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diff --git a/old/12653-8.txt b/old/12653-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a1dde35 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/12653-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,13066 @@ +Project Gutenberg's George Washington, Vol. II, by Henry Cabot Lodge + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: George Washington, Vol. II + +Author: Henry Cabot Lodge + +Release Date: June 19, 2004 [EBook #12653] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GEORGE WASHINGTON, VOL. II *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Tim Koeller and PG Distributed +Proofreaders + + + + + + +[Illustration: MARTHA WASHINGTON] + +American Statesmen + +STANDARD LIBRARY EDITION + + +[Illustration: Mount Vernon] + + + * * * * * + + +GEORGE WASHINGTON + + BY + +HENRY CABOT LODGE + + IN TWO VOLUMES + VOL. II. + + 1899 + + + * * * * * + + +CONTENTS + +CHAPTER. + + I. WORKING FOR UNION + II. STARTING THE GOVERNMENT + III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS + IV. FOREIGN RELATIONS + V. WASHINGTON AS A PARTY MAN + VI. THE LAST YEARS + VII. GEORGE WASHINGTON + + INDEX + + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS + + +MARTHA WASHINGTON + +From the painting by Gilbert Stuart in the Museum of Fine Arts, +Boston. This painting is owned by the Boston Athenĉum and is known as +the Athenĉum portrait. + +Autograph from letter written from Valley Forge, March 7, 1778, now in +the possession of Hon. Winslow Warren. + + +The vignette of Mount Vernon is from a photograph. + + +WASHINGTON RESIGNING HIS COMMISSION AT ANNAPOLIS + +From the original painting by Trumbull in the Art Gallery of Yale +University. + + +LAFAYETTE + +From a contemporary French folio engraving in the Emmet collection, +New York Public Library, Lenox Building. + + +HENRY KNOX + +From the original portrait by Gilbert Stuart in the Museum of Fine +Arts, Boston. + +Autograph from Winsor's "America." + + +NATHANAEL GREENE + +From the original painting by C.W. Peale, by kind permission of its +present owner, Mrs. Wm. Brenton Greene, Jr., Princeton, N.J. + +Autograph from Winsor's "America." + + + * * * * * + + +GEORGE WASHINGTON + + + + +CHAPTER I + +WORKING FOR UNION + + +Having resigned his commission, Washington stood not upon the order of +his going, but went at once to Virginia, and reached Mount Vernon the +next day, in season to enjoy the Christmas-tide at home. It was with +a deep sigh of relief that he sat himself down again by his own +fireside, for all through the war the one longing that never left his +mind was for the banks of the Potomac. He loved home after the fashion +of his race, but with more than common intensity, and the country life +was dear to him in all its phases. He liked its quiet occupations and +wholesome sports, and, like most strong and simple natures, he loved +above all an open-air existence. He felt that he had earned his rest, +with all the temperate pleasures and employments which came with it, +and he fondly believed that he was about to renew the habits which he +had abandoned for eight weary years. Four days after his return he +wrote to Governor Clinton: "The scene is at last closed. I feel myself +eased of a load of public care. I hope to spend the remainder of my +days in cultivating the affections of good men and in the practice of +the domestic virtues." That the hope was sincere we may well suppose, +but that it was more than a hope may be doubted. It was a wish, not a +belief, for Washington must have felt that there was still work which +he would surely be called to do. Still for the present the old life +was there, and he threw himself into it with eager zest, though age +and care put some of the former habits aside. He resumed his hunting, +and Lafayette sent him a pack of splendid French wolf-hounds. But they +proved somewhat fierce and unmanageable, and were given up, and after +that the following of the hounds was never resumed. In other respects +there was little change. The work of the plantation and the affairs of +the estate, much disordered by his absence, once more took shape and +moved on successfully under the owner's eye. There were, as of old, +the long days in the saddle, the open house and generous hospitality, +the quiet evenings, and the thousand and one simple labors and +enjoyments of rural life. But with all this were the newer and deeper +cares, born of the change which had been wrought in the destiny of the +country. The past broke in and could not be pushed aside, the future +knocked at the door and demanded an answer to its questionings. + +He had left home a distinguished Virginian; he returned one of the +most famous men in the world, and such celebrity brought its usual +penalties. Every foreigner of any position who came to the country +made a pilgrimage to Mount Vernon, and many Americans did the same. +Their coming was not allowed to alter the mode of life, but they were +all hospitably received, and they consumed many hours of their host's +precious time. Then there were the artists and sculptors, who came +to paint his portrait or model his bust. "_In for a penny, in for +a pound_ is an old adage," he wrote to Hopkinson in 1785. "I am so +hackneyed to the touches of painters' pencils that I am now altogether +at their beck, and sit 'like patience on a monument,' whilst they are +delineating the lines of my face. It is a proof, among many others, of +what habit and custom can accomplish." Then there were the people who +desired to write his memoirs, and the historians who wished to have +his reminiscences, in their accounts of the Revolution. Some of these +inquiring and admiring souls came in person, while others assailed him +by letter and added to the vast flood of correspondence which poured +in upon him by every post. His correspondence, in fact, in the +needless part of it, was the most formidable waste of his time. He +seems to have formed no correct idea of his own fame and what it +meant, for he did not have a secretary until he found not only that he +could not arrange his immense mass of papers, but that he could not +even keep up with his daily letters. His correspondence came from all +parts of his own country, and of Europe as well. The French officers +who had been his companions in arms wrote him with affectionate +interest, and he was urged by them, one and all, and even by the king +and queen, to visit France. These were letters which he was only too +happy to answer, and he would fain have crossed the water in response +to their kindly invitation; but he professed himself too old, which +was a mere excuse, and objected his ignorance of the language, which +to a man of his temperament was a real obstacle. Besides these letters +of friendship, there were the schemers everywhere who sought his +counsel and assistance. The notorious Lady Huntington, for example, +pursued him with her project of Christianizing the Indians by means of +a missionary colony in our western region, and her persistent ladyship +cost him a good deal of time and thought, and some long and careful +letters. Then there was the inventor Kumsey, with his steamboat, to +which he gave careful attention, as he did to everything that seemed +to have merit. Another class of correspondents were his officers, who +wanted his aid with Congress and in a thousand other ways, and to +these old comrades he never turned a deaf ear. In this connection also +came the affairs of the Society of the Cincinnati. He took an active +part in the formation of the society, became its head, steered it +through its early difficulties, and finally saved it from the wreck +with which it was threatened by unreasoning popular prejudice. All +these things were successfully managed, but at much expense of time +and thought. + +[Illustration: WASHINGTON RESIGNING HIS COMMISSION AT ANNAPOLIS] + +Then again, apart from this mass of labor thrust upon him by +outsiders, there were his own concerns. His personal affairs required +looking after, and he regulated accounts, an elaborate business always +with him, put his farms in order, corresponded with his merchants +in England, and introduced agricultural improvements, which always +interested him deeply. He had large investments in land, of which from +boyhood he had been a bold and sagacious purchaser. These investments +had been neglected and needed his personal inspection; so in +September, 1784, he mounted his horse, and with a companion and a +servant rode away to the western country to look after his property. +He camped out, as in the early days, and heartily enjoyed it, although +reports that the Indians were moving in a restless and menacing manner +shortened his trip, and prevented his penetrating beyond his settled +lands to the wild tracts which he owned to the westward. Still he +managed to ride some six hundred and eighty miles and get a good taste +of that wild life which he never ceased to love, besides gathering a +stock of information on many points of deeper and wider interest than +his own property. + +In the midst of all these employments, too, he attended closely to his +domestic duties. At frequent intervals he journeyed to Fredericksburg +to visit his mother, who still lived, and to whom he was always a +dutiful and affectionate son. He watched over Mrs. Washington's +grandchildren, and two or three nephews of his own, whose education +he had undertaken, with all the solicitude of a father, and at the +expense again of much thought and many wise letters of instruction and +advice. + +Even from this brief list it is possible to gain some idea of the +occupations which filled Washington's time, and the only wonder is +that he dealt with them so easily and effectively. Yet the greatest +and most important work, that which most deeply absorbed his mind, and +which affected the whole country, still remains to be described. With +all his longing for repose and privacy, Washington could not separate +himself from the great problems which he had solved, or from the +solution of the still greater problems which he had done more than any +man to bring into existence. In reality, despite his reiterated wish +for the quiet of home, he never ceased to labor at the new questions +which confronted the country, and the old issues which were the legacy +of the Revolution. + +In the latter class was the peace establishment, on which he advised +Congress, much in vain; for their idea of a peace establishment was +to get rid of the army as rapidly as possible, and retain only a +corporal's guard in the service of the confederation. Another question +was that concerning the western posts. As has been already pointed +out, Washington's keen eye had at once detected that this was the +perilous point in the treaty, and he made a prompt but unavailing +effort to secure these posts in the first flush of good feeling when +peace had just been made. After he had retired he observed with regret +the feebleness of Congress in this matter, and he continued to write +about it. He wrote especially to Knox, who was in charge of the war +department, and advised him to establish posts on our side, since we +could not obtain the withdrawal of the British. This deep anxiety as +to the western posts was due not merely to his profound distrust of +the intention of England, but to his extreme solicitude as to the +unsettled regions of the West. He repeatedly referred to the United +States, even before the close of the war, as an infant empire, and he +saw before any one else the destined growth of the country. + +No man of that time, with the exception of Hamilton, ever grasped and +realized as he did the imperial future which stretched before the +United States. It was a difficult thing for men who had been born +colonists to rise to a sense of national opportunities, but Washington +passed at a single step from being a Virginian to being an American, +and in so doing he stood alone. He was really and thoroughly national +from the beginning of the war, at a time when, except for a few +oratorical phrases, no one had ever thought of such a thing as a +practical and living question. In the same way he had passed rapidly +to an accurate conception of the probable growth and greatness of +the country, and again he stood alone. Hamilton, born outside the +colonies, unhampered by local prejudices and attachments, and living +in Washington's family, as soon as he turned his mind to the subject, +became, like his chief, entirely national and imperial in his views; +but the other American statesmen of that day, with the exception +of Franklin, only followed gradually and sometimes reluctantly in +adopting their opinions. Some of them never adopted them at all, but +remained imbedded in local ideas, and very few got beyond the region +of words and actually grasped the facts with the absolutely clear +perception which Washington had from the outset. Thus it was that when +the war closed, one of the two ruling ideas in Washington's mind was +to assure the future which he saw opening before the country. He +perceived at a glance that the key and the guarantee of that future +were in the wild regions of the West. Hence his constant anxiety as to +the western posts, as to our Indian policy, and as to the maintenance +of a sufficient armed force upon our borders to check the aggressions +of Englishmen or of savages, and to secure free scope for settlement. +In advancing these ideas on a national scale, however, he was rendered +helpless by the utter weakness of Congress, which even his influence +was powerless to overcome. He therefore began, immediately after his +retreat to private life, to formulate and bring into existence such +practical measures as were possible for the development of the West, +believing that if Congress could not act, the people would, if any +opportunity were given to their natural enterprise. + +The scheme which he proposed was to open the western country by means +of inland navigation. The thought had long been in his mind. It had +come to him before the Revolution, and can be traced back to the early +days when he was making surveys, buying wild lands, and meditating +very deeply, but very practically, on the possible commercial +development of the colonies. Now the idea assumed much larger +proportions and a much graver aspect. He perceived in it the first +step toward the empire which he foresaw, and when he had laid down +his sword and awoke in the peaceful morning at Mount Vernon, "with +a strange sense of freedom from official cares," he directed his +attention at once to this plan, in which he really could do something, +despite an inert Congress and a dissolving confederation. His first +letter on the subject was written in March, 1784, and addressed +to Jefferson, who was then in Congress, and who sympathized with +Washington's views without seeing how far they reached. He told +Jefferson how he despaired of government aid, and how he therefore +intended to revive the scheme of a company, which he had started in +1775, and which had been abandoned on account of the war. He showed +the varying interests which it was necessary to conciliate, asked +Jefferson to see the governor of Maryland, so that that State might +be brought into the undertaking, and referred to the danger of being +anticipated and beaten by New York, a chord of local pride which he +continued to touch most adroitly as the business proceeded. Very +characteristically, too, he took pains to call attention to the fact +that by his ownership of land he had a personal interest in the +enterprise. He looked far beyond his own lands, but he was glad to +have his property developed, and with his usual freedom from anything +like pretense, he drew attention to the fact of his personal +interests. + +On his return from his tour in the autumn, he proceeded to bring +the matter to public attention and to the consideration of the +legislature. With this end in view he addressed a long letter to +Governor Harrison, in which he laid out his whole scheme. Detroit was +to be the objective point, and he indicated the different routes by +which inland navigation could thence be obtained, thus opening the +Indian trade, and affording an outlet at the same time for the +settlers who were sure to pour in when once the fear of British +aggression was removed. He dwelt strongly upon the danger of Virginia +losing these advantages by the action of other States, and yet at the +same time he suggested the methods by which Maryland and Pennsylvania +could be brought into the plan. Then he advanced a series of arguments +which were purely national in their scope. He insisted on the +necessity of binding to the old colonies by strong ties the Western +States, which might easily be decoyed away if Spain or England had the +sense to do it. This point he argued with great force, for it was now +no longer a Virginian argument, but an argument for all the States. + +The practical result was that the legislature took the question up, +more in deference to the writer's wishes and in gratitude for his +services, than from any comprehension of what the scheme meant. The +companies were duly organized, and the promoter was given a hundred +and fifty shares, on the ground that the legislature wished to take +every opportunity of testifying their sense of "the unexampled merits +of George Washington towards his country." Washington was much touched +and not a little troubled by this action. He had been willing, as he +said, to give up his cherished privacy and repose in order to forward +the enterprise. He had gone to Maryland even, and worked to engage +that State in the scheme, but he could not bear the idea of taking +money for what he regarded as part of a great public policy. "I would +wish," he said, "that every individual who may hear that it was a +favorite plan of mine may know also that I had no other motive for +promoting it than the advantage of which I conceived it would be +productive to the Union, and to this State in particular, by cementing +the eastern and western territory together, at the same time that it +will give vigor and increase to our commerce, and be a convenience to +our citizens." + +"How would this matter be viewed, then, by the eye of the world, and +what would be the opinion of it, when it comes to be related that +George Washington has received twenty thousand dollars and five +thousand pounds sterling of the public money as an interest therein?" +He thought it would make him look like a "pensioner or dependent" +to accept this gratuity, and he recoiled from the idea. There is +something entirely frank and human in the way in which he says "George +Washington," instead of using the first pronoun singular. He always +saw facts as they were; he understood the fact called "George +Washington" as perfectly as any other, and although he wanted +retirement and privacy, he had no mock modesty in estimating his own +place in the world. At the same time, while he wished to be rid of the +kindly gift, he shrank from putting on what he called the appearance +of "ostentatious disinterestedness" by refusing it. Finally he took +the stock and endowed two charity schools with the dividends. The +scheme turned out successfully, and the work still endures, like the +early surveys and various other things of a very different kind to +which Washington put his hand. In the greater forces which were +presently set in motion for the preservation of the future empire, +the inland navigation, started in Virginia, dropped out of sight, and +became merely one of the rills which fed the mighty river. But it was +the only really practical movement possible at the precise moment when +it was begun, and it was characteristic of its author, who always +found, even in the most discouraging conditions, something that could +be done. It might be only a very little something, but still that was +better than nothing to the strong man ever dealing with facts as they +actually were on this confused earth, and not turning aside because +things were not as they ought to be. Thus many a battle and campaign +had been saved, and so inland navigation played its part now. It +helped, among other things, to bring Maryland and Virginia together, +and their combination was the first step toward the Constitution of +the United States. There is nothing fanciful in all this. No one would +pretend that the Constitution of the United States was descended from +Washington's James River and Potomac River companies. But he worked at +them with that end in view, and so did what was nearest to his hand +and most practical toward union, empire, and the development of +national sentiment. + +Ah, says some critic in critic's fashion, you are carried away by your +subject; you see in a simple business enterprise, intended merely to +open western lands, the far-reaching ideas of a statesman. Perhaps +our critic is right, for as one goes on living with this Virginian +soldier, studying his letters and his thoughts, one comes to believe +many things of him, and to detect much meaning in his sayings and +doings. Let us, however, show our evidence at least. Here is what he +wrote to his friend Humphreys a year after his scheme was afoot: "My +attention is more immediately engaged in a project which I think big +with great political as well as commercial consequences to the +States, especially the middle ones;" and then he went on to argue the +necessity of fastening the Western States to the Atlantic seaboard +and thus thwarting Spain and England. This looks like more than a +money-making scheme; in fact, it justifies all that has been said, +especially if read in connection with certain other letters of this +period. Great political results, as well as lumber and peltry, were +what Washington intended to float along his rivers and canals. + +In this same letter to Humphreys he touched also on another point +in connection with the development of the West, which was of vast +importance to the future of the country, and was even then agitating +men's minds. He said: "I may be singular in my ideas, but they are +these: that, to open a door to, and make easy the way for those +settlers to the westward (who ought to advance regularly and +compactly), before we make any stir about the navigation of the +Mississippi, and before our settlements are far advanced towards that +river, would be our true line of policy." Again he wrote: "However +singular the opinion may be, I cannot divest myself of it, that the +navigation of the Mississippi, _at this time_ [1785], ought to be no +object with us. On the contrary, until we have a little time allowed +to open and make easy the ways between the Atlantic States and the +western territory, the obstructions had better remain." He was right +in describing himself as "singular" in his views on this matter, which +just then was exciting much attention. + +At that time indeed much feeling existed, and there were many sharp +divisions about the Mississippi question. One party, for the sake of a +commercial treaty with Spain, and to get a troublesome business out of +the way, was ready to give up our claims to a free navigation of +the great river; and this was probably the prevalent sentiment in +Congress, for to most of the members the Mississippi seemed a very +remote affair indeed. On the other side was a smaller and more violent +party, which was for obtaining the free navigation immediately and +at all hazards, and was furious at the proposition to make such a +sacrifice as its opponents proposed. Finally, there was Spain herself +intriguing to get possession of the West, holding out free navigation +as a bait to the settlers of Kentucky, and keeping paid agents in that +region to foster her schemes. Washington saw too far and too +clearly to think for one moment of giving up the navigation of the +Mississippi, but he also perceived what no one else seems to have +thought of, that free navigation at that moment would give the western +settlements "the habit of trade" with New Orleans before they had +formed it with the Atlantic seaboard, and would thus detach them from +the United States. He wished, therefore, to have the Mississippi +question left open, and all our claims reserved, so that trade by +the river should be obstructed until we had time to open our inland +navigation and bind 'the western people to us by ties too strong to +be broken. The fear that the river would be lost by waiting did not +disturb him in the least, provided our claims were kept alive. He +wrote to Lee in June, 1786: "Whenever the new States become so +populous, and so extended to the westward, as really to need it, +there will be no power which can deprive them of the use of the +Mississippi." Again, a year later, while the convention was sitting in +Philadelphia, he said: "My sentiments with respect to the navigation +of the Mississippi have been long fixed, and are not dissimilar to +those which are expressed in your letter. I have ever been of opinion +that the true policy of the Atlantic States, instead of contending +prematurely for the free navigation of that river (which eventually, +and perhaps as soon as it will be our true interest to obtain it, must +happen), would be to open and improve the natural communications +with the western country." The event justified his sagacity in all +respects, for the bickerings went on until the United States were able +to compel Spain to give what was wanted to the western communities, +which by that time had been firmly bound to those of the Atlantic +coast. + +Much as Washington thought about holding fast the western country, +there was yet one idea that overruled it as well as all others. There +was one plan which he knew would be a quick solution of the dangers +and difficulties for which inland navigation and trade connections +were at best but palliatives. He had learned by bitter experience, as +no other man had learned, the vital need and value of union. He felt +it as soon as he took command of the army, and it rode like black care +behind him from Cambridge to Yorktown. He had hoped something from the +confederation, but he soon saw that it was as worthless as the utter +lack of system which it replaced, and amounted merely to substituting +one kind of impotence and confusion for another. Others might be +deceived by phrases as to nationality and a general government, but +he had dwelt among hard facts, and he knew that these things did not +exist. He knew that what passed for them, stood in their place and +wore their semblance, were merely temporary creations born of the +common danger, and doomed, when the pressure of war was gone, to fall +to pieces in imbecility and inertness. To the lack of a proper +union, which meant to his mind national and energetic government, he +attributed the failures of the campaigns, the long-drawn miseries, and +in a word the needless prolongation of the Revolution. He saw, too, +that what had been so nearly ruinous in war would be absolutely so in +peace, and before the treaty was actually signed he had begun to call +attention to the great question on the right settlement of which the +future of the country depended. + +To Hamilton he wrote on March 4, 1783: "It is clearly my opinion, +unless Congress have powers competent to all general purposes, that +the distresses we have encountered, the expense we have incurred, and +the blood we have spilt, will avail us nothing." Again he wrote to +Hamilton, a few weeks later: "My wish to see the union of these States +established upon liberal and permanent principles, and inclination +to contribute my mite in pointing out the defects of the present +constitution, are equally great. All my private letters have teemed +with these sentiments, and whenever this topic has been the subject +of conversation, I have endeavored to diffuse and enforce them." His +circular letter to the governors of the States at the close of the +war, which was as eloquent as it was forcible, was devoted to urging +the necessity of a better central government. "With this conviction," +he said, "of the importance of the present crisis, silence in me would +be a crime. I will therefore speak to your Excellency the language of +freedom and of sincerity without disguise.... There are four things +which I humbly conceive are essential to the well-being, I may +even venture to say, to the existence, of the United States, as an +independent power:-- + +"First. An indissoluble union of the States under one federal head. + +"Second. A regard to public justice. + +"Third. The adoption of a proper peace establishment; and, + +"Fourth. The prevalence of that pacific and friendly disposition among +the people of the United States, which will induce them to forget +their local prejudices and policies; to make those mutual concessions +which are requisite to the general prosperity; and in some instances +to sacrifice their individual advantages to the interest of the +community." The same appeal went forth again in his last address to +the army, when he said: "Although the general has so frequently given +it as his opinion, in the most public and explicit manner, that unless +the principles of the federal government were properly supported, and +the powers of the Union increased, the honor, dignity, and justice of +the nation would be lost forever; yet he cannot help repeating on +this occasion so interesting a sentiment, and leaving it as his last +injunction to every soldier, who may view the subject in the same +serious point of light, to add his best endeavors to those of his +worthy fellow-citizens towards effecting those great and valuable +purposes on which our very existence as a nation so materially +depends." + +These two papers were the first strong public appeals for union. The +letter to the governors argued the question elaborately, and was +intended for the general public. The address to the army was simply a +watchword and last general order; for the army needed no arguments to +prove the crying need of better government. Before this, Hamilton had +written his famous letters to Duane and Morris, and Madison was +just beginning to turn his thoughts toward the problem of federal +government; but with these exceptions Washington stood alone. In +sending out these two papers he began the real work that led to the +Constitution. What he said was read and heeded throughout the country, +for at the close of the war his personal influence was enormous, and +with the army his utterances were those of an oracle. By his appeal he +made each officer and soldier a missionary in the cause of the Union, +and by his arguments to the governors he gave ground and motive for +a party devoted to procuring better government. Thus he started the +great movement which, struggling through many obstacles, culminated in +the Constitution and the union of the States. No other man could +have done it, for no one but Washington had a tithe of the influence +necessary to arrest public attention; and, save Hamilton, no other +man then had even begun to understand the situation which Washington +grasped so easily and firmly in all its completeness. + +He sent out these appeals as his last words to his countrymen at the +close of their conflict; but he had no intention of stopping there. +He had written and spoken, as he said, to every one on every occasion +upon this topic, and he continued to do so until the work was done. He +had no sooner laid aside the military harness than he began at once to +push on the cause of union. In the bottom of his heart he must have +known that his work was but half done, and with the same pen with +which he reiterated his intention to live in repose and privacy, and +spend his declining years beneath his own vine and fig-tree, he wrote +urgent appeals and wove strong arguments addressed to leaders in +every State. He had not been at home five days before he wrote to the +younger Trumbull, congratulating him on his father's vigorous message +in behalf of better federal government, which had not been very well +received by the Connecticut legislature. He spoke of "the jealousies +and contracted temper" of the States, but avowed his belief that +public sentiment was improving. "Everything," he concluded, "my dear +Trumbull, will come right at last, as we have often prophesied. +My only fear is that we shall lose a little reputation first." A +fortnight later he wrote to the governor of Virginia: "That the +prospect before us is, as you justly observe, fair, none can deny; but +what use we shall make of it is exceedingly problematical; not but +that I believe all things will come right at last, but like a young +heir come a little prematurely to a large inheritance, we shall wanton +and run riot until we have brought our reputation to the brink of +ruin, and then like him shall have to labor with the current of +opinion, when compelled, perhaps, to do what prudence and common +policy pointed out as plain as any problem in Euclid in the first +instance." The soundness of the view is only equaled by the accuracy +of the prediction. He might five years later have repeated this +sentence, word for word, only altering the tenses, and he would have +rehearsed exactly the course of events. + +While he wrote thus he keenly watched Congress, and marked its sure +and not very gradual decline. He did what he could to bring about +useful measures, and saw them one after the other come to naught. He +urged the impost scheme, and felt that its failure was fatal to the +financial welfare of the country, on which so much depended. He +always was striving to do the best with existing conditions, but the +hopelessness of every effort soon satisfied him that it was a waste of +time and energy. So he turned again in the midst of his canal schemes +to renew his exhortations to leading men in the various States on the +need of union as the only true solution of existing troubles. + +To James McHenry, of Maryland, he wrote in August, 1785: "I confess to +you candidly that I can foresee no evil greater than disunion; than +those unreasonable jealousies which are continually poisoning our +minds and filling them with imaginary evils for the prevention of real +ones." To William Grayson of Virginia, then a member of Congress, +he wrote at the same time: "I have ever been a friend to adequate +congressional powers; consequently I wish to see the ninth article of +the confederation amended and extended. Without these powers we cannot +support a national character, and must appear contemptible in the eyes +of Europe. But to you, my dear Sir, I will candidly confess that in +my opinion it is of little avail to give them to Congress." He was +already clearly of opinion that the existing system was hopeless, and +the following spring he wrote still more sharply as to the state of +public affairs to Henry Lee, in Congress. "My sentiments," he said, +"with respect to the federal government are well known. Publicly and +privately have they been communicated without reserve; but my opinion +is that there is more wickedness than ignorance in the conduct of the +States, or, in other words, in the conduct of those who have too +much influence in the government of them; and until the curtain is +withdrawn, and the private views and selfish principles upon which +these men act are exposed to public notice, I have little hope of +amendment without another convulsion." + +He did not confine himself, however, to letters, important as the work +done in this way was, but used all his influence toward practical +measures outside of Congress, of whose action he quite despaired. The +plan for a commercial agreement between Maryland and Virginia was +concerted at Mount Vernon, and led to a call to all the States to +meet at Annapolis for the same object. This, of course, received +Washington's hearty approval and encouragement, but he evidently +regarded it, although important, as merely a preliminary step to +something wider and better. He wrote to Lafayette describing the +proposed gathering at Annapolis, and added: "A general convention +is talked of by many for the purpose of revising and correcting the +defects of the federal government; but whilst this is the wish of +some, it is the dread of others, from an opinion that matters are +not yet sufficiently ripe for such an event." This expressed his own +feeling, for although he was entirely convinced that only a radical +reform would do, he questioned whether the time had yet arrived, and +whether things had become bad enough, to make such a reform either +possible or lasting. He was chiefly disturbed because he felt that +there was "more wickedness than ignorance mixed in our councils," +and he grew more and more anxious as public affairs declined without +apparently producing a reaction. The growing contempt shown by foreign +nations and the arrogant conduct of Great Britain especially alarmed +him, while the rapid sinking of the national reputation stung him to +the quick. "I do not conceive," he wrote to Jay, in August, 1786, "we +can exist long as a nation without having lodged somewhere a power +which will pervade the whole Union in as energetic a manner as the +authority of the state governments extends over the several States." +Thus with unerring judgment he put his finger on the vital point in +the whole question, which was the need of a national government that +should deal with the individual citizens of the whole country and +not with the States. "To be fearful," he continued, "of investing +Congress, constituted as that body is, with ample authorities for +national purposes, appears to me the very climax of popular absurdity +and madness.... Requisitions are actually little better than a jest +and a byword throughout the land. If you tell the legislatures they +have violated the treaty of peace, and invaded the prerogatives of the +confederacy, they will laugh in your face.... It is much to be feared, +as you observe, that the better kind of people, being disgusted with +the circumstances, will have their minds prepared for any revolution +whatever.... I am told that even respectable characters speak of +a monarchical government without horror. From thinking proceeds +speaking; thence to acting is often but a single step. But how +irrevocable and tremendous! What a triumph for our enemies to verify +their predictions!... It is not my business to embark again upon a sea +of troubles. Nor could it be expected that my sentiments and opinions +would have much weight on the minds of my countrymen. They have been +neglected, though given as a last legacy in the most solemn manner. I +had then perhaps some claims to public attention. I consider myself as +having none at present." + +It is interesting to observe the ease and certainty with which, in +dealing with the central question, he grasped all phases of the +subject and judged of the effect of the existing weakness with regard +to every relation of the country and to the politics of each State. +He pointed out again and again the manner in which we were exposed +to foreign hostility, and analyzed the designs of England, rightly +detecting a settled policy on her part to injure and divide where she +had failed to conquer. Others were blind to the meaning of the +English attitude as to the western posts, commerce, and international +relations. Washington brought it to the attention of our leading men, +educating them on this as on other points, and showing, too, the +stupidity of Great Britain in her attempt to belittle the trade of a +country which, as he wrote Lafayette in prophetic vein, would one day +"have weight in the scale of empires." + +He followed with the same care the course of events in the several +States. In them all he resisted the craze for issuing irredeemable +paper money, writing to his various correspondents, and urging +energetic opposition to this specious and pernicious form of public +dishonesty. It was to Massachusetts, however, that his attention was +most strongly attracted by the social disorders which culminated in +the Shays rebellion. There the miserable condition of public affairs +was bearing bitter fruit, and Washington watched the progress of the +troubles with profound anxiety. He wrote to Lee: "You talk, my +good sir, of employing influence to appease the present tumults in +Massachusetts. I know not where that influence is to be found, or, +if attainable, that it would be a proper remedy for the disorders. +_Influence_ is not _government_. Let us have a government by which our +lives, liberties, and properties will be secured, or let us know the +worst at once." Through "all this mist of intoxication and folly," +however, Washington saw that the Shays insurrection would probably be +the means of frightening the indifferent, and of driving those who +seemed impervious to every appeal to reason into an active support +of some better form of government. He rightly thought that riot and +bloodshed would prove convincing arguments. + +In order to understand the utter demoralization of society, politics, +and public opinion at that time, the offspring of a wasting civil war +and of colonial habits of thought, it is interesting to contrast the +attitude of Washington with that of another distinguished American in +regard to the Shays rebellion. While Washington was looking solemnly +at this manifestation of weakness and disorder, and was urging strong +measures with passionate vehemence, Jefferson was writing from Paris +in the flippant vein of the fashionable French theorists, and uttering +such ineffable nonsense as the famous sentence about "once in twenty +years watering the tree of liberty with the blood of tyrants." There +could be no better illustration of what Washington was than this +contrast between the man of words and the man of action, between the +astute leader of a party, the shrewd manager of men, and the silent +leader of armies, the master builder of states and governments. + +I have followed Washington through the correspondence of this time +with some minuteness, because it is the only way by which his work in +overcoming the obstacles in the path to good government can be seen. +He held no public office; he had no means of reaching the popular ear. +He was neither a professional orator nor a writer of pamphlets, and +the press of that day, if he had controlled it, had no power to mould +or direct public thought. Yet, despite these obstacles, he set himself +to develop public opinion in favor of a better government, and he +worked at this difficult and impalpable task without ceasing, from +the day that he resigned from the army until he was called to the +presidency of the United States. He did it by means of private +letters, a feeble instrument to-day, but much more effective then. +Jefferson never made speeches nor published essays, but he built up a +great party, and carried himself into power as its leader by means +of letters. In the same fashion Washington started the scheme for +internal waterways, in order to bind the East and the West together, +set on foot the policy of commercial agreements between the States, +and argued on the "imperial theme" with leading men everywhere. A +study of these letters reveals a strong, logical, and deliberate +working towards the desired end. There was no scattering fire. Whether +he was writing of canals, or the Mississippi, or the Western posts, +or paper money, or the impost, or the local disorders, he always was +arguing and urging union and an energetic central government. These +letters went to the leaders of thought and opinion, and were quoted +and passed from hand to hand. They brought immediately to the cause +all the soldiers and officers of the army, and they aroused and +convinced the strongest and ablest men in every State. Washington's +personal influence was very great, something we of this generation, +with a vast territory and seventy millions of people, cannot readily +understand. To many persons his word was law; to all that was best in +the community, everything he said had immense weight. This influence +he used with care and without waste. Every blow he struck went home. +It is impossible to estimate just how much he effected, but it is safe +to say that it is to Washington, aided first by Hamilton and then +by Madison, that we owe the development of public opinion and the +formation of the party which devised and carried the Constitution. +Events of course worked with them, but they used events, and did not +suffer the golden opportunities, which without them would have been +lost, to slip by. + +When Washington wrote of the Shays rebellion to Lee, the movement +toward a better union, which he had begun, was on the brink of +success. That ill-starred insurrection became, as he foresaw, a +powerful spur to the policy started at Mount Vernon, and adopted by +Virginia and Maryland. From this had come the Annapolis convention, +and thence the call for another convention at Philadelphia. As soon +as the word went abroad that a general convention was to be held, the +demand for Washington as a delegate was heard on all sides. At first +he shrank from it. Despite the work which he had been doing, and which +he must have known would bring him once more into public service, he +still clung to the vision of home life which he had brought with him +from the army. November 18, 1786, he wrote to Madison, that from a +sense of obligation he should go to the convention, were it not that +he had declined on account of his retirement, age, and rheumatism to +be at a meeting of the Cincinnati at the same time and place. But +no one heeded him, and Virginia elected him unanimously to head +her delegation at Philadelphia. He wrote to Governor Randolph, +acknowledging the honor, but reiterating what he had said to Madison, +and urging the choice of some one else in his place. Still Virginia +held the question open, and on February 3 he wrote to Knox that his +private intention was not to attend. The pressure continued, and, as +usual when the struggle drew near, the love of battle and the sense of +duty began to reassert themselves. March 8 he again wrote to Knox that +he had not meant to come, but that the question had occurred to him, +"Whether my non-attendance in the convention will not be considered +as dereliction of republicanism; nay, more, whether other motives may +not, however injuriously, be ascribed for my not exerting myself +on this occasion in support of it;" and therefore he wished to be +informed as to the public expectation on the matter. On March 28 he +wrote again to Randolph that ill-health might prevent his going, and +therefore it would be well to appoint some one in his place. April 2 +he said that if representation of the States was to be partial, or +powers cramped, he did not want to be a sharer in the business. "If +the delegates assemble," he wrote, "with such powers as will enable +the convention to probe the defects of the constitution to the bottom +and point out radical cures, it would be an honorable employment; +otherwise not." This idea of inefficiency and failure in the +convention had long been present to his mind, and he had already said +that, if their powers were insufficient, the convention should go +boldly over and beyond them and make a government with the means of +coercion, and able to enforce obedience, without which it would be, in +his opinion, quite worthless. Thus he pondered on the difficulties, +and held back his acceptance of the post; but when the hour of action +drew near, the rheumatism and the misgivings alike disappeared before +the inevitable, and Washington arrived in Philadelphia, punctual as +usual, on May 13, the day before the opening of the convention. + +The other members were by no means equally prompt, and a week elapsed +before a bare quorum was obtained and the convention enabled to +organize. In this interval of waiting there appears to have been some +informal discussion among the members present, between those who +favored an entirely new Constitution and those who timidly desired +only half-way measures. On one of these occasions Washington is +reported by Gouverneur Morris, in a eulogy delivered twelve years +later, to have said: "It is too probable that no plan we propose will +be adopted. Perhaps another dreadful conflict is to be sustained. If, +to please the people, we offer what we ourselves disapprove, how can +we afterwards defend our work? Let us raise a standard to which the +wise and honest can repair. The event is in the hand of God." The +language is no doubt that of Morris, speaking from memory and in a +highly rhetorical vein, but we may readily believe that the quotation +accurately embodied Washington's opinion, and that he took this high +ground at the outset, and strove from the beginning to inculcate upon +his fellow-members the absolute need of bold and decisive action. +The words savor of the orator who quoted them, but the noble and +courageous sentiment which they express is thoroughly characteristic +of the man to whom they were attributed.[1] + +[Footnote 1: It is necessary to say a few words in regard to this +quotation of Washington's words made by Morris, because both Mr. +Bancroft (_History of the Constitution_, ii. 8) and Mr. John Fiske +(_The Critical Period of American History_, p. 232) quote them as if +they were absolutely and verbally authentic. It is perfectly certain +that from May 25 to September 17 Washington spoke but once; that +is, he spoke but once in the convention after it became such by +organization. This point is determined by Madison's statement (Notes, +in. 1600), that when Washington took the floor in behalf of Gorham's +amendment, "it was the only occasion on which the president entered _at +all_ into the discussions of the convention." (The italics are mine.) +I have examined the manuscript at the State Department, and these +words are written in Madison's own hand in the body of the text and +inclosed in brackets. Madison was the most accurate of men. His notes +are only abstracts of what was said, but he was never absent from +the convention, and there can be no question that if Washington had +uttered the words attributed to him by Morris, a speech so important +would have been given as fully as possible, and Madison would not have +said distinctly that the Gorham amendment was the only occasion when +the president entered into the discussions of the convention. + +It is, therefore, certain that Washington said nothing in the +convention except on the occasion of the Gorham amendment, and Mr. +Bancroft rightly assigns the Morris quotation to some time during the +week which elapsed between the date fixed for the assembling of the +convention and that on which a quorum of States was obtained. The +words given by Morris, if uttered at all, must have been spoken +informally in the way of conversation before there was any convention, +strictly speaking, and of course before Washington was chosen +president. Mr. Fiske, who devotes a page to these sentences from the +eulogy, describes Washington as rising from his president's chair and +addressing the convention with great solemnity. There is no authority +whatever to show that he rose from the chair to address the other +delegates, and, if he used the words quoted by Morris, he was +certainly not president of the convention when he did so. The latter +blunder, however, is Morris's own, and in making it he contradicts +himself. These are his words: "He is their president. It is a question +previous to their first meeting what course shall be pursued." In +other words, he was their president before they had met and chosen a +president. This is a fair illustration of the loose and rhetorical +character of the passage in which Washington's admonition is quoted. +The entire paragraph, with its mixture of tenses arising from the use +of the historical present which Morris's classical fancies led him to +employ, is, in fact, purely rhetorical, and has only the authority +due to performances of that character. It seems to me impossible, +therefore, to fairly suppose that the words quoted by Morris were +anything more than his own presentation of a sentiment which he, no +doubt, heard Washington urge frequently and forcibly. Even in this +limited acceptation his account is both interesting and valuable, +as indicating Washington's opinion and the tone he took with his +fellow-members; but this, I think, is the utmost weight that can be +attached to it. I have discussed the point thus minutely because two +authorities so distinguished as Mr. Bancroft and Mr. Fiske have laid +so much stress on the words given by Morris, and have seemed to me to +accord to them a greater weight and a higher authenticity than the +facts warrant. Morris's eulogy on Washington was delivered in New +York, and may be found most readily in a little volume entitled +_Washingtoniana_ (p. 110), published at Lancaster in 1802.] + +When a quorum was finally obtained, Washington was unanimously chosen +to preside over the convention; and there he sat during the sessions +of four months, silent, patient, except on a single occasion,[1] +taking no part in debate, but guiding the business, and using all his +powers with steady persistence to compass the great end. The debates +of that remarkable body have been preserved in outline in the full and +careful notes of Madison. Its history has been elaborately written, +and the arguments and opinions of its members have been minutely +examined and unsparingly criticised. We are still ignorant, and shall +always remain ignorant, of just how much was due to Washington for the +final completion of the work. His general views and his line of action +are clearly to be seen in his letters and in the words attributed to +him by Morris. That he labored day and night for success we know, and +that his influence with his fellow-members was vast we also know, but +the rest we can only conjecture. There came a time when everything +was at a standstill, and when it looked as if no agreement could +be reached by the men representing so many conflicting interests. +Hamilton had made his great speech, and, finding the vote of his State +cast against him by his two colleagues on every question, had gone +home in a frame of mind which we may easily believe was neither very +contented nor very sanguine. Even Franklin, most hopeful and buoyant +of men, was nearly ready to despair. Washington himself wrote to +Hamilton, on July 10: "When I refer you to the state of the counsels +which prevailed at the period you left this city, and add that they +are now, if possible, in a worse train than ever, you will find but +little ground on which the hope of a good establishment can be formed. +In a word, I almost despair of seeing a favorable issue to the +proceedings of our convention, and do therefore repent having had any +agency in the business." Matters were certainly in a bad state when +Washington could write in this strain, and when his passion for +success was so cooled that he repented of agency in the business. +There was much virtue, however, in that little word "almost." He did +not quite despair yet, and, after his fashion, he held on with grim +tenacity. We know what the compromises finally were, and how they were +brought about, but we can never do exact justice to the iron will +which held men together when all compromises seemed impossible, and +which even in the darkest hour would not wholly despair. All that can +be said is, that without the influence and the labors of Washington +the convention of 1787, in all probability, would have failed of +success. + +[Footnote 1: Just at the close of the convention, when the +Constitution in its last draft was in the final stage and on the eve +of adoption, Mr. Gorham of Massachusetts moved to amend by reducing +the limit of population in a congressional district from forty to +thirty thousand. Washington took the floor and argued briefly and +modestly in favor of the change. His mere request was sufficient, and +the amendment was unanimously adopted.] + +At all events it did not fail, and after much tribulation the work was +done. On September 17, 1787, a day ever to be memorable, Washington +affixed his bold and handsome signature to the Constitution of the +United States. Tradition has it that as he stood by the table, pen in +hand, he said: "Should the States reject this excellent Constitution, +the probability is that opportunity will never be offered to cancel +another in peace; the next will be drawn in blood." Whether the +tradition is well or ill founded, the sentence has the ring of truth. +A great work had been accomplished. If it were cast aside, Washington +knew that the sword and not the pen would make the next Constitution, +and he regarded that awful alternative with dread. He signed first, +and was followed by all the members present, with three notable +exceptions. Then the delegates dined together at the city tavern, and +took a cordial leave of each other. "After which," the president of +the convention wrote in his diary, "I returned to my lodgings, did +some business with, and received the papers from, the secretary of the +convention, and retired to meditate upon the momentous work which had +been executed." It is a simple sentence, but how much it means! The +world would be glad to-day to know what the thoughts were which +filled Washington's mind as he sat alone in the quiet of that summer +afternoon, with the new Constitution lying before him. But he was then +as ever silent. He did not go alone to his room to exhibit himself on +paper for the admiration of posterity. He went there to meditate for +his own guidance on what had been done for the benefit of his country. +The city bells had rung a joyful chime when he arrived four months +before. Ought they to ring again with a new gladness, or should they +toll for the death of bright hopes, now the task was done? Washington +was intensely human. In that hour of silent thought his heart must +have swelled with a consciousness that he had led his people through +a successful Revolution, and now again from the darkness of political +confusion and dissolution to the threshold of a new existence. But at +the same time he never deceived himself. The new Constitution was but +an experiment and an opportunity. Would the States accept it? And +if they accepted it, would they abide by it? Was this instrument of +government, wrought out so painfully, destined to go to pieces after +a few years of trial, or was it to prove strong enough to become the +charter of a nation and hold the States together indissolubly against +all the shocks of politics and revolution? Washington, with his +foresight and strong national instinct, plainly saw these momentous +questions, somewhat dim then, although clear to all the world to-day. +We can guess how solemnly he thought about them as he meditated alone +in his room on that September afternoon. Whatever his reflections, his +conclusions were simple. He made up his mind that the only chance for +the country lay in the adoption of the new scheme, but he was sober +enough in his opinions as to the Constitution itself. He said of it to +Lafayette the day after the signing: "It is the result of four months' +deliberation. It is now a child of fortune, to be fostered by some and +buffeted by others. What will be the general opinion or the reception +of it is not for me to decide; nor shall I say anything for or against +it. If it be good, I suppose it will work its way; if bad, it will +recoil on the framers." We catch sight here of the old theory that his +public life was at an end, and now, when this exceptional duty had +been performed, that he would retire once more to remote privacy. This +fancy, as well as the extremely philosophical mood about the fate of +the Constitution, apparent in this letter, soon disappeared. Within a +week he wrote to Henry, in whom he probably already suspected the +most formidable opponent of the new plan in Virginia: "I wish the +Constitution, which is offered, had been more perfect; but I sincerely +believe it is the best that could be obtained at this time, and as a +constitutional door is opened for amendments hereafter, the adoption +of it under the present circumstances of the Union is, in my opinion, +desirable." Copies of this letter were sent to Harrison and Nelson, +and the correspondence thus started soon increased rapidly. He wrote +to Hamilton and Madison to counsel with them as to the prospects of +the Constitution, and to Knox to supply him with arguments and +urge him to energetic work. By January of the new year the tone of +indifference and doubt manifested in the letter to Lafayette had quite +gone, and we find him writing to Governor Randolph, in reply to that +gentleman's objections: "There are some things in the new form, I will +readily acknowledge, which never did, and I am persuaded never will, +obtain my cordial approbation, but I did then conceive and do now most +firmly believe that in the aggregate it is the best Constitution that +can be obtained at this epoch, and that this or a dissolution of the +Union awaits our choice, and is the only alternative before us. Thus +believing, I had not, nor have I now, any hesitation in deciding on +which to lean." + +Thus the few letters to a few friends extended to many letters to many +friends, and traveled into every State. They all urged the necessity +of adopting the Constitution as the best that could be obtained. What +Washington's precise objections to the Constitution were is not clear. +In a general way it was not energetic enough to come up to his ideal, +but he never particularized in his criticisms. He may have admitted +the existence of defects in order simply to disarm opposition, and +doubtless he, like most of the framers, was by no means completely +satisfied with his work. But he brushed all faults aside, and drove +steadily forward to the great end in view. He was as far removed as +possible from that highly virtuous and very ineffective class of +persons who will not support anything that is not perfect, and who +generally contrive to do more harm than all the avowed enemies of +sound government. Washington did not stop to worry over and argue +about details, but sought steadily to bring to pass the main object +at which he aimed. As he had labored for the convention, so he now +labored for the Constitution, and his letters to his friends not +only had great weight in forming a Federal party and directing its +movements, but extracts from them were quoted and published, thus +exerting a direct and powerful influence on public opinion. + +He made himself deeply felt in this way everywhere, but of course more +in his own State than anywhere else. His confidence at first in regard +to Virginia changed gradually to an intense and well-grounded anxiety, +and he not only used every means, as the conflict extended, to +strengthen his friends and gain votes, but he received and circulated +personally copies of "The Federalist," in order to educate public +opinion. The contest in the Virginia convention was for a long time +doubtful, but finally the end was reached, and the decision was +favorable. Without Washington's influence, it is safe to say that the +Constitution would have been lost in Virginia, and without Virginia +the great experiment would probably have failed. In the same spirit he +worked on after the new scheme had secured enough States to insure +a trial. The Constitution had been ratified; it must now be made to +work, and Washington wrote earnestly to the leaders in the various +States, urging them to see to it that "Federalists," stanch friends +of the Constitution, were elected to Congress. There was no vagueness +about his notions on this point. A party had carried the Constitution +and secured its ratification, and to that party he wished the +administration and establishment of the new system to be intrusted. +He did not take the view that, because the fight was over, it was +henceforth to be considered that there had been no fight, and that all +men were politically alike. He was quite ready to do all in his power +to conciliate the opponents of union and the Constitution, but he did +not believe that the momentous task of converting the paper system +into a living organism should be confided to any hands other than +those of its tried and trusty friends. + +But while he was looking so carefully after the choice of the right +men to fill the legislature of the new government, the people of the +country turned to him with the universal demand that he should stand +at the head of it, and fill the great office of first President of the +Republic. In response to the first suggestion that came, he recognized +the fact that he was likely to be again called upon for another +great public service, and added simply that at his age it involved a +sacrifice which admitted of no compensation. He maintained this tone +whenever he alluded to the subject, in response to the numerous +letters urging him to accept. But although he declined to announce any +decision, he had made up his mind to the inevitable. He had put his +hand to the plough, and he would not turn back. His only anxiety was +that the people should know that he shrank from the office, and would +only leave his farm to take it from a sense of overmastering duty. +Besides his reluctance to engage in a fresh struggle, and his fear +that his motives might be misunderstood, he had the same diffidence in +his own abilities which weighed upon him when he took command of the +armies. His passion for success, which determined him to accept the +presidency, if it was deemed indispensable that he should do so, made +him dread failure with an almost morbid keenness, although his courage +was too high and his will too strong ever to draw back. Responsibility +weighed upon his spirits, but it could not daunt him. He wrote to +Trumbull in December, 1788, that he saw "nothing but clouds and +darkness before him," but when the hour came he was ready. The +elections were favorable to the Federalists. The electoral colleges +gave Washington their unanimous vote, and on April 16, having been +duly notified by Congress of his election, he left Mount Vernon for +New York, to assume the conduct of the government, and stand at the +head of the new Union in its first battle for life. + +From the early day when he went out to seek Shirley and win redress +against the assumptions of British officers, Washington's journeys +to the North had been memorable in their purposes. He had traveled +northward to sit in the first continental congress, to take command of +the army, and to preside over the constitutional convention. Now +he went, in the fullness of his fame, to enter upon a task less +dangerous, perhaps, than leading armies, but more beset with +difficulties, and more perilous to his reputation and peace of mind, +than any he had yet undertaken. He felt all this keenly, and noted in +his diary: "About ten o'clock I bade adieu to Mount Vernon, to private +life, and to domestic felicity; and with a mind oppressed with more +anxious and painful sensations than I have words to express, set +out for New York, with the best disposition to render service to my +country, in obedience to its call, but with less hope of answering its +expectations." + +The first stage of his journey took him only to Alexandria, a few +miles from his home, where a public dinner was given to him by his +friends and neighbors. He was deeply moved when he rose to reply to +the words of affection addressed to him by the mayor as spokesman of +the people. "All that now remains for me," he said, "is to commit +myself and you to the care of that beneficent Being who, on a former +occasion, happily brought us together after a long and distressing +separation. Perhaps the same gracious Providence will again indulge +me. But words fail me. Unutterable sensations must then be left to +more expressive silence, while from an aching heart I bid all my +affectionate friends and kind neighbors farewell." + +So he left his home, sad at the parting, looking steadily, but not +joyfully, to the future, and silent as was his wont. The simple dinner +with his friends and neighbors at Alexandria was but the beginning of +the chorus of praise and Godspeed which rose higher and stronger as he +advanced. The road, as he traveled, was lined with people, to see him +and cheer him as he passed. In every village the people from the farm +and workshop crowded the streets to watch for his carriage, and the +ringing of bells and firing of guns marked his coming and his going. +At Baltimore a cavalcade of citizens escorted him, and cannon roared a +welcome. At the Pennsylvania line Governor Mifflin, with soldiers and +citizens, gathered to greet him. At Chester he mounted a horse, and +in the midst of a troop of cavalry rode into Philadelphia, beneath +triumphal arches, for a day of public rejoicing and festivity. At +Trenton, instead of snow and darkness, and a sudden onslaught upon +surprised Hessians, there was mellow sunshine, an arch of triumph, +and young girls walking before him, strewing flowers in his path, and +singing songs of praise and gratitude. When he reached Elizabethtown +Point, the committees of Congress met him, and he there went on board +a barge manned by thirteen pilots in white uniform, and was rowed to +the city of New York. A long procession of barges swept after him with +music and song, while the ships in the harbor, covered with flags, +fired salutes in his honor. When he reached the landing he declined +to enter a carriage, but walked to his house, accompanied by Governor +Clinton. He was dressed in the familiar buff and blue, and, as the +people caught sight of the stately figure and the beloved colors, hats +went off and the crowd bowed as he went by, bending like the ripened +grain when the summer wind passes over it, and breaking forth into +loud and repeated cheers. + +From Mount Vernon to New York it had been one long triumphal march. +There was no imperial government to lend its power and military +pageantry. There were no armies, with trophies to dazzle the eyes +of the beholders; nor were there wealth and luxury to give pomp and +splendor to the occasion. It was the simple outpouring of popular +feeling, untaught and true, but full of reverence and gratitude to a +great man. It was the noble instinct of hero-worship, always keen +in humanity when the real hero comes to awaken it to life. Such an +experience, rightly apprehended, would have impressed any man, and it +affected Washington profoundly. He was deeply moved and touched, but +he was neither excited nor elated. He took it all with soberness, +almost with sadness, and when he was alone wrote in his diary:-- + +"The display of boats which attended and joined us on this occasion, +some with vocal and some with instrumental music on board; the +decorations of the ships, the roar of cannon and the loud acclamations +of the people, which rent the skies as I passed along the wharves, +filled my mind with sensations as painful (considering the reverse of +this scene, which may be the case after all my labors to do good) as +they were pleasing." + +In the very moment of the highest personal glory, the only thought is +of the work which he has to do. There is neither elation nor cynicism, +neither indifference nor self-deception, but only deep feeling and a +firm, clear look into the future of work and conflict which lay silent +and unknown beyond the triumphal arches and the loud acclaim of the +people. + +On April 30 he was inaugurated. He went in procession to the hall, was +received in the senate chamber, and thence proceeded to the balcony +to take the oath. He was dressed in dark brown cloth of American +manufacture, with a steel-hilted sword, and with his hair powdered and +drawn back in the fashion of the time. When he appeared, a shout went +up from the great crowd gathered beneath the balcony. Much overcome, +he bowed in silence to the people, and there was an instant hush over +all. Then Chancellor Livingston administered the oath. Washington laid +his hand upon the Bible, bowed, and said solemnly when the oath was +concluded, "I swear, so help me God," and, bending reverently, kissed +the book. Livingston stepped forward, and raising his hand cried, +"Long live George Washington, President of the United States!" Then +the cheers broke forth again, the cannon roared, and the bells rang +out. Washington withdrew to the hall, where he read his inaugural +address to Congress, and the history of the United States of America +under the Constitution was begun. