notes "that, among the + Gnostic talismans in the British Museum, there is a ring of copper with + the sigils of Venus, which are exactly the same as those given by + mediaeval writers on magic." + </p> + <p> + In spite of the absurdity of its claims, viewed in the light of modern + knowledge, the <i>Clavicula Salomonis</i> exercised a considerable + influence in the past, and is to be regarded as one of the chief sources + of mediaeval ceremonial magic. Historically speaking, therefore, it is a + book of no little importance. + </p> + <p> + <i>The First Pentacle of the Sun</i>.—"The Countenance of Shaddai + the Almighty, at Whose aspect all creatures obey, and the Angelic Spirits + do reverence on bended knees." About the face is the name "El Shaddai". + Around is written in Latin: "Behold His face and form by Whom all things + were made, and Whom all creatures obey" (see fig. 21). + </p> + <p> + <i>The Fifth Pentacle of Mars</i>.—"Write thou this Pentacle upon + virgin parchment or paper because it is terrible unto the Demons, and at + its sight and aspect they will obey thee, for they cannot resist its + presence." The design is a Scorpion,(1) around which the word Hvl is + repeated. The Hebrew versicle is from <i>Psalm</i> xci. 13: "Thou shalt go + upon the lion and adder, the young lion and the dragon shalt thou tread + under thy feet" (see fig. 22). + </p> + <p> + (1) In astrology the zodiacal sign of the scorpion is the "night house" of + the planet Mars. + </p> + <p> + <i>The Third Pentacle of the Moon</i>.—"This being duly borne with + thee when upon a journey, if it be properly made, serveth against all + attacks by night, and against every kind of danger and peril by Water." + The design consists of a hand and sleeved forearm (this occurs on three + other moon talismans), together with the Hebrew names Aub and Vevaphel. + The versicle is from <i>Psalm</i> xl. 13: "Be pleased O IHVH to deliver + me, O IHVH make haste to help me" (see fig 23) + </p> + <p> + <i>The Third Pentacle of Venus</i>.—"This, if it be only shown unto + any person, serveth to attract love. Its Angel Monachiel should be invoked + in the day and hour of Venus, at one o'clock or at eight." The design + consists of two triangles joined at their apices, with the following names—IHVH, + Adonai, Ruach, Achides, AEgalmiel, Monachiel, and Degaliel. The versicle + is from <i>Genesis</i> i. 28: "And the Elohim blessed them, and the Elohim + said unto them, Be ye fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth, and + subdue it" (see fig. 24). + </p> + <p> + <i>The Third Pentacle of Mercury</i>.—"This serves to invoke the + Spirits subject unto Mercury; and especially those who are written in this + Pentacle." The design consists of crossed lines and magical characters of + Mercury. Around are the names of the angels, Kokaviel, Ghedoriah, + Savaniah, and Chokmahiel (see fig. 25). + </p> + <p> + CORNELIUS AGRIPPA, in his <i>Three Books of Occult Philosophy</i>, + describes another interesting system of talismans. FRANCIS BARRETT'S <i>Magus, + or Celestial Intelligencer</i>, a well-known occult work published in the + first year of the nineteenth century, I may mention, copies AGRIPPA'S + system of talismans, without acknowledgment, almost word for word. To each + of the planets is assigned a magic square or table, <i>i.e</i>. a square + composed of numbers so arranged that the sum of each row or column is + always the same. For example, the table for Mars is as follows:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + 11 24 7 20 3 + 4 12 25 8 16 + 17 5 13 21 9 + 10 18 1 14 22 + 23 6 19 2 15 +</pre> + <p> + It will be noticed that every number from 1 up to the highest possible + occurs once, and that no number occurs twice. It will also be seen that + the sum of each row and of each column is always 65. Similar squares can + be constructed containing any square number of figures, and it is, indeed, + by no means surprising that the remarkable properties of such "magic + squares," before these were explained mathematically, gave rise to the + belief that they had some occult significance and virtue. From the magic + squares can be obtained certain numbers which are said to be the numbers + of the planets; their orderliness, we are told, reflects the order of the + heavens, and from a consideration of them the magical properties of the + planets which they represent can be arrived at. For example, in the above + table the number of rows of numbers is 5. The total number of numbers in + the table is the square of this number, namely, 25, which is also the + greatest number in the table. The sum of any row or column is 65. And, + finally, the sum of all the numbers is the product of the number of rows + (namely, 5) and the sum of any row (namely, 65), <i>i.e</i>. 325. These + numbers, namely, 5, 25, 65, and 325, are the numbers of Mars. Sets of + numbers for the other planets are obtained in exactly the same manner.(1) + </p> + <p> + (1) Readers acquainted with mathematics will notice that if <i>n</i> is + the number of rows in such a "magic square," the other numbers derived as + above will be n[2S], 1/2<i>n</i>(<i>n</i>[2S] + 1), and 1/2<i>n</i>[2S](<i>n</i>[2S] + + 1). This can readily be proved by the laws of arithmetical progressions. + Rather similar but more complicated and less uniform "magic squares" are + attributed to PARACELSUS. + </p> + <p> + Now to each planet is assigned an Intelligence or good spirit, and an Evil + Spirit or demon; and the names of these spirits are related to certain of + the numbers of the planets. The other numbers are also connected with holy + and magical Hebrew names. AGRIPPA, and BARRETT copying him, gives the + following table of "names answering to the numbers of Mars":— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + 5. He, the letter of the holy name. [hb ] + 25. [hb ___] + 65. Adonai. [hb ____] + 325. Graphiel, the Intelligence of Mars. [hb _______] + 325. Barzabel, the Spirit of Mars. [hb _______] +</pre> + <p> + Similar tables are given for the other planets. The numbers can be derived + from the names by regarding the Hebrew letters of which they are composed + as numbers, in which case [hb ] (Aleph) to [hb ] (Teth) represent the + units 1 to 9 in order, [hb ] (Jod) to [hb ] (Tzade) the tens 10 to 90 in + order, [hb ] (Koph) to [hb ] (Tau) the hundreds 100 to 400, whilst the + hundreds 500 to 900 are represented by special terminal forms of certain + of the Hebrew letters.(2) It is evident that no little wasted ingenuity + must have been employed in working all this out. + </p> + <p> + (2) It may be noticed that this makes [hb _______] equal to 326, one unit + too much. Possibly an Alelph should be omitted. + </p> + <p> + Each planet has its own seal or signature, as well as the signature of its + intelligence and the signature of its demon. These signatures were + supposed to represent the characters of the planets' intelligences and + demons respectively. The signature of Mars is shown in fig. 26, that of + its intelligence in fig. 27, and that of its demon in fig. 28. + </p> + <p> + These various details were inscribed on the talismans each of which was + supposed to confer its own peculiar benefits—as follows: On one side + must be engraved the proper magic table and the astrological sign of the + planet, together with the highest planetary number, the sacred names + corresponding to the planet, and the name of the intelligence of the + planet, but not the name of its demon. On the other side must be engraved + the seals of the planet and of its intelligence, and also the astrological + sign. BARRETT says, regarding the demons:(1) "It is to be understood that + the intelligences are the presiding good angels that are set over the + planets; but that the spirits or daemons, with their names, seals, or + characters, are never inscribed upon any Talisman, except to execute any + evil effect, and that they are subject to the intelligences, or good + spirits; and again, when the spirits and their characters are used, it + will be more conducive to the effect to add some divine name appropriate + to that effect which we desire." Evil talismans can also be prepared, we + are informed, by using a metal antagonistic to the signs engraved thereon. + The complete talisman of Mars is shown in fig. 29. + </p> + <p> + (1) FRANCIS BARRETT: <i>The Magus, or Celestial Intelligencer</i> (1801), + bk. i. p. 146. + </p> + <p> + ALPHONSE LOUIS CONSTANT,(1) a famous French occultist of the nineteenth + century, who wrote under the name of "ELIPHAS LEVI," describes yet another + system of talismans. He says: "The Pentagram must be always engraved on + one side of the talisman, with a circle for the Sun, a crescent for the + Moon, a winged caduceus for Mercury, a sword for Mars, a G for Venus, a + crown for Jupiter, and a scythe for Saturn. The other side of the talisman + should bear the sign of Solomon, that is, the six-pointed star formed by + two interlaced triangles; in the centre there should be placed a human + figure for the sun talismans, a cup for those of the Moon, a dog's head + for those of Jupiter, a lion for those of Mars, a dove's for those of + Venus, a bull's or goat's for those of Saturn. The names of the seven + angels should be added either in Hebrew, Arabic, or magic characters + similar to those of the alphabets of Trimethius. The two triangles of + Solomon may be replaced by the double cross of Ezekiel's wheels, this + being found on a great number of ancient pentacles. All objects of this + nature, whether in metals or in precious stones, should be carefully + wrapped in silk satchels of a colour analogous to the spirit of the + planet, perfumed with the perfumes of the corresponding day, and preserved + from all impure looks and touches."(2) + </p> + <p> + (1) For a biographical and critical account of this extraordinary + personage and his views, see Mr A. E. WAITE'S <i>The Mysteries of Magic: a + Digest of the writings of</i> ELIPHAS LEVI (1897). + </p> + <p> + (2) <i>Op. cit</i>., p. 201. + </p> + <p> + ELIPHAS LEVI, following PYTHAGORAS and many of the mediaeval magicians, + regarded the pentagram, or five-pointed star, as an extremely powerful + pentacle. According to him, if with one horn in the ascendant it is the + sign of the microcosm—Man. With two horns in the ascendant, however, + it is the sign of the Devil, "the accursed Goat of Mendes," and an + instrument of black magic. We can, indeed, trace some faint likeness + between the pentagram and the outline form of a man, or of a goat's head, + according to whether it has one or two horns in the ascendant + respectively, which resemblances may account for this idea. Fig. 30 shows + the pentagram embellished with other symbols according to ELIPHAS LEVI, + whilst fig. 31 shows his embellished form of the six-pointed star, or Seal + of SOLOMON. This, he says, is "the sign of the Macrocosmos, but is less + powerful than the Pentagram, the microcosmic sign," thus contradicting + PYTHAGORAS, who, as we have seen, regarded the pentagram as the sign of + the Macrocosm. ELIPHAS LEVI asserts that he attempted the evocation of the + spirit of APOLLONIUS of Tyana in London on 24th July 1854, by the aid of a + pentagram and other magical apparatus and ritual, apparently with success, + if we may believe his word. But he sensibly suggests that probably the + apparition which appeared was due to the effect of the ceremonies on his + own imagination, and comes to the conclusion that such magical experiments + are injurious to health.(1) + </p> + <p> + (1) <i>Op cit</i>. pp. 446-450. + </p> + <p> + Magical rings were prepared on the same principle as were talismans. Says + CORNELIUS AGRIPPA: "The manner of making these kinds of Magical Rings is + this, viz.: When any Star ascends fortunately, with the fortunate aspect + or conjunction of the Moon, we must take a stone and herb that is under + that Star, and make a ring of the metal that is suitable to this Star, and + in it fasten the stone, putting the herb or root under it—not + omitting the inscriptions of images, names, and characters, as also the + proper suffumigations...."(1) SOLOMON'S ring was supposed to have been + possessed of remarkable occult virtue. Says JOSEPHUS (<i>c</i>. A.D. + 37-100): "God also enabled him (SOLOMON) to learn that skill which expels + demons, which is a science useful and sanative to men. He composed such + incantations also by which distempers are alleviated. And he left behind + him the manner of using exorcisms, by which they drive away demons, so + that they never return; and this method of cure is of great force unto + this day; for I have seen a certain man of my own country, whose name was + Eleazar, releasing people that were demoniacal in the presence of + Vespasian, and his sons, and his captains, and the whole multitude of his + soldiers. The manner of the cure was this; he put a ring that had under + the seal a root of one of those sorts mentioned by Solomon, to the + nostrils of the demoniac, after which he drew out the demon through his + nostrils: and when the man fell down immediately, he abjured him to return + unto him no more, making still mention of Solomon, and reciting the + incantations which he composed."(2) + </p> + <p> + (1) H. C. AGRIPPA: <i>Occult Philosophy</i>, bk. i. chap. xlvii. + (WHITEHEAD'S edition, pp. 141 and 142). + </p> + <p> + (2) FLAVIUS JOSEPHUS: <i>The Antiquities of the Jews</i> (trans. by W. + WHISTON), bk. viii. chap. ii., SE 5 (45) to (47). + </p> + <p> + Enough has been said already to indicate the general nature of talismanic + magic. No one could maintain otherwise than that much of it is pure + nonsense; but the subject should not, therefore, be dismissed as + valueless, or lacking significance. It is past belief that amulets and + talismans should have been believed in for so long unless they APPEARED to + be productive of some of the desired results, though these may have been + due to forces quite other than those which were supposed to be operative. + Indeed, it may be said that there has been no widely held superstition + which does not embody some truth, like some small specks of gold hidden in + an uninviting mass of quartz. As the poet BLAKE put it: "Everything + possible to be believ'd is an image of truth";(1) and the attempt may here + be made to extract the gold of truth from the quartz of superstition + concerning talismanic magic. For this purpose the various theories + regarding the supposed efficacy of talismans must be examined. + </p> + <p> + (1) "Proverbs of Hell" (<i>The Marriage of Heaven and Hell</i>). + </p> + <p> + Two of these theories have already been noted, but the doctrine of + effluvia admittedly applied only to a certain class of amulets, and, I + think, need not be seriously considered. The "astral-spirit theory" (as it + may be called), in its ancient form at any rate, is equally untenable + to-day. The discoveries of new planets and new metals seem destructive of + the belief that there can be any occult connection between planets, + metals, and the days of the week, although the curious fact discovered by + Mr OLD, to which I have referred (footnote, p. 63@@@), assuredly demands + an explanation, and a certain validity may, perhaps, be allowed to + astrological symbolism. As concerns the belief in the existence of what + may be called (although the term is not a very happy one) "discarnate + spirits," however, the matter, in view of the modern investigation of + spiritistic and other abnormal psychical phenomena, stands in a different + position. There can, indeed, be little doubt that very many of the + phenomena observed at spiritistic seances come under the category of + deliberate fraud, and an even larger number, perhaps, can be explained on + the theory of the subconscious self. I think, however, that the evidence + goes to show that there is a residuum of phenomena which can only be + explained by the operation, in some way, of discarnate intelligences.(1) + Psychical research may be said to have supplied the modern world with the + evidence of the existence of discarnate personalities, and of their + operation on the material plane, which the ancient world lacked. But so + far as our present subject is concerned, all the evidence obtainable goes + to show that the phenomena in question only take place in the presence of + what is called "a medium"—a person of peculiar nervous or psychical + organisation. That this is the case, moreover, appears to be the general + belief of spiritists on the subject. In the sense, then, in which "a + talisman" connotes a material object of such a nature that by its aid the + powers of discarnate intelligences may become operative on material + things, we might apply the term "talisman" to the nervous system of a + medium: but then that would be the only talisman. Consequently, even if + one is prepared to admit the whole of modern spiritistic theory, nothing + is thereby gained towards a belief in talismans, and no light is shed upon + the subject. + </p> + <p> + (1) The publications of The Society for Psychical Research, and FREDERICK + MYERS' monumental work on <i>Human Personality and its Survival of Bodily + Death</i>, should be specially consulted. I have attempted a brief + discussion of modern spiritualism and psychical research in my <i>Matter, + Spirit, and the Cosmos</i> (1910), chap. ii. + </p> + <p> + Another theory concerning talismans which commended itself to many of the + old occult philosophers, PARACELSUS for instance, is what may be called + the "occult force" theory. This theory assumes the existence of an occult + mental force, a force capable of being exerted by the human will, apart + from its usual mode of operation by means of the body. It was believed to + be possible to concentrate this mental energy and infuse it into some + suitable medium, with the production of a talisman, which was thus + regarded as a sort of accumulator for mental energy. The theory seems a + fantastic one to modern thought, though, in view of the many startling + phenomena brought to light by psychical research, it is not advisable to + be too positive regarding the limitations of the powers of the human mind. + However, I think we shall find the element of truth in the otherwise + absurd belief in talismans by means of what may be called, not altogether + fancifully perhaps, a transcendental interpretation of this "occult force" + theory. I suggest, that is, that when a believer makes a talisman, the + transference of the occult energy is ideal, not actual; that the power, + believed to reside in the talisman itself, is the power due to the reflex + action of the believer's mind. The power of what transcendentalists call + "the imagination" cannot be denied; for example, no one can deny that a + man with a firm conviction that such a success will be achieved by him, or + such a danger avoided, will be far more likely to gain his desire, other + conditions being equal, than one of a pessimistic turn of mind. The mere + conviction itself is a factor in success, or a factor in failure, + according to its nature; and it seems likely that herein will be found a + true explanation of the effects believed to be due to the power of the + talisman. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, however, we must beware of the exaggerations into which + certain schools of thought have fallen in their estimates of the powers of + the imagination. These exaggerations are particularly marked in the views + which are held by many nowadays with regard to "faith-healing," although + the "Christian Scientists" get out of the difficulty—at least to + their own satisfaction—by ascribing their alleged cures to the Power + of the Divine Mind, and not to the power of the individual mind. + </p> + <p> + Of course the real question involved in this "transcendental theory of + talismans" as I may, perhaps, call it, is that of the operation of + incarnate spirit on the plane of matter. This operation takes place only + through the medium of the nervous system, and it has been suggested,(1) to + avoid any violation of the law of the conservation of energy, that it is + effected, not by the transference, as is sometimes supposed, of energy + from the spiritual to the material plane, but merely by means of directive + control over the expenditure of energy derived by the body from purely + physical sources, <i>e.g</i>. the latent chemical energy bound up in the + food eaten and the oxygen breathed. + </p> + <p> + (1) <i>Cf</i> Sir OLIVER LODGE: <i>Life and Matter</i> (1907), especially + chap. ix.; and W. HIBBERT, F.I.C.: <i>Life and Energy</i> (1904). + </p> + <p> + I am not sure that this theory really avoids the difficulty which it is + intended to obviate;(1) but it is at least an interesting one, and at any + rate there may be modes in which the body, under the directive control of + the spirit, may expend energy derived from the material plane, of which we + know little or nothing. We have the testimony of many eminent + authorities(2) to the phenomenon of the movement of physical objects + without contact at spiritistic seances. It seems to me that the + introduction of discarnate intelligences to explain this phenomenon is + somewhat gratuitous—the psychic phenomena which yield evidence of + the survival of human personality after bodily death are of a different + character. For if we suppose this particular phenomenon to be due to + discarnate spirits, we must, in view of what has been said concerning + "mediums," conclude that the movements in question are not produced by + these spirits DIRECTLY, but through and by means of the nervous system of + the medium present. Evidently, therefore, the means for the production of + the phenomenon reside in the human nervous system (or, at any rate, in the + peculiar nervous system of "mediums"), and all that is lacking is + intelligence or initiative to use these means. This intelligence or + initiative can surely be as well supplied by the sub-consciousness as by a + discarnate intelligence. Consequently, it does not seem unreasonable to + suppose that equally remarkable phenomena may have been produced by the + aid of talismans in the days when these were believed in, and may be + produced to-day, if one has sufficient faith—that is to say, + produced by man when in the peculiar condition of mind brought about by + the intense belief in the power of a talisman. And here it should be noted + that the term "talisman" may be applied to any object (or doctrine) that + is believed to possess peculiar power or efficacy. In this fact, I think, + is to be found the peculiar danger of erroneous doctrines which promise + extraordinary benefits, here and now on the material plane, to such as + believe in them. Remarkable results may follow an intense belief in such + doctrines, which, whilst having no connection whatever with their + accuracy, being proportional only to the intensity with which they are + held, cannot do otherwise than confirm the believer in the validity of his + beliefs, though these may be in every way highly fantastic and erroneous. + Both the Roman Catholic, therefore, and the Buddhist may admit many of the + marvels attributed to the relics of each other's saints; though, in + denying that these marvels prove the accuracy of each other's religious + doctrines, each should remember that the same is true of his own. + </p> + <p> + (1) The subject is rather too technical to deal with here. I have + discussed it elsewhere; see "Thermo-Dynamical Objections to the Mechanical + Theory of Life," <i>The Chemical News</i>, vol. cxii. pp. 271 <i>et seq</i>. + (3rd December 1915). + </p> + <p> + (2) For instance, the well-known physicist, Sir W. F. BARRETT, F.R.S. + (late Professor of Experimental Physics in The Royal College of Science + for Ireland). See his <i>On the Threshold of a New World of Thought</i> + (1908), SE 10. + </p> + <p> + In illustration of the real power of the imagination, I may instance the + Maori superstition of the Taboo. According to the Maories, anyone who + touches a tabooed object will assuredly die, the tabooed object being a + sort of "anti-talisman". Professor FRAZER(1) says: "Cases have been known + of Maories dying of sheer fright on learning that they had unwittingly + eaten the remains of a chief's dinner or handled something that belonged + to him," since such objects were, <i>ipso facto</i>, tabooed. He gives the + following case on good authority: "A woman, having partaken of some fine + peaches from a basket, was told that they had come from a tabooed place. + Immediately the basket dropped from her hands and she cried out in agony + that the atua or godhead of the chief, whose divinity had been thus + profaned, would kill her. That happened in the afternoon, and next day by + twelve o'clock she was dead." For us the power of the taboo does not + exist; for the Maori, who implicitly believes in it, it is a very potent + reality, but this power of the taboo resides not in external objects but + in his own mind. + </p> + <p> + (1) Professor J. G. FRAZER, D.C.L.: <i>Psyche's Task</i> (1909), p. 7. + </p> + <p> + Dr HADDON(2) quotes a similar but still more remarkable story of a young + Congo negro which very strikingly shows the power of the imagination. The + young negro, "being on a journey, lodged at a friend's house; the latter + got a wild hen for his breakfast, and the young man asked if it were a + wild hen. His host answered 'No.' Then he fell on heartily, and afterwards + proceeded on his journey. After four years these two met together again, + and his old friend asked him 'if he would eat a wild hen,' to which he + answered that it was tabooed to him. Hereat the host began immediately to + laugh, inquiring of him, 'What made him refuse it now, when he had eaten + one at his table about four years ago?' At the hearing of this the negro + immediately fell a-trembling, and suffered himself to be so far possessed + with the effects of imagination that he died in less than twenty-four + hours after." + </p> + <p> + (2) ALFRED C. HADDON, SC.D., F.R.S.: <i>Magic and Fetishism</i> (1906), p. + 56. + </p> + <p> + There are, of course, many stories about amulets, <i>etc</i>., which + cannot be thus explained. For example, ELIHU RICH gives the following:— + </p> + <p> + "In 1568, we are told (Transl. of Salverte, p. 196) that the Prince of + Orange condemned a Spanish prisoner to be shot at Juliers. The soldiers + tied him to a tree and fired, but he was invulnerable. They then stripped + him to see what armour he wore, but they found only an amulet bearing the + figure of a lamb (the <i>Agnus Dei</i>, we presume). This was taken from + him, and he was then killed by the first shot. De Baros relates that the + Portuguese in like manner vainly attempted to destroy a Malay, so long as + he wore a bracelet containing a bone set in gold, which rendered him proof + against their swords. A similar marvel is related in the travels of the + veracious Marco Polo. 'In an attempt of Kublai Khan to make a conquest of + the island of Zipangu, a jealousy arose between the two commanders of the + expedition, which led to an order for putting the whole garrison to the + sword. In obedience to this order, the heads of all were cut off excepting + of eight persons, who by the efficacy of a diabolical charm, consisting of + a jewel or amulet introduced into the right arm, between the skin and the + flesh, were rendered secure from the effects of iron, either to kill or + wound. Upon this discovery being made, they were beaten with a heavy + wooden club, and presently died.'" + </p> + <p> + (1) I think, however, that these, and many similar stories, must be taken + <i>cum grano salis</i>. + </p> + <p> + In conclusion, mention must be made of a very interesting and suggestive + philosophical doctrine—the Law of Correspondences,—due in its + explicit form to the Swedish philosopher, who was both scientist and + mystic, EMANUEL SWEDENBORG. To deal in any way adequately with this + important topic is totally impossible within the confines of the present + discussion.