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +STARTING THE GOVERNMENT + + +Washington was deeply gratified by his reception at the hands of the +people from Alexandria to New York. He was profoundly moved by the +ceremonies of his inauguration, and when he turned from the balcony to +the senate chamber he showed in his manner and voice how much he felt +the meaning of all that had occurred. His speech to the assembled +Congress was solemn and impressive, and with simple reverence he +acknowledged the guiding hand of Providence in the fortunes of the +States. He made no recommendations to Congress, but expressed his +confidence in their wisdom and patriotism, adjured them to remember +that the success of republican government would probably be finally +settled by the success of their experiment, reminded them that +amendments to the Constitution were to be considered, and informed +them that he could not receive any pecuniary compensation for his +services, and expected only that his expenses should be paid as in the +Revolution. This was all. The first inaugural of the first President +expressed only one thought, but that thought was pressed home with +force. Washington wished the Congress to understand as he understood +the weight and meaning of the task which had been imposed upon them, +for he felt that if he could do this all would be well. How far he +succeeded it would be impossible to say, but there can be no doubt as +to the wisdom of his position. To have attempted to direct the first +movements of Congress before he had really grasped the reins of the +government would have given rise, very probably, to jealousy and +opposition at the outset. When he had developed a policy, then it +would be time to advise the senators and representatives how to carry +it out. Meanwhile it was better to arouse their patriotism, awaken +their sense of responsibility, and leave them free to begin their work +under the guidance of these impressions. + +As for himself, his feelings remained unchanged. He had accepted the +great post with solemn anxiety, and when the prayers had all been +said, and the last guns fired, when the music had ceased and the +cheers had died away, and the illuminations had flickered and gone +out, he wrote that in taking office he had given up all expectation +of private happiness, but that he was encouraged by the popular +affection, as well as by the belief that his motives were appreciated, +and that, thus supported, he would do his best. In a few words, +written some months later, he tersely stated what his office meant to +him, and what grave difficulties surrounded his path. + +"The establishment of our new government," he said, "seemed to be the +last great experiment for promoting human happiness by a reasonable +compact in civil society. It was to be, in the first instance, in +a considerable degree, a government of accommodation as well as +a government of laws. Much was to be done by prudence, much by +conciliation, much by firmness. Few who are not philosophical +spectators can realize the difficult and delicate part which a man in +my situation had to act. All see, and most admire, the glare which +hovers round the external happiness of elevated office. To me there +is nothing in it beyond the lustre which may be reflected from its +connection with a power of promoting human felicity. In our progress +towards political happiness my station is new, and, if I may use the +expression, I walk on untrodden ground. There is scarcely an action +the motive of which may not be subject to a double interpretation. +There is scarcely any part of my conduct which may not hereafter be +drawn into precedent. If, after all my humble but faithful endeavors +to advance the felicity of my country and mankind, I may indulge a +hope that my labors have not been altogether without success, it will +be the only real compensation I can receive in the closing scenes of +life." + +There is nothing very stimulating to the imagination in this soberness +of mind and calmness of utterance. The military conquerors and the +saviors of society, with epigrammatic sayings, dramatic effects and +rhythmic proclamations, are much more exciting and dazzle the fancy +much better. But it is this seriousness of mind, coupled with +intensity of purpose and grim persistence, which has made the +English-speaking race spread over the world and carry successful +government in its train. The personal empire of Napoleon had crumbled +before he died an exile in St. Helena, but the work of Washington +still endures. Just what that work was, and how it was achieved, is +all that still remains to be considered. + +The policies set on foot and carried through under the first federal +administration were so brilliant and so successful that we are apt +to forget that months elapsed before the first of them was even +announced. When Washington, on May 1, 1789, began his duties, there +was absolutely nothing of the government of the United States in +existence but a President and a Congress. The imperfect and broken +machinery of the confederation still moved feebly, and performed some +of the absolutely necessary functions of government. But the new +organization had nothing to work with except these outworn remnants of +a discarded system. There were no departments, and no arrangements for +the collection of revenue or the management of the postal service. A +few scattered soldiers formed the army, and no navy existed. There +were no funds and no financial resources. There were not even +traditions and forms of government, and, slight as these things may +seem, settled methods of doing public business are essential to its +prompt and proper transaction. These forms had to be devised and +adopted first, and although they seem matters of course now, after +a century of use, they were the subject of much thought and of some +sharp controversy in 1789. The manner in which the President was to be +addressed caused some heated discussion even before the inauguration. +America had but just emerged from the colonial condition, and the +colonial habits were still unbroken. In private letters we find +Washington referred to as "His Highness," and in some newspapers as +"His Highness the President-General," while the Senate committee +reported in favor of addressing him as "His Highness the President of +the United States and Protector of their Liberties." In the House, +however, the democratic spirit was strong, there was a fierce attack +upon the proposed titles, and that body ended by addressing Washington +simply as the "President of the United States," which, as it happened, +settled the question finally. Washington personally cared little for +titles, although, as John Adams wrote to Mrs. Warren, he thought them +appropriate to high office. But in this case he saw that there was a +real danger lurking in the empty name, and so he was pleased by the +decision of the House. Another matter was the relation between the +President and the Senate. Should he communicate with them in writing +or orally, being present during their deliberations as if they formed +an executive council? It was promptly decided that nominations should +be made in writing; but as to treaties, it was at first thought best +that the President should deliver them to the Senate in person, and +it was arranged with minute care where he should sit, beside +the Vice-President, while the matter was under discussion. This +arrangement, however, was abandoned after a single trial, and it was +agreed that treaties, like nominations, should come with written +messages. + +Last and most important of all was the question of the mode of conduct +and the etiquette to be established with regard to the President +himself. In this, as in the matter of titles, Washington saw a real +importance in what many persons might esteem only empty forms, and he +proceeded with his customary thoroughness in dealing with the subject. +What he did would be a precedent for the future as well as a target +for present criticism, and he determined to devise a scheme which +would resist attack, and be worthy to stand as an example for his +successors. He therefore wrote to Madison: "The true medium, I +conceive, must lie in pursuing such a course as will allow him (the +President) time for all the official duties of his station. This +should be the primary object. The next, to avoid as much as may be the +charge of superciliousness, and seclusion from information, by too +much reserve and too great a withdrawal of himself from company on +the one hand, and the inconveniences, as well as a diminution of +respectability, from too free an intercourse and too much familiarity +on the other." This letter, with a set of queries, was also sent to +the Vice-President, to Jay, and to Hamilton. They all agreed in the +general views outlined by Washington. Adams, fresh from Europe, was +inclined to surround the office, of which he justly had a lofty +conception, with a good deal of ceremony, because he felt that these +things were necessary in our relations with foreign nations. In the +main, however, the advice of all who were consulted was in favor +of keeping the nice line between too much reserve and too much +familiarity, and this line, after all the advising, Washington of +course drew for himself. He did it in this way. He decided that he +would return no calls, and that he would receive no general visits +except on specified days, and official visitors at fixed hours. +The third point was in regard to dinner parties. The presidents of +Congress hitherto had asked every one to dine, and had ended by +keeping a sort of public table, to the waste of both time and dignity. +Many persons, disgusted with this system, thought that the President +ought not to ask anybody to dinner. But Washington, never given to +extremes, decided that he would invite to dinner persons of official +rank and strangers of distinction, but no one else, and that he would +accept no invitations for himself. After a time he arranged to have a +reception every Tuesday, from three to four in the afternoon, and Mrs. +Washington held a similar levee on Fridays. These receptions, with a +public dinner every week, were all the social entertainments for which +the President had either time or health. + +By these sensible and apparently unimportant arrangements, Washington +managed to give free access to every one who was entitled to it, and +yet preserved the dignity and reserve due to his office. It was one +of the real although unmarked services which he rendered to the new +government, and which contributed so much to its establishment, for it +would have been very easy to have lowered the presidential office by a +false idea of republican simplicity. It would have been equally easy +to have made it odious by a cold seclusion on the one hand, or by pomp +and ostentation on the other. With his usual good judgment and perfect +taste, Washington steered between the opposing dangers, and yet +notwithstanding the wisdom of his arrangements, and in spite of +their simplicity, he did not escape calumny on account of them. One +criticism was that at his reception every one stood, which was thought +to savor of incipient monarchy. To this Washington replied, with the +directness of which he was always capable, that it was not usual to +sit on such occasions, and, if it were, he had no room large enough +for the number of chairs that would be required, and that, as the +whole thing was perfectly unceremonious, every one could come and go +as he pleased. Fault was also found with the manner in which he bowed, +an accusation to which he answered with an irony not untinged with +bitterness and contempt: "That I have not been able to make bows to +the taste of poor Colonel B. (who, by the by, I believe never saw one +of them) is to be regretted, especially too, as, upon those occasions, +they were indiscriminately bestowed, and the best I was master of. +Would it not have been better to throw the veil of charity over +them, ascribing their stiffness to the effects of age, or to the +unskillfulness of my teacher, rather than to pride and dignity of +office, which God knows has no charms for me?" + +As party hostility developed, these attacks passed from the region of +private conversation to the columns of newspapers and the declamation +of mob orators, and an especial snarl was raised over the circumstance +that at some public ball the President and Mrs. Washington were +escorted to a sofa on a raised platform, and that guests passed before +them and bowed. Much monarchy and aristocracy were perceived in this +little matter, and Jefferson carefully set it down in that collection +of withered slanders which he gave to an admiring posterity, after the +grave had safely covered both him and those whom he feared and hated +in his lifetime. This incident, however, was but an example of +the political capital which was sought for in the conduct of the +presidential office. The celebration of the birthday, the proposition +to put Washington's head upon the coins, and many other similar +trifles, were all twisted to the same purpose. The dynasty of Cleon +has been a long one, so long that even the succession of the Popes +seems temporary beside it, and it flourished in Washington's time as +rankly as it did in Athens, or as it does to-day. The object of the +assault varies, but the motives and the purpose are as old and as +lasting as human nature. Envy and malice will always find a convenient +shelter in pretended devotion to the public weal, and will seek +revenge for their own lack of success by putting on the cloak of the +tribune of the people, and perverting the noblest of offices to the +basest uses. + +But time sets all things even. The demagogues and the critics who +assailed Washington's demeanor and behavior are forgotten, while the +wise and simple customs which he established and framed for the great +office that he honored, still prevail by virtue of their good sense. +We part gladly with all remembrance of those bold defenders of liberty +who saw in these slight forms forerunners of monarchy. We would even +consent to drop into oblivion the precious legacy of Jefferson. But +we will never part with the picture drawn by a loving hand of that +stately figure, clad in black velvet, with the hand on the hilt of the +sword, standing at one of Mrs. Washington's levees, and receiving with +gentle and quiet dignity, full of kindliness but untinged by cheap +familiarity, the crowd that came to pay their respects. It was well +for the republic that at the threshold of its existence it had for +President a man who, by the kindness of his heart, by his good sense, +good manners, and fine breeding, gave to the office which he held and +the government he founded the simple dignity which was part of himself +and of his own high character. + +Thus the forms and shows, important in their way, were dealt with, +while behind them came the sterner realities of government, demanding +regulation and settlement. At the outset Washington knew about the +affairs of the government, especially for the last six years, only +in a general way. He felt it to be his first duty, therefore, to +familiarize himself with all these matters, and, although he was in +the midst of the stir and bustle of a new government, he nevertheless +sent for all the papers of each department of the confederation +since the signature of the treaty of peace, went through them +systematically, and made notes and summaries of their contents. This +habit he continued throughout his presidency in dealing with all +official documents. The natural result followed. He knew more at the +start about the facts in each and every department of the public +business than any other one man, and he continued to know more +throughout his administration. In this method and this capacity for +taking infinite pains is to be found a partial explanation at least +of the easy mastery of affairs which he always showed, whether on the +plantation, in the camp, or in the cabinet. It was in truth a striking +instance of that "long patience" which the great French naturalist +said was genius. + +While he was thus regulating forms of business, and familiarizing +himself with public questions, it became necessary to fix the manner +of dealing with foreign powers. There were not many representatives of +foreign nations present at the birth of the republic, but there was +one who felt, and perhaps not without reason, that he was entitled +to peculiar privileges. The Count de Moustier, minister of France, +desired to have private access to the President, and even to discuss +matters of business with him. Washington's reply to this demand was, +in its way, a model. After saying that the only matter which could +come up would relate to commerce, with which he was unfamiliar, he +continued: "Every one, who has any knowledge of my manner of acting in +public life, will be persuaded that I am not accustomed to impede +the dispatch or frustrate the success of business by a ceremonious +attention to idle forms. Any person of that description will also be +satisfied that I should not readily consent to lose one of the most +important functions of my office for the sake of preserving an +imaginary dignity. But perhaps, if there are rules of proceeding which +have originated from the wisdom of statesmen, and are sanctioned by +the common consent of nations, it would not be prudent for a young +state to dispense with them altogether, at least without some +substantial cause for so doing. I have myself been induced to think, +possibly from habits of experience, that in general the best mode of +conducting negotiations, the detail and progress of which might be +liable to accidental mistakes or unintentional misrepresentations, is +by writing. This mode, if I was obliged by myself to negotiate with +any one, I should still pursue. I have, however, been taught to +believe that there is in most polished nations a system established +with regard to the foreign as well as the other great departments, +which, from the utility, the necessity, and the reason of the thing, +provides that business should be digested and prepared by the heads of +those departments." + +The Count de Moustier hastened to excuse himself on the ground that +he expressed himself badly in English, which was over-modest, for he +expressed himself extremely well. He also explained and defended his +original propositions by trying to show that they were reasonable and +usual; but it was labor lost. Washington's letter was final, and the +French minister knew it. The count was aware that he was dealing with +a good soldier, but in statecraft he probably felt he had to do with a +novice. His intention was to take advantage of the position of France, +secure for her peculiar privileges, and put her in the attitude of +patronizing inoffensively but effectively the new government founded +by the people she had helped to free. He found himself turned aside +quietly, almost deferentially, and yet so firmly and decidedly that +there was no appeal. No nation, he discovered, was to have especial +privileges. France was the good friend and ally of the United States, +but she was an equal, not a superior. It was also fixed by this +correspondence that the President, representing the sovereignty of +the people, was to have the respect to which that sovereignty was +entitled. The pomp and pageant of diplomacy in the old world were +neither desired nor sought in America; yet the President was not to be +approached in person, but through the proper cabinet officer, and all +diplomatic communications after the fashion of civilized governments +were to be in writing. Thus within a month France, and in consequence +other nations, were quietly given to understand that the new republic +was to be treated like other free and independent governments, and +that there was to be nothing colonial or subservient in her attitude +to foreign nations, whether those nations had been friends or foes in +the past. + +It required tact, firmness, and a sure judgment to establish proper +relations with foreign ministers. But once done, it was done for all +time. This was not the case with another and far more important +class of people, whose relation to the new administration had to be +determined at the very first hour of its existence. Indeed, before +Washington left Mount Vernon he had begun to receive letters from +persons who considered themselves peculiarly well fitted to serve the +government in return for a small but certain salary. In a letter to +Mrs. Wooster, for whom as the widow of an old soldier he felt the +tenderest sympathy, he wrote soon after his arrival in New York: "As +a public man acting only with reference to the public good, I must be +allowed to decide upon all points of my duty, without consulting my +private inclinations and wishes. I must be permitted, with the best +lights I can obtain, and upon a general view of characters and +circumstances, to nominate such persons alone to offices as in my +judgment shall be the best qualified to discharge the functions of +the departments to which they shall be appointed." This sentiment in +varying forms has been declared since 1789 by many Presidents and many +parties. Washington, however, lived up exactly to his declarations. +At the same time he did not by any means attempt to act merely as an +examining board. + +Great political organizations, as we have known them since, did not +exist at the beginning of the government, but there were nevertheless +two parties, divided by the issue which had been settled by the +adoption of the Constitution. Washington took, and purposed to take, +his appointees so far as he could from those who had favored the +Constitution and were friends of the new system. It is also clear +that he made every effort to give the preference to the soldiers +and officers of the army, toward whom his affectionate thought ever +turned. Beyond this it can only be said that he was almost nervously +anxious to avoid any appearance of personal feeling in making +appointments, as was shown in the letter refusing to make his nephew +Bushrod a district attorney, and that he resented personal pressure +of any kind. He preferred always to reach his conclusions so far as +possible from a careful study of written testimony. These principles, +rigidly adhered to, his own keen perception of character, and his +knowledge of men, resulted in a series of appointments running through +eight years which were really marvelously successful. The only +rejection, outside the special case of John Rutledge, was that of +Benjamin Fishbourn for naval officer of the port of Savannah, which +was due apparently to the personal hostility of the Georgia senators. +Washington, conscious of his own painstaking, was not a little +provoked by this setting aside of an old soldier. He sent in a sharp +message on the subject, pointing out the trouble he took to make sure +of the fitness of an appointment, and intimated that the same effort +would not come amiss in the Senate when they rejected one of his +nominees. In view of the fact that it was a new government, the +absence of mistakes in the appointments is quite extraordinary, +and the value of such success can be realized by considering the +disastrous consequences which would have come from inefficient +officers or malfeasance in office when the great experiment was just +put on trial, and was surrounded by doubters and critics ready and +eager to pick flaws and find faults. + +The general tone of the government and its reputation at widely +scattered points depended largely on the persons appointed to the +smaller executive offices. Important, however, as these were, the +fate of the republic under the new Constitution was infinitely more +involved in the men whom Washington called about him in his cabinet, +to decide with him as to the policies which were to be begun, and +on which the living vital government was to be founded. Congress, +troubled about many things, and struggling with questions of revenue +and taxation, managed in the course of the summer to establish and +provide for three executive departments and for an attorney-general. +To the selection of the men to fill these high offices Washington +gave, of course, the most careful thought, and succeeded in forming +a cabinet which, in its aggregate ability, never has been equaled in +this country. + +Edmund Randolph was appointed attorney-general. Losing his father at +an early age, and entering the army, he had been watched over and +protected by Washington with an almost paternal care, and at the time +of his appointment he was one of the most conspicuous men in public +life, as well as a leading lawyer at the bar of Virginia. He came from +one of the oldest and strongest of the Virginian families, and had +been governor of his State, and a leader in the constitutional +convention, where he had introduced what was known as the Virginian +plan. He had refused to sign the Constitution, but had come round +finally to its support, largely through Washington's influence. There +was then, and there can be now, no question as to Randolph's really +fine talents, or as to his fitness for his post. His defect was a lack +of force of character and strength of will, which was manifested by a +certain timidity of action, and by an infirmity of purpose, such as +had appeared in his course about the Constitution. He performed the +duties of his office admirably, but in the decision of the momentous +questions which came before the cabinet he showed an uncertainty of +opinion which was felt by all his colleagues.[1] + +[Footnote 1: This passage was written before the recent appearance of +Mr. Conway's _Life of Randolph_. That ample biography, in my opinion, +confirms the view of Randolph here given. If, in the light of this new +material, I have erred at all, it is, I think, on the charitable side. +Mr. Conway, in order to vindicate Randolph, has sacrificed so far as +he could nearly every conspicuous public man of that period. From +Washington, whom he charges with senility, down, there is hardly a +man who ever crossed Randolph's path whom he has not assailed. Yet he +presents no reason, so far as I can see, to alter the present opinion +of Randolph.] + +Henry Knox of Massachusetts was head of the War Department under the +confederacy, and was continued in office by Washington, who appointed +him secretary of war under the new arrangement. It was a natural and +excellent selection. Knox was a distinguished soldier, he had served +well through the Revolution, and Washington was warmly attached to +him. He was not a statesman by training or habit of mind, nor was he +possessed of commanding talents. But he was an able man, sound in his +views and diligent in his office, devoted to his chief and unswerving +in his loyalty to the administration and all its measures. There was +never any doubt as to the attitude of Henry Knox, and Washington found +him as faithful and efficient in the cabinet as he had always been in +the field. + +Second in rank, but first in importance, was the secretaryship of the +treasury. "Finance! Ah, my friend, all that remains of the American +Revolution grounds there." So Gouverneur Morris had written to Jay. So +might he have written again of the American Union, for the fate of the +experiment rested at the outset on the Treasury Department. Yet there +was probably less hesitation as to the proper man for this place than +for any other. Washington no doubt would have been glad to give it to +Robert Morris, whose great services in the Revolution he could never +forget. But this could not be, and acting on his own judgment, +fortified by that of Morris himself, he made Alexander Hamilton +secretary of the treasury. + +It is one of the familiar marks of greatness to know how to choose the +right men to perform the tasks which no man, either in war or peace, +can complete single-handed. Napoleon's marshals were conspicuous +proofs of his genius, and Washington had a similar power of selection. +The generals whom he trusted were the best generals, the statesmen +whom he consulted stand highest in history. He was fallible, as other +mortals are fallible. He, too, had his Varus, and the time was coming +when he could echo the bitter cry of the great emperor for his lost +legions. But the mistakes were the exceptions. He chose with the +sureness of a strong and penetrating mind, and the most signal example +of this capacity was his secretary of the treasury. He knew Hamilton +well. He had known him as his staff officer, active, accomplished, and +efficient. He had seen him leave his side in a tempest of boyish rage, +and he had watched him charging with splendid gallantry the Yorktown +redoubts. He was familiar with Hamilton's extraordinary mastery of +financial and political problems, and he had found him a powerful +leader in the work of forming the Constitution. He understood +Hamilton's strength, and he knew where his dangers lay. Now he called +him to his cabinet, and gave into his hands the department on which +the immediate success of the government hinged. It was a brilliant +choice. The mark in his lifetime for all the assaults of his political +opponents, the leader and the victim of the schism which rent his own +party, Hamilton, after his death, was made the target for attack and +reprobation by his political foes, who for nearly sixty years, with +few intermissions, controlled the government. His work, however, could +not be undone, and as passions have subsided his fame has proved to +be of that highest and rarest kind which broadens and rises with the +lapse of years, until in the light of history it overtops that of any +of our statesmen, except of his own great chief and Abraham Lincoln. +The work to which he was called was that of organizing a national +government, and in the performance of this work he showed that he +belonged to the highest type of constructive statesmen, and was one of +the rare men who build, and whose building stands the test of time. + +Last to be mentioned, but first in rank, was the Department of State. +For this high place Washington chose Thomas Jefferson, who was then +our minister in Paris, and who did not return to take up his official +duties until the following March. Of the four cabinet offices, this +was the only one where Washington proceeded entirely on public +grounds. He took Jefferson on account of his wide reputation, his +unquestioned ability, his standing before the country, and his +experience in our foreign relations. With the other three there was +a strong element of personal friendship and familiarity. With the +secretary of state his intercourse had been, so far as we can judge, +almost wholly of a public character, and, so far as can be inferred +from an expression of some years before, the selection was made by +Washington in deference simply to what he believed to be the public +interest. The only allusion to Jefferson in all the printed volumes of +correspondence prior to 1789 occurs in a letter to Robert Livingston, +of January 8, 1783. He there said: "What office is Mr. Jefferson +appointed to that he has, you say, lately accepted? If it is that of +commissioner of peace, I hope he will arrive too late to have any hand +in it." There is no indication that their personal relations were then +or afterwards other than pleasant. Yet this brief sentence is a +strong expression of distrust, and especially so from the fact that +Washington was not at all given to criticising other people in his +letters. What he distrusted was not Jefferson's ability, for that +no man could doubt, still less his patriotism. But Washington read +character well, and he felt that Jefferson might be lacking in the +qualities of boldness and determination, so needful in a negotiation +like that which resulted in the acknowledgment of our independence. + +The truth was that the two men were radically different, and never +could have been sympathetic. Washington was strong, direct, masculine, +and at times fierce in anger. Jefferson was adroit, subtle, and +feminine in his sensitiveness. Washington was essentially a fighting +man, tamed by a stern self-control from the recklessness of his early +days, but always a fighter. Jefferson was a lover of peace, given to +quiet, hating quarrels and bloodshed, and at times timid in dealing +with public questions. Washington was deliberate and conservative, +after the fashion of his race. Jefferson was quick, impressionable, +and always fascinated by new notions, even if they were somewhat +fantastic. A thoroughly liberal and open-minded man, Washington never +turned a deaf ear to any new suggestion, whether it was a public +policy or a mechanical invention, but to all alike he gave careful +consideration before he adopted them. To Jefferson, on the other hand, +mere novelty had a peculiar charm, and he jumped at any device, either +to govern a state or improve a plough, provided that it had the +flavor of ingenuity. The two men might easily have thought the same +concerning the republic, but they started from opposite poles, and no +full communion of thought and feeling was possible between them. That +Washington chose fitly from purely public and outside considerations +can not be questioned, but he made a mistake when he put next to +himself a man for whom he did not have the personal regard and +sympathy which he felt for his other advisers. The necessary result +finally came, after many troubles in the cabinet, in dislike and +distrust, if not positive alienation. + +Looking at the cabinet, however, as it stood in the beginning, we can +only admire the wisdom of the selection and the high abilities which +were thus brought together for the administration and construction of +a great national government. It has always been the fashion to speak +of this first cabinet as made up without reference to party, but the +idea is a mistaken one from any point of view. Washington himself gave +it color, for he felt very rightly that he was the choice of the whole +people and not of a party. He wished to rise above party, and in fact +to have no party, but a devotion of all to the good of the country. +The time came when he sorrowed for and censured party bitterness and +party strife, but it is to be observed that the party feeling which he +most deplored was that which grew up against his own policies and his +own administration. The fact was that Washington, who rose above party +more than any other statesman in our history, was nevertheless, like +most men of strong will and robust mind, and like all great political +leaders, a party man, as we shall have occasion to see further on. +It is true that his cabinet contained the chiefs and founders of two +great schools of political thought, which have ever since divided +the country; but when these parties were once fairly developed, the +cabinet became a scene of conflict and went to pieces, only to be +reformed on party lines. When it was first made up, the two parties of +our subsequent history, with which we are familiar, did not exist, and +it was in the administration of Washington that they were developed. +Yet the cabinet of 1789 was, so far as there were parties, a partisan +body. The only political struggle that we had had was over the +adoption of the Constitution. The parties of the first Congress were +the Federalists and the anti-Federalists, the friends and the enemies +of the Constitution. Among those who opposed the Constitution were +many able and distinguished men, but Washington did not invite Sam +Adams, or George Mason, or Patrick Henry, or George Clinton to enter +his cabinet. On the contrary, he took only friends and supporters +of the Constitution. Hamilton was its most illustrious advocate. +Randolph, after some vacillation, had done very much to turn the +wavering scale in Virginia in its favor. Knox was its devoted friend; +and Jefferson, although he had carped at it and criticised it in +his letters, was not known to have done so, and was considered, and +rightly considered, to be friendly to the new system. In other words, +the cabinet was made up exclusively of the party of the Constitution, +which was the victorious party of the moment. This was of course +wholly right, and Washington was too great and wise a leader to have +done anything else. The cabinet was formed with regard to existing +divisions, and, when those divisions changed, the cabinet which gave +birth to them changed too. + +Outside the cabinet, the most weighty appointments were those of the +Supreme Court. No one then quite appreciated, probably, the vast +importance which this branch of the government was destined to assume, +or the great part it was to play in the history of the country and the +development of our institutions. At the same time no one could fail to +see that much depended on the composition of the body which was to be +the ultimate interpreter of the Constitution. The safety of the entire +scheme might easily have been imperiled by the selection of men as +judges who were lacking in ability or character. Washington chose with +his wonted sureness. At the head of the court he placed John Jay, one +of the most distinguished of the public men of the day, who gave to +the office at once the impress of his own high character and spotless +reputation. With him were associated Wilson of Pennsylvania, Cushing +of Massachusetts, Blair of Virginia, Iredell of North Carolina, and +Rutledge of South Carolina. They were all able and well-known +men, sound lawyers, and also, be it noted, warm friends of the +Constitution. + +Thus the business of organizing the government in the first great and +essential points was completed. It was the work of the President, and, +anxious and arduous as it was, it is worth remembering, too, that +it was done, and thoroughly done, in the midst of severe physical +suffering. Just after the inauguration, Washington was laid up with an +anthrax or carbuncle in his thigh, which brought him at one time very +near death. For six weeks he could lie only on one side, endured the +most constant and acute pain, and was almost incapable of motion. He +referred to his illness at the time in a casual and perfectly simple +way, and mind and will so prevailed over the bodily suffering that +the great task of organizing the government was never suspended nor +interrupted. + +When the work was done and Congress had adjourned, Washington, feeling +that he had earned a little rest and recreation, proceeded to carry +out a purpose, which he had formed very early in his presidency, of +visiting the Eastern States. This was the first part of a general plan +which he had conceived of visiting while in office all portions of +the Union. The personal appearance of the President, representing +the whole people, would serve to bring home to the public mind the +existence and reality of a central government, which to many if not to +most persons in the outlying States seemed shadowy and distant. But +General Washington was neither shadowy nor distant to any one. Every +man, woman, and child had heard of and loved the leader of the +Revolution. To his countrymen everywhere, his name meant political +freedom and victory in battle; and when he came among them as the +head of a new government, that government took on in some measure the +character of its chief. His journey was a well-calculated appeal, not +for himself but for his cause, to the warm human interest which a man +readily excites, but which only gathers slowly around constitutions +and forms of government. The world owes a good deal to the right kind +of hero-worship, and the United States have been no exception. + +The journey itself was uneventful, and was carried out with +Washington's usual precision. It served its purpose, too, and brought +out a popular enthusiasm which spoke well for the prospects of the +federal government, and which was the first promise of the loyal +support which New England gave to the President, as she had already +given it to the general. In the succession of crowds and processions +and celebrations which marked the public rejoicing, one incident of +this journey stands out as still memorable, and possessed of real +meaning. Mr. John Hancock was governor of Massachusetts. There is +no need to dwell upon him. He was a man of slender abilities, +large wealth, and ready patriotism, with a great sense of his own +importance, and a fine taste for impressive display. Every external +thing about him, from his handsome house and his Copley portrait to +his imposing gout and his immortal signature, was showy and effective. +He was governor of Massachusetts, and very proud of that proud old +commonwealth as well as of her governor. Within her bounds he was the +representative of her sovereignty, and he felt that deference was due +to him from the President of the United States when they both stood on +the soil of Massachusetts. He did not meet Washington on his arrival, +and Washington thereupon did not dine with the governor as he had +agreed to do. It looked a little stormy. Here was evidently a man with +some new views as to the sovereignty of States and the standing of the +union of States. It might have done for Governor Hancock to allow the +President of Congress to pass out of Massachusetts without seeing its +governor, and thereby learn a valuable lesson, but it would never +do to have such a thing happen in the case of George Washington, no +matter what office he might hold. A little after noon on Sunday, +October 26, therefore, the governor wrote a note to the President, +apologizing for not calling before, and asking if he might call +in half an hour, even though it was at the hazard of his health. +Washington answered at once, expressing his pleasure at the prospect +of seeing his excellency, but begging him, with a touch of irony, not +to do anything to endanger his health. So in half an hour Hancock +appeared. Picturesque, even if defeated, he was borne up-stairs on +men's shoulders, swathed in flannels, and then and there made his +call. The old house in Boston where this happened has had since then a +series of successors, but the ground on which it stood has been duly +remembered and commemorated. It is a more important spot than we are +wont to think; for there it was settled, on that autumn Sunday, that +the idea that the States were able to own and to bully the Union they +had formed was dead, and that the President of the new United States +was henceforth to be regarded as the official superior of every +governor in the land. It was a mere question of etiquette, nothing +more. But how the general government would have sunk in popular +estimation if the President had not asserted, with perfect dignity and +yet entire firmness, its position! Men are governed very largely by +impressions, and Washington knew it. Hence his settling at once and +forever the question of precedence between the Union and the States. +Everywhere and at all times, according to his doctrine, the nation was +to be first.[1] + +[Footnote 1: The most lately published contemporary account of +this affair with Hancock can be found in the _Magazine of American +History_, June, 1888, p. 508, entitled "Incidents in the Life of John +Hancock, as related by Dorothy Quincy Hancock Scott (from the Diary of +Gen. W.H. Sumner)."] + +So the President traveled on to the North, and then back by another +road to New York, and that excellent bit of work in familiarizing the +people with their federal government was accomplished. Meantime the +wheels had started, the machine was in motion, and the chief officers +were at their places. The preliminary work had been done, and the next +step was to determine what policies should be adopted, and to find out +if the new system could really perform the task for which it had been +created. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +DOMESTIC AFFAIRS + + +To trace in detail the events of Washington's administration would be +to write the history of the country during that period. It is only +possible here to show, without much regard to chronological sequence, +the part of the President in developing the policy of the government +at home, and his attitude toward each question as it arose. We are +concerned here merely with the influence and effect of Washington in +our history, and not with the history itself. What did he do, and what +light do we get on the man himself from his words and deeds? These are +the only questions that a brief study of a career so far-reaching can +attempt to answer. + +Congress came together for the first time with the government actually +organized on January 4, 1790. On the day when the session opened, +Washington drove down to the hall where the Congress met, alone in his +own coach drawn by four horses. He was preceded by Colonel Humphreys +and Major Jackson, mounted on his two white horses, while immediately +behind came his chariot with his private secretaries, and Mr. Lewis on +horseback. Then followed in their own coaches the chief justice and +the secretaries of war and of the treasury. When the President reached +the hall he was met at the entrance by the doorkeeper of the Congress, +and was escorted to the Senate chamber. There he passed between the +members of each branch, drawn up on either hand, and took his seat by +the Vice-President. When order and silence were obtained, he rose and +spoke to the assembled representatives of the people standing before +him. Having concluded his speech, he bowed and withdrew with his +suite as he had come. Jefferson killed this simple ceremonial, and +substituted for it the written message, sent by a secretary and read +by a clerk in the midst of talk and bustle, which is the form we +have to-day. Jefferson's change was made, of course, in the name of +liberty, and also because he was averse to public speaking. From the +latter point of view, it was reasonable enough, but the ostensible +cause was as hollow and meaningless as any of the French notions to +which it was close akin. It is well for the head of the state to meet +face to face the representatives of the same people who elected him. +For more than a century this has been the practice in Massachusetts, +to take a single instance, and liberty in that commonwealth has not +been imperiled, nor has the State been obliged to ask Federal aid to +secure to her a republican form of government because of her adherence +to this ancient custom. + +The forms adopted by Washington had the grave and simple dignity which +marked all he did, and it was senseless to abandon what his faultless +taste and patriotic feeling approved. Forms are in their way important +things: they may conceal perils to liberty, or they may lend dignity +and call forth respect to all that liberty holds most dear. The net +result of all this business has been very curious. Jefferson's +written message prevails; and yet at the same time we inaugurate +our Presidents with a pomp and parade to which those of the dreaded +Federalists seem poor and quiet, and which would make the hero of the +message-in-writing fancy that the air was darkened by the shadows of +monarchy and despotism. The author of the Declaration of Independence +was a patriotic man and lover of freedom, but he who fought out the +Revolution in the field was quite as safe a guardian of American +liberty; and his clear mind was never confused by the fantasies of +that Parisian liberty which confused facts with names, and ended in +the Terror and the first Empire. The people of the United States +to-day surround the first office of the land with a respect and +dignity which they deem equal to the mighty sovereignty that it +represents, and in this is to be found the genuine American feeling +expressed by Washington in the plain and simple ceremonial which he +adopted for his meetings with the Congress. + +In this first speech, thus delivered, Washington indicated the +subjects to which he wished Congress to direct their attention, and +which in their development formed the policies of his administration. +His first recommendation was to provide for the common defense by a +proper military establishment. His last and most elaborate was in +behalf of education, for which he invoked the aid of Congress and +urged the foundation of a national university, a scheme he had much at +heart, and to which he constantly returned. The history of these +two recommendations is soon told. Provision was made for the army, +inadequate enough, as Washington thought, but still without dispute, +and such additional provision was afterwards made from time to time as +the passing exigency of the moment demanded. For education nothing +was done, and the national university has never advanced beyond the +recommendation of the first President. + +He also advised the adoption of a uniform standard of coinage, +weights, and measures. In two years a mint was duly established after +an able report from Hamilton, and out of his efforts and those of +Jefferson came our decimal system. There was debate over the devices +on the coins in which the ever-vigilant Jeffersonians scented +monarchical dangers, but with this exception the country got its +uniform coinage peacefully enough. The weights and measures did not +fare so well. They obtained a long report from Jefferson, and a still +longer and more learned disquisition from John Quincy Adams thirty +years later. But that was all. We still use the rule of thumb systems +inherited from our English ancestors, and Washington's uniform +standard, except for the two reports, has gone no further than the +national university. + +Another recommendation to the effect that invention ought to be +encouraged and protected bore fruit in this same year in patent and +copyright laws, which became the foundation of our present system. The +same good fortune befell the recommendation for a uniform rule for +naturalization, and the law of 1790 was quietly enacted, no one then +imagining that its alteration less than ten years later was destined +to form part of a policy which, after a fierce struggle, settled +the fate of parties and decided the control of the government. The +post-office was also commended to the care of Congress, and for that, +as for the army, provision was duly made, insufficient at the outset, +but growing steadily from this small beginning, as it was called upon +to meet the spread and increase of population. + +Provision was also made gradually, and with much occasional conflict, +for a diplomatic service such as the President advised. But this was +merely the machinery to carry out our foreign policy on which, in a +few years, our political history largely turned, and which will demand +a chapter by itself. + +A paragraph devoted to Indian affairs informed Congress that measures +were on foot to establish pacific relations with our savage neighbors, +but that it would be well to be prepared to use force. This brief +sentence was the beginning of an important policy, which, in its +consequences and effects, played a large part in the history of the +next eight years. + +These various matters thus disposed of, there remained only the +request to the House to provide for the revenue and the public credit. +From this came Hamilton's financial policy which created parties, +and with it was interwoven in the body of the speech the general +recommendation to make all proper effort for the advancement of +manufactures, commerce, and agriculture. + +The speech as a whole, short though it was, drew the outline of +a vigorous system, which aimed at the establishment of a strong +government with enlarged powers. It cut at a blow all ties between the +new government and the feeble strivings of the dead confederation. It +displayed a broad conception of the duties of the government under +the Constitution, and in every paragraph it breathed the spirit of a +robust nationality, calculated to touch the people directly in every +State of the Union. + +Before taking up the financial question, which became the great issue +in our domestic affairs, it will be well to trace briefly the story of +our relations with the Indians. The policy of the new administration +in this respect was peculiarly Washington's own, and, although it +affected more or less the general course of events at that period, it +did not directly become the subject of party differences. The "Indian +problem" is still with us, but it is now a very mild problem indeed. +Within a few years, it is true, we have had Indian wars, conducted by +the forces of the United States, and ever-recurring outbreaks between +savages and frontiersmen. But it has been a very distant business. To +the great mass of the American people it has been little more than +interesting news, to be leisurely scanned in the newspaper without +any sense of immediate and personal concern. Moreover, the popular +conception of the Indian has for a long time been wildly inaccurate. +We have known him in various capacities, as the innocent victim of +corrupt agents and traders, and as the brutal robber and murderer with +the vices and force of the Western frontiersman, but without any of +the latter's redeeming virtues. Last and most important of all, we +have known him as the rare hero and the conventional villain of +romance, ranging from the admirable stories of Cooper to the last +production of the "penny dreadful." The result has been to create in +the public mind a being who probably never existed anywhere except in +the popular imagination, and who certainly is not the North American +Indian. + +We are always loath to admit that our conceptions are formed by +fiction, but in the case of people remote from our daily observation +it plays in nine instances out of ten a leading part, and it has +certainly done so here. In this way we have been provided with two +types simple and well defined, which represent the abnormally good on +the one hand and the inconceivably bad on the other. The Indian hero +is a person of phenomenal nobility of character, and of an +ability which would do credit to the training of a highly refined +civilization. He is the product of the orator, the novelist, or the +philanthropist, and has but slight and distant relation to facts. The +usual type, however, and the one which has entered most largely into +the popular mind, is the Indian villain. He is portrayed invariably +as cunning, treacherous, cruel, and cowardly, without any relieving +quality. In this there is of course much truth. As a matter of fact, +Indians are cunning, treacherous, and cruel, but they are also bold +fighters. The leading idea of the Indian that has come down from +Cooper's time, and which depicts him as a "cowardly redskin," unable +to stand for a moment against a white man in fair fight, is a complete +delusion designed to flatter the superior race. It has been in a large +measure dissipated by Parkman's masterly histories, but the ideas born +of popular fiction die hard. They are due in part to the theory that +cruelty implies cowardice, just as we say that a bully must be a +coward, another mistaken bit of proverbial wisdom. + +As a matter of fact, the records show that the North American Indian +is one of the most remarkable savage warriors of whom we have any +knowledge; and the number of white men killed for each Indian slain +in war exhibits an astonishing disproportion of loss. Captain James +Smith, for many years a captive, and who figured in most of the +campaigns of the last century, estimated that fifty of our people were +killed to one of theirs. This of course includes women and children; +and yet even in the battle of the Big Kanawha, the Virginia riflemen, +although they defeated the Indians with an inferior force, lost two +to one, and a similar disproportion seems to have continued to the +present day. + +The Indian, moreover, not only fought well and to the death, if +surrounded, but he had a discipline and plan of battle which were +most effective for the wilderness. It seems probable that, if the +experiment had been properly tried, the Indians might have been turned +into better soldiers than the famous Sikhs; and the French, who +used the red men skillfully, if without much discipline, found them +formidable and effective allies. They cut off more than one English +and American army, and the fact that they resorted to ambush and +surprise does not detract from their exploits. It was a legitimate +mode of warfare, and was used by them with terrible effect. They have +fought more than one pitched battle against superior numbers when the +victory hung long in the balance, and they have carried on guerrilla +wars for years against overwhelming forces with extraordinary +persistence and success. There is no savage, except the Zulu or Maori, +who has begun to exhibit the natural fighting quality of the American +Indian; and although the Zulu appears to have displayed greater dash, +the Indian, by his mastery of the tactics of surprise, has shown a +far better head. In a word, the Indian has always been a formidable +savage, treacherous, cruel, and cunning to an extreme degree, no +doubt, but a desperate and dogged fighter, with a natural instinct for +war. It must be remembered, too, that he was far more formidable +in 1790 than he is to-day, with the ever-rising tide of civilized +population flowing upon him and hemming him in. When the Constitution +came into being, the Indians were pretty well out of the Atlantic +States, but beyond the Alleghanies all was theirs, and they had the +unbroken wilderness as their ally and their refuge. There they lay +like a dark line on the near frontier, threatening war and pillage +and severe check to the westward advance of our people. They were +a serious matter to a new government, limited in resources and +representing only three millions of people. + +Fortunately the President was of all men best fitted to deal with +this grave question, for he knew the Indians thoroughly. His earliest +public service had been to negotiate with them, and from that time on +he had been familiar with them in peace and in diplomacy, while he had +fought with them in war over and over again. He was not in the least +confused in his notions about them, but saw them, as he did most +facts, exactly as they were. He had none of the false sentimentality +about the noble and injured red man, which in later days has been at +times highly mischievous, nor on the other hand did he take the purely +brutal view of the fighting scout or backwoodsman. He knew the Indian +as he was, and understood him as a dangerous, treacherous, +fighting savage. Better than any one else he appreciated +the difficulties of Indian warfare when an army had to be +launched into the wilderness and cut off from a base of supplies. +He was well aware, too, that the western tribes were a constant +temptation to England and Spain on either border, and might be used +against us with terrible effect. In taking up the question for +solution, he believed first, as was his nature, in justice, and he +resolved to push every pacific measure, and strive unremittingly by +fair dealing and binding treaties to keep a peace which was of great +moment to the young republic. But he also felt that pacific measures +were an uncertain reliance, and that sharp, decisive blows were often +the only means of maintaining peace and quiet on the frontier, and +of warding off English and Spanish intrigue. This was the policy he +indicated in the brief sentences of his first speech, and it only +remains to see how he carried it out. + +The outlook in regard to the Indians, when Washington assumed the +presidency, was threatening enough. The Continental Congress had shown +in this respect most honorable intention and some vigor, but their +honest purposes had been in large measure thwarted by the action of +the various States, which they were unable to control. In New York +peace reigned, despite some grumbling; for the Six Nations had made a +general treaty, and also two special treaties, not long before, which +were on the whole just and satisfactory. At the same time a general +treaty had been made with the western Indians, which modified some of +the injustices of the treaties of 1785, and which were also fair and +reasonable. In this treaty, however, the tribes of the Wabash were not +included, and they therefore were engaged in war with the Kentucky +people. Those hardy backwoodsmen were quick enough to retaliate, and +they generally proceeded on the simple backwoods principle that tribal +distinctions were futile, and that every Indian was an enemy. This +view, it must be admitted, saved a good deal of thought, but it led +the Kentuckians in their raids to kill many Indians who did not belong +to the Wabash tribes, but to those protected by treaty. The result +of this impartiality was, that, besides the chronic Wabash troubles, +there was every probability that a general war with all the western +and northwestern tribes might break out at any moment. + +South of the Ohio, matters were even worse. The Choctaws, it is +true, owing to their distance from our frontier settlements, were on +excellent terms with our government. But the Cherokees had just +been beaten and driven back by Sevier and his followers from the +short-lived state of Franklin, and had taken refuge with the Creeks. +These last were a formidable people. Not only were they good fighters, +but they were also well armed, thanks to their alliance with the +Spaniards, from whom they obtained not only countenance, but guns, +ammunition, and supplies. They were led also by a chief of remarkable +ability, a Scotch half-breed, educated at Charlestown, and named +Alexander McGillivray. With a tribe so constituted and commanded, it +was not difficult to bring on trouble, as soon proved to be the case. +Georgia had claimed and seized certain lands under treaties which she +alleged had been made, whereupon the Creeks denied the validity of +these treaties and went to war, in which they were highly successful. +The Georgians had already asked assistance from their neighbors, and +they now demanded it from the new general government. Thereupon, under +an act of Congress, Washington appointed as commissioners to arrange +the difficulties General Lincoln, Colonel Humphrey, and David Griffin +of Virginia, all remote from the scene of conflict, and all judicious +selections. The Creeks readily met the new commissioners, but when +they found that no lands were to be given up, they declined to treat +further, and said they would await a new negotiation. + +Washington attributed this failure, and no doubt correctly, to the +intrigues and influence of Spain. On the day the report of the +commissioners went to Congress, he wrote to Governor Pinckney of South +Carolina: "For my own part I am entirely persuaded that the present +general government will endeavor to lay the foundations for its +proceedings in national justice, faith, and honor. But should the +government, after having attempted in vain every reasonable pacific +measure, be obliged to have recourse to arms for the defense of its +citizens, I am also of opinion that sound policy and good economy will +point to a prompt and decisive effort, rather than to defensive and +lingering operations." "Lingering" had been the curse of our Indian +policy, and it was this above all things that Washington was +determined to be rid of. Whether peace or war, there was to be quick +and decisive action. He therefore, in this spirit, at once sent +southward another commissioner, Colonel Willett, who very shrewdly +succeeded in getting McGillivray and his chiefs to agree to accompany +him to New York. Thither they accordingly came in due time, the Scotch +half-breed and twenty-eight of his chiefs. They were entertained and +well treated at the seat of government, and there, with Knox acting +for the United States, they made a treaty which involved concessions +on both sides. The Creeks gave up all claims to lands north and east +of the Oconee, and the United States, under a recent general act +regulating trade and intercourse with the Indians, gave up all lands +south and west of the same river, and agreed to make the tribes an +annual present. Then Washington gave them wampum and tobacco, and +shook hands with them, and the chiefs went home. There was grumbling +on both sides, especially among the Georgians, but nevertheless the +treaty held for a time at least, and there was peace. + +Washington's policy of justice had succeeded, and the Indians got an +idea of the power and fair dealing of the new government, which was of +real value. More valuable still was the lesson to the people of the +United States that this central government meant to deal justly +with the Indians, and would try to prevent any single State from +frustrating by bad faith the policy designed to benefit the whole +country. Trouble soon began again in this direction, and in later days +States inflated with state-right doctrines carried this resistance in +Indian affairs to a much greater extent, and flouted the acts of the +federal government. This, however, does not detract from the wisdom of +the President, who inaugurated the policy of acting justly toward +the Indians, and of overruling the selfish injustice of the State +immediately affected. If the policy of justice and firmness adopted by +Washington had never been abandoned, it would have been better for the +honor and the interest both of the nation and the separate States. + +The same pacific policy which had succeeded in the south was tried in +the west and failed. The English, with their usual thoughtfulness, +incited the Indians to claim the Ohio as their boundary, which meant +war and murderous assaults on all our people traveling on the river. +Retaliation, of course, followed, and in April, 1790, Colonel Harmer +with a body of Kentucky militia invaded the Indian country, burned a +deserted village, and returned without having accomplished anything +substantial. The desultory warfare of murder and pillage went on for a +time, and then Washington felt that the moment had come for the other +branch of his policy. At all events there should be no lingering, and +there should be action. Peaceful measures having failed, there should +be war and a settlement in some fashion. + +Accordingly, in the fall of 1790, soon after his successful Creek +negotiation, he ordered out some three hundred regulars and eleven +hundred militia from Pennsylvania and Kentucky, and sent them under +Harmer into the Miami country. The expedition burned a village on the +Scioto; and then Colonel Hardin, detached with some hundred and +fifty men in pursuit of the Indians, was caught in an ambush and +his regulars cut off, the militia running away apparently quite +successfully. Thereupon Harmer retreated; but, changing his mind in a +day or two, advanced again, and again sent out Hardin with a larger +force than before. Then the advance was again surprised, and the +regulars nearly all killed, while the militia, who stood their ground +better this time, lost about a hundred men. The end was the repulse +of the whites after a pretty savage fight. Then Harmer withdrew +altogether, declaring, with a strange absence of humor, if of no more +important quality, that he had won a victory. After reaching home, +this mismanaged expedition caused much crimination and heart-burning, +followed by courts-martial on Hardin and Harmer, who were both +acquitted, and by the resignation of the latter. + +This defeat of course simply made worse the state of affairs in +general, and the Six Nations, who had hitherto been quiet, became +uneasy and were kept so by the ever-kind incitement of the English. +Various mediations with these powerful tribes failed; but Colonel +Pickering, appointed a special commissioner, managed at last to +appease their discontents. To the southward also the Cherokees began +to move and threaten, but were pacified by the exertions of Governor +Blount of the Southwest Territory. Meantime an act had been passed to +increase the army, and Arthur St. Clair was appointed major-general. +Washington, who had been greatly disturbed by the failure of Harmer, +was both angered and disheartened by the conduct of the States and of +the frontier settlers. "Land-jobbing, the intermeddling of the States, +and the disorderly conduct of the borderers, who were indifferent as +to the killing of an Indian," were in his opinion the great obstacles +in the way of success. Yet these very men who shot Indians at sight +and plundered them of their lands, as well as the States immediately +concerned, were the first to cry out for aid from the general +government when a war, brought about usually by their own violation of +the treaties of the United States, was upon them. On the other hand, +the Indians themselves were warlike and quarrelsome, and they were +spurred on by England and Spain in a way difficult to understand at +the present day. + +In all this perplexity, however, one thing was now clear to +Washington. There could not longer be any doubt that the western +troubles must be put down vigorously and by the armed hand. Even while +he was negotiating in the north and south, therefore, he threw himself +heart and soul into the preparation of St. Clair's expedition, pushing +forward all necessary arrangements, and planning the campaign with a +care and foresight made possible by his military ability and by his +experience as an Indian fighter. While the main army was thus +getting ready, two lesser expeditions, one under Scott and one under +Wilkinson, were sent into the Indian country; but beyond burning some +deserted villages and killing a few stray savages both were fruitless. + +At last all was ready. St. Clair had an interview with Washington, in +which the whole plan of campaign was gone over, and especial warning +given against ambuscades. He then took his departure at once for the +west, and late in September left Cincinnati with some two thousand +men. The plan of campaign was to build a line of forts, and +accordingly one named Fort Hamilton was erected twenty-four miles +north on the Miami, and then Fort Jefferson was built forty-four miles +north of that point. Thence St. Clair pushed slowly on for twenty-nine +miles until he reached the head-waters of the Wabash. He had been +joined on the march by some Kentucky militia, who were disorderly +and undisciplined. Sixty of them promptly deserted, and it became +necessary to send a regiment after them to prevent their plundering +the baggage trains. At the same time some Chickasaw auxiliaries, with +the true rat instinct, deserted and went home. Nevertheless St. Clair +kept on, and finally reached what proved to be his last camp, with +about fourteen hundred men. The militia were on one side of the +stream, the regulars on the other. At sunrise the next day the +Indians surprised the militia, drove them back on the other camp, and +shattered the first line of the regulars. The second line stood their +ground, and a desperate fight ensued; but it was all in vain. The +Indians charged up to the guns, and, though they were repulsed by the +bayonet, St. Clair, who was ill in his tent, was at last forced to +order a retreat. The retreat soon became a rout, and the broken army, +leaving their artillery and throwing away their arms, fled back to +Fort Jefferson, where they left their wounded, and hurried on to their +starting-point at Fort Washington. It was Braddock over again. General +Butler, the second in command, was killed on the field, while the +total loss reached nine hundred men and fifty-nine officers, and of +these six hundred were killed. The Indians do not appear to have +numbered much more than a thousand. No excuse for such a disaster and +such murderous slaughter is possible, for nothing but the grossest +carelessness could have permitted a surprise of that nature upon +an established camp. The troops, too, were not only surprised, but +apparently utterly unprepared to fight, and the battle was merely a +wild struggle for life. + +Washington was above all things a soldier, and his heart was always +with his armies whenever he had one in the field. In this case +particularly he hoped much, for he looked to this powerful expedition +to settle the Indian troubles for a time, and give room for that +great western movement which always was in his thoughts. He therefore +awaited reports from St. Clair with keen anxiety, but in this case +the ill tidings did not attain their proverbial speed. The battle was +fought on November 4, and it was not until the close of a December +day that the officer carrying dispatches from the frontier reached +Philadelphia. He rode at once to the President's house, and Washington +was called out from dinner, where he had company. He remained away +some time, and on returning to the table said nothing as to what +he had heard, talked with every one at Mrs. Washington's reception +afterwards, and gave no sign. Through all the weary evening he was as +calm and courteous as ever. When the last guest had gone he walked up +and down the room for a few minutes and then suddenly broke out: +"It's all over--St. Clair's defeated--routed; the officers nearly all +killed, the men by wholesale; the rout complete--too shocking to think +of--and a surprise into the bargain." He paused and strode up and down +the room; stopped again and burst forth in a torrent of indignant +wrath: "Here on this very spot I took leave of him; I wished him +success and honor; 'You have your instructions,' I said, 'from the +secretary of war; I had a strict eye to them, and will add but one +word--Beware of a surprise! I repeat it--_beware of a surprise_! You +know how the Indians fight us.' He went off with that as my last +solemn warning thrown into his ears. And yet, to suffer that army to +be cut to pieces, hacked, butchered, tomahawked, by a surprise, the +very thing I guarded him against! O God, O God, he's worse than a +murderer! How can he answer it to his country! The blood of the slain +is upon him, the curse of widows and orphans, the curse of Heaven!" + +His secretary was appalled and silent, while Washington again strode +fiercely up and down the room. Then he sat down, collected himself, +and said, "This must not go beyond this room." Then a long silence. +Then, "General St. Clair shall have justice. I looked hastily through +the dispatches, saw the whole disaster, but not all the particulars; +I will receive him without displeasure; I will hear him without +prejudice; he shall have full justice." The description of this scene +by an eye-witness has been in print for many years, and yet we find +people who say that Washington was cold of heart and lacking in human +sympathy. What could be more intensely human than this? What a warm +heart is here, and what a lightning glimpse of a passionate nature +bursting through silence into burning speech! Then comes the iron will +which has mastered all the problems of his life. "He shall have full +justice;" and St. Clair had justice. He had been an unfortunate +choice, but as a Revolutionary soldier and governor of the Northwest +Territory his selection had been natural. He had never been a +successful general, for it was not in him to be so. Something he +lacked, energy, decision, foresight, it matters not what. But at least +he was brave. Broken by sickness, he had displayed the utmost personal +courage on that stricken field; and for this Washington would always +forgive much. He received the unfortunate general kindly. He could not +order a court martial, for there were no officers of sufficient rank +to form one; but he gave St. Clair every opportunity for vindication, +and a committee of Congress investigated the campaign and exculpated +the leader. His personal bravery saved him and his reputation, but +nothing can alter the fact that the surprise was unpardonable and the +disaster awful. + +Immediate results of the St. Clair defeat were not so bad as might +have been expected. Panic, of course, ran rampant along the frontier, +reaching even to Pittsburg; but the Indians failed to follow up +their advantage, and did not come. Still the alarm was there, and +Pennsylvania and Virginia ordered troops to be raised, while Congress +also took action. Another increase of the army was ordered, with +consequent increase of appropriation, so that this Indian victory +entered at this point into the great current of the financial policy, +and thus played its part in the events on which parties were dividing, +and history was being made. + +No matter what happened, however, there was to be neither lingering +nor delay in this business. The President set to work at once to +organize a fresh army, and fight out a settlement of the troubles. His +first thought for a new commander was of Henry Lee of Virginia, but +considerations of rank deterred him. He then selected and appointed +Wayne, who recently had got into politics and been deprived, on a +contested election, of his seat in the House. No little grumbling +ensued over this appointment, especially in Virginia, but it was +unheeded by the President, and its causes now are not very clear. +The event proved the wisdom of the choice, as so often happened with +Washington, and it is easy to see the reason for it. Wayne was one +of the shining figures of our Revolution, appealing strongly to the +imagination of posterity. He was not a great general in the highest +sense, but he was a brilliant corps-commander, capable of daring feats +of arms like the storming of Stony Point. He was capable also of +dashing with heedless courage into desperate places, and incurring +thereby defeat and consequent censure, but escaping entire ruin +through the same quickness of action which had involved him in +trouble. He was well fitted for the bold and rapid movement +required in Indian warfare, and with him Washington put well-chosen +subordinates, selected evidently for their fighting capacity, for he +clearly was determined that this should be at all events a fighting +campaign. + +Wayne, after his appointment, betook himself to Pittsburg, and +proceeded with characteristic energy to raise and organize his army, +a work of no little difficulty because he wished to have picked men. +Washington did all that could be done to help him, and at the same +time pushed negotiations with admirable patience, but with very +varying success. Kirkland brought chiefs of the Six Nations to +Congress with good results, and the Cherokees were pacified by +additional presents. On the other hand, the Creeks were restless, +stirred up always by Spain, and two brave officers, sent to try +for peace with the western tribes, were murdered in cold blood. +Nevertheless, treaties were patched up with some of them, and a great +council was held in the fall of 1792, the Six Nations acting as +mediators, which resulted in a badly kept armistice, but in nothing of +lasting value. The next year Congress passed a general act regulating +trade and intercourse with the Indians, and Washington appointed yet +another commission to visit the northwestern tribes, more to +satisfy public opinion than with any hope of peace. Indeed, these +commissioners never succeeded in even meeting the Indians, who +rejected in advance all proposals which would not concede the Ohio as +the boundary. English influence, it was said, was at the bottom of +this demand, and there seems to be little doubt that such was the +case, for England and France were now at war, and England thereupon +had redoubled her efforts to injure the United States by every sort of +petty outrage both on sea and land. This masterly policy had perhaps +reasons for its existence which pass beyond the average understanding, +but, so far as any one can now discover, it seems to have had no +possible motive except to feed an ancient grudge and drive the country +into the arms of France. Carried on for a long time in secret, +this Indian intrigue came to the surface in a speech made by Lord +Dorchester to the western tribes, in which he prophesied a speedy +rupture with the United States and urged his hearers to continue war. +It is worth remembering that for five years, covertly or openly, +England did her best to keep an Indian war with all that it implied +alive upon our borders,--the borders of a friendly nation with whom +she was at peace. + +But while Washington persistently negotiated, he as persistently +prepared to fight, not trusting overmuch either the savages or the +English. Wayne, with similar views, moved his army forward in the +autumn of 1793 to a point six miles beyond Fort Jefferson, and then +went into winter quarters. Early in the spring of 1794 he was in +motion again and advanced to St. Clair's battlefield, where he built +Fort Recovery, and where he was attacked by the Indians, whom he +repulsed after two days' fighting. He then marched in an unexpected +direction and struck the central villages at the junction of the Au +Glaize and Maumee. The surprised savages fled, and Wayne burned their +village, laid waste their extensive fields, and built Fort Defiance. +To the Indians, who had retreated thirty miles down the Maumee to the +shelter of a British post, he sent word that he was ready to treat. +The reply came back asking for a delay of ten days; but Wayne at once +advanced, and found the Indians prepared for battle near the English +fort. The ground was unfavorable, especially for cavalry, but Wayne +made good arrangements and attacked. The Indians gave way before the +bayonet, and were completely routed, the American loss being only one +hundred and seven men. The army was not averse to storming the English +fort; but Wayne, with unusual caution, contented himself with a sharp +correspondence with the commandant, and then withdrew after a most +successful campaign. The next year, strengthened by his victory and by +the surrender of the British posts under the Jay treaty, Wayne made +a treaty with the western tribes by which vast tracts of disputed +territory were ceded to the United States, and peace was established +in that long troubled region. + +On the southern frontier there were no such fortunate results. While +Washington was negotiating and fighting in the north and west, all +his patient efforts were frustrated in the south by the conduct of +Georgia. The borderers kept assailing the Indians, peaceful tribes +being generally chosen for the purpose; and the State itself broke +through and disregarded all treaties and all arrangements made by the +United States. The result was constant disquiet and chronic war, with +the usual accompaniments of fire, murder, and pillage. + +On the whole, however, when Washington left the presidency, his +Indian policy had been a marked success. In place of uncertainty and +weakness, a definite general system had been adopted. The northern +and western tribes had been beaten and pacified, and the southern +incursions and disorders had been much checked. The British posts, the +most dangerous centres of Indian intrigue, had been abandoned, and the +great regions of the west and northwest had been opened to the tide of +settlement. These results were due to a well-defined plan, and above +all to the persistent vigor which pushed steadily forward to its +object without swinging, as had been done before, between feverish and +often misdirected activity on the one side and complete and +feeble inaction on the other. They were achieved, too, amid many +difficulties, for there was anything but a unanimous support of the +government in its Indian affairs. The opposition grumbled at the +expense, and said that money needlessly raised by taxation was +squandered in Indian wars, while the great body of the people, living +safely along the eastern coast, thought but little about the frontier. +Some persons took the sentimental view and considered the government +barbarous to make causeless war. Others believed that altogether +too much of the public time and money were wasted in looking after +outlying settlements. The borderers themselves, on the other hand, +thought that the general government was in league with the savages, +and broke through treaties, and destroyed so far as they could the +national policy. St. Clair was hissed and jeered as he traveled home, +but a wakeful opposition turned from the unsuccessful general to a +vain attempt to prove that ambushed savages and sleeping sentries were +due to a weak war department and a corrupt and inefficient treasury. +The mass of moderate people, no doubt, desired tranquillity on the +frontier, and sustained the President's labors for that end, but for +the most part they were silent. The voices that Washington heard most +loudly joined in a discordant chorus of disapproval around his Indian +policy. No one understood that here was an important part of a scheme +to build up a nation, to make all the movements of the United States +broad and national, and to open the vast west to the people who were +to make it theirs. Washington heard all the criticism and saw all the +opposition, and still pressed forward to his goal, not attaining all +he wished, but fighting in a very clear and manful spirit, and not +laboring in vain. + +The Indian question in its management touched, as has been seen, at +various points our financial policy and our foreign relations, on +which the history of the country really turned in those years. The +latter had not risen to their later importance when the government +began, but the former was knocking importunately at the door of +Congress when it first assembled. The condition of affairs is soon +told. The Revolution narrowly escaped shipwreck on the financial +reefs, and the shaky government of the confederation had there gone to +pieces. The country, as a political organism, was bankrupt. It owed +sums of money, which were vast in amount for those days, both at +home and abroad, and it could not pay these debts, nor was there any +provision for them. All interest was in arrears, there were no means +provided for meeting it, and the national credit everywhere was +dishonored and gone. The continental currency had disappeared, and the +circulating medium was represented by a confused jumble of foreign +coins and worthless scrip. Many of the States were up to their eyes in +schemes of inflation, paper money, and repudiation. There was no money +in the treasury to pay the ordinary charges of government; there was +no revenue and no policy for raising one, or for funding the debt. +This picture is darkly drawn, but it is not exaggerated. That high +spirit of public honor, which seventy-five years later rose above the +ravages of war and the temptings of dishonesty to pay the debt and the +interest, dollar for dollar in gold, seemed in 1789 to be wellnigh +extinct. But it was not dead. It was confused and overclouded in the +minds of the people, but it was still there, and it was strong, clear, +and determined in Washington and those who followed him. + +Congress grappled with the financial difficulties in the most +courageous and honest way, but it struggled with them rather +helplessly despite its good disposition. It could lay taxes in one way +or another so as to get money, but this was plainly insufficient. It +could not formulate a coherent policy, which was the one essential +thing, nor could it settle the thousand and one perplexing questions +which hedged the subject on every side. The members turned, therefore, +with a sigh of relief to the new Secretary of the Treasury, asked him +the questions which were troubling them, and having directed him to +make various reports, adjourned. + +The result is well known. The great statesman to whom the task was +confided assumed it with the boldness and ease of conscious power, +and when Congress reassembled it listened to the first report on +the public credit. In that great state paper all the confusions +disappeared, and in terse sentences an entire scheme for funding the +debt, disposing of the worthless currency, and raising the necessary +revenue came out clear and distinct, so that all men could comprehend +it. The provision for the foreign debt passed without resistance. That +for the domestic debt excited much debate, and also passed. Last came +the assumption of the state debts, and over that there sprang up +a fierce struggle. It was carried by a narrow majority, and then +defeated by the votes of the North Carolina members, who had just +taken their seats. Washington strongly favored this hotly contested +measure. He defended it in a letter to David Stuart, and again +to Jefferson, at a later time, when that statesman was trying to +undermine Hamilton by wailing about a "corrupt squadron" in Congress. + +To Washington, assumption seemed as obviously just as it does to +posterity. All the debts had been incurred in a common cause, he said, +why should they not be cared for by the common government? He had +no patience with the sectional argument that assumption was unfair, +because some States got more out of it than others. Some States had +suffered more than others, but all shared in the freedom that had been +won.