(2) But, to put the matter as briefly as possible, it may be + said that SWEDENBORG maintains (and the conclusion, I think, is valid) + that all causation is from the spiritual world, physical causation being + but secondary, or apparent—that is to say, a mere reflection, as it + were, of the true process. He argues from this, thereby supplying a + philosophical basis for the unanimous belief of the nature-mystics, that + every natural object is the symbol (because the creation) of an idea or + spiritual verity in its widest sense. Thus, there are symbols which are + inherent in the nature of things, and symbols which are not. The former + are genuine, the latter merely artificial. Writing from the transcendental + point of view, ELIPHAS LEVI says: "Ceremonies, vestments, perfumes, + characters and figures being...necessary to enlist the imagination in the + education of the will, the success of magical works depends upon the + faithful observance of all the rites, which are in no sense fantastic or + arbitrary, having been transmitted to us by antiquity, and permanently + subsisting by the essential laws of analogical realisation and of the + correspondence which inevitably connects ideas and forms."(1b) Some + scepticism, perhaps, may be permitted as to the validity of the latter + part of this statement, and the former may be qualified by the proviso + that such things are only of value in the right education of the will, if + they are, indeed, genuine, and not merely artificial, symbols. But the + writer, as I think will be admitted, has grasped the essential point, and, + to conclude our excursion, as we began it, with a definition, I will say + that <i>the power of the talisman is the power of the mind (or + imagination) brought into activity by means of a suitable symbol</i>. + </p> + <p> + (1) ELIHU RICH: <i>The Occult Sciences</i>, p. 346. + </p> + <p> + (2) I may refer the reader to my <i>A Mathematical Theory of Spirit</i> + (1912), chap. i., for a more adequate statement. + </p> + <p> + (1b) ELIPHAS LEVI: <i>Transcendental Magic: its Doctrine and Ritual</i> + (trans. by A. E. WAITE, 1896), p. 234. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0009" id="link2H_4_0009"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + VII. CEREMONIAL MAGIC IN THEORY AND PRACTICE + </h2> + <p> + THE word "magic," if one may be permitted to say so, is itself almost + magical—magical in its power to conjure up visions in the human + mind. For some these are of bloody rites, pacts with the powers of + darkness, and the lascivious orgies of the Saturnalia or Witches' Sabbath; + in other minds it has pleasanter associations, serving to transport them + from the world of fact to the fairyland of fancy, where the purse of + FORTUNATUS, the lamp and ring of ALADDIN, fairies, gnomes, jinn, and + innumerable other strange beings flit across the scene in a marvellous + kaleidoscope of ever-changing wonders. To the study of the magical beliefs + of the past cannot be denied the interest and fascination which the + marvellous and wonderful ever has for so many minds, many of whom, + perhaps, cannot resist the temptation of thinking that there may be some + element of truth in these wonderful stories. But the study has a greater + claim to our attention; for, as I have intimated already, magic represents + a phase in the development of human thought, and the magic of the past was + the womb from which sprang the science of the present, unlike its parent + though it be. + </p> + <p> + What then is magic? According to the dictionary definition—and this + will serve us for the present—it is the (pretended) art of producing + marvellous results by the aid of spiritual beings or arcane spiritual + forces. Magic, therefore, is the practical complement of animism. Wherever + man has really believed in the existence of a spiritual world, there do we + find attempts to enter into communication with that world's inhabitants + and to utilise its forces.Professor LEUBA(1) and others distinguish + between propitiative behaviour towards the beings of the spiritual world, + as marking the religious attitude, and coercive behaviour towards these + beings as characteristic of the magical attitude; but one form of + behaviour merges by insensible degrees into the other, and the distinction + (though a useful one) may, for our present purpose, be neglected. + </p> + <p> + (1) JAMES H. LEUBA: <i>The Psychological Origin and the Nature of Religion</i> + (1909), chap. ii. + </p> + <p> + Animism, "the Conception of Spirit everywhere" as Mr EDWARD CLODD(2) + neatly calls it, and perhaps man's earliest view of natural phenomena, + persisted in a modified form, as I have pointed out in "Some + Characteristics of Mediaeval Thought," throughout the Middle Ages. A + belief in magic persisted likewise. In the writings of the Greek + philosophers of the Neo-Platonic school, in that curious body of esoteric + Jewish lore known as the Kabala, and in the works of later occult + philosophers such as AGRIPPA and PARACELSUS, we find magic, or rather the + theory upon which magic as an art was based, presented in its most + philosophical form. If there is anything of value for modern thought in + the theory of magic, here is it to be found; and it is, I think, indeed to + be found, absurd and fantastic though the practices based upon this + philosophy, or which this philosophy was thought to substantiate, most + certainly are. I shall here endeavour to give a sketch of certain of the + outstanding doctrines of magical philosophy, some details concerning the + art of magic, more especially as practiced in the Middle Ages in Europe, + and, finally, an attempt to extract from the former what I consider to be + of real worth. We have already wandered down many of the byways of magical + belief, and, indeed, the word "magic" may be made to cover almost every + superstition of the past: To what we have already gained on previous + excursions the present, I hope, will add what we need in order to take a + synthetic view of the whole subject. + </p> + <p> + (2) EDWARD CLODD: <i>Animism the Seed of Religion</i> (1905), p. 26. + </p> + <p> + In the first place, something must be said concerning what is called the + Doctrine of Emanations, a theory of prime importance in Neo-Platonic and + Kabalistic ontology. According to this theory, everything in the universe + owes its existence and virtue to an emanation from God, which divine + emanation is supposed to descend, step by step (so to speak), through the + hierarchies of angels and the stars, down to the things of earth, that + which is nearer to the Source containing more of the divine nature than + that which is relatively distant. As CORNELIUS AGRIPPA expresses it: "For + God, in the first place is the end and beginning of all Virtues; he gives + the seal of #the <i>Ideas</i> to his servants, the Intelligences; who as + faithful officers, sign all things intrusted to them with an Ideal Virtue; + the Heavens and Stars, as instruments, disposing the matter in the mean + while for the receiving of those forms which reside in Divine Majesty (as + saith Plato in Timeus) and to be conveyed by Stars; and the Giver of Forms + distributes them by the ministry of his Intelligences, which he hath set + as Rulers and Controllers over his Works, to whom such a power is + intrusted to things committed to them that so all Virtues of Stones, + Herbs, Metals, and all other things may come from the Intelligences, the + Governors. The Form, therefore, and Virtue of things comes first from the + <i>Ideas</i>, then from the ruling and governing Intelligences, then from + the aspects of the Heavens disposing, and lastly from the tempers of the + Elements disposed, answering the influences of the Heavens, by which the + Elements themselves are ordered, or disposed. These kinds of operations, + therefore, are performed in these inferior things by express forms, and in + the Heavens by disposing virtues, in Intelligences by mediating rules, in + the Original Cause by <i>Ideas</i> and exemplary forms, all which must of + necessity agree in the execution of the effect and virtue of every thing. + </p> + <p> + "There is, therefore, a wonderful virtue and operation in every Herb and + Stone, but greater in a Star, beyond which, even from the governing + Intelligences everything receiveth and obtains many things for itself, + especially from the Supreme Cause, with whom all things do mutually and + exactly correspond, agreeing in an harmonious consent, as it were in hymns + always praising the highest Maker of all things.... There is, therefore, + no other cause of the necessity of effects than the connection of all + things with the First Cause, and their correspondency with those Divine + patterns and eternal <i>Ideas</i> whence every thing hath its determinate + and particular place in the exemplary world, from whence it lives and + receives its original being: And every virtue of herbs, stones, metals, + animals, words and speeches, and all things that are of God, is placed + there."(1) As compared with the <i>ex nihilo</i> creationism of orthodox + theology, this theory is as light is to darkness. Of course, there is much + in CORNELIUS AGRIPPA'S statement of it which is inacceptable to modern + thought; but these are matters of form merely, and do not affect the + doctrine fundamentally. For instance, as a nexus between spirit and matter + AGRIPPA places the stars: modern thought prefers the ether. The theory of + emanations may be, and was, as a matter of fact, made the justification of + superstitious practices of the grossest absurdity, but on the other hand + it may be made the basis of a lofty system of transcendental philosophy, + as, for instance, that of EMANUEL SWEDENBORG, whose ontology resembles in + some respects that of the Neo-Platonists. AGRIPPA uses the theory to + explain all the marvels which his age accredited, marvels which we know + had for the most part no existence outside of man's imagination. I + suggest, on the contrary, that the theory is really needed to explain the + commonplace, since, in the last analysis, every bit of experience, every + phenomenon, be it ever so ordinary—indeed the very fact of + experience itself,—is most truly marvellous and magical, explicable + only in terms of spirit. As ELIPHAS LEVI well says in one of his flashes + of insight: "The supernatural is only the natural in an extraordinary + grade, or it is the exalted natural; a miracle is a phenomenon which + strikes the multitude because it is unexpected; the astonishing is that + which astonishes; miracles are effects which surprise those who are + ignorant of their causes, or assign them causes w hich are not in + proportion to such effects."(1b) But I am anticipating the sequel. + </p> + <p> + (1) H. C. AGRIPPA: <i>Occult Philosophy</i>, bk. i., chap. xiii. + (WHITEHEAD'S edition, pp. 67-68). + </p> + <p> + (1b) ELIPHAS LEVI: <i>Transcendental Magic, its Doctrine and Ritual</i> + (trans. by A. E. WAITE, 1896), p. 192. + </p> + <p> + The doctrine of emanations makes the universe one vast harmonious whole, + between whose various parts there is an exact analogy, correspondence, or + sympathetic relation. "Nature" (the productive principle), says IAMBLICHOS + (3rd-4th century), the Neo-Platonist, "in her peculiar way, makes a + likeness of invisible principles through symbols in visible forms."(2) The + belief that seemingly similar things sympathetically affect one another, + and that a similar relation holds good between different things which have + been intimately connected with one another as parts within a whole, is a + very ancient one. Most primitive peoples are very careful to destroy all + their nail-cuttings and hair-clippings, since they believe that a witch + gaining possession of these might work them harm. For a similar reason + they refuse to reveal their REAL names, which they regard as part of + themselves, and adopt nicknames for common use. The belief that a witch + can torment an enemy by making an image of his person in clay or wax, + correctly naming it, and mutilating it with pins, or, in the case of a + waxen image, melting it by fire, is a very ancient one, and was held + throughout and beyond the Middle Ages. The Sympathetic Powder of Sir + KENELM DIGBY we have already noticed, as well as other instances of the + belief in "sympathy," and examples of similar superstitions might be + multiplied almost indefinitely. Such are generally grouped under the term + "sympathetic magic"; but inasmuch as all magical practices assume that by + acting on part of a thing, or a symbolic representation of it, one acts + magically on the whole, or on the thing symbolised, the expression may in + its broadest sense be said to involve the whole of magic. + </p> + <p> + (2) IAMBLICHOS: <i>Theurgia, or the Egyptian Mysteries</i> (trans. by Dr + ALEX. WILDER, New York, 1911), p. 239. + </p> + <p> + The names of the Divine Being, angels and devils, the planets of the solar + system (including sun and moon) and the days of the week, birds and + beasts, colours, herbs, and precious stones—all, according to + old-time occult philosophy, are connected by the sympathetic relation + believed to run through all creation, the knowledge of which was essential + to the magician; as well, also, the chief portions of the human body, for + man, as we have seen, was believed to be a microcosm—a universe in + miniature. I have dealt with this matter and exhibited some of the + supposed correspondences in "The Belief in Talismans". Some further + particulars are shown in the annexed table, for which I am mainly indebted + to AGRIPPA. But, as in the case of the zodiacal gems already dealt with, + the old authorities by no means agree as to the majority of the planetary + correspondences. + </p> + <p> + TABLE OF OCCULT CORRESPONDENCES + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Arch- Part of Precious + angel. Angel. Planet. Human Animal. Bird. stone. + Body. + + Raphael Michael Sun Heart Lion Swan Carbuncle + Gabriel Gabriel Moon Left foot Cat Owl Crystal + Camael Zamael Mars Right hand Wolf Vulture Diamond + Michael Raphael Mercury Left hand Ape Stork Agate + Zadikel Sachiel Jupiter Head Hart Eagle Sapphire + (=Lapis lazuli) + Haniel Anael Venus Generative Goat Dove Emerald + organs + Zaphhiel Cassiel Saturn Right foot Mole Hoopoe Onyx +</pre> + <p> + The names of the angels are from Mr Mather's translation of <i>Clavicula + Salomonis</i>; the other correspondences are from the second book of + Agrippa's <i>Occult Philosophy</i>, chap. x. + </p> + <p> + In many cases these supposed correspondences are based, as will be obvious + to the reader, upon purely trivial resemblances, and, in any case, + whatever may be said—and I think a great deal may be said—in + favour of the theory of symbology, there is little that may be adduced to + support the old occultists' application of it. + </p> + <p> + So essential a part does the use of symbols play in all magical operations + that we may, I think, modify the definition of "magic" adopted at the + outset, and define "magic" as "an attempt to employ the powers of the + spiritual world for the production of marvellous results, BY THE AID OF + SYMBOLS." It has, on the other hand, been questioned whether the appeal to + the spirit-world is an essential element in magic. But a close examination + of magical practices always reveals at the root a belief in spiritual + powers as the operating causes. The belief in talismans at first sight + seems to have little to do with that in a supernatural realm; but, as we + have seen, the talisman was always a silent invocation of the powers of + some spiritual being with which it was symbolically connected, and whose + sign was engraved thereon. And, as Dr T. WITTON DAVIES well remarks with + regard to "sympathetic magic": "Even this could not, at the start, be + anything other than a symbolic prayer to the spirit or spirits having + authority in these matters. In so far as no spirit is thought of, it is a + mere survival, and not magic at all...."(1) + </p> + <p> + (1) Dr T. WITTON DAVIES: <i>Magic, Divination, and Demonology among the + Hebrews and their Neighbours</i> (1898), p. 17. + </p> + <p> + What I regard as the two essentials of magical practices, namely, the use + of symbols and the appeal to the supernatural realm, are most obvious in + what is called "ceremonial magic". Mediaeval ceremonial magic was + subdivided into three chief branches—White Magic, Black Magic, and + Necromancy. White magic was concerned with the evocations of angels, + spiritual beings supposed to be essentially superior to mankind, + concerning which I shall give some further details later—and the + spirits of the elements,—which were, as I have mentioned in "Some + Characteristics of Mediaeval Thought," personifications of the primeval + forces of Nature. As there were supposed to be four elements, fire, air, + water, and earth, so there were supposed to be four classes of elementals + or spirits of the elements, namely, Salamanders, Sylphs, Undines, and + Gnomes, inhabiting these elements respectively, and deriving their + characters therefrom. Concerning these curious beings, the inquisitive + reader may gain some information from a quaint little book, by the Abbe de + MONTFAUCON DE VILLARS, entitled <i>The Count of Gabalis, or Conferences + about Secret Sciences</i> (1670), translated into English and published in + 1680, which has recently been reprinted. The elementals, we learn + therefrom, were, unlike other supernatural beings, thought to be mortal. + They could, however, be rendered immortal by means of sexual intercourse + with men or women, as the case might be; and it was, we are told, to the + noble end of endowing them with this great gift, that the sages devoted + themselves. + </p> + <p> + Goety, or black magic, was concerned with the evocation of demons and + devils—spirits supposed to be superior to man in certain powers, but + utterly depraved. Sorcery may be distinguished from witchcraft, inasmuch + as the sorcerer attempted to command evil spirits by the aid of charms, <i>etc</i>., + whereas the witch or wizard was supposed to have made a pact with the Evil + One; though both terms have been rather loosely used, "sorcery" being + sometimes employed as a synonym for "necromancy". Necromancy was concerned + with the evocation of the spirits of the dead: etymologically, the term + stands for the art of foretelling events by means of such evocations, + though it is frequently employed in the wider sense. + </p> + <p> + It would be unnecessary and tedious to give any detailed account of the + methods employed in these magical arts beyond some general remarks. Mr A. + E. WAITE gives full particulars of the various rituals in his <i>Book of + Ceremonial Magic</i> (1911), to which the curious reader may be referred. + The following will, in brief terms, convey a general idea of a magical + evocation:— + </p> + <p> + Choosing a time when there is a favourable conjunction of the planets, the + magician, armed with the implements of magical art, after much prayer and + fasting, betakes himself to a suitable spot, alone, or perhaps accompanied + by two trusty companions. All the articles he intends to employ, the + vestments, the magic sword and lamp, the talismans, the book of spirits, + <i>etc</i>., have been specially prepared and consecrated. If he is about + to invoke a martial spirit, the magician's vestment will be of a red + colour, the talismans in virtue of which he may have power over the spirit + will be of iron, the day chosen a Tuesday, and the incense and perfumes + employed of a nature analogous to Mars. In a similar manner all the + articles employed and the rites performed must in some way be symbolical + of the spirit with which converse is desired. Having arrived at the spot, + the magician first of all traces the magic circle within which, we are + told, no evil spirit can enter; he then commences the magic rite, + involving various prayers and conjurations, a medley of meaningless words, + and, in the case of the black art, a sacrifice. The spirit summoned then + appears (at least, so we are told), and, after granting the magician's + request, is licensed to depart—a matter, we are admonished, of great + importance. + </p> + <p> + The question naturally arises, What were the results obtained by these + magical arts? How far, if at all, was the magician rewarded by the + attainment of his desires? We have asked a similar question regarding the + belief in talismans, and the reply which we there gained undoubtedly + applies in the present case as well. Modern psychical research, as I have + already pointed out, is supplying us with further evidence for the + survival of human personality after bodily death than the innate + conviction humanity in general seems to have in this belief, and the many + reasons which idealistic philosophy advances in favour of it. The question + of the reality of the phenomenon of "materialisation," that is, the bodily + appearance of a discarnate spirit, such as is vouched for by spiritists, + and which is what, it appears, was aimed at in necromancy (though why the + discarnate should be better informed as to the future than the incarnate, + I cannot suppose), must be regarded as <i>sub judice</i>.(1) Many cases of + fraud in connection with the alleged production of this phenomenon have + been detected in recent times; but, inasmuch as the last word has not yet + been said on the subject, we must allow the possibility that necromancy in + the past may have been sometimes successful. But as to the existence of + the angels and devils of magical belief—as well, one might add, of + those of orthodox faith,—nothing can be adduced in evidence of this + either from the results of psychical research or on <i>a priori</i> + grounds. + </p> + <p> + (1) The late Sir WILLIAM CROOKES' <i>Experimental Researches in the + Phenomena of Spiritualism</i> contains evidence in favour of the reality + of this phenomenon very difficult to gainsay. + </p> + <p> + Pseudo-DIONYSIUS classified the angels into three hierarchies, each + subdivided into three orders, as under:— + </p> + <p> + <i>First Hierarchy</i>.—Seraphim, Cherubim, and Thrones; + </p> + <p> + <i>Second Hierarchy</i>.—Dominions, Powers, and Authorities (or + Virtues); + </p> + <p> + <i>Third Hierarchy</i>.—Principalities, Archangels, and Angels,— + </p> + <p> + and this classification was adopted by AGRIPPA and others. + Pseudo-DIONYSIUS explains the names of these orders as follows: "... the + holy designation of the Seraphim denotes either that they are kindling or + burning; and that of the Cherubim, a fulness of knowledge or stream of + wisdom.... The appellation of the most exalted and pre-eminent Thrones + denotes their manifest exaltation above every grovelling inferiority, and + their super-mundane tendency towards higher things;... and their + invariable and firmly-fixed settlement around the veritable Highest, with + the whole force of their powers.... The explanatory name of the Holy + Lordships (Dominions) denotes a certain unslavish elevation... superior to + every kind of cringing slavery, indomitable to every subserviency, and + elevated above every dissimularity, ever aspiring to the true Lordship and + source of Lordship.... The appellation of the Holy Powers denotes a + certain courageous and unflinching virility... vigorously conducted to the + Divine imitation, not forsaking the Godlike movement through its own + unmanliness, but unflinchingly looking to the super-essential and + powerful-making power, and becoming a powerlike image of this, as far as + is attainable....The appellation of the Holy Authorities... denotes the + beautiful and unconfused good order, with regard to Divine receptions, and + the discipline of the super-mundane and intellectual authority... + conducted indomitably, with good order towards Divine things.... (And the + appellation) of the Heavenly Principalities manifests their princely and + leading function, after the Divine example...."(1) There is a certain + grandeur in these views, and if we may be permitted to understand by the + orders of the hierarchy, "discrete" degrees (to use SWEDENBORG'S term) of + spiritual reality—stages in spiritual involution,—we may see + in them a certain truth as well. As I said, all virtue, power, and + knowledge which man has from God was believed to descend to him by way of + these angelical hierarchies, step by step; and thus it was thought that + those of the lowest hierarchy alone were sent from heaven to man. It was + such beings that white magic pretended to evoke. But the practical + occultists, when they did not make them altogether fatuous, attributed to + these angels characters not distinguishable from those of the devils. The + description of the angels in the <i>Heptemeron</i>, or <i>Magical Elements</i>,(2) + falsely at may be taken as fairly characteristic. Of MICHAEL and the other + spirits of Sunday he writes: "Their nature is to procure Gold, Gemmes, + Carbuncles, Riches; to cause one to obtain favour and benevolence; to + dissolve the enmities of men; to raise men to honors; to carry or take + away infirmities." Of GABRIEL and the other spirits of Monday, he says: + "Their nature is to give silver; to convey things from place to place; to + make horses swift, and to disclose the secrets of persons both present and + future." Of SAMAEL and the other spirits of Tuesday he says: "Their nature + is to cause wars, mortality, death and combustions; and to give two + thousand Souldiers at a time; to bring death, infirmities or health," and + so on for RAPHAEL, SACHIEL, ANAEL, CASSIEL, and their colleagues.(1b) + </p> + <p> + (1) <i>On the Heavenly Hierarchy</i>. See the Rev. JOHN PARKER'S + translation of <i>The Works of</i> DIONYSIUS <i>the Areopagite</i>, vol. + ii. (1889), pp. 24, 25, 31, 32, and 36. + </p> + <p> + (2) The book, which first saw the light three centuries after its alleged + author's death, was translated into English by ROBERT TURNER, and + published in 1655 in a volume containing the spurious <i>Fourth Book of + Occult Philosophy</i>, attributed to CORNELIUS AGRIPPA, and other magical + works. It is from this edition that I quote. + </p> + <p> + (1b) <i>Op. cit</i>., pp. 90, 92, and 94. + </p> + <p> + Concerning the evil planetary spirits, the spurious <i>Fourth Book of + Occult Philosophy</i>, attributed to CORNELIUS AGRIPPA, informs us that + the spirits of Saturn "appear for the most part with a tall, lean, and + slender body, with an angry countenance, having four faces; one in the + hinder part of the head, one on the former part of the head, and on each + side nosed or beaked: there likewise appeareth a face on each knee, of a + black shining colour: their motion is the moving of the wince, with a + kinde of earthquake: their signe is white earth, whiter than any Snow." + The writer adds that their "particular forms are,— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + A King having a beard, riding on a Dragon. + An Old man with a beard. + An Old woman leaning on a staffe. + A Hog. + A Dragon. + An Owl. + A black Garment. + A Hooke or Sickle. + A Juniper-tree." +</pre> + <p> + Concerning the spirits of Jupiter, he says that they "appear with a body + sanguine and cholerick, of a middle stature, with a horrible fearful + motion; but with a milde countenance, a gentle speech, and of the colour + of Iron. The motion of them is flashings of Lightning and Thunder; their + signe is, there will appear men about the circle, who shall seem to be + devoured of Lions," their particular forms being— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "A King with a Sword drawn, riding on a Stag. + A Man wearing a Mitre in long rayment. + A Maid with a Laurel-Crown adorned with Flowers. + A Bull. + A Stag. + A Peacock. + An azure Garment. + A Sword. + A Box-tree." +</pre> + <p> + As to the Martian spirits, we learn that "they appear in a tall body, + cholerick, a filthy countenance, of colour brown, swarthy or red, having + horns like Harts horns, and Griphins claws, bellowing like wilde Bulls. + Their Motion is like fire burning; their signe Thunder and Lightning about + the Circle. Their particular shapes are,— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + A King armed riding upon a Wolf. + A Man armed. + A Woman holding a buckler on her thigh. + A Hee-goat. + A Horse. + A Stag. + A red Garment. + Wool. + A Cheeslip."(1) +</pre> + <p> + (1) <i>Op. cit</i>., pp. 43-45. + </p> + <p> + The rest are described in equally fantastic terms. + </p> + <p> + I do not think I shall be accused of being unduly sceptical if I say that + such beings as these could not have been evoked by any magical rites, + because such beings do not and did not exist, save in the magician's own + imagination. The proviso, however, is important, for, inasmuch as these + fantastic beings did exist in the imagination of the credulous, therein + they may, indeed, have been evoked. The whole of magic ritual was well + devised to produce hallucination. A firm faith in the ritual employed, and + a strong effort of will to bring about the desired result, were usually + insisted upon as essential to the success of the operation.