[1] He saw in it, moreover, as Hamilton had seen, something far +more important than a mere provision for the debts and for the payment +of money to this community or to that. Assumption was essentially a +union measure. The other debts were incurred by the central government +directly, but the state debts were incurred by the States for a common +cause. If the United States assumed them, it showed to the people and +to the world that there were no state lines when the interests of the +whole country were involved. It was therefore a national measure, a +breeder of national sentiment, a new bond to fasten the States to each +other and to the Union. This was enough to assure Washington's hearty +approval; but the measure was saved and carried finally by the famous +arrangement between Hamilton and Jefferson, which took the capital +to the Potomac and made the war debts of the States a part of the +national debt. Washington was more than satisfied with this solution, +for both sides of the agreement pleased him, and there was nothing in +the compromise which meant sacrifice on his part. He rejoiced in +the successful adoption of the great financial policy of his +administration, and he was much pleased to have the capital, in which +he was intensely interested, placed near to his own Mount Vernon, in +the very region he would have selected if he had had the power of +fixing it. + +[Footnote 1: Sparks, _Writings of Washington_, x. 98.] + +The next great step in the development of the financial policy was the +establishment of the national bank, and on this there arose another +bitter contest in Congress and in the newspapers. A sharp opposition +had developed by this time, and the supporters of the Secretary of the +Treasury became on their side correspondingly ardent. In this debate +much stress was laid on the constitutional point that Congress had no +power to charter a bank. Nevertheless, the bill passed and went to the +President, with the constitutional doubts following it and pressed +home in this last resort. As has been seen from his letters written +just after the Philadelphia convention, Washington was not a blind +worshiper of the Constitution which he had helped so largely to make; +but he believed it would work, and every day confirmed his belief. He +felt, moreover, that one great element of its lasting success lay +in creating a genuine reverence for it among the people, and it was +therefore of the utmost importance that this reverence should begin +among those to whom the management of the government had been +intrusted. For this reason he exercised a jealous care in everything +touching the organic law of the Union, and he was peculiarly sensitive +to constitutional objections to any given measure. In the case of the +national bank, the objections were strongly as well as vigorously +urged, and Washington paused, before signing, to the utmost limit of +the time allowed. He turned to Jefferson and Randolph, both opposed +to the bill, and asked them for their objections to its +constitutionality. They gave him in response two able reports. These +he sent to Hamilton, who returned them with that most masterly +argument, in which he not only defended the bank charter, but +vindicated, in a manner never afterwards surpassed, the new doctrine +of the implied powers of the Constitution. With both sides thus before +him, Washington considered the question, and signed the bill. + +Rives, in his "Life of Madison," intimates that Washington had doubts +even after signing, but of this there is no evidence of any weight. He +was not a man who indulged in doubts after he had made up his mind and +rendered a decision, and it was not in his nature to fret over what +had been done and was past, whether in war or peace. The story that he +was worried about his action in this instance arose from his delay in +signing, and from the disappointment of those who had hoped much +from his hesitation. This pause, however, was both natural and +characteristic. Washington had approved Morris's bank policy in the +Revolution, and remembered the service it rendered. He was familiar +with Hamilton's views on the subject, and knew that they were the +result of long study and careful thought. He must also have known that +any financial policy devised by his Secretary of the Treasury would +contain as an integral part a national bank. There can be no doubt +that both the plan for the bank and the report which embodied it were +submitted to him before they went in to Congress, but the violence of +the objections raised there on constitutional grounds awakened +his attention in a new direction. He saw at once the gravity of a +question, which involved not merely the incorporation of a bank, +but which opened up a new field of constitutional powers and +constitutional construction. When such far-reaching results were +involved he paused and reflected, and, as was always the case with him +under such circumstances, listened to and examined all the arguments +on both sides. This done he decided, and with his national feeling +he could not have decided otherwise than he did. The doctrine of the +implied powers of the Constitution was the greatest weapon possible +for those whose leading thought was to develop the union of States +into a great and imperial nation; and we may well believe that it was +this feeling, and not merely faith in the bank as a financial engine, +which led Washington to sign the bill. When he did so he assented to +the charter of a national bank, but he also assented to the doctrine +of the implied powers and gave to that far-reaching construction of +the Constitution the great weight of his name and character. It was, +perhaps, the most important single act of his presidency. + +It is impossible here, even were it necessary, to follow Washington's +action in regard to all the details which went to make up and to +sustain Hamilton's policy, to which, as a whole, Washington gave his +hearty approval and support. The revenue system, the public lands, +the arrangement of loans, the mint, all alike met with his active +concurrence. He was too great a man not to value rightly Hamilton's +work, and the way in which that work brought order, credit, honor, and +prosperity out of a chaos of debt and bankruptcy appealed peculiarly +to his own love for method, organization, and sound business +principles. He met every criticism on Hamilton's policy without +concession, and defended it when it was attacked. To Hamilton's genius +that policy must be credited, but it gained its success and strength +largely from the firm support of Washington. + +There are two matters, however, connected with the Treasury +Department, which cannot be passed over in this general way. One was +a policy reasoned out and published by Hamilton, but never during his +lifetime put into the form of law in the broad and systematic manner +which he desired. The other was a consequence of his financial policy +as adopted, but which reached far beyond the bounds of financial +arrangements. The first was the policy set forth in Hamilton's Report +on Manufactures. The second was the enforcement of the excise and its +results. + +The defense of our commerce against foreign discriminations was a +proximate cause of the movement which resulted in the Constitution of +the United States, and closely allied to it was the anxious wish to +develop our internal resources and our domestic industry. This idea +was not at all new. Sporadic attempts to start and carry on various +industries had been made during the colonial period. They had all +failed, either because the watchful mother-country took pains to +stifle them, or because lack of capital and experience, in addition to +foreign competition, killed them almost at their birth. The idea of +developing American industries was generally diffused for the +first time when the colonists strove to bring England to terms by +non-intercourse acts. The Americans then thought that they could carry +their points by making war upon the British pocket, and excluding +English merchants from their markets. The next step, of course, was +to supply their own markets themselves; and the non-intercourse +agreements, which were economically prohibitory tariff acts, gave a +fitful impulse to various simple industries. In the clash of arms this +idea naturally dropped out of the popular mind, but it began to revive +soon after the return of peace. The government of the confederation +was too feeble to adopt any policy in this or any other matter, but +in the first Congress the desire to develop American industries found +expression. The first tariff was laid primarily to raise the revenue +so sorely needed at that moment. But the effort to do this gave rise +to a debate in which the policy of protection, strongly advocated by +the Pennsylvanian members, was freely discussed. Nobody, however, at +that time, had any comprehensive plan or general system, so that the +efforts for protection were incoherent, and resulted only in certain +special protective features in the tariff bill, and not in a broad +and well-rounded measure. Still the protective idea was there; it was +recognized in the preamble of the act, and the constitutionality of +the policy was affirmed by the framers and contemporaries of the +Constitution. + +Hamilton, of course, watched all these movements intently. His guiding +thought in all things was the creation of a great nation. For this he +strove for national unity and national sentiment, and he saw of course +that one essential condition of national greatness was industrial +independence, in addition to the political independence already won. +One of the greatest thinkers of the time on all matters of public +finance and political economy, he perceived at once that the irregular +attempts of Congress to encourage home industries could have at best +but partial results. He saw that a system broad, just, and continental +in its scope must take the place of the isolated industries which +now and again obtained an uncertain protection under the haphazard +measures of Congress. With these views and purposes he wrote and sent +to Congress his Report on Manufactures. In that great state paper he +made an argument in behalf of protection, as applied to the United +States and to the development of home industries, which has never been +overthrown. The system which he proposed was imperial in its range and +national in its design, like everything that proceeded from Hamilton's +mind. He argued, of course, with reference to existing economic +conditions, and in behalf only of what he then sought,--industrial +independence and the establishment and diversification of industries. +The social side of the question, which to-day overshadows all others, +was not visible a hundred years ago. The Report, however, bore no +immediate fruit, and Hamilton had been in his grave for years before +the country turned from this practice of accidental protection, and +tried to replace it by a broad, coherent system as set forth by the +great Secretary. + +But although it had no result at the moment, the Report on +Manufactures, which laid the foundation of the American protective +system, and which has so powerfully influenced American political +thought, was one of the very greatest events of Washington's +administration. To trace its effects and history through the +succeeding century would be wholly out of place here. All that +concerns us is Washington's relation to this far-reaching policy of +his Secretary. If we had not a word or a line on the subject from his +pen, we should still know that the policy of Hamilton was his policy +too, for Washington was the head of his own administration, and was +responsible and meant to be responsible for all its acts and policies. +With his keen foresight he saw the full import of the Report on +Manufactures, and we may be sure that when it went forth it was with +his full and cordial approval, and after that minute consideration +which he gave to all public questions. But we are not left to +inference. We have Washington's views and feelings on this matter set +forth again and again, and they show that the principle of the Report +on Manufactures was as near and dear to him, and as full of meaning, +as it was to Hamilton. + +Washington was brought up and had lived all his life under a system +which came as near as possible to the ideal of the modern free-trader. +The people of Virginia were devoted almost entirely to a single +interest, tobacco-growing, that being the occupation in which they +could most profitably engage. No legislative artifices had been +employed to enable them to diversify their industries or to establish +manufactures. They bought in the cheapest market every luxury and +most of the necessities of life. British merchants supplied all their +wants, carried their tobacco, and advanced them money. Cheap labor, a +single staple with wide fluctuations of value, a credit system, entire +dependence on foreigners, and absolute free trade according to the +Manchester theories, should have produced an earthly paradise. As a +matter of fact, the Virginia planters had little ready money and were +deeply in debt. Bankruptcy, as has been already said, seems to have +come to them about once in a generation. The land, rapidly exhausted +by tobacco, was prodigally wasted, and the general prosperity +declined. Washington, with his strong sense and perfect business +methods, personally escaped most of these evils, but he saw the +mischief of the system all the more clearly. It was bad enough in +his time, but he did not live to see Virginia with her wasted and +exhausted lands stand still, while her sister States to the north +passed her with giant strides in the race for wealth and population. +He did not live to see her become, as a result of her colonial system, +a mere breeder of slaves for the plantations of the Gulf States. But +he saw enough, and the lesson taught him by the results of industrial +dependence was well learned. + +When the war came and he was carrying the terrible burden of the +Revolution, he learned the same lesson in a new and more bitter way. +Nothing went so near to wreck the American cause as lack of all the +supplies by which war was carried on, for the United States produced +little or nothing of what was then needed. The resources of the +northern colonies were soon exhausted, and the South had none. Powder, +cannon, muskets, clothing, medical stores, all were lacking, and the +fate of the nation hung trembling in the balance on account of the +dependence in which the colonies had been kept by the skillful policy +of England. These were teachings that a lesser man than Washington +would have taken to heart and pondered deeply. In the midst of the +struggle he wrote to James Warren (March 31, 1779): "Let vigorous +measures be adopted, ... to punish speculators, forestallers, and +extortioners, and, above all, to sink the money by heavy taxes, +to promote public and private economy, and _to encourage +manufactures_.[1] Measures of this sort, gone heartily into by the +several States, would strike at once at the root of all our evils, +and give the _coup de grâce_ to the British hope of subjugating this +continent either by their arms or their acts." + +[Footnote 1: The italics are mine.] + +To Lafayette he wrote in 1789: "Though I would not force the +introduction of manufactures by extravagant encouragements and to the +prejudice of agriculture, yet I conceive much might be done in +that way by women, children, and others, without taking one really +necessary hand from tilling the earth. Certain it is, great savings +are already made in many articles of apparel, furniture, and +consumption. Equally certain it is, that no diminution in agriculture +has taken place at this time, when greater and more substantial +improvements in manufactures are making than were ever before known in +America." + +In the same year he wrote to Governor Randolph, favoring bounties, the +strongest form of protection; and this encouragement he wished to have +given to that industry which a hundred years later has been held up as +one of the least deserving of all that have received the assistance of +legislation. He said in this letter: "From the original letter, which +I forward herewith, your Excellency will comprehend the nature of a +proposal for introducing and establishing the woolen manufacture +in the State of Virginia. In the present stage of population and +agriculture, I do not pretend to determine how far that plan may be +practicable and advisable; or, in case it should be deemed so, whether +any or what public encouragement ought to be given to facilitate +its execution. _I have, however, no doubt as to the good policy +of increasing the number of sheep in every state_.[1] By a little +legislative encouragement the farmers of Connecticut have, in two +years past, added one hundred thousand to their former stock. If a +greater quantity of wool could be produced, and if the hands which are +often in a manner idle could be employed in manufacturing it, a spirit +of industry might be promoted, a great diminution might be made in +the annual expenses of individual families, and the public would +eventually be exceedingly benefited." The only hesitation is as to the +time of applying the policy. There is no doubt as to the wisdom of the +policy itself, of giving protection and encouragement in every proper +legislative form to domestic industry. + +[Footnote 1: The italics are mine.] + +In his first speech to Congress he recommended measures for the +advancement of manufactures, having already affixed his signature to +the bill which declared their encouragement to be one of its objects. +At the same time he wrote, in reply to an address: "The promotion +of domestic manufactures will, in my conception, be among the first +consequences which may naturally be expected to flow from an energetic +government." In 1791 he consulted Hamilton as to the advisability of +urging Congress to offer bounties for the culture of cotton and hemp, +his only doubts being as to the power of the general government in +this respect, and as to the temper of the time in regard to such an +expenditure of public money. The following year Hamilton's Report +on Manufactures was given to the country, finally establishing the +position of the administration as to our economic policy. + +The general drift of legislation, although it was not systematized, +followed the direction pointed out by the administration. But this did +not satisfy Washington. In his speech to Congress, December 7, 1796, +he said: "Congress has repeatedly, and not without success, directed +their attention to the encouragement of manufactures. _The object is +of too much consequence not to insure a continuance of their efforts +in every way which shall appear eligible._"[1] He then goes on to +argue at some length that, although manufacturing on the public +account is usually inexpedient, it should be established and carried +on to supply all that was needed for the public force in time of war. +This was his last address to Congress, and his last word on this +matter was to approve the course of Congress in following the +recommendation of his first speech. All his utterances and all his +opinions on the subject were uniform. Washington had never been a +student of public finance or political economy like Hamilton, and he +lived before the days of the Manchester school and its new gospel +of procuring heaven on earth by special methods of transacting the +country's business. But Washington was a great man, a state-builder +who fought wars and founded governments. He knew that nations were +raised up and made great and efficient, and that civilization was +advanced, not by _laissez aller_ and _laissez faire_, but by much +patient human striving. He had fought and conquered, and again he had +fought and been defeated, and through all he had come to victory, and +to certain conclusive results both in peace and war. He had not done +this by sitting still and letting each man go his way, but by strong +brain and strong will, and by much organization and compulsion. He had +set his hand to the building of a nation. He had studied his country +and understood it, and with calm, far-seeing eyes he had looked +forward into the future of his people. Neither the study nor the +outlook were vain, and both told him that political independence +was only part of the work, and that national sentiment, independent +thinking, and industrial independence also must be reached. The +first two, time alone could bring. The last, wise laws could help +to produce; and so he favored protection by legislation to American +industry and manufactures, threw all his potent influence into the +scale, and gave his support to the protective policy set forth by his +Secretary. + +[Footnote 1: The italics are mine.] + +Two matters connected with the treasury, I have said, deserved +fuller consideration than a general review could give. The one just +described, the policy of the Report on Manufactures, came, as has been +seen, to no clear and immediate result. The other reached a very +sharp and definite conclusion, not without great effect on the new +government of the United States, both at the moment and in the future. +When Hamilton "struck the rock of the national resources," the stream +of revenue which he sought at the outset was that flowing from duties +on imports, for this, in his theory, was not only the first source, +but the best. He would fain have had it the only one; but the +situation drove him forward. The assumption of the state debts, a +part of the legacy of the Revolution, and the continuing and at first +increasing expenses of unavoidable Indian wars, made additional +revenue absolutely essential. He turned therefore to the excise on +domestic spirits to furnish what was needed. + +Washington approved assumption. It was a measure of honesty, it would +raise the public credit, and above all, it was thoroughly national in +its operation and results. The appropriations for Indian wars he of +course approved, for their energetic prosecution was part of the +vigorous policy toward our wild neighbors upon which he was so +determined. It followed, of course, that he did not shrink from +imposing the taxes thus made necessary; and to raise the money from +domestic spirits seemed to him, under the existing exigency, to be +what it was,--thoroughly proper and reasonable both in form and +subject. + +It would seem, however, that neither Washington nor Hamilton realized +the unpopularity of this mode of getting revenue. The frontier +settlers along the line of the Alleghanies in Pennsylvania, Virginia, +and North Carolina, who distilled whiskey, were not very familiar, +perhaps, with Johnson's dictionary, but they would have cordially +accepted his definition of an excise. To them it was indeed a "hateful +tax," and nothing else. In fact, the word was one disliked throughout +the States, for it brought up evil memories, and excited much jealous +hostility and prejudice. The first excise law, therefore, when it went +into force, was the signal for a general outburst of opposition; and +in the Alleghany region, as might have been expected, the resistance +was immediate and most bitter. State legislatures passed resolutions, +public meetings were held and more resolutions were passed, while +in the wilder parts of the country threats of violence were freely +uttered. All these murmurings and menaces came on the passage of the +first bill in 1791. The administration, however, had no desire to +precipitate an uncalled-for strife, and so the law was softened and +amended in the following year, the tax being lowered and the most +obnoxious features removed. The result was general acquiescence +throughout most of the States, and renewed opposition in the western +counties of Pennsylvania and North Carolina. In the former a meeting +was held denouncing the law, pledging the people to "boycott" the +officers, and hinting at forcible resistance. If the people engaged in +this business had stopped to consider the men with whom they had +to deal, they would have been saved a great deal of suffering and +humiliation. The President and his Secretary of the Treasury were not +men who could be frightened by opposition or violent speeches. But +angry frontiersmen, stirred up by demagogues, are not given to much +reflection, and they meant to have their own way. + +Washington was quite clear in his policy from the beginning. He was +ready to make every proper concession, but when this was done he meant +on his side to have his own way, which was the way of law and order +and good government. He wrote to Hamilton in August, 1792: "If, after +these regulations are in operation, opposition to the due exercise of +the collection is still experienced, and peaceable procedure is no +longer effectual, the public interests and my duty will make it +necessary to enforce the laws respecting this matter; and however +disagreeable this would be to me, it must nevertheless take place." + +Meantime the disorders went on, and the officers were insulted and +thwarted in the execution of their duty. Washington's next letter +(September 7) has a touch of anger. He hated disorder and riot +anywhere, but he was disgusted when they came from the very people for +whose defense the Indian war was pushed and the excise made necessary. +He approved of Hamilton's sending out an officer to examine into the +survey, and said: "If, notwithstanding, opposition is still given to +the due execution of the law, I have no hesitation in declaring, if +the evidence of it is clear and unequivocal, that I shall, however +reluctantly I exercise them, exert all the legal powers with which the +executive is invested to check so daring and unwarrantable a spirit. +It is my duty to see the laws executed. To permit them to be trampled +upon with impunity would be repugnant to it; nor can the government +longer remain a passive spectator of the contempt with which they are +treated. Forbearance, under a hope that the inhabitants of that +survey would recover from the delirium and folly into which they +were plunged, seems to have had no other effect than to increase the +disorder." + +A few weeks later he issued a proclamation, declaring formally and +publicly what he had already said in private. He warned the people +engaged in resistance to the law that the law would be enforced, and +exhorted them to desist. The proclamation was effective in the south, +and the opposition died out in North Carolina. Not so in Pennsylvania. +There the Scotch-Irish borderers who lived in the western counties +were bent on having their way. A brave, self-willed, hotheaded, +turbulent people, they were going to have their fight out. They +had ridden rough-shod over the Quaker and German government in +Pennsylvania before this, and they no doubt thought they could do the +same with this new government of the United States. They merely made a +mistake about the man at the head of the government; nothing more than +that. Such mistakes have been made before. The Paris mob, for example, +made a similar blunder on the 13th Vendémiaire, when Bonaparte settled +matters by the famous whiff of grape-shot. There is some excuse for +the error of our Scotch-Irish borderers in their past experience, more +excuse still in the drift of other events that touched all men just +then with the madness of France, and gave birth to certain democratic +societies which applauded any resistance to law, even if the cause was +no nobler than a whiskey still. + +Perhaps, too, the Pennsylvanians were encouraged by the moderation +and deliberate movement of the government. A lull came after the +proclamation of 1792. Then every effort was made to settle the +troubles by civil processes and by personal negotiation, but all +proved vain. The disturbances went on increasing for two years, until +law was at an end in the insurgent counties. The mails were stopped +and robbed, there were violence, bloodshed, rioting, attacks on the +officers of the United States, and meetings threatening still worse +things. + +Meanwhile Washington had waited and watched, and bided his time. He +felt now that the moment had come when, if ever, public opinion must +be with him, and that the hour had arrived when he must put his +fortune to the touch, and "try if it were current gold indeed." On +August 7 he issued a second proclamation, setting forth the outrages +committed, and announcing his power to call out the militia, and his +intention to do so if unconditional submission did not follow at once. +As he wrote to a friend three days later: "Actual rebellion exists +against the laws of the United States." On the crucial point, however, +he felt safe. He was confident that all the public opinion worth +having was now on his side, and that the people were ready to stand by +the government. The quick and unconditional submission did not come, +and on September 25 he issued a third proclamation, reciting the facts +and calling out the militia of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and +Virginia. + +Washington had judged rightly. The States responded, and the troops +came to the number of fifteen thousand, for he was in the habit of +doing things thoroughly, and meant to have an overwhelming force. +To Governor Lee of Virginia the command of the combined forces was +intrusted. "I am perfectly in sentiment with you, that the +business we are drawn out upon should be effectually executed, +and that the daring and factious spirit which threatens to +overturn the laws and to subvert the Constitution ought to be +subdued." Thus he wrote to Morgan, while the commissioners from the +insurgents were politely received, and told that the march of the +troops could not be countermanded. Washington would fain have gone +himself, in command of the army, but he felt that he could not leave +the seat of government for so long a time with propriety. He went as +far as Bedford with the troops, and then parted from them. When he +took leave, he wrote a letter to Lee, to be read to the army, in which +he said: "No citizen of the United States can ever be engaged in a +service more important to their country. It is nothing less than to +consolidate and to preserve the blessings of that revolution which +at much expense of blood and treasure constituted us a free and +independent nation." Thus admonished, the army marched, Hamilton going +with them in characteristic fashion to the end. They did their work +thoroughly. The insurrection disappeared, and resistance dropped +suddenly out of sight. The Scotch-Irish of the border, with all their +love of fighting, found too late that they were dealing with a power +very different from that of their own State. The ringleaders of the +insurrection were arrested and tried by civil process, the disorders +ceased, law reigned once more, and the "hateful tax" was duly paid and +collected. + +The "Whiskey Rebellion" has never received due weight in the history +of the United States. Its story has been told in the utmost detail, +but its details are unimportant. As a fact, however, it is full of +meaning, and this meaning has been too much overlooked. That this +should be so, is not to be wondered at, for everything has conspired +to make it seem, after a century has gone by, both mean and trivial. +Its very name suggests ridicule and contempt, and it collapsed so +utterly that people laughed at it and despised it. Its leaders, with +the exception of Gallatin, were cheap and talkative persons of +little worth, and the cause itself was neither noble, romantic, nor +inspiriting. Nevertheless, it was a dangerous and formidable business, +for it was the first direct challenge to the new government. It was +the first clear utterance of the stern question asked of every people +striving to live as a nation, Have you a right to live? Have you a +government able to fight and to endure? Have you men ready to take up +the challenge? These questions were put by rough frontier settlers, +and put in the name and for the sake of distilling whiskey unvexed by +law. But they were there, they had to be answered, and on the reply +the existence of the government was at stake. If it failed, all was +over. If the States did not respond to this first demand, that they +should put down disorder and dissension within the borders of one of +their number, the experiment had failed. It came, as it almost always +does come, to one man to make the answer. That man took up the +challenge. He did not move too soon. He waited with unerring judgment, +as Lincoln waited with the Proclamation of Emancipation, until he had +gathered public opinion behind him by his firmness and moderation. +Then he struck, and struck so hard that the whole fabric of +insurrection and riot fell helplessly to pieces, and wiseacres looked +on and laughed, and thought it had been but a slight matter after all. +The action of the government vindicated the right of the United States +to live, because they had proved themselves able to keep order. It +showed to the American people that their government was a reality +of force and power. If it had gone wrong, the history of the United +States would not have differed widely from that of the confederation. +No mistake was made, and people regarded the whole thing as an +insignificant incident, and historians treat it as an episode. There +could be no greater tribute to the strong and silent man who did the +work and bore the stress of waiting for nearly five years. He did his +duty so well and so completely that it seems nothing now, and yet the +crushing of that insurrection in the western counties of Pennsylvania +was one of the turning-points in a nation's life. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +FOREIGN RELATIONS + + +Our present relations with foreign nations fill as a rule but a slight +place in American politics, and excite generally only a languid +interest, not nearly so much as their importance deserves. We have +separated ourselves so completely from the affairs of other people +that it is difficult to realize how commanding and disproportionate a +place they occupied when the government was founded. We were then a +new nation, and our attitude toward the rest of the world was wholly +undefined. There was, therefore, among the American people much +anxiety to discover what that attitude would be, for the unknown is +always full of interest. Moreover, Europe was still our neighbor, for +England, France, and Spain were all upon our borders, and had large +territorial interests in the northern half of the New World. Within +fifteen years we had been colonies, and all our politics, except those +which were purely local and provincial, had been the politics of +Europe; for during the eighteenth century we had been drawn into and +had played a part in every European complication, and every European +war in which England had the slightest share. Thus the American people +came to consider themselves a part of the European system, and looked +to Europe for their politics, which was a habit of thought both +natural and congenial to colonists. We ceased to be colonists when +the Treaty of Paris was signed; but treaties, although they settle +boundaries and divide nations, do not change customs and habits of +thought by a few strokes of the pen. The free and independent people +of the United States, as there has already been occasion to point out, +when they set out to govern themselves under their new Constitution, +were still dominated by colonial ideas and prejudices. They felt, +no doubt, that the new system would put them in a more respectable +attitude toward the other nations of the earth. But this was probably +the only definite popular notion on the subject. What our actual +relations with other nations should be, was something wholly vague, +and very varying ideas were entertained about it by communities and +by individuals, according to their various prejudices, opinions, and +interests. + +The one idea, however, that the American people did not have on this +subject was, that they should hold themselves entirely aloof from the +politics of the Old World, and have with other nations outside the +Americas no relations except those born of commerce. It had not +occurred to them that they should march steadily forward on a course +which would drive out European governments, and sever the connections +of those governments with the North American continent. After a +century's familiarity, this policy looks so simple and obvious that +it is difficult to believe that our forefathers could even have +considered any other seriously; but in 1789 it was so strange that no +one dreamed of it, except perhaps a few thinkers speculating on the +future of the infant nation. It was something so novel that when +it was propounded it struck the people like a sudden shock of +electricity. It was so broad, so national, so thoroughly American, +that men still struggling in the fetters of colonial thought could not +comprehend it. But there was one man to whom it was neither strange +nor speculative. To Washington it was not a vague idea, but a +well-defined system, which he had been long maturing in his mind. + +Before he had been chosen President, he wrote to Sir Edward Newenham: +"I hope the United States of America will be able to keep disengaged +from the labyrinth of European politics and wars; and that before long +they will, by the adoption of a good national government, have become +respectable in the eyes of the world, so that none of the maritime +powers, especially none of those who hold possessions in the New +World or the West Indies, shall presume to treat them with insult or +contempt. It should be the policy of the United States to administer +to their wants without being engaged in their quarrels. And it is +not in the power of the proudest and most polite people on earth to +prevent us from becoming a great, a respectable, and a commercial +nation if we shall continue united and faithful to ourselves." This +plain statement shows his fixed belief that in an absolute breaking +with the political affairs of other peoples lay the most important +part of the work which was to make us a nation in spirit and in truth. +He carried this belief with him when he took up the Presidency, and it +was the chief burden of the last words of counsel which he gave to his +countrymen when he retired to private life. To have begun and carried +on to a firm establishment this policy of a separation from Europe +would have required time, skill, and patience even under the calmest +and most favorable conditions. But it was the fate of the new +government to be born just on the eve of the French Revolution. The +United States were at once caught up and tossed by the waves of that +terrific storm, and it was in the midst of that awful hurly-burly, +when the misdeeds of centuries of wrong-doing were brought to an +account, that Washington opened and developed his foreign policy. It +was a great task, and the manner of its performance deserves much and +serious consideration. + +His first act in foreign affairs, on entering the Presidency, was to +make the minister of France understand that the government of the +United States was to be treated with due formality and respect. +His second was to examine the whole mass of foreign correspondence +collected in the State Department of the confederation, and he did +this, as has been said, pencil in hand, making notes and abstracts as +he went. It was well worth doing, for he learned much, and from this +laborious study and thorough knowledge certain facts became apparent, +for the most part of a hard and unpleasant nature. First, he saw that +England, taking advantage of our failure to fulfill completely our +obligations under the treaty, had openly violated hers, and continued +to hold the fortified posts along the northwestern and western +borders. Here was a dangerous thorn which pricked sharply, for the +posts in British hands offered constant temptations to Indian risings, +and threatened war both with the savages and with Great Britain. +Further west still, Spain held the Mississippi, closed navigation, +and intrigued to separate our western settlers from the Union. No +immediate danger lay here, but still peril and need of close watching, +for the Mississippi was never to slip out of our power. The mighty +river and the great region through which it flows were important +features in that empire which Washington foresaw. His plan was that we +should get them by binding the settlers beyond the Alleghanies to the +old States with roads, canals, and trade, and then trust to those +hardy pioneers to keep the river and its valley for themselves and +their country. All that was needed for this were time, and vigilant +firmness with Spain. + +Beyond the sea were the West India Islands, the home of a commerce +long carried on by the colonies and of much profit to them, especially +to those of New England. This trade was now hampered by England, and +was soon to be still further blocked, and thereby become the cause of +much bickering and ill-will. + +Across the ocean we maintained with the Barbary States the relations +usual between brigands and victims, and we tried to make treaties with +them, and really paid tribute to them, as was the fashion in dealing +with those pirates at that period. With Holland, Sweden, and Prussia +we had commercial treaties, and the Dutch sent a minister to the +United States. With France alone were our relations close. She had +been our ally, and we had formed with her a treaty of alliance and a +treaty of commerce, as well as a consular convention, which we were at +this time engaged in revising. To most of the nations of the world, +however, we were simply an unknown quantity, an unconsidered trifle. +The only people who really knew anything about us were the English, +with whom we had fought, and from whom we had separated; the French, +who had helped us to win our independence; and the Dutch, from whom +we had borrowed money. Even these nations, with so many reasons for +intelligent and profitable interest in the new republic, failed, not +unnaturally, to see the possibilities shut up in the wild American +continent. + +To the young nation just starting thus unnoticed and unheeded, +Washington believed that honorable peace was essential, if a firm +establishment of the new government, and of a respectable and +respected position in the eyes of the world, was ever to be attained; +and it was toward England, therefore, as the source of most probable +trouble, that Washington turned to begin his foreign policy. The +return of John Adams had left us without a minister at London, +and England had sent no representative to the United States. The +President, therefore, authorized Gouverneur Morris, who was going +abroad on private business, to sound the English government informally +as to an exchange of ministers, the complete execution of the treaty +of peace, and the negotiation of a commercial treaty. The mission was +one of inquiry, and was born of good and generous feelings as well as +of broad and wise views of public policy. "It is in my opinion very +important," he wrote to Morris, "that we avoid errors in our system of +policy respecting Great Britain; and this can only be done by forming +a right judgment of their disposition and views." + +What was the response to these fair and sensible suggestions? On the +first point the assent was ready enough; but on the other two, which +looked to the carrying out of the treaty and the making of a treaty of +commerce, there was no satisfaction. Morris, who was as high-spirited +as he was able, was irritated by the indifference and hardly concealed +insolence shown to him and his business. It was the fit beginning of +the conduct by which England for nearly a century has succeeded in +alienating the good-will of the people of the United States. Such a +policy was neither generous nor intelligent, and politically +it was a gross blunder. Washington, however, was too great +a man to be disturbed by the bad temper and narrow ideas +of English ministers. After his fashion he persevered in +what he knew to be right and for his country's interest, and in due +time a diplomatic representation was established, while later still, +in the midst of difficulties of which he little dreamed at the outset, +he carried through a treaty that removed the existing grievances. In a +word, he kept the peace, and it lasted long enough to give the United +States the breathing space they so much needed at the beginning of +their history. + +The greatest perils in our foreign relations came, as it happened, +from another quarter, where peace seemed most secure, and where no man +looked for trouble. The government of the United States and the French +revolution began almost together, and it is one of the strangest facts +of history that the nation which helped so powerfully to give freedom +to America brought the results of that freedom into the gravest peril +by its own struggle for liberty. When the great movement in France +began, it was hailed in this country with general applause, and with a +sympathy as hearty as it was genuine, for every one felt that France +was now to gain all the blessings of free government with which +America was familiar. Our glorious example, it was clear, was destined +to change the world, and monarchies and despotisms were to disappear. +There was to be a new political birth for all the nations, and the +reign of peace and good-will was to come at once upon the earth at +the hands of liberated peoples freely governing themselves. It was a +natural delusion, and a kindly one. History, in the modern sense, was +still unwritten, and men did not then understand that the force and +character of a revolution are determined by the duration and intensity +of the tyranny and misgovernment which have preceded and caused it. +The vast benefit destined to flow from the French revolution was to +come many years after all those who saw it begin were in their graves, +but at the moment it was expected to arrive immediately, and in a form +widely different from that which, in the slow process of time, it +ultimately assumed. Moreover, Americans did not realize that the +well-ordered liberty of the English-speaking race was something +unknown and inconceivable to the French. + +There were a few Americans who were never deceived for a moment, even +by their hopes. Hamilton, who "divined Europe," as Talleyrand said, +and Gouverneur Morris, studying the situation on the spot with keen +and practical observation, soon apprehended the truth, while others +more or less quickly followed in their wake. But Washington, whom no +one ever credited with divination, and who never crossed the Atlantic, +saw the realities of the thing sooner, and looked more deeply into the +future than anybody else. No man lived more loyal than he, or more +true to the duties of gratitude; but he looked upon the world of facts +with vision never dimmed nor dazzled, and watched in silence, while +others slept and dreamed. Let us follow his letters for a moment. In +October, 1789, in the first flush of hope and sympathy, he wrote to +Morris: "The revolution which has been effected in France is of so +wonderful a nature that the mind can hardly realize the fact. If it +ends as our last accounts to the first of August predict, that nation +will be the most powerful and happy in Europe; but I fear though it +has gone triumphantly through the first paroxysm, it is not the last +it has to encounter before matters are finally settled. In a word, +the revolution is of too great magnitude to be effected in so short +a space, and with the loss of so little blood.... To forbear running +from one extreme to another is no easy matter; and should this be the +case, rocks and shelves, not visible at present, may wreck the vessel, +and give a higher-toned despotism than the one which existed before." + +Seven years afterwards, reviewing his opinions in respect to France, +he wrote to Pickering: "My conduct in public and private life, as it +relates to the important struggle in which the latter is engaged, has +been uniform from the commencement of it, and may be summed up in a +few words: that I have always wished well to the French revolution; +that I have always given it as my decided opinion that no nation had a +right to intermeddle in the internal concerns of another; that every +one had a right to form and adopt whatever government they liked best +to live under themselves; and that if this country could, consistently +with its engagements, maintain a strict neutrality and thereby +preserve peace, it was bound to do so by motives of policy, interest, +and every other consideration that ought to actuate a people situated +as we are, already deeply in debt, and in a convalescent state from +the struggle we have been engaged in ourselves." + +Thus prepared, Washington waited and saw his cautious predictions +verified, and the revolution rush headlong from one extreme to +another. He also saw the flames spread beyond the borders of France, +changing and dividing public opinion everywhere; and he knew it was +only a question of time how soon the new nation, at whose head he +stood, would be affected. Histories and biographies which treat of +that period, as a rule convey the idea that the foreign policy of our +first administration dealt with the complications that arose as they +came upon us. Nothing could be further from the truth, for the general +policy was matured at the outset, as has been seen in the letter to +Newenham, and the occasions for its application were sure to come +sooner or later, in one form or another. Washington was not surprised +by the presence of the perils that he feared, and danger only made +him more set on carrying out the policy upon which he had long since +determined. In July, 1791, he wrote to Morris: "I trust we shall never +so far lose sight of our own interest and happiness as to become +unnecessarily a party to these political disputes. Our local situation +enables us to maintain that state with respect to them which otherwise +could not, perhaps, be preserved by human wisdom." He followed this up +with a strong and concise argument as to the advantage and necessity +of this policy, showing a complete grasp of the subject, which came +from long and patient thought. + +All his firmness and knowledge were needed, for the position was most +trying. With every ship that brought news of the extraordinary doings +in Europe, the applause which greeted the early uprisings of Paris +grew less general. The wise, the prudent, the conservative, cooled +gradually at first, and then more quickly in their admiration of the +French; but in the beginning, this deepening and increasing hostility +to the revolution kept silence. It was popular to be the friend of +France, and highly unpopular to be anything else. But when excesses +multiplied and blood flowed, when religion tottered and the +foundations of society were shaken, this silence was broken. +Discussion took the place of harmonious congratulation, and it soon +became apparent that there was to be a sharp and bitter division of +public opinion, growing out of the affairs of France. It was necessary +for the government to maintain a friendly yet cautious attitude toward +our former ally, and not endanger the stability of the Union and the +dignity of the country by giving to the French sympathizers any good +ground for accusing them of ingratitude, or of lukewarmness toward +the cause of human rights. That a time would soon come when decisive +action must be taken, Washington saw plainly enough; and when that +moment arrived, the risk of fierce party divisions on a question of +foreign politics could not be avoided. Meantime domestic bitterness on +these matters was to be repressed and delayed, and yet in so doing +no step was to be taken which would involve the country in any +inconsistency, or compel a change of position when the crisis was +actually reached. The policy of separating the United States from all +foreign politics is usually dated from what is called the neutrality +proclamation; but the theory, as has been pointed out, was clear and +well defined in Washington's mind when he entered upon the presidency. +The outlines were marked out and pursued in practice long before the +outbreak of war between France and England put his system to the +touch. In everything he said or wrote, whether in public or private, +his tone toward France was so friendly that her most zealous supporter +could not take offense, and at the same time it was so absolutely +guarded that the country was committed to nothing which could hamper +it in the future. The course of the administration as a whole, and its +substantive acts as well, were in harmony with the tone of expression +used by the President; for Washington, it may be repeated, was the +head of his own administration, a fact which the biographers of the +very able men who surrounded him are too prone to overlook. In this +case he was not only the leader, but the work was peculiarly his own, +and a few extracts from his letters will show the completeness of his +policy and the firmness with which he followed it whenever occasion +came. + +To Lafayette he wrote in July, 1791, a letter full of sympathy, but +with an undertone of warning none the less significant because it was +veiled. Coming to a point where there was an intimation of trouble +between the two countries, he said: "The decrees of the National +Assembly respecting our tobacco and oil do not appear to be very +pleasing to the people of this country; but I do not presume that any +hasty measures will be adopted in consequence thereof; for we have +never entertained a doubt of the friendly disposition of the French +nation toward us, and are therefore persuaded that, if they have done +anything which seems to bear hard upon us at a time when the Assembly +must have been occupied in very important matters, and which, perhaps, +would not allow time for a due consideration of the subject, they will +in the moment of calm deliberation alter it and do what is right." + +[Illustration: LAFAYETTE] + +The unfriendly act was noted, so that Lafayette would understand that +no tame submission was intended, and yet no resentment was expressed. +The same tone can be noticed in a widely different direction. +Washington foresaw that the troubles in France, sooner or later, would +involve her in war with England. The United States, as the former +allies of the French, were certain to attract the attention of the +mother country, and so he watched on that side also with equal +caution. England, if possible, was to be made to understand that the +American policy was not dictated by anything but the interests and the +dignity of the United States, and their resolve to hold aloof from +European complications. In June, 1792, he wrote to Morris: "One thing, +however, I must not pass over in silence, lest you should infer from +it that Mr. D. had authority for reporting that the United States had +asked the mediation of Great Britain to bring about a peace between +them and the Indians. You may be fully assured, sir, that such +mediation never was asked, that the asking of it never was in +contemplation, and I think I might go further and say that it not only +never will be asked, but would be rejected if offered. The United +States will never have occasion, I hope, to ask for the interposition +of that power, or any other, to establish peace within their own +territory." + +Here is again the same note, always so true and clear, that the United +States are not colonies but an independent nation. So far as it was in +the power of the President, this was something which should be heard +by all men, even at the risk of much reiteration. It was a fact not +understood at home and not recognized abroad, but Washington proposed +to insist upon it so far as in him lay, until it was both understood +and admitted. + +Meantime the flames were ever spreading from Paris, consuming and +threatening to consume the heaped up rubbish of centuries, and also +burning up many other more valuable things, as is the way with great +fires when they get beyond control. Many persons were interested in +the things of worth now threatened with destruction, and many others +in the rubbish and the tyrannous abuses. It was clear that war of a +wide and far-reaching kind could not be long put off. In March, 1793, +Washington wrote: "All our late accounts from Europe hold up the +expectation of a general war in that quarter. For the sake of +humanity, I hope such an event will not take place. But if it should, +I trust that we shall have too just a sense of our own interest to +originate any cause that may involve us in it." + +Even while he wrote, the general war that he anticipated, the war +between France and England, had come. The news reached him at Mount +Vernon, and in the letter to Jefferson announcing his immediate +departure for Philadelphia he said: "War having actually commenced +between France and Great Britain, it behooves the government of this +country to use every means in its power to prevent the citizens +thereof from embroiling us with either of those powers, by endeavoring +to maintain a strict neutrality. I therefore require that you will +give the subject mature consideration, that such measures as shall be +deemed most likely to effect this desirable purpose may be adopted +without delay." These instructions were written on April 12, and on +the 18th Washington was in Philadelphia, and had sent out a series +of questions to be considered by his cabinet and answered on the +following day. After much discussion, it was unanimously agreed +to issue a proclamation of neutrality, to receive the new French +minister, and not to convene Congress in extra session. The remaining +questions were put over for further consideration. + +Hamilton framed the questions, say the historians; Randolph drafted +the proclamation, says his biographer, in a very instructive and fresh +discussion of the relations between the Secretary of State and the +Attorney-General. It is interesting to know what share the President's +advisers took when he consulted them on this momentous question, but +the leading idea was his own. When the moment came, the policy long +meditated and matured was put in force. The world was told that a new +power had come into being, which meant to hold aloof from Europe, +and which took no interest in the balance of power or the fate of +dynasties, but looked only to the welfare of its own people and to the +conquest and mastery of a continent as its allotted tasks. The policy +declared by the proclamation was purely American in its conception, +and severed the colonial tradition at a stroke. In the din then +prevailing among civilized men, it was but little heeded, and even at +home it was almost totally misunderstood; yet nevertheless it did +its work. For twenty-five years afterward the American people slowly +advanced toward the ground then taken, until the ideas of the +neutrality proclamation received their final acceptance and extension +at the hands of the younger Adams, in the promulgation of the Monroe +doctrine. The shaping of this policy which was then launched was +a great work of far-sighted and native statesmanship, and it was +preëminently the work of the President himself. + +Moreover, it did not stop here. A circular to the officers of the +customs provided for securing notice of infractions of the law, and +the task of enforcing the principles laid down in the proclamation +began. As it happened, the theory of neutrality was destined at once +to receive rude tests of its soundness in practice. The new French +minister was landing on our shores, and beginning his brief career in +this country, while the proclamation was going from town to town and +telling the people, in sharp and unaccustomed tones, that they were +Americans and not colonists, and must govern themselves accordingly. + +Everything, in fact, seemed to conspire to make the path of the new +policy rough and thorny. In the excitement of the time a large portion +of the population regarded it as a party measure aimed against our +beloved allies, while, to make the situation worse, France on one +side and England on the other proceeded, as if deliberately, to do +everything in their power to render neutrality impossible, and to +drive us into war with some one. + +The new minister, Genet, could not have been better chosen, if the +special errand for which he had been employed had been to make +trouble. Light-headed and vain, with but little ability and a vast +store of unintelligent zeal, the whirl of the French revolution flung +him on our shores, where he had a glorious chance for mischief. This +opportunity he at once seized. As soon as he landed he proceeded to +arm privateers at Charleston. Thence he took his way north, and the +enthusiastic popular acclaim which everywhere greeted his arrival +almost crazed him, and drew forth a series of high-flown and most +injudicious speeches. By the time he reached Philadelphia, and before +he had presented his credentials, he had induced enough violations of +neutrality, and sown the seeds of enough trouble, to embarrass our +government for months to come. + +Washington had written to Governor Lee on May 6: "I foresaw in the +moment information of that event (the war) came to me, the necessity +for announcing the disposition of this country towards the belligerent +powers, and the propriety of restraining, as far as a proclamation +would do it, our citizens from taking part in that contest.... The +affairs of France would seem to me to be in the highest paroxysm of +disorder; not so much from the presence of foreign enemies, for in +the cause of liberty this ought to be fuel to the fire of a patriot +soldier and to increase his ardor, but because those in whose hands +the government is intrusted are ready to tear each other to pieces, +and will more than probably prove the worst foes the country has." + +He easily foresaw the moment of trial, when he would be forced to +the declaration of his policy, which was so momentous for the United +States, and he also understood the condition of affairs at Paris, and +the probable tendencies and proximate results of the Revolution. It +was evident that the great social convulsion had brought forth men of +genius and force, and had maddened them with the lust of blood and +power. But it was less easy to foresee, what was equally natural, that +the revolution would also throw to the surface men who had neither +genius nor force, but who were as wild and dangerous as their betters. +No one, surely, could have been prepared to meet in the person of the +minister of a great nation such a feather-headed mischief-maker as +Genet. + +In everything relating to France Washington had observed the utmost +caution, and his friendliness had been all the more marked because he +had felt obliged to be guarded. He had exercised this care even in +personal matters, and had refrained, so far as possible, from seeing +the _émigrés_ who had begun to come to this country. Such men as the +Vicomte de Noailles had been referred to the State Department, and in +many cases the maintenance of this attitude had tried his feelings +severely, for the exiles were not infrequently men who had fought or +sympathized with us in our day of conflict. Now came the new minister +of the republic, a being apparently devoid of training or manners. +Before he had been received, or had appeared at the seat of +government, before he had even taken possession of his predecessor's +papers, he had behaved in a way which would not have been +inappropriate to a Roman governor of a conquered province. He had +ordered the French consuls to act as admiralty courts, he had armed +cruisers, enlisted and commissioned American citizens, and had seen +the vessels of a power with which the United States were at peace +captured in American waters, and condemned in the States by French +consular courts. Three weeks before Genet's audience Jefferson had a +memorial from the British minister, justly complaining of the injuries +done his country under cover of our flag; and while the government was +considering this pleasant incident, Genet was faring gayly northward, +fêted and caressed, cheered and applauded, the subject of ovations +and receptions everywhere. At Philadelphia he was received by a +great concourse of citizens, called together by the guns of the very +privateer that had violated our neutrality, and led by provincial +persons, who thought it fine to name themselves "citizen" Smith and +"citizen" Brown, because that particular folly was the fashion in +France. A day was passed in receiving addresses, and then Genet was +presented to the President. + +A stranger contrast could not easily have been found even in that +strange time, and two men more utterly unlike probably never faced +each other as representatives of two great nations. In the difference +between them the philosopher may find, perhaps, some explanation of +the difference in the character and results of the revolutions which +came so near together in the two countries. Nothing, moreover, could +well be conceived more distasteful to Washington than the Frenchman's +conduct except the Frenchman himself. There was about the man and his +performances everything most calculated to bring one of those gusts of +passionate contempt which now and again had made things unpleasant +for some one who had failed in sense, decency, and duty. This was +impossible to a President, but nevertheless his self-restraint from +the beginning to the end of his intercourse with Genet was very +remarkable in a man of his temperament. At their first interview his +demeanor may have been a little colder than usual, and the dignified +reserve somewhat more marked, but there was no trace of any feeling. +His manner, nevertheless, chilled Genet and came upon him like a +cold bath after the warm atmosphere of popular plaudits and turgid +addresses. He went away grumbling, and complained that he had seen +medallions of the Capets on the walls of the President's room. + +But although Washington was calm and polite, he was also watchful and +prepared, as he had good reason to be, for Genet immediately began, +in addition to his wild public utterances, to pour in notes upon the +State Department. He demanded money; he announced in florid style the +opening of the French ports; he wrote that he was ready to make a +new treaty; and finally he filed an answer to the complaints of the +British minister. His arguments were wretched, but they seemed to +weigh with Jefferson, although not with the President; and meantime +the dragon's teeth which he had plentifully sown began to come up and +bear an abundant harvest. More prizes were made by his cruisers, and +after many remonstrances one was ordered away, and two Americans whom +Genet had enlisted were indicted. Genet declared that this was an act +which his pen almost refused to state; but still it was done, and the +administration pushed on and ordered the seizure of privateers fitting +in American ports. Governor Clinton made a good beginning with one at +New York, and in hot haste Genet wrote another note more furious and +impertinent than any he had yet sent. He was answered civilly, and the +work of stopping the sale of prizes went on. + +Meantime the opposition were not idle. The French sympathizers +bestirred themselves, and attacks began to be made even on the +President himself. The popular noise and clamor were all against the +administration, but the support of it was really growing stronger, +although the President and his secretaries could not see it. +Jefferson, on whom the conduct of foreign affairs rested, was uneasy +and wavering. He wrote able letters, as he was directed, but held, it +is to be feared, quite different language in his conversations with +Genet. Randolph argued and hesitated, while Hamilton, backed by Knox, +was filled with wrath and wished more decisive measures. Still, as we +look at it now across a century, we can observe that the policy went +calmly forward, consistent and unchecked. The French minister was held +back, privateers were stopped, the English minister's complaints were +answered, every effort was made for exact justice, and neutrality was +preserved. It was hard and trying work, especially to a man of strong +temper and fighting propensities. Still it was done, and toward the +end of June Washington went for a little rest to Mount Vernon. + +Then came a sudden explosion. One July morning the rumor ran through +Philadelphia that the Little Sarah, a prize of the French man-of-war, +was fitting out as a privateer. The reaction in favor of the +administration was beginning, and men, indignant at the proceeding, +carried the news to Governor Mifflin, and also to the Secretary +of State. Great disturbance of mind thereupon ensued to these two +gentlemen, who were both much interested in France and the rights of +man. The brig would not sail before the arrival of the President, said +the Secretary of State. Still the arming went on apace, and then came +movements on the part of the governor. Dallas, Secretary of State for +Pennsylvania, went at midnight to expostulate with Genet, who burst +into a passion, and declared that the vessel should sail. This +defiance roused the governor, and a company of militia marched to +the vessel and took possession. Greatly excited, Jefferson went next +morning to Genet, who very honestly declined to promise to detain the +vessel, but said that she would not be ready to sail until Wednesday. +This announcement, which was distinctly not a promise, the Secretary +of State chose to accept as such, and as he was very far from being +a fool, he did so either from timidity, or from a very unworthy +political preference for another nation's interests to the dignity of +his own country. At all events, he had the troops withdrawn, and the +Little Sarah, now rejoicing in the name of the Petit Democrat, +dropped down to Chester. Hamilton and Knox, being neither afraid nor +un-American, were for putting a battery on Mud Island and sinking +the privateer if she attempted to go by. Great saving of trouble and +bloodshed would have been accomplished by the setting up of this +battery and the sinking of this vessel, for it would have informed the +world that though the United States were weak and young, they were +ready nevertheless to fight as a nation, a fact which we subsequently +were obliged to prove by a three years' war. + +Jefferson, however, opposed decisive measures, and while the cabinet +wrangled, Washington, hurrying back from Mount Vernon, reached +Philadelphia. He was full of just anger at what had been done and left +undone. Jefferson, feeling uneasy, had gone to the country, where he +was fond of making a retreat at unpleasant moments, and Washington at +once wrote him a letter, which could not have been very agreeable +to the discoverer of diplomatic promises in a refusal to give any. +"What," said the President, "is to be done in the case of the Little +Sarah, now at Chester? Is the minister of the French Republic to set +the acts of this government at defiance _with impunity_? and then +threaten the executive with an appeal to the people? What must the +world think of such conduct, and of the government of the United +States in submitting to it?" Then came a demand for an immediate +opinion. + +To the tender feelings of the Secretary of State, who had not been +considering the affair from an American standpoint, this must have +seemed a violent and almost a coarse way of treating the "great +republic," and he replied that the French minister had assured him +that the vessel would not sail until the President reached a decision. +Having got the vessel to Chester, however, by telling the truth, Genet +now changed his tack. He lied about detaining her, and she went to +sea. This performance filled the cup of Washington's disgust almost to +overflowing, for he had what Jefferson seems to have totally lost at +this juncture--a keen national feeling, and it was touched to the +quick. The truth was, that in all this business Jefferson was thinking +too much of France and of the cause of human liberty in Paris, while +Washington thought of the United States alone. The result was +the escape of the vessel, owing to Washington's absence, and the +consequent humiliation to the government. To refrain from ordering +Genet out of the country at once required a strong effort of +self-control; but he wished to keep the peace as long as possible, and +he proposed to get rid of him speedily but decorously. He resolved +also that no more such outrages should be committed through his +absence, and the consequent differences among his advisers. He +continued, of course, to consult his cabinet, but he took the +immediate control, more definitely even than before, into his own +hands. On July 25 he wrote to Jefferson, whose vigor at this critical +time he evidently doubted: "As the letter of the minister of the +Republic of France, dated the 22d of June, lies yet unanswered, and +as the official conduct of that gentleman, relative to the affairs of +this government, will have to undergo a very serious consideration, +... in order to decide upon measures proper to be taken thereupon, it +is my desire that all the letters to and from that minister may +be ready to be laid before me, the heads of departments, and the +attorney-general, whom I shall advise with on the occasion." He also +saw to it that better precautions should be taken by the officers of +the customs to prevent similar attempts to break neutrality, and set +the administration and the laws of the country at defiance. + +The cabinet consultations soon bore good fruit, and Genet's recall +was determined on during the first days of August. There was some +discussion over the manner of requesting the recall, but the terms +were made gentle by Jefferson, to the disgust of the Secretary of the +Treasury and the Secretary of War, who desired direct methods and +stronger language. As finally toned up and agreed upon by the +President and cabinet, the document was sufficiently vigorous to annoy +Genet, and led to bitter reproaches addressed to his friend in the +State Department. Then there was question about publishing the +correspondence, and again Jefferson intervened in behalf of mildness. +The substantive fact, however, was settled, and the letter asking +Genet's recall, as desired by Washington, went in due time, and in the +following February came a successor. Genet, however, did not go back +to his native land, for he preferred to remain here and save his head, +valueless as that article would seem to have been. He spent the rest +of his days in America, married, harmless, and quite obscure. His +noise and fireworks were soon over, and one wonders now how he could +ever have made as much flare and explosion as he did. + +But even while his recall was being decided, before he knew of it +himself, and long before his successor came, Genet's folly produced +more trouble than ever, and his insolence rose to a higher pitch. The +arming of privateers had been checked, but the consuls continued to +arrogate powers which no self-respecting nation could permit, and for +some gross offense Washington revoked the _exequatur_ of Duplaine, +consul at Boston. An insolent note from Genet thereupon declared that +the President had overstepped his authority, and that he should appeal +to the sovereign State of Massachusetts. Next there was riot and the +attempted murder of a man from St. Domingo who was accused by the +refugees. Then it began to get abroad that Genet had threatened to +appeal from the President to the people, and frantic denials ensued +from all the opposition press; whereupon a card appeared from John Jay +and Rufus King, which stated that they were authority for the story +and believed it. Apologies now took the place of denial, and were +backed by ferocious attacks on the signers of the card. Unluckily, +intelligent people seemed to put faith in Jay and King rather than in +the opposition newspapers, and the tide, which had turned some time +before, now ran faster every moment against the French. To make it +flow with overwhelming force and rapidity was reserved for Genet +himself, who was furious at the Jay card, and wrote to the President, +demanding a denial of the statement which it contained. A cool note +informed him that the President did not consider it proper or material +to make denials, and pointed out to him that he must address his +communications to the State Department. This correspondence was +published, and the mass of the people were at last aroused, and turned +from Genet in disgust. The leaders tried vainly to separate the +minister from his country, and Genet himself frothed and foamed, +demanded that Randolph should sue Jay and King for libel, and declared +that America was no longer free. This sad statement had little effect. +Washington had triumphed completely, and without haste but with +perfect firmness had brought the people round to his side as that of +the national dignity and honor. + +The victory had been won at no little cost to Washington himself in +the way of self-control. He had been irritated and angered at every +step, so much so that he even referred in a letter to Richard Henry +Lee to the trial of temper to which he had been put, a bit of personal +allusion in which he rarely indulged. "The specimens you have seen," +he wrote, "of Mr. Genet's sentiments and conduct in the gazettes form +a small part only of the aggregate. But you can judge from them to +what test the temper of the executive has been put in its various +transactions with this gentleman. It is probable that the whole will +be exhibited to public view in the course of the next session of +Congress. Delicacy towards his nation has restrained the doing of +it hitherto. The best that can be said of this agent is, that he is +entirely unfit for the mission on which he is employed; unless (which +I hope is not the case), contrary to the express and unequivocal +declaration of his country made through himself, it is meant to +involve ours in all the horrors of a European war." + +But there was another side to the neutrality question even more full +of difficulties and unpopularity, which began to open just as the +worst of the contests with Genet was being brought to a successful +close. Genet had not confined his efforts to the seaboard, nor been +content with civic banquets, privateers, rioting, and insolent notes +to the government. He had fitted out ships, and he intended also to +levy armies. With this end in view he had sent his agents through the +south and west to raise men in order to invade the Floridas on the +one hand and seize New Orleans on the other. To conceive of such a +performance by a foreign minister on the soil of the United States, +requires an effort of the imagination to-day almost equal to that +which would be necessary for an acceptance of the reality of the +Arabian nights. It brings home with startling clearness not merely the +crazy insolence of Genet, but a painful sense of the manner in which +we were regarded by the nations of Europe. Still worse is the fact +that they had good reason for their view. The imbecility of the +confederation had bred contempt, and it was now seen that we were +still so wholly provincial that a large part of the people was not +only ready to condone but even to defend the conduct of the minister +who engaged in such work. Worst of all, the people among whom the +French agents went received their propositions with much pleasure. In +South Carolina, where it was said five thousand men had been enlisted, +there was sufficient self-respect to stop the precious scheme. The +assembly arrested certain persons and ordered an inquiry, which +came to nothing; but the effect of their action was sufficient. In +Kentucky, on the other hand, the authorities would not interfere. The +people there were always quite ready for a march against New Orleans, +and that it did not proceed was due to Genet's inability to get money; +for the governor declined to meddle, and the democratic society of +Lexington demanded war. Matters looked so serious that the cavalry was +sent to Kentucky, and the rest of the army wintered in Ohio. It was +actually necessary to teach the American people by the presence of the +troops of the United States that they must not enroll themselves in +the army of a foreign minister. + +Nothing can show more strikingly than this the almost inconceivable +difficulties with which the President was contending. To develop a +policy of wise and dignified neutrality, and to impress it upon the +world, was a great enough task in itself. But Washington was obliged +to impress it also upon his own people, and to teach them that they +must have a policy of their own toward other nations. He had to carry +this through in the teeth of an opposition so utterly colonial that +it could not grasp the idea of having any policy but that which, from +sympathy or hate, they took from foreigners. Beyond the mountains, he +had to bring this home to men to whom American nationality was such a +dead letter that they were willing to defy their own government, +throw off their allegiance, and enlist for an offensive war under the +banners of a crazy French Girondist. It is neither easy nor pleasant +to carry out a new foreign policy in time of general war, with one's +own people united in its support; but when the foreign divisions are +repeated at home, the task is enhanced in difficulty a thousand-fold. +Nevertheless, there was the work to do, and the President faced it. He +dealt with Genet, he prevailed in public opinion on the seaboard, and +in some fashion he maintained order west of the mountains. + +Washington also saw, as we can see now very plainly, that, wrong and +unpatriotic as the Kentucky attitude was, there was still an excuse +for it. Those bold pioneers, to whom the country owes so much, had +very substantial grievances. They knew nothing of the laws of nations, +and did not yet realize that they had a country and a nationality; but +they had the instincts of all great conquering races. They looked upon +the Mississippi and felt that it was of right theirs, and that it must +belong to the vast empire which they were winning from the wilderness. +They saw the mighty river held and controlled by Spaniards, and they +were harassed and interfered with by Spanish officials, whom they both +hated and despised. To men of their mould and training there was but +one solution conceivable. They must fight the Spaniard, and drive him +from the land forever. Their purposes were quite right, but their +methods were faulty. Washington, born to a life of adventure and +backwoods conquest, had a good deal of real sympathy with these men, +for he knew them to be in the main right, and his ultimate purposes +were the same as theirs. But he had a nation in his charge to whom +peace was precious. To have the backwoodsmen of Kentucky go down the +river and harry the Spaniards out of the country, as their descendants +afterwards harried the Mexicans out of Texas, would have been a +refreshing sight, but it would have interfered sadly with the nation +which was rising on the Atlantic seaboard, and of which Kentucky was a +part. War was to be avoided, and above all a war into which we should +have been dragged as the vassal of France; so Washington intended to +wait, and he managed to make the Kentuckians wait too, a process by no +means agreeable to that enterprising people. + +His own policy about the Mississippi, which has already been +described, never wavered. He meant to have the great river, for his +ideas of the empire of the future were quite as extended as those of +the pioneers, and much more definite, but his way of getting it was +to build up the Atlantic States and bind them, with their established +resources, to the settlers over the mountains. This done, time would +do the rest; and the sequel showed that he was right. A little more +than a year after he came to the presidency he wrote to Lafayette: +"Gradually recovering from the distresses in which the war left