(2) A period of + fasting prior to the experiment was also frequently prescribed as + necessary, which, by weakening the body, must have been conducive to + hallucination. Furthermore, abstention from the gratification of the + sexual appetite was stipulated in certain cases, and this, no doubt, had a + similar effect, especially as concerns magical evocations directed to the + satisfaction of the sexual impulse. Add to these factors the details of + the ritual itself, the nocturnal conditions under which it was carried + out, and particularly the suffumigations employed, which, most frequently, + were of a narcotic nature, and it is not difficult to believe that almost + any type of hallucination may have occurred. Such, as we have seen, was + ELIPHAS LEVI'S view of ceremonial magic; and whatever may be said as + concerns his own experiment therein (for one would have thought that the + essential element of faith was lacking in this case), it is undoubtedly + the true view as concerns the ceremonial magic of the past. As this author + well says: "Witchcraft, properly so-called, that is ceremonial operation + with intent to bewitch, acts only on the operator, and serves to fix and + confirm his will, by formulating it with persistence and labour, the two + conditions which make volition efficacious."(1b) + </p> + <p> + (2) "MAGICAL AXIOM. In the circle of its action, every word creates that + which it affirms. + </p> + <p> + DIRECT CONSEQUENCE. He who affirms the devil, creates or makes the devil. + </p> + <p> + "<i>Conditions of Success in Infernal Evocations</i>. 1, Invincible + obstinacy; 2, a conscience at once hardened to crime and most subject to + remorse and fear; 3, affected or natural ignorance; 4, blind faith in all + that is incredible, 5, a completely false idea of God. (ELIPHAS LEVI: <i>Op. + cit</i>., pp. 297 and 298.) + </p> + <p> + (1b) ELIPHAS LEVI: <i>Op. cit</i>., pp. 130 and 131. + </p> + <p> + EMANUEL SWEDENBORG in one place writes: "Magic is nothing but the + perversion of order; it is especially the abuse of correspondences."(2) A + study of the ceremonial magic of the Middle Ages and the following century + or two certainly justifies SWEDENBORG in writing of magic as something + evil. The distinction, rigid enough in theory, between white and black, + legitimate and illegitimate, magic, was, as I have indicated, extremely + indefinite in practice. As Mr A. E. WAITE justly remarks: "Much that + passed current in the west as White (<i>i.e</i>. permissible) Magic was + only a disguised goeticism, and many of the resplendent angels invoked + with divine rites reveal their cloven hoofs. It is not too much to say + that a large majority of past psychological experiments were conducted to + establish communication with demons, and that for unlawful purposes. The + popular conceptions concerning the diabolical spheres, which have been all + accredited by magic, may have been gross exaggerations of fact concerning + rudimentary and perverse intelligences, but the wilful viciousness of the + communicants is substantially untouched thereby."(1b) + </p> + <p> + (2) EMANUEL SWEDENBORG: <i>Arcana Caelestia</i>, SE 6692. + </p> + <p> + (1b) ARTHUR EDWARD WAITE: <i>The Occult Sciences</i> (1891), p. 51. + </p> + <p> + These "psychological experiments" were not, save, perhaps, in rare cases, + carried out in the spirit of modern psychical research, with the high aim + of the man of science. It was, indeed, far otherwise; selfish motives were + at the root of most of them; and, apart from what may be termed "medicinal + magic," it was for the satisfaction of greed, lust, revenge, that men and + women had recourse to magical arts. The history of goeticism and + witchcraft is one of the most horrible of all histories. The "Grimoires," + witnesses to the superstitious folly of the past, are full of disgusting, + absurd, and even criminal rites for the satisfaction of unlawful desires + and passions. The Church was certainly justified in attempting to put down + the practice of magic, but the means adopted in this design and the + results to which they led were even more abominable than witchcraft + itself. The methods of detecting witches and the tortures to which + suspected persons were subjected to force them to confess to imaginary + crimes, employed in so-called civilised England and Scotland and also in + America, to say nothing of countries in which the "Holy" Inquisition held + undisputed sway, are almost too horrible to describe. For details the + reader may be referred to Sir WALTER SCOTT'S <i>Letters on Demonology and + Witchcraft</i> (1830), and (as concerns America) COTTON MATHER'S The <i>Wonders + of the Invisible World</i> (1692). The credulous Church and the credulous + people were terribly afraid of the power of witchcraft, and, as always, + fear destroyed their mental balance and made them totally disregard the + demands of justice. The result may be well illustrated by what almost + inevitably happens when a country goes to war; for war, as the Hon. + BERTRAND RUSSELL has well shown, is fear's offspring. Fear of the enemy + causes the military party to persecute in an insensate manner, without the + least regard to justice, all those of their fellow-men whom they consider + are not heart and soul with them in their cause; similarly the Church + relentlessly persecuted its supposed enemies, of whom it was so afraid. No + doubt some of the poor wretches that were tortured and killed on the + charge of witchcraft really believed themselves to have made a pact with + the devil, and were thus morally depraved, though, generally speaking, + they were no more responsible for their actions than any other madmen. But + the majority of the persons persecuted as witches and wizards were + innocent even of this. + </p> + <p> + However, it would, I think, be unwise to disregard the existence of + another side to the question of the validity and ethical value of magic, + and to use the word only to stand for something essentially evil. + SWEDENBORG, we may note, in the course of a long passage from the work + from which I have already quoted, says that by "magic" is signified "the + science of spiritual things"(1) His position appears to be that there is a + genuine magic, or science of spiritual things, and a false magic, that + science perverted: a view of the matter which I propose here to adopt. The + word "magic" itself is derived from the Greek "magos," the wise man of the + East, and hence the strict etymological meaning of the term is "the wisdom + or science of the magi"; and it is, I think, significant that we are told + (and I see no reason to doubt the truth of it) that the magi were among + the first to worship the new-born CHRIST.(2) + </p> + <p> + (1) <i>Op. cit</i>., SE 5223. + </p> + <p> + (2) See The Gospel according to MATTHEW, chap. ii., verses 1 to 12. + </p> + <p> + If there be an abuse of correspondences, or symbols, there surely must + also be a use, to which the word "magic" is not inapplicable. As such, + religious ritual, and especially the sacraments of the Christian Church, + will, no doubt, occur to the minds of those who regard these symbols as + efficacious, though they would probably hesitate to apply the term + "magical" to them. But in using this term as applying thereto, I do not + wish to suggest that any such rites or ceremonies possess, or can possess, + any CAUSAL efficacy in the moral evolution of the soul. The will alone, in + virtue of the power vouchsafed to it by the Source of all power, can + achieve this; but I do think that the soul may be assisted by ritual, + harmoniously related to the states of mind which it is desired to induce. + No doubt there is a danger of religious ritual, especially when its + meaning is lost, being engaged in for its own sake. It is then mere + superstition;(1) and, in view of the danger of this degeneracy, many + robust minds, such as the members of the Society of Friends, prefer to + dispense with its aid altogether. When ritual is associated with erroneous + doctrines, the results are even more disastrous, as I have indicated in + "The Belief in Talismans". But when ritual is allied with, and based upon, + as adequately symbolising, the high teaching of genuine religion, it may + be, and, in fact, is, found very helpful by many people. As such its + efficacy seems to me to be altogether magical, in the best sense of that + word. + </p> + <p> + (1) As "ELIPHAS LEVI" well says: "Superstition... is the sign surviving + the thought; it is the dead body of a religious rite." (<i>Op cit</i>., p. + 150.) + </p> + <p> + But, indeed, I think a still wider application of the word "magic" is + possible. "All experience is magic," says NOVALIS (1772-1801), "and only + magically explicable";(2a) and again: "It is only because of the + feebleness of our perceptions and activity that we do not perceive + ourselves to be in a fairy world." No doubt it will be objected that the + common experiences of daily life are "natural," whereas magic postulates + the "supernatural". If, as is frequently done, we use the term "natural," + as relating exclusively to the physical realm, then, indeed, we may well + speak of magic as "supernatural," because its aims are psychical. On the + other hand, the term "natural" is sometimes employed as referring to the + whole realm of order, and in this sense one can use the word "magic" as + descriptive of Nature herself when viewed in the light of an idealistic + philosophy, such as that of SWEDENBORG, in which all causation is seen to + be essentially spiritual, the things of this world being envisaged as + symbols of ideas or spiritual verities, and thus physical causation + regarded as an appearance produced in virtue of the magical, non-causal + efficacy of symbols.(1) Says CORNELIUS AGRIPPA: "... every day some + natural thing is drawn by art and some divine thing is drawn by Nature + which, the Egyptians, seeing, called Nature a Magicianess (<i>i.e</i>.) + the very Magical power itself, in the attracting of like by like, and of + suitable things by suitable."(2) + </p> + <p> + (2a) NOVALIS: <i>Schriften</i> (ed. by LUDWIG TIECK and FR. SCHLEGEL, + 1805), vol. ii. p. 195 + </p> + <p> + (1) For a discussion of the essentially magical character of inductive + reasoning, see my <i>The Magic of Experience</i> (1915) + </p> + <p> + (2) <i>Op. cit</i>., bk. i. chap. xxxvii. p. 119. + </p> + <p> + I would suggest, in conclusion, that there is nothing really opposed to + the spirit of modern science in the thesis that "all experience is magic, + and only magically explicable." Science does not pretend to reveal the + fundamental or underlying cause of phenomena, does not pretend to answer + the final Why? This is rather the business of philosophy, though, in thus + distinguishing between science and philosophy, I am far from insinuating + that philosophy should be otherwise than scientific. We often hear + religious but non-scientific men complain because scientific and perhaps + equally as religious men do not in their books ascribe the production of + natural phenomena to the Divine Power. But if they were so to do they + would be transcending their business as scientists. In every science + certain simple facts of experience are taken for granted: it is the + business of the scientist to reduce other and more complex facts of + experience to terms of these data, not to explain these data themselves. + Thus the physicist attempts to reduce other related phenomena of greater + complexity to terms of simple force and motion; but, What are force and + motion? Why does force produce or result in motion? are questions which + lie beyond the scope of physics. In order to answer these questions, if, + indeed, this be possible, we must first inquire, How and why do these + ideas of force and motion arise in our minds? These problems land us in + the psychical or spiritual world, and the term "magic" at once becomes + significant. + </p> + <p> + "If, says THOMAS CARLYLE,... we... have led thee into the true Land of + Dreams; and... thou lookest, even for moments, into the region of the + Wonderful, and seest and feelest that thy daily life is girt with Wonder, + and based on Wonder, and thy very blankets and breeches are Miracles,—then + art thou profited beyond money's worth...."(1) + </p> + <p> + (1) THOMAS CARLYLE: <i>Sartor Resartus</i>, bk. iii. chap. ix. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0010" id="link2H_4_0010"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + VIII. ARCHITECTURAL SYMBOLISM + </h2> + <p> + I WAS once rash enough to suggest in an essay "On Symbolism in Art"(1) + that "a true work of art is at once realistic, imaginative, and + symbolical," and that its aim is to make manifest the spiritual + significance of the natural objects dealt with. I trust that those artists + (no doubt many) who disagree with me will forgive me—a man of + science—for having ventured to express any opinion whatever on the + subject. But, at any rate, if the suggestions in question are accepted, + then a criterion for distinguishing between art and craft is at once + available; for we may say that, whilst craft aims at producing works which + are physically useful, art aims at producing works which are spiritually + useful. Architecture, from this point of view, is a combination of craft + and art. It may, indeed, be said that the modern architecture which + creates our dwelling-houses, factories, and even to a large extent our + places of worship, is pure craft unmixed with art On the other hand, it + might be argued that such works of architecture are not always devoid of + decoration, and that "decorative art," even though the "decorative artist" + is unconscious of this fact, is based upon rules and employs symbols which + have a deep significance. The truly artistic element in architecture, + however, is more clearly manifest if we turn our gaze to the past. One + thinks at once, of course, of the pyramids and sphinx of Egypt, and the + rich and varied symbolism of design and decoration of antique structures + to be found in Persia and elsewhere in the East. It is highly probable + that the Egyptian pyramids were employed for astronomical purposes, and + thus subserved physical utility, but it seems no less likely that their + shape was suggested by a belief in some system of geometrical symbolism, + and was intended to embody certain of their philosophical or religious + doctrines. + </p> + <p> + (1) Published in <i>The Occult Review</i> for August 1912, vol. xvi. pp. + 98 to 102. + </p> + <p> + The mediaeval cathedrals and churches of Europe admirably exhibit this + combination of art with craft. Craft was needed to design and construct + permanent buildings to protect worshippers from the inclemency of the + weather; art was employed not only to decorate such buildings, but it + dictated to craft many points in connection with their design. The + builders of the mediaeval churches endeavoured so to construct their works + that these might, as a whole and in their various parts, embody the + truths, as they believed them, of the Christian religion: thus the + cruciform shape of churches, their orientation, etc. The practical value + of symbolism in church architecture is obvious. As Mr F. E. HULME remarks, + "The sculptured fonts or stained-glass windows in the churches of the + Middle Ages were full of teaching to a congregation of whom the greater + part could not read, to whom therefore one great avenue of knowledge was + closed. The ignorant are especially impressed by pictorial teaching, and + grasp its meaning far more readily than they can follow a written + description or a spoken discourse."(1) + </p> + <p> + (1) F. EDWARD HULME, F.L.S., F.S.A.: <i>The History, Principles, and + Practice of Symbolism in Christian Art</i> (1909), p. 2. + </p> + <p> + The subject of symbolism in church architecture is an extensive one, + involving many side issues. In these excursions we shall consider only one + aspect of it, namely, the symbolic use of animal forms in English church + architecture. + </p> + <p> + As Mr COLLINS, who has written, in recent years, an interesting work on + this topic of much use to archaeologists as a book of data,(2a) points + out, the great sources of animal symbolism were the famous <i>Physiologus</i> + and other natural history books of the Middle Ages (generally called + "Bestiaries"), and the Bible, mystically understood. The modern tendency + is somewhat unsympathetic towards any attempt to interpret the Bible + symbolically, and certainly some of the interpretations that have been + forced upon it in the name of symbolism are crude and fantastic enough. + But in the belief of the mystics, culminating in the elaborate system of + correspondences of SWEDENBORG, that every natural object, every event in + the history of the human race, and every word of the Bible, has a symbolic + and spiritual significance, there is, I think, a fundamental truth. We + must, however, as I have suggested already, distinguish between true and + forced symbolism. The early Christians employed the fish as a symbol of + Christ, because the Greek word for fish, icqus, is obtained by <i>notariqon</i>(1) + from the phrase [gr 'Ihsous Cristos Qeou Uios, Swthr]—"JESUS CHRIST, + the Son of God, the Saviour." Of course, the obvious use of such a symbol + was its entire unintelligibility to those who had not yet been instructed + in the mysteries of the Christian faith, since in the days of persecution + some degree of secrecy was necessary. But the symbol has significance only + in the Greek language, and that of an entirely arbitrary nature. There is + nothing in the nature of the fish, apart from its name in Greek, which + renders it suitable to be used as a symbol of CHRIST. Contrast this + pseudo-symbol, however, with that of the Good Shepherd, the Lamb of God + (fig. 34), or the Lion of Judah. Here we have what may be regarded as true + symbols, something of whose meanings are clear to the smallest degree of + spiritual sight, even though the second of them has frequently been badly + misinterpreted. + </p> + <p> + (2a) ARTHUR H. COLLINS, M.A.: <i>Symbolism of Animals and Birds + represented in English Church Architecture</i> (1913). + </p> + <p> + (1) A Kabalistic process by which a word is formed by taking the initial + letters of a sentence or phrase. + </p> + <p> + It was a belief in the spiritual or moral significance of nature similar + to that of the mystical expositors of the Bible, that inspired the + mediaeval naturalists. The Bestiaries almost invariably conclude the + account of each animal with the moral that might be drawn from its + behaviour. The interpretations are frequently very far-fetched, and as the + writers were more interested in the morals than in the facts of natural + history themselves, the supposed facts from which they drew their morals + were frequently very far from being of the nature of facts. Sometimes the + product of this inaccuracy is grotesque, as shown by the following + quotation: "The elephants are in an absurd way typical of Adam and Eve, + who ate of the forbidden fruit, and also have the dragon for their enemy. + It was supposed that the elephant... used to sleep by leaning against a + tree. The hunters would come by night, and cut the trunk through. Down he + would come, roaring helplessly. None of his friends would be able to help + him, until a small elephant should come and lever him up with his trunk. + This small elephant was symbolic of Jesus Christ, Who came in great + humility to rescue the human race which had fallen 'through a tree.' "(1) + </p> + <p> + (1) A. H. COLLINS: <i>Symbolism of Animals, etc</i>., pp. 41 and 42. + </p> + <p> + In some cases, though the symbolism is based upon quite erroneous notions + concerning natural history, and is so far fantastic, it is not devoid of + charm. The use of the pelican to symbolise the Saviour is a case in point. + Legend tells us that when other food is unobtainable, the pelican thrusts + its bill into its breast (whence the red colour of the bill) and feeds its + young with its life-blood. Were this only a fact, the symbol would be most + appropriate. There is another and far less charming form of the legend, + though more in accord with current perversions of Christian doctrine, + according to which the pelican uses its blood to revive its young, after + having slain them through anger aroused by the great provocation which + they are supposed to give it. For an example of the use of the pelican in + church architecture see fig. 36. + </p> + <p> + Mention must also be made of the purely fabulous animals of the + Bestiaries, such as the basilisk, centaur, dragon, griffin, hydra, + mantichora, unicorn, phoenix, <i>etc</i>. The centaur (fig. 39) was a + beast, half man, half horse. It typified the flesh or carnal mind of man, + and the legend of the perpetual war between the centaur and a certain + tribe of simple savages who were said to live in trees in India, + symbolised the combat between the flesh and the spirit.(1) + </p> + <p> + (1) A H. COLLINS: <i>Symbolism of Animals, etc</i>., pp. 150 and 153. + </p> + <p> + With bow and arrow in its hands the centaur forms the astrological sign + Sagittarius (or the Archer). An interesting example of this sign occurring + in church architecture is to be found on the western doorway of + Portchester Church—a most beautiful piece of Norman architecture. + "This sign of the Zodiac," writes the Rev. Canon VAUGHAN, M.A., a former + Vicar of Portchester, "was the badge of King Stephen, and its presence on + the west front (of Portchester Church) seems to indicate, what was often + the case elsewhere, that the elaborate Norman carving was not carried out + until after the completion of the building."(2) The facts, however, that + this Sagittarius is accompanied on the other side of the doorway by a + couple of fishes, which form the astrological sign Pisces (or the Fishes), + and that these two signs are what are termed, in astrological phraseology, + the "houses" of the planet Jupiter, the "Major Fortune," suggest that the + architect responsible for the design, influenced by the astrological + notions of his day, may have put the signs there in order to attract + Jupiter's beneficent influence. Or he may have had the Sagittarius carved + for the reason Canon VAUGHAN suggests, and then, remembering how good a + sign it was astrologically, had the Pisces added to complete the + effect.(1b) + </p> + <p> + (2) Rev. Canon VAUGHAN, M.A.: A Short History of Portchester Castle, p. + 14. + </p> + <p> + (1b) Two other possible explanations of the Pisces have been suggested by + the Rev. A. HEADLEY. In his MS. book written in 1888, when he was Vicar of + Portchester, he writes: "I have discovered an interesting proof that it + (the Church) was finished in Stephen's reign, namely, the figure of + Sagittarius in the Western Doorway. + </p> + <p> + "Stephen adopted this as his badge for the double reason that it formed + part of the arms of the city of Blois, and that the sun was in Sagittarius + in December when he came to the throne. I, therefore, conclude that this + badge was placed where it is to mark the completion of the church. + </p> + <p> + "There is another sign of the Zodiac in the archway, apparently Pisces. + This may have been chosen to mark the month in which the church was + finished, or simply on account of its nearness to the sea. At one time I + fancied it might refer to March, the month in which Lady Day occurred, + thus referring to the Patron Saint, St Mary. As the sun leaves Pisces just + before Lady Day this does not explain it. Possibly in the old calendar it + might do so. This is a matter for further research." (I have to thank the + Rev. H. LAWRENCE FRY, present Vicar of Portchester, for this quotation, + and the Rev. A. HEADLEY for permission to utilise it.) + </p> + <p> + The phoenix and griffin we have encountered already in our excursions. The + latter, we are told, inhabits desert places in India, where it can find + nothing for its young to eat. It flies away to other regions to seek food, + and is sufficiently strong to carry off an ox. Thus it symbolises the + devil, who is ever anxious to carry away our souls to the deserts of hell. + Fig. 37 illustrates an example of the use of this symbolic beast in church + architecture. + </p> + <p> + The mantichora is described by PLINY (whose statements were + unquestioningly accepted by the mediaeval naturalists), on the authority + of CTESIAS (<i>fl</i>. 400 B.C.), as having "A triple row of teeth, which + fit into each other like those of a comb, the face and ears of a man, and + azure eyes, is the colour of blood, has the body of the lion, and a tail + ending in a sting, like that of the scorpion. Its voice resembles the + union of the sound of the flute and the trumpet; it is of excessive + swiftness, and is particularly fond of human flesh."(1) + </p> + <p> + (1) PLINY: <i>Natural History</i>, bk. viii. chap. xxx. (BOSTOCK and + RILEY'S trans., vol. ii., 1855, p. 280.) + </p> + <p> + Concerning the unicorn, in an eighteenth-century work on natural history + we read that this is "a Beast, which though doubted of by many Writers, + yet is by others thus described: He has but one Horn, and that an + exceedingly rich one, growing out of the middle of his Forehead. His Head + resembles an Hart's, his Feet an Elephant's, his tail a Boar's, and the + rest of his Body an Horse's. The Horn is about a Foot and half in length. + His Voice is like the Lowing of an Ox. His Mane and Hair are of a + yellowish Colour. His Horn is as hard as Iron, and as rough as any File, + twisted or curled, like a flaming Sword; very straight, sharp, and every + where black, excepting the Point. Great Virtues are attributed to it, in + expelling of Poison and curing of several Diseases. He is not a Beast of + prey."(2) The method of capturing the animal believed in by mediaeval + writers was a curious one. The following is a literal translation from the + <i>Bestiary</i> of PHILIPPE DE THAUN (12th century):— + </p> + <p> + (2) (THOMAS BOREMAN): <i>A Description of Three Hundred Animals</i> + (1730), p. 6. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Monosceros is an animal which has one horn on its head, + Therefore it is so named; it has the form of a goat, + It is caught by means of a virgin, now hear in what manner. + When a man intends to hunt it and to take and ensnare it + He goes to the forest where is its repair; + There he places a virgin, with her breast uncovered, + And by its smell the monosceros perceives it; + Then it comes to the virgin, and kisses her breast, + Falls asleep on her lap, and so comes to its death; + The man arrives immediately, and kills it in its sleep, + Or takes it alive and does as he likes with it. + It signifies much, I will not omit to tell it you. + + "Monosceros is Greek, it means <i>one horn</i> in French: + A beast of such a description signifies Jesus Christ; + One God he is and shall be, and was and will continue so; + He placed himself in the virgin, and took flesh for man's sake, + And for virginity to show chastity; + To a virgin he APPEARED and a virgin conceived him, + A virgin she is, and will be, and will remain always. + Now hear briefly the signification. + + "This animal in truth signifies God; + Know that the virgin signifies St Mary; + By her breast we understand similarly Holy Church; + And then by the kiss it ought to signify, + That a man when he sleeps is in semblance of death; + God slept as man, who suffered death on the cross, + And his destruction was our redemption, + And his labour our repose, + Thus God deceived the Devil by a proper semblance; + Soul and body were one, so was God and man, + And this is the signification of an animal of that description."(1) +</pre> + <p> + (1) <i>Popular Treatises on Science written during the Middle Ages in + Anglo-Saxon, Anglo-Norman, and English</i>, ed. by THOMAS WRIGHT + (Historical Society of Science, 1841), pp. 81-82. + </p> + <p> + This being the current belief concerning the symbolism of the unicorn in + the Middle Ages, it is not surprising to find this animal utilised in + church architecture; for an example see fig. 35. + </p> + <p> + The belief in the existence of these fabulous beasts may very probably + have been due to the materialising of what were originally nothing more + than mere arbitrary symbols, as I have already suggested of the + phoenix.