us, +patiently advancing in our task of civil government, unentangled in +the crooked politics of Europe, _wanting scarcely anything but the +free navigation of the Mississippi, which we must have, and as +certainly shall have, if we remain a nation_,"[1] etc. + +[Footnote 1: The italics are mine.] + +Time and peace, sufficient for the up-building of the nation, that is +the theme everywhere. Yet he knew that a sacrifice of everything for +peace was the surest road both to war and ruin. Peace must be kept; +yet war was still the last resort, and he was ready to go to war with +the Spaniards, as with the Indians, if all else failed. But he did +not mean to have all else fail, nor did he mean to submit to Spanish +insolence and exactions. The grievances of the pioneers of the West +were to be removed, if possible, by treaty, and if that way was +impossible, then by fighting. + +Carmichael, who had been minister at Madrid under the confederation, +had been continued there by the new government. But while the +intrigues of Spain to detach Kentucky, and the interference and +exactions of Spanish officials, went on, our negotiation for the +settlement of our rights to the navigation of the Mississippi halted. +Tired of this inaction, Washington, late in 1791, united William +Short, our minister to Holland, in a commission with Carmichael, to +open a fresh and special negotiation as to the Mississippi, and at +the same time a confidential agent was sent to Florida to seek some +arrangements with the governor as to fugitive slaves, a matter of +burning interest to the planters on the border. The joint commission +bore no fruit, and the troubles in the West increased. Fostered by +Genet, they came near bringing on war and detaching the western +settlements from the Union, so that it was clearly necessary to take +more vigorous measures. + +Accordingly, in 1794, after Genet had been dismissed, Washington sent +Thomas Pinckney, who for some years had been minister in London, on +a special treaty-making mission to Madrid. The first results were +vexatious and unpromising enough, and Pinckney wrote at the outset +that he had had two interviews with the Duke de Alcudia, but to no +purpose. It was the old game of delay, he said, with inquiries as to +why we had not replied to propositions, which in fact never had been +made. Even what Pinckney wrote, unsatisfactory as it was, could not be +wholly made out, for some passages were in a cipher to which the State +Department had no key. Washington wrote to Pickering, then acting as +Secretary of State: "A kind of fatality seems to have pursued this +negotiation, and, in short, all our concerns with Spain, from the +appointment of Mr. Carmichael, under the new government, as minister +to that country, to the present day.... Enough, however, appears +already to show the temper and policy of the Spanish court, and its +undignified conduct as it respects themselves, and insulting as it +relates to us; and I fear it will prove that the late treaty of peace +with France portends nothing favorable to these United States." +Washington's patience had been sorely tried by the delays and shifty +evasions of Spain, but he was now on the brink of success, just as he +concluded that negotiation was hopeless. + +He had made a good choice in Thomas Pinckney, better even than he +knew. Triumphing over all obstacles, with persistence, boldness, and +good management, Pinckney made a treaty and brought it home with him. +Still more remarkable was the fact that it was an extremely good +treaty, and conceded all we asked. By it the Florida boundary was +settled, and the free navigation of the Mississippi was obtained. We +also gained the right to a place of deposit at New Orleans, a pledge +to leave the Indians alone, a commercial agreement modeled on that +with France, and a board of arbitration to settle American claims. +All this Pinckney obtained, not as the representative of a great and +powerful state, but as the envoy of a new nation, distant, unknown, +disliked, and embroiled in various complications with other powers. +Our history can show very few diplomatic achievements to be compared +with this, for it was brilliant in execution, and complete and +valuable in result. Yet it has passed into history almost unnoticed, +and both the treaty and its maker have been singularly and most +unjustly neglected. Even the accurate and painstaking Hildreth omits +the date and circumstances of Pinckney's appointment, while the last +elaborate history of the United States scarcely alludes to the matter, +and finds no place in its index for the name of its author. It was +in fact one of the best pieces of work done during Washington's +administration, and perfected its policy on a most difficult and +essential point. It is high time that justice were done to the gallant +soldier and accomplished diplomatist who conducted the negotiation and +rendered such a solid service to his country. Thomas Pinckney, who +really did something, who did work worth doing and without many words, +has been forgotten, while many of his contemporaries, who simply made +a noise, are freshly remembered in the pages of history. + +There was, however, another nation out on our western and northern +border more difficult to deal with than Spain; and in this quarter +there was less evasion and delay, but more arrogance and bad temper. +It was to England that Washington turned first when he took up the +presidency, and it was in her control of the western posts and her +influence among the Indian tribes that he saw the greatest dangers +to the continental movement of our people. Morris, as we have seen, +sounded the British government with but little success. Still they +promised to send a minister, and in due time Mr. George Hammond +arrived in that capacity, and opened a long and somewhat fruitless +correspondence with the Secretary of State on the various matters of +difference existing between the two countries. This interchange of +letters went on peaceably and somewhat monotonously for many months, +and then suddenly became very vivid and animated. This was the effect +of the arrival of Genet; and at this point begins the long series of +mistakes made by Great Britain in her dealings with the United States. + +The principle of the declaration of neutrality could be easily upheld +on broad political grounds, but technically its defense was by no +means so simple. By the treaty of commerce with France we were bound +to admit her privateers and prizes to our ports; and here, as any one +could see, and as the sequel amply proved, was a fertile source of +dangerous complications. Then by the treaty of alliance we guaranteed +to France her West Indian possessions, binding ourselves to aid her +in their defense; and a proclamation of neutrality when France was +actually at war with a great naval power was an immediate and obvious +limitation upon this guarantee. Hamilton argued that while France had +an undoubted right to change her government, the treaty applied to a +totally different state of affairs, and was therefore in suspense. He +also argued that we were not bound in case of offensive war, and that +this war was offensive. Jefferson and Randolph held that the treaties +were as binding and as much in force now as they had ever been; but +they both assented to the proclamation of neutrality. There can be +little question that on the general legal principle Jefferson and +Randolph were right. Hamilton's argument was ingenious and very +fine-spun. But when he made the point about the character of the war +as relieving us from the guarantee, he was unanswerable; and this of +itself was a sufficient ground. He went beyond it in order to make his +reasoning fit existing conditions consistently and throughout, and +then it was that his position became untenable. In reality the French +revolution was showing itself so wholly abnormal and was so rapid in +its changes, that as a matter of practical statesmanship it was +worse than idle even to suppose that previous treaties, made with an +established government, were in force with this ever-shifting thing +which the revolution had brought forth. Still the general doctrine as +to the binding force of treaties remained unaltered, and this conflict +between fact and principle was what constituted the great difficulty +in the way of Washington and Hamilton. The latter met it with one +clever and adroit argument which it was difficult to sustain, and +avoided it with a second, which was narrower, but at the same time +sound and all-sufficient, as to the character of the war. Jefferson +and Randolph stood by the general principle, but abandoned it in +practice under pressure of imperious facts, as men generally do, while +France herself soon removed all technical difficulties by abrogating +by her measures the treaty of commerce, an act which relieved us of +any further obligations and justified Hamilton's position. But in +the beginning this was not known, and yet action was none the less +necessary. + +The result was right, and Washington had his way, which it must be +confessed he had fully determined on before his cabinet supplied him +with technical arguments. + +All these points must have been plain enough to Hammond and the +English ministry. They could not see the full scope of the neutrality +policy in its national meaning, and they very naturally failed to +perceive that it marked the rise of a new power wholly disconnected +from Europe, to which their own views were confined. But they were +quite able to understand the immediate aspect of the case. They saw +Washington adopt and carry out a policy of dignified impartiality; +they were well able to value rightly the technical objections which +stood in his path, and they could see also that this policy was at the +outset very unpopular in America. The remembrance of old injuries and +of the war for independence was still fresh, and the hatred of England +was well nigh universal in the United States. On the other hand, a +lively sense of gratitude to France, and a sympathy with the objects +of the revolution, made affection for that country uniform and +general. The easy and popular course was for our government to range +itself more or less directly with the French, and the refusal to do so +was bold and in the highest degree creditable to the administration. +It was, moreover, an important advantage to England that the United +States should not ally themselves with her enemy, for next to herself, +the Americans were the great seafaring people of the world, and were +in a position to ravage her commerce, and, aided by France, to break +up her West Indian possessions. If the United States had followed the +natural prejudices of the time and had espoused the cause of France, +it would have been wise and right for England to attack them and break +them down if possible. But when, from a sense of national dignity and +of fair dealing, the United States stood apart from the conflict +and placed their former foe on the same footing as their friend and +ancient ally, a very small allowance of good sense would have led +the British ministry to encourage them in so doing. By favorable +treatment, and by a friendly and conciliatory policy, they should have +helped Washington in his struggle against popular prejudices, and +endeavored by so doing to keep the United States neutral, and +lead them, if possible, to their side; but with a fatuity almost +incomprehensible they pursued an almost exactly opposite course. By +similar conduct England had brought on the war for independence, which +ended in the division of her empire. In precisely the same way she now +proceeded to make it as arduous as possible for Washington to maintain +neutrality, and thereby played directly into the hands of the party +that supported France. The true policy demanded no sacrifices on the +part of Great Britain. Civility and consideration in her dealings, +and a careful abstention from wanton aggression and insult, were +all-sufficient. But England disliked us, as was quite natural; she did +not wish us to thrive and prosper, and she knew that we were weak and +not in a position to enter upon an offensive war. + +As soon as it became known that Genet's privateers, manned by seamen +enlisted in our ports, were preying on British commerce, and that the +French man-of-war L'Ambuscade had taken an English vessel, The Grange, +within the capes of the Delaware, Hammond filed a memorial in regard +to these incidents. In so doing he was of course quite right, and the +government responded immediately, and proceeded in good faith to make +every effort to repair these breaches of neutrality, and to redress +the wrongs suffered by Great Britain. Hammond, however, instead of +doing all in his power, not merely to gain his own ends, but to +make it easy for our government to satisfy him, assumed at once a +disagreeable tone with a strong flavor of bullying, which was not +calculated to conciliate the statesmen with whom he was dealing. It +was a small matter enough, but unfortunately it was an indication of +what was to come. + +On November 6, 1793, a British order in council was passed, but not +immediately published, directing the seizure of all vessels carrying +the produce of the French islands, or loaded with provisions for the +use of the French colonies. The object of the order was to destroy all +neutral trade, and it was aimed particularly at the commerce of the +United States. The moment selected for its adoption was when the +troubles with Genet had culminated, when we were on the point of +getting rid of that very objectionable person, and when we had proved +that we meant to maintain an honest and a real neutrality. It was as +well calculated as any move could have been to drive us back into the +arms of France, yet the manner of executing the order was far worse +than the order itself. Our merchantmen and traders had been quick to +take advantage of the opening of the French ports, and they had gone +in swarms to the French islands. Now, without a word of warning, their +vessels were seized by the cruisers of a nation with which we were +supposed to be at peace. Every petty governor of an English island sat +as a judge in admiralty. Many of them were corrupt, all were unfit for +the duty, and our vessels were condemned and pillaged. The crews were +made prisoners, and in many cases thrown into loathsome and unhealthy +places of confinement, while the ships were left to rot in the +harbors. The tale of the outrages and miseries thus inflicted on +citizens of the United States without any warning, and by a nation +considered to be at peace with us, fills an American with shame and +anger even to-day. If our people remonstrated, they were told that +England meant to have no neutrals, and that six of their frigates +could blockade our coast. A course of kind treatment would have made +us the friends of Great Britain, but the experiment was not even +tried. The truth was that we were weak, and this was not only a +misfortune but apparently an unpardonable sin. England could not +conquer us, but she could harry our coasts, and let loose her Indians +on our borders; and we had no navy with which to retaliate. She meant +that there should be no neutrals, and so adopted a policy which would +make us the active ally of France. It was no answer to say, what was +perfectly true, that French privateers preyed upon our commerce with +that fine indifference to rights and treaties which characterized +the governments of the Revolution. If both sides maltreated us, the +natural course was to unite with the power to which we at least owed a +debt of gratitude. + +About the same time a speech was reported from Quebec, in which Lord +Dorchester told the Indians that they should soon take the war-path +for England against the United States. Lord Grenville denied in +Parliament, and subsequently to Jay, that the ministry had ever taken +any step to incite the Indians against the United States, and the +authenticity of Lord Dorchester's utterances has been questioned in +later days; but it was not disavowed at the time, even by Hammond in +a sharp correspondence which he held on that and other topics with +Randolph. The speech, as is now known and proved, was probably made, +whether it was authorized or not, and it was universally accepted at +the moment as both true and authoritative. + +This menace of desolating savage war in the West, in addition to the +unquestioned outrages to our seamen, the loss of our ships, and the +destruction of our commerce, with consequent ruin to all our seaboard +towns, led to a general outburst of indignation from men of all +parties, and Congress began to prepare for war. Many of the methods +suggested were feeble and inadequate, but there could be no doubt of +either the spirit or intentions which dictated them. News that an +order of January 8, 1794, modified that of November 6, and confined +the seizure to vessels carrying French property, and reports that +some of our vessels were being restored, moderated the movements of +Congress, but it was nevertheless evident that a resolution cutting +off commercial intercourse with Great Britain would soon pass. In the +existing state of things such a step in all probability meant war, and +Washington was thus brought face to face with the most serious problem +of his administration. It did not take him unawares, nor find him +unprepared, for he had anticipated the situation, and his mind was +made up. He had no intention of letting the country drift into war +without a great effort to prevent it, and the time for that effort had +now come. As in the case of Spain, he was resolved to send a special +envoy to make a treaty. His first choice for this important mission +was Hamilton, which, like most of his selections, would have been +the best choice that could have been made. Hamilton, however, was so +conspicuous as the great leader of the party which supported both the +foreign and domestic policy of the administration, and he was so hated +by the opposition, that a loud outcry was at once raised against his +appointment. At that particular juncture it was very important that +the envoy should depart with as much general good-will and public +confidence as possible, so Hamilton sacrificed himself to this +necessity, and withdrew his name voluntarily. His withdrawal was a +mistake, but it was a wholly natural one under the circumstances. +Washington then made the next best choice, and appointed John Jay, +who was a man of most spotless character, honorable, high-minded, and +skilled in public affairs. He was chief justice of the United States, +and that fact gave additional weight to the mission. The only point in +which he fell behind Hamilton was in aggressiveness of character, and +this negotiation demanded, not merely firmness and tact, which Jay +had in abundance, but a boldness verging on audacity. The immediate +purpose, however, was answered, and Jay set forth on his journey with +much good feeling toward himself, and with a very solemn sense among +the people of the gravity of his undertaking. Washington himself saw +Jay depart with many misgivings, and the act of sending such a mission +at all was very trying to him, for the conduct of England galled him +to the quick. He had long suspected Great Britain, as well as Spain, +of inciting the Indians secretly to assail our settlements, and +knowing as he did the character of savage warfare, and feeling deeply +the bloodshed and expense of our Indian wars, he cherished a profound +dislike for those who could be capable of promoting such misery to the +injury of a friendly and-civilized nation. As England became more and +more hostile, he made up his mind that she was bent on attacking us, +and in March, 1794, he wrote to Governor Clinton that he had no doubts +as to the authenticity of Lord Dorchester's speech, and that he +believed England intended war. He therefore urged the governor to +inquire carefully into the state of feeling in Canada, and as to the +military strength of the country, especially on the border. He put no +trust in the disclaimers of the ministry when he saw the long familiar +signs of hostile intrigue among the Indians, and he was quite +determined that, if war should come, all the suffering should not be +on one side. + +This belief in the coming of war, however, only strengthened him in +his well-matured plans to leave nothing undone to prevent it. It was +in this spirit that he despatched the special mission, although his +first letter to Jay shows that he had no very strong hopes of peace, +and that his uppermost thoughts were of the wrongs which had been +perpetrated, and of the perils which hung over the border. He did not +wish the commissioner to mince matters at all. "There does not remain +a doubt," he wrote, "in the mind of any well-informed person in this +country, not shut against conviction, that all the difficulties we +encounter with the Indians, their hostilities, the murder of helpless +women and innocent children along our frontiers, result from the +conduct of the agents of Great Britain in this country.... Can it +be expected, I ask, so long as these things are known in the United +States, or at least firmly believed, and suffered with impunity by +Great Britain, that there ever will or can be any cordiality between +the two countries? I answer, No. And I will undertake, without the +gift of prophecy, to predict that it will be impossible to keep this +country in a state of amity with Great Britain long, if the posts are +not surrendered. A knowledge of these being my sentiments would have +little weight, I am persuaded, with the British administration, and +perhaps not with the nation, in effecting the measure; but both may +rest satisfied that, if they want to be in peace with this country, +and to enjoy the benefits of its trade, to give up the posts is the +only road to it. Withholding them, and the consequences we feel at +present continuing, war will be inevitable." + +Jay meantime had been well received in England. Lord Grenville +expressed the most friendly feelings, and every desire that the +negotiation might succeed. Jay was also received at court, where he +was said to have kissed the queen's hand, a crime, so the opposition +declared, for which his lips ought to have been blistered to the bone, +a difficult and by no means common form of punishment. Receptions, +dinner parties, and a ready welcome everywhere, did not, however, +make a treaty. When it came to business, the English did not differ +materially from their neighbors whom Canning satirized. + + "The fault of the Dutch + Is giving too little and asking too much." + +So the Americans now found it with Lord Grenville. There were many +subjects of dispute, some dangerous, and all requiring settlement for +the benefit of both countries. Boundaries, negro claims, and British +debts were easily disposed of by reference to boards of arbitration. +Two others, awkward and threatening, but not immediately pressing, +were the impressment of British seamen, real or pretended, from +American ships, and the exclusion of American vessels from the trade +of the British West Indies. The latter circumstance was no doubt +disagreeable to us, and deprived us of profit; but it is difficult to +see what right we had to complain of it, for the ports of the British +West Indies belonged to Great Britain, and if she chose to close +them to us, or anybody else, she was quite within her rights. At all +events, Lord Grenville declined to let us in, except in a very limited +way and under most onerous conditions. The right of search and the +right of impressment were simply the rights of the powerful over the +weak. England wanted to get seamen where she could for her navy; and +so long as she could violate our flag and carry off as recruits any +able-bodied seaman who spoke English, she meant to do it. It was worse +than idle to negotiate about it. When we should be ready and willing +to fight we could settle that question, but not before. In due time we +were ready to fight. England defeated us in various battles, ravaged +our coasts, and burned our capital; while we whipped her frigates +and lake flotillas, and repulsed her Peninsula veterans with heavy +slaughter at New Orleans. Impressment was not mentioned in the treaty +which concluded that war, but it ended at that time. The English are a +brave and combative people, but rather than get into wars with nations +that will fight, and fight hard, they will desist from wanton and +illegal aggressions, in which they do not differ greatly from the rest +of mankind; and so the practical abandonment of impressment came with +the war of 1812. The fact was officially stated by Webster, not many +years later, when he announced that the flag covered and protected all +those who lived or traded under it. + +But in 1794 impressment was a negotiable question, because we were not +ready to go to war about it then and there. So Jay, wisely enough, +allowed this especial from of bullying to drift aside, along with the +exclusion from the West India trade, and addressed himself to the +two points which it was essential to have settled at that particular +moment. These questions were: the retention of the western posts, and +neutral rights at sea. In return for the agreement on our part to pay +the British debts, as determined by arbitration, England agreed +to surrender the posts on June 1, 1796. There was to be mutual +reciprocity in inland trade on the North American continent; but +coastwise, while we opened all our harbors and rivers to the British, +they shut us out from theirs in the colonies and the territory of the +Hudson's Bay Company. In the eighteen articles, limited in duration +to two years after the conclusion of the existing war, a treaty of +commerce was practically formed and neutral rights dealt with. We were +to be admitted to British ports in Europe and the East Indies on terms +of equality with British vessels, but we were refused admission to the +East Indian coasting trade, and to that between East India and Europe. +We gained the right to trade to the West Indies, but only on condition +that we should give up the transportation from America to Europe of +any of the principal products of the colonies. These were enumerated, +and besides sugar, molasses, coffee, and cocoa, included cotton, which +had just become an export from the southern States, and which already +promised to assume the importance that it afterwards reached. The +vexed questions of privateers, prizes, and contraband of war were also +settled and determined. + +The treaty as a whole was not a very brilliant one for the United +States, but its treatment was far worse than its deserts, and it was +received with such a universal outburst of indignation that even to +this day it has never freed itself from the bad name it then acquired. +Nobody, not even its supporters, liked it, and yet it may be doubted +whether anything materially better was possible at the time. The +admirers of Hamilton, from that day to this, have believed that if +he had been sent, his boldness, ability, and force would have wrung +better terms from England. This is not at all improbable; but that +they would have been materially improved, even by Hamilton, does not +seem very likely. The treaty, in reality, was by no means bad; on the +contrary, it had many good points. It disposed satisfactorily and +fairly of all the minor questions which were vexatious and threatening +to the peaceful relation of the two countries. It settled the British +debts, gave us the western posts, which was a matter of the utmost +importance, and arranged the disputed and thorny question of neutral +rights, for the time being at least. It left impressment totally +unsettled, simply because we were still too weak to be ready to fight +England profitably on that theme. It opened to us the West Indian +ports, which was the matter most nearly affecting our interests and +our pockets, but it did so under limitations and concessions which +were excessive and even humiliating. We were obliged to pay a price +far too high for this coveted privilege, and it was on this point that +the controversy finally hinged. + +The treaty reached Philadelphia on March 7. Nothing was said of its +arrival, which does not seem to have been known to any one but the +President and Randolph, who had meantime succeeded Jefferson as +Secretary of State. Three months later, on June 8, the Senate was +called together in special session, and the treaty was laid before +them. Washington did not like it and never changed his feeling in that +respect, but he had made up his mind upon full reflection to accept +it; and the Senate, after most careful consideration, voted by exactly +the necessary two thirds to ratify it, provided that the objectionable +West Indian article could be modified. On no terms could we consent to +forego the exportation of cotton, and it is difficult to see how +the Senate could have taken any other ground upon this point. Their +action, however, opened some delicate questions. Washington wrote to +Randolph: "First, is or is not that resolution intended to be the +final act of the Senate; or do they expect that the new article which +is proposed shall be submitted to them before the treaty takes effect? +Secondly, does or does not the Constitution permit the President to +ratify the treaty, without submitting the new article, after it shall +be agreed to by the British King, to the Senate for their further +advice and consent?" + +These questions were carefully considered, and Washington had made +up his mind to ratify conditionally on the modification of the West +Indian article, when news arrived which caused him to suspend action. +England, having made the treaty, and before any news could have been +received of our attitude in regard to it, took steps to render its +ratification both difficult and offensive, if not impossible. The mode +adopted was to renew the "provision order," as it was called, which +directed the seizure of all vessels carrying food products to France, +and thus give to the Jay treaty the interpretation it was designed to +avoid, that provisions could be declared contraband at the pleasure of +one of the belligerents. It was a stupid thing to do, for if England +desired to have peace with us, as her making the treaty indicated, +she should not have renewed the most irritating of all her past +performances before we had had opportunity even to sign and ratify. +Washington, on hearing of this move, withheld his signature, bade +Randolph prepare a strong memorial against the provision order, and +then betook himself to Mount Vernon on some urgent private business. + +Before he started, however, the storm of popular rage had begun to +break. Bache had the substance of the treaty in the "Aurora" on June +29, and Mr. Stevens Thomson Mason, senator from Virginia, was so +pained by some slight inaccuracies in this version that he wrote Mr. +Bache a note, and sent him a copy of the treaty despite the injunction +of secrecy by which he as a senator was bound. Mr. Mason gained great +present glory by this frank breach of promise, and curiously enough +this single discreditable act is the only thing that keeps his name +and memory alive in history. All that he achieved at the moment was to +hurry the inevitable disclosure of the contents of a treaty which no +one desired to conceal, except in deference to official form. Mason's +note and copy of the treaty, made up into a pamphlet, were issued +from Bache's press on July 2, and hundreds of copies were soon being +carried by eager riders north and south throughout the Union. + +Everywhere, as the treaty traveled, the popular wrath was kindled. The +first explosion came in Boston, Federalist Boston, devoted beyond any +other town in the country to Washington and his administration. There +was a town meeting in Faneuil Hall, violent speeches were made, and a +committee was appointed to draw up a memorial to the President against +ratification. This remonstrance was despatched at once by special +messenger, who seemed to carry the torch of Malise instead of a set of +dry resolutions. Everywhere the anger and indignation flamed forth. +The ground had been carefully prepared, for, ever since Jay sailed, +the partisans of the French had been denouncing him and his mission, +predicting failure, and, in one case at least, burning him in effigy +before it was known whether he had done anything at all. As soon as +the news spread that the treaty had actually arrived, the attacks +were multiplied in number and grew ever more bitter as the Senate +consulted. The popular mind was so worked up that in Boston a British +vessel had been burned on suspicion that she was a privateer, while in +New York there had been street fights and rioting because of an insult +to a French flag. In such a state of feeling, artificially stimulated +and ingeniously misled, the most brilliant diplomatic triumph would +have had but slight chance of approval. Jay's moderate achievement +was better than his enemies expected, but it was sufficient for their +purpose, and the popular fury blazed up and ran through the country, +like a whirlwind of fire over the parched prairie. Everywhere the +example of Boston was followed, meetings were held, committees +appointed, and memorials against the treaty sent to the President. In +New York Hamilton was stoned when he attempted to speak in favor of +ratification; and less illustrious persons, who ventured to differ +from the crowd, were ducked and otherwise maltreated. Jay was hanged +and burned in effigy in every way that imagination could devise, +and copies of his treaty suffered the same fate at the hands of the +hangman. Feeling ran highest in the larger towns where there was a +mob, but even some of the smaller places and those most Federal in +their politics were carried away. The excitement seems also to have +been confined for the most part to the seaboard, but after all that +was where the bulk of the population lived. The crowd, moreover, +was not led by obscure agitators or by violent and irresponsible +partisans. The Livingstons in New York, Rodney in Delaware, Gadsden +and the Rutledges in South Carolina, were some of the men who guided +the meetings and denounced the treaty. On the other hand, the friends +and supporters of the administration appeared stunned, and for weeks +no opposition to the popular movement except that attempted by +Hamilton was apparent. Even the administration was divided, for +Randolph was as hostile to the treaty as it was possible for a man of +his temperament to be. + +The crisis was indeed a serious one. There have been worse in our +history, but this was one of the gravest; and never did a President +stand, so far as any one could see, so utterly alone. With his own +party silenced and even divided, with the opposition rampant, and with +popular excitement at fever heat, Washington was left to take his +course alone and unsupported. It was the severest trial of his +political life, but he met it, as he met the reverses of 1776, +calmly and without flinching. He was always glad to have advice and +suggestions. No man ever sought them or benefited from them more +than he; yet no man ever lived so little dependent on others and so +perfectly capable of standing alone as Washington. After the Senate +had acted, he made up his mind to conditional ratification. He +withheld his signature on hearing of the provision order, and was +ready to sign as soon as that order was withdrawn. Whether he would +make its withdrawal another condition of his signature he had not +determined when he left Philadelphia for Mount Vernon, and on his +arrival he wrote to Randolph: "The conditional ratification (if the +late order, which we have heard of, respecting provision vessels +is not in operation) may, on all fit occasions, be spoken of as my +determination. Unless, from anything you have heard or met with since +I left you, it should be thought more advisable to communicate further +with me on the subject, my opinion respecting the treaty is the same +now that it was, namely, not favorable to it; but that it is better +to ratify it in the manner the Senate have advised, and with the +reservation already mentioned, than to suffer matters to remain as +they are, unsettled." He had already received the Boston resolutions, +and had sent them to his cabinet for their consideration. He did not +for a moment underrate their importance, and he saw that they were +the harbingers of others of like character, although he could not yet +estimate the full violence of the storm of popular disapprobation. On +July 28 he sent his answer to the selectmen of Boston, and it is such +an important paper that it must be given in full. It was as follows:-- + + UNITED STATES, _28th of July_, 1795. + + GENTLEMEN: In every act of my administration I have sought the + happiness of my fellow-citizens. My system for the attainment of + this object has uniformly been to overlook all personal, local, + and partial considerations; to contemplate the United States + as one great whole; to confide that sudden impressions, and + erroneous, would yield to candid reflections; and to consult only + the substantial and permanent interests of our country. + + Nor have I departed from this line of conduct on the occasion + which has produced the resolutions contained in your letter of the + 13th inst. + + Without a predilection for my own judgment, I have weighed with + attention every argument which has at any time been brought into + view. But the Constitution is the guide which I never can abandon. + It has assigned to the President the power of making treaties with + the advice and consent of the Senate. It was doubtless supposed + that these two branches of government would combine, without + passion and with the best means of information, those facts and + principles upon which the success of our foreign relations will + always depend; that they ought not to substitute for their own + convictions the opinions of others, or to seek truth through any + channel but that of a temperate and well-informed investigation. + + Under this persuasion, I have resolved on the manner of executing + the duty before me. To the high responsibility attached to it, I + fully submit; and you, gentlemen, are at liberty to make these + sentiments known as the grounds of my procedure. While I feel the + most lively gratitude for the many instances of approbation from + my country, I can no otherwise deserve it than by obeying the + dictates of my conscience. With due respect, I am, etc. + +It will be noticed that this letter is dated "The United States, 28th +of July," which is, I think, the only instance of the sort to be found +in his letters. In all his vast correspondence there possibly may be +other cases in which he used this method of dating, but one cannot +help feeling that on this occasion at least it had a particular +significance. It was not George Washington writing from Mount Vernon, +but the President, who represented the whole country, pointing out +to the people of Boston that the day of small things and of local +considerations had gone by. This letter served also as a model for +many others. The Boston address had a multitude of successors, and +they were all answered in the same strain. Washington was not a man to +underrate popular feeling, for he knew that the strongest bulwark of +the government was in sound public opinion. On the other hand, he +was one of the rare men who could distinguish between a temporary +excitement, no matter how universal, and an abiding sentiment. In this +case he quietly resisted the noisy popular demand, believing that the +sober second thought of the people would surely be with him; but at +the same time the outcry against the treaty, while it could not make +him waver in his determination to do what he believed to be right, +caused him deep anxiety. The day after he sent his answer to Boston he +wrote to Randolph:-- + + "I view the opposition which the treaty is receiving from the + meetings in different parts of the Union in a very serious light; + not because there is more weight in any of the objections which + are made to it than was foreseen at first, for there is none in + some of them, and gross misrepresentations in others; nor as it + respects myself personally, for this shall have no influence on + my conduct, plainly perceiving, and I am accordingly preparing my + mind for it, the obloquy which disappointment and malice are + collecting to heap upon me. But I am alarmed at the effect it may + have on and the advantage the French government may be disposed to + make of, the spirit which is at work to cherish a belief in them + that the treaty is calculated to favor Great Britain at their + expense.... To sum the whole up in a few words I have never, + since I have been in the administration of the government, + a crisis, which, in my judgment, has been so pregnant with + interesting events, nor one from which more is to be apprehended, + whether viewed on one side or the other." + +He already felt that it might be necessary for him to return to +Philadelphia at any moment; and, writing to Randolph to this effect +two days later, he said:-- + + "To be wise and temperate, as well as firm, the present crisis + most eminently calls for. There is too much reason to believe, + from the pains which have been taken before, at, and since the + advice of the Senate respecting the treaty, that the prejudices + against it are more extensive than is generally imagined. This I + have lately understood to be the case in this quarter from men who + are of no party, but well-disposed to the present administration. + Nor should it be otherwise, when no stone has been left unturned + that could impress on the minds of the people the most arrant + misrepresentation of facts; that their rights have not only been + _neglected_, but absolutely _sold_; that there are no reciprocal + advantages in the treaty; that the benefits are all on the side of + Great Britain; and, what seems to have had more weight with them + than all the rest, and to have been most pressed, that the treaty + is made with the design to oppress the French, in open violation + of our treaty with that nation, and contrary, too, to every + principle of gratitude and sound policy. In time, when passion + shall have yielded to sober reason, the current may possibly turn; + but, in the mean while, this government, in relation to France and + England, may be compared to a ship between the rocks of Scylla and + Charybdis. If the treaty is ratified, partisans of the French, or + rather of war and confusion, will excite them to hostile measures, + or at least to unfriendly sentiments; if it is not, there is no + foreseeing all the consequences which may follow, as it respects + Great Britain. + + "It is not to be inferred from hence that I am disposed to quit + the ground I have taken, unless circumstances more imperious than + have yet come to my knowledge should compel it; for there is but + one straight course, and that is to seek truth, and pursue it + steadily. But these things are mentioned to show that a close + investigation of the subject is more than ever necessary, and + that there are strong evidences of the necessity of the most + circumspect conduct in carrying the determination of government + into effect, with prudence, as it respects our own people, and + with every exertion to produce a change for the better from Great + Britain. + + "The memorial seems well designed to answer the end proposed, + and by the time it is revised and new-dressed, you will probably + (either in the resolutions which are or will be handed to me, or + in the newspaper publications, which you promise to be attentive + to) have seen all the objections against the treaty which have + any real force in them, and which may be fit subjects for + representation in a memorial, or in the instructions, or both. But + how much longer the presentation of the memorial can be delayed + without exciting unpleasant sensations here, or involving serious + evils elsewhere, you, who are at the scene of information and + action, can decide better than I. In a matter, however, so + interesting and pregnant with consequences as this treaty, there + ought to be no precipitation; but on the contrary, every step + should be explored before it is taken, and every word weighed + before it is uttered or delivered in writing. + + "The form of the ratification requires more diplomatic experience + and legal knowledge than I possess, or have the means of acquiring + at this place, and therefore I shall say nothing about it." + +Three days later, on August 3, he wrote again to Randolph to say that +the mails had been delayed, and that he had not received the Baltimore +resolutions. He then continued:-- + + "The like may be expected from Richmond, a meeting having been + had there also, at which Mr. Wythe, it is said, was seated as + moderator; by chance more than design, it is added. A queer chance + this for the chancellor of the state. + + "All these things do not shake my determination with respect to + the proposed ratifications, nor will they, unless something more + imperious and unknown to me should, in the judgment of yourself + and the gentlemen with you, make it advisable for me to pause." + +A few days later Washington was recalled by a letter from Randolph, +and also by a private note from Pickering, which said, mysteriously, +that there was a "special reason" for his immediate return. He had +been expecting to be recalled at any moment, and he now hastened to +Philadelphia, reaching there on August 11. He little dreamed, however, +of what had led his two secretaries, one ignorantly and the other +wittingly, to hasten his return. On the very day when he dated his +letter to the selectmen of Boston as from the United States, the +British minister placed in the hands of Mr. Wolcott, the Secretary of +the Treasury, an intercepted letter from Fauchet, the French minister, +to his own government. This dispatch, bearing the number 10, had come +into the possession of Mr. Hammond by a series of accidents; but the +British government and its representatives were quick to perceive that +the chances of the sea had thrown into their hands a prize of much +more value than many French merchantmen. The dispatch thus rescued +from the water, where its bearer had cast it, was filled with a long +and somewhat imaginative dissertation on political parties in the +United States, and with an account of the whiskey rebellion. It also +gave the substance of some conversations held by the writer with the +Secretary of State. This is not the place, nor would space serve, to +examine the details of this famous dispatch, with reference to the +American statesman whom it incriminated. On its face it showed that +Randolph had held conversations with the French minister which no +American Secretary of State ought to have held with any representative +of a foreign government, and it appeared further that the most obvious +interpretation of certain sentences, in view of the readiness of man +to think ill of his neighbor, was that Randolph had suggested corrupt +practices. Such was the document, implicating in a most serious way +the character of his chief cabinet officer, which Pickering and +Wolcott placed in Washington's hands on his arrival in Philadelphia. + +Mr. Conway, in his biography of Randolph, devotes many pages to +explaining what now followed. His explanations show, certainly, a most +refined ingenuity, and form the most elaborate discussion of this +incident that has ever appeared. All this effort and ingenuity are +needless, however, unless the object be to prove that Randolph was +wholly without fault, which is an impossible task. There was +nothing complicated about the affair, and nothing strange about the +President's course, if we confine ourselves to the plain facts and the +order of their occurrence. + +Before the treaty went to the Senate, Washington made up his mind to +sign it, and when the Senate ratified conditionally, he still adhered +to his former opinion. Then came the news of the provision order, +and thereupon he paused and withheld his signature, at the same time +ordering a memorial against the order to be prepared. But there is no +evidence whatever that he changed his mind, or that he had determined +to make his signature conditional upon the revocation of the order. +To argue that he had is, in fact, misrepresentation. In the letter +of July 22, on which so much stress was laid afterwards by Randolph, +Washington said that his intention to ratify conditionally was to be +announced, if the provision order was not in operation. Put in the +converse form, his intention was not to be announced if the order +was in operation; but this is very different from saying that his +intention had altered, and that he would not sign unless the order was +revoked. This last idea was Randolph's, but not Washington's. Indeed, +in the very next lines of the same letter he said expressly that his +opinion had not changed, that he did not like the treaty, but that +it was best to ratify. It is a fair inference, no doubt, that he +was considering whether he should change his intention and make his +signature conditional; but if this was the case, it is sure beyond a +peradventure that his original opinion was only confirmed as the days +went by. + +He examined with the utmost care all the remonstrances and addresses +that were poured in upon him, and found few solid objections, and none +that he had not already weighed and disposed of. On July 31 he wrote +to Randolph that it was not to be inferred that he was disposed to +quit his ground unless more imperious circumstances than had yet come +to his knowledge should compel him to do so. The provision order was +of course within his knowledge, and therefore had not led him to +change his mind. On August 3 he wrote even more strongly that nothing +had come to his knowledge to shake his determination. In his letter to +Randolph of October 21, giving him full liberty to have and publish +everything he desired for his vindication, Washington said: "You +know that it was my determination to ratify before submission to the +Senate; that the doubts which arose proceeded from the provision +order." Doubts are mentioned here, and not changes of intention. If +he had changed his mind at any time he would have said so, for he was +neither timid nor dishonest, but as a matter of fact he never had +changed his mind. He came to Philadelphia with his mind made up to +ratify, and that being the case, it was clear that further delay would +be wrong and impolitic. The surest way to check the popular excitement +and rally the friends of the administration was to act. Suspense +fostered opposition more than ratification, for most people accept the +inevitable when the deed is done. + +The Fauchet letter, therefore, although its revelations astounded and +grieved him, had no effect upon his action, which would have been the +same in any event; for he had said over and over again that he had not +changed his first opinion. In the letter to Randolph, just quoted, +he also said: "And finally you know the grounds on which my ultimate +decision was taken, as the same were expressed to you, the other +secretaries of departments, and the late attorney-general, after a +thorough investigation of the subject in all the aspects in which it +could be placed." As the Fauchet letter was not disclosed to Randolph +until after the treaty had been signed, it was impossible that it +should have been one of the grounds of the President's decision, for +Washington said to him, "You knew the grounds." If we are to suppose +that the Fauchet letter had anything to do with the ratification so +far as the President himself was concerned, we must, in the face of +this letter, set Washington down as a deliberate liar, which is so +wholly impossible that it disposes at once of the theory that he was +driven into signing by a clever British intrigue. + +Here as elsewhere the simple and obvious explanation is the true one, +although the whole matter is sufficiently plain on the mere narration +of facts. The treaty was a great public question, to be decided on its +merits, and the only new point raised by the Fauchet dispatch was how +to deal with Randolph himself at this particular juncture. To have +shown the letter to him at once would have been to break the cabinet, +with the treaty unsigned. It would have resulted in much delay, +extending to weeks, unless the President was ready to have an acting +secretary sign both treaty and memorial; and it would have added +during the continued suspense a fresh subject of excitement to the +popular mind. Washington's duty plainly was to carry out his policy +and bring the matter to an immediate conclusion, and, as was his +custom, he did his duty. If, as Mr. Conway thinks, the Fauchet letter +was what compelled the ratification, Washington would have given it +to the world at once, and then, having by this means discredited the +opposition and roused a feeling against the French, would have signed +the treaty. England, of course, had taken advantage of this letter, +and equally of course her minister and his influence were against +Randolph, who was thought to be unfriendly. Hammond intrigued with our +public men just as all the French ministers did. It is humiliating +that such should have been the case, but it was due to our recent +escape from a colonial condition, and to the way in which we allowed +our politics to turn on foreign affairs. Having made up his mind to +ratify and end the question, Washington very properly kept silence +as to the Fauchet letter until the work was done. To do this, it was +necessary of course that he should make no change in his personal +attitude toward Randolph, nor was he obliged to do so, for he was too +just a man to assume Randolph's guilt until his defense had been made. +The ratification was brought before the cabinet at once. There was a +sharp discussion, in which it appeared that Randolph had advanced a +good deal in his hostility to the treaty, a fact not tending to make +the Fauchet business look better; and then ratification was voted, and +a memorial against the provision order was adopted. On August 18 the +treaty was signed, and on the 19th, Washington, in the presence of his +cabinet, placed the Fauchet letter in Randolph's hands. Randolph read +it, made some comments, and asked time to offer suitable explanations. +He then withdrew, and in a few hours sent in his resignation. + +There would be no need, so far as Washington is concerned, to say more +on this unfortunate affair of the Secretary of State, were it not for +the recent statements made by Randolph's biographer. In order to clear +his hero, Mr. Conway represents that Washington, knowing Randolph to +be innocent, sacrificed him in great anguish of heart to an imperious +political necessity, while the fact was, that nobody sacrificed +Randolph except himself. He was represented in a dispatch written by +the French minister in a light which, as Washington said, gave rise to +strong suspicions; a moderate statement in which every candid man +who knew anything about the matter has agreed from that day to this. +According to Fauchet, Randolph not only had held conversations wholly +unbecoming his position, but on the same authority he was represented +to have asked for money. That the Secretary of State was corrupt, no +one who knew him, as Jefferson said, for one moment believed. Whether +he disposed of this charge or not, it was plain to his friends, as +it is to posterity, that Randolph was a perfectly honorable man. But +neither his own vindication nor that of his biographer have in the +least palliated or even touched the real error which he committed. + +As Secretary of State, the head of the cabinet, and in charge of our +foreign relations, he had, according to Fauchet's dispatch and to his +own admissions, entered into relations with a foreign minister which +ought to have been as impossible as they were discreditable to an +American statesman. That Fauchet believed that Randolph deceived him +did not affect the merits of the case, nor, if true, did it excuse +Randolph, especially as everybody with whom he was brought into +close contact seems at some time or other to have had doubts of his +sincerity. As a matter of fact, Randolph could find no defense except +to attack Washington and discuss our foreign relations, and his +biographer has followed the same line. What was it then that +Washington had actually done which called for assault? He had been put +in possession of an official document which on its face implicated +his Secretary of State in the intrigues of a foreign minister, and +suggested that he was open to corruption. These were the views which +the public, having no personal knowledge of Randolph, would be sure to +take, and as a matter of fact actually took, when the affair became +known. There was a great international question to be settled, and +settled without delay. This was done in a week, during which time +Washington kept silent, as his public duty required. The moment the +treaty was signed he handed Fauchet's dispatch to Randolph and asked +for an explanation. None knew of the dispatch except the cabinet +officers, through whom it had necessarily come. Washington did not +prejudge the case; he did not dismiss Randolph with any mark of his +pleasure, as he would have been quite justified in doing. He simply +asked for explanation, and threw open his own correspondence and +the archives of the department, so that Randolph might have every +opportunity for defense. It is difficult to see how Washington could +have done less in dealing with Randolph, or in what way he could have +shown greater consideration. + +Randolph resigned of his own motion, and then cried out against +Washington because he had been obliged to pay the penalty of his own +errors. When it is considered that Washington did absolutely nothing +to Randolph except to hand him Fauchet's dispatch and accept his +consequent resignation, the talk about Randolph's forgiving him +becomes simply ludicrous. Randolph saw his own error, was angry with +himself, and, like the rest of humanity, proceeded to vent his anger +on somebody else, but unfortunately he had the bad taste to turn at +the outset to the newspapers. Like Mr. Snodgrass, he took off his coat +in public and announced in a loud voice that he was going to begin. +The President's only response was to open the archives and bid him +publish everything he desired. Randolph then wrote the President a +private letter, which was angry and impertinent; "full of innuendoes," +said the recipient. Washington drafted a sharp reply, and then out +of pure kindness withheld it, and let the private letter drop into +silence, whither the bulky "Vindication," which vindicated nobody, +soon followed it. The fact was, that Washington treated Randolph with +great kindness and forbearance. He had known him long; he was fond +of him on his own account as well as his father's; he appreciated +Randolph's talents; but he knew on reading that dispatch, if he had +never guessed it before, that Randolph, although honest and clever, +and certainly not bad, was a dangerously weak man. Others among +our public men had put themselves into relations with foreign +representatives which it is now intolerable to contemplate, but +Randolph, besides being found out at the moment, had, after the +fashion of weak natures, gone further and shown more feebleness than +any one else had. Washington's conduct was so perfectly simple, and +the facts of the case were so plain, that it would seem impossible to +complicate them. The contemporary verdict was harsh, crushing, and +unjust in many respects to Randolph. The verdict of posterity, which +is both gentler and fairer to the secretary, will certainly at the +same time sustain Washington's course at every point as sensible, +direct, and proper. + +Only one question remains which demands a word before tracing briefly +the subsequent fate of the Jay treaty, and that is, to know exactly +why the President signed it. The answer is fortunately not difficult. +There was a choice of evils. When Washington determined to send a +special envoy, he said: "My objects are, to prevent a war, if justice +can be obtained by fair and strong representations (to be made by a +special envoy) of the injuries which this country has sustained from +Great Britain in various ways; to put it into a complete state +of military defense; and to provide eventually such measures for +execution as seem to be now pending in Congress, if negotiation in +a reasonable time proves unsuccessful." From these views he never +varied. The treaty was not a perfect one, but it had good features and +was probably, as has been said, the best that could then be obtained. +It settled some vexed questions, and it gave us time. If the United +States could only have time without making undue sacrifice, they could +pass beyond the stage when a foreign war with its consequent suffering +and debt would endanger our national existence. If they could only +have time to grow into a nation, there would be no difficulty in +settling all their disputes with other people satisfactorily, either +by war or negotiation. But if the national bonds were loosened, then +all was lost. It was in this spirit that Washington signed the Jay +treaty; and although there was much in it that he did not like, +and although men were bitterly divided about the ratification, a +dispassionate posterity has come to believe that he was right at the +most difficult if not the most perilous crisis in his career. + +The signature of the treaty, however, did not put an end to the +attacks upon it, or upon the action of the Senate and the Executive. +Nevertheless, it turned the tide, and, as Washington foresaw, brought +out a strong movement in its favor. Hamilton began the work by the +publication of the letters of "Camillus." The opposition newspapers +sneered, but after Jefferson had read a few numbers he begged Madison +in alarm to answer them. His fears were well grounded, for the letters +were reprinted in newspapers throughout the country, and their +powerful and temperate arguments made converts and strengthened the +friends of the administration everywhere. The approaching surrender of +the posts gratified the western people when they at last stopped to +think about it. The obnoxious provision order was revoked, and the +traders and merchants found that security and commerce even under +unpleasant restrictions were a great deal better than the uncertainty +and the vexatious hostilities to which they had before been exposed. +Those who had been silent, although friendly to the policy of the +government, now began to meet in their turn and send addresses to +Congress; for in the House of Representatives the last battle was to +be fought. + +That body came together under the impression of the agitation and +excitement which had been going on all through the summer. There was a +little wrangling at the opening over the terms to be employed in the +answer to the President's message, and then the House relapsed into +quiet, awaiting the formal announcement of the treaty. At last the +treaty arrived with the addition of the suspending article, and the +President proclaimed it to be the law of the land, and sent a copy to +the House. Livingston, of New York, at once moved a resolution, asking +the President to send in all the papers relating to the negotiation, +and boldly placed the motion on the ground that the House was vested +with a discretionary power as to carrying the treaty into execution. +On this principle the debate went on for three weeks, and then the +resolution passed by 62 to 37. A great constitutional question was +thus raised, for there was no pretense that the papers were really +needed, inasmuch as committees had seen them all, and they contained +practically nothing which was not already known. + +Washington took the request into consideration, and asked his cabinet +whether the House had the right, as set forth in the resolutions, to +call for the papers, and if not, whether it was expedient to furnish +them. Both questions were unanimously answered in the negative. The +inquiry was largely formal, and Washington had no real doubts on the +point involved. He wrote to Hamilton: "I had from the first moment, +and from the fullest conviction in my own mind, resolved _to resist +the principle_, which was evidently intended to be established by the +call of the House of Representatives; and only deliberated on the +manner in which this could be done with the least bad consequences." +His only question was as to the method of resistance, and he finally +decided to refuse absolutely, and did so in a message setting forth +his reasons. He said that the intention of the constitutional +convention was known to him, and that they had intended to vest the +treaty-making power exclusively in the Executive and Senate. On +that principle he had acted, and in that belief foreign nations had +negotiated, and the House had hitherto acquiesced. He declared further +that the assent of the House was not necessary to the validity of +treaties; that they had all necessary information; and "as it is +essential to the due administration of the government that the +boundaries fixed by the Constitution should be preserved, a just +regard to the Constitution and to the duty of my office, under all the +circumstances of this case, forbid a compliance with your request." +The question was a difficult one, but there could be no doubt as to +Washington's opinion, and the weight of authority has sustained his +view. From the practical and political side there can be little +question that his position was extremely sound. In a letter to +Carrington he gave the reasons for his action, and no better statement +of the argument in a general way has ever been made. He wrote:-- + + "No candid man in the least degree acquainted with the progress + of this business will believe for a moment that the _ostensible_ + dispute was about papers, or whether the British treaty was a good + one or a bad one, but whether there should be a treaty at all + without the concurrence of the House of Representatives. This + was striking at once, and that boldly, too, at the fundamental + principles of the Constitution; and, if it were established, would + render the treaty-making power not only a nullity, but such an + absolute absurdity as to reflect disgrace on the framers of it. + For will any one suppose that they who framed, or those who + adopted, that instrument ever intended to give the power to the + President and Senate to make treaties, and, declaring that when + made and ratified they should be the supreme law of the land, + would in the same breath place it in the power of the House of + Representatives to fix their vote on them, unless apparent marks + of fraud or corruption (which in equity would set aside any + contract) accompanied the measure, or such striking evidence of + national injury attended their adoption as to make a war or any + other evil preferable? Every unbiased mind will answer in the + negative. + + "What the source and what the object of all this struggle is, I + submit to my fellow-citizens. Charity would lead me to hope that + the motives to it would be pure. Suspicions, however, speak + a different language, and my tongue for the present shall be + silent." + +No man who has ever held high office in this country had a more real +deference for the popular will than Washington. But he also had always +a keen sensitiveness to the dignity and the prerogatives of the office +which he happened to hold, whether it was that of president or general +of the armies. This arose from no personal feeling, for he was too +great a man ever to worry about his own dignity; but he esteemed the +great offices to which he was called to be trusts, which were to +suffer no injury while in his hands. He regarded the attempt of the +House of Representatives to demand the papers as a matter of right +as an encroachment on the rights of the Executive Department, and he +therefore resisted it at once, and after his usual fashion left no one +in any doubt as to his views. So far as the President was concerned, +the struggle ended here; but it was continued for some time longer in +the House, where the debate went on for a fortnight, with the hostile +majority surely and steadily declining. The current out-doors ran more +and more strongly every day in favor of the administration, until +at last the contest ended with Ames's great speech, and then the +resolution to carry out the treaty prevailed. Washington's policy had +triumphed, and was accepted by the country. + +The Jay treaty and its ratification had, however, other results +than mere domestic conflicts. Spain, acting under French influence, +threatened to rescind the Pinckney treaty which had just been made +so advantageously to the United States; but, like most Spanish +performances at that time, these threats evaporated in words, and the +Mississippi remained open. With France, however, the case was very +different. Our demand for the recall of Genet had been met by a +counter-demand for the recall of Morris, to which, of course, we were +obliged to accede, and the question as to the latter's successor was +a difficult and important one. Washington himself had been perfectly +satisfied with the conduct of Morris, but he was also aware that the +known dislike of that brilliant diplomatist to the revolutionary +methods then dominant in Paris had seriously complicated our relations +with France. He wished by all fair means to keep France in good humor, +and he therefore determined that Morris's successor should be a man +whose friendship toward the French republic was well known. His first +choice was Madison, which would have answered admirably, for Madison +was preëminently a safe man. Very unluckily, however, Madison either +could not or would not go, and the President's final choice was by no +means equally good. + +It was, of course, most desirable that the new minister should be +_persona grata_ to the republic, but it was vastly more important that +he should be in cordial sympathy with the administration at home, +for no administration ought ever to select for a foreign mission, +especially at a critical moment, any one outside the ranks of its own +supporters. This was the mistake which Washington, from the best of +motives, now committed by appointing James Monroe to be minister to +France. It is one of the puzzles of our history to reconcile the +respectable and common-place gentleman, who for two terms as President +of the United States had less opposition than ever fell to the lot +of any other man in that office, with the violent, unscrupulous, and +extremely light-headed politician who figured as senator from Virginia +and minister to France at the close of the last century. Monroe at +the time of his appointment had distinguished himself chiefly by his +extreme opposition to the administration, and by his intrigues against +Hamilton, which were so dishonestly conducted that they ultimately +compelled the publication of the "Reynolds Pamphlet," a sore trial to +its author, and a lasting blot on the fame of the enemy who made the +publication necessary. From such a man loyalty to the President who +appointed him was hardly to be expected. But there was no reason +to suppose that he would lose his head, and forget that he was an +American, and not a French citizen. + +Monroe reached Paris in the summer of 1794. He was publicly received +by the Convention, made an undignified and florid speech, received +the national embrace from the president of the Convention, and then +effected an exchange of flags with more embracings and addresses. +But when he came to ask redress for the wrongs committed against our +merchants, he got no satisfaction. So far as he was concerned, this +appears to have been a matter of indifference, for he at once occupied +himself with the French proposition that we should lend France five +millions of dollars, and France in return was to see to it that we +obtained control of the Spanish possessions in North America. Monroe +fell in with this precious scheme to make the United States a +dependency of France, and received as a reward vast promises as to +what the great republic would do for us. Meantime he regarded with +suspicion Jay's movements in England, and endeavored to obtain +information, if not control, of that negotiation. In this he +completely failed; but he led the French government to believe, first, +that the English treaty would not be made, then that it would not be +ratified, and finally that the House would not make the appropriations +necessary to carry it into effect; and all the time he was +compromising his own government by his absurd efforts to involve it in +an offensive alliance with France. The upshot of it all was that he +was disowned at home, discredited in France, and brought our relations +with that nation into a state of dangerous complication, without +obtaining any redress for our injuries. + +Washington at first, little as he liked the theatrical performances +with which Monroe opened his mission, wrote about him with great +moderation to Jay, who was naturally much annoyed by the manner in +which Monroe had tried to interfere with his negotiations. Six months +later, however, Washington saw only too plainly that he had been +mistaken in his minister to France. He wrote to Randolph on July 24, +1795: "The conduct of Mr. Monroe is of a piece with that of the other; +and one can scarcely forbear thinking that these acts are part of a +premeditated system to embarrass the executive government." When it +became clear that Monroe had omitted to explain properly our reasons +for treating with England, that he had held out hopes to the French +government which were totally unauthorized, that he had brought on a +renewal of the hostilities of that government, and that he had placed +us in all ways in the most unenviable light, Washington recalled him, +and appointed Charles Cotesworth Pinckney in his place. By this time +too he was thoroughly disgusted with Monroe's performances, and in his +letter to Pinckney, on July 8, 1796, offering him the appointment to +Paris, he said: "It is a fact too notorious to be denied that the +greatest embarrassments under which the administration of this +government labors proceed from the counter-action of people among +ourselves, who are more disposed to promote the views of another +nation than to establish a national character of their own; and that, +unless the virtuous and independent men of this country will come +forward, it is not difficult to predict the consequences. Such is my +decided opinion." He felt, as he wrote to Hamilton at the close of his +administration, that "the conduct of France towards this country is, +according to my ideas of it, outrageous beyond conception; not to +be warranted by her treaty with us, by the law of nations, by any +principle of justice, or even by a regard to decent appearances." This +was after we had begun to reap the humiliations which Monroe's folly +had prepared for us, and it is easy to understand that Washington +regarded their author with anything but satisfaction or approval. + +The culprit himself took a very different view, came home presently +in great wrath, and proceeded to pose as a martyr and compile +a vindication, which he entitled "A View of the Conduct of the +Executive," and which surpassed in bulk any of the vindications in +which that period of our history was prolific. It was published after +Washington had retired to private life, and did not much disturb his +serenity. In a letter to Nicholas, on March 8, 1798, he said: "If the +executive is chargeable with 'premeditating the destruction of Mr. +Monroe in his appointment, because he was the _centre_ around which +the Republican party rallied in the Senate' (a circumstance quite new +to me), it is to be hoped he will give it credit for its lenity toward +that gentleman in having designated several others, not of the Senate, +as victims to this office _before_ the sacrifice of Mr. Monroe was +even had in contemplation. As this must be some consolation to him and +his friends, I hope they will embrace it." + +Washington apparently did not think Monroe was worthy of anything more +serious than a little sarcasm, and he was quite content, as he said, +to leave the book to the tribunal to which the author himself had +appealed. He read the book, however, with care, and in his methodical +way he appended a number of notes, which are worth consideration +by all persons interested in the character of Washington. They are +especially to be commended to those who think that he was merely good +and wise and solemn, for it would be difficult to find a better piece +of destructive criticism, or a more ready and thorough knowledge of +complicated foreign relations, than are contained in these brief +notes. His own opinion of Monroe is concisely stated in one of them. +Referring to one of that gentleman's statements he said: "For this +there is no better proof than his own opinion; whilst there is +abundant evidence of his being a mere tool in the hands of the French +government, cajoled and led away always by unmeaning assurances of +friendship." With this brief comment we may leave the Monroe incident. +His appointment was a mistake, and increased existing complications, +which were not finally settled until the next administration. + +Monroe's recall was the last act, however, in the long contest of the +Jay treaty, and it was also, as it happened, the last important act in +Washington's foreign policy. That policy has been traced here in its +various branches, but it is worth while to look at it as a whole +before leaving it, in order to see just what the President aimed at +and just what he effected. The guiding principle, which had been with +him from the day when he took command of the army at Cambridge, was to +make the United States independent. The war had achieved this so far +as our connection with England was concerned, but it still remained to +prove to the world that we were an independent nation in fact as well +as in name. For this the neutrality policy was adopted and carried +out. We were not only to cease from dependence on the nations of +Europe, but we were to go on our own way with a policy of our own +wholly apart from them. It was also necessary to lift up our own +politics, to detach our minds from those of other nations, and to make +us truly Americans. All this Washington's policy did so far as it was +possible to do it in the time given to him. A new generation had to +come upon the stage before our politics were finally taken out of +colonialism and made national and American, but the idea was that +of the first President. It was the foresight and the courage of +Washington which at the outset placed the United States in their +relations with foreign nations on the ground of a firm, independent, +and American policy. + +His foreign policy had, however, some immediate practical results +which were of vast importance. In December, 1795, he wrote to Morris: +"It is well known that peace has been (to borrow a modern phrase) +the order of the day with me since the disturbances in Europe first +commenced. My policy has been, and will continue to be while I have +the honor to remain in the administration, to maintain friendly terms +with, but to be independent of, all the nations of the earth; to share +in the broils of none; to fulfill our own engagements; to supply the +wants and be carriers for them all; being thoroughly convinced that it +is our policy and interest to do so. Nothing short of self-respect +and that justice which is essential to a national character ought to +involve us in war; for sure I am, if this country is preserved in +tranquillity twenty years longer, it may bid defiance in a just cause +to any power whatever; such in that time would be its population, +wealth, and resources." + +He wanted time, but he wanted space also for his country; and if we +look for a moment at the results of his foreign policy we see clearly +how he got both. The time gained by peace without any humiliating +concessions is plain enough. If we look a little further and a little +deeper, we can see how he compassed his other object. The true and the +first mission of the American people was, in Washington's theory, the +conquest of the continent which stretched away wild and silent behind +them, for in that direction lay the sure road to national greatness. +The first step was to bind by interest, trade, and habit of +communication the Atlantic States with the settlements beyond the +mountains, and for this he had planned canals and highways in the days +of the confederation. The next step was to remove every obstacle which +fettered the march of American settlement; and for this he rolled +back the Indian tribes, patiently negotiated with Spain until the +Mississippi was opened, and at great personal sacrifice and trial +signed the Jay treaty, and obtained the surrender of the British +posts. When Washington went out of office, the way was open to the +western movement; the dangers of disintegration by reason of foreign +intrigues on the frontier were removed; peace had been maintained; and +the national sentiment had had opportunity for rapid growth. France +had discovered that, although she had been our ally, we were not her +dependants; other nations had been brought to perceive that the United +States meant to have a foreign policy all its own; and the American +people were taught that their first duty was to be Americans and +nothing else. There is no need to comment on or to praise the +greatness of a policy with such objects and results as these. The mere +summary is enough, and it speaks for itself and for its author in a +way which makes words needless. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +WASHINGTON AS A PARTY MAN + + +Washington was not chosen to office by a political party; he +considered parties to be perilous things, and he entered the +presidency determined to have nothing to do with them. Yet, as has +already been pointed out, he took the members of his cabinet entirely +from one of the two parties which then existed, and which had been +produced by the divisions over the Constitution and its adoption. To +this charge he would no doubt have replied that the parties caused +by the constitutional differences had ceased to exist when that +instrument went into operation, and that it was to be supposed that +all men were then united in support of the government. Accepting this +view of it, it only remains to see how he fared when new and purely +political parties, as was inevitable, sprang into active life. + +Whatever his own opinions may have been as to parties and +party-strife, Washington was under no delusions in regard either to +human nature or to himself, and he had no expectation that everything +he said or did would meet with universal approbation. He well knew +that there would be dissatisfaction, and no man ever took high office +with a mind more ready to bear criticism and to profit by it. Three +months after his inauguration he wrote to his friend David Stuart: +"I should like to be informed of the public opinion of both men and +measures, and of none more than myself; not so much of what may be +thought commendable parts, if any, of my conduct, as of those which +are conceived to be of a different complexion. The man who means to +commit no wrong will never be guilty of enormities; consequently he +can never be unwilling to learn what are ascribed to him as foibles. +If they are really such, the knowledge of them in a well-disposed mind +will go half-way towards a reform. If they are not errors, he can +explain and justify the motives of his actions." This readiness +to hear criticism and this watching of public opinion were +characteristic, for his one desire was to know the truth and never +deceive himself. His journey through New England in the autumn of that +year, his visit to Rhode Island a year later, and his trip through the +southern States in the spring of 1791, had a double motive. He wished +to bring home to the people the existence and the character of the new +government by his appearance among them as its representative; and he +desired also to learn from his own observation, and from inquiries +made on the spot, what the people thought of the administration and +its policies, and of the doings of Congress. He was a keen observer +and a good gatherer of information; for he was patient and persistent, +and had that best of all gifts for getting at public opinion, an +absolute and cheerful readiness to listen to advice from any one. His +travels all had the same result. In the South as in New England he +found that the people were pleased with the new government, and +contented with the prosperity which began at once to flow from the +adoption of a stable national system. + +More credit, if anything, was given to it than it really deserved; +for, as he had written to Lafayette before the Constitution went into +effect, "Many blessings will be attributed to our new government which +are now taking their rise from that industry and frugality into which +the people have been forced from necessity." Whether this were true or +not, the new government was entitled to the benefit of all accidents, +and Washington's correct conclusion was that the great body of the +people were heartily with him and his administration. But he was +also quite aware that all the criticism was not friendly, and as +the measures of the government one by one passed Congress, he saw +divisions of sentiment appear, slight at first, but deepening and +hardening with each successive contest. Indeed, he had not been in +office a year when he wrote a long letter to Stuart deploring the +sectionalism which had begun to show itself. The South was complaining +that everything was done in the interest of the northern and eastern +States, and against this idea Washington argued with great force. He +was especially severe on the unreasonable and childish character of +such grievances, and he attributed the feeling in certain States +largely to the outcries of persons who had come home disappointed +in some personal matter from the seat of government. "It is to be +lamented," he said, "that the editors of the different gazettes in the +Union do not more generally and more correctly (instead of stuffing +their papers with scurrility and nonsensical declamation, which few +would read if they were apprised of the contents) publish the debates +in Congress on all great national questions. And this, with no +uncommon pains, every one of them might do." Washington evidently +believed that there was no serious danger of the people going wrong +if they were only fully informed. But the able editors of that day no +doubt felt that they and their correspondents were better fitted to +enlighten the public than any one else could be, and there is no +evidence that any of them ever followed the President's suggestion. + +The jealousies and the divisions in Congress, which Washington watched +with hearty dislike on account of their sectional character, began, as +is well known, with the financial measures of the Treasury. As time +went on they became steadily more marked and better defined, and at +last they spread to the cabinet. Jefferson had returned to take his +place as Secretary of State after an absence of many years, and +during that time he had necessarily dropped out of the course of +home politics. He came back with a very moderate liking for the +Constitution, and an intention undoubtedly to do his best as a member +of the cabinet. His first and most natural impulse, of course, was +to fall in with the administration of which he was a part; and so +completely did he do this that it was at his table that the famous +bargain was made which assumed the state debts and took the capital to +the banks of the Potomac. + +Exactly what led to the first breach between Jefferson and Hamilton, +whose financial policy was then in the full tide of success, is not +now very easy to determine. Jefferson's action was probably due to a +mixture of motives and a variety of causes, as is generally the case +with men, even when they are founders of the democratic party. In the +first place, Jefferson very soon discovered that Hamilton was +looked upon as the leader in the cabinet and in the policies of the +administration, and this fact excited a very natural jealousy on his +part, because he was the official head of the President's advisers. +In the second place, it was inevitable that Jefferson should dislike +Hamilton, for there never were two men more unlike in character and in +their ways of looking at things. Hamilton was bold, direct, imperious, +and masculine; he went straight to his mark, and if he encountered +opposition he either rode over it or broke it down. When Jefferson +met with opposition he went round it or undermined it; he was adroit, +flexible, and extremely averse to open fighting. There was also good +ground for a genuine difference of opinion between the two secretaries +in regard to the policy of the government. Jefferson was a thorough +representative of the great democratic movement of the time. At bottom +his democracy was of the sensible, practical American type, but he +had come home badly bitten by many of the wild notions which at that +moment pervaded Paris. A man of much less insight than Jefferson would +have had no difficulty in perceiving that Hamilton and his +friends were not in sympathy with these ideas. They hoped for the +establishment of a republic, but they desired for it a highly +energetic and centralized government not devoid of aristocratic +tendencies. This fundamental difference of opinion, increased as it +was by personal jealousies, soon put Jefferson, therefore, into an +attitude of hostility to the men who were then guiding the policy of +the government. The new administration had been so successful that +there was at first practically no party of opposition, and the task +before Jefferson involved the creation of a party, the formulation of +principles, and the definition of issues, with appropriate shibboleths +for popular consumption. Jefferson knew that Hamilton and all who +fought with him were as sincerely in favor of a republic as he himself +was; but his unerring genius in political management told him that he +could never raise a party or make a party-cry out of the statement +that, while he favored a democratic republic, the men to whom he was +opposed preferred one of a more aristocratic caste. It was necessary +to have something much more highly seasoned than this. So he took the +ground that his opponents were monarchists, bent on establishing a +monarchy in this country, and were backed by a "corrupt squadron" +in Congress in the pay of the Treasury. This was of course utter +nonsense, but it served its purpose admirably. Jefferson, indeed, +shouted these cries so much that he almost came to believe in them +himself, and sympathetic writers to this day repeat them as if they +had reality instead of having been mere noise to frighten the unwary. +The prime object of it all was to make the great leaders odious by +connecting them in the popular mind with the royal government that had +been overthrown. + +Jefferson's first move was a covert one. In the spring of 1791 he +received Thomas Paine's "Rights of Man," and straightway sent the +pamphlet to the printer with a note of approbation reflecting upon +John Adams. The pamphlet promptly appeared in a reprint with the +note prefixed. It made much stir, and the published approval of the +Secretary of State excited a great deal of criticism, much of which +was very hostile. Jefferson thereupon expressed extreme surprise that +his note had been printed, and on the plea of explaining the matter +wrote to Washington a letter, in which he declared that his friend +Mr. Adams, for whom he had a most cordial esteem, was an apostate to +hereditary monarchy and nobility. He further described his old friend +as a political heretic and as the bellwether Davila, upon whom and +whose writings Mr. Adams had recently been publishing some discourses. +It is but fair to say that no more ingenious attack on the +Vice-President could have been made, but the purpose of it was simply +to arrest the public attention for the real struggle which was to +follow. + +The true object of all these movements was to rally a party and break +down Jefferson's great colleague in the cabinet. The "Rights of Man" +served to start the discussion; and the next step was to bring on from +New York Philip Freneau, a verse-writer and journalist, and make him +translating clerk in the State Department, and editor of an opposition +newspaper known as the "National Gazette." The new journal proceeded +to do its work after the fashion of the time. It teemed with abuse +not only of Hamilton and Adams and all the supporters of the treasury +measures, denouncing them as "monarchists," "aristocrats," and "a +corrupt squadron," but it even began a series of coarse assaults +upon the President himself. Jefferson, of course, denied that he had +anything to do with the writing in the newspaper, and Freneau made +oath at the time that the Secretary wrote nothing; but in his old age +he declared that Jefferson wrote or dictated all the most abusive +articles, and he showed a file of the "Gazette" with these articles +marked. Strict veracity was not the strongest characteristic of either +Freneau or Jefferson, and it is really of but little consequence +whether Freneau was lying in his old age or in the prime of life. The +undoubted facts of the case are enough to fix the responsibility upon +Jefferson, where it belongs. The editor of a newspaper devoted +to abusing the administration was brought to Philadelphia by the +Secretary of State, was given a place in his department, and was his +confidential friend. Jefferson himself took advantage of his +position to gather material for attacks upon his chief, and upon his +colleagues, to whom he was bound to be loyal by every rule which +dictates the conduct of honorable men. He did not, moreover, content +himself with this outside work. It has been too much overlooked that +Jefferson, in addition to forming a party and organizing attacks upon +the Secretary of the Treasury and his friends, sought in the first +instance to break down Hamilton in the cabinet, to deprive him of the +confidence of Washington, and by driving him from the administration +to get control himself. At no time did Jefferson ever understand +Washington, but he knew him well enough to be quite aware that he +would never give up a friend like Hamilton on account of any newspaper +attacks. He therefore took a more insidious method. + +Knowing that Washington was in the habit of consulting with old +friends at home of all shades of opinion in regard to public affairs, +he contrived through their agency to have his own charges against +Hamilton laid before the President. He also, to make perfectly sure, +wrote himself to Washington, candidly setting forth outside criticism, +and his letter took the form of a well-arranged indictment of the +Treasury measures. This method had the advantage of assailing Hamilton +without incurring any responsibility, and the charges were skilfully +formulated and ingeniously constructed to raise in the mind of the +reader every possible suspicion. At this point Washington comes for +the first time into the famous controversy from which our two great +political parties were born. He did exactly what Jefferson would not +have done, sent the charges all duly formulated to Hamilton, and asked +him his opinion about them. As the accusations thus made against the +policies of the government and the Secretary of the Treasury were all +mere wind of the "monarchist" and "corrupt squadron" order, Hamilton +disposed of them with very little difficulty. The whole proceeding, +if Jefferson was aware of it at the time, must have been a great +disappointment to him. But his mistake was the natural error of an +ingenious man wasting his efforts on one of great directness and +perfect simplicity of character. Hamilton's answer was what Washington +undoubtedly expected. He knew the hollowness of the attack, but none +the less he was made anxious by it as an indication of the serious +party divisions rising about him. This, however, was but the +beginning, and he was soon to have much more direct evidence of the +grave nature of a political conflict, which he then could not bring +himself to believe was irrepressible. + +Hamilton, on his side, was not the most patient of men, and although +he bore the attacks of Frenean for some time in silence he finally +retaliated. He did not get any one to do his fighting for him, but +under a thin disguise proceeded to answer in Fenno's newspaper the +abuse of the "National Gazette." He was the best political writer in +the country, and when he struck, his blows told. Jefferson winced and +cried out under the punishment, but it would have been more dignified +in Hamilton to have kept out of the newspapers. Still there was the +fight. It had gone from the cabinet to the press, and the public knew +that the two principal secretaries were at swords' points and were +marshaling behind them strong political forces. The point had been +reached where the President was compelled to interfere unless he +wished his administration to be thoroughly discredited by the bitter +and open conflicts of its members. + +He wrote to both secretaries in a grave and almost pathetic tone of +remonstrance, urging them to abandon their quarrel, and, sinking minor +differences, to work with him for the success of the Constitution to +which they were both devoted. Each man replied after his fashion. +Hamilton's letter was short and straight-forward. He could not profess +to have changed his opinion as to the conduct or purpose of his +colleague, but he regretted the strife which had arisen, and promised +to do all that was in his power to allay it by ceasing from further +attacks. Jefferson wrote at great length, controverting Hamilton's +published letters in a way which showed that he was still smarting +from the well-aimed shafts. He also contrived to make his own defense +the vehicle for a renewal of all his accusations against the Treasury, +and he wound up by saying that he looked forward to retirement with +the longing of "a wave-worn mariner," and that he should reserve any +further fighting that he had to do until he was out of office. Soon +after he followed this letter with another, containing a collection +of extracts from his own correspondence while in Paris, to show his +devotion to the Constitution. One is irresistibly reminded by all +this of the Player Queen--"The lady protests too much, methinks." +Washington had not accused Jefferson of lack of loyalty to the +Constitution, indeed he had made no accusations against him of any +kind; but Jefferson knew that his own position was a false one, and +he could not refrain from taking a defensive tone. Washington, in his +reply, said that he needed no proofs of Jefferson's fidelity to the +Constitution, and reiterated his earnest desire for an accommodation +of all differences. "I will frankly and solemnly declare," he said, +"that I believe the views of both of you to be pure and well-meant, +and that experience only will decide with respect to the salutariness +of the measures which are the subjects of dispute.... I could, and +indeed was about to, add more on this interesting subject, but will +forbear, at least for the present, after expressing a wish that the +cup which has been presented to us may not be snatched from our +lips by a discordance of action, when I am persuaded there is no +discordance in your views." + +The difficulty was that there was not only discordance in the views of +the two secretaries, but a fundamental political difference, extending +throughout the people, which they typified. The accommodation of views +and the support of the Constitution could only mean a support of +Washington's administration and its measures. Those measures not +only had the President's approval, but they were in many respects +peculiarly his own, and in them he rightly saw the success and +maintenance of the Constitution. But, unfortunately for the interests +of harmony, these measures were either devised or ardently sustained +by the Secretary of the Treasury. They were not the measures of the +Secretary of State, and received from him either lukewarm support +or active, if furtive, hostility. The only peace possible was in +Jefferson's giving in his entire adherence to the policies of +Washington and Hamilton, which were radically opposed to his own. In +one word, a real, profound, and inevitable party division had come, +and it had found the opposing chiefs side by side in the cabinet. + +Against this conclusion Washington struggled hard. He had come in as +the representative and by the votes of the whole people, and he shrank +from any step which would seem to make him lean on a party for support +in his administration. He had made up his cabinet with what he very +justly considered the strongest material. He believed that a breaking +up of the cabinet or a change in its membership would be an injury to +the cause of good government, and he was so entirely single-minded +in his own views and wishes, that, with all his knowledge of human +nature, he found it difficult to understand how any one could differ +from him materially. Moreover, having started with the firm intention +of governing without party, he determined, with his usual persistence, +to carry it through, if it were possible. When party feeling had +once developed, and division had sprung up between the two principal +officers of his cabinet, no greater risk could have been run than +that which Washington took in refusing to make the changes which were +necessary to render the administration harmonious. With any lesser +man, such a perilous experiment would have failed and brought with it +disastrous consequences. There is no greater proof of the force of his +will and the weight and strength of his character than the fact that +he held in his cabinet Jefferson and Hamilton, despite their hatred +for each other and each other's principles, and that he not only +prevented any harm, but actually drew great results from the +talents of each of them. Yet, with all his strength of grasp, this +ill-assorted combination could not last, although Washington resisted +the inevitable in a surprising way, and he even begged Jefferson to +remain when the impossibility of doing so had become quite clear to +that gentleman. + +The remonstrance in regard to the Freneau matter had but a temporary +effect. Hamilton stopped his attacks, it is true; but Jefferson did +not discontinue his, and he set on foot a movement which was designed +to destroy his rival's public and private reputation. Hamilton met +this attack in Congress, where he refuted it signally; and although +the ostensible movers were members of the House, the defeat recoiled +on the Secretary of State. Having failed in Congress and before the +public to ruin his opponent, and having failed equally to shake +Washington's confidence in Hamilton or the latter's influence in the +administration, Jefferson made up his mind that the cabinet was no +longer the place for him. He became more than ever satisfied that +he was a "wave-worn mariner," and after some hesitation he finally +resigned and transferred his political operations to another field. A +year later Hamilton, from very different reasons of a purely private +character, followed him. + +Meantime many events had occurred which all tended to show the growing +intensity of party divisions, and which were not without their effect +upon the mind of the President. In 1792 it became necessary to +consider the question of the approaching election, and all elements +united in urging upon Washington the absolute necessity of accepting +the presidency a second time. Hamilton and the Federalists, of course, +desired Washington's reëlection, because they regarded him as their +leader, as the friend and supporter of their measures, and as the +great bulwark of the government. Jefferson, who was equally urgent, +felt that in the unformed condition of his own party the withdrawal of +Washington, in addition to its injury to the general welfare, +would leave his incoherent forces at the mercy of an avowed and +thorough-going Federalist administration. + +So it came about that Washington received another unanimous election. +He had no great longing for public office, but at this time he seems +to have been not without a desire to continue President, in order that +he might carry his measures to completion. In the unanimity of the +choice he took a perfectly natural pleasure, for besides the personal +satisfaction, he could not but feel that it greatly strengthened his +hands in doing the work which he had at heart. On January 20, 1793, +he wrote to Henry Lee: "A mind must be insensible, indeed, not to be +gratefully impressed by so distinguished and honorable a testimony of +public approbation and confidence; and as I suffered my name to be +contemplated on this occasion, it is more than probable that I should, +for a moment, have experienced chagrin if my reëlection had not been +by a pretty respectable vote. But to say I feel pleasure from the +prospect of commencing another tour of duty would be a departure from +the truth." Some time was still to pass before Washington, either by +word or deed, would acknowledge himself to be the chief or even a +member of a party; but before he entered the presidency a second time, +he had no manner of doubt that a party existed which was opposed to +him and to all his measures. + +The establishment of the government and the treasury measures had +very quickly rallied a strong party, which kept the name that it had +adopted while fighting the battles of the Constitution. They were +known in their own day, and have been known ever since to history, as +the Federalists. The opposition, composed chiefly of those who had +resisted the adoption of the Constitution, were discredited at the +very start by the success of the union and the new government. When +Jefferson took hold of them they were disorganized and even nameless, +having no better appellation than that of "Anti-Federalists." In +the process of time their great chief gave them a name, a set of +principles, a war-cry, an organization, and at last an overwhelming +victory. They began to take on something like form and coherence in +resisting Hamilton's financial measures; but the success of his policy +was so dazzling that they were rather cowed by it, and were left by +their defeat little better off in the way of discipline than before. +The French Revolution and its consequences, including a war with +England, gave them a much better opportunity. It is melancholy to +think that American parties should have entered upon their first +struggle purely on questions of foreign politics. The only explanation +is to repeat that we were still colonists in all but name and +allegiance, and it was Washington's task not only to establish a +dignified and independent policy of his own abroad, but to beat down +colonial politics at home. + +In the first burst of rejoicing over the uprising of the French +people, no divisions were apparent; but the arrival of Genet was the +signal for their beginning. The extraordinary spectacle was then +presented of an American party arrayed against the administration +under the lead of the French minister, and with the strong, although +covert sympathy of the Secretary of State. The popular feeling in fact +was so strongly with France that the new party seemed on the +surface to have almost universal support. The firm attitude of the +administration and Washington's unyielding adherence to his policy of +neutrality gave them their first serious check, but also embittered +their attacks. In the first three years of the government almost every +one refrained from attacking Washington personally. The unlimited love +and respect in which he was held were the principal causes of this +moderation, but even those opponents who were not influenced by +feelings of respect were restrained by a wholesome prudence from +bringing upon themselves the odium of being enemies of the President. + +The fiction that the king could do no wrong was carried to the last +extreme by the Long Parliament when they made war on Charles in order +to remove him from evil counselors. It was, no doubt, the exercise of +a wise conservatism in that instance; but in the United States, and +in the ordinary condition of politics, such a position was of course +untenable. The President was responsible for his cabinet and for the +measures of his administration, and it was impossible to separate them +long, even when the chief magistrate was so great and so well-beloved +as Washington. Freneau, editing his newspaper from the office of the +Secretary of State, seems to have been the first to break the line. He +passed speedily from attacks on measures to attacks on men, and among +the latter he soon included the President. Washington had had too much +experience of slander and abuse during the revolutionary war to be +worried by them. But Freneau took pains to send him copies of his +newspapers, a piece of impertinence which apparently led to a little +vigorous denunciation, the account of which seems probable, although +our only authority is in Jefferson's "Ana." As the attacks went on and +were extended, and when Bache joined in with the "Aurora," Washington +was not long in coming to the unpleasant conclusion that all this +opposition proceeded from a well-formed plan, and was the work of +a party which designed to break down his measures and ruin his +administration. All statesmen intrusted in a representative system +with the work of government are naturally prone to think that their +opponents are also the enemies of the public welfare, and Washington +was no exception to the rule. Such an opinion is indeed unavoidable, +for a public man must have faith that his own measures are the best +for the country, and if he did not, he would be but a faint-hearted +representative, unfit to govern and unable to lead. History has agreed +with Washington in his view of the work of his administration, and has +set it down as essential to the right and successful foundation of the +government. It is not to be wondered at that at the moment Washington +should regard a party swayed by the French minister and seeking to +involve us in war as unpatriotic and dangerous. He even thought that +one probable solution of Genet's conduct was that he was the tool and +not the leader of the party which sustained him. In fact, his general +view of the opposition was marked by that perfect clearness which was +characteristic of all his opinions when he had fully formed them. In +July, 1793, he wrote to Henry Lee:-- + +"That there are in this as well as in all other countries, +discontented characters, I well know; as also that these characters +are actuated by very different views: some good, from an opinion that +the general measures of the government are impure; some bad, and, if I +might be allowed to use so harsh an expression, diabolical, inasmuch +as they are not only meant to impede the measures of that government +generally, but more especially, as a great means toward the +accomplishment of it, to destroy the confidence which it is necessary +for the people to place, until they have unequivocal proof of demerit, +in their public servants. In this light I consider myself whilst I +am an occupant of office; and if they were to go further and call me +their slave during this period, I would not dispute the point. + +"But in what will this abuse terminate? For the result, as it respects +myself, I care not; for I have a consolation within that no earthly +efforts can deprive me of, and that is, that neither ambition +nor interested motives have influenced my conduct. The arrows of +malevolence, therefore, however barbed and well pointed, never can +reach the most vulnerable part of me; though, whilst I am up as a +_mark_, they will be continually aimed. The publications in Freneau's +and Bache's papers are outrages on common decency, and they progress +in that style in proportion as their pieces are treated with contempt, +and are passed by in silence by those at whom they are aimed. The +tendency of them, however, is too obvious to be mistaken by men of +cool and dispassionate minds, and, in my opinion, ought to alarm them, +because it is difficult to prescribe bounds to the effect." + +He was not much given, however, to talking about his assailants. If he +said anything, it was usually only in the way of contemptuous sarcasm, +as when he wrote to Morris: "The affairs of this country _cannot go +amiss_. There are _so many watchful guardians of them_, and such +_infallible guides_, that one is at no loss for a director at every +turn. But of these matters I shall say little." If these attacks had +any effect on him, it was only to make him more determined in carrying +out his purposes. In the first skirmish, which ended in the recall +of Genet, he not only prevailed, but the French minister's audacity +especially in venturing to appeal to the people against their +President, demoralized the opposition and brought public opinion round +to the side of the administration with an overwhelming force. + +Genet's mischief, however, did not end with him. He had sown the seeds +of many troubles, and among others the idea of societies on the model +of the famous Jacobin Club of Paris. That American citizens should +have so little self-respect as to borrow the political jargon and ape +the political manners of Paris was sad enough. To put on red caps, +drink confusion to tyrants, sing _Ça ira_, and call each other +"citizen," was foolish to the verge of idiocy, but it was at least +harmless. When, however, they began to form "democratic societies" +on the model of the Jacobins, for the defense of liberty against a +government which the people themselves had made, they ceased to be +fatuous and became mischievous. These societies, senseless imitations +of French examples, and having no real cause to defend liberty, became +simply party organizations, with a strong tendency to foster license +and disorder. Washington regarded them with unmixed disgust, for he +attributed to them the agitation and discontent of the settlers beyond +the mountains, which threatened to embroil us with Spain, and he +believed also that the much more serious matter of the whiskey +rebellion was their doing. After having exhausted every reasonable +means of concession and compromise, and having concentrated the best +public opinion of the country behind him, he resolved to put down this +"rebellion" with a strong hand, and he wrote to Henry Lee, just as +he was preparing to take the last step: "It is with equal pride and +satisfaction I add that, as far as my information extends, this +insurrection is viewed with universal indignation and abhorrence, +except by those who have never missed an opportunity, by side-blows +or otherwise, to attack the general government; and even among these +there is not a spirit hardy enough yet openly to justify the daring +infractions of law and order; but by palliatives they are attempting +to suspend all proceedings against the insurgents, until Congress +shall have decided on the case, thereby intending to gain time, and, +if possible, to make the evil more extensive, more formidable, and, of +course, more difficult to counteract and subdue. + +"I consider this insurrection as the first formidable fruit of the +democratic societies, brought forth, I believe, too prematurely for +their own views, which may contribute to the annihilation of them." + +The insurrection vanished on the advance of the forces of the United +States. It had been formidable enough to alarm all conservative +people, and its inglorious end left the opposition, which had given it +a certain encouragement, much discredited. This matter being settled, +Washington determined to strike next at what he considered the chief +sources of the evil, the clubs, which, to use his own words, "were +instituted for the express purpose of poisoning the minds of the +people of this country, and making them discontented with the +government." Accordingly, in his speech to the next Congress he +denounced the democratic societies. After tracing the course of the +whiskey rebellion, he said:-- + +"And when in the calm moments of reflection they [the citizens of +the United States] shall have traced the origin and progress of the +insurrection, let them determine whether it has not been fomented by +combinations of men, who, careless of consequences, and disregarding +the unerring truth, that those who rouse cannot always appease a civil +convulsion, have disseminated, from an ignorance or perversion +of facts, suspicions, jealousies, and accusations of the whole +government." + +The opposition both in Congress and in the newspapers shrieked loudly +over this plain speaking; but when Washington struck a blow, it was +usually well timed, and the present instance was no exception. Coming +immediately after the failure of the insurrection, and the triumph of +the government, this strong expression of the President's disapproval +had a fatal effect upon the democratic societies. They withered away +with the rapidity of weeds when their roots have been skillfully cut. + +After this, even if Washington still refused to consider himself the +head of a party, the opposition no longer had any doubts on that +point. They not only regarded him as the chief of the Federalists, but +also, and with perfect justice, as their own most dangerous enemy, +and the man who had dealt them and their cause the most deadly blows. +Whatever restraint they may have hitherto placed upon themselves in +dealing with him personally, they now abandoned, and the opportunity +for open war soon came to them in the vexed question of the British +treaty, where they occupied much better ground than in the Genet +affair, and commanded much more popular sympathy. Their orators did +not hesitate to say that the conduct of the President in this affair +had been improper and monarchical, and that he ought to be impeached. +After the treaty was signed, the "Aurora" declared that the President +had violated the Constitution, and made a treaty with a nation +abhorred by our people; that he answered the respectful remonstrances +of Boston and New York as if he were the omnipotent director of a +seraglio, and had thundered contempt upon the people with as much +confidence as if he sat upon the throne of "Industan." + +All these remarks and many more of like tenor have been gathered +together and very picturesquely arranged by Mr. McMaster, in whose +volumes they may be studied with advantage by any one who has doubts +as to Washington's political position. It is not probable that the +writer of the brilliant diatribe just quoted had any very distinct +idea about either seraglios or "Industan," but he, and others of like +mind, probably took pleasure in the words, as did the old woman who +always loved to hear Mesopotamia mentioned. Other persons, however, +were more definite in their statements. John Beckley, who had once +been clerk of the House, writing under the very opposite signature of +"A Calm Observer," declared that Washington had been overdrawing his +salary in defiance of law, and had actually stolen in this way $4,750. +Such being the case, the "Calm Observer" very naturally inquired: +"What will posterity say of the man who has done this thing? Will it +not say that the mask of political hypocrisy has been worn by Caesar, +by Cromwell, and by Washington?" Another patriot, also of the +Democratic party, declared that the President had been false to +a republican government. He said that Washington maintained the +seclusion of a monk and the supercilious distance of a tyrant; and +that the concealing carriage drawn by supernumerary horses expressed +the will of the President, and defined the loyal duty of the people. + +The support of Genet, the democratic societies, and now this concerted +and bitter opposition to the Jay treaty, convinced Washington, if +conviction were needed, that he could carry on his administration only +by the help of those who were thoroughly in sympathy with his policy +and purposes. When Jefferson left the State Department, the President +promoted Randolph, and put Bradford, a Federalist, in the place of +Attorney-General. When Hamilton left the Treasury, Oliver Wolcott, +Hamilton's right-hand man, and the staunchest of party men, was +given the position thus left vacant. If Randolph had remained in the +cabinet, he would have become a Federalist. Like all men disposed to +turn, when he was compelled to jump he sprang far, as was shown by +his signing the treaty and memorial, both of which he strongly +disapproved. He was quite ready to fall in with the rest of the +cabinet, but on account of the Fauchet dispatch he resigned. Then +Washington, after offering the portfolio to several persons known to +be in hearty sympathy with him, took the risk of giving it to Timothy +Pickering, who was by no means a safe leader, rather than take any +chance of getting another adviser who was not entirely of his own way +of thinking. At the same time he gave the secretaryship of war to +James McHenry, a most devoted personal friend and follower. He still +held back from calling himself a party chief, but he had discovered, +as William of Orange discovered, that he could not, even with his iron +will and lofty intent, overcome the impossible, alter human nature, +or carry on a successful government under a representative system, +without the assistance of a party. He stated his conclusion with his +wonted plainness in a letter to Pickering written in September, 1795, +in the midst of the struggle over the treaty. "I shall not," he said, +"whilst I have the honor to administer the government, bring a man +into any office of consequence knowingly, whose political tenets are +adverse to the measures which the general government are pursuing; for +this, in my opinion, would be a sort of political suicide. That it +would embarrass its movements is most certain." A terser statement of +the doctrine of party government it would be difficult to find, and +in the conduct of Monroe and the course of the opposition journals +Washington had ample proofs of the soundness of his theory. + +If he had needed to be strengthened in his determination, his +opponents furnished the requisite aid. In February, 1796, the House +refused to adjourn on his birthday for half an hour, in order to go +and pay him their respects, as had been the pleasant custom up to that +time. The Democrats of that day were in no confusion of mind as to the +party to which Washington belonged, and they did not hesitate to put +this deliberate slight upon him in order to mark their dislike. This +was not the utterance of a newspaper editor, but the well-considered +act of the representatives of a party in Congress. Party feeling, +indeed, could hardly have gone further; and this single incident is +sufficient to dispel the pleasing delusion that party strife and +bitterness are the product of modern days, and of more advanced forms +of political organization. + +Yet despite all these attacks there can be no doubt that Washington's +hold upon the masses of the people was substantially unshaken. They +would have gladly seen him assume the presidency for the third time, +and if the test had been made, thousands of men who gave their votes +to the opposition would have still supported him for the greatest +office in their gift. But this time Washington would not yield to the +wishes of his friends or of the country. He felt that he had done his +work and earned the rest and the privacy for which he longed above all +earthly things. In September, 1796, he published his farewell address, +and no man ever left a nobler political testament. Through much +tribulation he had done his great part in establishing the government +of the Union, which might easily have come to naught without his +commanding influence. He had imparted to it the dignity of his own +great character. He had sustained the splendid financial policy of +Hamilton. He had struck a fatal blow at the colonial spirit in our +politics, and had lifted up our foreign policy to a plane worthy of an +independent nation. He had stricken off the fetters which impeded the +march of western settlement, and without loss of honor had gained time +to enable our institutions to harden and become strong. He had made +peace with our most dangerous enemies, and, except in the case of +France, where there were perilous complications to be solved by his +successor, he left the United States in far better and more honorable +relations with the rest of the world than even the most sanguine would +have dared to hope when the Constitution was formed. Now from the +heights of great achievement he turned to say farewell to the people +whom he so much loved, and whom he had so greatly served. Every word +was instinct with the purest and wisest patriotism. "Be united," he +said; "be Americans. The name which belongs to you, in your national +capacity, must exalt the just pride of patriotism more than any +appellation derived from local discriminations. Let there be no +sectionalism, no North, South, East or West; you are all dependent one +on another, and should be one in union. Beware of attacks, open or +covert, upon the Constitution. Beware of the baneful effects of +party spirit and of the ruin to which its extremes must lead. Do not +encourage party spirit, but use every effort to mitigate and assuage +it. Keep the departments of government separate, promote education, +cherish the public credit, avoid debt. Observe justice and good faith +toward all nations; have neither passionate hatreds nor passionate +attachments to any; and be independent politically of all. In one +word, be a nation, be Americans, and be true to yourselves." + +His admonitions were received by the people at large with profound +respect, and sank deep into the public mind. As the generations have +come and gone, the farewell address has grown dearer to the hearts of +the people, and the children and the children's children of those to +whom it was addressed have turned to it in all times and known that +there was no room for error in following its counsel. + +Yet at the moment, notwithstanding the general sadness at Washington's +retirement and the deep regard for his last words of advice, the +opposition was so thoroughly hostile that they seized on the address +itself as a theme for renewed attack upon its author. "His character," +said one Democrat, "can only be respectable while it is not known; he +is arbitrary, avaricious, ostentatious; without skill as a soldier, he +has crept into fame by the places he has held. His financial measures +burdened the many to enrich the few. History will tear the pages +devoted to his praise. France and his country gave him fame, and they +will take that fame away." "His glory has dissolved in mist," said +another writer, "and he has sunk from the high level of Solon or +Lycurgus to the mean rank of a Dutch Stadtholder or a Venetian +Doge. Posterity will look in vain for any marks of wisdom in his +administration." + +To thoughtful persons these observations are not without a curious +interest, as showing that even the wisest of men may be in error. The +distinguished Democrat who uttered these remarks has been forgotten, +and the page of history on which Washington's name was inscribed is +still untorn. The passage of the address, however, which gave the most +offense, as Mr. McMaster points out, was, as might have been expected +from the colonial condition of our politics, that which declared it +to be our true policy "to steer clear of permanent alliances with any +portion of the foreign world." This, it was held, simply meant that, +having made a treaty with England, we were to be stopped from making +one with France. Another distinguished editor declared that the +farewell address came from the meanest of motives; that the President +knew he could not be reelected because the Republicans would have +united to supersede him with Adams, who had the simplicity of a +Republican, while Washington had the ostentation of an Eastern Pasha, +and it was in order to save himself from this humiliation that he had +cunningly resigned. + +When Washington met his last Congress, William Giles of Virginia took +the opportunity afforded by the usual answer to the President's speech +to assail him personally. It would be of course a gross injustice to +suppose that a coarse political ruffian like Giles really represented +the Democratic party. But he represented the extreme wing, and after +he had declared in his place that Washington was neither wise nor +patriotic, and that his retirement was anything but a calamity, he got +twelve of his party friends to sustain his sentiments by voting +with him. The press was even more unbridled, and it was said in the +"Aurora" at this time that Washington had debauched and deceived +the nation, and that his administration had shown that the mask of +patriotism may be worn to conceal the foulest dangers to the liberties +of the people. Over and over again it was said by these writers that +he had betrayed France and was the slave of England. + +This charge of being a British sympathizer was the only one of all the +abuse heaped upon him by the opposition that Washington seems really +to have resented. In August, 1794, when this slander first started +from the prolific source of all attacks against the government, he +wrote to Henry Lee: "With respect to the words said to have been +uttered by Mr. Jefferson, they would be enigmatical to those who are +acquainted with the characters about me, unless supposed to be spoken +ironically; and in that case they are too injurious to me, and have +too little foundation in truth, to be ascribed to him. There could not +be the trace of doubt in his mind of predilection in mine toward Great +Britain or her politics, unless, which I do not believe, he has set me +down as one of the most deceitful and uncandid men living; because, +not only in private conversations between ourselves on this subject, +but in my meetings with the confidential servants of the public, he +has heard me often, when occasions presented themselves, express very +different sentiments, with an energy that could not be mistaken by any +one present. + +"Having determined, as far as lay within the power of the executive, +to keep this country in a state of neutrality, I have made my public +conduct accord with the system; and whilst so acting as a public +character, consistency and propriety as a private man forbid those +intemperate expressions in favor of one nation, or to the prejudice of +another, which may have wedged themselves in, and, I will venture to +add, to the embarrassment of government, without producing any good to +the country." + +He had shown by his acts as well as by his words his real friendship +for France, such as a proper sense of gratitude required. As has been +already pointed out, rather than run the risk of seeming to reflect in +the slightest degree upon the government of the French republic, he +had refused even to receive distinguished _émigrés_ like Noailles, +Liancourt, and Talleyrand.[1] He was so scrupulous in this respect +that he actually did violence to his own strong desires in not taking +into his house at once the son of Lafayette; and when it became +necessary to choose a successor to Morris, his anxiety was so great +to select some one agreeable to France that he took such an avowed +opponent of his administration as Monroe. + +[Footnote 1: See the Letter to the Due de Liancourt explaining the +reasons for his not being received by the President. (Sparks, xi. +161.)] + +On the other hand, he had never lost the strong feeling of hostility +toward England which he, above all men, had felt during the +Revolution. The conduct of England, when he was seeking an honorable +peace with her, tried his patience severely. He wrote to Morris in +1795: "I give you these details (and if you should again converse with +Lord Grenville on the subject, you are at liberty, unofficially, +to mention them, or any of them, according to circumstances), as +evidences of the unpolitic conduct (for so it strikes me) of the +British government towards these United States; that it may be +seen how difficult it has been for the executive, under such an +accumulation of irritating circumstances, to maintain the ground of +neutrality which had been taken; and at a time when the remembrance +of the aid we had received from France in the Revolution was fresh in +every mind, and while the partisans of that country were continually +contrasting the affections of _that_ people with the unfriendly +disposition of the _British government_. And that, too, as I have +observed before, while _their own_ sufferings during the war with the +latter had not been forgotten." The one man in the country who above +all others had the highest conception of American nationality, who +was the first to seek to lift up our politics from the low level of +colonialism, who was the author of the neutrality policy, had reason +to resent the bitter irony of an attack which represented him as a +British sympathizer. The truth is, that the only foreign party at that +time was that which identified itself with France, and which was +the party of Jefferson and the opposition. The Federalists and +the administration under the lead of Washington and Hamilton were +determined that the government should be American and not French, and +this in the eyes of their opponents was equivalent to being in the +control of England. In after years, when the Federalists fell from +power and declined into the position of a factious minority, they +became British sympathizers, and as thoroughly colonial in their +politics as the party of Jefferson had been. If they had had the +wisdom of their better days they would then have made themselves the +champions of the American idea, and would have led the country in the +determined effort to free itself once for all from colonial politics, +even if they were obliged to fight somebody to accomplish it. They +proved unequal to the task, and it fell to a younger generation led by +Henry Clay and his contemporaries to sweep Federalist and Jeffersonian +republican alike, with their French and British politics, out of +existence. In so doing the younger generation did but complete the +work of Washington, for he it was who first trod the path and marked +the way for a true American policy in the midst of men who could not +understand his purposes. + +Bitter and violent as had been the attacks upon Washington while he +held office, they were as nothing compared to the shout of fierce +exultation which went up from the opposition journals when he finally +retired from the presidency. One extract will serve as an example of +the general tone of the opposition journals throughout the country. It +is to be found in the "Aurora" of March 6, 1797:-- + + "'Lord, now lettest Thou Thy servant depart in peace,' was the + pious ejaculation of a pious man who beheld a flood of happiness + rushing in upon mankind. If ever there was a time that would + license the reiteration of the ejaculation, that time has now + arrived, for the man who is the source of all the misfortunes + of our country is this day reduced to a level with his + fellow-citizens, and is no longer possessed of power to multiply + evils upon the United States. If ever there was a period for + rejoicing, this is the moment. Every heart in unison with the + freedom and happiness of the people ought to beat high with + exultation that the name of Washington ceases from this day to + give currency to political insults, and to legalize corruption. A + new era is now opening upon us, an era which promises much to the + people, for public measures must now stand upon their own merits, + and nefarious projects can no longer be supported by a name. When + a retrospect has been taken of the Washingtonian administration + for eight years, it is a subject of the greatest astonishment + that a single individual should have cankered the principles of + republicanism in an enlightened people just emerged from the gulf + of despotism, and should have carried his designs against the + public liberty so far as to have put in jeopardy its very + existence. Such, however, are the facts, and with these staring us + in the face, the day ought to be a JUBILEE in the United States." + +This was not the outburst of a single malevolent spirit. The article +was copied and imitated in New York and Boston, and wherever the +party that called Jefferson leader had a representative among the +newspapers. It is not probable that stuff of this sort gave Washington +himself a moment's anxiety, for he knew too well what he had done, and +he was too sure of his own hold upon the hearts of the people, to be +in the least disturbed by the attacks of hostile editors. But the +extracts are of interest as showing that the opposition party of that +time, the party organized and led by Jefferson, regarded Washington as +their worst enemy, and assailed him and slandered him to the utmost. +They even went so far as to borrow materials from the enemies of the +country with whom we had lately been at war, by publishing the forged +letters attributed to Washington, and circulated by the British in +1777, in order to discredit the American general. One of Washington's +last acts, on March 3, 1797, was to file in the State Department a +solemn declaration that these letters, then republished by an American +political party, were base forgeries, of English origin in a time of +war. His own view of this performance is given in a letter to Benjamin +Walker, in which he said: "Amongst other attempts, ... spurious +letters, known at the time of their first publication (I believe in +the year 1777) to be forgeries, are (or extracts from them) brought +forward with the highest emblazoning of which they are susceptible, +with a view to attach principles to me which every action of my life +has given the lie to. But that is no stumbling-block with the editors +of these papers and their supporters." + +Two or three extracts from private letters will show how Washington +regarded the course of the opposition, and the interpretation he put +upon their attacks. After sketching in a letter to David Stuart the +general course of the hostilities toward his administration, he said: +"This not working so well as was expected, from a supposition that +there was too much confidence in, and perhaps personal regard for, the +present chief magistrate and his politics, the batteries have lately +been leveled against him particularly and personally. Although he is +soon to become a private citizen, his opinions are knocked down, and +his character reduced as low as they are capable of sinking it, even +by resorting to absolute falsehoods." Again he said, just before +leaving office: "To misrepresent my motives, to reprobate my +politics, and to weaken the confidence which has been reposed in my +administration, are objects which cannot be relinquished by those who +will be satisfied with nothing short of a change in our political +system." He at least labored under no misapprehension after eight +years of trial as to the position or purposes of the party which had +fought him and his administration, and which had savagely denounced +his measures at every step, and with ever-increasing violence. + +Having defined the attitude of the opposition, we can now consider +that of Washington himself after he had retired from office, and no +longer felt restrained by the circumstances of his election to the +presidency from openly declaring his views, or publicly identifying +himself with a political party. He rightly regarded the administration +of Mr. Adams as a continuation of his own, and he gave to it a cordial +support. He was equally clear and determined in his distrust and +dislike of the opposition. Not long before leaving office he had +written a letter to Jefferson, which, while it exonerated that +gentleman from being the author of certain peculiarly malicious +attacks, showed very plainly that the writer completely understood the +position occupied by his former secretary. It was a letter which +must have been most unpleasant reading for the person to whom it +was addressed. A year later he wrote to John Nicholas in regard +to Jefferson: "Nothing short of the evidence you have adduced, +corroborative of intimations which I had received long before through +another channel, could have shaken my belief in the sincerity of a +friendship which I had conceived was possessed for me by the person to +whom you allude." There was no doubt in his mind now as to Jefferson's +conduct, and he knew at last that he had been his foe even when a +member of his political household. + +When the time came to fill the offices in the provisional army made +necessary by the menace of war with France, Washington wrote to the +President that he ought to have generals who were men of activity, +energy, health, and "sound politics," carrying apparently his +suspicion of the opposition even to disbelieving in them as soldiers. +He repeated the same idea in a letter to McHenry, in which he said: +"I do not conceive that a desirable set could be formed from the old +generals, some having never displayed any talent for enterprise, +and others having shown a general opposition to the government, or +predilection to French measures, be their present conduct what it +may." + +When the question arose in regard to the relative rank of the +major-generals, Washington said to Knox: "No doubt remained in my mind +that Colonel Hamilton was designated second in command (and first, if +I should decline an acceptance) by the Federal characters of Congress; +whence alone anything like a public sentiment relative thereto could +be deduced." He was quite clear that there was no use in looking +beyond the confines of the Federal party for any public sentiment +worth considering. He had serious doubts also as to the advisability +of having the opponents of the government in the army, and wrote to +McHenry on September 30, 1798, that brawlers against the government in +certain parts of Virginia had suddenly become silent and were seeking +commissions in the army. "The motives ascribed to them are that in +such a situation they would endeavor to divide and contaminate the +army by artful and seditious discourses, and perhaps at a critical +moment bring on confusion. What weight to give to these conjectures +you can judge as well as I. But as there will be characters enough +of an opposite description who are ready to receive appointments, +circumspection is necessary. Finding the resentment of the people +at the conduct of France too strong to be resisted, they have in +appearance adopted their sentiments, and pretend that, notwithstanding +the misconduct of the government has brought it upon us, yet if an +invasion should take place, it will be found that _they_ will be among +the first to defend it. This is their story at all elections and +election meetings, and told in many instances with effect." He wrote +again in the same strain to McHenry, on October 21: "Possibly no +injustice would be done, if I were to proceed a step further, and give +it as an opinion that most of the candidates [for the army] brought +forward by the opposition members possess sentiments similar to their +own, and might poison the army by disseminating them, if they were +appointed." In this period of danger, when the country was on the +verge of war, the attitude of the opposition gave Washington much food +for thought because it appeared to him so false and unpatriotic. In +a letter to Lafayette, written on Christmas day, 1798, he gave the +following brief sketch of the opposition: "A party exists in the +United States, formed by a combination of causes, which opposed the +government in all its measures, and are determined, as all their +conduct evinces, by clogging its wheels indirectly to change the +nature of it, and to subvert the Constitution. The friends of +government, who are anxious to maintain its neutrality and to preserve +the country in peace, and adopt measures to secure these objects, are +charged by them as being monarchists, aristocrats, and infractors of +the Constitution, which according to their interpretation of it would +be a mere cipher. They arrogated to themselves ... the sole merit of +being the friends of France, when in fact they had no more regard for +that nation than for the Grand Turk, further than their own views +were promoted by it; denouncing those who differed in opinion (those +principles are purely American and whose sole view was to observe +a strict neutrality) as acting under British influence, and being +directed by her counsels, or as being her pensioners." + +Shortly before this sharp definition was written, an incident had +occurred which had given Washington an opportunity of impressing his +views directly and personally upon a distinguished leader of the +opposite party. Dr. Logan of Philadelphia, under the promptings of +Jefferson, as was commonly supposed, had gone on a volunteer mission +to Paris for the purpose of bringing about peace between the two +republics. He had apparently a fixed idea that there was something +very monstrous in our having any differences with France, and being +somewhat of a busybody, although a most worthy man, he felt called +upon to settle the international complications which were then +puzzling the brains and trying the patience of the ablest men in +America. It is needless to say that his mission was not a success, and +he was eventually so unmercifully ridiculed by the Federalist editors +that he published a long pamphlet in his own defense. Upon his return, +however, he seems to have been not a little pleased with himself, and +he took occasion to call upon Washington, who was then in Philadelphia +on business. It would be difficult to conceive anything more +distasteful to Washington than such a mission as Logan's, or that he +could have a more hearty contempt for any one than for a meddler of +this description, who by his interference might help to bring his +country into contempt. He was sufficiently impressed, however, by Dr. +Logan's call to draw up a memorandum, which gave a very realistic and +amusing account of it. It may be surmised that when Washington wished +to be cold in his manner, he was capable of being very freezing, and +he was not very apt at concealing his emotions when he found himself +in the presence of any one whom he disliked and disapproved. The +memorandum is as follows:-- + +"_Tuesday, November_ 13, 1798.--Mr. Lear, my secretary, being from our +lodgings on business, one of my servants came into the room where +I was writing and informed me that a gentleman in the parlor below +desired to see me; no name was sent up. In a few minutes I went down, +and found the Rev. Dr. Blackwell and Dr. Logan there. I advanced +towards and gave my hand to the former; the latter did the same +towards me. I was backward in giving mine. He, possibly supposing from +hence that I did not recollect him, said his name was Logan. Finally, +in a very cold manner, and with an air of marked indifference, I gave +him my hand and asked _Dr. Blackwell to be seated_; the other _took_ +a seat at the same time. I addressed _all_ my conversation to Dr. +Blackwell; the other all his to me, to which I only gave negative or +affirmative answers as laconically as I could, except asking him how +Mrs. Logan did. He seemed disposed to be very polite, and while Dr. +Blackwell and myself were conversing on the late calamitous fever, +offered me an asylum at his house, if it should return or I thought +myself in any danger in the city, and two or three rooms, by way of +accommodation. I thanked him slightly, observing there would be no +call for it." + +"About this time Dr. Blackwell took his leave. We all rose from our +seats, and I moved a few paces toward the door of the room, expecting +the other would follow and take his leave also." + +The worthy Quaker, however, was not to be got rid of so easily. He +literally stood his ground, and went on talking of a number of things, +chiefly about Lafayette and his family, and an interview with Mr. +Murray, our minister in Holland. Washington, meanwhile, stood facing +him, and to use his own words, "showed the utmost inattention," while +his visitor described his journey to Paris. Finally Logan said that +his purpose in going to France was to ameliorate the condition of +our relations with that country. "This," said Washington, "drew my +attention more pointedly to what he was saying and induced me to +remark that there was something very singular in this; that _he_, +who could only be viewed as a private character, unarmed with proper +powers, and presumptively unknown in France, should suppose he could +effect what three gentlemen of the first respectability in our +country, especially charged under the authority of the government, +were unable to do." One is not surprised to be then told that Dr. +Logan seemed a little confounded at this observation; but he recovered +himself, and went on to say that only five persons knew of his going, +and that his letters from Mr. Jefferson and Mr. McKean obtained for +him an interview with M. Merlin, president of the Directory, who had +been most friendly in his expressions. To this Washington replied +with some very severe strictures on the conduct of France; and the +conversation, which must by this time have become a little strained, +soon after came to an end. One cannot help feeling a good deal of +sympathy for the excellent doctor, although he was certainly a +busybody and, one would naturally infer, a bore as well. It would have +been, however, a pity to have lost this memorandum, and there is every +reason to regret that Washington did not oftener exercise his evident +powers for realistic reporting. Nothing, moreover, could bring out +better his thorough contempt for the opposition and their attitude +toward France than this interview with the volunteer commissioner. + +There were, however, much more serious movements made by the +Democratic party than well-meant and meddling attempts to make +peace with France. This was the year of the Kentucky and Virginia +resolutions, the first note of that disunion sentiment which was +destined one day to involve the country in civil war and be fought out +on a hundred battlefields. Washington, with his love for the Union and +for nationality ever uppermost in his heart, was quick to take alarm, +and it cut him especially to think that a movement which he esteemed +at once desperate and wicked should emanate from his own State, and as +we now know, and as he perhaps suspected, from a great Virginian +whom he had once trusted. He straightway set himself to oppose this +movement with all his might, and he summoned to his aid that other +great Virginian who in his early days had been the first to rouse the +people against oppression, and who now in his old age, in response to +Washington's appeal, came again into the forefront in behalf of the +Constitution and the union of the States. The letter which Washington +wrote to Patrick Henry on this occasion is one of the most important +that he ever penned, but there is room to quote only a single passage +here. + +"At such a crisis as this," he said, "when everything dear and +valuable to us is assailed, when this party hangs upon the wheels of +government as a dead weight, opposing every measure that is calculated +for defense and self-preservation, abetting the nefarious views of +another nation upon our rights, preferring, as long as they dare +contend openly against the spirit and resentment of the people, the +interest of France to the welfare of their own country, justifying +the former at the expense of the latter; when every act of their own +government is tortured, by constructions they will not bear, into +attempts to infringe and trample upon the Constitution with a view to +introduce monarchy; when the most unceasing and the purest exertions +which were making to maintain a neutrality ... are charged with being +measures calculated to favor Great Britain at the expense of France, +and all those who had any agency in it are accused of being under +the influence of the former and her pensioners; when measures are +systematically and pertinaciously pursued, which must eventually +dissolve the Union or produce coercion; I say, when these things have +become so obvious, ought characters who are best able to rescue their +country from the pending evil to remain at home?... + +"Vain will it be to look for peace and happiness, or for the security +of liberty or property, if civil discord should ensue. And what else +can result from the policy of those among us, who, by all the measures +in their power, are driving matters to extremity, if they cannot be +counteracted effectually? The views of men can only be known, or +guessed at, by their words or actions. Can those of the _leaders_ of +opposition be mistaken, then, if judged by this rule? That they are +followed by numbers, who are unacquainted with their designs and +suspect as little the tendency of their principles, I am fully +persuaded. But if their conduct is viewed with indifference, if there +are activity and misrepresentations on one side and supineness on +the other, their numbers accumulated by intriguing and discontented +foreigners under proscription, who were at war with their own +government, and the greater part of them with _all_ governments, they +will increase, and nothing short of omniscience can foretell the +consequences." + +It would have been difficult to draw a severer indictment of the +opposition party than that given in this letter, but there is one +other letter even more striking in its contents, without which no +account of the relation of Washington to the two great parties which +sprang up under his administration would be complete. It was addressed +to Governor Trumbull of Connecticut, was written on July 21, 1799, +less than six months before his death, and although printed, has +been hidden away in the appendix to the "Life of Benjamin Silliman." +Governor Trumbull, who bore the name and filled the office of +Washington's old revolutionary friend, had written to the general, as +many other Federalists were writing at that time, urging him to come +forward and stand once more for the presidency, that he might heal the +dissensions in his own party and save the country from the impending +disaster of Jefferson's election. That Washington refused all these +requests is of course well known, but his reasons as stated to +Trumbull are of great interest. "I come now," he said, "my dear sir, +to pay particular attention to that part of your letter which respects +myself. + +"I remember well the conversation which you allude to. I have not +forgot the answer I gave you. In my judgment it applies with as much +force _now_ as _then_; nay, more, because at that time the line +between the parties was not so clearly drawn, and the views of the +opposition so clearly developed as they are at present. Of course +allowing your observation (as it respects myself) to be well founded, +personal influence would be of no avail. + +"Let that party set up a broomstick, and call it a true son of +liberty,--a democrat,--or give it any other epithet that will suit +their purpose, and it will command their votes _in toto_![1] Will not +the Federalists meet, or rather defend, their cause on the opposite +ground? Surely they must, or they will discover a want of policy, +indicative of weakness and pregnant of mischief, which cannot be +admitted. Wherein, then, would lie the difference between the present +gentleman in office and myself? + +[Footnote 1: "As an analysis of this position, look to the pending +election of governor in Pennsylvania."] + +"It would be matter of grave regret to me if I could believe that a +serious thought was turned toward me as his successor, not only as +it respects my ardent wishes to pass through the vale of life in +retirement, undisturbed in the remnant of the days I have to sojourn +here, unless called upon to defend my country (which every citizen is +bound to do); but on public grounds also; for although I have abundant +cause to be thankful for the good health with which I am blessed, yet +I am not insensible to my declination in other respects. It would +be criminal, therefore, in me, although it should be the wish of my +countrymen and I could be elected, to accept an office under this +conviction which another would discharge with more ability; and this, +too, at a time when I am thoroughly convinced I should not draw a +_single_ vote from the anti-Federal side, and of course should stand +upon no other ground _than any other Federal character_[1] well +supported; and when I should become a mark for the shafts of envenomed +malice and the basest calumny to fire at,--when I should be charged +not only with irresolution but with concealed ambition, which waits +only an occasion to blaze out, and, in short, with dotage and +imbecility. + +[Footnote 1: These italics are mine.] + +"All this, I grant, ought to be like dust in the balance, when put in +competition with a _great_ public good, when the accomplishment of it +is apparent. But, as no problem is better defined in my mind than that +principle, not men, is now, and will be, the object of contention; and +that I could not obtain a _solitary_ vote from that party; _that any +other respectable Federal character could receive the same suffrages +that I should_;[1] that at my time of life (verging towards threescore +and ten) I should expose myself without rendering any essential +service to my country, or answering the end contemplated; prudence on +my part must avert any attempt of the well-meant but mistaken views of +my friends to introduce me again into the chair of government." + +[Footnote 1: These italics are mine.] + +It does not fall within the scope of this biography to attempt to +portray the history or weigh the merits of the two parties which came +into existence at the close of the last century, and which, under +varying names, have divided the people of the United States ever +since. But it is essential here to define the relation of Washington +toward them because one hears it constantly said and sees it as +constantly written down, that Washington belonged to no party, which +is perhaps a natural, but is certainly a complete misconception. +Washington came to the presidency by a unanimous vote. He had in his +mind very strongly the idea of the framers of the Constitution that +the President, by the method of his election and by his independence +of the other departments of government, was to be above and beyond +party, and the representative of the whole people. In addition to this +he was so absorbed by the great conception which he had of the future +of the country, and was so confident of the purity and rectitude of +his own purposes, that he was loath to think that party divisions +could arise while he held the chief magistracy. It was not long +before he was undeceived on this point, and he soon found that party +divisions sprang up from the measures of his own administration. +Nevertheless, he clung to his determination to govern without the +assistance of a party as such. When this, too, became impossible, he +still felt that the unanimity of his election required that he should +not declare himself to be the head of a party; but he had become +thoroughly convinced that under the representative system of the +Constitution party government could not be avoided. In his farewell +address he warned the people against the excesses of that party +spirit which he deplored; but he did not suggest that it could be +extinguished. Being a wise and far-seeing man, he saw that if party +government was an evil, it also was under a free representative +system, and in the present condition of human nature a necessary evil, +furnishing the only machinery by which public affairs could be carried +on. + +In a time of deep political excitement and strong party feeling, +Washington was the last man in the world not to be decidedly on one +side or the other. He was possessed of too much sense, force, and +virility to be content to hold himself aloof and croak over the +wickedness of people, who were trying to do something, even if +they did not always try in the most perfect way. He was himself +preëminently a doer of deeds, and not a critic or a phrase-maker, and +we can read very distinctly in the extracts which have been brought +together in this chapter what he thought on party and public +questions. He was opposed to the party which had resisted all the +great measures of his administration from the foundation of the +government of the United States. They had assailed and maligned him +and his ministers, and he regarded them as political enemies. He +believed in the principles of that party which had supported the +financial policy of Hamilton and his own policy of neutrality toward +foreign nations. He was opposed to the party which introduced the +interests of France as the leading issue of American politics, and +which embodied the doctrines of nullification and separatism in the +resolutions of Kentucky and Virginia. In one word, Washington, in +policies and politics, was an American and a Nationalist; and the +National and American party, from 1789 to 1801, was the Federalist +party. It may be added that it was the only party which, at that +precise time, could claim those qualities. While he remained in the +presidency he would not declare himself to be of any party; but as +soon as this fetter was removed, he declared himself freely after his +fashion, expressing in words what he had formerly only expressed in +action. His feelings warmed and strengthened as the controversy with +France deepened, and as the attitude of the opposition became more +un-American and leaned more and more to separatism. They culminated +at last in the eloquent letter to Patrick Henry, and in the carefully +weighed words with which he tells Trumbull that he can hope for no +more votes than "any other Federal character." + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +THE LAST YEARS + + +Washington had entered upon the presidency with the utmost reluctance, +and at the sacrifice of all he considered pleasantest and best in +life. He took it and held it for eight years from a sense of duty, +and with no desire to retain it beyond that which every man feels +who wishes to finish a great work that he has undertaken. He looked +forward to the approaching end of his second term with a feeling of +intense relief, and compared himself to the wearied traveler who sees +the resting-place where he is at length to have repose. On March 3 he +gave a farewell dinner to the President and Vice-President elect, the +foreign ministers and their wives, and other distinguished persons, +from one of whom we learn that it was a very pleasant and lively +gathering. When the cloth was removed Washington filled his glass and +said: "Ladies and gentlemen, this is the last time I shall drink +your health as a public man. I do it with sincerity, wishing you all +possible happiness." The company did not take the same cheerful view +as their host of this leave-taking. There was a pause in the gayety, +some of the ladies shed tears, and the little incident only served to +show the warm affection felt for Washington by every one who came in +close contact with him. + +The next day the last official ceremonies were performed. After +Jefferson had taken the oath as Vice-President and had proceeded with +the Senate to the House of Representatives, which was densely crowded, +Washington entered and was received with cheers and shouts, the waving +of handkerchiefs, and an enthusiasm which seemed to know no bounds. +Mr. Adams followed him almost immediately and delivered his inaugural +address, in which he paid a stately compliment to the great virtues of +his predecessor. It was the setting and not the rising sun, however, +that drew the attention of the multitude, and as Washington left the +hall there was a wild rush from the galleries to the corridors and +then into the streets to see him pass. He took off his hat and bowed +to the people, but they followed him even to his own door, where +he turned once more and, unable to speak, waved to them a silent +farewell. + +In the evening of the same day a great banquet was given to him by +the merchants of Philadelphia, and when he entered the band played +"Washington's March," and a series of emblematic paintings were +disclosed, the chief of which represented the ex-President at Mount +Vernon surrounded by the allegorical figures then so fashionable. +After the festivities Washington lingered for a few days in +Philadelphia to settle various private matters and then started for +home. Whether he was going or coming, whether he was about to take the +great office of President or retire to the privacy of Mount Vernon, +the same popular enthusiasm greeted him. When he was really brought in +contact with the people, the clamors of the opposition press and the +attacks of the Jeffersonian editors all faded away and were forgotten. +On March 12 he reached Baltimore, and the local newspaper of the next +day said:-- + +"Last evening arrived in this city, on his way to Mount Vernon, the +illustrious object of veneration and gratitude, GEORGE WASHINGTON. His +excellency was accompanied by his lady and Miss Custis, and by the son +of the unfortunate Lafayette and his preceptor. At a distance from +the city, he was met by a crowd of citizens, on horse and foot, who +thronged the road to greet him, and by a detachment from Captain +Hollingsworth's troop, who escorted him in through as great a +concourse of people as Baltimore ever witnessed. On alighting at the +Fountain Inn, the general was saluted with reiterated and thundering +huzzas from the spectators. His excellency, with the companions of his +journey, leaves town, we understand, this morning." + +Thus with the cheers and the acclamations still ringing in his ears +he came home again to Mount Vernon, where he found at once plenty +of occupation, which in some form was always a necessity to him. An +absence of eight years had not improved the property. On April 3 he +wrote to McHenry: "I find myself in the situation nearly of a new +beginner; for, although I have not houses to build (except one, which +I must erect for the accommodation and security of my military, civil, +and private papers, which are voluminous and may be interesting), +yet I have scarcely anything else about me that does not require +considerable repairs. In a word, I am already surrounded by joiners, +masons, and painters; and such is my anxiety to get out of their +hands, that I have scarcely a room to put a friend into or to sit +in myself without the music of hammers or the odoriferous scent of +paint." He easily dropped back into the round of country duties and +pleasures, and the care of farms and plantations, which had always +had for him so much attraction. "To make and sell a little flour +annually," he wrote to Wolcott, "to repair houses going fast to ruin, +to build one for the security of my papers of a public nature, will +constitute employment for the few years I have to remain on this +terrestrial globe." Again he said to McHenry: "You are at the source +of information, and can find many things to relate, while I have +nothing to say that would either inform or amuse a secretary of war at +Philadelphia. I might tell him that I begin my diurnal course with the +sun; that if my hirelings are not in their places by that time I send +them messages of sorrow for their indisposition; that having put these +wheels in motion I examine the state of things further; that the more +they are probed the deeper I find the wounds which my buildings have +sustained by an absence and neglect of eight years; that by the time +I have accomplished these matters breakfast (a little after seven +o'clock, about the time I presume that you are taking leave of Mrs. +McHenry) is ready; that this being over I mount my horse and ride +round my farms, which employs me until it is time to dress for dinner, +at which I rarely miss seeing strange faces, come, as they say, out of +respect for me. Pray, would not the word curiosity answer as well? +And how different this from having a few social friends at a cheerful +board. The usual time of sitting at table, a walk, and tea bring me +within the dawn of candle-light; previous to which, if not prevented +by company, I resolve that as soon as the glimmering taper supplies +the place of the great luminary I will retire to my writing-table and +acknowledge the letters I have received; that when the lights +are brought I feel tired and disinclined to engage in this work, +conceiving that the next night will do as well. The next night comes +and with it the same causes for postponement, and so on. Having given +you the history of a day, it will serve for a year, and I am persuaded +you will not require a second edition of it. But it may strike you +that in this detail no mention is made of any portion of time allotted +for reading. The remark would be just, for I have not looked into a +book since I came home; nor shall I be able to do it until I have +discharged my workmen; probably not before the nights grow longer, +when possibly I may be looking in Doomsday book." + +There is not much that can be added to his own concise description of +the simple life he led at home. The rest and quiet were very pleasant, +but still there was a touch of sadness in his words. The long interval +of absence made the changes which time had wrought stand out more +vividly than if they had come one by one in the course of daily life +at home. Washington looked on the ruins of Belvoir, and sighed to +think of the many happy hours he had passed with the Fairfaxes, now +gone from the land forever. Other old friends had been taken away +by death, and the gaps were not filled by the new faces of which he +speaks to McHenry. Indeed, the crowd of visitors coming to Mount +Vernon from all parts of his own country and of the world, whether +they came from respect or curiosity, brought a good deal of weariness +to a man tired with the cares of state and longing for absolute +repose. Yet he would not close his doors to any one, for the Virginian +sense of hospitality, always peculiarly strong in him, forbade such +action. To relieve himself, therefore, in this respect, he sent +for his nephew Lawrence Lewis, who took the social burden from +his shoulders. But although the visitors tired him when he felt +responsible for their pleasure, he did not shut himself up now any +more than at any other time in self-contemplation. He was constantly +thinking of others; and the education of his nephews, the care of +young Lafayette until he should return to France, as well as the +happy love-match of Nellie Custis and his nephew, supplied the human +interest without which he was never happy. + +Before we trace his connection with public affairs in these +closing years, let us take one look at him, through the eyes of a +disinterested but keen observer. John Bernard, an English actor, +who had come to this country in the year when Washington left the +presidency, was playing an engagement with his company at Annapolis, +in 1798. One day he mounted his horse and rode down below Alexandria, +to pay a visit to an acquaintance who lived on the banks of the +Potomac. When he was returning, a chaise in front of him, containing a +man and a young woman, was overturned, and the occupants were thrown +out. As Bernard rode to the scene of the accident, another horseman +galloped up from the opposite direction. The two riders dismounted, +found that the driver was not hurt, and succeeded in restoring the +young woman to consciousness; an event which was marked, Bernard tells +us, by a volley of invectives addressed to her unfortunate husband. +"The horse," continues Bernard, "was now on his legs, but the vehicle +still prostrate, heavy in its frame, and laden with at least half a +ton of luggage. My fellow-helper set me an example of activity in +relieving it of the internal weight; and when all was clear, we +grasped the wheel between us, and to the peril of our spinal columns +righted the conveyance. The horse was then put in, and we lent a +hand to help up the luggage. All this helping, hauling, and lifting +occupied at least half an hour, under a meridian sun, in the middle of +July, which fairly boiled the perspiration out of our foreheads." The +possessor of the chaise beguiled the labor by a full personal history +of himself and his wife, and when the work was done invited the two +Samaritans to go with him to Alexandria, and take a drop of "something +sociable." This being declined, the couple mounted into the chaise and +drove on. "Then," says Bernard, "my companion, after an exclamation at +the heat, offered very courteously to dust my coat, a favor the return +of which enabled me to take deliberate survey of his person. He was +a tall, erect, well-made man, evidently advanced in years, but who +appeared to have retained all the vigor and elasticity resulting from +a life of temperance and exercise. His dress was a blue coat buttoned +to his chin, and buckskin breeches. Though the instant he took off his +hat I could not avoid the recognition of familiar lineaments, which +indeed I was in the habit of seeing on every sign-post and over every +fireplace, still I failed to identify him, and to my surprise I found +that I was an object of equal speculation in his eyes." The actor +evidently did not have the royal gift of remembering faces, but the +stranger possessed that quality, for after a moment's pause he said, +"Mr. Bernard, I believe," and mentioned the occasion on which he had +seen him play in Philadelphia. He then asked Bernard to go home with +him for a couple of hours' rest, and pointed out the house in the +distance. At last Bernard knew to whom he was speaking. "'Mount +Vernon!' I exclaimed; and then drawing back with a stare of wonder, +'Have I the honor of addressing General Washington?' With a smile +whose expression of benevolence I have rarely seen equaled, he offered +his hand and replied: 'An odd sort of introduction, Mr. Bernard; but +I am pleased to find you can play so active a part in private, and +without a prompter.'" So they rode on together to the house and had a +chat, to which we must recur further on. + +There is no contemporary narrative of which I am aware that shows +Washington to us more clearly than this little adventure with Bernard, +for it is in the common affairs of daily life that men come nearest +to each other, and the same rule holds good in history. We know +Washington much better from these few lines of description left by +a chance acquaintance on the road than we do from volumes of state +papers. It is such a pleasant story, too. There is the great man, +retired from the world, still handsome and imposing in his old age, +with the strong and ready hand to succor those who had fallen by the +wayside; there are the genuine hospitality, the perfect manners, and +the well-turned little sentence with which he complimented the actor, +put him at his ease, and asked him to his house. Nothing can well be +added to the picture of Washington as we see him here, not long before +the end of all things came. We must break off, however, from the quiet +charm of home life, and turn again briefly to the affairs of state. +Let us, therefore, leave these two riding along the road together in +the warm Virginia sunshine to the house which has since become one of +the Meccas of humanity, in memory of the man who once dwelt in it. + +The highly prized retirement to Mount Vernon did not now, more than +at any previous time, separate Washington from the affairs of the +country. He continued to take a keen interest in all that went on, +to correspond with his friends, and to use his influence for what he +thought wisest and best for the general welfare. These were stirring +times, too, and the progress of events brought him to take a more +active part than he had ever expected to play again; for France, +having failed, thanks to his policy, to draw us either by fair words +or trickery from our independent and neutral position, determined, +apparently, to try the effect of force and ill usage. Pinckney, sent +out as minister, had been rebuffed; and then Adams, with the cordial +support of the country, had made another effort for peace by sending +Pinckney, Marshall, and Gerry as a special commission. The history of +that commission is one of the best known episodes in our history. Our +envoys were insulted, asked for bribes, and browbeaten, until the two +who retained a proper sense of their own and their country's dignity +took their passports and departed. The publication of the famous X, Y, +Z letters, which displayed the conduct of France, roused a storm of +righteous indignation from one end of the United States to the other. +The party of France and of the opposition bent before the storm, and +the Federalists were at last all-powerful. A cry for war went up from +every corner, and Congress provided rapidly for the formation of an +army and the beginning of a navy. + +Then the whole country turned, as a matter of course, to one man to +stand at the head of the national forces of the United States, +and Adams wrote to Washington, urging him to take command of the +provisional army. To any other appeal to come forward Washington would +have been deaf, but he could never refuse a call to arms. He wrote to +Adams on July 4, 1798: "In case of _actual invasion_ by a formidable +force, I certainly should not intrench myself under the cover of age +or retirement, if my services should be required by my country to +assist in repelling it." He agreed, therefore, to take command of the +army, provided that he should not be called into active service +except in the case of actual hostilities, and that he should have the +appointment of the general's staff. To these terms Adams of course +acceded. But out of the apparently simple condition relating to the +appointment of officers there grew a very serious trouble. There were +to be three major-generals, the first of them to have also the rank of +inspector-general, and to be the virtual commander-in-chief until the +army was actually called into the field. For these places, Washington +after much reflection selected Hamilton, Pinckney, and Knox, in the +order named, and in doing so he very wisely went on the general +principle that the army was to be organized _de novo_, without +reference to prior service. Apart from personal and political +jealousies, nothing could have been more proper and more sound than +this arrangement; but at this point the President's dislike of +Hamilton got beyond control, and he made up his mind to reverse the +order, and send in Knox's name first. The Federalist leaders were of +course utterly disgusted by this attempt to set Hamilton aside, which +was certainly ill-judged, and which proved to be the beginning of the +dissensions that ended in the ruin of the Federalist party. After +every effort, therefore, to move Adams had failed, Pickering and +others, including Hamilton himself, appealed to Washington. At a +distance from the scene of action, and unfamiliar with the growth of +differences within the party, Washington was not only surprised, but +annoyed by the President's conduct. In addition to the evils which he +believed would result in a military way from this change, he felt that +the conditions which he had made had been violated, and that he had +not been treated fairly. He therefore wrote to the President with +his wonted plainness, on September 25, and pointed out that his +stipulations had not been complied with, that the change of order +among the major-generals was thoroughly wrong, and that the +President's meddling with the inferior appointments had been hurtful +and injudicious. His views were expressed in the most courteous +way, although with an undertone of severe disapproval. There was no +mistaking the meaning of the letter, however, and Adams, bold man and +President as he was, gave way at once. Mr. Adams thought at the time +that there had been about this matter of the major-generals too much +intrigue, by which Washington had been deceived and he himself made a +victim; but there seems no good reason to take this view of it, for +there is no indication whatever that Washington did not know and +understand the facts; and it was on the facts that he made his +decision, and not on the methods by which they were conveyed to him. +The propriety of the decision will hardly now be questioned, although +it did not tend to make the relations between the ex-President and +his successor very cordial. They had always a great respect for +each other, but not much sympathy, for they differed too widely in +temperament. Even if Washington would have permitted it, it would have +been impossible for the President to have quarreled with him, but at +the same time he felt not a little awkwardness in dealing with his +successor, and was inclined to think that that gentleman did not show +him all the respect that was due. He wrote to McHenry on October 1: +"As no mode is yet adopted by the President by which the battalion +officers are to be appointed, and as I think I stand on very +precarious ground in my relation to him, I am not over-zealous +in taking _unauthorized_ steps when those that I thought _were +authorized_ are not likely to meet with much respect." + +[Illustration: HENRY KNOX] + +There was, however, another consequence of this affair which gave +Washington much more pain than any differences with the President. His +old friend and companion in arms, General Knox, was profoundly hurt at +the decision which placed Hamilton at the head of the army. One cannot +be surprised at Knox's feelings, for he had been a distinguished +officer, and had outranked both Hamilton and Pinckney. He felt that he +ought to command the army, and that he was quite capable of doing so; +and he did not relish being told in this official manner that he had +grown old, and that the time had come for younger and abler men to +pass beyond him. The archbishop in "Gil Blas" is one of the most +universal types of human nature that we have. Nobody feels kindly to +the monitor who points out the failings which time has brought, and we +are all inclined to dismiss him with every wish that he may fare well +and have a little more taste. Poor Knox could not dismiss his Gil +Blas, and he felt the unpleasant admonition all the more bitterly from +the fact that the blow was dealt by the two men whom he most loved and +admired. Hamilton wrote him the best and most graceful of letters, but +failed to soothe him; and Washington was no more fortunate. He tried +with the utmost kindliness, and in his most courteous manner, to +soften the disappointment, and to show Knox how convincing were the +reasons for his action. But the case was not one where argument could +be of avail, and when Knox persisted in his refusal to take the place +assigned him, Washington, with all his sympathy, was perfectly frank +in expressing his views. + +In a second letter, complaining of the injustice with which he had +been treated, Knox intimated that he would be willing to serve on the +personal staff of the commander-in-chief. This was all very well; but +much as Washington grieved for his old friend's disappointment, there +was to be no misunderstanding in the matter. He wrote Knox on October +21: "After having expressed these sentiments with the frankness of +undisguised friendship, it is hardly necessary to add that, if you +should finally decline the appointment of major-general, there is none +to whom I would give a more decided preference as an aide-de-camp, the +offer of which is highly flattering, honorable, and grateful to my +feelings, and for which I entertain a high sense. But, my dear General +Knox, and here again I speak to you in a language of candor and +friendship, examine well your mind upon this subject. Do not unite +yourself to the suite of a man whom you may consider as the primary +cause of what you call a degradation, with unpleasant sensations. +This, while it was gnawing upon you, would, if I should come to the +knowledge of it, make me unhappy; as my first wish would be that my +military family and the whole army should consider themselves a band +of brothers, willing and ready to die for each other." + +Knox would not serve; and his ill temper, irritated still further +by the apparent preference of the President and by the talk of his +immediate circle, prevailed. On the other hand, Pinckney, one of the +most generous and patriotic of men, accepted service at once without a +syllable of complaint on the score that he had ranked Hamilton in the +former war. It was with these two, therefore, that Washington +carried on the work of organizing the provisional army. Despite his +determination to remain in retirement until called to the field, his +desire for perfection in any work that he undertook brought him out, +and he gave much time and attention not only to the general questions +which were raised, but to the details of the business, and on November +10 he addressed a series of inquiries, both general and particular, +to Hamilton and Pinckney. These inquiries covered the whole scope of +possible events, probable military operations, and the formation of +the army. They were written in Philadelphia, whither he had gone, and +where he passed a month with the two major-generals in the discussion +of plans and measures. The result of their conferences was an +elaborate and masterly report on army organization drawn up by +Hamilton, upon whom, throughout this period of impending war, the +brunt of the work fell. + +Careful and painstaking, however, as Washington was in the matter of +appointments and organization, dealing with them as if he was about to +take the field at the head of the army, there was never a moment when +he felt that there was danger of actual war. He had studied foreign +affairs and the conditions of Europe too well to be much deceived +about them, and least of all in regard to France. He felt from the +beginning that the moment we displayed a proper spirit, began to arm, +and fought one or two French ships successfully, that France would +leave off bullying and abusing us, and make a satisfactory peace. The +declared adherent of the maxim that to prepare for war was the most +effectual means of preserving peace, he felt that never was it more +important to carry out this doctrine than now; and it was for this +reason that he labored so hard and gave so much thought to army +organization at a time when he felt more than ever the need of repose, +and shrank from the least semblance of a return to public life. In +all his long career there was never a better instance of his devoted +patriotism than his coming forward in this way at the sacrifice of +every personal wish after his retirement from the presidency. + +Yet, although he closely watched the course of politics, and gave, as +has been said, a cordial support to the administration, his sympathies +were rather with the opponents of the President within the ranks +of their common party. The conduct of Gerry, who had been Adams's +personal selection for a commissioner, was very distasteful to +Washington, and was very far from exciting in his mind the approval +which it drew from Mr. Adams. He wrote to Pickering on October 18: +"With respect to Mr. Gerry, his own character and public satisfaction +require better evidence than his letter to the minister of foreign +relations to prove the propriety of his conduct during his envoyship." +He did not believe that we were to have war with France, but he was +very confident that a bold and somewhat uncompromising attitude was +the best one for the country, and that above all we should not palter +with France after the affronts to which we had been subjected. When +President Adams, therefore, made his sudden change of policy by +nominating Murray as a special envoy, Washington, despite his desire +for peace, was by no means enthusiastic in his approval of the methods +by which it was sought. The President wrote him announcing the +appointment of Murray, and Washington acknowledged the letter and +the information without any comment. He saw, of course, that as the +President had seen fit to take the step he must be sustained, and he +wrote to Murray to impress upon him the gravity of the mission with +which he was intrusted; but he had serious doubts as to the success of +such a mission under such conditions, and when delays occurred he was +not without hopes of a final abandonment. The day after his letter to +Murray he wrote to Hamilton: "I was surprised at the _measure_, +how much more so at the manner of it! This business seems to have +commenced in an evil hour, and under unfavorable auspices. I wish +mischief may not tread in all its steps, and be the final result of +the measure. A wide door was open, through which a retreat might have +been made from the first _faux pas_, the shutting of which, to those +who are not behind the curtain and are as little acquainted with +the secrets of the cabinet as I am, is, from the present aspect of +European affairs, quite incomprehensible." He hoped but little good +from the mission, although it had his fervent wishes for its success, +expressed repeatedly in letters to members of the cabinet; and while +he was full of apprehension, he had a firm faith that all would end +well. + +For this anxiety, indeed, there was abundant reason. A violent change +of policy toward France, the disorders occasioned by political +dissensions at home, and the sudden appearance of the deadly doctrine +of nullification, all combined to excite alarm in the mind of a man +who looked as far into the future and as deep beneath the surface of +things as did Washington. It was then that he urged Patrick Henry to +reenter public life, and exerted his own influence wherever he could +to check the separatist movement set on foot by Jefferson. He was +deeply disturbed, too, by the tendencies of the times in other +directions. The delirium of the French Revolution was not confined +to France. Her soldiers bore with them the new doctrines, while far +beyond the utmost reach of her armies flew the ideas engendered in +the fevered air of Paris. Wherever they alighted they touched men and +stung them to madness, and the madness that they bred was not confined +to those who believed the new gospel, but was shared equally by those +who resisted and loathed it. Burke, in his way, was as much crazed as +Camille Desmoulins, and it seemed impossible for people living in the +midst of that terrific convulsion of society to retain their judgment. +Nowhere ought men to have been better able to withstand the contagion +of the revolution than in America, and yet even here it produced the +same results as in countries nearly affected by it. The party +of opposition to the government became first ludicrous and then +dangerous, in their wild admiration and senseless imitation of ideas +and practices as utterly alien to the people of the United States as +cannibalism or fire-worship. Then the Federalists, on their side, fell +beneath the spell. The overthrow of religion, society, property, and +morals, which they beheld in Paris, seemed to them to be threatening +their own country, and they became as extreme as their opponents in +the exactly opposite direction. Federalist divines came to look +upon Jefferson, the most timid and prudent of men, as a Marat or +Robespierre, ready to reproduce the excesses of his prototypes; while +Pickering, Wolcott, and all their friends in public life regarded +themselves as engaged in a struggle for the preservation of order and +society and of all that they held most dear. They were in the habit of +comparing French principles to a pestilence, and the French republic +to a raging tiger. Even Hamilton was so moved as to believe that the +United States were on the verge of anarchy, and he laid down his life +at last in a senseless duel because he thought that his refusal to +fight would disable him for leading the forces of order when the final +crash came. + +Washington, with his strong, calm judgment and his penetrating vision, +was less affected than any of those who had followed and sustained +him; but he was by no means untouched, and if we try to put ourselves +in his place, his views seem far from unreasonable. He had at the +outset wished well to the great movement in France, although even then +he doubted its final success. Very soon, however, doubts changed +to suspicions, and suspicions to conviction. As he saw the French +revolution move on in its inevitable path, he came to hate and dread +its deeds, its policies, and its doctrines. To a man of his temper it +could not have been otherwise, for license and disorder were above all +things detestable to him. They were the immediate fruits of the French +revolution, and when he saw a party devoted to France preaching the +same ideas in the United States, he could not but feel that there was +a real and practical danger confronting the country. This was why he +felt that we needed an energetic policy, and it was on this account +that he distrusted the President's renewed effort for peace. The +course of the opposition, as he saw it, threatened not merely the +existence of the Union, but wittingly or unwittingly struck at the +very foundations of society. His anxiety did not make him violent, as +was the case with lesser men, but it convinced him of the necessity of +strong measures, and he was not a man to shrink from vigorous action. +He was quite prepared to do all that could be done to maintain the +authority of the government, which he considered equivalent to the +protection of society, and for this reason he approved of the Alien +and Sedition acts. + +In the process of time these two famous laws have come to be +universally condemned, and those who have not questioned their +constitutionality have declared them wrong, inexpedient and impolitic, +and the immediate cause of the overthrow of the party responsible for +them. Everybody has made haste to disown them, and there has been a +general effort on the part of Federalist sympathizers to throw the +blame for them on persons unknown. Biographers, especially, have tried +zealously to clear the skirts of their heroes from any connection with +these obnoxious acts; but the truth is, that, whether right or wrong, +wise or unwise, these laws had the entire support of the ruling party +from the President down. Hamilton, who objected to the first draft +because it was needlessly violent, approved the purpose and principle +of the legislation; and Washington was no exception to the general +rule. He was calm about it, but his approbation was none the less +distinct, and he took pains to circulate a sound argument, when he +met with one, in justification of the Alien and Sedition acts.[1] In +November, 1798, Alexander Spotswood wrote to him, asking his judgment +on those laws. As the writer announced himself to be thoroughly +convinced of their unconstitutionally, Washington, with a little +sarcasm, declined to enter into argument with him. "But," he +continued, "I will take the liberty of advising such as are not +'thoroughly convinced,' and whose minds are yet open to conviction, +to read the pieces and hear the arguments which have been adduced +in favor of, as well as those against, the constitutionality and +expediency of those laws, before they decide and consider to what +lengths a certain description of men in our country have already +driven, and seem resolved further to drive matters, and then ask +themselves if it is not time and expedient to resort to protecting +laws against aliens (for citizens, you certainly know, are not +affected by that law), who acknowledge no allegiance to this country, +and in many instances are sent among us, as there is the best +circumstantial evidence to prove, for the express purpose of poisoning +the minds of our people and sowing dissensions among them, in order to +alienate their affections from the government of their choice, thereby +endeavoring to dissolve the Union, and of course the fair and happy +prospects which are unfolding to our view from the Revolution." + +[Footnote 1: See letter to Bushrod Washington, Sparks, vi. p. 387.] + +With these strong and decided feelings as to the proper policy to +be adopted, and with such grave apprehensions as to the outcome +of existing difficulties, Washington was deeply distressed by the +divisions which he saw springing up among the Federalists. From his +point of view it was bad enough to have the people of the country +divided into two great parties; but that one of those parties, that +which was devoted to the maintenance of order and the preservation +of the Union, should be torn by internal dissensions, seemed to him +almost inconceivable. He regarded the conduct of the party and of its +leaders with quite as much indignation as sorrow, for it seemed to him +that they were unpatriotic and false to their trust in permitting for +a moment these personal factions which could have but one result. He +wrote to Trumbull on August 30, 1799:-- + +"It is too interesting not to be again repeated, that if principles +instead of men are not the steady pursuit of the Federalists, their +cause will soon be at an end; if these are pursued they will not +_divide_ at the next election of President; if they do divide on +so _important_ a point, it would be dangerous to trust them on any +other,--and none except those who might be solicitous to fill the +chair of government would do it."[1] + +[Footnote 1: _Life of Silliman_, vol. ii. p. 385.] + +He was a true prophet, but he did not live to see the verification +of his predictions, which would have been to him a source of so much +grief. In the midst of his anxieties about public affairs, and of +the quiet, homely interests which made the days at Mount Vernon so +pleasant, the end suddenly came. There was no more forewarning than if +he had been struck down by accident or violence. He had always been a +man of great physical vigor, and although he had had one or two acute +and dangerous illnesses arising from mental strain and much overwork, +there is no indication that he had any organic disease, and since his +retirement from the presidency he had been better than for many years. +There was not only no sign of breaking up, but he appeared full of +health and activity, and led his usual wholesome outdoor life with +keen enjoyment. + +The morning of December 12 was overcast. He wrote to Hamilton warmly +approving the scheme for a military academy; and having finished this, +which was probably the last letter he ever wrote, he mounted his horse +and rode off for his usual round of duties. He noted in his diary, +where he always described the weather with methodical exactness, that +it began to snow about one o'clock, soon after to hail, and then +turned to a settled cold rain. He stayed out notwithstanding for about +two hours, and then came back to the house and franked his letters. +Mr. Lear noticed that his hair was damp with snow, and expressed a +fear that he had got wet; but the General said no, that his coat had +kept him dry, and sat down to dinner without changing his clothes. The +next morning snow was still falling so that he did not ride, and he +complained of a slight sore throat, but nevertheless went out in the +afternoon to mark some trees that were to be cut down. His hoarseness +increased toward night, yet still he made light of it, and read the +newspapers and chatted with Mrs. Washington during the evening. + +When he went to bed Mr. Lear urged him to take something for his cold. +"No," he replied, "you know I never take anything for a cold. Let +it go as it came." In the night he had a severe chill, followed by +difficulty in breathing; and between two and three in the morning he +awoke Mrs. Washington, but would not allow her to get up and call a +servant lest she should take cold. At daybreak Mr. Lear was summoned, +and found Washington breathing with difficulty and hardly able to +speak. Dr. Craik, the friend and companion of many years, was sent +for at once, and meantime the General was bled slightly by one of the +overseers. A futile effort was also made to gargle his throat, and +external applications were tried without affording relief. Dr. Craik +arrived between eight and nine o'clock with two other physicians, when +other remedies were tried and the patient was bled again, all without +avail. About half-past four he called Mrs. Washington to his bedside +and asked her to get two wills from his desk. She did so, and after +looking them over he ordered one to be destroyed and gave her the +other to keep. He then said to Lear, speaking with the utmost +difficulty, but saying what he had to say with characteristic +determination and clearness: "I find I am going; my breath cannot last +long. I believed from the first that the disorder would prove fatal. +Do you arrange and record all my late military letters and papers. +Arrange my accounts and settle my books, as you know more about them +than any one else; and let Mr. Rawlins finish recording my other +letters, which he has begun." He then asked if Lear recollected +anything which it was essential for him to do, as he had but a very +short time to continue with them. Lear replied that he could recollect +nothing, but that he hoped the end was not so near. Washington smiled, +and said that he certainly was dying, and that as it was the +debt which we must all pay, he looked to the event with perfect +resignation. + +The disease which was killing him was acute oedematous laryngitis,[1] +which is as simple as it is rare and fatal,[2] and he was being +slowly strangled to death by the closing of the throat. He bore +the suffering, which must have been intense, with his usual calm +self-control, but as the afternoon wore on the keen distress and the +difficulty of breathing made him restless. From time to time Mr. Lear +tried to raise him and make his position easier. The General said, +"I fear I fatigue you too much;" and again, on being assured to the +contrary, "Well, it is a debt we must pay to each other, and I hope +when you want aid of this kind you will find it." He was courteous and +thoughtful of others to the last, and told his servant, who had been +standing all day in attendance upon him, to sit down. To Dr. Craik he +said: "I die hard, but I am not afraid to go. I believed from my first +attack that I should not survive it. My breath cannot last long." When +a little later the other physicians came in and assisted him to sit +up, he said: "I feel I am going. I thank you for your attentions, but +I pray you will take no more trouble about me. Let me go off quietly. +I cannot last long." He lay there for some hours longer, restless and +suffering, but utterly uncomplaining, taking such remedies as the +physicians ordered in silence. About ten o'clock he spoke again to +Lear, although it required a most desperate effort to do so. "I am +just going," he said. "Have me decently buried, and do not let my body +be put into the vault in less than three days after I am dead." Lear +bowed, and Washington said, "Do you understand me?" Lear answered, +"Yes." "'Tis well," he said, and with these last words again fell +silent. A little later he felt his own pulse, and, as he was counting +the strokes, Lear saw his countenance change. His hand dropped back +from the wrist he had been holding, and all was over. The end had +come. Washington was dead. He died as he had lived, simply and +bravely, without parade and without affectation. The last duties +were done, the last words said, the last trials borne with the quiet +fitness, the gracious dignity, that even the gathering mists of the +supreme hour could neither dim nor tarnish. He had faced life with a +calm, high, victorious spirit. So did he face death and the unknown +when Fate knocked at the door. + +[Footnote 1: It was called at the time a quinsy.] + +[Footnote 2: See Memoir on _The Last Sickness of Washington_, by James +Jackson, M.D. In response to an inquiry as to the modern treatment of +this disease, the late Dr. F.H. Hooper of Boston, well known as +an authority on diseases of the throat, wrote me: "Washington's +physicians are not to be criticised for their treatment, for they +acted according to their best light and knowledge. To treat such +a case in such a manner in the year 1889 would be little short +of criminal. At the present time the physicians would use the +laryngoscope and _look_ and _see_ what the trouble was. (The +laryngoscope has only been used since 1857.) In this disease the +function most interfered with is breathing. The one thing which saves +a patient in this disease is a _timely tracheotomy_. (I doubt if +tracheotomy had ever been performed in Virginia in Washington's time.) +Washington ought to have been tracheotomized, or rather that is the +way cases are saved to-day. No one would think of antimony, calomel, +or bleeding now. The point is to let in the air, and not to let out +the blood. After tracheotomy has been performed, the oedema and +swelling of the larynx subside in three to six days. The tracheotomy +tube is then removed, and respiration goes on again through the +natural channels."] + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +GEORGE WASHINGTON + + +This last chapter cannot begin more fitly than by quoting again the +words of Mr. McMaster: "George Washington is an unknown man." Mr. +McMaster might have added that to no man in our history has greater +injustice of a certain kind been done, or more misunderstanding been +meted out, than to Washington, and although this sounds like the +merest paradox, it is nevertheless true. From the hour when the door +of the tomb at Mount Vernon closed behind his coffin to the present +instant, the chorus of praise and eulogy has never ceased, but has +swelled deeper and louder with each succeeding year. He has been set +apart high above all other men, and reverenced with the unquestioning +veneration accorded only to the leaders of mankind and the founders +of nations; and in this very devotion lies one secret at least of the +fact that, while all men have praised Washington, comparatively +few have understood him. He has been lifted high up into a lonely +greatness, and unconsciously put outside the range of human sympathy. +He has been accepted as a being as nearly perfect as it is given to +man to be, but our warm personal interest has been reserved for other +and lesser men who seemed to be nearer to us in their virtues and +their errors alike. Such isolation, lofty though it be, is perilous +and leads to grievous misunderstandings. From it has come the +widespread idea that Washington was cold, and as devoid of human +sympathies as he was free from the common failings of humanity. + +Of this there will be something to say presently, but meantime there +is another more prolific source of error in regard to Washington to +be considered. Men who are loudly proclaimed to be faultless always +excite a certain kind of resentment. It is a dangerous eminence +for any one to occupy. The temples of Greece are in ruins, and her +marvelous literature is little more than a collection of fragments, +but the feelings of the citizens who exiled Aristides because they +were weary of hearing him called "just," exist still, unchanged and +unchangeable. Washington has not only been called "just," but he +has had every other good quality attributed to him by countless +biographers and eulogists with an almost painful iteration, and the +natural result has followed. Many persons have felt the sense of +fatigue which the Athenians expressed practically by their oyster +shells, and have been led to cast doubts on Washington's perfection +as the only consolation for their own sense of injury. Then, again, +Washington's fame has been so overshadowing, and his greatness so +immutable, that he has been very inconvenient to the admirers and the +biographers of other distinguished men. From these two sources, from +the general jealousy of the classic Greek variety, and the particular +jealousy born of the necessities of some other hero, much adverse and +misleading criticism has come. It has never been a safe or popular +amusement to assail Washington directly, and this course usually has +been shunned; but although the attacks have been veiled they have none +the less existed, and they have been all the more dangerous because +they were insidious. + +In his lifetime Washington had his enemies and detractors in +abundance. During the Revolution he was abused and intrigued against, +thwarted and belittled, to a point which posterity in general scarcely +realizes. Final and conclusive victory brought an end to this, and +he passed to the presidency amid a general acclaim. Then the attacks +began again. Their character has been shown in a previous chapter, but +they were of no real moment except as illustrations of the existence +and meaning of party divisions. The ravings of Bache and Freneau, +and the coarse insults of Giles, were all totally unimportant in +themselves. They merely define the purposes and character of the party +which opposed Washington, and but for him would be forgotten. Among +his eminent contemporaries, Jefferson and Pickering, bitterly opposed +in all things else, have left memoranda and letters reflecting upon +the abilities of their former chief. Jefferson disliked him because he +blocked his path, but with habitual caution he never proceeded beyond +a covert sneer implying that Washington's mental powers, at no time +very great, were impaired by age during his presidency, and that he +was easily deceived by practised intriguers. Pickering, with more +boldness, set Washington down as commonplace, not original in his +thought, and vastly inferior to Hamilton, apparently because he was +not violent, and did not make up his mind before he knew the facts. + +Adverse contemporary criticism, however, is slight in amount and vague +in character; it can be readily dismissed, and it has in no case +weight enough to demand much consideration. Modern criticism of the +same kind has been even less direct, but is much more serious and +cannot be lightly passed over. It invariably proceeds by negations +setting out with an apparently complete acceptance of Washington's +greatness, and then assailing him by telling us what he was not. Few +persons who have not given this matter a careful study realize how far +criticism of this sort has gone, and there is indeed no better way +of learning what Washington really was than by examining the various +negations which tell us what he was not. + +Let us take the gravest first. It has been confidently asserted that +Washington was not an American in anything but the technical sense. +This idea is more diffused than, perhaps, would be generally supposed, +and it has also been formally set down in print, in which we are more +fortunate than in many other instances where the accusation has not +got beyond the elusive condition of loose talk. + +In that most noble poem, the "Commemoration Ode," Mr. Lowell speaks of +Lincoln as "the first American." The poet's winged words fly far, and +find a resting-place in many minds. This idea has become widespread, +and has recently found fuller expression in Mr. Clarence King's +prefatory note to the great life of Lincoln by Hay and Nicolay.[1] Mr. +King says: "Abraham Lincoln was the first American to reach the lonely +height of immortal fame. Before him, within the narrow compass of our +history, were but two preëminent names,--Columbus the discoverer, and +Washington the founder; the one an Italian seer, the other an English +country gentleman. In a narrow sense, of course, Washington was an +American.... For all that he was English in his nature, habits, moral +standards, and social theories; in short, in all points which, +aside from mere geographical position, make up a man, he was as +thorough-going a British colonial gentleman as one could find anywhere +beneath the Union Jack. The genuine American of Lincoln's type came +later.... George Washington, an English commoner, vanquished George, +an English king." + +[Footnote 1: Mr. Matthew Arnold, and more recently Professor Goldwin +Smith, have both spoken of Washington as an Englishman. I do not +mention this to discredit the statements of Mr. Lowell or Mr. King, +but merely to indicate how far this mistaken idea has traveled.] + +In order to point his sentence and prove his first postulate, Mr. +King is obliged not only to dispose of Washington, but to introduce +Columbus, who never was imagined in the wildest fantasy to be an +American, and to omit Franklin. The omission of itself is fatal to Mr. +King's case. Franklin has certainly a "preëminent name." He has, too, +"immortal fame," although of course of a widely different character +from that of either Washington or Lincoln, but he was a great man +in the broad sense of a world-wide reputation. Yet no one has ever +ventured to call Benjamin Franklin an Englishman. He was a colonial +American, of course, but he was as intensely an American as any man +who has lived on this continent before or since. A man of the people, +he was American by the character of his genius, by his versatility, +the vivacity of his intellect, and his mental dexterity. In his +abilities, his virtues, and his defects he was an American, and so +plainly one as to be beyond the reach of doubt or question. There were +others of that period, too, who were as genuine Americans as Franklin +or Lincoln. Such were Jonathan Edwards, the peculiar product of New +England Calvinism; Patrick Henry, who first broke down colonial lines +to declare himself an American; Samuel Adams, the great forerunner +of the race of American politicians; Thomas Jefferson, the idol of +American democracy. These and many others Mr. King might exclude on +the ground that they did not reach the lonely height of immortal fame. +But Franklin is enough. Unless one is prepared to set Franklin down +as an Englishman, which would be as reasonable as to say that Daniel +Webster was a fine example of the Slavic race, it must be admitted +that it was possible for the thirteen colonies to produce in the +eighteenth century a genuine American who won immortal fame. If they +could produce one of one type, they could produce a second of another +type, and there was, therefore, nothing inherently impossible in +existing conditions to prevent Washington from being an American. + +Lincoln was undoubtedly the first great American of his type, but that +is not the only type of American. It is one which, as bodied forth in +Abraham Lincoln, commands the love and veneration of the people of the +United States, and the admiration of the world wherever his name is +known. To the noble and towering greatness of his mind and character +it does not add one hair's breadth to say that he was the first +American, or that he was of a common or uncommon type. Greatness like +Lincoln's is far beyond such qualifications, and least of all is it +necessary to his fame to push Washington from his birthright. To say +that George Washington, an English commoner, vanquished George, an +English king, is clever and picturesque, but like many other pleasing +antitheses it is painfully inaccurate. Allegiance does not make race +or nationality. The Hindoos are subjects of Victoria, but they are not +Englishmen. + +Franklin shows that it was possible to produce a most genuine American +of unquestioned greatness in the eighteenth century, and with all +possible deference to Mr. Lowell and Mr. King, I venture the assertion +that George Washington was as genuine an American as Lincoln or +Franklin. He was an American of the eighteenth and not of the +nineteenth century, but he was none the less an American. I will go +further. Washington was not only an American of a pure and noble type, +but he was the first thorough American in the broad, national sense, +as distinct from the colonial American of his time. + +After all, what is it to be an American? Surely it does not consist in +the number of generations merely which separate the individual from +his forefathers who first settled here. Washington was fourth in +descent from the first American of his name, while Lincoln was in +the sixth generation. This difference certainly constitutes no real +distinction. There are people to-day, not many luckily, whose families +have been here for two hundred and fifty years, and who are as utterly +un-American as it is possible to be, while there are others, whose +fathers were immigrants, who are as intensely American as any one can +desire or imagine. In a new country, peopled in two hundred and fifty +years by immigrants from the Old World and their descendants, the +process of Americanization is not limited by any hard and fast rules +as to time and generations, but is altogether a matter of individual +and race temperament. The production of the well-defined American +types and of the fixed national characteristics which now exist has +been going on during all that period, but in any special instance the +type to which a given man belongs must be settled by special study and +examination. + +Washington belonged to the English-speaking race. So did Lincoln. Both +sprang from the splendid stock which was formed during centuries from +a mixture of the Celtic, Teutonic, Scandinavian, and Norman peoples, +and which is known to the world as English. Both, so far as we can +tell, had nothing but English blood, as it would be commonly called, +in their veins, and both were of that part of the English race which +emigrated to America, where it has been the principal factor in the +development of the new people called Americans. They were men of +English race, modified and changed in the fourth and sixth generations +by the new country, the new conditions, and the new life, and by the +contact and admixture of other races. Lincoln, a very great man, one +who has reached "immortal fame," was clearly an American of a type +that the Old World cannot show, or at least has not produced. The idea +of many persons in regard to Washington seems to be, that he was a +great man of a type which the Old World, or, to be more exact, which +England, had produced. One hears it often said that Washington was +simply an American Hampden. Such a comparison is an easy method of +description, nothing more. Hampden is memorable among men, not for +his abilities, which there is no reason to suppose were very +extraordinary, but for his devoted and unselfish patriotism, his +courage, his honor, and his pure and lofty spirit. He embodied what +his countrymen believe to be the moral qualities of their race in +their finest flower, and no nation, be it said, could have a nobler +ideal. Washington was conspicuous for the same qualities, exhibited +in like fashion. Is there a single one of the essential attributes of +Hampden that Lincoln also did not possess? Was he not an unselfish +and devoted patriot, pure in heart, gentle of spirit, high of honor, +brave, merciful, and temperate? Did he not lay down his life for +his country in the box at Ford's Theatre as ungrudgingly as Hampden +offered his in the smoke of battle upon Chalgrove field? Surely we +must answer Yes. In other words, these three men all had the great +moral attributes which are the characteristics of the English race in +its highest and purest development on either side of the Atlantic. +Yet no one has ever called Lincoln an American Hampden simply because +Hampden and Washington were men of ancient family, members of an +aristocracy by birth, and Lincoln was not. This is the distinction +between them; and how vain it is, in the light of their lives and +deeds, which make all pedigrees and social ranks look so poor and +worthless! The differences among them are trivial, the resemblances +deep and lasting. + +I have followed out this comparison because it illustrates perfectly +the entirely superficial character of the reasons which have led men +to speak of Washington as an English country gentleman. It has been +said that he was English in his habits, moral standards, and social +theories, which has an important sound, but which for the most part +comes down to a question of dress and manners. He wore black velvet +and powdered hair, knee-breeches and diamond buckles, which are +certainly not American fashions to-day. But they were American +fashions in the last century, and every man wore them who could afford +to, no matter what his origin. Let it be remembered, however, that +Washington also wore the hunting-shirt and fringed leggins of the +backwoodsman, and that it was he who introduced this purely American +dress into the army as a uniform. + +His manners likewise were those of the century in which he lived, +formal and stately, and of course colored by his own temperament. His +moral standards were those of a high-minded, honorable man. Are we +ready to say that they were not American? Did they differ in any vital +point from those of Lincoln? His social theories were simple in the +extreme. He neither overvalued nor underrated social conventions, for +he knew that they were a part of the fabric of civilized society, not +vitally important and yet not wholly trivial. He was a member of an +aristocracy, it is true, both by birth and situation. There was a +recognized social aristocracy in every colony before the Revolution, +for the drum-beat of the great democratic march had not then sounded. +In the northern colonies it was never strong, and in New England +it was especially weak, for the governments and people there were +essentially democratic, although they hardly recognized it themselves. +In Virginia and the southern colonies, on the other hand, there was a +vigorous aristocracy resting on the permanent foundation of slavery. +Where slaves are there must be masters, and where there are masters +there are aristocrats; but it was an American and not an English +aristocracy. Lineage and family had weight in the south as in the +north, but that which put a man undeniably in the ruling class was the +ownership of black slaves and the possession of a white skin. This +aristocracy lasted with its faults and its virtues until it perished +in the shock of civil war, when its foundation of human slavery was +torn from under it. From the slave-holding aristocracy of Virginia +came, with the exception of Patrick Henry, all the great men of that +State who did so much for American freedom, and who rendered such +imperishable service to the republic in law, in politics, and in war. +From this aristocracy came Marshall, and Mason, and Madison, the Lees, +the Randolphs, the Harrisons, and the rest. From it came also Thomas +Jefferson, the hero of American democracy; and to it was added Patrick +Henry, not by lineage or slave-holding, but by virtue of his brilliant +abilities, and because he, too, was an aristocrat by the immutable +division of race. It was this aristocracy into which Washington was +born, and amid which he was brought up. To say that it colored his +feelings and habits is simply to say that he was human; but to urge +that it made him un-American is to exclude at once from the ranks +of Americans all the great men given to the country by the South. +Washington, in fact, was less affected by his surroundings, and rose +above them more quickly, than any other man of his day, because he was +the greatest man of his time, with a splendid breadth of vision. + +When he first went among the New England troops at the siege of +Boston, the rough, democratic ways of the people jarred upon him, and +offended especially his military instincts, for he was not only a +Virginian but he was a great soldier, and military discipline is +essentially aristocratic. These volunteer soldiers, called together +from the plough and the fishing-smack, were free and independent men, +unaccustomed to any rule but their own, and they had still to learn +the first rudiments of military service. To Washington, soldiers who +elected and deposed their officers, and who went home when they felt +that they had a right to do so, seemed well-nigh useless and quite +incomprehensible. They angered him and tried his patience almost +beyond endurance, and he spoke of them at the outset in harsh terms by +no means wholly unwarranted. But they were part of his problem, and he +studied them. He was a soldier, but not an aristocrat wrapped up in +immutable prejudices, and he learned to know these men, and they came +to love, obey, and follow him with an intelligent devotion far better +than anything born of mere discipline. Before the year was out, he +wrote to Lund Washington praising the New England troops in the +highest terms, and at the close of the war he said that practically +the whole army then was composed of New England soldiers. They stayed +by him to the end, and as they were steadfast in war so they remained +in peace. He trusted and confided in New England, and her sturdy +democracy gave him a loyal and unflinching support to the day of his +death. + +This openness of mind and superiority to prejudice were American in +the truest and best sense; but Washington showed the same qualities in +private life and toward individuals which he displayed in regard to +communities. He was free, of course, from the cheap claptrap which +abuses the name of democracy by saying that birth, breeding, and +education are undemocratic, and therefore to be reckoned against a +man. He valued these qualities rightly, but he looked to see what a +man was and not who he was, which is true democracy. The two men who +were perhaps nearest to his affections were Knox and Hamilton. One +was a Boston bookseller, who rose to distinction by bravery and good +service, and the other was a young adventurer from the West Indies, +without either family or money at his back. It was the same with much +humbler persons. He never failed, on his way to Philadelphia, to stop +at Wilmington and have a chat with one Captain O'Flinn, who kept a +tavern and had been a Revolutionary soldier; and this was but a single +instance among many of like character. Any soldier of the Revolution +was always sure of a welcome at the hands of his old commander. +Eminent statesmen, especially of the opposition, often found his +manner cold, but no old soldier ever complained of it, no servant ever +left him, and the country people about Mount Vernon loved him as a +neighbor and friend, and not as the distant great man of the army and +the presidency. + +He believed thoroughly in popular government. One does not find in his +letters the bitter references to democracy and to the populace which +can be discovered in the writings of so many of his party friends, +legacies of pre-revolutionary ideas inflamed by hatred of Parisian +mobs. He always spoke of the people at large with a simple respect, +because he knew that the future of the United States was in their +hands and not in that of any class, and because he believed that they +would fulfill their mission. The French Revolution never carried him +away, and when it bred anarchy and bloodshed he became hostile to +French influence, because license and disorder were above all +things hateful to him. Yet he did not lose his balance in the other +direction, as was the case with so many of his friends. He resisted +and opposed French ideas and French democracy, so admired and so +loudly preached by Jefferson and his followers, because he esteemed +them perilous to the country. But there is not a word to indicate that +he did not think that such dangers would be finally overcome, even +if at the cost of much suffering, by the sane sense and ingrained +conservatism of the American people. Other men talked more noisily +about the people, but no one trusted them in the best sense more than +Washington, and his only fear was that evils might come from their +being misled by false lights. + +Once more, what is it to be an American? Putting aside all the outer +shows of dress and manners, social customs and physical peculiarities, +is it not to believe in America and in the American people? Is it not +to have an abiding and moving faith in the future and in the destiny +of America?--something above and beyond the patriotism and love which +every man whose soul is not dead within him feels for the land of his +birth? Is it not to be national and not sectional, independent and not +colonial? Is it not to have a high conception of what this great new +country should be, and to follow out that ideal with loyalty and +truth? + +Has any man in our history fulfilled these conditions more perfectly +and completely than George Washington? Has any man ever lived who +served the American people more faithfully, or with a higher and truer +conception of the destiny and possibilities of the country? Born of an +old and distinguished family, he found himself, when a boy just out of +school, dependent on his mother, and with an inheritance that promised +him more acres than shillings. He did not seek to live along upon what +he could get from the estate, and still less did he feel that it was +only possible for him to enter one of the learned professions. Had +he been an Englishman in fact or in feeling, he would have felt very +naturally the force of the limitations imposed by his social position. +But being an American, his one idea was to earn his living honestly, +because it was the creed of his country that earning an honest living +is the most creditable thing a man can do. Boy as he was, he went out +manfully into the world to win with his own hands the money which +would make him self-supporting and independent. His business as a +surveyor took him into the wilderness, and there he learned that the +first great work before the American people was to be the conquest of +the continent. He dropped the surveyor's rod and chain to negotiate +with the savages, and then took up the sword to fight them and the +French, so that the New World might be secured to the English-speaking +race. A more purely American training cannot be imagined. It was not +the education of universities or of courts, but that of hard-earned +personal independence, won in the backwoods and by frontier fighting. +Thus trained, he gave the prime of his manhood to leading the +Revolution which made his country free, and his riper years to +building up that independent nationality without which freedom would +have been utterly vain. + +He was the first to rise above all colonial or state lines, and grasp +firmly the conception of a nation to be formed from the thirteen +jarring colonies. The necessity of national action in the army was of +course at once apparent to him, although not to others; but he carried +the same broad views into widely different fields, where at the time +they wholly escaped notice. It was Washington, oppressed by a thousand +cares, who in the early days of the Revolution saw the need of Federal +courts for admiralty cases and for other purposes. It was he who +suggested this scheme, years before any one even dreamed of the +Constitution; and from the special committees of Congress, formed for +this object in accordance with this advice, came, in the process of +time, the Federal judiciary of the United States.[1] Even in that +early dawn of the Revolution, Washington had clear in his own mind the +need of a continental system for war, diplomacy, finance, and law, and +he worked steadily to bring this policy to fulfilment. + +[Footnote 1: See the very interesting memoir on this subject by the +Hon. J.C. Bancroft Davis.] + +When the war was over, the thought that engaged his mind most was +of the best means to give room for expansion, and to open up the +unconquered continent to the forerunners of a mighty army of settlers. +For this purpose all his projects for roads, canals, and surveys were +formed and forced into public notice. He looked beyond the limits of +the Atlantic colonies. His vision went far over the barriers of the +Alleghanies; and where others saw thirteen infant States backed by the +wilderness, he beheld the germs of a great empire. While striving thus +to lay the West open to the march of the settler, he threw himself +into the great struggle, where Hamilton and Madison, and all who +"thought continentally," were laboring for that union without which +all else was worse than futile. + +From the presidency of the convention that formed the Constitution, he +went to the presidency of the government which that convention brought +into being; and in all that followed, the one guiding thought was to +clear the way for the advance of the people, and to make that people +and their government independent in thought, in policy, and in +character, as the Revolution had made them independent politically. +The same spirit which led him to write during the war that our battles +must be fought and our victories won by Americans, if victory and +independence were to be won at all, or to have any real and solid +worth, pervaded his whole administration. We see it in his Indian +policy, which was directed not only to pacifying the tribes, but +to putting it out of their power to arrest or even delay western +settlement. We see it in his attitude toward foreign ministers, and in +his watchful persistence in regard to the Mississippi, which ended in +our securing the navigation of the great river. We see it again in his +anxious desire to keep peace until we had passed the point where war +might bring a dissolution; and how real that danger was, and how clear +and just his perception of it, is shown by the Kentucky and Virginia +Resolutions and by the separatist movement in New England during the +later war of 1812. Even in 1812 the national existence was menaced, +but the danger would have proved fatal if it had come twenty years +earlier, with parties divided by their sympathies with contending +foreign nations. It was for the sake of the Union that Washington was +so patient with France, and faced so quietly the storm of indignation +aroused by the Jay treaty. + +In his whole foreign policy, which was so peculiarly his own, the +American spirit was his pole star; and of all the attacks made upon +him, the only one which really tried his soul was the accusation that +he was influenced by foreign predilections. The blind injustice, which +would not comprehend that his one purpose was to be American and to +make the people and the government American, touched him more deeply +than anything else. As party strife grew keener over the issues raised +by the war between France and England, and as French politics and +French ideas became more popular, his feelings found more frequent +utterance, and it is interesting to see how this man, who, we are now +told, was an English country gentleman, wrote and felt on this matter +in very trying times. Let us remember, as we listen to him now in his +own defense, that he was an extremely honest man, silent for the most +part in doing his work, but when he spoke meaning every word he said, +and saying exactly what he meant. This was the way in which he +wrote to Patrick Henry in October, 1795, when he offered him the +secretaryship of State:-- + +"My ardent desire is, and my aim has been as far as depended upon the +executive department, to comply strictly with all our engagements, +foreign and domestic; but to keep the United States free from +political connection with every other country, to see them independent +of all and under the influence of none. In a word, I want an +_American_ character, that the powers of Europe may be convinced that +we act for _ourselves_, and not for others. This, in my judgment, is +the only way to be respected abroad and happy at home; and not, by +becoming partisans of Great Britain or France, create dissensions, +disturb the public tranquillity, and destroy, perhaps forever, the +cement which binds the Union." + +Not quite a year later, when the Jay treaty was still agitating the +public mind in regard to our relations with France, he wrote to +Pickering:-- + +"The Executive has a plain road to pursue, namely, to fulfill all the +engagements which duty requires; be influenced beyond this by none of +the contending parties; maintain a strict neutrality unless obliged +by imperious circumstances to depart from it; do justice to all, and +never forget that we are Americans, the remembrance of which will +convince us that we ought not to be French or English." + +After leaving the presidency, when our difficulties with France seemed +to be thickening, and the sky looked very dark, he wrote to a friend +saying that he firmly believed that all would come out well, and then +added: "To me this is so demonstrable, that not a particle of doubt +could dwell on my mind relative thereto, if our citizens would +advocate their own cause, instead of that of any other nation under +the sun; that is, if, instead of being Frenchmen or Englishmen in +politics they would be Americans, indignant at every attempt of either +or any other powers to establish an influence in our councils or +presume to sow the seeds of discord or disunion among us." + +A few days later he wrote to Thomas Pinckney: + +"It remains to be seen whether our country will stand upon independent +ground, or be directed in its political concerns by any other nation. +A little time will show who are its true friends, or, what is +synonymous, who are true Americans." + +But this eager desire for a true Americanism did not stop at our +foreign policy, or our domestic politics. He wished it to enter into +every part of the life and thought of the people, and when it was +proposed to bring over the entire staff of a Genevan university to +take charge of a national university here, he threw his influence +against it, expressing grave doubts as to the advantage of importing +an entire "seminary of foreigners," for the purpose of American +education. The letter on this subject, which was addressed to John +Adams, then continued:-- + +"My opinion with respect to emigration is that except of useful +mechanics, and some particular descriptions of men or professions, +there is no need of encouragement; while the policy or advantage of +its taking place in a body (I mean the settling of them in a body) may +be much questioned; for by so doing they retain the language, habits, +and principles, good or bad, which they bring with them. Whereas by +an intermixture with our people, they or their descendants get +assimilated to our customs, measures, and laws; in a word, soon become +one people." + +He had this thought so constantly in his mind that it found expression +in his will, in the clause bequeathing certain property for the +foundation of a university in the District of Columbia. "I proceed," +he said, "after this recital for the more correct understanding of the +case, to declare that it has always been a source of serious regret +with me to see the youth of these United States sent to foreign +countries for the purposes of education, often before their minds were +formed, or they had imbibed any adequate ideas of the happiness of +their own; contracting too frequently not only habits of dissipation +and extravagance, but _principles unfriendly to republican government +and to the true and genuine liberties of mankind_, which thereafter +are rarely overcome; for these reasons it has been my ardent wish to +see a plan devised on a liberal scale, which would have a tendency +to spread systematic ideas through all parts of this rising empire, +thereby to do away with local attachments and state prejudices, as +far as the nature of things would or indeed ought to admit, from our +national councils." + +Were these the words of an English country gentleman, who chanced to +be born in one of England's colonies? Persons of the English country +gentleman pattern at that time were for the most part loyalists; +excellent people, very likely, but not of the Washington type. Their +hopes and ideals, their policies and their beliefs were in the mother +country, not here. The faith, the hope, the thought, of Washington +were all in the United States. His one purpose was to make America +independent in thought and action, and he strove day and night to +build up a nation. He labored unceasingly to lay the foundations of +the great empire which, with almost prophetic vision, he saw beyond +the mountains, by opening the way for the western movement. His +foreign policy was a declaration to the world of a new national +existence, and he strained every nerve to lift our politics from the +colonial condition of foreign issues. He wished all immigration to +be absorbed and moulded here, so that we might be one people, one in +speech and in political faith. His last words, given to the world +after the grave had closed over him, were a solemn plea for a home +training for the youth of the Republic, so that all men might think +as Americans, untainted by foreign ideas, and rise above all local +prejudices. He did not believe that mere material development was the +only or the highest goal; for he knew that the true greatness of a +nation was moral and intellectual, and his last thoughts were for the +up-building of character and intelligence. He was never a braggart, +and mere boasting about his country as about himself was utterly +repugnant to him. He never hesitated to censure what he believed to be +wrong, but he addressed his criticisms to his countrymen in order to +lead them to better things, and did not indulge in them in order +to express his own discontent, or to amuse or curry favor with +foreigners. In a word, he loved his country, and had an abiding faith +in its future and in its people, upon whom his most earnest thoughts +and loftiest aspirations were centred. No higher, purer, or more +thorough Americanism than his could be imagined. It was a conception +far in advance of the time, possible only to a powerful mind, capable +of lifting itself out of existing conditions and alien influences, so +that it might look with undazzled gaze upon the distant future. The +first American in the broad national sense, there has never been a man +more thoroughly and truly American than Washington. It will be a sorry +day when we consent to take that noble figure from "the forefront of +the nation's life," and rank George Washington as anything but an +American of Americans, instinct with the ideas, as he was devoted to +the fortunes of the New World which gave him birth. + +There is another class of critics who have attacked Washington from +another side. These are the gentlemen who find him in the way of their +own heroes. Washington was a man of decided opinions about men as well +as measures, and he was extremely positive. He had his enemies as +well as his friends, his likes and his dislikes, strong and clear, +according to his nature. The respect which he commanded in his life +has lasted unimpaired since his death, and it is an awkward thing for +the biographers of some of his contemporaries to know that Washington +opposed, distrusted, or disliked their heroes. Therefore, in one way +or another they have gone round a stumbling-block which they could +not remove. The commonest method is to eliminate Washington by +representing him vaguely as the great man with whom every one agreed, +who belonged to no party, and favored all; then he is pushed quietly +aside. Evils and wrong-doing existed under his administration from the +opposition point of view, but they were the work of his ministers and +of wicked advisers. The king could do no wrong, and this pleasant +theory, which is untrue in fact, amounts to saying that Washington had +no opinions, but was simply a grand and imposing figure-head. The only +ground for it which is even suggested is that he sought advice, that +he used other men's ideas, and that he made up his mind slowly. All +this is true, and these very qualities help to show his greatness, +for only small minds mistake their relations with the universe, and +confuse their finite powers with omniscience. The great man, who +sees facts and reads the future, uses other men, knows the bounds of +possibility in action, can decide instantly if need be, but leaves +rash conclusions to those who are incapable of reaching any others. +In reality there never was a man who had more definite and vigorous +opinions than Washington, and the responsibility which he bore he +never shifted to other shoulders. The work of the Revolution and the +presidency, whether good or bad, was his own, and he was ready to +stand or fall by it. + +There is a still further extension of the idea that Washington +represented all parties and all views, and had neither party nor +opinions of his own. This theory is to the effect that he was great by +character alone, but that in other respects he did not rise above the +level of dignified common-place. Such, for instance, is apparently the +view of Mr. Parton, who in a clever essay discusses in philosophical +fashion the possible advantages arising from the success attained by +mere character, as in the case of Washington. Mr. Parton points his +theory by that last incident of counting the pulse as death drew nigh. +How characteristic, he exclaims, of the methodical, common-place +man, is such an act. It was not common, be it said, even were it +common-place. It was certainly a very simple action, but rare enough +so far as we know on the every-day deathbed, or in the supreme hour of +dying greatness, and it was wholly free from that affectation which +Dr. Johnson thought almost inseparable from the last solemn moment. +Irregularity is not proof of genius any more than method, and of the +two, the latter is the surer companion of greatness. The last hour of +Washington showed that calm, collected courage which had never failed +in war or peace; and so far it was proof of character. But was it not +something more? The common-place action of counting the pulse was in +reality profoundly characteristic, for it was the last exhibition of +the determined purpose to know the truth, and grasp the fact. Death +was upon him; he would know the fact. He had looked facts in the face +all his life, and when the mists gathered, he would face them still. + +High and splendid character, great moral qualities for after-ages to +admire, he had beyond any man of modern times. But to suppose that in +other respects he belonged to the ranks of mediocrity is not only a +contradiction in terms, but utterly false. It was not character that +fought the Trenton campaign and carried the revolution to victory. +It was military genius. It was not character that read the future of +America and created our foreign policy. It was statesmanship of the +highest order. Without the great moral qualities which he possessed, +his career would not have been possible; but it would have been quite +as impossible if the intellect had not equaled the character. There is +no need to argue the truism that Washington was a great man, for that +is universally admitted. But it is very needful that his greatness +should be rightly understood, and the right understanding of it is by +no means universal. His character has been exalted at the expense of +his intellect, and his goodness has been so much insisted upon both by +admirers and critics that we are in danger of forgetting that he had a +great mind as well as high moral worth. + +This false attitude both of praise and criticism has been so persisted +in that if we accept the premises we are forced to the conclusion that +Washington was actually dull, while with much more openness it is +asserted that he was cold and at times even harsh. "In the mean time," +says Mr. McMaster, "Washington was deprived of the services of the +only two men his cold heart ever really loved." "A Cromwell with the +juice squeezed out," says Carlyle somewhere, in his rough and summary +fashion. Are these judgments correct? Was Washington really, with +all his greatness, dull and cold? He was a great general and a great +President, first in war and first in peace and all that, says our +caviler, but his relaxation was in farm accounts, and his business war +and politics. He could plan a campaign, preserve a dignified manner, +and conduct an administration, but he could write nothing more +entertaining than a state paper or a military report. He gave himself +up to great affairs, he was hardly human, and he shunned the graces, +the wit, and all the salt of life, and passed them by on the other +side. + +That Washington was serious and earnest cannot be doubted, for no man +could have done what he did and been otherwise. He had little time +for the lighter sides of life, and he never exerted himself to say +brilliant and striking things. He was not a maker of phrases and +proclamations, and the quality of the charlatan, so often found in men +of the highest genius, was utterly lacking in him. He never talked or +acted with an eye to dramatic effect, and this is one reason for the +notion that he was dull and dry; for the world dearly loves a little +charlatanism, and is never happier than in being brilliantly duped. +But was he therefore really dull and juiceless, unlovable and +unloving? Responsibility came upon him when a boy, and he was hardly +of age when he was carrying in his hands the defense of his colony and +the heavy burden of other human lives. Experience like this makes a +man who is good for anything sober; but sobriety is not dullness, and +if we look a little below the surface we find the ready refutation of +such an idea. In his letters and even in the silent diaries we detect +the keenest observation. He looked at the country, as he traveled, +with the eye of the soldier and the farmer, and mastered its features +and read its meaning with rapid and certain glance. It was not to him +a mere panorama of fields and woods, of rivers and mountains. He +saw the beauties of nature and the opportunities of the farmer, the +trader, or the manufacturer wherever his gaze rested. He gathered +in the same way the statistics of the people and of their various +industries. In the West Indies, on the Virginian frontier, in his +journeys when he was President, he read the story of all he saw as he +would have read a book, and brought it home with him for use. + +[Illustration: NATHANAEL GREENE] + +In the same way he read and understood men, and had that power of +choosing among them which is essential in its highest form to the +great soldier or statesman. His selection never erred unless in a rare +instance like that of Monroe, forced on him by political exigencies, +or when the man of his choice would not serve. Congress chose Gates +for the southern campaign, but Washington selected Greene, in whom he +saw great military ability before any one else realized it. He took +Hamilton, young and unknown, from the captaincy of an artillery +company, and placed him on his personal staff. He bore with Hamilton's +outbreak of temper, kept him ever in his confidence, and finally gave +him the opportunity to prove himself the most brilliant of American +statesmen. In the crowd of foreign volunteers, the men whom he +especially selected and trusted were Lafayette and Steuben, each in +his way of real value to the service. Even more remarkable than the +ability to recognize great talent was his capacity to weigh and value +with a nice exactness the worth of men who did not rise to the level +of greatness. There is a recently published letter, too long for +quotation here, in which he gives his opinions of all the leading +officers of the Revolution,[1] and each one shows the most remarkable +insight, as well as a sharp definiteness of outline that indicates +complete mastery. These compact judgments were so sound that even the +lapse of a century and all the study of historians and biographers +find nothing in their keen analysis to alter and little to add. He did +not expect to discover genius everywhere, or to find a marshal's +baton in every knapsack, but he used men according to their value and +possibilities, which is quite as essential as the preliminary work +of selection. His military staff illustrated this faculty admirably. +Every man, after a few trials and changes, fitted his place and did +his particular task better than any one else could have done it. +Colonel Meade, loyal and gallant, a good soldier and planter, said +that Hamilton did the headwork of Washington's staff and he the +riding. When the war was drawing to a close, Washington said one day +to Hamilton, "You must go to the Bar, which you can reach in six +months." Then turning to Meade, "Friend Dick, you must go to your +plantation; you will make a good farmer, and an honest foreman of the +grand jury."