(1) Thus the account of the mantichora may, as BOSTOCK has + suggested, very well be a description of certain hieroglyphic figures, + examples of which are still to be found in the ruins of Assyrian and + Persian cities. This explanation seems, on the whole, more likely than the + alternative hypothesis that such beliefs were due to mal-observation; + though that, no doubt, helped in their formation. + </p> + <p> + (1) "Superstitions concerning Birds." + </p> + <p> + It may be questioned, however, whether the architects and preachers of the + Middle Ages altogether believed in the strange fables of the Bestiaries. + As Mr COLLINS says in reply to this question: "Probably they were + credulous enough. But, on the whole, we may say that the truth of the + story was just what they did not trouble about, any more than some + clergymen are particular about the absolute truth of the stories they tell + children from the pulpit. The application, the lesson, is the thing!" With + their desire to interpret Nature spiritually, we ought, I think, to + sympathise. But there was one truth they had yet to learn, namely, that in + order to interpret Nature spiritually, it is necessary first to understand + her aright in her literal sense. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0011" id="link2H_4_0011"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + IX. THE QUEST OF THE PHILOSOPHER'S STONE + </h2> + <p> + THE need of unity is a primary need of human thought. Behind the varied + multiplicity of the world of phenomena, primitive man, as I have indicated + on a preceding excursion, begins to seek, more or less consciously, for + that Unity which alone is Real. And this statement not only applies to the + first dim gropings of the primitive human mind, but sums up almost the + whole of science and philosophy; for almost all science and philosophy is + explicitly or implicitly a search for unity, for one law or one love, one + matter or one spirit. That which is the aim of the search may, indeed, be + expressed under widely different terms, but it is always conceived to be + the unity in which all multiplicity is resolved, whether it be thought of + as one final law of necessity, which all things obey, and of which all the + various other "laws of nature" are so many special and limited + applications; or as one final love for which all things are created, and + to which all things aspire; as one matter of which all bodies are but + varying forms; or as one spirit, which is the life of all things, and of + which all things are so many manifestations. Every scientist and + philosopher is a merchant seeking for goodly pearls, willing to sell every + pearl that he has, if he may secure the One Pearl beyond price, because he + knows that in that One Pearl all others are included. + </p> + <p> + This search for unity in multiplicity, however, is not confined to the + acknowledged scientist and philosopher. More or less unconsciously + everyone is engaged in this quest. Harmony and unity are the very + fundamental laws of the human mind itself, and, in a sense, all mental + activity is the endeavour to bring about a state of harmony and unity in + the mind. No two ideas that are contradictory of one another, and are + perceived to be of this nature, can permanently exist in any sane man's + mind. It is true that many people try to keep certain portions of their + mental life in water-tight compartments; thus some try to keep their + religious convictions and their business ideas, or their religious faith + and their scientific knowledge, separate from another one—and, it + seems, often succeed remarkably well in so doing. But, ultimately, the + arbitrary mental walls they have erected will break down by the force of + their own ideas. Contradictory ideas from different compartments will then + present themselves to consciousness at the same moment of time, and the + result of the perception of their contradictory nature will be mental + anguish and turmoil, persisting until one set of ideas is conquered and + overcome by the other, and harmony and unity are restored. + </p> + <p> + It is true of all of us, then, that we seek for Unity—unity in mind + and life. Some seek it in science and a life of knowledge; some seek it in + religion and a life of faith; some seek it in human love and find it in + the life of service to their fellows; some seek it in pleasure and the + gratification of the senses' demands; some seek it in the harmonious + development of all the facets of their being. Many the methods, right and + wrong; many the terms under which the One is conceived, true and false—in + a sense, to use the phraseology of a bygone system of philosophy, we are + all, consciously or unconsciously, following paths that lead thither or + paths that lead away, seekers in the quest of the Philosopher's Stone. + </p> + <p> + Let us, in these excursions in the byways of thought, consider for a while + the form that the quest of fundamental unity took in the hands of those + curious mediaeval philosophers, half mystics, half experimentalists in + natural things—that are known by the name of "alchemists." + </p> + <p> + The common opinion concerning alchemy is that it was a pseudo-science or + pseudo-art flourishing during the Dark Ages, and having for its aim the + conversion of common metals into silver and gold by means of a most + marvellous and wholly fabulous agent called the Philosopher's Stone, that + its devotees were half knaves, half fools, whose views concerning Nature + were entirely erroneous, and whose objects were entirely mercenary. This + opinion is not absolutely destitute of truth; as a science alchemy + involved many fantastic errors; and in the course of its history it + certainly proved attractive to both knaves and fools. But if this opinion + involves some element of truth, it involves a far greater proportion of + error. Amongst the alchemists are numbered some of the greatest intellects + of the Middle Ages—ROGER BACON (<i>c</i>. 1214-1294), for example, + who might almost be called the father of experimental science. And whether + or not the desire for material wealth was a secondary object, the true aim + of the genuine alchemist was a much nobler one than this as one of them + exclaims with true scientific fervour: "Would to God... all men might + become adepts in our Art—for then gold, the great idol of mankind, + would lose its value, and we should prize it only for its scientific + teaching."(1) Moreover, recent developments in physical and chemical + science seem to indicate that the alchemists were not so utterly wrong in + their concept of Nature as has formerly been supposed—that, whilst + they certainly erred in both their methods and their interpretations of + individual phenomena, they did intuitively grasp certain fundamental facts + concerning the universe ofthe very greatest importance. + </p> + <p> + (1) EIRENAEUS PHILALETHES: <i>An Open Entrance to the Closed Palace of the + King</i>. (See <i>The Hermetic Museum, Restored and Enlarged</i>, ed. by + A. E. WAITE, 1893, vol. ii. p. 178.) + </p> + <p> + Suppose, however, that the theories of the alchemists are entirely + erroneous from beginning to end, and are nowhere relieved by the merest + glimmer of truth. Still they were believed to be true, and this belief had + an important influence upon human thought. Many men of science have, I am + afraid, been too prone to regard the mystical views of the alchemists as + unintelligible; but, whatever their theories may be to us, these theories + were certainly very real to them: it is preposterous to maintain that the + writings of the alchemists are without meaning, even though their views + are altogether false. And the more false their views are believed to be, + the more necessary does it become to explain why they should have gained + such universal credit. Here we have problems into which scientific inquiry + is not only legitimate, but, I think, very desirable,—apart + altogether from the question of the truth or falsity of alchemy as a + science, or its utility as an art. What exactly was the system of beliefs + grouped under the term "alchemy," and what was its aim? Why were the + beliefs held? What was their precise influence upon human thought and + culture? + </p> + <p> + It was in order to elucidate problems of this sort, as well as to + determine what elements of truth, if any, there are in the theories of the + alchemists, that The Alchemical Society was founded in 1912, mainly + through my own efforts and those of my confreres, and for the first time + something like justice was being done to the memory of the alchemists when + the Society's activities were stayed by that greatest calamity of history, + the European War. + </p> + <p> + Some students of the writings of the alchemists have advanced a very + curious and interesting theory as to the aims of the alchemists, which may + be termed "the transcendental theory". According to this theory, the + alchemists were concerned only with the mystical processes affecting the + soul of man, and their chemical references are only to be understood + symbolically. In my opinion, however, this view of the subject is rendered + untenable by the lives of the alchemists themselves; for, as Mr WAITE has + very fully pointed out in his <i>Lives of Alchemystical Philosophers</i> + (1888), the lives of the alchemists show them to have been mainly + concerned with chemical and physical processes; and, indeed, to their + labours we owe many valuable discoveries of a chemical nature. But the + fact that such a theory should ever have been formulated, and should not + be altogether lacking in consistency, may serve to direct our attention to + the close connection between alchemy and mysticism. + </p> + <p> + If we wish to understand the origin and aims of alchemy we must endeavour + to recreate the atmosphere of the Middle Ages, and to look at the subject + from the point of view of the alchemists themselves. Now, this atmosphere + was, as I have indicated in a previous essay, surcharged with mystical + theology and mystical philosophy. Alchemy, so to speak, was generated and + throve in a dim religious light. We cannot open a book by any one of the + better sort of alchemists without noticing how closely their theology and + their chemistry are interwoven, and what a remarkably religious view they + take of their subject. Thus one alchemist writes: "In the first place, let + every devout and God-fearing chemist and student of this Art consider that + this arcanum should be regarded, not only as a truly great, but as a most + holy Art (seeing that it typifies and shadows out the highest heavenly + good). Therefore, if any man desire to reach this great and unspeakable + Mystery, he must remember that it is obtained not by the might of man, but + by the grace of God, and that not our will or desire, but only the mercy + of the Most High, can bestow it upon us. For this reason you must first of + all cleanse your heart, lift it up to Him alone, and ask of Him this gift + in true, earnest and undoubting prayer. He alone can give and bestow + it."(1) Whilst another alchemist declares: "I am firmly persuaded that any + unbeliever who got truly to know this Art, would straightway confess the + truth of our Blessed Religion, and believe in the Trinity and in our Lord + JESUS CHRIST."(2) + </p> + <p> + (1) <i>The Sophic Hydrolith; or, Water Stone of the Wise</i>. (See <i>The + Hermetic Museum</i>, vol. i. pp. 74 and 75.) + </p> + <p> + (2) PETER BONUS: <i>The New Pearl of Great Price</i> (trans. by A. E. + WAITE, 1894), p. 275. + </p> + <p> + Now, what I suggest is that the alchemists constructed their chemical + theories for the main part by means of <i>a priori</i> reasoning, and that + the premises from which they started were (i.) the truth of mystical + theology, especially the doctrine of the soul's regeneration, and (ii.) + the truth of mystical philosophy, which asserts that the objects of Nature + are symbols of spiritual verities. There is, I think, abundant evidence to + show that alchemy was a more or less deliberate attempt to apply, + according to the principles of analogy, the doctrines of religious + mysticism to chemical and physical phenomena. Some of this evidence I + shall attempt to put forward in this essay. + </p> + <p> + In the first place, however, I propose to say a few words more in + description of the theological and philosophical doctrines which so + greatly influenced the alchemists, and which, I believe, they borrowed for + their attempted explanations of chemical and physical phenomena. This + system of doctrine I have termed "mysticism"—a word which is + unfortunately equivocal, and has been used to denote various systems of + religious and philosophical thought, from the noblest to the most + degraded. I have, therefore, further to define my usage of the term. + </p> + <p> + By mystical theology I mean that system of religious thought which + emphasises the unity between Creator and creature, though not necessarily + to the extent of becoming pantheistic. Man, mystical theology asserts, has + sprung from God, but has fallen away from Him through self-love. Within + man, however, is the seed of divine grace, whereby, if he will follow the + narrow road of self-renunciation, he may be regenerated, born anew, + becoming transformed into the likeness of God and ultimately indissolubly + united to God in love. God is at once the Creator and the Restorer of + man's soul, He is the Origin as well as the End of all existence; and He + is also the Way to that End. In Christian mysticism, CHRIST is the + Pattern, towards which the mystic strives; CHRIST also is the means + towards the attainment of this end. + </p> + <p> + By mystical philosophy I mean that system of philosophical thought which + emphasises the unity of the Cosmos, asserting that God and the spiritual + may be perceived immanent in the things of this world, because all things + natural are symbols and emblems of spiritual verities. As one of the <i>Golden + Verses</i> attributed to PYTHAGORAS, which I have quoted in a previous + essay, puts it: "The Nature of this Universe is in all things alike"; + commenting upon which, HIEROCLES, writing in the fifth or sixth century, + remarks that "Nature, in forming this Universe after the Divine Measure + and Proportion, made it in all things conformable and like to itself, + analogically in different manners. Of all the different species, diffused + throughout the whole, it made, as it were, an Image of the Divine Beauty, + imparting variously to the copy the perfections of the Original."(1) We + have, however, already encountered so many instances of this belief, that + no more need be said here concerning it. + </p> + <p> + (1) <i>Commentary of</i> HIEROCLES <i>on the Golden Verses of</i> + PYTHAGORAS (trans. by N. ROWE, 1906), pp. 101 and 102. + </p> + <p> + In fine, as Dean INGE well says: "Religious Mysticism may be defined as + the attempt to realise the presence of the living God in the soul and in + nature, or, more generally, as <i>the attempt to realise, in thought and + feeling, the immanence of the temporal in the eternal, and of the eternal + in the temporal</i>."(2) + </p> + <p> + (2) WILLIAM RALPH INGE, M.A.: <i>Christian Mysticism</i> (the Bampton + Lectures, 1899), p. 5. + </p> + <p> + Now, doctrines such as these were not only very prevalent during the + Middle Ages, when alchemy so greatly flourished, but are of great + antiquity, and were undoubtedly believed in by the learned class in Egypt + and elsewhere in the East in those remote days when, as some think, + alchemy originated, though the evidence, as will, I hope, become plain as + we proceed, points to a later and post-Christian origin for the central + theorem of alchemy. So far as we can judge from their writings, the more + important alchemists were convinced of the truth of these doctrines, and + it was with such beliefs in mind that they commenced their investigations + of physical and chemical phenomena. Indeed, if we may judge by the esteem + in which the Hermetic maxim, "What is above is as that which is below, + what is below is as that which is above, to accomplish the miracles of the + One Thing," was held by every alchemist, we are justified in asserting + that the mystical theory of the spiritual significance of Nature—a + theory with which, as we have seen, is closely connected the Neoplatonic + and Kabalistic doctrine that all things emanate in series from the Divine + Source of all Being—was at the very heart of alchemy. As writes one + alchemist: "... the Sages have been taught of God that this natural world + is only an image and material copy of a heavenly and spiritual pattern; + that the very existence of this world is based upon the reality of its + celestial archetype; and that God has created it in imitation of the + spiritual and invisible universe, in order that men might be the better + enabled to comprehend His heavenly teaching, and the wonders of His + absolute and ineffable power and wisdom. Thus the sage sees heaven + reflected in Nature as in a mirror; and he pursues this Art, not for the + sake of gold or silver, but for the love of the knowledge which it + reveals; he jealously conceals it from the sinner and the scornful, lest + the mysteries of heaven should be laid bare to the vulgar gaze."(1) + </p> + <p> + (1) MICHAEL SENDIVOGIUS (?): <i>The New Chemical Light, Pt. II., + Concerning Sulphur</i>. (See <i>The Hermetic Museum</i>, vol. ii. p. 138.) + </p> + <p> + The alchemists, I hold, convinced of the truth of this view of Nature, <i>i.e</i>. + that principles true of one plane of being are true also of all other + planes, adopted analogy as their guide in dealing with the facts of + chemistry and physics known to them. They endeavoured to explain these + facts by an application to them of the principles of mystical theology, + their chief aim being to prove the truth of these principles as applied to + the facts of the natural realm, and by studying natural phenomena to + become instructed in spiritual truth. They did not proceed by the sure, + but slow, method of modern science, <i>i.e</i>. the method of induction, + which questions experience at every step in the construction of a theory; + but they boldly allowed their imaginations to leap ahead and to formulate + a complete theory of the Cosmos on the strength of but few facts. This led + them into many fantastic errors, but I would not venture to deny them an + intuitive perception of certain fundamental truths concerning the + constitution of the Cosmos, even if they distorted these truths and + dressed them in a fantastic garb. + </p> + <p> + Now, as I hope to make plain in the course of this excursion, the + alchemists regarded the discovery of the Philosopher's Stone and the + transmutation of "base" metals into gold as the consummation of the proof + of the doctrines of mystical theology as applied to chemical phenomena, + and it was as such that they so ardently sought to achieve the <i>magnum + opus</i>, as this transmutation was called. Of course, it would be useless + to deny that many, accepting the truth of the great alchemical theorem, + sought for the Philosopher's Stone because of what was claimed for it in + the way of material benefits. But, as I have already indicated, with the + nobler alchemists this was not the case, and the desire for wealth, if + present at all, was merely a secondary object. + </p> + <p> + The idea expressed in DALTON'S atomic hypothesis (1802), and universally + held during the nineteenth century, that the material world is made up of + a certain limited number of elements unalterable in quantity, subject in + themselves to no change or development, and inconvertible one into + another, is quite alien to the views of the alchemists. The alchemists + conceived the universe to be a unity; they believed that all material + bodies had been developed from one seed; their elements are merely + different forms of one matter and, therefore, convertible one into + another. They were thoroughgoing evolutionists with regard to the things + of the material world, and their theory concerning the evolution of the + metals was, I believe, the direct outcome of a metallurgical application + of the mystical doctrine of the soul's development and regeneration. The + metals, they taught, all spring from the same seed in Nature's womb, but + are not all equally matured and perfect; for, as they say, although Nature + always intends to produce only gold, various impurities impede the + process. In the metals the alchemists saw symbols of man in the various + stages of his spiritual development. Gold, the most beautiful as well as + the most untarnishable metal, keeping its beauty permanently, unaffected + by sulphur, most acids, and fire—indeed, purified by such treatment,—gold, + to the alchemist, was the symbol of regenerate man, and therefore he + called it "a noble metal". Silver was also termed "noble"; but it was + regarded as less mature than gold, for, although it is undoubtedly + beautiful and withstands the action of fire, it is corroded by nitric acid + and is blackened by sulphur; it was, therefore, considered to be analogous + to the regenerate man at a lower stage of his development. Possibly we + shall not be far wrong in using SWEDENBORG'S terms, "celestial" to + describe the man of gold, "spiritual" to designate him of silver. Lead, on + the other hand, the alchemists regarded as a very immature and impure + metal: heavy and dull, corroded by sulphur and nitric acid, and converted + into a calx by the action of fire,—lead, to the alchemists, was a + symbol of man in a sinful and unregenerate condition. + </p> + <p> + The alchemists assumed the existence of three principles in the metals, + their obvious reason for so doing being the mystical threefold division of + man into body, soul (<i>i.e</i>. affections and will), and spirit (<i>i.e</i>. + intelligence), though the principle corresponding to body was a + comparatively late introduction in alchemical philosophy. This latter + fact, however, is no argument against my thesis; because, of course, I do + not maintain that the alchemists started out with their chemical + philosophy ready made, but gradually worked it out, by incorporating in it + further doctrines drawn from mystical theology. The three principles just + referred to were called "mercury," "sulphur," and "salt"; and they must be + distinguished from the common bodies so designated (though the alchemists + themselves seem often guilty of confusing them). "Mercury" is the metallic + principle <i>par excellence</i>, conferring on metals their brightness and + fusibility, and corresponding to the spirit or intelligence in man.(1) + "Sulphur," the principle of combustion and colour, is the analogue of the + soul. Many alchemists postulated two sulphurs in the metals, an inward and + an outward.(1b) The outward sulphur was thought to be the chief cause of + metallic impurity, and the reason why all (known) metals, save gold and + silver, were acted on by fire. The inward sulphur, on the other hand, was + regarded as essential to the development of the metals: pure mercury, we + are told, matured by a pure inward sulphur yields pure gold. Here again it + is evident that the alchemists borrowed their theories from mystical + theology; for, clearly, inward sulphur is nothing else than the equivalent + to love of God; outward sulphur to love of self. Intelligence (mercury) + matured by love to God (inward sulphur) exactly expresses the spiritual + state of the regenerate man according to mystical theology. There is no + reason, other than their belief in analogy, why the alchemists should have + held such views concerning the metals. "Salt," the principle of solidity + and resistance to fire, corresponding to the body in man, plays a + comparatively unimportant part in alchemical theory, as does its prototype + in mystical theology. + </p> + <p> + (1) The identification of the god MERCURY with THOTH, the Egyptian god of + learning, is worth noticing in this connection. + </p> + <p> + (1b) Pseudo-GEBER, whose writings were highly esteemed, for instance. See + R. RUSSEL'S translation of his works (1678), p. 160. + </p> + <p> + Now, as I have pointed out already, the central theorem of mystical + theology is, in Christian terminology, that of the regeneration of the + soul by the Spirit of CHRIST. The corresponding process in alchemy is that + of the transmutation of the "base" metals into silver and gold by the + agency of the Philosopher's Stone. Merely to remove the evil sulphur of + the "base" metals, thought the alchemists, though necessary, is not + sufficient to transmute them into "noble" metals; a maturing process is + essential, similar to that which they supposed was effected in Nature's + womb. Mystical theology teaches that the powers and life of the soul are + not inherent in it, but are given by the free grace of God. Neither, + according to the alchemists, are the powers and life of nature in herself, + but in that immanent spirit, the Soul of the World, that animates her. As + writes the famous alchemist who adopted the pleasing pseudonym of "BASIL + VALENTINE" (<i>c</i>. 1600), "the power of growth... is imparted not by + the earth, but by the life-giving spirit that is in it. If the earth were + deserted by this spirit, it would be dead, and no longer able to afford + nourishment to anything. For its sulphur or richness would lack the + quickening spirit without which there can be neither life nor growth."(1a) + To perfect the metals, therefore, the alchemists argued, from analogy with + mystical theology, which teaches that men can be regenerated only by the + power of CHRIST within the soul, that it is necessary to subject them to + the action of this world-spirit, this one essence underlying all the + varied powers of nature, this One Thing from which "all things were + produced... by adaption, and which is the cause of all perfection + throughout the whole world."(2a) "This," writes one alchemist, "is the + Spirit of Truth, which the world cannot comprehend without the + interposition of the Holy Ghost, or without the instruction of those who + know it. The same is of a mysterious nature, wondrous strength, boundless + power.... By Avicenna this Spirit is named the Soul of the World. For, as + the Soul moves all the limbs of the Body, so also does this Spirit move + all bodies. And as the Soul is in all the limbs of the Body, so also is + this Spirit in all elementary created things. It is sought by many and + found by few. It is beheld from afar and found near; for it exists in + every thing, in every place, and at all times. It has the powers of all + creatures; its action is found in all elements, and the qualities of all + things are therein, even in the highest perfection... it heals all dead + and living bodies without other medicine... converts all metallic bodies + into gold, and there is nothing like unto it under Heaven."(1b) It was + this Spirit, concentrated in all its potency in a suitable material form, + which the alchemists sought under the name of "the Philosopher's Stone". + Now, mystical theology teaches that the Spirit of CHRIST, by which alone + the soul of man can be tinctured and transmuted into the likeness of God, + is Goodness itself; consequently, the alchemists argued that the + Philosopher's Stone must be, so to speak, Gold itself, or the very essence + of Gold: it was to them, as CHRIST is of the soul's perfection, at once + the pattern and the means of metallic perfection. "The Philosopher's + Stone," declares "EIRENAEUS PHILALETHES" (<i>nat. c</i>. 1623), "is a + certain heavenly, spiritual, penetrative, and fixed substance, which + brings all metals to the perfection of gold or silver (according to the + quality of the Medicine), and that by natural methods, which yet in their + effects transcend Nature.... Know, then, that it is called a stone, not + because it is like a stone, but only because, by virtue of its fixed + nature, it resists the action of fire as successfully as any stone. In + species it is gold, more pure than the purest; it is fixed and + incombustible like a stone (<i>i.e</i>. it contains no outward sulphur, + but only inward, fixed sulphur), but its appearance is that of a very fine + powder, impalpable to the touch, sweet to the taste, fragrant to the + smell, in potency a most penetrative spirit, apparently dry and yet + unctuous, and easily capable of tingeing a plate of metal.... If we say + that its nature is spiritual, it would be no more than the truth; if we + described it as corporeal the expression would be equally correct; for it + is subtle, penetrative, glorified, spiritual gold. It is the noblest of + all created things after the rational soul, and has virtue to repair all + defects both in animal and metallic bodies, by restoring them to the most + exact and perfect temper; wherefore is it a spirit or 'quintessence.'"