[2] The prediction was exactly fulfilled, with all that it +implied, in both cases. But let it not be supposed that there was any +touch of contempt in the advice to Meade. On the contrary, there was +a little warmer affection, if anything, for he honored success in any +honest pursuit, especially in farming, which he himself loved. But he +distinguished the two men perfectly, and he knew what each was and +what each meant. It seems little to say, but if we stop to think of +it, this power to read men aright and see the truth in them and about +them is a power more precious than any other bestowed by the kindest +of fairy godmothers. The lame devil of Le Sage looked into the secrets +of life through the roofs of houses, and much did he find of the +secret story of humanity. But the great man looking with truth and +kindliness into men's natures, and reading their characters and +abilities in their words and acts, has a higher and better power than +that attributed to the wandering sprite, for such a man holds in his +hand the surest key to success. Washington, quiet and always on the +watch, after the fashion of silent greatness, studied untiringly the +ever recurring human problems, and his just conclusions were powerful +factors in the great result. He was slow, when he had plenty of time, +in adopting a policy or plan, or in settling a public question, but +he read men very quickly. He was never under any delusion as to Lee, +Gates, Conway, or any of the rest who engaged against him because they +were restless from the first under the suspicion that he knew them +thoroughly. Arnold deceived him because his treason was utterly +inconceivable to Washington, and because his remarkable gallantry +excused his many faults. But with this exception it may be safely +said that Washington was never misled as to men, either as general or +President. His instruments were not invariably the best and sometimes +failed him, but they were always the best he could get, and he knew +their defects and ran the inevitable risks with his eyes open. Such +sure and rapid judgments of men and their capabilities were possible +only to a man of keen perception and accurate observation, neither of +which is characteristic of a slow or common-place mind. + +[Footnote 1: _Magazine of American History_, vol. iii., 1879, p. 81.] + +[Footnote 2: _Memoir of Rt. Rev. William Meade_, by Philip Slaughter, +D.D., p. 7.] + +These qualities were, of course, gifts of nature, improved and +developed by the training of a life of action on a great scale. He had +received, indeed, little teaching except that of experience, and the +world of war and politics had been to him both school and college. His +education had been limited in the extreme, scarcely going beyond the +most rudimentary branches except in mathematics, and this is very +apparent in his early letters. He seems always to have written a +handsome hand and to have been good at figures, but his spelling at +the outset was far from perfect, and his style, although vigorous, was +abrupt and rough. He felt this himself, took great pains to correct +his faults in this respect, and succeeded, as he did in most things. +Mr. Sparks has produced a false impression in this matter by smoothing +and amending in very extensive fashion all the earlier letters, so as +to give an appearance of uniformity throughout the correspondence; a +process which not only destroyed much of the vigor and force of the +early writings, but made them somewhat unnatural. The surveyor and +frontier soldier wrote very differently from the general of the army +and the President of the United States, and the improvements of Mr. +Sparks only served to hide the real man.[1] + +[Footnote 1: These facts in regard to Washington's early letters, +and to his correspondence generally, were first brought to public +attention by the Reed letters, and by the controversy between Mr. +Sparks and Lord Mahon. They have, of course, been long familiar to +students of the original manuscripts. The full extent, however, of the +changes made by Mr. Sparks, and of the mischief he wrought, and of the +injustice thus done both to his hero and to posterity, has but lately +been made known generally by the new edition of Washington's papers +which have been published, under the supervision of Mr. W.C. Ford. +Washington himself, when he undertook to arrange his military and +state papers after his retirement from the presidency, began to +correct the style of some of his earlier letters. This was natural +enough, and he had a right to do what he pleased with his own, even +if he thereby injured the material of the future historian and +biographer. But he did not proceed far in his work, and the fact +that he corrected a few of his own letters gave Mr. Sparks no right +whatever to enter upon a wholesale revision.] + +If Washington had been of coarse fibre and heavy mind, this lack of +education would have troubled him but little. His great success in +that case would have served only to convince him of the uselessness of +education except for inferior persons, who could not get along in the +world without artificial aids. As it was, he never ceased to regret +his deficiency in this respect, and when Humphreys urged him to +prepare a history or memoirs of the war, he replied: "In a former +letter I informed you, my dear Humphreys, that if I had talent for +it, I have not leisure to turn my thoughts to commentaries. A +consciousness of a defective education and a certainty of a want of +time unfit me for such an undertaking." He was misled by his own +modesty as to his capacity, but his strong feeling as to his lack of +schooling haunted and troubled him always, although it did not make +him either indifferent or bitter. He only admired more that which he +himself had missed. He regarded education, and especially the higher +forms, with an almost pathetic reverence, and its advancement was +never absent from his thoughts. When he was made chancellor of the +college of William and Mary, he was more deeply pleased than by any +honor ever conferred upon him, and he accepted the position with a +diffidence and a seriousness which were touching in such a man. In the +same spirit he gave money to the Alexandria Academy, and every scheme +to promote public education in Virginia had his eager support. His +interest was not confined by state lines, for there was nothing so +near his heart as the foundation of a national university. He urged +its establishment upon Congress over and over again, and, as has been +seen, left money in his will for its endowment. + +All his sympathies and tastes were those of a man of refined mind, and +of a lover of scholarship and sound learning. Naturally a very modest +man, and utterly devoid of any pretense, he underrated, as a matter of +fact, his own accomplishments. He distrusted himself so much that he +always turned to Hamilton, both during the Revolution and afterwards, +as well as in the preparation of the farewell address, to aid him in +clothing his thoughts in a proper dress, which he felt himself unable +to give them. His tendency was to be too diffuse and too involved, +but as a rule his style was sufficiently clear, and he could express +himself with nervous force when the occasion demanded, and with a +genuine and stately eloquence when he was deeply moved, as in the +farewell to Congress at the close of the war. It is not a little +remarkable that in his letters after the first years there is nothing +to betray any lack of early training. They are the letters, not of a +scholar or a literary man, but of an educated gentleman; and although +he seldom indulged in similes or allusions, when he did so they were +apt and correct. This was due to his perfect sanity of mind, and to +his aversion to all display or to any attempt to shine in borrowed +plumage. He never undertook to speak or write on any subject, or to +make any reference, which he did not understand. He was a lover of +books, collected a library, and read always as much as his crowded +life would permit. When he was at Newburgh, at the close of the war, +he wrote to Colonel Smith in New York to send him the following +books:-- + + "Charles the XIIth of Sweden. + Lewis the XVth, 2 vols. + History of the Life and Reign of the Czar Peter the Great. + Campaigns of Marshal Turenne. + Locke on the Human Understanding. + Robertson's History of America, 2 vols. + Robertson's History of Charles V. + Voltaire's Letters. + Life of Gustavus Adolphus. + Sully's Memoirs. + Goldsmith's Natural History. + Mildman on Trees. + Vertot's Revolution of Rome, 3 vols. + Vertot's Revolution of Portugal, 3 vols. + {The Vertot's if they are in estimation.} + + If there is a good Bookseller's shop in the City, I would thank + you for sending me a catalogue of the Books and their prices that + I may choose such as I want." + +His tastes ran to history and to works treating of war or agriculture, +as is indicated both by this list and some earlier ones. It is not +probable that he gave so much attention to lighter literature, +although he wrote verses in his youth, and by an occasional allusion +in his letters he seems to have been familiar with some of the great +works of the imagination, like "Don Quixote."[1] + +[Footnote 1: At his death the appraisers of the estate found 863 +volumes in his library, besides a great number of pamphlets, +magazines, and maps. This was a large collection of books for those +days, and showed that the possessor, although purely a man of affairs, +loved reading and had literary tastes.] + +He never freed himself from the self-distrust caused by his profound +sense of his own deficiencies in education, on the one hand, and +his deep reverence for learning, on the other. He had fought the +Revolution, which opened the way for a new nation, and was at the +height of his fame when he wrote to the French officers, who begged +him to visit France, that he was "too old to learn French or to talk +with ladies;" and it was this feeling in a large measure which kept +him from ever being a maker of phrases or a sayer of brilliant things. +In other words, the fact that he was modest and sensitive has been the +chief cause of his being thought dull and cold. This idea, moreover, +is wholly that of posterity, for there is not the slightest indication +on the part of any contemporary that Washington could not talk well +and did not appear to great advantage in society. It is posterity, +looking with natural weariness at endless volumes of official letters +with all the angles smoothed off by the editorial plane, that has +come to suspect him of being dull in mind and heavy in wit. His +contemporaries knew him to be dignified and often found him stern, but +they never for a moment considered him stupid, or thought him a man at +whom the shafts of wit could be shot with impunity. They were fully +conscious that he was as able to hold his own in conversation as he +was in the cabinet or in the field; and we can easily see the justice +of contemporary opinion if we take the trouble to break through the +official bark and get at the real man who wrote the letters. In many +cases we find that he could employ irony and sarcasm with real force, +and his powers of description, even if stilted at times, were vigorous +and effective. All these qualities come out strongly in his letters, +if carefully read, and his private correspondence in particular shows +a keenness and point which the formalities of public intercourse +veiled generally from view. We are fortunate in having the account of +a disinterested and acute observer of the manner in which Washington +impressed a casual acquaintance in conversation. The actor Bernard, +whom we have already quoted, and whom we left with Washington at the +gates of Mount Vernon, gives us the following vivid picture of what +ensued:-- + +"In conversation his face had not much variety of expression. A look +of thoughtfulness was given by the compression of the mouth and the +indentations of the brow (suggesting an habitual conflict with, and +mastery over, passion), which did not seem so much to disdain a +sympathy with trivialities as to be incapable of denoting them. Nor +had his voice, so far as I could discover in our quiet talk, +much change or richness of intonation, but he always spoke with +earnestness, and his eyes (glorious conductors of the light within) +burned with a steady fire which no one could mistake for mere +affability; they were one grand expression of the well-known line: 'I +am a man, and interested in all that concerns humanity.' In one hour +and a half's conversation he touched on every topic that I brought +before him with an even current of good sense, if he embellished it +with little wit or verbal elegance. He spoke like a man who had felt +as much as he had reflected, and reflected more than he had spoken; +like one who had looked upon society rather in the mass than in +detail, and who regarded the happiness of America but as the first +link in a series of universal victories; for his full faith in the +power of those results of civil liberty which he saw all around him +led him to foresee that it would, erelong, prevail in other countries, +and that the social millennium of Europe would usher in the political. +When I mentioned to him the difference I perceived between the +inhabitants of New England and of the Southern States, he remarked: 'I +esteem those people greatly; they are the stamina of the Union and its +greatest benefactors. They are continually spreading themselves too, +to settle and enlighten less favored quarters. Dr. Franklin is a New +Englander.' When I remarked that his observations were flattering to +my country, he replied, with great good-humor, 'Yes, yes, Mr. Bernard, +but I consider your country the cradle of free principles, not their +armchair. Liberty in England is a sort of idol; people are bred up in +the belief and love of it, but see little of its doings. They walk +about freely, but then it is between high walls; and the error of its +government was in supposing that after a portion of their subjects had +crossed the sea to live upon a common, they would permit their friends +at home to build up those walls about them.' A black coming in at this +moment with a jug of spring water, I could not repress a smile, which +the general at once interpreted. 'This may seem a contradiction,' he +continued, 'but I think you must perceive that it is neither a crime +nor an absurdity. When we profess, as our fundamental principle, that +liberty is the inalienable right of every man, we do not include +madmen or idiots; liberty in their hands would become a scourge. Till +the mind of the slave has been educated to perceive what are the +obligations of a state of freedom, and not confound a man's with a +brute's, the gift would insure its abuse. We might as well be asked +to pull down our old warehouses before trade has increased to demand +enlarged new ones. Both houses and slaves were bequeathed to us by +Europeans, and time alone can change them; an event, sir, which, you +may believe me, no man desires more heartily than I do. Not only do I +pray for it, on the score of human dignity, but I can already foresee +that nothing but the rooting out of slavery can perpetuate the +existence of our Union, by consolidating it in a common bond of +principle.' + +"I now referred to the pleasant hours I had passed in Philadelphia, +and my agreeable surprise at finding there so many men of talent, at +which his face lit up vividly. 'I am glad to hear you, sir, who are an +Englishman, say so, because you must now perceive how ungenerous are +the assertions people are always making on your side of the water. +One gentleman, of high literary standing,--I allude to the Abbé +Raynal,--has demanded whether America has yet produced one great +poet, statesman, or philosopher. The question shows anything but +observation, because it is easy to perceive the causes which have +combined to render the genius of this country scientific rather than +imaginative. And, in this respect, America has surely furnished her +quota. Franklin, Rittenhouse, and Rush are no mean names, to which, +without shame, I may append those of Jefferson and Adams, as +politicians; while I am told that the works of President Edwards of +Rhode Island are a text-book in polemics in many European colleges.' + +"Of the replies which I made to his inquiries respecting England, he +listened to none with so much interest as to those which described the +character of my royal patron, the Prince of Wales. 'He holds out every +promise,' remarked the general, 'of a brilliant career. He has been +well educated by _events_, and I doubt not that, in his time, England +will receive the benefit of her child's emancipation. She is at +present bent double, and has to walk with crutches; but her offspring +may teach her the secret of regaining strength, erectness, and +independence.' In reference to my own pursuits he repeated the +sentiments of Franklin. He feared the country was too poor to be a +patron of the drama, and that only arts of a practical nature +would for some time be esteemed. The stage he considered to be an +indispensable resource for settled society, and a chief refiner; not +merely interesting as a comment on the history of social happiness +by its exhibition of manners, but an agent of good as a school for +poetry, in holding up to honor the noblest principles. 'I am too old +and too far removed,' he added, 'to seek for or require this pleasure +myself, but the cause is not to droop on my account. There's my friend +Mr. Jefferson has time and taste; he goes always to the play, and I'll +introduce you to him,' a promise which he kept, and which proved to me +the source of the greatest benefit and pleasure." + +This is by far the best account of Washington in the ordinary converse +of daily life that has come down to us. The narrator belonged to the +race who live by amusing their fellow-beings, and are in consequence +quick to notice peculiarities and highly susceptible to being bored. +Bernard, after the first interest of seeing a very eminent man had +worn off, would never have lingered for an hour and a half of chat and +then gone away reluctantly if his host had been either dull of speech +or cold and forbidding of manner. It is evident that Washington talked +well, easily, and simply, ranging widely over varied topics with a +sure touch, and that he drew from the ample resources of a well-stored +and reflective mind. The scraps of conversation which Bernard +preserves are interesting and above the average of ordinary talk, +without manifesting any attempt to be either brilliant or striking, +and it is also apparent that Washington had the art of putting his +guest entirely at his ease by his own pleasant and friendly manner. He +had picked up the English actor on the road, liked his readiness to +be helpful (always an attraction to him in any one), found him +well-mannered and intelligent, and brought him home to rest and chat +in the pleasant summer afternoon. To Bernard he was simply the plain +Virginia gentleman, with a liberal and cultivated interest in men and +things, and not a trace of oppressive and conscious greatness about +him. It is to be suspected that he was by no means equally genial to +the herd of sight-seers who pursued him in his retirement, but in this +meeting he appeared as he must always have appeared to his family and +friends. + +We get the same idea from the scattered allusions that we have to +Washington in private life. Although silent and reserved as to +himself, he was by no means averse to society, and in his own house +all his guests, both great and small, felt at their ease with him, +although with no temptation to be familiar. We know from more than +one account that the dinners at the presidential house, as well as at +Mount Vernon, were always agreeable. It was his wont to sit at table +after the cloth was removed sipping a glass of wine and eating nuts, +of which he was very fond, while he listened to the conversation and +caused it to flow easily, not so much by what he said as by the kindly +smile and ready sympathy which made all feel at home. We can gather +an idea also of the charm which he had in the informal intercourse of +daily life from some of his letters on trifling matters. Here is a +little note written to Mrs. Stockton in acknowledgment of a pastoral +poem which she had sent him:-- + + "MOUNT VERNON, February 18, 1784. + + "Dear Madam: The intemperate weather and very great care which the + post riders take of themselves prevented your letter of the 4th of + last month from reaching my hands till the 10th of this. I was then in + the very act of setting off on a visit to my aged mother, from whence + I am just returned. These reasons I beg leave to offer as an apology + for my silence until now. + + "It would be a pity indeed, my dear madam, if the muses should be + restrained in you; it is only to be regretted that the hero of your + poetical talents is not more deserving their lays. I cannot, however, + from motives of pure delicacy (because I happen to be the principal + character in your Pastoral) withhold my encomiums on the performance; + for I think the easy, simple, and beautiful strain with which the + dialogue is supported does great justice to your genius; and will not + only secure Lucinda and Amista from wits and critics, but draw from + them, however unwillingly, their highest plaudits; if they can + relish the praises that are given, as they must admire the manner of + bestowing them. + + "Mrs. Washington, equally sensible with myself of the honor you have + done her, joins me in most affectionate compliments to yourself, and + the young ladies and gentlemen of your family. + + "With sentiments of esteem, regard and respect, + I have the honor to be + ---- ----" + +This is not a matter of "great pith or moment," but it shows how +pleasantly he could acknowledge a civility. The turn of the sentences +smacks of the formality of the time. They sound a little labored, +perhaps, to modern ears, but they were graceful according to the +standard of his day, and they have a gentle courtesy which can never +be out of fashion. + +He had the power also of paying a compliment in an impressive and +really splendid manner whenever he felt it to be deserved. When +Charles Thomson, who for fifteen years had been the honored secretary +of the Continental Congress, wrote to announce his retirement, +Washington replied: "The present age does so much justice to the +unsullied reputation with which you have always conducted yourself in +the execution of the duties of your office, and posterity will find +your name so honorably connected with the verification of such a +multitude of astonishing facts, that my single suffrage would add +little to the illustration of your merits. Yet I cannot withhold any +just testimonial in favor of so old, so faithful, and so able a +public officer, which might tend to soothe his mind in the shades of +retirement. Accept, then, this serious declaration, that your services +have been important, as your patriotism was distinguished; and enjoy +that best of all rewards, the consciousness of having done your duty +well." + +Dull men do not write in this fashion. It is one thing to pay a +handsome compliment, although even that is not by itself easy, but to +give it in addition the note of sincerity which alone makes it of real +value demands both art and good feeling. Let us take one more example +of this sort before we drop the subject. When the French officers were +leaving America Washington wrote to De Chastellux to bid him farewell. +"Our good friend, the Marquis of Lafayette," he said, "prepared me, +long before I had the honor to see you, for those impressions of +esteem which opportunities and your own benevolent mind have since +improved into a deep and lasting friendship; a friendship which +neither time nor distance can eradicate. I can truly say that never in +my life have I parted with a man to whom my soul clave more sincerely +than it did to you. My warmest wishes will attend you in your voyage +across the Atlantic to the rewards of a generous prince, the arms of +affectionate friends; and be assured that it will be one of my highest +gratifications to keep up a regular intercourse with you by letter." + +These letters exhibit not only the grace and point born of +intelligence, but also the best of manners; by which I mean private +manners, not those of the public man, of which there will be something +to say hereafter. The attraction of Washington's society as a private +gentleman lay in his good sense, breadth of knowledge, and good +manners. Now the essence of good manners of the highest and most +genuine kind is good feeling, which is thoughtful of others, and which +is impossible to a cold, hard, or insensible nature. Such manners as +we see in Washington's private letters and private life would have +been strange offspring from the cold heart attributed to him by Mr. +McMaster. In justice to Mr. McMaster, however, be it said, the charge +is not a new one. It has been hinted at and spoken of elsewhere, and +many persons have suspected that such was the case from the well-meant +efforts of what may be called the cherry-tree school to elevate +Washington's character by depicting him as a soulless, bloodless prig. +The blundering efforts of the latter need not be noticed, but the +reflections of serious critics cannot be passed by. The theory of the +cold heart and the unfeeling nature seems to proceed in this wise. +Washington was silent and reserved, he did not wear his heart upon his +sleeve for daws to peck at, therefore he was cold; just as if mere +noise and chatter had any relation to warm affections. He would take +no salary from Congress, says Mr. McMaster, in fine antithesis, but +he exacted his due from the family of the poor mason. This has an +unpleasant sound, and suggests the man who is generous in public, and +hard and grasping in private. Mr. McMaster in this sentence, however, +whether intentionally or not, is not quite accurate in his facts, and +conveys by his mode of statement an entirely false impression. The +story to which he refers is given by Parkinson, who wrote a book about +his experiences in America in 1798-1800. Parkinson had the story from +one General Stone, and it was to this effect:[1] A room was plastered +at Mount Vernon on one occasion, and was paid for during the owner's +absence. When Washington returned he examined the work and had it +measured, as was his habit. It then appeared that an error had been +made, and that fifteen shillings too much had been paid. Meantime the +plasterer had died. His widow married again, and her second husband +advertised in the newspapers that he was prepared to pay the debts of +his predecessor and collect all moneys due him. Thereupon Washington +put in his claim, which was paid as a matter of course. He did not +extort the debt from the family of the poor mason, but collected it +from the second husband of the widow, in response to a voluntary +advertisement. It was very careful and even close dealing, but it was +neither harsh nor unjust, and the writer who has preserved the story +would be not a little surprised at the interpretation that has +been put upon it, for he cited it, as he expressly says, merely +to illustrate the extraordinary regularity and method to which he +attributed much of Washington's success. + +[Footnote 1: Parkinson's _Tour in America_, 1798-1800, 437 and ff.] + +Parkinson, in this same connection, tells several other stories, +vague in origin, and sounding like mere gossip, but still worthy of +consideration. According to one of them, Washington maintained a +public ferry, which was customary among the planters, and the public +paid regular tolls for its use. On one occasion General Stone, the +authority for the previous anecdote, crossed the ferry and offered +a moidore in payment. The ferryman objected to receiving it, on the +ground that it was short weight, but Stone insisted, and it was +finally accepted. On being given to Washington it was weighed, and +being found three half-pence short, the ferryman was ordered to +collect the balance due. On another occasion a tenant could not make +the exact change in paying his rent, and Washington would not accept +the money until the tenant went to Alexandria and brought back +the precise sum. There is, however, still another anecdote, which +completes this series, and which shows a different application of the +same rule. Washington, in traveling, was in the habit of paying at +inns the same for his servants as for himself. An innkeeper once +charged him three shillings and ninepence for himself, and three +shillings for his servant. Thereupon Washington sent for his host, +said that his servant ate as much as he, and insisted on paying the +additional ninepence. + +This extreme exactness in money matters, down even to the most +trifling sums, was no doubt a foible, but it is well to observe that +it was not a foible which sought only a selfish advantage, for the +rule which he applied to others he applied also to himself. He meant +to have his due, no matter how trivial, and he meant also that +others should have theirs. In trifles, as in greater things, he was +scrupulously just, and although he was always generous and ready to +give, he insisted rigidly on what was justly his. A gift was one +thing, a business transaction was another. The man himself who told +these very stories was a good example of the kindliness which went +hand in hand with this exactness in business affairs. Parkinson was +an Englishman, of great narrowness of mind, who came out here to be a +farmer, failed, and went home to write a book in denunciation of the +country. America never had a more hostile critic. According to +this profound observer, there was no good land in America, and no +possibility of successful agriculture. The horses were bad, the cattle +were bad, and sheep-raising was impossible. There was no game, the +fish and oysters were poor and watery, and no one could ever hope in +this wretchedly barren land for either wealth or comfort. It was a +country fit only for the reception of convicts, and the cast-off +mistress of an Englishman made a good wife for an American. A person +who held such views as these was not likely to be biased in favor of +anything American, and his evidence as to Washington may be safely +trusted as not likely to be unduly favorable. He tells us that on his +arrival at Mount Vernon, with letters of introduction, he was kindly +received; that this hospitality was never relaxed; and that the +general lent him money. He was at least grateful, and these are his +last words as to Washington:-- + +"To me he appeared a mild, friendly man, in company rather reserved, +in private speaking with candor. His behavior to me was such that I +shall ever revere his name. + +"General Washington lived a great man, and died the same. + +"I am of opinion that the general never knowingly did anything wrong, +but did to all men as he would they should do to him." + +Evidently he appeared to Mr. Parkinson kindly and generous, as well +as exactly just. It is well to have the truth about Washington, and +nothing but the truth. Yet in escaping from the falsehoods of the +eulogist and the myth-maker, let us beware of those which spring from +the reaction against the current and accepted views. I have quoted +the Parkinson stories at length, because they enforce this point +admirably. No _a priori_ theory is safe, and to assume that Washington +must have committed grave errors and been guilty of mean actions +because they are common to humanity, and have not been admitted in his +case, is just as misleading as to assume, as is usually done, that he +was absolutely perfect and without fault. + +Let it be admitted that Washington, ever ready to pay his own dues, +was strict, and sometimes severe, in demanding them of others; but +let it be also remembered, this is the worst that can be said. He was +always ready to overlook faults of omission or commission; he would +pardon easily mismanagement or extravagance on his estate or in +his household; but he had no mercy for anything that savored of +ingratitude, treachery, or dishonesty, and he carried this same +feeling into public as well as private affairs. No officer who had +bravely done his best had anything to fear in defeat from Washington's +anger. He was never unjust, and he was always kind to misfortune or +mistake, but to the coward or the traitor he was entirely unforgiving. +This it was which made Arnold's treason so bitter to him. Not only had +he been deceived, but the country as well as himself had been most +basely betrayed; and for this reason he was relentless to André, whom +it is said he never saw, living or dead. The young Englishman had +taken part in a wretched piece of treachery, and for the sake of the +country, and as a warning to traitors, Washington would not spare him. +He would never have ordered a political prisoner to be taken out and +shot in a ditch, after the fashion of Napoleon; nor would he have +dealt with any people as the Duke of Cumberland dealt with the +clansmen after Culloden. Such performances would have seemed to him +wanton as well as cruel, and he was too wise and too humane a man +to be either. Indian atrocities, for instance, with which he was +familiar, never led him to retaliate in kind. But he was perfectly +prepared to exact the extremest penalty by just and recognized +methods; and had it not been for the urgent entreaties of his friends, +he would have sent Asgill to the scaffold, repugnant as it was to his +feelings, because he felt that the murder of Huddy was a crime for +which the English army was responsible, and which demanded a just and +striking vengeance. He was, it may be freely confessed, of anything +but a tame nature. There was a good deal of Berserker in his make-up, +and he was fierce in his anger when he believed that a great wrong had +been done. But because he was stern and unrelenting when he felt that +justice and his duty required him to be so, no more proves that he had +a cold heart than does the fact that he was silent, dignified, and +reserved. Cold-blooded men are not fierce in seeking to redress the +wrongs of others, nor are the fluent of speech the only kind and +generous members of the human family. + +Washington's whole life, indeed, contradicts the charge that he was +cold of heart and sluggish of feeling. The man who wrote as he did in +his extreme youth, when Indians were harrying the frontier where he +commanded, was not lacking in humanity or sympathy; and such as he +then was he remained to the end of his life. A soldier by instinct and +experience, he never grew indifferent to the miseries of war. Human +suffering always appealed to him and moved him deeply, and when it was +wantonly inflicted stirred him to anger and to the desire for the wild +justice of revenge. + +The goodness and kindness of man's heart, however, are much more truly +shown in the little details of life than in the great matters which +affect classes or communities. Washington was considerate and helpful +to all men, and if he was ever cold and distant in his manner, it was +to the great, and not to the poor or humble. As has been indicated by +his recognition of the actor Bernard, he had in high degree the royal +gift of remembering names and faces. When he was at Senator Dalton's +house in Newburyport, on his New England tour of 1789, he met an +old servant whom he had not seen since the French war, thirty years +before. He knew the man at once, spoke to him, and welcomed him. So it +was with the old soldiers of the Revolution, who were always sure of a +welcome, and, if he had ever seen them, of a recognition. No man ever +turned from his presence wounded by a cold forgetfulness. When he was +at Ipswich, on this same journey, Mr. Cleaveland, the minister of the +town, was presented to him. As he approached, hat in hand, Washington +said, "Put on your hat, parson, and I will shake hands with you." "I +cannot wear my hat in your presence, general," was the reply, "when I +think of what you have done for this country." "You did as much as I." +"No, no," protested the parson. "Yes," said Washington, "you did what +you could, and I've done no more." What a gracious, kindly courtesy is +this, and not without the salt of wit! Does it not show the perfection +of good manners which deals with all men for what they are, and is +full of a warm sympathy born of a good heart? He was criticised +for coldness and accused of monarchical leanings, because, at Mrs. +Washington's receptions and his own public levees, he stood, dressed +in black velvet, with one hand on the hilt of his sword and the other +behind his back, and shook hands with no one, although he talked with +all. He did this because he thought it became the President of the +United States upon state occasions, and his sense of the dignity of +his office was always paramount. But away from forms and ceremonies, +with the old servant or the old soldier, or the country parson, his +hand was never behind his back, and his manners were those of a great +but simple gentleman, and came straight from a kind heart, full of +sympathy and good feeling. + +He was, too, the most hospitable of men in the best sense, and his +house was always open to all who came. When he was away during the war +or the presidency, his instructions to his agents were to keep up the +hospitality of Mount Vernon, just as if he had been there himself; and +he was especially careful in directing that, if there were general +distress, poor persons of the neighborhood should have help from his +kitchen or his granaries. + +His own more immediate hospitality was of the same kind. He always +entertained in the most liberal manner, both as general and President, +and in a style which he thought befitted the station he occupied. But +apart from all this, his table, whether at home or abroad, was never +without its guest. "Dine with us," he wrote to Lear on July 31, 1797, +"or we shall do what we have not done for twenty years, dine alone." +The real hospitality which opens the door and spreads the board for +the friend or stranger, admitting them to the family without form or +ceremony, was his also. "My manner of living is plain," he wrote to +a friend after the Revolution; "I do not mean to be put out of it. A +glass of wine and a bit of mutton are always ready; and such as will +be content to partake of them are always welcome. Those who expect +more will be disappointed, but no change will be effected by +it." Genuine hospitality as unstinted as it was sincere was not +characteristic of a cold man, or of one who sought to avoid his +fellows. It is one of the lighter graces of life, perhaps, but when it +comes freely and simply, and not as a vehicle for the display or the +aggrandizement of its dispenser, it is not without a meaning to the +student of character. + +Washington was not much given to professions of friendship, nor was he +one of the great men who keep a circle of intimates and sometimes of +flatterers about them. He was extremely independent of the world and +perfectly self-sufficing, but it is a mistake to suppose that because +he unbosomed himself to scarcely any one, and had the loneliness of +greatness and of high responsibilities, he was therefore without +friends. He had as many friends as usually fall to the lot of any man; +and although he laid bare his inmost heart to none, some were very +close and all were very dear to him. In war and politics, as has +already been said, the two men who came nearest to him were Hamilton +and Knox, and his diary shows that when he was President he consulted +with them nearly every day wholly apart from the regular cabinet +meetings. They were the two advisers who were friends as well as +secretaries, and who followed and sustained him as a matter of +affection as much as politics. At home his neighbor, George Mason, +although they came to differ, was a strong friend whom he liked and +respected, and whose opinion, whether favorable or adverse, he always +sought. His feeling to Patrick Henry was much deeper than mere +political or official acquaintance, and the lovable qualities of the +brilliant orator, clear even now across the gulf of a century, were +evidently strongly felt by Washington. They differed about the +Constitution, but Washington was eager at a later day to have Henry by +his side in the cabinet, and in the last years they stood shoulder to +shoulder in defense of the Union with a personal sympathy deeper than +any born of a mere similarity of opinion. Henry Lee, the son of his +old sweetheart, he loved with a tender and peculiar affection. He +watched over him and helped him, rejoiced in the dashing gallantry +which made him famous as Light-horse Harry, and, when he had won civil +as well as military distinction, trusted him and counseled with him. +Dr. Craik, the companion of his youth and his life-long physician, was +always a dear and close friend, and the regard between the two is very +pleasant to look at, as we see it glancing out here and there in the +midst of state papers and official cases. For the officers of the army +he had a peculiarly warm feeling, and he had among them many close +friends, like Carrington of Virginia, and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney +of South Carolina. His immediate staff he regarded with especial +affection, and it is worthy of notice that they all not only admired +their great chief, but followed him with a personal devotion which is +not a little curious if Washington was cold of heart and distant of +manner in the intimate association of a military family. + +This feeling for his soldiers and his officers extended also to those +civilians who had stood by him and the army, and who had labored +for victory in all those trying years. Such a one was old Governor +Trumbull, "Brother Jonathan," who never failed to respond when a call +was made for men and money, and upon whose friendship and advice +Washington always leaned. Such, too, were Robert and Gouverneur +Morris. The sacrifices and energy of the one and the zeal and +brilliant abilities of the other endeared both to him, and his +friendship for them never wavered when misfortune overtook the elder, +and when the younger was driven by malice, both foreign and domestic, +from the place he had filled so well. Another, again, of this kind was +Franklin. In the dark days of the old French war, Washington had seen +displayed for the first time the force and tact of Franklin, which +alone obtained the necessary wagons and enabled Braddock's army +to move. The early impression thus obtained was never lost, and +Franklin's patriotism, his sympathy for the general and the army in +the Revolution, as well as the stanch support he gave them, aroused in +Washington a sense of obligation and friendship of the sincerest kind. +In proportion as he loathed ingratitude was he grateful himself. He +loved Franklin for his friendship and support, he admired him for +his successful diplomacy, and he reverenced him for his scientific +attainments. The only American whose fame could for a moment come +in competition with his own, he regarded the old philosopher with +affectionate veneration, and when, after his own fashion, and not at +all after the fashion of the time, he arrived in Philadelphia on the +exact day set for the Constitutional Convention, his first act was to +call upon Dr. Franklin and pay his respects to him. The courtesy and +kindliness of this little act on the part of a man who had come to the +town in the midst of shouting crowds, with joy bells ringing above his +head, speak well for the simple, honest heart that dictated it. + +After all, it may be said that a passing civility of this sort +involved but little trouble, and was more a matter of good-breeding +than anything else. Let us look, then, at another and widely different +case. Of all the men whom the fortunes of war brought across +Washington's path there was none who became dearer to him than +Lafayette, for the generous, high-spirited young Frenchman, full of +fresh enthusiasm and brave as a lion, appealed at once to Washington's +heart. He quickly admitted him to his confidence, and the excellent +service of Lafayette in the field, together with his invaluable +help in securing the French alliance, deepened and strengthened the +sympathy and affection which were entirely reciprocal. After Lafayette +departed, a constant correspondence was maintained; and when the +Bastille fell, it was to Washington that Lafayette sent its key, which +still hangs on the wall of Mt. Vernon. As Lafayette rose rapidly to +the dangerous heights of revolutionary leadership, he had at every +step Washington's advice and sympathy. Then the tide turned; he fell +headlong from power, and brought up in an Austrian prison. From that +moment Washington spared no pains to help his unhappy friend, although +his own position was one of extreme difficulty. Lafayette was not only +the proscribed exile of one country, but also the political prisoner +of another, and the President could not compromise the United States +at that critical moment by showing too much interest in the fate of +his unhappy friend. He nevertheless went to the very edge of prudence +in trying to save him, and the ministers of the United States were +instructed to use every private effort to secure Lafayette's release, +or at least the mitigation of his confinement. All these attempts +failed, but Washington was more successful in other directions. He +sent money to Madame de Lafayette, who was absolutely beggared at the +moment, and represented to her that it was in settlement of an account +which he owed the marquis. When Lafayette's son and his own namesake +came to this country for an asylum, he had him cared for in Boston and +New York by his personal friends; George Cabot in the one case, and +Hamilton in the other. As soon as public affairs made it proper for +him to do it, he took the lad into his own household, treated him like +a son, and kept him near him until events permitted the boy to return +to Europe and rejoin his father. The sufferings and dangers of +Lafayette and his family were indeed a source of great unhappiness +to Washington, and we have the authority of Bradford, his +attorney-general, that when the President attempted to talk about +Lafayette he was so much affected that he shed tears,--a very rare +exhibition of emotion in a man so intensely reserved. + +Absence had as little effect upon his memory of old friends as +misfortune. The latter stimulated recollection, and the former could +not dim it. He found time, in the very heat and fire of war and +revolution, to write to Bryan Fairfax lamenting the death of "the good +old lord" whose house had been open to him, and whose hand had ever +helped him when he was a young and unknown man just beginning his +career. When he returned to Mount Vernon after the presidency, full of +years and honors, one of his first acts was to write to Mrs. Fairfax +in England to assure her of his lasting remembrance, and to breathe +a sigh over the changes time had brought, and over the by-gone years +when they had been young together. + +The loyalty of nature which made his remembrance of old friends so +real and lasting found expression also in the thoughtfulness which he +showed toward casual acquaintances, and this was especially the case +when he had received attention or service at any one's hands, or when +he felt that he was able to give pleasure by a slight effort on his +own part. A little incident which occurred during the first year of +his presidency illustrates this trait in his character very well. +Uxbridge was one among the many places where he stopped on his New +England tour, and when he got to Hartford he wrote to Mr. Taft, who +had been his host in the former town, and who evidently cherished for +him a very keen admiration, the following note:-- + + "November 8, 1789. + + "Sir: Being informed that you have given my name to one of your + sons, and called another after Mrs. Washington's family, and being + moreover very much pleased with the modest and innocent looks of + your two daughters, Patty and Polly, I do for these reasons send + each of these girls a piece of chintz; and to Patty, who bears the + name of Mrs. Washington, and who waited more upon us than Polly + did, I send five guineas, with which she may buy herself any + little ornament she may want, or she may dispose of them in any + other manner more agreeable to herself. As I do not give these + things with a view to having it talked of, or even to its being + known, the less there is said about the matter the better you will + please me; but, that I may be sure the chintz and money have got + safe to hand, let Patty, who I dare say is equal to it, write me + a line informing me thereof, directed to 'The President of the + United States at New York.' I wish you and your family well, and + am," etc. + +Let us turn now from friendship to nearer and closer relations. +Washington was not only too reserved, but he had too much true +sentiment, to leave his correspondence with Mrs. Washington behind +him; for he knew that his vast collection of papers would become the +material of history, and he had no mind that strangers should look +into the sacred recesses of his private life. Only one letter to +Mrs. Washington apparently has survived. It is simple and full of +affection, as one would expect, and tells, as well as many volumes +could, of the happy relations between husband and wife. Washington had +many love affairs in his youth, but he proved in the end a constant +lover. His wife was a high-bred, intelligent woman, simple and +dignified in her manners, efficient in all ways to be the helpmate of +her husband in the high places to which he was called. No shadow ever +rested on their married life, and when the end came Mrs. Washington +only said, "All is over now. I shall soon follow him." She could not +conceive of life without the presence of the unchanging love and noble +character which had been by her side so long. + +Children were denied to Washington, but although this was a +disappointment it did not chill him nor narrow his sympathies, as is +so often the case. He took to his heart his wife's children as if +they were his own. He watched over them and cared for them, and their +deaths caused him the deepest sorrow. He afterwards adopted his wife's +two grandchildren, and watched over them, too, in the same way. In the +midst of all the cares of the presidency, Washington found time always +to write to George Custis, a boy at school or at college; while Nellie +Custis was as dear to him as his own daughter, and her marriage a +source of the most affectionate interest. Indeed, it is evident from +various little anecdotes that he was much less strict with these +children than was Mrs. Washington, and much more disposed to condone +faults. Certain it is that they loved him tenderly, and in a way that +only long years of loving-kindness could have made possible. + +He showed the same feeling to all his own kindred. His mother was ever +the object of the most loyal affection, and even at the head of the +armies he would turn aside to visit her with the same respect and +devotion as when he was a mere boy. He was ever mindful of his +brothers and sisters, and their fortunes. None of them were ever +forgotten, and he was especially kind to the children of those who +had been least fortunate and most needed his help. He educated and +counseled his favorite nephew Bushrod, and did the same for the sons +of George Steptoe Washington. Nothing is pleasanter than to read in +the midst of official papers the long letters in which he gave these +boys great store of wise and kindly advice, guided their education, +strove to form their characters, and traced for them the honorable +careers which he wished them to pursue. Very few men who had risen to +the heights reached by Washington would have found time, in the midst +of engrossing cares, to write such letters as he wrote to friends and +kinsmen. A kind heart prompted them, but they were much more than +merely kind, for when Washington undertook to do anything he did it +thoroughly. Whether it was a treaty with England, the education of a +boy, or the service of a friend, he gave it his best thought and his +utmost care. Where those he loved were concerned, he was never too +busy to think of them, and he spared no pains to help them; censuring +faults where they existed, and giving praise in generous manner where +praise was due. + +To any one who carefully studies his life, it is evident that +Washington was as warm-hearted and affectionate as he was great in +character and ability, and that he was so without noise or pretense. +This really only amounts to saying that he was a well-balanced man, +and yet even this cannot be said without admitting still another +quality. The sanest of all senses is the sense of humor, and the +nature in which it is wholly lacking cannot be thoroughly rounded and +complete. Humor is not the most lofty of qualities, but it is one of +the most essential, and it is generally assumed that Washington +was very deficient in humor. This idea has arisen from a hasty +consideration of the subject, and from a superficial conception of +humor itself. To utter jests, or to say or write witty, brilliant, or +amusing things, no doubt implies the possession of humor, but they are +not the whole of it, for a man may have a fine sense of humor, and yet +never make a joke nor utter a sarcasm. The distinction between humor +and the want of it lies much deeper than word of mouth. The man +without a sense of humor is sure to make a certain number of solemn +blunders. They may be in matters of importance or in the merest +trifles, but they are blunders none the less, and come from +insensibility to the incongruous, the ludicrous, or the impossible. It +may be said that common sense suffices to avoid these pitfalls, but +this is really begging the question, inasmuch as common sense of a +high order amounting almost to genius cannot exist without humor, for +humor is the root and foundation of common sense. Let us apply this +test to Washington and we shall find that there never was a man who +made fewer mistakes than he, down even to matters of the smallest +detail. Search his career from beginning to end, and there is not a +solemn blunder to be found in it. He was attacked and assailed both as +general and President, but he was never laughed at. In other words, +he had a sense of humor which made it impossible for him to blunder +solemnly, or to do or say anything which ridicule could touch. + +It is not, however, necessary to leave his possession of a sense of +humor to inference from his career and his freedom from blunders. That +he had humor strong, sane, and abundant is susceptible of much more +direct proof; and the idea that he was lacking in this respect arose +undoubtedly from the gravity of demeanor which was characteristic of +the man. He had assumed the heavy responsibilities of an important +military command in the French war at an age when most men are just +leaving college and beginning to study a profession. This of itself +sobered him, and added to his natural quiet and reserve, so that in +estimating him in after-life this early and severe discipline at a +most impressionable age ought never to be overlooked, for it had a +very marked effect upon his character. + +He was not perhaps exactly joyous or gay of nature, but he had a +contented and happy disposition, and, like all robust, well-balanced +men, he possessed strong animal spirits and a keen sense of enjoyment. +He loved a wild, open-air life, and was devoted to rough out-door +sports. He liked to wrestle and run, to shoot, ride or dance, and +to engage in all trials of skill and strength, for which his great +muscular development suited him admirably. With such tastes, it +followed almost as a matter of course that he loved laughter and fun. +Good, hearty, country fun, a ludicrous mishap, a practical joke, all +merriment of a simple, honest kind, were highly congenial to him, +especially in his youth and early manhood. Here is the way, for +example, in which he described in his diary a ball he attended in +1760: "In a convenient room, detached for the purpose, abounded great +plenty of bread and butter, some biscuits, with tea and coffee which +the drinkers of could not distinguish from hot water sweetened. Be +it remembered that pocket handkerchiefs served the purposes of +tablecloths, and that no apologies were made for them. I shall +therefore distinguish this ball by the style and title of the +bread-and-butter ball." The wit is not brilliant, but there was a good +hearty laugh in the young man who jots down this little memorandum in +his diary. + +The years after the French war were happy years, free from care and +full of simple pleasures. Then came the Revolution, bringing with it a +burden such as has seldom been laid upon any man, and the seriousness +bred by earlier experiences, came back with tenfold force. The popular +saying was that Washington never smiled during the war, and, roughly +speaking, this was quite true. In all those years of danger and trial, +inasmuch as he was a man big of heart and brain, he had the gravity +and the sadness born of responsibility, and the suffering sure to come +to an unselfish mind. It was at this time that he began to be most +closely observed of men, and hence came the idea that he never +laughed, and therefore was a being devoid of humor, the most +sympathetic of gifts. But as a matter of fact, the old sense of fun +never left him. It would come to his aid at the most serious moments, +just as an endless flow of stories brought relief to Lincoln and +carried him round many jagged corners. With Washington it was hearty, +laughing mirth at some ludicrous incident. Putnam riding into +Cambridge with an old woman clinging behind him; Greene searching for +his wig while it was on his head; a young braggart flung over the head +of an unbroken colt; or a good, rollicking story from Colonel Seammel +or Major Fairlie,--all these would delight Washington, and send him +off into peals of inextinguishable laughter. It was ever the old, +hearty love of fun born of animal spirits, which never left him, and +which would always break out on sufficient provocation. Mr. Parton +would have us believe that this was all, and that the common-place +hero whom he describes never rose above the level of the humor +conveyed by grinning through a horse-collar. Even admitting the truth +of this, a real love of honest fun and of a hearty laugh is a kindly +quality that all men like. + +But was this all? Is it quite true that Washington had only a love of +boisterous fun, and nothing else? It is worth looking a little deeper +than the current stories of the camp to find out, and yet one of these +very camp-stories raises at once a strong suspicion that Mr. Parton's +conclusion in this regard, like so many conclusions about Washington, +is unfounded. When General Lee took the oath of allegiance to the +United States, he remarked, in making abjuration of his former +allegiance, that he was perfectly ready to abjure the king, but could +not bring himself to abjure the Prince of Wales, at which bit of irony +Washington was greatly amused. The wit of the remark is a little cold +to-day, but at the moment, accompanying as it did a solemn act of +abjuration, it was keen enough. Washington himself, moreover, was +perfectly capable of good-natured banter. Colonel Humphreys challenged +him one day to jump over a hedge. Washington, always ready to accept +a challenge where riding was concerned, told the colonel to go on. +Humphreys put his horse at the hedge, cleared it, and landed in +a quagmire on the other side up to his horse's girths; whereupon +Washington rode up, stopped, and looking blandly at his struggling +friend, remarked, "Ah, colonel, you are too deep for me." "Take care," +he wrote to young Custis, when he sent him money for his college gown, +"not to buy without advice; otherwise you may be more distinguished by +your folly than your dress." + +We find in his letters here and there a good-natured raillery, and +jesting, which show a sense of humor that goes beyond the limits of +mere fun and horse-play. Here is a letter he wrote toward the close of +the war, asking some ladies to dine with him in his quarters at West +Point:-- + + "WEST POINT, August 16, 1779. + + "Dear Doctor: I have asked Mrs. Cochran and Mrs. Livingston to + dine with me to-morrow; but ought I not to apprise you of their + fare? As I hate deception, even where imagination is concerned, I + will. + + "It is needless to premise that my table is large enough to hold + the ladies: of this they had ocular demonstration yesterday. To + say how it is usually covered is rather more essential, and this + shall be the purport of my letter. + + "Since my arrival at this happy spot, we have had a ham, sometimes + a shoulder of bacon, to grace the head of the table. A piece + of roast beef adorns the foot, and a small dish of green + beans--almost imperceptible--decorates the centre. When the cook + has a mind to cut a figure,--and this I presume he will attempt + to-morrow,--we have two beefsteak pies, or dishes of crabs, in + addition, one on each side of the centre dish, dividing the space, + and reducing the distance between dish and dish to about six feet, + which without them would be nearly twelve feet apart. Of late he + has had the surprising luck to discover that apples will make + pies; and it is a question if, amidst the violence of his efforts, + we do not get one of apples instead of having both of beef. + + "If the ladies can put up with such entertainment, and submit to + partake of it on plates once tin, but now iron, not become so by + the labor of hard scouring, I shall be happy to see them." + +We may be sure that the ladies found their dinner a pleasant one, and +that the writer of the note was neither a stiff nor unsocial host. A +much more charming letter is one to Nellie Custis, on the occasion of +her first ball. It is too long for quotation, but it is a model of +affectionate wisdom tinged with a gentle humor, and designed to guide +a young girl just beginning the world of society. + +Here, however, is another extract from a letter to Madame de +Lafayette, of rather more serious purport, but in the same strain, and +full of a simple and, as we should call it, an old-fashioned grace. He +was replying to an invitation to visit France, which he felt obliged +to decline. After giving his reasons, he said: "This, my dear +Marchioness (indulge the freedom), is not the case with you. You have +youth (and, if you should incline to leave your children, you can +leave them with all the advantages of education), and must have a +curiosity to see the country, young, rude, and uncultivated as it is, +for the liberties of which your husband has fought, bled, and acquired +much glory, where everybody admires, everybody loves him. Come, then, +let me entreat you, and call my cottage your home; for your own doors +do not open to you with more readiness than mine would. You will see +the plain manner in which we live, and meet with rustic civility; and +you shall taste the simplicity of rural life. It will diversify the +scene, and may give you a higher relish for the gayeties of the court +when you return to Versailles." + +There is also apparent in many of his letters a vein of worldly +wisdom, shrewd but kindly, too gentle to be called cynical, and yet +touched with the humor which reads and appreciates the foibles of +humanity. Of an officer who grumbled at disappointments during the war +he wrote: "General McIntosh is only experiencing upon a small scale +what I have had an ample share of upon a large one; and must, as I +have been obliged to do in a variety of instances, yield to necessity; +that is, to use a vulgar phrase, 'shape his coat according to his +cloth,' or in other words, if he cannot do as he wishes, he must do +what he can." The philosophy is homely and common enough, but the +manner in which the reproof was administered shows kindly tact, one +of the most difficult of arts. Here is another passage, touching on +something outside the range of war and politics. He was writing to +Lund Washington in regard to Mrs. Washington's daughter-in-law, Mrs. +Custis, who was contemplating a second marriage. "For my own part," he +said, "I never did, nor do I believe I ever shall, give advice to a +woman who is setting out on a matrimonial voyage: first, because I +never could advise one to marry without her own consent; and secondly, +because I know it is to no purpose to advise her to refrain when she +has obtained it. A woman very rarely asks an opinion or requires +advice on such an occasion till her resolution is formed; and then it +is with the hope and expectation of obtaining a sanction, not that she +means to be governed by your disapprobation, that she applies. In a +word, the plain English of the application may be summed up in these +words: 'I wish you to think as I do; but if unhappily you differ from +me in opinion, my heart, I must confess, is fixed, and I have gone too +far _now_ to retract.'" + +In the same spirit, but this time with a lurking smile at himself, +did he write to the secretary of Congress for his commission: "If my +commission is not necessary for the files of Congress, I should be +glad to have it deposited among my own papers. It may serve _my +grandchildren_, some fifty or a hundred years hence, for a theme to +ruminate upon, if _they_ should be contemplatively disposed." + +He knew human nature well, and had a smile for its little weaknesses +when they came to his mind. It was this same human sympathy which made +him also love amusements of all sorts; but he was as little their +slave as their enemy. No man ever carried great burdens with a higher +or more serious spirit, but his cares never made him forbidding, nor +rendered him impatient of the pleasure of others. He liked to amuse +himself, and knew the value of a change of thought and scene, and he +was always ready, when duty permitted, for a chat. He liked to take a +comfortable seat and have his talk out, and he had the talent so rare +in great men of being a good and appreciative listener. We hear of him +playing cards at Tappan during the war, and he was always fond of a +game in the evening, realizing the force of Talleyrand's remark to the +despiser of cards: "Quelle triste vieillesse vous vous préparez." In +1779 it is recorded that at a party he danced for three hours with +Mrs. Greene without sitting down or resting, which speaks well for +the health and spirits both of the lady and the gentleman. Even after +Yorktown, he was ready to walk a minuet at a ball, and to the end +he liked to see young people dance, as he had danced himself in his +youth. As has been seen from his treatment of Bernard, he liked the +theatre and the actors, and when he was in Philadelphia he was a +constant attendant at the play, as he had been ever since he went to +see "George Barnwell" in the Barbadoes. His love of horses stayed with +him to the last. He not only rode and drove and trained horses,[1] but +he enjoyed the sport of the race-course. He was probably aware, like +the Shah of Persia who declined to go to the Derby, that one horse +could run faster than another, but nevertheless he liked to see them +run, and we hear of him, after he had reached the presidency, acting +as judge at a race, and seeing his own colt Magnolia beaten, which he +no doubt considered the next best thing to winning. + +[Footnote 1: The Marquis de Chastelleux speaks of the perfect training +of Washington's saddle horses, and says the general broke them +himself. He adds "He (the general) is an excellent and bold horseman, +leaping the highest fences and going extremely quick, without standing +upon his stirrups, bearing on the bridle or letting his horse run +wild; circumstances which our young men look upon as so essential a part +of English horsemanship, that they would rather break a leg or an arm +than renounce them."] + +He had, indeed, in all ways a thoroughly well-balanced mind and +temper. In great affairs he knew how to spare himself the details to +which others could attend as well as he, and yet he was in no wise +a despiser of small things. Before the Revolution, there was a warm +discussion in the Truro parish as to the proper site for the Pohick +Church. Washington and George Mason led respectively the opposing +forces, and each confidently asserted that the site he preferred was +the most convenient for the largest number of parishioners. Finally, +after much debate and no conclusion, Washington appeared at a vestry +meeting with a collection of statistics. He had measured the distance +from each proposed site to the house of each parishioner, and found, +as he declared, that his site was nearer to more people than the +other. It is needless to add that he carried his point, and that the +spot he desired for the church was the one chosen. + +The fact was that, if he confided a task of any sort to another, he +let it go on without meddling; but if he undertook anything himself, +he did it with the utmost thoroughness, and there is much success +in this capacity to take pains even in small things. He managed his +plantations entirely himself when he was at home, and did it well. He +knew the qualities of each field, and the rotation of its crops. No +improvement in agriculture and no ingenious invention escaped his +attention, although he was not to be carried away by mere novelty, +which had such a fascination for his ex-secretary at Monticello. Every +resource of his estate was turned to good use, and his flour and +tobacco commanded absolute confidence with his brand upon them. He +followed in the same painstaking way all his business affairs, and his +accounts, all in his own hand, are wonderfully minute and accurate. He +was very exact in all business as well as very shrewd at a bargain, +and the tradition is that his neighbors considered the general a +formidable man in a horse-trade, that most difficult of transactions. +Parkinson mentions that everything purchased or brought to the house +was weighed, measured, or counted, generally in the presence of the +master himself. Some of his letters to Lear, his private secretary, +show that he looked after his china and servants, the packing and +removal of his furniture with great minuteness. To some persons this +appears evidence of a petty mind in a great man, but to those who +reflect a little more deeply it will occur that this accuracy and +care in trifles were the same qualities which kept the American army +together, and enabled their owner to arrive on time and in full +preparation at Yorktown and Trenton. The worst that can be said is +that from his love of perfection and completeness he may in this +respect have wasted time and strength, but his untiring industry and +his capacity for work were so great that he accomplished so far as we +can see all this drudgery without ever neglecting in the least more +important duties. It was a satisfaction to him to do it; for he was +methodical and exact to the last degree, and he was never happy unless +he held everything in which he was concerned easily within his grasp. + +He had the same attention to details in external things, and he wished +everything about him to be of the best, if not "express'd in fancy." +He had the handsomest carriages and the finest horses always in his +stables. It was necessary that the furniture of his house should be as +good as could be procured, and he was most particular in regard to it. +When he was preparing as President to move to Philadelphia, he made +the most searching inquiries as to horses, stables, servants, schools +for young Custis, and everything affecting the household. He sent at +the same time most minute directions to his agents as to the furniture +of his house, touching upon everything, down to the color of the +curtains and the form of his wine-coolers. He had a like feeling in +regard to dress. His fancy for handsome and appropriate dress in his +youth has already been alluded to, but he never ceased to take an +interest in it; and in a letter to McHenry, written in the last year +of his life, he discusses with great care the details of the uniform +to be prescribed for himself as commander-in-chief of the new army. It +would be a mistake, of course, to infer that he was a dandy, or that +he gave to dress and furniture the importance set upon them by shallow +minds. He simply valued them rightly, and enjoyed the good things of +this world. He had the best possible taste and the keenest sense of +what was appropriate, and it was this good taste and sense of fitness +which saved him from blundering in trifles, as much as his ability and +his sense of humor preserved him from error in the conduct of great +affairs. + +The value of all this to the country he served cannot be too often +reiterated, for ridicule was a real danger to the Revolutionary cause +when it started. The raw levies, headed by volunteer officers from the +shop, the plough, the work-bench, or the trading vessel, despite their +patriotism and the nobility of their cause, could easily have been +made subjects of derision, a perilous enemy to all new undertakings. +Men prefer to be shot at, if they are taken seriously, rather than to +be laughed at and made objects of contempt. The same principle holds +true of a revolution seeking the sympathy of a hostile world. When +Washington drew his sword beneath the Cambridge elm and put himself at +the head of the American army, effective ridicule became impossible, +for the dignity of the cause was seen in that of its leader. The +British generals soon found that they not only had a dangerous enemy +to encounter, but that they were dealing with a man whose pride in his +country and whose own sense of self-respect reduced any assumption of +personal superiority on their part to speedy contempt. In the same way +he brought dignity to the new government of the Constitution when +he was placed at its head. The confederation had excited the just +contempt of the world, and Washington as President, by the force of +his own character and reputation, gave the United States at once the +respect not only of the American people, but of those of Europe as +well. Men felt instinctively that no government over which he presided +could ever fall into feebleness or disrepute. + +In addition to the effect on the popular mind of his character and +services was that of his personal presence. If contemporary testimony +can be believed, few men have ever lived who had the power to impress +those who looked upon them so profoundly as Washington. He was richly +endowed by nature in all physical attributes. Well over six feet +high,[1] large, powerfully built, and of uncommon muscular strength, +he had the force that always comes from great physical power. He had +a fine head, a strong face, with blue eyes set wide apart in deep +orbits, and beneath, a square jaw and firm-set mouth which told of a +relentless will. Houdon the sculptor, no bad judge, said he had no +conception of the majesty and grandeur of Washington's form and +features until he studied him as a subject for a statue. Pages might +be filled with extracts from the descriptions of Washington given by +French officers, by all sorts of strangers, and by his own countrymen, +but they all repeat the same story. Every one who met him told of the +commanding presence, and noble person, the ineffable dignity, and +the calm, simple, and stately manners. No man ever left Washington's +presence without a feeling of reverence and respect amounting almost +to awe. + +[Footnote 1: Lear in his memoranda published recently in full in +McClure's Magazine for February, 1898, states that Washington measured +after death six feet three and one half inches in height, a foot +and nine inches across the shoulders, two feet across the elbows; +evidently a spare man with muscular arms, which we know to have been +also of unusual length.] + +I will quote only a single one of the numerous descriptions of +Washington, and I select it because, although it is the least +favorable of the many I have seen, and is written in homely phrase, it +displays the most evident and entire sincerity. The extract is from +a letter written by David Ackerson of Alexandria, Va., in 1811, in +answer to an inquiry by his son. Mr. Ackerson commanded a company in +the Revolutionary war. + +"Washington was not," he wrote, "what ladies would call a pretty man, +but in military costume a heroic figure, such as would impress the +memory ever afterward." + +The writer had a good view of Washington three days before the +crossing of the Delaware. + +"Washington," he says, "had a large thick nose, and it was very red +that day, giving me the impression that he was not so moderate in the +use of liquors as he was supposed to be. I found afterward that this +was a peculiarity. His nose was apt to turn scarlet in a cold wind. +He was standing near a small camp-fire, evidently lost in thought +and making no effort to keep warm. He seemed six feet and a half in +height, was as erect as an Indian, and did not for a moment relax from +a military attitude. Washington's exact height was six feet two inches +in his boots. He was then a little lame from striking his knee against +a tree. His eye was so gray that it looked almost white, and he had +a troubled look on his colorless face. He had a piece of woolen tied +around his throat and was quite hoarse. Perhaps the throat trouble +from which he finally died had its origin about then. Washington's +boots were enormous. They were number 13. His ordinary walking-shoes +were number 11. His hands were large in proportion, and he could not +buy a glove to fit him and had to have his gloves made to order. +His mouth was his strong feature, the lips being always tightly +compressed. That day they were compressed so tightly as to be painful +to look at. At that time he weighed two hundred pounds, and there was +no surplus flesh about him. He was tremendously muscled, and the fame +of his great strength was everywhere. His large tent when wrapped up +with the poles was so heavy that it required two men to place it in +the camp-wagon. Washington would lift it with one hand and throw it in +the wagon as easily as if it were a pair of saddle-bags. He could hold +a musket with one hand and shoot with precision as easily as other men +did with a horse-pistol. His lungs were his weak point, and his voice +was never strong. He was at that time in the prime of life. His hair +was a chestnut brown, his cheeks were prominent, and his head was not +large in contrast to every other part of his body, which seemed large +and bony at all points. His finger-joints and wrists were so large as +to be genuine curiosities. As to his habits at that period I found +out much that might be interesting. He was an enormous eater, but was +content with bread and meat, if he had plenty of it. But hunger seemed +to put him in a rage. It was his custom to take a drink of rum or +whiskey on awakening in the morning. Of course all this was changed +when he grew old. I saw him at Alexandria a year before he died. His +hair was very gray, and his form was slightly bent. His chest was very +thin. He had false teeth, which did not fit and pushed his under lip +outward."