(1c) + </p> + <p> + (1a) BASIL VALENTINE: <i>The Twelve Keys</i>. (See <i>The Hermetic Museum</i>, + vol. i. pp. 333 and 334.) + </p> + <p> + (2a) From the "Smaragdine Table," attributed to HERMES TRISMEGISTOS (<i>ie</i>. + MERCURY or THOTH). + </p> + <p> + (1b) <i>The Book of the Revelation of</i> HERMES, <i>interpreted by</i> + THEOPHRASTUS PARACELSUS, <i>concerning the Supreme Secret of the World</i>. + (See BENEDICTUS FIGULUS, <i>A Golden and Blessed Casket of Nature's + Marvels</i>, trans. by A. E. WAITE, 1893, pp. 36, 37, and 41.) + </p> + <p> + (1c) EIRENAEUS PHILALETHES: <i>A Brief Guide to the Celestial Ruby</i>. + (See <i>The Hermetic Museum</i>, vol. ii. pp. 246 and 249.) + </p> + <p> + In other accounts the Philosopher's Stone, or at least the <i>materia + prima</i> of which it is compounded, is spoken of as a despised substance, + reckoned to be of no value. Thus, according to one curious alchemistic + work, "This matter, so precious by the excellent Gifts, wherewith Nature + has enriched it, is truly mean, with regard to the Substances from whence + it derives its Original. Their price is not above the Ability of the Poor. + Ten Pence is more than sufficient to purchase the Matter of the Stone.... + The matter therefore is mean, considering the Foundation of the Art + because it costs very little; it is no less mean, if one considers + exteriourly that which gives it Perfection, since in that regard it costs + nothing at all, in as much as <i>all the World has it in its Power</i>... + so that... it is a constant Truth, that the Stone is a Thing mean in one + Sense, but that in another it is most precious, and that there are none + but Fools that despise it, by a just Judgment of God."(1) And JACOB BOEHME + (1575—1624) writes: "The <i>philosopher's stone</i> is a very dark, + disesteemed stone, of a grey colour, but therein lieth the highest + tincture."(2) In these passages there is probably some reference to the + ubiquity of the Spirit of the World, already referred to in a former + quotation. But this fact is not, in itself, sufficient to account for + them. I suggest that their origin is to be found in the religious doctrine + that God's Grace, the Spirit of CHRIST that is the means of the + transmutation of man's soul into spiritual gold, is free to all; that it + is, at once, the meanest and the most precious thing in the whole + Universe. Indeed, I think it quite probable that the alchemists who penned + the above-quoted passages had in mind the words of ISAIAH, "He was + despised and we esteemed him not." And if further evidence is required + that the alchemists believed in a correspondence between CHRIST—"the + Stone which the builders rejected"—and the Philosopher's Stone, + reference may be made to the alchemical work called <i>The Sophic + Hydrolith: or Water Stone of the Wise</i>, a tract included in <i>The + Hermetic Museum</i>, in which this supposed correspondence is explicitly + asserted and dealt with in some detail. + </p> + <p> + (1) <i>A Discourse between Eudoxus and Pyrophilus, upon the Ancient War of + the Knights</i>. See <i>The Hermetical Triumph: or, the Victorious + Philosophical Stone</i> (1723), pp. 101 and 102. + </p> + <p> + (2) JACOB BOEHME: <i>Epistles</i> (trans. by J. E., 1649, reprinted 1886), + Ep. iv., SE III. + </p> + <p> + Apart from the alchemists' belief in the analogy between natural and + spiritual things, it is, I think, incredible that any such theories of the + metals and the possibility of their transmutation or "regeneration" by + such an extraordinary agent as the Philosopher's Stone would have occurred + to the ancient investigators of Nature's secrets. When they had started to + formulate these theories, facts(1) were discovered which appeared to + support them; but it is, I suggest, practically impossible to suppose that + any or all of these facts would, in themselves, have been sufficient to + give rise to such wonderfully fantastic theories as these: it is only from + the standpoint of the theory that alchemy was a direct offspring of + mysticism that its origin seems to be capable of explanation. + </p> + <p> + (1) One of those facts, amongst many others, that appeared to confirm the + alchemical doctrines, was the ease with which iron could apparently be + transmuted into copper. It was early observed that iron vessels placed in + contact with a solution of blue vitriol became converted (at least, so far + as their surfaces were concerned) into copper. This we now know to be due + to the fact that the copper originally contained in the vitriol is thrown + out of solution, whilst the iron takes its place. And we know, also, that + no more copper can be obtained in this way from the blue vitriol than is + actually used up in preparing it; and, further, that all the iron which is + apparently converted into copper can be got out of the residual solution + by appropriate methods, if such be desired; so that the facts really + support DALTON'S theory rather than the alchemical doctrines. But to the + alchemist it looked like a real transmutation of iron into copper, + confirmation of his fond belief that iron and other base metals could be + transmuted into silver and gold by the aid of the Great Arcanum of Nature. + </p> + <p> + In all the alchemical doctrines mystical connections are evident, and + mystical origins can generally be traced. I shall content myself here with + giving a couple of further examples. Consider, in the first place, the + alchemical doctrine of purification by putrefaction, that the metals must + die before they can be resurrected and truly live, that through death + alone are they purified—in the more prosaic language of modern + chemistry, death becomes oxidation, and rebirth becomes reduction. In many + alchemical books there are to be found pictorial symbols of the + putrefaction and death of metals and their new birth in the state of + silver or gold, or as the Stone itself, together with descriptions of + these processes. The alchemists sought to kill or destroy the body or + outward form of the metals, in the hope that they might get at and utilise + the living essence they believed to be immanent within. As PARACELSUS put + it: "Nothing of true value is located in the body of a substance, but in + the virtue... the less there is of body, the more in proportion is the + virtue." It seems to me quite obvious that in such ideas as these we have + the application to metallurgy of the mystic doctrine of self-renunciation—that + the soul must die to self before it can live to God; that the body must be + sacrificed to the spirit, and the individual will bowed down utterly to + the One Divine Will, before it can become one therewith. + </p> + <p> + In the second place, consider the directions as to the colours that must + be obtained in the preparation of the Philosopher's Stone, if a successful + issue to the Great Work is desired. Such directions are frequently given + in considerable detail in alchemical works; and, without asserting any + exact uniformity, I think that I may state that practically all the + alchemists agree that three great colour-stages are necessary—(i.) + an inky blackness, which is termed the "Crow's Head" and is indicative of + putrefaction; (ii.) a white colour indicating that the Stone is now + capable of converting "base" metals into silver; this passes through + orange into (iii.) a red colour, which shows that the Stone is now + perfect, and will transmute "base" metals into gold. Now, what was the + reason for the belief in these three colour-stages, and for their + occurrence in the above order? I suggest that no alchemist actually + obtained these colours in this order in his chemical experiments, and that + we must look for a speculative origin for the belief in them. We have, I + think, only to turn to religious mysticism for this origin. For the + exponents of religious mysticism unanimously agree to a threefold division + of the life of the mystic. The first stage is called "the dark night of + the soul," wherein it seems as if the soul were deserted by God, although + He is very near. It is the time of trial, when self is sacrificed as a + duty and not as a delight. Afterwards, however, comes the morning light of + a new intelligence, which marks the commencement of that stage of the + soul's upward progress that is called the "illuminative life". All the + mental powers are now concentrated on God, and the struggle is transferred + from without to the inner man, good works being now done, as it were, + spontaneously. The disciple, in this stage, not only does unselfish deeds, + but does them from unselfish motives, being guided by the light of Divine + Truth. The third stage, which is the consummation of the process, is + termed "the contemplative life". It is barely describable. The disciple is + wrapped about with the Divine Love, and is united thereby with his Divine + Source. It is the life of love, as the illuminative life is that of + wisdom. I suggest that the alchemists, believing in this threefold + division of the regenerative process, argued that there must be three + similar stages in the preparation of the Stone, which was the pattern of + all metallic perfection; and that they derived their beliefs concerning + the colours, and other peculiarities of each stage in the supposed + chemical process, from the characteristics of each stage in the + psychological process according to mystical theology. + </p> + <p> + Moreover, in the course of the latter process many flitting thoughts and + affections arise and deeds are half-wittingly done which are not of the + soul's true character; and in entire agreement with this, we read of the + alchemical process, in the highly esteemed "Canons" of D'ESPAGNET: + "Besides these decretory signs (<i>i.e</i>. the black, white, orange, and + red colours) which firmly inhere in the matter, and shew its essential + mutations, almost infinite colours appear, and shew themselves in vapours, + as the Rainbow in the clouds, which quickly pass away and are expelled by + those that succeed, more affecting the air than the earth: the operator + must have a gentle care of them, because they are not permanent, and + proceed not from the intrinsic disposition of the matter, but from the + fire painting and fashioning everything after its pleasure, or casually by + heat in slight moisture."(1) That D'ESPAGNET is arguing, not so much from + actual chemical experiments, as from analogy with psychological processes + in man, is, I think, evident. + </p> + <p> + (1) JEAN D'ESPAGNET: <i>Hermetic Arcanum</i>, canon 65. (See <i>Collectanea + Hermetica</i>, ed. by W. WYNN WESTCOTT, vol. i., 1893, pp. 28 and 29.) + </p> + <p> + As well as a metallic, the alchemists believed in a physiological, + application of the fundamental doctrines of mysticism: their physiology + was analogically connected with their metallurgy, the same principles + holding good in each case. PARACELSUS, as we have seen, taught that man is + a microcosm, a world in miniature; his spirit, the Divine Spark within, is + from God; his soul is from the Stars, extracted from the Spirit of the + World; and his body is from the earth, extracted from the elements of + which all things material are made. This view of man was shared by many + other alchemists. The Philosopher's Stone, therefore (or, rather, a + solution of it in alcohol) was also regarded as the Elixir of Life; which, + thought the alchemists, would not endow man with physical immortality, as + is sometimes supposed, but restore him again to the flower of youth, + "regenerating" him physiologically. Failing this, of course, they regarded + gold in a potable form as the next most powerful medicine—a belief + which probably led to injurious effects in some cases. + </p> + <p> + Such are the facts from which I think we are justified in concluding, as I + have said, "that the alchemists constructed their chemical theories for + the main part by means of <i>a priori</i> reasoning, and that the premises + from which they started were (i.) the truth of mystical theology, + especially the doctrine of the soul's regeneration, and (ii.) the truth of + mystical philosophy, which asserts that the objects of nature are symbols + of spiritual verities."(1) + </p> + <p> + (1) In the following excursion we will wander again in the alchemical + bypaths of thought, and certain objections to this view of the origin and + nature of alchemy will be dealt with and, I hope, satisfactorily answered. + </p> + <p> + It seems to follow, <i>ex hypothesi</i>, that every alchemical work ought + to permit of two interpretations, one physical, the other transcendental. + But I would not venture to assert this, because, as I think, many of the + lesser alchemists knew little of the origin of their theories, nor + realised their significance. They were concerned merely with these + theories in their strictly metallurgical applications, and any + transcendental meaning we can extract from their works was not intended by + the writers themselves. However, many alchemists, I conceive, especially + the better sort, realised more or less clearly the dual nature of their + subject, and their books are to some extent intended to permit of a double + interpretation, although the emphasis is laid upon the physical and + chemical application of mystical doctrine. And there are a few writers who + adopted alchemical terminology on the principle that, if the language of + theology is competent to describe chemical processes, then, conversely, + the language of alchemy must be competent to describe psychological + processes: this is certainly and entirely true of JACOB BOEHME, and, to + some extent also, I think, of HENRY KHUNRATH (1560-1605) and THOMAS + VAUGHAN (1622-1666). + </p> + <p> + As may be easily understood, many of the alchemists led most romantic + lives, often running the risk of torture and death at the hands of + avaricious princes who believed them to be in possession of the + Philosopher's Stone, and adopted such pleasant methods of extorting (or, + at least, of trying to extort) their secrets. A brief sketch, which I + quote from my <i>Alchemy: Ancient and Modern</i> (1911), SE 54, of the + lives of ALEXANDER SETHON and MICHAEL SENDIVOGIUS, will serve as an + example:— + </p> + <p> + "The date and birthplace of ALEXANDER SETHON, a Scottish alchemist, do not + appear to have been recorded, but MICHAEL SENDIVOGIUS was probably born in + Moravia about 1566. Sethon, we are told, was in possession of the + arch-secrets of Alchemy. He visited Holland in 1602, proceeded after a + time to Italy, and passed through Basle to Germany; meanwhile he is said + to have performed many transmutations. Ultimately arriving at Dresden, + however, he fell into the clutches of the young Elector, Christian II., + who, in order to extort his secret, cast him into prison and put him to + the torture, but without avail. Now it so happened that Sendivogius, who + was in quest of the Philosopher's Stone, was staying at Dresden, and + hearing of Sethon's imprisonment obtained permission to visit him. + Sendivogius offered to effect Sethon's escape in return for assistance in + his alchemistic pursuits, to which arrangement the Scottish alchemist + willingly agreed. After some considerable outlay of money in bribery, + Sendivogius's plan of escape was successfully carried out, and Sethon + found himself a free man; but he refused to betray the high secrets of + Hermetic philosophy to his rescuer. However, before his death, which + occurred shortly afterwards, he presented him with an ounce of the + transmutative powder. Sendivogius soon used up this powder, we are told, + in effecting transmutations and cures, and, being fond of expensive + living, he married Sethon's widow, in the hope that she was in the + possession of the transmutative secret. In this, however, he was + disappointed; she knew nothing of the matter, but she had the manuscript + of an alchemistic work written by her late husband. Shortly afterwards + Sendivogius printed at Prague a book entitled <i>The New Chemical Light</i> + under the name of 'Cosmopolita,' which is said to have been this work of + Sethon's, but which Sendivogius claimed for his own by the insertion of + his name on the title page, in the form of an anagram. The tract <i>On + Sulphur</i> which was printed at the end of the book in later editions, + however, is said to have been the genuine work of the Moravian. Whilst his + powder lasted, Sendivogius travelled about, performing, we are told, many + transmutations. He was twice imprisoned in order to extort the secrets of + alchemy from him, on one occasion escaping, and on the other occasion + obtaining his release from the Emperor Rudolph. Afterwards, he appears to + have degenerated into an impostor, but this is said to have been a <i>finesse</i> + to hide his true character as an alchemistic adept. He died in 1646." + </p> + <p> + However, all the alchemists were not of the apparent character of + SENDIVOGIUS—many of them leading holy and serviceable lives. The + alchemist-physician J. B. VAN HELMONT (1577-1644), who was a man of + extraordinary benevolence, going about treating the sick poor freely, may + be particularly mentioned. He, too, claimed to have performed the + transmutation of "base" metal into gold, as did also HELVETIUS (whom we + have already met), physician to the Prince of Orange, with a wonderful + preparation given to him by a stranger. The testimony of these two latter + men is very difficult either to explain or to explain away, but I cannot + deal with this question here, but must refer the reader to a paper on the + subject by Mr GASTON DE MENGEL, and the discussion thereon, published in + vol. i. of <i>The Journal of the Alchemical Society</i>. + </p> + <p> + In conclusion, I will venture one remark dealing with a matter outside of + the present inquiry. Alchemy ended its days in failure and fraud; + charlatans and fools were attracted to it by purely mercenary objects, who + knew nothing of the high aims of the genuine alchemists, and scientific + men looked elsewhere for solutions of Nature's problems. Why did alchemy + fail? Was it because its fundamental theorems were erroneous? I think not. + I consider the failure of the alchemical theory of Nature to be due rather + to the misapplication of these fundamental concepts, to the erroneous use + of <i>a priori</i> methods of reasoning, to a lack of a sufficiently wide + knowledge of natural phenomena to which to apply these concepts, to a lack + of adequate apparatus with which to investigate such phenomena + experimentally, and to a lack of mathematical organons of thought with + which to interpret such experimental results had they been obtained. As + for the basic concepts of alchemy themselves, such as the fundamental + unity of the Cosmos and the evolution of the elements, in a word, the + applicability of the principles of mysticism to natural phenomena: these + seem to me to contain a very valuable element of truth—a statement + which, I think, modern scientific research justifies me in making,—though + the alchemists distorted this truth and expressed it in a fantastic form. + I think, indeed, that in the modern theories of energy and the + all-pervading ether, the etheric and electrical origin and nature of + matter and the evolution of the elements, we may witness the triumphs of + mysticism as applied to the interpretation of Nature. Whether or not we + shall ever transmute lead into gold, I believe there is a very true sense + in which we may say that alchemy, purified by its death, has been proved + true, whilst the materialistic view of Nature has been proved false. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0012" id="link2H_4_0012"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + X. THE PHALLIC ELEMENT IN ALCHEMICAL DOCTRINE + </h2> + <p> + THE problem of alchemy presents many aspects to our view, but, to my mind, + the most fundamental of these is psychological, or, perhaps I should say, + epistemological. It has been said that the proper study of mankind is man; + and to study man we must study the beliefs of man. Now so long as we + neglect great tracts of such beliefs, because they have been, or appear to + have been, superseded, so long will our study be incomplete and + ineffectual. And this, let me add, is no mere excuse for the study of + alchemy, no mere afterthought put forward in justification of a + predilection, but a plain statement of fact that renders this study an + imperative need. There are other questions of interest—of very great + interest—concerning alchemy: questions, for instance, as to the + scope and validity of its doctrines; but we ought not to allow their + fascination and promise to distract our attention from the fundamental + problem, whose solution is essential to their elucidation. + </p> + <p> + In the preceding essay on "The Quest of the Philosopher's Stone," which + was written from the standpoint I have sketched in the foregoing words, my + thesis was "that the alchemists constructed their chemical theories for + the main part by means of <i>a priori</i> reasoning, and that the premises + from which they started were (i.) the truth of mystical theology, + especially the doctrine of the soul's regeneration, and (ii.) the truth of + mystical philosophy, which asserts that the objects of nature are symbols + of spiritual verities." Now, I wish to treat my present thesis, which is + concerned with a further source from which the alchemists derived certain + of their views and modes of expression by means of <i>a priori</i> + reasoning, in connection with, and, in a sense, as complementary to, my + former thesis. I propose in the first place, therefore, briefly to deal + with certain possible objections to this view of alchemy. + </p> + <p> + It has, for instance, been maintained(1) that the assimilation of + alchemical doctrines concerning the metals to those of mysticism + concerning the soul was an event late in the history of alchemy, and was + undertaken in the interests of the latter doctrines. Now we know that + certain mystics of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries did borrow from + the alchemists much of their terminology with which to discourse of + spiritual mysteries—JACOB BOEHME, HENRY KHUNRATH, and perhaps THOMAS + VAUGHAN, may be mentioned as the most prominent cases in point. But how + was this possible if it were not, as I have suggested, the repayment, in a + sense, of a sort of philological debt? Transmutation was an admirable + vehicle of language for describing the soul's regeneration, just because + the doctrine of transmutation was the result of an attempt to apply the + doctrine of regeneration in the sphere of metallurgy; and similar remarks + hold of the other prominent doctrines of alchemy. + </p> + <p> + (1) See, for example, Mr A. E. WAITE'S paper, "The Canon of Criticism in + respect of Alchemical Literature," <i>The Journal of the Alchemical + Society</i>, vol. i. (1913), pp. 17-30. + </p> + <p> + The wonderful fabric of alchemical doctrine was not woven in a day, and as + it passed from loom to loom, from Byzantium to Syria, from Syria to + Arabia, from Arabia to Spain and Latin Europe, so its pattern changed; but + it was always woven <i>a priori</i>, in the belief that that which is + below is as that which is above. In its final form, I think, it is + distinctly Christian. + </p> + <p> + In the <i>Turba Philosophorum</i>, the oldest known work of Latin alchemy—a + work which, claiming to be of Greek origin, whilst not that, is certainly + Greek in spirit,—we frequently come across statements of a decidedly + mystical character. "The regimen," we read, "is greater than is perceived + by reason, except through divine inspiration."(1) Copper, it is insisted + upon again and again, has a soul as well as a body; and the Art, we are + told, is to be defined as "the liquefaction of the body and the separation + of the soul from the body, seeing that copper, like a man, has a soul and + a body."(2) Moreover, other doctrines are here propounded which, although + not so obviously of a mystical character, have been traced to mystical + sources in the preceding excursion. There is, for instance, the doctrine + of purification by means of putrefaction, this process being likened to + that of the resurrection of man. "These things being done," we read, "God + will restore unto it (the matter operated on) both the soul and the spirit + thereof, and the weakness being taken away, that matter will be made + strong, and after corruption will be improved, even as a man becomes + stronger after resurrection and younger than he was in this world."(1b) + The three stages in the alchemical work—black, white, and red—corresponding + to, and, as I maintain, based on the three stages in the life of the + mystic, are also more than once mentioned. "Cook them (the king and his + wife), therefore, until they become black, then white, afterwards red, and + finally until a tingeing venom is produced."(2b) + </p> + <p> + (1) <i>The Turba Philosophorum, or Assembly of the Sages</i> (trans. by A. + E. WAITE, 1896), p. 128. + </p> + <p> + (2) <i>Ibid</i>., p. 193, <i>cf</i>. pp. 102 and 152. + </p> + <p> + (1b) <i>The Turba Philosophorum, or Assembly of the Sages</i> (trans. by + A. E. WAITE), p. 101, <i>cf</i>. pp. 27 and 197. + </p> + <p> + (2b) <i>Ibid</i>., p. 98, <i>cf</i>. p. 29. + </p> + <p> + In view of these quotations, the alliance (shall I say?) between alchemy + and mysticism cannot be asserted to be of late origin. And we shall find + similar statements if we go further back in time. To give but one example: + "Among the earliest authorities," writes Mr WAITE, "the <i>Book of Crates</i> + says that copper, like man, has a spirit, soul, and body," the term + "copper" being symbolical and applying to a stage in the alchemical work. + But nowhere in the <i>Turba</i> do we meet with the concept of the + Philosopher's Stone as the medicine of the metals, a concept + characteristic of Latin alchemy, and, to quote Mr WAITE again, "it does + not appear that the conception of the Philosopher's Stone as a medicine of + metals and of men was familiar to Greek alchemy;"(3) + </p> + <p> + (3) <i>Ibid</i>., p. 71. + </p> + <p> + All this seems to me very strongly to support my view of the origin of + alchemy, which requires a specifically Christian mysticism only for this + specific concept of the Philosopher's Stone in its fully-fledged form. At + any rate, the development of alchemical doctrine can be seen to have + proceeded concomitantly with the development of mystical philosophy and + theology. Those who are not prepared here to see effect and cause may be + asked not only to formulate some other hypothesis in explanation of the + origin of alchemy, but also to explain this fact of concomitant + development. + </p> + <p> + From the standpoint of the transcendental theory of alchemy it has been + urged "that the language of mystical theology seemed to be hardly so + suitable to the exposition (as I maintain) or concealment of chemical + theories, as the language of a definite and generally credited branch of + science was suited to the expression of a veiled and symbolical process + such as the regeneration of man."(1) But such a statement is only possible + with respect to the latest days of alchemy, when there WAS a science of + chemistry, definite and generally credited. The science of chemistry, it + must be remembered, had no growth separate from alchemy, but evolved + therefrom. Of the days before this evolution had been accomplished, it + would be in closer accord with the facts to say that theology, including + the doctrine of man's regeneration, was in the position of "a definite and + generally credited branch of science," whereas chemical phenomena were + veiled in deepest mystery and tinged with the dangers appertaining to + magic. As concerns the origin of alchemy, therefore, the argument as to + suitability of language appears to support my own theory; it being open to + assume that after formulation—that is, in alchemy's latter days—chemical + nomenclature and theories were employed by certain writers to veil + heterodox religious doctrine. + </p> + <p> + (1) PHILIP S. WELLBY, M.A., in <i>The Journal of the Alchemical Society</i>, + vol. ii. (1914), p. 104. + </p> + <p> + Another recent writer on the subject, my friend the late Mr ABDUL-ALI, has + remarked that "he thought that, in the mind of the alchemist at least, + there was something more than analogy between metallic and psychic + transformations, and that the whole subject might well be assigned to the + doctrinal category of ineffable and transcendent Oneness. This Oneness + comprehended all—soul and body, spirit and matter, mystic visions + and waking life—and the sharp metaphysical distinction between the + mental and the non-mental realms, so prominent during the history of + philosophy, was not regarded by these early investigators in the sphere of + nature. There was the sentiment, perhaps only dimly experienced, that not + only the law, but the substance of the Universe, was one; that mind was + everywhere in contact with its own kindred; and that metallic + transmutation would, somehow, so to speak, signalise and seal a hidden + transmutation of the soul."(1) + </p> + <p> + (1) SIJIL ABDUL-ALI, in <i>The Journal of the Alchemical Society</i>, vol. + ii. (1914), p. 102. + </p> + <p> + I am to a large extent in agreement with this view. Mr ABDUL-ALI quarrels + with the term "analogy," and, if it is held to imply any merely + superficial resemblance, it certainly is not adequate to my own needs, + though I know not what other word to use. SWEDENBORG'S term + "correspondence" would be better for my purpose, as standing for an + essential connection between spirit and matter, arising out of the causal + relationship of the one to the other. But if SWEDENBORG believed that + matter and spirit were most intimately related, he nevertheless had a very + precise idea of their distinctness, which he formulated in his Doctrine of + Degrees—a very exact metaphysical doctrine indeed. The alchemists, + on the other hand, had no such clear ideas on the subject. It would be + even more absurd to attribute to them a Cartesian dualism. To their ways + of thinking, it was by no means impossible to grasp the spiritual essences + of things by what we should now call chemical manipulations. For them a + gas was still a ghost and air a spirit. One could quote pages in support + of this, but I will content myself with a few words from the <i>Turba</i>—the + antiquity of the book makes it of value, and anyway it is near at hand. + "Permanent water," whatever that may be, being pounded with the body, we + are told, "by the will of God it turns that body into spirit." And in + another place we read that "the Philosophers have said: Except ye turn + bodies into not-bodies, and incorporeal things into bodies, ye have not + yet discovered the rule of operation."(1a) No one who could write like + this, and believe it, could hold matter and spirit as altogether distinct. + But it is equally obvious that the injunction to convert body into spirit + is meaningless if spirit and body are held to be identical. I have been + criticised for crediting the alchemists "with the philosophic acumen of + Hegel,"(1b) but that is just what I think one ought to avoid doing. At the + same time, however, it is extremely difficult to give a precise account of + views which are very far from being precise themselves. But I think it may + be said, without fear of error, that the alchemist who could say, "As + above, so below," <i>ipso facto</i> recognised both a very close + connection between spirit and matter, and a distinction between them. + Moreover, the division thus implied corresponded, on the whole, to that + between the realms of the known (or what was thought to be known) and the + unknown. The Church, whether Christian or pre-Christian, had very precise + (comparatively speaking) doctrine concerning the soul's origin, duties, + and destiny, backed up by tremendous authority, and speculative philosophy + had advanced very far by the time PLATO began to concern himself with its + problems. Nature, on the other hand, was a mysterious world of magical + happenings, and there was nothing deserving of the name of natural science + until alchemy was becoming decadent. It is not surprising, therefore, that + the alchemists—these men who wished to probe Nature's hidden + mysteries—should reason from above to below; indeed, unless they had + started <i>de novo</i>—as babes knowing nothing,—there was no + other course open to them. And that they did adopt the obvious course is + all that my former thesis amounts to. In passing, it is interesting to + note that a sixteenth-century alchemist, who had exceptional opportunities + and leisure to study the works of the old masters of alchemy, seems to + have come to a similar conclusion as to the nature of their reasoning. He + writes: "The Sages... after having conceived in their minds a Divine idea + of the relations of the whole universe... selected from among the rest a + certain substance, from which they sought to elicit the elements, to + separate and purify them, and then again put them together in a manner + suggested by a keen and profound observation of Nature."(1c) + </p> + <p> + (1a) <i>op cit</i>., pp,. 65 and 110, <i>cf</i>. p. 154. + </p> + <p> + (1b) <i>Vide</i> a rather frivolous review of my <i>Alchemy: Ancient and + Modern</i> in <i>The Outlook</i> for 14th January 1911. + </p> + <p> + (1c) EDWARD KELLY: <i>The Humid Path</i>. (See <i>The Alchemical Writings</i> + of EDWARD KELLY, edited by A. E. WAITE, 1893, pp. 59-60.) + </p> + <p> + In describing the realm of spirit as <i>ex hypothesi</i> known, that of + Nature unknown, to the alchemists, I have made one important omission, and + that, if I may use the name of a science to denominate a complex of crude + facts, is the realm of physiology, which, falling within that of Nature, + must yet be classed as <i>ex hypothesi</i> known. But to elucidate this + point some further considerations are necessary touching the general + nature of knowledge. Now, facts may be roughly classed, according to their + obviousness and frequency of occurrence, into four groups. There are, + first of all, facts which are so obvious, to put it paradoxically, that + they escape notice; and these facts are the commonest and most frequent in + their occurrence. I think it is Mr CHESTERTON who has said that, looking + at a forest one cannot see the trees because of the forest; and, in <i>The + Innocence of Father Brown</i>, he has a good story ("The Invisible Man") + illustrating the point, in which a man renders himself invisible by + dressing up in a postman's uniform. At any rate, we know that when a + phenomenon becomes persistent it tends to escape observation; thus, + continuous motion can only be appreciated with reference to a stationary + body, and a noise, continually repeated, becomes at last inaudible. The + tendency of often-repeated actions to become habitual, and at last + automatic, that is to say, carried out without consciousness, is a closely + related phenomenon. We can understand, therefore, why a knowledge of the + existence of the atmosphere, as distinct from the wind, came late in the + history of primitive man, as, also, many other curious gaps in his + knowledge. In the second group we may put those facts which are common, + that is, of frequent occurrence, and are classed as obvious. Such facts + are accepted at face-value by the primitive mind, and are used as the + basis of explanation of facts in the two remaining groups, namely, those + facts which, though common, are apt to escape the attention owing to their + inconspicuousness, and those which are of infrequent occurrence. When the + mind takes the trouble to observe a fact of the third group, or is + confronted by one of the fourth, it feels a sense of surprise. Such facts + wear an air of strangeness, and the mind can only rest satisfied when it + has shown them to itself as in some way cases of the second group of + facts, or, at least, brought them into relation therewith. That is what + the mind—at least the primitive mind—means by "explanation". + "It is obvious," we say, commencing an argument, thereby proclaiming our + intention to bring that which is at first in the category of the + not-obvious, into the category of the obvious. It remains for a more + sceptical type of mind—a later product of human evolution—to + question obvious facts, to explain them, either, as in science, by + establishing deeper and more far-reaching correlations between phenomena, + or in philosophy, by seeking for the source and purpose of such facts, or, + better still, by both methods. + </p> + <p> + Of the second class of facts—those common and obvious facts which + the primitive mind accepts at face-value and uses as the basis of its + explanations of such things as seem to it to stand in need of explanation—one + could hardly find a better instance than sex. The universality of sex, and + the intermittent character of its phenomena, are both responsible for + this. Indeed, the attitude of mind I have referred to is not restricted to + primitive man; how many people to-day, for instance, just accept sex as a + fact, pleasant or unpleasant according to their predilections, never + querying, or feeling the need to query, its why and wherefore? It is by no + means surprising, that when man first felt the need of satisfying himself + as to the origin of the universe, he should have done so by a theory + founded on what he knew of his own generation. Indeed, as I queried on a + former occasion, what other source of explanation was open to him? Of what + other form of origin was he aware? Seeing Nature springing to life at the + kiss of the sun, what more natural than that she should be regarded as the + divine Mother, who bears fruits because impregnated by the Sun-God? It is + not difficult to understand, therefore, why primitive man paid divine + honours to the organs of sex in man and woman, or to such things as he + considered symbolical of them—that is to say, to understand the + extensiveness of those religions which are grouped under the term + "phallicism". Nor, to my mind, is the symbol of sex a wholly inadequate + one under which to conceive of the origin of things. And, as I have said + before, that phallicism usually appears to have degenerated into + immorality of a very pronounced type is to be deplored, but an immoral + view of human relations is by no means a necessary corollary to a sexual + theory of the universe.(1) + </p> + <p> + (1) "The reverence as well as the worship paid to the phallus, in early + and primitive days, had nothing in it which partook of indecency; all + ideas connected with it were of a reverential and religious kind.... + </p> + <p> + "The indecent ideas attached to the representation of the phallus were, + though it seems a paradox to say so, the results of a more advanced + civilization verging towards its decline, as we have evidence at Rome and + Pompeii.... + </p> + <p> + "To the primitive man (the reproductive force which pervades all nature) + was the most mysterious of all manifestations. The visible physical powers + of nature—the sun, the sky, the storm—naturally claimed his + reverence, but to him the generative power was the most mysterious of all + powers. In the vegetable world, the live seed placed in the ground, and + hence germinating, sprouting up, and becoming a beautiful and umbrageous + tree, was a mystery. In the animal world, as the cause of all life, by + which all beings came into existence, this power was a mystery. In the + view of primitive man generation was the action of the Deity itself. It + was the mode in which He brought all things into existence, the sun, the + moon, the stars, the world, man were generated by Him. To the productive + power man was deeply indebted, for to it he owed the harvests and the + flocks which supported his life; hence it naturally became an object of + reverence and worship. + </p> + <p> + "Primitive man wants some object to worship, for an abstract idea is + beyond his comprehension, hence a visible representation of the generative + Deity was made, with the organs contributing to generation most prominent, + and hence the organ itself became a symbol of the power."—H, M. + WESTROPP: <i>Primitive Symbolism as Illustrated in Phallic Worship, or the + Reproductive Principle</i> (1885), pp. 47, 48, and 57. {End of long + footnote} + </p> + <p> + The Aruntas of Australia, I believe, when discovered by Europeans, had not + yet observed the connection between sexual intercourse and birth. They + believed that conception was occasioned by the woman passing near a <i>churinga</i>—a + peculiarly shaped piece of wood or stone, in which a spirit-child was + concealed, which entered into her. But archaeological research having + established the fact that phallicism has, at one time or another, been + common to nearly all races, it seems probable that the Arunta tribe + represents a deviation from the normal line of mental evolution. At any + rate, an isolated phenomenon, such as this, cannot be held to controvert + the view that regards phallicism as in this normal line. Nor was the + attitude of mind that not only accepts sex at face-value as an obvious + fact, but uses the concept of it to explain other facts, a merely + transitory one. We may, indeed, not difficultly trace it throughout the + history of alchemy, giving rise to what I may term "The Phallic Element in + Alchemical Doctrine". + </p> + <p> + In aiming to establish this, I may be thought to be endeavouring to + establish a counter-thesis to that of the preceding essay on alchemy, but, + in virtue of the alchemists' belief in the mystical unity of all things, + in the analogical or correspondential relationship of all parts of the + universe to each other, the mystical and the phallic views of the origin + of alchemy are complementary, not antagonistic. Indeed, the assumption + that the metals are the symbols of man almost necessitates the working out + of physiological as well as mystical analogies, and these two series of + analogies are themselves connected, because the principle "As above, so + below" was held to be true of man himself. We might, therefore, expect to + find a more or less complete harmony between the two series of symbols, + though, as a matter of fact, contradictions will be encountered when we + come to consider points of detail. The undoubtable antiquity of the + phallic element in alchemical doctrine precludes the idea that this + element was an adventitious one, that it was in any sense an afterthought; + notwithstanding, however, the evidence, as will, I hope, become apparent + as we proceed, indicates that mystical ideas played a much more + fundamental part in the genesis of alchemical doctrine than purely phallic + ones—mystical interpretations fit alchemical processes and theories + far better than do sexual interpretations; in fact, sex has to be + interpreted somewhat mystically in order to work out the analogies fully + and satisfactorily. + </p> + <p> + As concerns Greek alchemy, I shall content myself with a passage from a + work <i>On the Sacred Art</i>, attributed to OLYMPIODORUS (sixth century + A.D.), followed by some quotations from and references to the <i>Turba</i>. + In the former work it is stated on the authority of HORUS that "The proper + end of the whole art is to obtain the semen of the male secretly, seeing + that all things are male and female. Hence (we read further) Horus says in + a certain place: Join the male and the female, and you will find that + which is sought; as a fact, without this process of re-union, nothing can + succeed, for Nature charms Nature," <i>etc</i>. The <i>Turba</i> + insistently commands those who would succeed in the Art, to conjoin the + male with the female,(1) and, in one place, the male is said to be lead + and the female orpiment.(2) We also find the alchemical work symbolised by + the growth of the embryo in the womb. "Know," we are told, "... that out + of the elect things nothing becomes useful without conjunction and + regimen, because sperma is generated out of blood and desire. For the man + mingling with the woman, the sperm is nourished by the humour of the womb, + and by the moistening blood, and by heat, and when forty nights have + elapsed the sperm is formed.... God has constituted that heat and blood + for the nourishment of the sperm until the foetus is brought forth. So + long as it is little, it is nourished with milk, and in proportion as the + vital heat is maintained, the bones are strengthened. Thus it behoves you + also to act in this Art."(3) + </p> + <p> + (1) <i>Vide</i> pp. 60 92, 96 97, 134, 135 and elsewhere in Mr WAITE'S + translation. + </p> + <p> + (2) <i>Ibid</i>., p. 57 + </p> + <p> + (3) <i>Ibid</i>., pp. 179-181 (second recension); <i>cf</i>. pp. 103-104. + </p> + <p> + The use of the mystical symbols of death (putrefaction) and resurrection + or rebirth to represent the consummation of the alchemical work, and that + of the phallic symbols of the conjunction of the sexes and the development + of the foetus, both of which we have found in the <i>Turba</i>, are + current throughout the course of Latin alchemy. In <i>The Chymical + Marriage of Christian Rosencreutz</i>, that extraordinary document of what + is called "Rosicrucianism"—a symbolic romance of considerable + ability, whoever its author was,(1)—an attempt is made to weld the + two sets of symbols—the one of marriage, the other of death and + resurrection unto glory—into one allegorical narrative; and it is to + this fusion of seemingly disparate concepts that much of its + fantasticality is due. Yet the concepts are not really disparate; for not + only is the second birth like unto the first, and not only is the + resurrection unto glory described as the Bridal Feast of the Lamb, but + marriage is, in a manner, a form of death and rebirth. To justify this in + a crude sense, I might say that, from the male standpoint at least, it is + a giving of the life-substance to the beloved that life may be born anew + and increase. But in a deeper sense it is, or rather should be, as an + ideal, a mutual sacrifice of self for each other's good—a death of + the self that it may arise with an enriched personality. + </p> + <p> + (1) See Mr WAITE'S <i>The Real History of the Rosicrucians</i> (1887) for + translation and discussion as to origin and significance. The work was + first published (in German) at Strassburg in 1616. + </p> + <p> + It is when we come to an examination of the ideas at the root of, and + associated with, the alchemical concept of "principles," that we find some + difficulty in harmonising the two series of symbols—the mystical and + the phallic. In one place in the <i>Turba</i> we are directed "to take + quicksilver, in which is the male potency or strength";(2a) and this + concept of mercury as male is quite in accord with the mystical origin I + have assigned in the preceding excursion to the doctrine of the alchemical + principles. I have shown, I think, that salt, sulphur, and mercury are the + analogues <i>ex hypothesi</i> of the body, soul (affection and volition), + and spirit (intelligence or understanding) in man; and the affections are + invariably regarded as especially feminine, the understanding as + especially masculine. But it seems that the more common opinion, amongst + Latin alchemists at any rate, was that sulphur was male and mercury + female. Writes BERNARD of TREVISAN: "For the Matter suffereth, and the + Form acteth assimulating the Matter to itself, and according to this + manner the Matter naturally thirsteth after a Form, as a Woman desireth an + Husband, and a Vile thing a precious one, and an impure a pure one, so + also <i>Argent-vive</i> coveteth a Sulphur, as that which should make + perfect which is imperfect: So also a Body freely desireth a Spirit, + whereby it may at length arrive at its perfection."(1b) At the same time, + however, Mercury was regarded as containing in itself both male and female + potencies—it was the product of male and female, and, thus, the seed + of all the metals. "Nothing in the World can be generated," to repeat a + quotation from BERNARD, without these two Substances, to wit a Male and + Female: From whence it appeareth, that although these two substances are + not of one and the same species, yet one Stone doth thence arise, and + although they appear and are said to be two Substances, yet in truth it is + but one, to wit, <i>Argent-vive</i>. But of this <i>Argent-vive</i> a + certain part is fixed and digested, Masculine, hot, dry and secretly + informing. But the other, which is the Female, is volatile, crude, cold, + and moyst."(2b) EDWARD KELLY (1555-1595), who is valuable because he + summarises authoritative opinion, says somewhat the same thing, though in + clearer words: "The active elements... these are water and fire... may be + called male, while the passive elements... earth and air... represent the + female principle.... Only two elements, water and earth, are visible, and + earth is called the hiding-place of fire, water the abode of air. In these + two elements we have the broad law of limitation which divides the male + from the female. ... The first matter of minerals is a kind of viscous + water, mingled with pure and impure earth... Of this viscous water and + fusible earth, or sulphur, is composed that which is called quicksilver, + the first matter of the metals. Metals are nothing but Mercury digested by + different degrees of heat."(1c) There is one difference, however, between + these two writers, inasmuch as BERNARD says that "the Male and Female + abide together in closed Natures; the Female truly as it were Earth and + Water, the Male as Air and Fire." Mercury for him arises from the two + former elements, sulphur from the two latter.(2c) And the difference is + important as showing beyond question the <i>a priori</i> nature of + alchemical reasoning. The idea at the back of the alchemists' minds was + undoubtedly that of the ardour of the male in the act of coition and the + alleged, or perhaps I should say apparent, passivity of the female. + Consequently, sulphur, the fiery principle of combustion, and such + elements as were reckoned to be active, were denominated "male," whilst + mercury, the principle acted on by sulphur, and such elements as were + reckoned to be passive, were denominated "female". As to the question of + origin, I do not think that the palm can be denied to the mystical as + distinguished from the phallic theory. And in its final form the doctrine + of principles is incapable of a sexual interpretation. Mystically + understood, man is capable of analysis into two principles—since + "body" may be neglected as unimportant (a false view, I think, by the way) + or "soul" and "spirit" may be united under one head—OR into three; + whereas the postulation of THREE principles on a sexual basis is + impossible. JOANNES ISAACUS HOLLANDUS (fifteenth century) is the earliest + author in whose works I have observed explicit mention of THREE + principles, though he refers to them in a manner seeming to indicate that + the doctrine was no new one in his day. I have only read one little tract + of his; there is nothing sexual in it, and the author's mental character + may be judged from his remarks concerning "the three flying spirits"—taste, + smell, and colour. These, he writes, "are the life, soule, and + quintessence of every thing, neither can these three spirits be one + without the other, as the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost are one, yet + three Persons, and one is not without the other."(1d) + </p> + <p> + (2a) Mr WAITE's translation, p. 79. + </p> + <p> + (1b) BERNARD, Earl of TREVISAN: <i>A Treatise of the Philosopher's Stone</i>, + 1683. (See <i>Collectanea Chymica: A Collection of Ten Several Treatises + in Chymistry</i>, 1684, p. 92.) + </p> + <p> + (2b) <i>Ibid</i>., p. 91. + </p> + <p> + (1c) EDWARD KELLY: <i>The Stone of the Philosophers</i>. (See <i>The + Alchemical Writings of</i> EDWARD KELLY, edited by A. E. WAITE, 1893, pp. + 9 and 11 to 13.) + </p> + <p> + (2c) <i>The Answer of</i> BERNARDUS TREVISANUS, <i>to the Epistle of + Thomas of Bononira, Physician to K. Charles the 8th</i>. (See JOHN + FREDERICK HOUPREGHT: <i>Aurifontina Chymica</i>, 1680, p. 208.) + </p> + <p> + (1d) <i>One Hundred and Fourteen Experiments and Cures of the Famous + Physitian</i> THEOPHRASTUS PARACELSUS. <i>Whereunto is added... certain + Secrets of</i> ISAAC HOLLANDUS, <i>concerning the Vegetall and Animall + Work</i> (1652), pp. 29 and 30. + </p> + <p> + When the alchemists described an element or principle as male or female, + they meant what they said, as I have already intimated, to the extent, at + least, of firmly believing that seed was produced by the two metallic + sexes. By their union metals were thought to be produced in the womb of + the earth; and mines were shut in order that by the birth and growth of + new metal the impoverished veins might be replenished. In this way, too, + was the <i>magnum opus</i>, the generation of the Philosopher's Stone—in + species gold, but purer than the purest—to be accomplished. To + conjoin that which Nature supplied, to foster the growth and development + of that which was thereby produced; such was the task of the alchemist. + "For there are Vegetables," says BERNARD of TREVISAN in his <i>Answer to + Thomas of Bononia</i>, "but Sensitives more especially, which for the most + part beget their like, by the Seeds of the Male and Female for the most + part concurring and conmixt by copulation; which work of Nature the + Philosophick Art imitates in the generation of gold."(1) + </p> + <p> + (1) <i>Op. cit</i>., p. 216. + </p> + <p> + Mercury, as I have said, was commonly regarded as the seed of the metals, + or as especially the female seed, there being two seeds, one the male, + according to BERNARD, more ripe, perfect and active, the other the female. + "more immature and in a sort passive(2) "... our Philosophick Art," he + says in another place, following a description of the generation of man, + "... is like this procreation of Man; for as in <i>Mercury</i> (of which + Gold is by Nature generated in Mineral Vessels) a natural conjunction + </p> + <p> + (2) <i>Ibid</i>., p. 217; <i>cf</i>. p. 236 + </p> + <p> + is made of both the Seeds, Male and Female, so by our artifice, an + artificial and like conjunction is made of Agents and Patients."(1) "All + teaching," says KELLY, "that changes Mercury is false and vain, for this + is the original sperm of metals, and its moisture must not be dried up, + for otherwise it will not dissolve,"(2) and quotes ARNOLD (<i>ob. c</i>. + 1310) to a similar effect.(3) One wonders how far the fact that human and + animal seed is fluid influenced the alchemists in their choice of mercury, + the only metal liquid at ordinary temperatures, as the seed of the metals. + There are, indeed, other good reasons for this choice, but that this idea + played some part in it, and, at least, was present at the back of the + alchemists' minds, I have little doubt. + </p> + <p> + The most philosophic account of metallic seed is that, perhaps, of the + mysterious adept "EIRENAEUS PHILALETHES," who distinguishes between it and + mercury in a rather interesting manner. He writes: "Seed is the means of + generic propagation given to all perfect things here below; it is the + perfection of each body; and anybody that has no seed must be regarded as + imperfect. Hence there can be no doubt that there is such a thing as + metallic seed.... All metallic seed is the seed of gold; for gold is the + intention of Nature in regard to all metals. If the base metals are not + gold, it is only through some accidental hindrance; they are-all + potentially gold. But, of course, this seed of gold is most easily + obtainable from well-matured gold itself.... Remember that I am now + speaking of metallic seed, and not of Mercury.... The seed of metals is + hidden out of sight still more completely than that of animals; + nevertheless, it is within the compass of our Art to extract it. The seed + of animals and vegetables is something separate, and may be cut out, or + otherwise separately exhibited; but metallic seed is diffused throughout + the metal, and contained in all its smallest parts; neither can it be + discerned from its body: its extraction is therefore a task which may well + tax the ingenuity of the most experienced philosopher; the virtues of the + whole metal have to be intensified, so as to convert it into the sperm of + our seed, which, by circulation, receives the virtues of superiors and + inferiors, then next becomes wholly form, or heavenly virtue, which can + communicate this to others related to it by homogeneity of matter. ... The + place in which the seed resides is—approximately speaking—water; + for, to speak properly and exactly, the seed is the smallest part of the + metal, and is invisible; but as this invisible presence is diffused + throughout the water of its kind, and exerts its virtue therein, nothing + being visible to the eye but water, we are left to conclude from rational + induction that this inward agent (which is, properly speaking, the seed) + is really there. Hence we call the whole of the water seed, just as we + call the whole of the grain seed, though the germ of life is only a + smallest particle of the grain."(1b) + </p> + <p> + (1) <i>The Answer of</i> BERNARDUS TREVISANUS, <i>etc</i>. <i>Op. cit</i>. + p. 218. + </p> + <p> + (2) <i>op. cit</i>., p. 22. + </p> + <p> + (3) <i>Ibid</i>., p. 16. + </p> + <p> + (1b) EIRENAEUS PHILALETHES: <i>The Metamorphosis of Metals</i>. (See <i>The + Hermetic Museum</i>, vol. ii. pp. 238-240.) + </p> + <p> + To say that "PHILALETHES'" seed resembles the modern electron is, perhaps, + to draw a rather fanciful analogy, since the electron is a very precise + idea, the result of the mathematical interpretation of the results of + exact experimentation. But though it would be absurd to speak of this + concept of the one seed of all metals as an anticipation of the electron, + to apply the expression "metallic seed" to the electron, now that the + concept of it has been reached, does not seem so absurd. + </p> + <p> + According to "PHILALETHES," the extraction of the seed is a very difficult + process, accomplishable, however, by the aid of mercury—the water + homogeneous therewith. Mercury, again, is the form of the seed thereby + obtained. He writes: "When the sperm hidden in the body of gold is brought + out by means of our Art, it appears under the form of Mercury, whence it + is exalted into the quintessence which is first white, and then, by means + of continuous coction, becomes red." And again: "There is a womb into + which the gold (if placed therein) will, of its own accord, emit its seed, + until it is debilitated and dies, and by its death is renewed into a most + glorious King, who thenceforward receives power to deliver all his + brethren from the fear of death."(1) + </p> + <p> + (1) EIRENAEUS PHILALETHES: <i>The Metamorphosis of Metals</i>. (See <i>The + Hermetic Museum</i>, vol. ii. pp. 241 and 244.) + </p> + <p> + The fifteenth-century alchemist THOMAS NORTON was peculiar in his views, + inasmuch as he denied that metals have seed. He writes: "Nature never + multiplies anything, except in either one or the other of these two ways: + either by decay, which we call putrefaction, or, in the case of animate + creatures, by propagation. In the case of metals there can be no + propagation, though our Stone exhibits something like it.... Nothing can + be multiplied by inward action unless it belong to the vegetable kingdom, + or the family of sensitive creatures. But the metals are elementary + objects, and possess neither seed nor sensation."(1) + </p> + <p> + (1) THOMAS NORTON: <i>The Ordinal of Alchemy</i>. (See <i>The Hermetic + Museum</i>, vol. ii. pp. 15 and 16.) + </p> + <p> + His theory of the origin of the metals is astral rather than phallic. "The + only efficient cause of metals," he says, "is the mineral virtue, which is + not found in every kind of earth, but only in certain places and chosen + mines, into which the celestial sphere pours its rays in a straight + direction year by year, and according to the arrangement of the metallic + substance in these places, this or that metal is gradually formed."(2) + </p> + <p> + (2) <i>Ibid</i>., pp. 15 and 16. + </p> + <p> + In view of the astrological symbolism of these metals, that gold should be + masculine, silver feminine, does not surprise us, because the idea of the + masculinity of the sun and the femininity of the moon is a bit of + phallicism that still remains with us. It was by the marriage of gold and + silver that very many alchemists considered that the <i>magnum opus</i> + was to be achieved. Writes BERNARD of TREVISAN: "The subject of this + admired Science (alchemy) is <i>Sol</i> and <i>Luna</i>, or rather Male + and Female, the Male is hot and dry, the Female cold and moyst." The aim + of the work, he tells us, is the extraction of the spirit of gold, which + alone can enter into bodies and tinge them. Both <i>Sol</i> and <i>Luna</i> + are absolutely necessary, and "whoever...shall think that a Tincture can + be made without these two Bodyes,... he proceedeth to the Practice like + one that is blind."(1) + </p> + <p> + (1) BERNARD, Earl of TREVISAN: <i>A Treatise, etc., Op. cit</i>. pp. 83 + and 87. + </p> + <p> + KELLY has teaching to the same effect, the Mercury of the Philosophers + being for him the menstruum or medium wherein the copulation of Gold with + Silver is to be accomplished. Mercury, in fact, seems to have been + everything and to have been capable of effecting everything in the eyes of + the alchemists. Concerning gold and silver, KELLY writes: "Only one metal, + viz. gold, is absolutely perfect and mature. Hence it is called the + perfect male body... Silver is less bounded by aqueous immaturity than the + rest of the metals, though it may indeed be regarded as to a certain + extent impure, still its water is already covered with the congealing + vesture of its earth, and it thus tends to perfection. This condition is + the reason why silver is everywhere called by the Sages the perfect female + body." And later he writes: "In short, our whole Magistery consists in the + union of the male and female, or active and passive, elements through the + mediation of our metallic water and a proper degree of heat. Now, the male + and female are two metallic bodies, and this I will again prove by + irrefragable quotations from the Sages." Some of the quotations will be + given: "Avicenna: 'Purify husband and wife separately, in order that they + may unite more intimately; for if you do not purify them, they cannot love + each other. By conjunction of the two natures you get a clear and lucid + nature, which, when it ascends, becomes bright and serviceable.'... + Senior: 'I, the Sun, am hot and dry, and thou, the Moon, are cold and + moist; when we are wedded together in a closed chamber, I will gently + steal away thy soul.'... Rosinus: 'When the Sun, my brother, for the love + of me (silver) pours his sperm (<i>i.e</i>. his solar fatness) into the + chamber (<i>i.e</i>. my Lunar body), namely, when we become one in a + strong and complete complexion and union, the child of our wedded love + will be born.... 'Rosary': 'The ferment of the Sun is the sperm of the + man, the ferment of the Moon, the sperm of the woman. Of both we get a + chaste union and a true generation.'... Aristotle: 'Take your beloved son, + and wed him to his sister, his white sister, in equal marriage, and give + them the cup of love, for it is a food which prompts to union.' "(1a) + KELLY, of course, accepts the traditional authorship of the works from + which he quotes, though in many cases such authorship is doubtful, to say + the least. The alchemical works ascribed to ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.), for + instance, are beyond question forgeries. Indeed, the symbol of a union + between brother and sister, here quoted, could hardly be held as + acceptable to Greek thought, to which incest was the most abominable and + unforgiveable sin. It seems likelier that it originated with the + Egyptians, to whom such unions were tolerable in fact. The symbol is often + met with in Latin alchemy. MICHAEL MAIER (1568-1622) also says: "<i>conjunge + fratrem cum sorore et propina illis poculum amoris</i>," the words forming + a motto to a picture of a man and woman clasped in each other's arms, to + whom an older man offers a goblet. This symbolic picture occurs in his <i>Atalanta + Fugiens, hoc est, Emblemata nova de Secretis Naturae Chymica, etc</i>. + (Oppenheim, 1617). This work is an exceedingly curious one. It consists of + a number of carefully executed pictures, each accompanied by a motto, a + verse of poetry set to music, with a prose text. Many of the pictures are + phallic in conception, and practically all of them are anthropomorphic. + Not only the primary function of sex, but especially its secondary one of + lactation, is made use of. The most curious of these emblematic pictures, + perhaps, is one symbolising the conjunction of gold and silver. It shows + on the right a man and woman, representing the sun and moon, in the act of + coition, standing up to the thighs in a lake. On the left, on a hill above + the lake, a woman (with the moon as halo) gives birth to a child. A boy is + coming out of the water towards her. The verse informs us that: "The bath + glows red at the conception of the boy, the air at his birth." We learn + also that "there is a stone, and yet there is not, which is the noble gift + of God. If God grants it, fortunate will be he who shall receive it."(1) + </p> + <p> + (1a) EDWARD KELLY: <i>The Stone of the Philosophers, Op. cit</i>., pp 13, + 14, 33, 35, 36, 38-40, and 47. + </p> + <p> + (1) <i>Op. Cit</i>., p. 145 + </p> + <p> + Concerning the nature of gold, there is a discussion in <i>The Answer of</i> + BERNARDUS TREVISANUS <i>to the Epistle of Thomas of Bononia</i>, with + which I shall close my consideration of the present aspect of the subject. + Its interest for us lies in the arguments which are used and held to be + valid. "Besides, you say that Gold, as most think, is nothing else than <i>Quick-silver</i> + coagulated naturally by the force of <i>Sulphur</i>; yet so, that nothing + of the <i>Sulphur</i> which generated the Gold, doth remain in the + substance of the Gold: as in an humane <i>Embryo</i>, when it is conceived + in the Womb, there remains nothing of the Father's Seed, according to <i>Aristotle's</i> + opinion, but the Seed of the Man doth only coagulate the <i>menstrual</i> + blood of the Woman: in the same manner you say, that after <i>Quick-silver</i> + is so coagulated, the form of Gold is perfected in it, by virtue of the + Heavenly Bodies, and especially of the Sun."(1) BERNARD, however, decides + against this view, holding that gold contains both mercury and sulphur, + for "we must not imagine, according to their mistake who say, that the + Male Agent himself approaches the Female in the coagulation, and departs + afterwards; because, as is known in every generation, the conception is + active and passive: Both the active and the passive, that is, all the four + Elements, must always abide together, otherwise there would be no mixture, + and the hope of generating an off-spring would be extinguished."(2) + </p> + <p> + (1) <i>Op. cit</i>., pp. 206 and 207. + </p> + <p> + (2) <i>Ibid</i>., pp. 212 and 213. + </p> + <p> + In conclusion, I wish to say something of the role of sex in spiritual + alchemy. But in doing this I am venturing outside the original field of + inquiry of this essay and making a by no means necessary addition to my + thesis; and I am anxious that what follows should be understood as such, + so that no confusion as to the issues may arise. + </p> + <p> + In the great alchemical collection of J. J. MANGET, there is a curious + work (originally published in 1677), entitled <i>Mutus Liber</i>, which + consists entirely of plates, without letterpress. Its interest for us in + our present concern is that the alchemist, from the commencement of the + work until its achievement, is shown working in conjunction with a woman. + We are reminded of NICOLAS FLAMEL (1330-1418), who is reputed to have + achieved the <i>magnum opus</i> together with his wife PERNELLE, as well + as of the many other women workers in the Art of whom we read. It would be + of interest in this connection to know exactly what association of ideas + was present in the mind of MICHAEL MAIER when he commanded the alchemist: + "Perform a work of women on the molten white lead, that is, cook,"(1a) and + illustrated his behest with a picture of a pregnant woman watching a fire + over which is suspended a cauldron and on which are three jars. There is a + cat in the background, and a tub containing two fish in the foreground, + the whole forming a very curious collection of emblems. Mr WAITE, who has + dealt with some of these matters, luminously, though briefly, says: "The + evidences with which we have been dealing concern solely the physical work + of alchemy and there is nothing of its mystical aspects. The <i>Mutus + Liber</i> is undoubtedly on the literal side of metallic transmutation; + the memorials of Nicholas Flamel are also on that side," <i>etc</i>. He + adds, however, that "It is on record that an unknown master testified to + his possession of the mystery, but he added that he had not proceeded to + the work because he had failed to meet with an elect woman who was + necessary thereto"; and proceeds to say: "I suppose that the statement + will awaken in most minds only a vague sense of wonder, and I can merely + indicate in a few general words that which I see behind it. Those Hermetic + texts which bear a spiritual interpretation and are as if a record of + spiritual experience present, like the literature of physical alchemy, the + following aspects of symbolism: (<i>a</i>) the marriage of sun and moon; (<i>b</i>) + of a mystical king and queen; (<i>c</i>) an union between natures which + are one at the root but diverse in manifestation; (<i>d</i>) a + transmutation which follows this union and an abiding glory therein. It is + ever a conjunction between male and female in a mystical sense; it is ever + the bringing together by art of things separated by an imperfect order of + things; it is ever the perfection of natures by means of this conjunction. + But if the mystical work of alchemy is an inward work in consciousness, + then the union between male and female is an union in consciousness; and + if we remember the traditions of a state when male and female had not as + yet been divided, it may dawn upon us that the higher alchemy was a + practice for the return into this ineffable mode of being. The traditional + doctrine is set forth in the <i>Zohar</i> and it is found in writers like + Jacob Boehme; it is intimated in the early chapters of Genesis and, + according to an apocryphal saying of Christ, the kingdom of heaven will be + manifested when two shall be as one, or when that state has been once + again attained. In the light of this construction we can understand why + the mystical adept went in search of a wise woman with whom the work could + be performed; but few there be that find her, and he confessed to his own + failure. The part of woman in the physical practice of alchemy is like a + reflection at a distance of this more exalted process, and there is + evidence that those who worked in metals and sought for a material elixir + knew that there were other and greater aspects of the Hermetic + mystery."(1b) + </p> + <p> + (1a) MICHAEL MATER: <i>Atalanta Fugiens</i> (1617), p. 97. + </p> + <p> + (1b) A E. WAITE: "Woman and the Hermetic Mystery," <i>The Occult Review</i> + (June 1912), vol. xv. pp. 325 and 326. + </p> + <p> + So far Mr WAITE, whose impressive words I have quoted at some length; and + he has given us a fuller account of the theory as found in the <i>Zohar</i> + in his valuable work on <i>The Secret Doctrine in Israel</i> (1913). The + <i>Zohar</i> regards marriage and the performance of the sexual function + in marriage as of supreme importance, and this not merely because marriage + symbolises a divine union, unless that expression is held to include all + that logically follows from the fact, but because, as it seems, the sexual + act in marriage may, in fact, become a ritual of transcendental magic. + </p> + <p> + At least three varieties of opinion can be traced from the view of sex we + have under consideration, as to the nature of the perfect man, and hence + of the most adequate symbol for transmutation. According to one, and this + appears to have been JACOB BOEHME'S view, the perfect man is conceived of + as non-sexual, the male and female elements united in him having, as it + were, neutralised each other. According to another, he is pictured as a + hermaphroditic being, a concept we frequently come across in alchemical + literature. It plays a prominent part in MAIER'S book <i>Atalanta Fugiens</i>, + to which reference has already been made. MAIER'S hermaphrodite has two + heads, one male, one female, but only one body, one pair of arms, and one + pair of legs. The two sexual organs, which are placed side by side, are + delineated in the illustrations with considerable care, showing the + importance MAIER attached to the idea. This concept seems to me not only + crude, but unnatural and repellent. But it may be said of both the + opinions I have mentioned, that they confuse between union and identity. + It is the old mistake, with respect to a lesser goal, of those who hope + for absorption in the Divine Nature and consequent loss of personality. It + seems to be forgotten that a certain degree of distinction is necessary to + the joy of union. "Distinction" and "separation," it should be remembered, + have different connotations. If the supreme joy is that of self-sacrifice, + then the self must be such that it can be continually sacrificed, else the + joy is a purely transitory one, or rather, is destroyed at the moment of + its consummation. Hence, though sacrificed, the self must still remain + itself. + </p> + <p> + The third view of perfection, to which these remarks naturally lead, is + that which sees it typified in marriage. The mystic-philosopher SWEDENBORG + has some exceedingly suggestive things to say on the matter in his + extraordinary work on <i>Conjugial Love</i>, which, curiously enough, seem + largely to have escaped the notice of students of these high mysteries. + </p> + <p> + SWEDENBORG'S heaven is a sexual heaven, because for him sex is primarily a + spiritual fact, and only secondarily, and because of what it is primarily, + a physical fact; and salvation is hardly possible, according to him, apart + from a genuine marriage (whether achieved here or hereafter). Man and + woman are considered as complementary beings, and it is only through the + union of one man with one woman that the perfect angel results. The + altruistic tendency of such a theory as contrasted with the egotism of one + in which perfection is regarded as obtainable by each personality of + itself alone, is a point worth emphasising. As to the nature of this + union, it is, to use SWEDENBORG'S own terms, a conjunction of the will of + the wife with the understanding of the man, and reciprocally of the + understanding of the man with the will of the wife. It is thus a + manifestation of that fundamental marriage between the good and the true + which is at the root of all existence; and it is because of this + fundamental marriage that all men and women are born into the desire to + complete themselves by conjunction. The symbol of sexual intercourse is a + legitimate one to use in speaking of this heavenly union; indeed, we may + describe the highest bliss attainable by the soul, or conceivable by the + mind, as a spiritual orgasm. Into conjugal love "are collected," says + SWEDENBORG, "all the blessednesses, blissfulnesses, delightsomenesses, + pleasantnesses, and pleasures, which could possibly be conferred upon man + by the Lord the Creator."(1) In another place he writes: "Married partners + (in heaven) enjoy similar intercourse with each other as in the world, but + more delightful and blessed; yet without prolification, for which, or in + place of which, they have spiritual prolification, which is that of love + and wisdom." "The reason," he adds, "why the intercourse then is more + delightful and blessed is, that when conjugial love becomes of the spirit, + it becomes more interior and pure, and consequently more perceptible; and + every delightsomeness grows according to the perception, and grows even + until its blessedness is discernible in its delightsomeness."(1b) Such + love, however, he says, is rarely to be found on earth. + </p> + <p> + (1) EMANUEL SWEDENBORG: <i>The Delights of Wisdom relating to Conjugial + Love</i> (trans. by A. H. SEARLE, 1891), SE 68. + </p> + <p> + (1b) EMANUEL SWEDENBORG: <i>Op. cit</i>., SE 51. + </p> + <p> + A learned Japanese speaks with approval of Idealism as a "dream where + sensuousness and spirituality find themselves to be blood brothers or + sisters."(2) It is a statement which involves either the grossest and most + dangerous error, or the profoundest truth, according to the understanding + of it. Woman is a road whereby man travels either to God or the devil. The + problem of sex is a far deeper problem than appears at first sight, + involving mysteries both the direst and most holy. It is by no means a + fantastic hypothesis that the inmost mystery of what a certain school of + mystics calls "the Secret Tradition" was a sexual one. At any rate, the + fact that some of those, at least, to whom alchemy connoted a mystical + process, were alive to the profound spiritual significance of sex, renders + of double interest what they have to intimate of the achievement of the <i>Magnum + Opus</i> in man. + </p> + <p> + (2) YONE NOGUCHI: <i>The Spirit of Japanese Art</i> (1915), p. 37. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0013" id="link2H_4_0013"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + XI. ROGER BACON: AN APPRECIATION + </h2> + <p> + IT has been said that "a prophet is not without honour, save in his own + country." Thereto might be added, "and in his own time"; for, whilst there + is continuity in time, there is also evolution, and England of to-day, for + instance, is not the same country as England of the Middle Ages. In his + own day ROGER BACON was accounted a magician, whose heretical views called + for suppression by the Church. And for many a long day afterwards was he + mainly remembered as a co-worker in the black art with Friar BUNGAY, who + together with him constructed, by the aid of the devil and diabolical + rites, a brazen head which should possess the power of speech—the + experiment only failing through the negligence of an assistant.(1) Such + was ROGER BACON in the memory of the later Middle Ages and many succeeding + years; he was the typical alchemist, where that term carries with it the + depth of disrepute, though indeed alchemy was for him but one, and that + not the greatest, of many interests. + </p> + <p> + (1) The story, of course, is entirely fictitious. For further particulars + see Sir J. E. SANDYS' essay on "Roger Bacon in English Literature," in <i>Roger + Bacon Essays</i> (1914), referred to below. + </p> + <p> + Ilchester, in Somerset, claims the honour of being the place of ROGER + BACON'S birth, which interesting and important event occurred, probably, + in 1214. Young BACON studied theology, philosophy, and what then passed + under the name of "science," first at Oxford, then the centre of liberal + thought, and afterwards at Paris, in the rigid orthodoxy of whose + professors he found more to criticise than to admire. Whilst at Oxford he + joined the Franciscan Order, and at Paris he is said, though this is + probably an error, to have graduated as Doctor of Theology. During + 1250-1256 we find him back in England, no doubt engaged in study and + teaching. About the latter year, however, he is said to have been banished—on + a charge of holding heterodox views and indulging in magical practices—to + Paris, where he was kept in close confinement and forbidden to write. Mr + LITTLE,(1) however, believes this to be an error, based on a misreading of + a passage in one of BACON'S works, and that ROGER was not imprisoned, but + stricken with sickness. At any rate it is not improbable that some + restrictions as to his writing were placed on him by his superiors of the + Franciscan Order. In 1266 BACON received a letter from Pope CLEMENT asking + him to send His Holiness his works in writing without delay. This letter + came as a most pleasant surprise to BACON; but he had nothing of + importance written, and in great haste and excitement, therefore, he + composed three works explicating his philosophy, the <i>Opus Majus</i>, + the <i>Opus Minus</i>, and the <i>Opus Tertium</i>, which were completed + and dispatched to the Pope by the end of the following year. This, as Mr + ROWBOTTOM remarks, is "surely one of the literary feats of history, + perhaps only surpassed by Swedenborg when he wrote six theological and + philosophical treatises in one year."(1b) + </p> + <p> + (1) See his contribution, "On Roger Bacon's Life and Works," to <i>Roger + Bacon Essays</i>. + </p> + <p> + (1b) B. R. ROWBOTTOM: "Roger Bacon," <i>The Journal of the Alchemical + Society</i>, vol. ii. (1914), p. 77. + </p> + <p> + The works appear to have been well received. We next find BACON at Oxford + writing his <i>Compendium Studii Philosophiae</i>, in which work he + indulged in some by no means unjust criticisms of the clergy, for which he + fell under the condemnation of his order, and was imprisoned in 1277 on a + charge of teaching "suspected novelties". In those days any knowledge of + natural phenomena beyond that of the quasi-science of the times was + regarded as magic, and no doubt some of ROGER BACON'S "suspected + novelties" were of this nature; his recognition of the value of the + writings of non-Christian moralists was, no doubt, another "suspected + novelty". Appeals for his release directed to the Pope proved fruitless, + being frustrated by JEROME D'ASCOLI, General of the Franciscan Order, who + shortly afterwards succeeded to the Holy See under the title of NICHOLAS + IV. The latter died in 1292, whereupon RAYMOND GAUFREDI, who had been + elected General of the Franciscan Order, and who, it is thought, was well + disposed towards BACON, because of certain alchemical secrets the latter + had revealed to him, ordered his release. BACON returned to Oxford, where + he wrote his last work, the <i>Compendium Studii Theologiae</i>. He died + either in this year or in 1294.(1) + </p> + <p> + (1) For further details concerning BACON'S life, EMILE CHARLES: <i>Roger + Bacon, sa Vie, ses Ouvrages, ses Doctrines</i> (1861); J. H. BRIDGES: <i>The + Life & Work of Roger Bacon, an Introduction to the Opus Majus</i> + (edited by H. G. JONES, 1914); and Mr A. G. LITTLE'S essay in <i>Roger + Bacon Essays</i>, may be consulted. + </p> + <p> + It was not until the publication by Dr SAMUEL JEBB, in 1733, of the + greater part of BACON'S <i>Opus Majus</i>, nearly four and a half + centuries after his death, that anything like his rightful position in the + history of philosophy began to be assigned to him. But let his spirit be + no longer troubled, if it were ever troubled by neglect or slander, for + the world, and first and foremost his own country, has paid him due + honour. His septcentenary was duly celebrated in 1914 at his <i>alma mater</i>, + Oxford, his statue has there been raised as a memorial to his greatness, + and savants have meted out praise to him in no grudging tones.(2) Indeed, + a voice has here and there been heard depreciating his better-known + namesake FRANCIS,(3) so that the later luminary should not, standing in + the way, obscure the light of the earlier; though, for my part, I would + suggest that one need not be so one-eyed as to fail to see both lights at + once. + </p> + <p> + (2) See <i>Roger Bacon, Essays contributed by various Writers on the + Occasion of the Commemoration of the Seventh Centenary of his Birth</i>. + Collected and edited by A. G. LITTLE (1914); also Sir J. E. SANDYS' <i>Roger + Bacon</i> (from <i>The Proceedings of the British Association</i>, vol. + vi., 1914). + </p> + <p> + (3) For example, that of ERNST DUHRING. See an article entitled "The Two + Bacons," translated from his <i>Kritische Geschichte der Philosophie</i> + in <i>The Open Court</i> for August 1914. + </p> + <p> + To those who like to observe coincidences, it may be of interest that the + septcentenary of the discoverer of gunpowder should have coincided with + the outbreak of the greatest war under which the world has yet groaned, + even though gunpowder is no longer employed as a military propellant. + </p> + <p> + BACON'S reference to gunpowder occurs in his <i>Epistola de Secretis + Operibus Artis et Naturae, et de Nullitate Magiae</i> (Hamburg, 1618) a + little tract written against magic, in which he endeavours to show, and + succeeds very well in the first eight chapters, that Nature and art can + perform far more extraordinary feats than are claimed by the workers in + the black art. The last three chapters are written in an alchemical jargon + of which even one versed in the symbolic language of alchemy can make no + sense. They are evidently cryptogramic, and probably deal with the + preparation and purification of saltpetre, which had only recently been + discovered as a distinct body.(1) In chapter xi. there is reference to an + explosive body, which can only be gunpowder; by means of it, says BACON, + you may, "if you know the trick, produce a bright flash and a thundering + noise." He mentions two of the ingredients, saltpetre and sulphur, but + conceals the third (<i>i.e</i>. charcoal) under an anagram. Claims have, + indeed, been put forth for the Greek, Arab, Hindu, and Chinese origins of + gunpowder, but a close examination of the original ancient accounts + purporting to contain references to gunpowder, shows that only incendiary + and not explosive bodies are really dealt with. But whilst ROGER BACON + knew of the explosive property of a mixture in right proportions of + sulphur, charcoal, and pure saltpetre (which he no doubt accidentally hit + upon whilst experimenting with the last-named body), he was unaware of its + projective power. That discovery, so detrimental to the happiness of man + ever since, was, in all probability, due to BERTHOLD SCHWARZ about 1330. + </p> + <p> + (1) For an attempted explanation of this cryptogram, and evidence that + BACON was the discoverer of gunpowder, see Lieut.-Col. H. W. L. HIME'S <i>Gunpowder + and Ammunition: their Origin and Progress</i> (1904). + </p> + <p> + ROGER BACON has been credited(1) with many other discoveries. In the work + already referred to he allows his imagination freely to speculate as to + the wonders that might be accomplished by a scientific utilisation of + Nature's forces—marvellous things with lenses, in bringing distant + objects near and so forth, carriages propelled by mechanical means, flying + machines...—but in no case is the word "discovery" in any sense + applicable, for not even in the case of the telescope does BACON describe + means by which his speculations might be realised. + </p> + <p> + (1) For instance by Mr M. M. P. MUIR. See his contribution, on "Roger + Bacon: His Relations to Alchemy and Chemistry," to <i>Roger Bacon Essays</i>. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, ROGER BACON has often been maligned for his beliefs in + astrology and alchemy, but, as the late Dr BRIDGES (who was quite + sceptical of the claims of both) pointed out, not to have believed in them + in BACON'S day would have been rather an evidence of mental weakness than + otherwise. What relevant facts were known supported alchemical and + astrological hypotheses. Astrology, Dr BRIDGES writes, "conformed to the + first law of Comte's <i>philosophia prima</i>, as being the best + hypothesis of which ascertained phenomena admitted."(1) And in his + alchemical speculations BACON was much in advance of his contemporaries, + and stated problems which are amongst those of modern chemistry. + </p> + <p> + (1) <i>Op. cit</i>., p.84. + </p> + <p> + ROGER BACON'S greatness does not lie in the fact that he discovered + gunpowder, nor in the further fact that his speculations have been + validated by other men. His greatness lies in his secure grip of + scientific method as a combination of mathematical reasoning and + experiment. Men before him had experimented, but none seemed to have + realised the importance of the experimental method. Nor was he, of course, + by any means the first mathematician—there was a long line of Greek + and Arabian mathematicians behind him, men whose knowledge of the science + was in many cases much greater than his—or the most learned + mathematician of his day; but none realised the importance of mathematics + as an organon of scientific research as he did; and he was assuredly the + priest who joined mathematics to experiment in the bonds of sacred + matrimony. We must not, indeed, look for precise rules of inductive + reasoning in the works of this pioneer writer on scientific method. Nor do + we find really satisfactory rules of induction even in the works of + FRANCIS BACON. Moreover, the latter despised mathematics, and it was not + until in quite recent years that the scientific world came to realise that + ROGER'S method is the more fruitful—witness the modern revolution in + chemistry produced by the adoption of mathematical methods. + </p> + <p> + ROGER BACON, it may be said, was many centuries in advance of his time; + but it is equally true that he was the child of his time; this may account + for his defects judged by modern standards. He owed not a little to his + contemporaries: for his knowledge and high estimate of philosophy he was + largely indebted to his Oxford master GROSSETESTE (<i>c</i>. 1175-1253), + whilst PETER PEREGRINUS, his friend at Paris, fostered his love of + experiment, and the Arab mathematicians, whose works he knew, inclined his + mind to mathematical studies. He was violently opposed to the scholastic + views current in Paris at his time, and attacked great thinkers like + THOMAS AQUINAS (<i>c</i>. 1225-1274) and ALBERTUS MAGNUS (1193-1280), as + well as obscurantists, such as ALEXANDER of HALES (<i>ob</i>. 1245). But + he himself was a scholastic philosopher, though of no servile type, taking + part in scholastic arguments. If he declared that he would have all the + works of ARISTOTLE burned, it was not because he hated the Peripatetic's + philosophy—though he could criticise as well as appreciate at times,—but + because of the rottenness of the translations that were then used. It + seems commonplace now, but it was a truly wonderful thing then: ROGER + BACON believed in accuracy, and was by no means destitute of literary + ethics. He believed in correct translation, correct quotation, and the + acknowledgment of the sources of one's quotations—unheard-of things, + almost, in those days. But even he was not free from all the vices of his + age: in spite of his insistence upon experimental verification of the + conclusions of deductive reasoning, in one place, at least, he adopts a + view concerning lenses from another writer, of which the simplest attempt + at such verification would have revealed the falsity. For such lapses, + however, we can make allowances. + </p> + <p> + Another and undeniable claim to greatness rests on ROGER BACON'S + broad-mindedness. He could actually value at their true worth the moral + philosophies of non-Christian writers—SENECA (<i>c</i>. 5 B.C.-A.D. + 65) and AL GHAZZALI (1058-1111), for instance. But if he was catholic in + the original meaning of that term, he was also catholic in its restricted + sense. He was no heretic: the Pope for him was the Vicar of CHRIST, whom + he wished to see reign over the whole world, not by force of arms, but by + the assimilation of all that was worthy in that world. To his mind—and + here he was certainly a child of his age, in its best sense, perhaps—all + other sciences were handmaidens to theology, queen of them all. All were + to be subservient to her aims: the Church he called "Catholic" was to + embrace in her arms all that was worthy in the works of "profane" writers—true + prophets of God, he held, in so far as writing worthily they unconsciously + bore testimony to the truth of Christianity,—and all that Nature + might yield by patient experiment and speculation guided by mathematics. + Some minds see in this a defect in his system, which limited his aims and + outlook; others see it as the unifying principle giving coherence to the + whole. At any rate, the Church, as we have seen, regarded his views as + dangerous, and restrained his pen for at least a considerable portion of + his life. + </p> + <p> + ROGER BACON may seem egotistic in argument, but his mind was humble to + learn. He was not superstitious, but he would listen to common folk who + worked with their hands, to astrologers, and even magicians, denying + nothing which seemed to him to have some evidence in experience: if he + denied much of magical belief, it was because he found it lacking in such + evidence. He often went astray in his views; he sometimes failed to apply + his own method, and that method was, in any case, primitive and crude. But + it was the RIGHT method, in embryo at least, and ROGER BACON, in spite of + tremendous opposition, greater than that under which any man of science + may now suffer, persisted in that method to the end, calling upon his + contemporaries to adopt it as the only one which results in right + knowledge. Across the centuries—or, rather, across the gulf that + divides this world from the next—let us salute this great and noble + spirit. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0014" id="link2H_4_0014"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + XII. THE CAMBRIDGE PLATONISTS + </h2> + <p> + THERE is an opinion, unfortunately very common, that religious mysticism + is a product of the emotional temperament, and is diametrically opposed to + the spirit of rationalism. No doubt this opinion is not without some + element of justification, and one could quote the works of not a few + religious mystics to the effect that self-surrender to God implies, not + merely a giving up of will, but also of reason. But that this teaching is + not an essential element in mysticism, that it is, indeed, rather its + perversion, there is adequate evidence to demonstrate. SWEDENBORG is, I + suppose, the outstanding instance of an intellectual mystic; but the + essential unity of mysticism and rationalism is almost as forcibly made + evident in the case of the Cambridge Platonists. That little band of + "Latitude men," as their contemporaries called them, constitutes one of + the finest schools of philosophy that England has produced; yet their + works are rarely read, I am afraid, save by specialists. Possibly, + however, if it were more commonly known what a wealth of sound philosophy + and true spiritual teaching they contain, the case would be otherwise. + </p> + <p> + The Cambridge Platonists—BENJAMIN WHICHCOTE, JOHN SMITH, NATHANAEL + CULVERWEL, RALPH CUDWORTH, and HENRY MORE are the more outstanding names—were + educated as Puritans; but they clearly realised the fundamental error of + Puritanism, which tended to make a man's eternal salvation depend upon the + accuracy and extent of his beliefs; nor could they approve of the + exaggerated import given by the High Church party to matters of Church + polity. The term "Cambridge Platonists" is, perhaps, less appropriate than + that of "Latitudinarians," which latter name emphasises their + broad-mindedness (even if it carries with it something of disapproval). + For although they owed much to PTATO, and, perhaps, more to PLOTINUS (<i>c</i>. + A.D. 203-262), they were Christians first and Platonists afterwards, and, + with the exception, perhaps, of MORE, they took nothing from these + philosophers which was not conformable to the Scriptures. + </p> + <p> + BENJAMIN WHICHCOTE was born in 1609, at Whichcote Hall, in the parish of + Stoke, Shropshire. In 1626 he entered Emmanuel College, Cambridge, then + regarded as the chief Puritan college of the University. Here his college + tutor was ANTHONY TUCKNEY (1599-1670), a man of rare character, combining + learning, wit, and piety. Between WHICHCOTE and TUCKNEY there grew up a + firm friendship, founded on mutual affection and esteem. But TUCKNEY was + unable to agree with all WHICHCOTE'S broad-minded views concerning reason + and authority; and in later years this gave rise to a controversy between + them, in which TUCKNEY sought to controvert WHICHCOTE'S opinions: it was, + however, carried on without acrimony, and did not destroy their + friendship. + </p> + <p> + WHICHCOTE became M.A., and was elected a fellow of his college, in 1633, + having obtained his B.A. four years previously. He was ordained by JOHN + WILLIAMS in 1636, and received the important appointment of Sunday + afternoon lecturer at Trinity Church. His lectures, which he gave with the + object of turning men's minds from polemics to the great moral and + spiritual realities at the basis of the Christian religion, from mere + formal discussions to a true searching into the reason of things, were + well attended and highly appreciated; and he held the appointment for + twenty years. In 1634 he became college tutor at Emmanuel. He possessed + all the characteristics that go to make up an efficient and well-beloved + tutor, and his personal influence was such as to inspire all his pupils, + amongst whom were both JOHN SMITH and NATHANAEL CULVERWEL, who + considerably amplified his philosophical and religious doctrines. In 1640 + he became B.D., and nine years after was created D.D. The college living + of North Cadbury, in Somerset, was presented to him in 1643, and shortly + afterwards he married. In the next year, however, he was recalled to + Cambridge, and installed as Provost of King's College in place of the + ejected Dr SAMUEL COLLINS. But it was greatly against his wish that he + received the appointment, and he only consented to do so on the condition + that part of his stipend should be paid to COLLINS—an act which + gives us a good insight into the character of the man. In 1650 he resigned + North Cadbury, and the living was presented to CUDWORTH (see below), and + towards the end of this year he was elected Vice-Chancellor of the + University in succession to TUCKNEY. It was during his Vice-Chancellorship + that he preached the sermon that gave rise to the controversy with the + latter. About this time also he was presented with the living of Milton, + in Cambridgeshire. At the Restoration he was ejected from the Provostship, + but, having complied with the Act of Uniformity, he was, in 1662, + appointed to the cure of St Anne's, Blackfriars. This church being + destroyed in the Great Fire, WHICHCOTE retired to Milton, where he showed + great kindness to the poor. But some years later he returned to London, + having received the vicarage of St Lawrence, Jewry. His friends at + Cambridge, however, still saw him on occasional visits, and it was on one + such visit to CUDWORTH, in 1683, that he caught the cold which caused his + death. + </p> + <p> + JOHN SMITH was born at Achurch, near Oundle, in 1618. He entered Emmanuel + College in 1636, became B.A. in 1640, and proceeded to M.A. in 1644, in + which year he was appointed a fellow of Queen's College. Here he lectured + on arithmetic with considerable success. He was noted for his great + learning, especially in theology and Oriental languages, as well as for + his justness, uprightness, and humility. He died of consumption in 1652. + </p> + <p> + NATHANAEL CULVERWEL was probably born about the same year as SMITH. He + entered Emmanuel College in 1633, gained his B.A. in 1636, and became M.A. + in 1640. Soon afterwards he was elected a fellow of his college. He died + about 1651. Beyond these scant details, nothing is known of his life. He + was a man of very great erudition, as his posthumous treatise on <i>The + Light of Nature</i> makes evident. + </p> + <p> + HENRY MORE was born at Grantham in 1614. From his earliest days he was + interested in theological problems, and his precociousness in this respect + appears to have brought down on him the wrath of an uncle. His early + education was conducted at Eton. In 1631 he entered Christ's College, + Cambridge, graduated B.A. in 1635, and received his M.A. in 1639. In the + latter year he was elected a fellow of Christ's and received Holy Orders. + He lived a very retired life, refusing all preferment, though many + valuable and honourable appointments were offered to him. Indeed, he + rarely left Christ's, except to visit his "heroine pupil," Lady CONWAY, + whose country seat, Ragley, was in Warwickshire. Lady CONWAY (<i>ob</i>. + 1679) appears to be remembered only for the fact that, dying whilst her + husband was away, her physician, F. M. VAN HELMONT (1618-1699) (son of the + famous alchemist, J. B. VAN HELMONT, whom we have met already on these + excursions), preserved her body in spirits of wine, so that he could have + the pleasure of beholding it on his return. She seems to have been a woman + of considerable learning, though not free from fantastic ideas. Her + ultimate conversion to Quakerism was a severe blow to MORE, who, whilst + admiring the holy lives of the Friends, regarded them as enthusiasts. MORE + died in 1687. + </p> + <p> + MORE'S earliest works were in verse, and exhibit fine feeling. The + following lines, quoted from a poem on "Charitie and Humilitie," are full + of charm, and well exhibit MORE'S character:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Farre have I clambred in my mind + But nought so great as love I find: + Deep-searching wit, mount-moving might, + Are nought compar'd to that great spright. + Life of Delight and soul of blisse! + Sure source of lasting happinesse! + Higher than Heaven! lower than hell! + What is thy tent? Where maist thou dwell? + My mansion highs humilitie, + Heaven's vastest capabilitie + The further it doth downward tend + The higher up it doth ascend; + If it go down to utmost nought + It shall return with that it sought."(1) +</pre> + <p> + (1) See <i>The Life of the Learned and Pious Dr Henry More... by</i> + RICHARD WARD, A.M., <i>to which are annexed Divers Philosophical Poems and + Hymns</i>. Edited by M. F. HOWARD (1911), pp. 250 and 251. + </p> + <p> + Later he took to prose, and it must be confessed that he wrote too much + and frequently descended to polemics (for example, his controversy with + the alchemist THOMAS VAUGHAN, in which both combatants freely used abuse). + </p> + <p> + Although in his main views MORE is thoroughly characteristic of the school + to which he belonged, many of his less important opinions are more or less + peculiar to himself. + </p> + <p> + The relation between MORE's and DESCARTES' (1596-1650) theories as to the + nature of spirit is interesting. When MORE first read DESCARTES' works he + was favourably impressed with his views, though without entirely agreeing + with him on all points; but later the difference became accentuated. + DESCARTES regarded extension as the chief characteristic of matter, and + asserted that spirit was extra-spatial. To MORE this seemed like denying + the existence of spirit, which he regarded as extended, and he postulated + divisibility and impenetrability as the chief characteristics of matter. + In order, however, to get over some of the inherent difficulties of this + view, he put forward the suggestion that spirit is extended in four + dimensions: thus, its apparent (<i>i.e</i>. three-dimensional) extension + can change, whilst its true (<i>i.e</i>. four-dimensional) extension + remains constant; just as the surface of a piece of metal can be increased + by hammering it out, without increasing the volume of the metal. Here, I + think, we have a not wholly inadequate symbol of the truth; but it + remained for BERKELEY (1685-1753) to show position, by demonstrating that, + since space and extension are perceptions of the mind, and thus exist only + in the mind as ideas, space exists in spirit: not spirit in space. + </p> + <p> + MORE was a keen believer in witchcraft, and eagerly investigated all cases + of these and like marvels that came under his notice. In this he was + largely influenced by JOSEPH GLANVIL (1636-1680), whose book on + witchcraft, the well-known <i>Saducismus Triumphatus</i>, MORE largely + contributed to, and probably edited. MORE was wholly unsuited for + psychical research; free from guile himself, he was too inclined to judge + others to be of this nature also. But his common sense and critical + attitude towards enthusiasm saved him, no doubt, from many falls into the + mire of fantasy. + </p> + <p> + As Principal TULLOCH has pointed out, whilst MORE is the most interesting + personality amongst the Cambridge Platonists, his works are the least + interesting of those of his school. They are dull and scholastic, and + MORE'S retired existence prevented him from grasping in their fulness some + of the more acute problems of life. His attempt to harmonise catastrophes + with Providence, on the ground that the evil of certain parts may be + necessary for the good of the whole, just as dark colours, as well as + bright, are essential to the beauty of a picture—a theory which is + practically the same as that of modern Absolutism,(1)—is a case in + point. No doubt this harmony may be accomplished, but in another key. + </p> + <p> + (1) Cf. BERNARD BOSANQUET, LL.D., D.C.L.: <i>The Principle of + Individuality and Value</i> (1912). + </p> + <p> + RALPH CUDWORTH was born at Aller, in Somersetshire, in 1617. He entered + Emmanuel College in 1632, three years afterwards gained his B.A., and + became M.A. in 1639. In the latter year he was elected a fellow of his + college. Later he obtained the B.D. degree. In 1645 he was appointed + Master of Clare Hall, in place of the ejected Dr PASHE, and was elected + Regius Professor of Hebrew. On 31st March 1647 he preached a sermon of + remarkable eloquence and power before the House of Commons, which + admirably expresses the attitude of his school as concerns the nature of + true religion. I shall refer to it again later. In 1650 CUDWORTH was + presented with the college living of North Cadbury, which WHICHCOTE had + resigned, and was made D.D. in the following year. In 1654 he was elected + Master of Christ's College, with an improvement in his financial position, + there having been some difficulty in obtaining his stipend at Clare Hall. + In this year he married. In 1662 Bishop SHELDON presented him with the + rectory of Ashwell, in Hertfordshire. He died in 1688. He was a pious man + of fine intellect; but his character was marred by a certain + suspiciousness which caused him wrongfully to accuse MORE, in 1665, of + attempting to forestall him in writing a work on ethics, which should + demonstrate that the principles of Christian morality are not based on any + arbitrary decrees of God, but are inherent in the nature and reason of + things. CUDWORTH'S great work—or, at least, the first part, which + alone was completed,—<i>The Intellectual System of the World</i>, + appeared in 1678. In it CUDWORTH deals with atheism on the ground of + reason, demonstrating its irrationality. The book is remarkable for the + fairness and fulness with which CUDWORTH states the arguments in favour of + atheism. + </p> + <p> + So much for the lives and individual characteristics of the Cambridge + Platonists: what were the great principles that animated both their lives + and their philosophy? These, I think, were two: first, the essential unity + of religion and morality; second, the essential unity of revelation and + reason. + </p> + <p> + With clearer perception of ethical truth than either Puritan or High + Churchman, the Cambridge Platonists saw that true Christianity is neither + a matter of mere belief, nor consists in the mere performance of good + works; but is rather a matter of character. To them Christianity connoted + regeneration. "Religion," says WHICHCOTE, "is the Frame and TEMPER of our + Minds, and the RULE of our Lives"; and again, "Heaven is FIRST a Temper, + and THEN a Place."(1) To the man of heavenly temper, they taught, the + performance of good works would be no irksome matter imposed merely by a + sense of duty, but would be done spontaneously as a delight. To drudge in + religion may very well be necessary as an initial stage, but it is not its + perfection. + </p> + <p> + (1) My quotations from WHICHCOTE and SMITH are taken from the selection of + their discourses edited by E. T. CAMPAGNAC, M.A. (1901). + </p> + <p> + In his sermon before the House of Commons, CUDWORTH well exposes the error + of those who made the mere holding of certain beliefs the essential + element in Christianity. There are many passages I should like to quote + from this eloquent discourse, but the following must suffice: "We must not + judge of our knowing of Christ, by our skill in Books and Papers, but by + our keeping of his Commandments... He is the best Christian, whose heart + beats with the truest pulse towards heaven; not he whose head spinneth out + the finest cobwebs. He that endeavours really to mortifie his lusts, and + to comply with that truth in his life, which his Conscience is convinced + of; is neerer a Christian, though he never heard of Christ; then he that + believes all the vulgar Articles of the Christian faith, and plainly + denyeth Christ in his life.... The great Mysterie of the Gospel, it doth + not lie only in CHRIST WITHOUT US, (though we must know also what he hath + done for us) but the very Pith and Kernel of it, consists in <i>*Christ + inwardly formed</i> in our hearts. Nothing is truly Ours, but what lives + in our Spirits. SALVATION it self cannot SAVE us, as long as it is onely + without us; no more then HEALTH can cure us, and make us sound, when it is + not within us, but somewhere at distance from us; no more than <i>Arts and + Sciences</i>, whilst they lie onely in Books and Papers without us; can + make us learned."(1) + </p> + <p> + (1) RALPH CUDWORTH, B.D.: <i>A Sermon Preached before the Honourable House + of Commons at Westminster, Mar</i>. 31, 1647 (1st edn.), pp. 3, 14, 42, + and 43. + </p> + <p> + The Cambridge Platonists were not ascetics; their moral doctrine was one + of temperance. Their sound wisdom on this point is well evident in the + following passage from WHICHCOTE: "What can be alledged for Intemperance; + since Nature is content with very few things? Why should any one over-do + in this kind? A Man is better in Health and Strength, if he be temperate. + We enjoy ourselves more in a sober and temperate Use of ourselves."(2) + </p> + <p> + (2) BENJAMIN WHICHCOTE: <i>The Venerable Nature and Transcendant Benefit + of Christian Religion. Op. cit</i>., p. 40. + </p> + <p> + The other great principle animating their philosophy was, as I have said, + the essential unity of reason and revelation. To those who argued that + self-surrender implied a giving up of reason, they replied that "To go + against REASON, is to go against GOD: it is the self same thing, to do + that which the Reason of the Case doth require; and that which God Himself + doth appoint: Reason is the DIVINE Governor of Man's Life; it is the very + Voice of God."(3) Reason, Conscience, and the Scriptures, these, taught + the Cambridge Platonists, testify of one another and are the true guides + which alone a man should follow. All other authority they repudiated. But + true reason is not merely sensuous, and the only way whereby it may be + gained is by the purification of the self from the desires that draw it + away from the Source of all Reason. "God," writes MORE, "reserves His + choicest secrets for the purest Minds," adding his conviction that "true + Holiness (is) the only safe Entrance into Divine Knowledge." Or as SMITH, + who speaks of "a GOOD LIFE as the PROLEPSIS and Fundamental principle of + DIVINE SCIENCE," puts it, "... if... KNOWLEDGE be not attended with + HUMILITY and a deep sense of SELF-PENURY and <i>*Self-emptiness</i>, we + may easily fall short of that True Knowledge of God which we seem to + aspire after."(1b) Right Reason, however, they taught, is the product of + the sight of the soul, the true mystic vision. + </p> + <p> + (3) BENJAMIN WHICHCOTE: <i>Moral and Religious Aphorisms OP. cit</i>., p. + 67. + </p> + <p> + (1b) JOHN SMITH: <i>A Discourse concerning the true Way or Method of + attaining to Divine Knowledge. Op. cit</i>., pp. 80 and 96. + </p> + <p> + In what respects, it may be asked in conclusion, is the philosophy of the + Cambridge Platonists open to criticism? They lacked, perhaps, a + sufficiently clear concept of the Church as a unity, and although they + clearly realised that Nature is a symbol which it is the function of + reason to interpret spiritually, they failed, I think, to appreciate the + value of symbols. Thus they have little to teach with respect to the + Sacraments of the Church, though, indeed, the highest view, perhaps, is + that which regards every act as potentially a sacrament; and, whilst + admiring his morality, they criticised BOEHME as an enthusiast. But, + although he spoke in a very different language, spiritually he had much in + common with them. Compared with what is of positive value in their + philosophy, however, the defects of the Cambridge Platonists are but + comparatively slight. I commend their works to lovers of spiritual wisdom. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Bygone Beliefs, by H. Stanley Redgrove + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BYGONE BELIEFS *** + +***** This file should be named 1271-h.htm or 1271-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/2/7/1271/ + +Produced by Charles Keller, and David Widger + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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