[1] + +[Footnote 1: This letter, recently printed, is in the collection of +Dr. Toner, at Washington. It contains some obvious errors, as +in regard to the color of the eyes, but it is nevertheless very +interesting and valuable.] + +This description is certainly not a flattering one, and all other +accounts as well as the best portraits prove that Washington was a +much handsomer man than this letter would indicate. Yet the writer, +despite his freedom from all illusions and his readiness to state +frankly all defects, was profoundly impressed by Washington's +appearance as he watched him meditating by the camp-fire at the crisis +of the country's fate, and herein lies the principal interest of his +description. + +This personal impressiveness, however, affected every one upon all +occasions. + +Mr. Rush, for instance, saw Washington go on one occasion to open +Congress. He drove to the hall in a handsome carriage of his own, +with his servants dressed in white liveries. When he had alighted +he stopped on the step, and pausing faced round to wait for his +secretary. The vast crowd looked at him in dead silence, and then, +when he turned away, broke into wild cheering. At his second +inauguration he was dressed in deep mourning for the death of his +nephew. He took the oath of office in the Senate Chamber, and Major +Forman, who was present, wrote in his diary: "Every eye was on him. +When he said, 'I, George Washington,' my blood seemed to run cold and +every one seemed to start." At the inauguration of Adams, another +eye-witness wrote that Washington, dressed in black velvet, with a +military hat and black cockade, was the central figure in the scene, +and when he left the chamber the crowds followed him, cheering and +shouting to the door of his own house. + +There must have been something very impressive about a man who, with +no pretensions to the art of the orator and with no touch of the +charlatan, could so move and affect vast bodies of men by his presence +alone. But the people, with the keen eye of affection, looked beyond +the mere outward nobility of form. They saw the soldier who had given +them victory, the great statesman who had led them out of confusion +and faction to order and good government. Party newspapers might rave, +but the instinct of the people was never at fault. They loved, trusted +and well-nigh worshiped Washington living, and they have honored and +reverenced him with an unchanging fidelity since his death, nearly a +century ago. + +But little more remains to be said. Washington had his faults, for +he was human; but they are not easy to point out, so perfect was his +mastery of himself. He was intensely reserved and very silent, and +these are the qualities which gave him the reputation in history +of being distant and unsympathetic. In truth, he had not only warm +affections and a generous heart, but there was a strong vein of +sentiment in his composition. At the same time he was in no wise +romantic, and the ruling element in his make-up was prose, good solid +prose, and not poetry. He did not have the poetical and imaginative +quality so strongly developed in Lincoln. Yet he was not devoid of +imagination, although it was here that he was lacking, if anywhere. He +saw facts, knew them, mastered and used them, and never gave much play +to fancy; but as his business in life was with men and facts, this +deficiency, if it was one, was of little moment. He was also a man of +the strongest passions in every way, but he dominated them; they never +ruled him. Vigorous animal passions were inevitable, of course, in a +man of such a physical make-up as his. How far he gave way to them in +his youth no one knows, but the scandals which many persons now desire +to have printed, ostensibly for the sake of truth, are, so far as +I have been able to learn, with one or two dubious exceptions, of +entirely modern parentage. I have run many of them to earth; nearly +all are destitute of contemporary authority, and they may be relegated +to the dust-heaps.[1] If he gave way to these propensities in his +youth, the only conclusion that I have been able to come to is that he +mastered them when he reached man's estate. + +[Footnote 1: The charge in the pamphlet purporting to give an account +of the trial of the New York conspirators in 1776 is of such doubtful +origin and character that it hardly merits consideration, and the only +other allusion is in the well-known intercepted letter of Harrison, +which is of doubtful authenticity in certain passages, open to +suspicion from having been intercepted and published by the enemy and +quite likely to have been at best merely a coarse jest of a character +very common at that period and entirely in keeping with the notorious +habits of life and speech peculiar to the writer. (See Life of John +Adams, iii. 35.)] + +He had, too, a fierce temper, and although he gradually subdued it, he +would sometimes lose control of himself and burst out into a tempest +of rage. When he did so he would use strong and even violent language, +as he did at Kip's Landing and at Monmouth. Well-intentioned persons +in their desire to make him a faultless being have argued at great +length that Washington never swore, and but for their argument the +matter would never have attracted much attention. He was anything but +a profane man, but the evidence is beyond question that if deeply +angered he would use a hearty English oath; and not seldom the action +accompanied the word, as when he rode among the fleeing soldiers at +Kip's Landing, striking them with his sword, and almost beside himself +at their cowardice. Judge Marshall used to tell also of an occasion +when Washington sent out an officer to cross a river and bring back +some information about the enemy, on which the action of the morrow +would depend. The officer was gone some time, came back, and found +the general impatiently pacing his tent. On being asked what he had +learned, he replied that the night was dark and stormy, the river full +of ice, and that he had not been able to cross. Washington glared at +him a moment, seized a large leaden inkstand from the table, hurled it +at the offender's head, and said with a fierce oath, "Be off, and send +me a _man_!" The officer went, crossed the river, and brought back the +information. + +But although he would now and then give way to these tremendous bursts +of anger, Washington was never unjust. As he said to one officer, "I +never judge the propriety of actions by after events;" and in that +sound philosophy is found the secret not only of much of his own +success, but of the devotion of his officers and men. He might be +angry with them, but he was never unfair. In truth, he was too +generous to be unjust or even over-severe to any one, and there is not +a line in all his writings which even suggests that he ever envied any +man. So long as the work in hand was done, he cared not who had the +glory, and he was perfectly magnanimous and perfectly at ease about +his own reputation. He never showed the slightest anxiety to write his +own memoirs, and he was not in the least alarmed when it was proposed +to publish the memoirs of other people, like General Charles Lee, +which would probably reflect upon him. + +He had the same confidence in the judgment of posterity that he had in +the future beyond the grave. He regarded death with entire calmness +and even indifference not only when it came to him, but when in +previous years it had threatened him. He loved life and tasted of it +deeply, but the courage which never forsook him made him ready to face +the inevitable at any moment with an unruffled spirit. In this he was +helped by his religious faith, which was as simple as it was profound. +He had been brought up in the Protestant Episcopal Church, and to that +church he always adhered; for its splendid liturgy and stately forms +appealed to him and satisfied him. He loved it too as the church of +his home and his childhood. Yet he was as far as possible from being +sectarian, and there is not a word of his which shows anything but +the most entire liberality and toleration. He made no parade of his +religion, for in this as in other things he was perfectly simple and +sincere. He was tortured by no doubts or questionings, but believed +always in an overruling Providence and in a merciful God, to whom he +knelt and prayed in the day of darkness or in the hour of triumph with +a supreme and childlike confidence. + + * * * * * + +As I bring these volumes to a close I am conscious that they speak, so +far as they speak at all, in a tone of almost unbroken praise of the +great man they attempt to portray. If this be so, it is because I +could come to no other conclusions. For many years I have studied +minutely the career of Washington, and with every step the greatness +of the man has grown upon me, for analysis has failed to discover +the act of his life which, under the conditions of the time, I could +unhesitatingly pronounce to have been an error. Such has been my +experience, and although my deductions may be wrong, they at least +have been carefully and slowly made. I see in Washington a great +soldier who fought a trying war to a successful end impossible without +him; a great statesman who did more than all other men to lay the +foundations of a republic which has endured in prosperity for more +than a century. I find in him a marvelous judgment which was never at +fault, a penetrating vision which beheld the future of America when it +was dim to other eyes, a great intellectual force, a will of iron, +an unyielding grasp of facts, and an unequaled strength of patriotic +purpose. I see in him too a pure and high-minded gentleman of +dauntless courage and stainless honor, simple and stately of manner, +kind and generous of heart. Such he was in truth. The historian and +the biographer may fail to do him justice, but the instinct of mankind +will not fail. The real hero needs not books to give him worshipers. +George Washington will always hold the love and reverence of men +because they see embodied in him the noblest possibilities of +humanity. + + + + +INDEX for Volumes I & II + + + ACKERSON, DAVID, + describes Washington's personal appearance, ii. 386-388. + + Adams, Abigail, + on Washington's appearance in 1775, i. 137. + + Adams, John, + moves appointment of Washington as commander-in-chief, i. 134; + on political necessity for his appointment, 135; + and objections to it, 135; + statement as to Washington's difficulties, 163; + over-sanguine as to American prospects, 171; + finds fault with Washington, 214, 215; + one of few national statesmen, 252; + on Washington's opinion of titles, ii. 52; + advocates ceremony, 54; + returns to United States, 137; + attacked by Jefferson as a monarchist, 226; + praised by Democrats as superior to Washington, 251; + his administration upheld by Washington, 259; + advised by Washington, 260; + his inauguration, 276; + sends special mission to France, 284; + urges Washington to take command of provisional army, 285; + wishes to make Knox senior to Hamilton, 286; + censured by Washington, gives way, 287; + lack of sympathy with Washington, 287; + his nomination of Murray disapproved by Washington, 292, 293; + letter of Washington to, on immigration, 326. + + Adams, J.Q., + on weights and measures, ii. 81. + + Adams, Samuel, + not sympathized with by Washington in working for independence, i. 131; + his inability to sympathize with Washington, 204; + an enemy of Constitution, ii. 71; + a genuine American, 309. + + Alcudia, Duke de, + interviews with Pinckney, ii. 166. + + Alexander, Philip, + hunts with Washington, i. 115. + + Alien and Sedition Laws, + approved by Washington and Federalists, ii. 290, 297. + + Ames, Fisher, + speech on behalf of administration in Jay treaty affair, ii. 210. + + André, Major, + meets Arnold, i. 282; + announces capture to Arnold, 284; + confesses, 284; + condemned and executed, 287; + justice of the sentence, 287, 288; + Washington's opinion of, 288, ii. 357. + + Armstrong, John, Major, + writes Newburg address, i. 335. + + Army of the Revolution, + at Boston, adopted by Congress, i. 134; + its organization and character, 136-143; + sectional jealousies in, at New York, 162; + goes to pieces after defeat, 167, 175, 176; + condition in winter of 1777, 186; + difficulties between officers, 189; + with foreign officers, 190-192; + improvement as shown by condition after Brandywine and Germantown, + 200, 201; + hard winter at Valley Forge, 228; + maintained alive only by Washington, 227, 228, 232; + improved morale at Monmouth, 239; + mutinies for lack of pay, 258; + suffers during 1779, 270; + bad condition in 1780, 279; + again mutinies for pay, 291, 292, 295; + conduct of troops, 292, 293; + jealousy of people towards, 332; + badly treated by States and by Congress, 333; + grows mutinous, 334; + adopts Newburg addresses, 335, 336; + ready for a military dictatorship, 338, 340; + farewell of Washington to, 345. + + Arnold, Benedict, + sent by Washington to attack Quebec, i. 144; + sent against Burgoyne, 210; + plans treason, 281; + shows loyalist letter to Washington, 282; + meets André, 282; + receives news of André's capture, 284; + escapes, 284, 285; + previous benefits from Washington, 286; + Washington's opinion of, 288; + ravages Virginia, 303; + sent back to New York, 303; + one of the few men who deceived Washington, ii. 336. + + Arnold, Mrs., + entertains Washington at time of her husband's treachery, i. 284, 285. + + Articles of Confederation, + their inadequacy early seen by Washington, i. 297, 298; ii. 17. + + Asgill, Capt., + selected for retaliation for murder of Huddy, i. 328; + efforts for his release, 329; + release ordered by Congress, 330. + + + BACHE, B.F., + publishes Jay treaty in "Aurora," ii. 185; + joins in attack on Washington, 238, 244; + rejoices over his retirement, 256. + + Baker,----, + works out a pedigree for Washington, i. 31. + + Ball, Joseph, + advises against sending Washington to sea, i. 49, 50. + + Barbadoes, + Washington's description of, i. 64. + + Beckley, John, + accuses Washington of embezzling, ii. 245. + + Bernard, John, + his conversation with Washington referred to, i. 58, 107; + describes encounter with Washington, ii. 281-283; + his description of Washington's conversation, 343-348. + + Blackwell, Rev. Dr., + calls on Washington with Dr. Logan, ii. 264. + + Blair, John, + appointed to Supreme Court, ii. 73. + + Bland, Mary, + "Lowland Beauty," admired by Washington, i. 95, 96. + + Blount, Governor, + pacifies Cherokees, ii. 94. + + Boston, + visit of Washington to, i. 97, 99; + political troubles in, 120; + British measures against condemned by Virginia, 122, 123; + appeals to colonies, 124; + protests against Jay treaty, ii. 186; + answered by Washington, 190. + + Botetourt, Lord, Governor of Virginia, + quarrels with Assembly, i. 121; + manages to calm dissension, 122; + on friendly terms with Washington, 122. + + Braddock, General Edward, + arrives in Virginia, i. 82; + invites Washington to serve on his staff, 82; + respects him, 83; + his character and unfitness for his position, 83; + despises provincials, 83; + accepts Washington's advice as to dividing force, 84; + rebukes Washington for warning against ambush, 85; + insists on fighting by rule, 85; + defeated and mortally wounded, 85; + death and burial, 87. + + Bradford, William, + succeeds Randolph, ii. 246. + + Brandywine, + battle of, i. 196-198. + + Bunker Hill, + question of Washington regarding battle of, i. 136. + + Burgoyne, General John, + junction of Howe with, feared by Washington, i. 194, 195, 205, 206; + significance of his defeat, 202; + danger of his invasion foreseen by Washington, 203-206; + captures Ticonderoga, 207; + outnumbered and defeated, 210; + surrenders, 211. + + Burke, Edmund, + understands significance of Washington's leadership, i. 202; + unsettled by French Revolution, ii. 294. + + + CABOT, GEORGE, + entertains Lafayette's son, ii. 366. + + Cadwalader, General, + fails to cross Delaware to help Washington, i. 180; + duel with Conway, 226. + + Calvert, Eleanor, + misgivings of Washington over her marriage to John Custis, i. 111. + + Camden, battle of, i. 281. + + Canada, + captured by Wolfe, i. 94; + expedition of Montgomery against, 143, 144; + project of Conway cabal against, 222; 253; + project of Lafayette to attack, 254; + plan considered dangerous by Washington, 254, 255; + not undertaken by France, 256. + + Carleton, Sir Guy, + informs Washington of address of Commons for peace, i. 324; + suspected by Washington, 325; + remonstrates against retaliation by Washington for murder of + Huddy, 328; + disavows Lippencott, 328; + fears plunder of New York city, 345; + urges Indians to attack the United States, ii. 102, 175. + + Carlisle, Earl of, + peace commissioner, i. 233. + + Carlyle, Thomas, + sneers at Washington, i. 4, 14; + calls him "a bloodless Cromwell," i. 69, ii. 332; + fails to understand his reticence, i. 70; + despises him for not seizing power, 341. + + Carmichael, William, + minister at Madrid, ii. 165; + on commission regarding the Mississippi, 166. + + Carrington, Paul, + letter of Washington to, ii. 208; + Washington's friendship for, 363. + + Cary, Mary, + early love affair of Washington with, i. 96. + + Chamberlayne, Major, + entertains Washington at Williams' Ferry, i. 101. + + Charleston, + siege and capture of, i. 273, 274, 276. + + Chastellux, Marquis de, + Washington's friendship for and letter to, ii. 351; + on Washington's training of horses, 380. + + Cherokees, + beaten by Sevier, ii. 89; + pacified by Blount, 94,101. + + Chester, Colonel, + researches on Washington pedigree, i. 31. + + Chickasaws, + desert from St. Clair, ii. 96. + + China, + honors Washington, i. 6. + + Choctaws, + peaceable in 1788, ii. 89. + + Cincinnati, Society of the, + Washington's connection with, ii. 4. + + Clarke, Governor, + thinks Washington is invading popular rights, i. 215. + + Cleaveland, Rev.----, + complimented by Washington, ii. 359. + + Clinton, George, + appealed to by Washington to attack Burgoyne, i. 210; + journey with Washington to Ticonderoga, 343; + enters New York city, 345; + letter of Washington to, ii. 1; + meets Washington on journey to inauguration, 45; + opponent of the Constitution, 71; + orders seizure of French privateers, 153. + + Clinton, Sir Henry, + fails to help Burgoyne, i. 210; + replaces Howe at Philadelphia, his character, 232; + tries to cut off Lafayette, 233; + leaves Philadelphia, 234; + defeats Lee at Monmouth, 236; + retreats to New York, 238; + withdraws from Newport, 248; + makes a raid, 265; + fortifies Stony Point, 268; + his aimless warfare, 269, 270; + after capturing Charleston returns to New York, 276; + tries to save André, 287; + alarmed at attacks on New York, 306; + jealous of Cornwallis, refuses to send reinforcements, 308; + deceived by Washington, 311; + sends Graves to relieve Cornwallis, 312. + + Congress, Continental, + Washington's journey to, i. 128; + its character and ability, 129; + its state papers, 129; + adjourns, 132; + in second session, resolves to petition the king, 133; + adopts Massachusetts army and makes Washington commander, 134; + reasons for his choice, 135; + adheres to short-term enlistments, 149; + influenced to declare independence by Washington, 160; + hampers Washington in campaign of New York, 167; + letters of Washington to, 170, 179, 212, 225, 229, 266, 278, 295, + 321, 323, 333; + takes steps to make army permanent, 171; + its over-confidence, 171; + insists on holding Forts Washington and Lee, 174; + dissatisfied with Washington's inactivity, 187; + criticises his proclamation requiring oath of allegiance, 189; + makes unwise appointments of officers, 189; + especially of foreigners, 190-192; 248, 249; + applauds Washington's efforts at Germantown, 200; + deposes Schuyler and St. Clair, 208; + appoints Gates, 210; + irritation against Washington, 212-215; + falls under guidance of Conway cabal, 221, 222; + discovers incompetence of cabal, 223; + meddles with prisoners and officers, 231; + rejects English peace offers, 233; + makes alliance with France, 241; + suppresses protests of officers against D'Estaing, 244; + decline in its character, 257; + becomes feeble, 258; + improvement urged by Washington, 259, 266; + appoints Gates to command in South, 268; + loses interest in war, 278; + asks Washington to name general for the South, 295; + considers reduction of army, 313; + elated by Yorktown, 323; + its unfair treatment of army, 333, 335; + driven from Philadelphia by Pennsylvania troops, 340; + passes half-pay act, 342; + receives commission of Washington, 347-349; + disbands army, ii. 6; + indifferent to Western expansion, 15; + continues to decline, 22; + merit of its Indian policy, 88. + + Congress, Federal, + establishes departments, ii. 64; + opened by Washington, 78, 79; + ceremonial abolished by Jefferson, 79; + recommendations made to by Washington, 81-83; + acts upon them, 81-83; + creates commission to treat with Creeks, 90; + increases army, 94, 99; + fails to solve financial problems, 106; + debates Hamilton's report on credit, 107, 108; + establishes national bank, 109; + establishes protective revenue duties, 113; + imposes an excise tax, 123; + prepares for retaliation on Great Britain, 176; + Senate ratifies Jay treaty conditionally, 184; + House demands papers, 207; + debates over its right to concur in treaty, 208-210; + refuses to adjourn on Washington's birthday, 247; + prepares for war with France, 285; + passes Alien and Sedition Laws, 296. + + Constitution, Federal, + necessity of, foreseen by Washington, ii. 17-18, 23, 24; + the Annapolis Convention, 23-29; + the Federal Convention, 30-36; + Washington's attitude in, 31,34; + his influence, 36; + campaign for ratification, 38-41. + + Contrecoeur, Captain, + leader of French and Indians in Virginia, i. 75. + + "Conway cabal," + elements of in Congress, i. 214, 215; + in the army, 215; + organized by Conway, 217; + discovered by Washington, 220; + gets control of Board of War, 221; + tries to make Washington resign, 222, 224; + fails to invade Canada or provide supplies, 222, 223; + harassed by Washington's letters, 223,226; + breaks down, 226. + + Conway, Moncure D., + his life of Randolph, ii. 65, note, 196; + his defense of Randolph in Fauchet letter affair, 196; + on Washington's motives, 200; + on his unfair treatment of Randolph, 201, 202. + + Conway, Thomas, + demand for higher rank refused by Washington, i. 216; + plots against him, 217; + his letter discovered by Washington, 221; + made inspector-general, 221, 222; + complains to Congress of his reception at camp, 225; + resigns, has duel with Cadwalader, 226; + apologizes to Washington and leaves country, 226. + + Cooke, Governor, + remonstrated with by Washington for raising state troops, i. 186. + + Cornwallis, Lord, + pursues Washington in New Jersey, i. 175; + repulsed at Assunpink, 181; + outgeneraled by Washington, 182; + surprises Sullivan at Brandywine, 197; + defeats Lee at Monmouth, 236; + pursues Greene in vain, 302; + wins battle of Guilford Court House, 302; + retreats into Virginia, 302; + joins British troops in Virginia, 303; + his dangerous position, 304; + urged by Clinton to return troops to New York, 306; + plunders Virginia, 307; + defeats Lafayette and Wayne, 307; + wishes to retreat South, 307; + ordered by ministry to stay on the Chesapeake, 307; + abandoned by Clinton, 308; + establishes himself at Yorktown, 308; + withdraws into town, 315; + besieged, 316, 317; + surrenders, 317; + outgeneraled by Washington, 319, 320. + + Cowpens, + battle of, i. 301. + + Craik, Dr., + attends Washington in last illness, ii. 300-302; + Washington's friendship with, 363. + + Creeks, + their relations with Spaniards, ii. 89, 90; + quarrel with Georgia, 90; + agree to treaty with United States, 91; + stirred up by Spain, 101. + + Curwen, Samuel, + on Washington's appearance, i. 137. + + Cushing, Caleb, + appointed to Supreme Court, ii. 72. + + Custis, Daniel Parke, + first husband of Martha Washington, i. 101. + + Custis, G.W.P., + tells mythical story of Washington and the colt, i. 45; + Washington's care for, ii. 369. + + Custis, John, + Washington's tenderness toward, i. 111; + care for his education and marriage, 111; + hunts with Washington, 141; + death of, 322. + + Custis, Nellie, + marriage with Washington's nephew, ii. 281, 369; + letter of Washington to, 377. + + + DAGWORTHY, CAPTAIN, + claims to outrank Washington in Virginia army, i. 91, 97. + + Dallas, Alexander, + protests to Genet against sailing of Little Sarah, ii. 155. + + Dalton, Senator, + entertains Washington at Newburyport, ii. 359. + + Deane, Silas, + promises commissions to foreign military adventurers, i. 190. + + De Barras, + jealous of De Grasse, decides not to aid him, i. 310; + persuaded to do so by Washington and Rochambeau, 311; + reaches Chesapeake, 312. + + De Grasse, Comte, + announces intention of coming to Washington, i. 305; + warned by Washington not to come to New York, 305; + sails to Chesapeake, 306; + asked to meet Washington there, 308; + reaches Chesapeake, 312; + repulses British fleet, 312; + wishes to return to West Indies, 315; + persuaded to remain by Washington, 315; + refuses to join Washington in attack on Charleston, 322; + returns to West Indies, 322. + + De Guichen,----, + commander of French fleet in West Indies, i. 280; + appealed to for aid by Washington, 281; + returns home, 282. + + Delancey, Oliver, + escapes American attack, i. 306. + + Democratic party, + its formation as a French party, ii. 225; + furnished with catch-words by Jefferson, 226; + with a newspaper organ, 227; + not ready to oppose Washington for president in 1792, 235; + organized against treasury measure, 236; + stimulated by French Revolution, 238; + supports Genet, 237; + begins to attack Washington, 238; + his opinion of it, 239, 240, 258, 261, 267, 268; + forms clubs on French model, 241; + Washington's opinion of, 242, 243; + continues to abuse him, 244, 245, 250, 252; + exults at his retirement, 256; + prints slanders, 257. + + Demont, William, + betrays plans of Fort Washington to Howe, i. 175. + + D'Estaing, Admiral, + reaches America, i. 242; + welcomed by Washington, 243; + fails to cut off Howe and goes to Newport, 243; + after battle with Howe goes to Boston, 244; + letter of Washington to, 246; + sails to West Indies, 246; + second letter of Washington to, 247; + attacks Savannah, 248; + withdraws, 248. + + De Rochambeau, Comte, + arrives at Newport, i. 277; + ordered to await second division of army, 278; + refuses to attack New York, 280; + wishes a conference with Washington, 282; + meets him at Hartford, 282; + disapproves attacking Florida, 301; + joins Washington before New York, 306; + persuades De Barras to join De Grasse, 311; + accompanies Washington to Yorktown, 314. + + Dickinson, John, + commands scouts at Monmouth, i. 326. + + Digby, Admiral, + bitter comments of Washington on, i. 325. + + Dinwiddie, Governor, + remonstrates against French encroachments, i. 66; + sends Washington on mission to French, 66; + quarrels with the Virginia Assembly, 71; + letter of Washington to, 73; + wishes Washington to attack French, 79; + tries to quiet discussions between regular and provincial troops, 80; + military schemes condemned by Washington, 91; + prevents his getting a royal commission, 93. + + Diplomatic History: + refusal by Washington of special privileges to French minister, + ii. 59-61; + slow growth of idea of non-intervention, 132, 133; + difficulties owing to French Revolution, 134; + to English retention of frontier posts, 135; + attitude of Spain, 135; + relations with Barbary States, 136; + mission of Gouverneur Morris to sound English feeling, 137; + assertion by Washington of non-intervention policy toward Europe, + 145, 146; + issue of neutrality proclamation, 147, 148; + its importance, 148; + mission of Genet, 148-162; + guarded attitude of Washington toward émigrés, 151; + excesses of Genet, 151; + neutrality enforced, 153, 154; + the Little Sarah episode, 154-157; + recall of Genet demanded, 158; + futile missions of Carmichael and Short to Spain, 165, 166; + successful treaty of Thomas Pinckney, 166-168; + question as to binding nature of French treaty of commerce, 169-171; + irritating relations with England, 173-176; + Jay's mission, 177-184; + the questions at issue, 180, 181; + terms of the treaty agreed upon, 182; + good and bad points, 183; + ratified by Senate, 184; + signing delayed by renewal of provision order, 185; + war with England prevented by signing, 205; + difficulties with France over Morris and Monroe, 211-214; + doings of Monroe, 212, 213; + United States compromised by him, 213, 214; + Monroe replaced by Pinckney, 214; + review of Washington's foreign policy, 216-219; + mission of Pinckney, Marshall, and Gerry to France, 284; + the X.Y.Z. affair, 285. + + Donop, Count, + drives Griffin out of New Jersey, i. 180; + killed at Fort Mercer, 217. + + Dorchester, Lord. + See Carleton. + + Duane, James, + letters of Washington to, i. 294, 329. + + Dumas, Comte, + describes enthusiasm of people for Washington, i. 288. + + Dunbar, Colonel, + connection with Braddock's expedition, i. 84, 87. + + Dunmore, Lord, + arrives in Virginia as governor, i. 122; + on friendly terms with Washington, 122, 123; + dissolves assembly, 123. + + Duplaine, French consul, + exequatur of revoked, ii. 159. + + + EDEN, WILLIAM, + peace commissioner, i. 233. + + Edwards, Jonathan, + a typical New England American, ii. 309. + + Emerson, Rev. Dr., + describes Washington's reforms in army before Boston, i. 140. + + Emigrés, + Washington's treatment of, ii. 151, 253. + + England, + honors Washington, i. 20; + arrogant behavior toward colonists, 80, 81, 82, 148; + its policy towards Boston condemned by Virginia, 119, 121, 123, 126; + by Washington, 124, 125,126; + sends incompetent officers to America, 155, 201, 202, 233; + stupidity of its operations, 203, 205, 206, 265; + sincerity of its desire for peace doubted by Washington, 324, 325; + arrogant conduct of toward the United States after peace, ii. 24, 25; + stirs up the Six Nations and Northwestern Indians, 92, 94, 101; + folly of her policy, 102; + sends Hammond as minister, 169; + its opportunity to win United States as ally against France, 171, 172; + adopts contrary policy of opposition, 172, 173; + adopts "provision order," 174; + incites Indians against United States, 175; + indignation of America against, 176; + receives Jay well, but refuses to yield points at issue, 180; + insists on monopoly of West India trade, 180; + and on impressment, 181; + later history of, 181; + renews provision order, 185; + danger of war with, 193; + avoided by Jay treaty, 205; + Washington said to sympathize with England, 252; + his real hostility toward, 254; + Washington's opinion of liberty in, 344. + + Ewing, General James, + fails to help Washington at Trenton, i. 180. + + + FAIRFAX, BRYAN, + hunts with Washington, i. 115; + remonstrates with Washington against violence of patriots, 124; + Washington's replies to, 124, 126, 127; + letter of Washington to in Revolution, ii. 366. + + Fairfax, George, + married to Miss Cary, i. 55; + accompanies Washington on surveying expedition, 58; + letter of Washington to, 133. + + Fairfax, Mrs.----, + letter of Washington to, ii. 367. + + Fairfax, Thomas, Lord, + his career in England, i. 55; + comes to his Virginia estates, 55; + his character, 55; + his friendship for Washington, 56; + sends him to survey estates, 56; + plans a manor across the Blue Ridge, 59; + secures for Washington position as public surveyor, 60; + probably influential in securing his appointment as envoy to + French, 66; + hunts with Washington, 115; + his death remembered by Washington, ii. 366. + + Fairlie, Major, + amuses Washington, ii. 374. + + Farewell Address, ii. 248, 249. + + Fauchet, M.,----, + letter of, incriminating Randolph, ii. 195,196, 202. + + Fauntleroy, Betsy, + love affair of Washington with, i. 97. + + Fauquier, Francis, Governor, + at Washington's wedding, i. 101. + + Federal courts, + suggested by Washington, i. 150. + + "Federalist," + circulated by Washington, ii. 40. + + Federalist party, + begun by Hamilton's controversy with Jefferson, ii. 230; + supports Washington for reëlection, 235; + organized in support of financial measures, 236; + Washington looked upon by Democrats as its head, 244, 247; + only its members trusted by Washington, 246, 247, 259, 260, 261; + becomes a British party, 255; + Washington considers himself a member of, 269-274; + the only American party until 1800, 273; + strengthened by X, Y, Z affair, 285; + dissensions in, over army appointments, 286-290; + its horror at French Revolution, 294, 295; + attempts of Washington to heal divisions in, 298. + + Fenno's newspaper, + used by Hamilton against the "National Gazette," ii. 230. + + Finances of the Revolution, + effect of paper money on war, i. 258, 262; + difficulties in paying troops, 258; + labors of Robert Morris, 259, 264, 312; + connection of Washington with, 263; + continued collapse, 280, 290, 312. + + Financial History, + bad condition in 1789, ii. 105; + decay of credit, paper, and revenue, 106; + futile propositions, 106; + Hamilton's report on credit, 107; + debate over assumption of state debt, 107; + bargain between Hamilton and Jefferson, 108; + establishment of bank, 109; + other measures adopted, 112; + protection in the first Congress, 112-115; + the excise tax imposed, 123; + opposition to, 123-127; + "Whiskey Rebellion," 127-128. + + Fishbourn, Benjamin, + nomination rejected by Senate, ii. 63. + + Fontanes, M. de, + delivers funeral oration on Washington, i. 1. + + Forbes, General, + renews attack on French in Ohio, i. 93. + + Forman, Major, + describes impressiveness of Washington, ii. 389. + + Fox, Charles James, + understands significance of Washington's leadership, i. 202. + + France, + pays honors to Washington, i. I, 6; + war with England, see French and Indian war; + takes possession of Ohio, 65; + considers Jumonville assassinated by Washington, 74; + importance of alliance with foreseen by Washington, 191; + impressed by battle of Germantown, 200; + makes treaty of alliance with United States, 241; + sends D'Estaing, 243; + declines to attack Canada, 256; + sends army and fleet, 274, 277; + relations of French to Washington, 318, 319; + absolute necessity of their naval aid, 318, 319; + Revolution in, applauded by America, ii. 138, 139, 142; + real character understood by Washington and others, 139-142, 295; + debate over in America, 142; + question of relations with United States, 143, 144; + warned by Washington, 144, 145; + neutrality toward declared, 147; + tries to drive United States into alliance, 149; + terms of the treaty with, 169; + latter held to be no longer binding, 169-171; + abrogates it, 171; + demands recall of Morris, 211; + mission of Monroe to, 211-214; + makes vague promises, 212, 213; + Washington's fairness toward, 253; + tries to bully or corrupt American ministers, 284; + the X, Y, Z affair, 285; + war with not expected by Washington, 291; + danger of concession to, 292, 293; + progress of Revolution in, 294. + + Franklin, Benjamin, + gets wagons for Braddock's expedition, i. 84; + remark on Howe in Philadelphia, 219; + national, like Washington, 252, ii. 8; + despairs of success of Constitutional Convention, 35; + his unquestioned Americanism, 309; + respect of Washington for, 344, 346, 364. + + Frederick II., the Great, + his opinion of Trenton campaign, i. 183; + of Monmouth campaign, 239. + + French and Indian war, i. 64-94; + inevitable conflict, 65; + efforts to negotiate, 66, 67; + hostilities begun, 72; + the Jumonville affair, 74; + defeat of Washington, 76; + Braddock's campaign, 82-88; + ravages in Virginia, 90; + carried to a favorable conclusion by Pitt, 93, 94. + + Freneau, Philip, + brought to Philadelphia and given clerkship by Jefferson, ii. 227; + attacks Adams, Hamilton, and Washington in "National Gazette," 227; + makes conflicting statements as to Jefferson's share in the paper, + 227, 228; + the first to attack Washington, 238. + + Fry, Colonel, + commands a Virginia regiment against French and Indians, i. 71; + dies, leaving Washington in command, 75. + + + GAGE, GENERAL THOMAS, + conduct at Boston condemned by Washington, i. 126; + his treatment of prisoners protested against by Washington, 145; + sends an arrogant reply, 147; + second letter of Washington to, 147, 156. + + Gallatin, Albert, + connection with Whiskey Rebellion, ii. 129. + + Gates, Horatio, + visits Mt. Vernon, his character, i. 132; + refuses to cooperate with Washington at Trenton, 180; + his appointment as commander against Burgoyne urged, 208; + chosen by Congress, 209; + his part in defeating Burgoyne, 210; + neglects to inform Washington, 211; + loses his head and wishes to supplant Washington, 215; + forced to send troops South, 216, 217; + his attitude discovered by Washington, 221; + makes feeble efforts at opposition, 221, 223; + correspondence with Washington, 221, 223, 226; + becomes head of board of war, 221; + quarrels with Wilkinson, 223; + sent to his command, 226; + fears attack of British on Boston, 265; + sent by Congress to command in South, 268; + defeated at Camden, 281, 294; + loses support of Congress, 294. + + Genet, Edmond Charles, + arrives as French minister, ii. 148; + his character, 149; + violates neutrality, 151; + his journey to Philadelphia, 151; + reception by Washington, 152; + complains of it, 153; + makes demands upon State Department, 153; + protests at seizure of privateers, 153; + insists on sailing of Little Sarah, 155; + succeeds in getting vessel away, 157; + his recall demanded, 158; + reproaches Jefferson, 158; + remains in America, 158; + threatens to appeal from Washington to Massachusetts, 159; + demands denial from Washington of Jay's statements, 159; + loses popular support, 160; + tries to raise a force to invade Southwest, 161; + prevented by state and federal authorities, 162; + his arrival the signal for divisions of parties, 237; + hurts Democratic party by his excesses, 241; + suggests clubs, 241. + + George IV., + Washington's opinion of, ii. 346. + + Georgia, + quarrels with Creeks, asks aid of United States, ii. 90; + becomes dissatisfied with treaty, 91; + disregards treaties of the United States, 103. + + Gerard, M., + notifies Washington of return of D'Estaing, i. 246. + + Germantown, + battle of, i. 199. + + Gerry, Elbridge, + on special mission to France, ii. 284; + disliked by Washington, 292. + + Giles, W.B., + attacks Washington in Congress, ii. 251, 252. + + Gist, Christopher, + accompanies Washington on his mission to French, i. 66; + wishes to shoot French Indians, 68. + + Gordon,----, + letter of Washington to, i. 227. + + Graves, Admiral, + sent to relieve Cornwallis, i. 312; defeated by De Grasse, 312. + + Grayson, William, + hunts with Washington, i. 115; letter to, ii. 22. + + Green Springs, + battle of, i. 307. + + Greene, General Nathanael, + commands at Long Island, ill with fever, i. 164; + wishes forts on Hudson held, 174; + late in attacking at Germantown, 199; + conducts retreat, 200; + succeeds Mifflin as quartermaster-general, 232; + selected by Washington to command in South, 268; + commands army at New York in absence of Washington, 282; + appointed to command Southern army, 295; + retreats from Cornwallis, 302; + fights battle of Guilford Court House, 302; + clears Southern States of enemy, 302; + strong position, 304; + reinforced by Washington, 322; + letter to, 325; + his military capacity early recognized by Washington, ii. 334; + amuses Washington, 374. + + Greene, Mrs.----, + dances three hours with Washington, ii. 380. + + Grenville, Lord, + denies that ministry has incited Indians against United States, + ii. 175; + receives Jay, 180; + declines to grant United States trade with West Indies, 181. + + Griffin, David, + commissioner to treat with Creeks, ii. 90. + + Griffin,----, + fails to help Washington at Trenton, i. 180. + + Grymes, Lucy, + the "Lowland Beauty," love affair of Washington with, i. 95; + marries Henry Lee, 96. + + + HALDIMAND, SIR FREDERICK, + leads Indians against colonists, i. 325. + + Hale, Nathan, compared with André, i. 288. + + Half-King, + kept to English alliance by Washington, i. 68; + his criticism of Washington's first campaign, 76. + + Hamilton, Alexander, + forces Gates to send back troops to Washington, i. 216, 217; + remark on councils of war before Monmouth, 234; + informs Washington of Arnold's treason, 284; + sent to intercept Arnold, 285; + writes letters on government and finance, 298; + leads attack at Yorktown, i. 316; + requests release of Asgill, 329; + aids Washington in Congress, 333; + only man beside Washington and Franklin to realize American future, + ii. 7; + letters of Washington to on necessity of a strong government, 17, 18; + writes letters to Duane and Morris, 19; + speech in Federal Convention and departure, 35; + counseled by Washington, 39; + consulted by Washington as to etiquette, 54; + made secretary of treasury, 66; + his character, 67; + his report on the mint, 81; + on the public credit, 107; + upheld by Washington, 107, 108; + his arrangement with Jefferson, 108; + argument on the bank, 110; + his success largely due to Washington, 112; + his report on manufactures, 112, 114, 116; + advocates an excise, 122; + fails to realize its unpopularity, 123; + accompanies expedition to suppress Whiskey Rebellion, 128; + comprehends French Revolution, 139; + frames questions to cabinet on neutrality, 147; + urges decisive measures against Genet, 154; + argues against United States being bound by French treaty, 169; + selected for English mission, but withdraws, 177; + not likely to have done better than Jay, 183; + mobbed in defending Jay treaty, 187; + writes Camillus letters in favor of Jay treaty, 206; + intrigued against by Monroe, 212; + causes for his breach with Jefferson, 224; + his aristocratic tendencies, 225; + attacked by Jefferson and his friends, 228, 229; + disposes of the charges, 229; + retorts in newspapers with effect, 230; + ceases at Washington's request, 230, 234; + resigns from the cabinet, 234; + desires Washington's reëlection, 235; + selected by Washing, ton as senior general, 286; + appeals to Washington against Adams's reversal of rank, 286; + fails to soothe Knox's anger, 288; + report on army organization, 290; + letter of Washington to, condemning Adams's French mission, 293; + fears anarchy from Democratic success, 295; + approves Alien and Sedition Acts, 296; + his scheme of a military academy approved by Washington, 299; + Washington's affection for, 317, 362; + his ability early recognized by Washington, 334, 335; + aids Washington in literary points, 340; + takes care of Lafayette's son, 366. + + Hammond, George, + protests against violations of neutrality, ii. 151; + his arrival as British minister, 169; + his offensive tone, 173; + does not disavow Lord Dorchester's speech to Indians, 176; + gives Fauchet letters to Wolcott, 195; + intrigues with American public men, 200. + + Hampden, John, + compared with Washington, ii. 312, 313. + + Hancock, John, + disappointed at Washington's receiving command of army, i. 135; + his character, ii. 74; + refuses to call first on Washington as President, 75; + apologizes and calls, 75, 76. + + Hardin, Colonel, + twice surprised and defeated by Indians, ii. 93. + + Harmar, Colonel, + invades Indian country, ii. 92; + attacks the Miamis, 93; + sends out unsuccessful expeditions and retreats, 93; + court-martialed and resigns, 93. + + Harrison, Benjamin, + letters of Washington to, i. 259, 261; ii. 10. + + Hartley, Mrs.----, + admired by Washington, i. 95. + + Heard, Sir Isaac, + Garter King at Arms, makes out a pedigree for Washington, i. 30, 31. + + Heath, General, + checks Howe at Frog's Point, i. 173; + left in command at New York, 311. + + Henry, Patrick, + his resolutions supported by Washington, i. 119; + accompanies him to Philadelphia, 128; + his tribute to Washington's influence, 130; + ready for war, 132; + letters of Conway cabal to against Washington, 222; + letter of Washington to, 225; + appealed to by Washington on behalf of Constitution, ii. 38; + an opponent of the Constitution, 71; + urged by Washington to oppose Virginia resolutions, 266-268, 293; + a genuine American, 309; + offered secretaryship of state, 324; + friendship of Washington for, 362. + + Hertburn, Sir William de, + ancestor of Washington family, i. 31, 33. + + Hessians, + in Revolution, i. 194. + + Hickey, Thomas, + hanged for plotting to murder Washington, i. 160. + + Hobby,----, a sexton, + Washington's earliest teacher, i. 48. + + Hopkinson, Francis, + letter of Washington to, ii. 3. + + Houdon, J.A., sculptor, + on Washington's appearance, ii. 386. + + Howe, Lord, + arrives at New York with power to negotiate and pardon, i. 161; + refuses to give Washington his title, 161; + tries to negotiate with Congress, 167; + escapes D'Estaing at Delaware, 244; + attacks D'Estaing off Newport, 244. + + Howe, Sir William, + has controversy with Washington over treatment of prisoners, i. 148; + checked at Frog's Point, 173; + attacks cautiously at Chatterton Hill, 173; + retreats and attacks forts on Hudson, 174; + takes Fort Washington, 175; + goes into winter quarters in New York, 177, 186; + suspected of purpose to meet Burgoyne, 194, 195; + baffled in advance across New Jersey by Washington, 194; + goes by sea, 195; + arrives at Head of Elk, 196; + defeats Washington at Brandywine, 197; + camps at Germantown, 199; + withdraws after Germantown into Philadelphia, 201; + folly of his failure to meet Burgoyne, 205, 206; + offers battle in vain to Washington, 218; + replaced by Clinton, 232; + tries to cut off Lafayette, 233. + + Huddy, Captain, + captured by English, hanged by Tories, i. 327. + + Humphreys, Colonel, + letters of Washington to, ii. 13, 339; + at opening of Congress, 78; + commissioner to treat with Creeks, 90; + anecdote of, 375. + + Huntington, Lady, + asks Washington's aid in Christianizing Indians, ii. 4. + + + IMPRESSMENT, + right of, maintained by England, ii. 181. + + Independence, + not wished, but foreseen, by Washington, i. 131, 156; + declared by Congress, possibly through Washington's influence, 160. + + Indians, + wars with in Virginia, i. 37, 38; + in French and Indian war, 67,68; + desert English, 76; + in Braddock's defeat, 85, 86, 88; + restless before Revolution, 122; + in War of Revolution, 266, 270; + punished by Sullivan, 269; + policy toward, early suggested by Washington, 344; + recommendations relative to in Washington's address to Congress, + ii. 82; + the "Indian problem" under Washington's administration, 83-105; + erroneous popular ideas of, 84, 85; + real character and military ability, 85-87; + understood by Washington, 87, 88; + a real danger in 1788, 88; + situation in the Northwest, 89; + difficulties with Cherokees and Creeks, 89, 90; + influence of Spanish intrigue, 90; + successful treaty with Creeks, 90, 91; + wisdom of this policy, 92; + warfare in the Northwest, 92; + defeats of Harmar and Hardin, 93; + causes for the failure, 93, 94; + intrigues of England, 92, 94, 175, 178; + expedition and defeat of St. Clair, 95-97; + results, 99; + expedition of Wayne, 100, 102; + his victory, 103; + success of Washington's policy toward, 104, 105. + + Iredell, James, + appointed to Supreme Court, ii. 73. + + + JACKSON, MAJOR, + accompanies Washington to opening of Congress, ii. 78. + + Jameson, Colonel, + forwards Andrews letter to Arnold, i. 284; + receives orders from Washington, 285. + + Jay, John, + on opposition in Congress, to Washington, i. 222; + consulted by Washington as to etiquette, ii. 54; + appointed chief justice, 72; + publishes card against Genet, 159; + appointed on special mission to England, 177; + his character, 177; + instructions from Washington, 179; + his reception in England, 180; + difficulties in negotiating, 181; + concludes treaty, 182; + burnt in effigy while absent, 186; + execrated after news of treaty, 187; + hampered by Monroe in France, 213. + + Jay treaty, ii. 180-184; + opposition to and debate over signing, 184-201; + reasons of Washington for signing, 205. + + Jefferson, Thomas, + his flight from Cornwallis, i. 307; + discusses with Washington needs of government, ii. 9; + adopts French democratic phraseology, 27; + contrast with Washington, 27, 28, 69; + criticises Washington's manners, 56; + made secretary of state, 68; + his previous relations with Washington, 68; + his character, 69; + supposed to be a friend of the Constitution, 72; + his objections to President's opening Congress, 79; + on weights and measures, 81; + letter of Washington to on assumption of state debts, 107; + makes bargain with Hamilton, 108; + opposes a bank, 110; + asked to prepare neutrality instructions, 146; + upholds Genet, 153; + argues against him publicly, supports him privately, 154; + notified of French privateer Little Sarah, 155; + allows it to sail, 155; + retires to country and is censured by Washington, 156; + assures Washington that vessel will wait his decision, 156; + his un-American attitude, 157; + wishes to make terms of note demanding Genet's recall mild, 158; + argues that United States is bound by French treaty, 170, 171; + begs Madison to answer Hamilton's "Camillus" letters, 206; + his attitude upon first entering cabinet, 223; + causes for his breach with Hamilton, 224; + jealousy, incompatibility of temper, 224; + his democratic opinions, 225; + skill in creating party catch-words, 225; + prints "Rights of Man" with note against Adams, 226; + attacks him further in letter to Washington, 226; + brings Freneau to Philadelphia and gives him an office, 227; + denies any connection with Freneau's newspaper, 227; + his real responsibility, 228; + his purpose to undermine Hamilton, 228; + causes his friends to attack him, 229; + writes a letter to Washington attacking Hamilton's treasury measures, + 229; + fails to produce any effect, 230; + winces under Hamilton's counter attacks, 230; + reiterates charges and asserts devotion to Constitution, 231; + continues attacks and resigns, 234; + wishes reëlection of Washington, 235; + his charge of British sympathies resented by Washington, 252; + plain letter of Washington to, 259; + Washington's opinion of, 259; + suggests Logan's mission to France, 262, 265; + takes oath as vice-president, 276; + regarded as a Jacobin by Federalists, 294; + jealous of Washington, 306; + accuses him of senility, 307; + a genuine American, 309. + + Johnson, William, + Tory leader in New York, i. 143. + + Johnstone, Governor, + peace commissioner, i. 233. + + Jumonville, De, French leader, + declared to have been assassinated by Washington, i. 74,79; + really a scout and spy, 75. + + + KENTUCKY RESOLUTIONS, + condemned by Washington, ii. 266-268. + + King, Clarence, + his opinion that Washington was not American, ii. 308. + + King, Rufus, + publishes card exposing Genet, ii. 159. + + King's Bridge, + fight at, i. 170. + + Kip's Landing, + fight at, i. 168. + + Kirkland, Rev. Samuel, + negotiates with Six Nations, ii. 101. + + Knox, Henry, + brings artillery to Boston from Ticonderoga, i. 152; + accompanies Washington to meet De Rochambeau, 283; + at West Point, 285; + sent by Washington to confer with governors of States, 295; + urged by Washington to establish Western posts, ii. 7; + letters of Washington to, 30, 39; + made secretary of war, 65; + his character, 65; + a Federalist, 71; + deals with Creeks, 91; + urges decisive measure against Genet, 154, 155; + letters of Washington to, 260; + selected by Washington as third major-general, 286; + given first place by Adams, 286; + angry at Hamilton's higher rank, 288; + refuses the office, 289; + his offer to serve on Washington's staff refused, 289; + Washington's affection for, 317, 362. + + + LAFAYETTE, Madame de, + aided by Washington, ii. 366; + letter of Washington to, 377. + + Lafayette, Marquis de, + Washington's regard for, i. 192; + his opinion of Continental troops, 196; + sent on fruitless journey to the lakes by cabal, 222, 253; + encouraged by Washington, 225; + narrowly escapes being cut off by Clinton, 233; + appointed to attack British rear, 235; + superseded by Lee, 235; + urges Washington to come, 235; + letter of Washington to, regarding quarrel between D'Estaing and + Sullivan, 245; + regard of Washington for, 249; + desires to conquer Canada, 254; + his plan not supported in France, 256; + works to get a French army sent, 264; + brings news of French army and fleet, 274; + tries to get De Rochambeau to attack New York, 280; + accompanies Washington to meet De Rochambeau, 283; + told by Washington of Arnold's treachery, 285; + on court to try André, 287; + opinion of Continental soldiers, 293; + harasses Cornwallis, 307; + defeated at Green Springs, 307; + watches Cornwallis at Yorktown, 308; + reinforced by De Grasse, 312; + persuades him to remain, 315; + sends Washington French wolf-hounds, ii. 2; + letters of Washington to, 23, 26, 118, 144, 165, 222, 261; + his son not received by Washington, 253; + later taken care of, 277, 281, 366; + his worth, early seen by Washington, 334; + Washington's affection for, 365; + sends key of Bastile to Mt. Vernon, 365; + helped by Washington, 365,366. + + Laurens, Henry, + letter of Conway cabal to, making attack on Washington, i. 222; + letters of Washington to, 254, 288; + sent to Paris to get loans, 299. + + Lauzun, Duc de, + repulses Tarleton at Yorktown, i. 317. + + + Lear, Tobias, + Washington's secretary, ii. 263; + his account of Washington's last illness, 299-303, 385; + letters to, 361, 382. + + Lee, Arthur, + example of Virginia gentleman educated abroad, i. 23. + + Lee, Charles, + visits Mt. Vernon, his character, i. 132; + accompanies Washington to Boston, 136; + aids Washington in organizing army, 140; + disobeys orders and is captured, 175; + objects to attacking Clinton, 234; + first refuses, then claims command of van, 235; + disobeys orders and retreats, 236; + rebuked by Washington, 236, 237; + court martial of and dismissal from army, 237; + his witty remark on taking oath of allegiance, ii. 375. + + Lee, Henry, marries Lucy Grymes, + Washington's "Lowland Beauty," i. 96. + + Lee, Henry, + son of Lucy Grymes, Washington's "Lowland Beauty," i. 96; ii. 362; + captures Paulus Hook, i. 269; + letters of Washington to, ii. 23, 26, 149, 235, 239, 242, 252; + considered for command against Indians, 100; + commands troops to suppress Whiskey Rebellion, 127; + Washington's affection for, 362. + + Lee, Richard Henry, + unfriendly to Washington, i. 214; + letter of Washington to, ii. 160. + + Lewis, Lawrence, + at opening of Congress, ii. 78; + takes social duties at Mt. Vernon, 280. + + Liancourt, Duc de, + refused reception by Washington, ii. 253. + + Lincoln, Abraham, + compared with Washington, i. 349; ii. 308-313. + + Lincoln, Benjamin, + sent by Washington against Burgoyne, i. 210; + fails to understand Washington's policy and tries to hold Charleston, + 273, 274; + captured, 276; + commissioner to treat with Creeks, ii. 90. + + Lippencott, Captain, + orders hanging of Huddy, i. 327; + acquitted by English court martial, 328. + + Little Sarah, + the affair of, 155-157. + + Livingston, Chancellor, + administers oath at Washington's inauguration, ii. 46. + + Livingston, Edward, + moves call for papers relating to Jay treaty, ii. 207. + + Logan, Dr. George, + goes on volunteer mission to France, ii. 262; + ridiculed by Federalists, publishes defense, 263; + calls upon Washington, 263; + mercilessly snubbed, 263-265. + + Long Island, + battle of, i. 164,165. + + London, Lord, + disappoints Washington by his inefficiency, i. 91. + + Lovell, James, + follows the Adamses in opposing Washington, i. 214; + wishes to supplant him by Gates, 215; + writes hostile letters, 222. + + + MACKENZIE, CAPTAIN, + letter of Washington to, i. 130. + + Madison, James, + begins to desire a stronger government, ii. 19, 29; + letters of Washington to, 30, 39, 53; + chosen for French mission, but does not go, 211. + + Magaw, Colonel, + betrayed at Fort Washington, i. 175. + + "Magnolia," + Washington's pet colt, beaten in a race, i. 99, 113; ii. 381. + + Marshall, John, + Chief Justice, on special commission to France, ii. 284; + tells anecdote of Washington's anger at cowardice, 392. + + Maryland, the Washington family in, i.36. + + Mason, George, + discusses political outlook with Washington, i. 119; + letter of Washington to, 263; + an opponent of the Constitution, ii. 71; + friendship of Washington for, 362; + debates with Washington the site of Pohick Church, 381. + + Mason, S.T., + communicates Jay treaty to Bache, ii. 185. + + Massey, Rev. Lee, + rector of Pohick Church, i. 44. + + Mathews, George, + letter of Washington to, i. 294. + + Matthews, Edward, + makes raids in Virginia, i. 269. + + Mawhood, General, + defeated at Princeton, i. 182. + + McGillivray, Alexander, + chief of the Creeks, ii. 90; + his journey to New York and interview with Washington, 91. + + McHenry, James, + at West Point, i. 284; + letters to, 325, ii. 22, 278, 287, 384; + becomes secretary of war, 246; + advised by Washington not to appoint Democrats, 260, 261. + + McKean, Thomas, given letters to Dr. Logan, ii. 265. + + McMaster, John B., + calls Washington "an unknown man," i. 7, ii. 304; + calls him cold, 332, 352; + and avaricious in small ways, 352. + + Meade, Colonel Richard, + Washington's opinion of, ii. 335. + + Mercer, Hugh, + killed at Princeton, i. 182. + + Merlin,----, + president of Directory, interview with Dr. Logan, ii. 265. + + Mifflin, Thomas, + wishes to supplant Washington by Gates, i. 216; + member of board of war, 221; + put under Washington's orders, 226; + replies to Washington's surrender of commission, 349; + meets Washington on journey to inauguration, ii. 44; + notified of the Little Sarah, French privateer, 154; + orders its seizure, 155. + + Militia, + abandon Continental army, i. 167; + cowardice of, 168; + despised by Washington, 169; + leave army again, 175; + assist in defeat of Burgoyne, 211. + + Mischianza, i. 232. + + Monmouth, + battle of, i. 235-239. + + Monroe, James, + appointed minister to France, ii. 211; + his character, 212; + intrigues against Hamilton, 212; + effusively received in Paris, 212; + acts foolishly, 213; + tries to interfere with Jay, 213; + upheld, then condemned and recalled by Washington, 213, 214; + writes a vindication, 215; + Washington's opinion of him, 215, 216; + his selection one of Washington's few mistakes, 334. + + Montgomery, General Richard, + sent by Washington to invade Canada, i. 143. + + Morgan, Daniel, + sent against Burgoyne by Washington, i. 208; + at Saratoga, 210; + wins battle of Cowpens, joins Greene, 301. + + Morris, Gouverneur, + letters of Washington to, i. 248, 263; + efforts towards financial reform, 264; + quotes speech of Washington at Federal convention in his eulogy, + ii. 31; + discussion as to his value as an authority, 32, note; + goes to England on unofficial mission, 137; + balked by English insolence, 137; + comprehends French Revolution, 139; + letters of Washington to, on the Revolution, 140,142,145; + recall demanded by France, 211; + letter of Washington to, 217,240, 254; + Washington's friendship for, 363. + + Morris, Robert, + letter of Washington to, i. 187; + helps Washington to pay troops, 259; + efforts towards financial reform, 264; + difficulty in helping Washington in 1781, 309, 312; + considered for secretary of treasury, ii. 66; + his bank policy approved by Washington, 110; + Washington's friendship for, 363. + + Moustier, + demands private access to Washington, ii. 59; + refused, 59, 60. + + Murray, Vans, minister in Holland, + interview with Dr. Logan, ii. 264; + nominated for French mission by Adams, 292; + written to by Washington, 292. + + Muse, Adjutant, + trains Washington in tactics and art of war, i. 65. + + + NAPOLEON, + orders public mourning for Washington's death, i. 1. + + Nelson, General, + letter of Washington to, i. 257. + + Newburgh, + addresses, ii. 335. + + New England, + character of people, i. 138; + attitude toward Washington, 138, 139; + troops disliked by Washington, 152; + later praised by him, 152, 317, 344; + threatened by Burgoyne's invasion, 204; + its delegates in Congress demand appointment of Gates, 208; + and oppose Washington, 214; + welcomes Washington on tour as President, ii. 74; + more democratic than other colonies before Revolution, 315; + disliked by Washington for this reason, 316. + + Newenham, Sir Edward, + letter of Washington to on American foreign policy, ii. 133. + + New York, + Washington's first visit to, i. 99, 100; + defense of, in Revolution, 159-169; + abandoned by Washington, 169; + Howe establishes himself in, 177; + reoccupied by Clinton, 264; + Washington's journey to, ii. 44; + inauguration in, 46; + rioting in, against Jay treaty, 187. + + Nicholas, John, + letter of Washington to, ii. 259. + + Nicola, Col., + urges Washington to establish a despotism, i. 337. + + Noailles, Vicomte de, French émigré, + referred to State Department, ii. 151, 253. + + + O'FLINN, CAPTAIN, + Washington's friendship with, ii. 318. + + Organization of the national government, + absence of materials to work with, ii. 51; + debate over title of President, 52; + over his communications with Senate, 53; + over presidential etiquette, 53-56; + appointment of officials to cabinet offices established by Congress, + 64-71; + appointment of supreme court judges, 72. + + Orme,----, + letter of Washington to, i. 84. + + + PAINE, THOMAS, + his "Rights of Man" reprinted by Jefferson, ii. 226. + + Parkinson, Richard, + says Washington was harsh to slaves, i. 105; + contradicts statement elsewhere, 106; + tells stories of Washington's pecuniary exactness, ii. 353, 354, 382; + his character, 355; + his high opinion of Washington, 356. + + Parton, James, + considers Washington as good but commonplace, ii. 330, 374. + + Peachey, Captain, + letter of Washington to, i. 92. + + Pendleton, Edmund, + Virginia delegate to Continental Congress, i. 128. + + Pennsylvania, + refuses to fight the French, i. 72,83; + fails to help Washington, 225; + remonstrates against his going into winter quarters, 229; + condemned by Washington, 229; + compromises with mutineers, 292. + + Philipse, Mary, + brief love-affair of Washington with, i. 99, 100. + + Phillips, General, + commands British troops in Virginia, i. 303; + death of, 303. + + Pickering, Colonel, quiets Six Nations, ii. 94. + + Pickering, Timothy, + letter of Washington to, on French Revolution, ii. 140; + on failure of Spanish negotiations, 166; + recalls Washington to Philadelphia to receive Fauchet letter, 195; + succeeds Randolph, 246; + letters of Washington to, on party government, 247; + appeals to Washington against Adams's reversal of Hamilton's rank, + 286; + letters of Washington to, 292, 324; + criticises Washington as a commonplace person, 307. + + Pinckney, Charles C., + letter of Washington to, ii. 90; + appointed to succeed Monroe as minister to France, 214; + refused reception, 284; + sent on special commission, 284; + named by Washington as general, 286; + accepts without complaint of Hamilton's higher rank, 290; + Washington's friendship with, 363. + + Pinckney, Thomas, + sent on special mission to Spain, ii. 166; + unsuccessful at first, 166; + succeeds in making a good treaty, 167; + credit of his exploit, 168; + letter of Washington to, 325. + + Pitt, William, + his conduct of French war, i. 93, 94. + + Princeton, + battle of, i. 181-3. + + Privateers, + sent out by Washington, i. 150. + + "Protection" + favored in the first Congress, ii. 113-115; + arguments of Hamilton for, 114, 115; + of Washington, 116-122. + + Provincialism, + of Americans, i. 193; + with regard to foreign officers, 193, 234, 250-252; + with regard to foreign politics, ii. 131, 132, 163, 237, 255. + + Putnam, Israel, + escapes with difficulty from New York, i. 169; + fails to help Washington at Trenton, 180; + warned to defend the Hudson, 195; + tells Washington of Burgoyne's surrender, 211; + rebuked by Washington, 217; + amuses Washington, ii. 374. + + + RAHL, COLONEL, + defeated and killed at Trenton, i. 181. + + Randolph, Edmund, + letter of Washington to, ii. 30, 39; + relations with Washington, 64; + appointed attorney-general, 64; + his character, 64, 65; + a friend of the Constitution, 71; + opposes a bank, 110; + letter of Washington to, on protective bounties, 118; + drafts neutrality proclamation, 147; + vacillates with regard to Genet, 154; + argues that United States is bound by French alliance, 170; + succeeds Jefferson as secretary of state, 184; + directed to prepare a remonstrance against English "provision order," + 185; + opposed to Jay treaty, 188; + letter of Washington to, on conditional ratification, 189, 191, 192, + 194; + guilty, apparently, from Fauchet letter, of corrupt practices, 196; + his position not a cause for Washington's signing treaty, 196-200; + receives Fauchet letter, resigns, 201; + his personal honesty, 201; + his discreditable carelessness, 202; + fairly treated by Washington, 203, 204; + his complaints against Washington, 203; + letter of Washington to, concerning Monroe, 213; + at first a Federalist, 246. + + Randolph, John, + on early disappearance of Virginia colonial society, i. 15. + + Rawdon, Lord, + commands British forces in South, too distant to help Cornwallis, + i. 304. + + Reed, Joseph, + letters of Washington to, i. 151, 260. + + Revolution, War of, + foreseen by Washington, i. 120, 122; + Lexington and Concord, 133; + Bunker Hill, 136; + siege of Boston, 137-154; + organization of army, 139-142; + operations in New York, 143; + invasion of Canada, 143, 144; + question as to treatment of prisoners, 145-148; + causes of British defeat, 154, 155; + campaign near New York, 161-177; + causes for attempted defense of Brooklyn, 163, 164; + battle of Long Island, 164-165; + escape of Americans, 166; + affair at Kip's Bay, 168; + at King's Bridge, 170; + at Frog's Point, 173; + battle of White Plains, 173; + at Chatterton Hill, 174; + capture of Forts Washington and Lee, 174, 175; + pursuit of Washington into New Jersey, 175-177; + retirement of Howe to New York, 177; + battle of Trenton, 180, 181; + campaign of Princeton, 181-183; + its brilliancy, 183; + Philadelphia campaign, 194-202; + British march across New Jersey prevented by Washington, 194; + sea voyage to Delaware, 195; + battle of the Brandywine, 196-198; + causes for defeat, 198; + defeat of Wayne, 198; + Philadelphia taken by Howe, 199; + battle of Germantown, 199; + its significance, 200, 201; + Burgoyne's invasion, 203-211; + Washington's preparations for, 204-206; + Howe's error in neglecting to cooperate, 205; + capture of Ticonderoga, 207; + battles of Bennington, Oriskany, Fort Schuyler, 210; + battle of Saratoga, 211; + British repulse at Fort Mercer, 217; + destruction of the forts, 217; + fruitless skirmishing before Philadelphia, 218; + Valley Forge, 228-232; + evacuation of Philadelphia, 234; + battle of Monmouth, 235-239; + its effect, 239; + cruise and failure of D'Estaing at Newport, 243, 244; + failure of D'Estaing at Savannah, 247, 248; + storming of Stony Point, 268, 269; + Tory raids near New York, 269; + standstill in 1780, 272; + siege and capture of Charleston, 273, 274, 276; + operations of French and Americans near Newport, 277, 278; + battle of Camden, 281; + treason of Arnold, 281-289; + battle of Cowpens, 301; + retreat of Greene before Cornwallis, 302; + battle of Guilford Court House, 302; + successful operations of Greene, 302, 303; + Southern campaign planned by Washington, 304-311; + feints against Clinton, 306; + operations of Cornwallis and Lafayette in Virginia, 307; + naval supremacy secured by Washington, 310, 311; + battle of De Grasse and Graves off Chesapeake, 312; + transport of American army to Virginia, 311-313; + siege and capture of Yorktown, 315-318; + masterly character of campaign, 318-320; + petty operations before New York, 326; + treaty of peace, 342. + + Rives, + on Washington's doubts of constitutionality of Bank, ii. 110. + + Robinson, Beverly, + speaker of Virginia House of Burgesses, his compliment to Washington, + i. 102. + + Robinson, Colonel, + loyalist, i. 282. + + Rumsey, James, + the inventor, asks Washington's consideration of his steamboat, ii. 4. + + Rush, Benjamin, + describes Washington's impressiveness, ii. 389. + + Rutledge, John, + letter of Washington to, i. 281; + nomination rejected by Senate, ii. 63; + nominated to Supreme Court, 73. + + + ST. CLAIR, Arthur, + removed after loss of Ticonderoga, i. 208; + appointed to command against Indians, ii. 94; + receives instructions and begins expedition, 95; + defeated, 96; + his character, 99; + fair treatment by Washington, 99; + popular execration of, 105. + + St. Pierre, M. de, + French governor in Ohio, i. 67. + + St. Simon, Count, + reinforces Lafayette, i. 312. + + Sandwich, Lord, + calls all Yankees cowards, i. 155. + + Saratoga, + anecdote concerning, i. 202. + + Savage, Edward, + characteristics of his portrait of Washington, i. 13. + + Savannah, + siege of, i. 247. + + Scammel, Colonel, + amuses Washington, ii. 374. + + Schuyler, Philip, + accompanies Washington to Boston, i. 136; + appointed military head in New York, 136; + directed by Washington how to meet Burgoyne, 204; + fails to carry out directions, 207; + removed, 208; + value of his preparations, 209. + + Scott, Charles, commands expedition against Indians, ii. 95. + + Sea-power, + its necessity seen by Washington, i. 283, 303, 304, 306, 310, 318, 319. + + Sectional feeling, + deplored by Washington, ii. 222. + + Sharpe, Governor, + offers Washington a company, i. 80; + Washington's reply to, 81. + + Shays's Rebellion, + comments of Washington and Jefferson upon, ii. 26, 27. + + Sherman, Roger, + makes sarcastic remark about Wilkinson, i. 220. + + Shirley, Governor William, + adjusts matter of Washington's rank, i. 91, 97. + + Short, William, minister to Holland, + on commission regarding opening of Mississippi, ii. 166. + + Six Nations, + make satisfactory treaties, ii. 88; + stirred up by English, 94; + but pacified, 94, 101. + + Slavery, + in Virginia, i. 20; + its evil effects, 104; + Washington's attitude toward slaves, 105; + his condemnation of the system, 106, 107; + gradual emancipation favored, 107, 108. + + Smith, Colonel, + letter of Washington to, ii. 340. + + Spain, + instigates Indians to hostilities, ii. 89, 94, 101; + blocks Mississippi, 135; + makes treaty with Pinckney opening Mississippi, 167, 168; + angered at Jay treaty, 210. + + Sparks, Jared, + his alterations of Washington's letters, ii. 337, 338. + + Spotswood, Alexander, + asks Washington's opinion of Alien and Sedition Acts, ii. 297. + + Stamp Act, + Washington's opinion of, i. 119, 120. + + Stark, General, + leads attack at Trenton, i. 181. + + States, in the Revolutionary war, + appeals of Washington to, i. 142, 186, 204, 259, 277, 295, 306, 323, + 324, 326, 344; + issue paper money, 258; + grow tired of the war, 290; + alarmed by mutinies, 294; + try to appease soldiers, 295, 296; + their selfishness condemned by Washington, 333; ii. 21, 23; + thwart Indian policy of Congress, 88. + + Stephen, Adam, + late in attacking at Germantown, i. 199. + + Steuben, Baron, + Washington's appreciation of, i. 192, 249; + drills the army at Valley Forge, 232; + annoys Washington by wishing higher command, 249; + sent on mission to demand surrender of Western posts, 343; + his worth recognized by Washington, ii. 334. + + Stirling, Lord, + defeated and captured at Long Island, i. 165. + + Stockton, Mrs., + letter of Washington to, ii. 349. + + Stone, General, + tells stories of Washington's closeness, ii. 353, 354. + + Stuart, David, + letters of Washington to, ii. 107, 221, 222, 258. + + Stuart, Gilbert, + his portrait of Washington contrasted with Savage's, i. 13. + + Sullivan, John, General, + surprised at Long Island, i. 165; + attacks at Trenton, 180; + surprised and crushed at Brandywine, 197, 198; + unites with D'Estaing to attack Newport, 243; + angry at D'Estaing's desertion, 244; + soothed by Washington, 244; + sent against Indians, 266, 269. + + Supreme Court, + appointed by Washington, ii. 72. + + + TAFT,----, + kindness of Washington toward, ii. 367. + + Talleyrand, + eulogistic report to Napoleon on death of Washington, i. 1, note; + remark on Hamilton, ii. 139; + refused reception by Washington, 253. + + Tarleton, Sir Banastre, + tries to escape at Yorktown, i. 317. + + Thatcher, Dr., + on Washington's appearance when taking command of army, i. 137. + + Thomson, Charles, + complimented by Washington on retiring from secretary-ship of + Continental Congress, ii. 350. + + Tories, + hated by Washington, i. 156; + his reasons, 157; + active in New York, 158; + suppressed by Washington, 159; + in Philadelphia, impressed by Continental army, 196; + make raids on frontier, 266; + strong in Southern States, 267; + raids under Tryon, 269. + + Trent, Captain, + his incompetence in dealing with Indians and French, i. 72. + + Trenton, campaign of, i. 180-183. + + Trumbull, Governor, + letter of Washington to, refusing to stand for a third term, + ii. 269-271; + other letters, 298. + + Trumbull, John, + on New England army before Boston, i. 139. + + Trumbull, Jonathan, + his message on better government praised by Washington, ii. 21; + letters to, 42; + Washington's friendship for, 363. + + Tryon, Governor, + Tory leader in New York, i. 143; + his intrigues stopped by Washington, 158, 159; + conspires to murder Washington, 160; + makes raids in Connecticut, 269. + + + VALLEY FORGE, + Continental Army at, i. 228-232. + + Van Braam, Jacob, + friend of Lawrence Washington, trains George in fencing, i. 65; + accompanies him on mission to French, 66. + + Vergennes, + requests release of Asgill, i. 329, 330; + letter of Washington to, 330; + proposes to submit disposition of a subsidy to Washington, 332. + + Virginia, society in, + before the Revolution, i. 15-29; + its entire change since then, 15, 16; + population, distribution, and numbers, 17, 18; + absence of towns, 18; + and town life, 19; + trade and travel in, 19; + social classes, 20-24; + slaves and poor whites, 20; + clergy, 21; + planters and their estates, 22; + their life, 22; + education, 23; + habits of governing, 24; + luxury and extravagance, 25; + apparent wealth, 26; + agreeableness of life, 27; + aristocratic ideals, 28; + vigor of stock, 29; + unwilling to fight French, 71; + quarrels with Dinwiddie, 71; + thanks Washington after his French campaign, 79; + terrified at Braddock's defeat, 88; + gives Washington command, 89; + fails to support him, 89, 90, 93; + bad economic conditions in, 104,105; + local government in, 117; + condemns Stamp Act, 119; + adopts non-importation, 121; + condemns Boston Port Bill, 123; + asks opinion of counties, 124; + chooses delegates to a congress, 127; + prepares for war, 132; + British campaign in, 307, 315-318; + ratifies Constitution, ii. 40; + evil effect of free trade upon, 116, 117; + nullification resolutions, 266; + strength of its aristocracy, 315. + + + WADE, COLONEL, + in command at West Point after Arnold's flight, i. 285. + + Walker, Benjamin, + letter of Washington to, ii. 257. + + Warren, James, + letters of Washington to, i. 262, ii. 118. + + Washington, + ancestry, i. 30-40; + early genealogical researches concerning, 30-32; + pedigree finally established, 32; + origin of family, 33; + various members during middle ages, 34; + on royalist side in English civil war, 34, 36; + character of family, 35; + emigration to Virginia, 35, 36; + career of Washingtons in Maryland, 37; + in Virginia history, 38; + their estates, 39. + + Washington, Augustine, father of George Washington, + birth, i. 35; + death, 39; + character, 39; + his estate, 41; + ridiculous part played by in Weems's anecdotes, 44, 47. + + Washington, Augustine, half brother of George Washington, + keeps him after his father's death, i. 48. + + Washington, Bushrod, + refused appointment as attorney by Washington, ii. 62; + educated by him, 370. + + Washington, George, + honors to his memory in France, i. 1; + in England, 2; + grief in America, 3, 4; + general admission of his greatness, 4; + its significance, 5, 6; + tributes from England, 6; + from other countries, 6, 7; + yet an "unknown" man, 7; + minuteness of knowledge concerning, 8; + has become subject of myths, 9; + development of the Weems myth about, 10, 11; + necessity of a new treatment of, 12; + significant difference of real and ideal portraits of, 13; + his silence regarding himself, 14; + underlying traits, 14. + + _Early Life_. + Ancestry, 30-41; + birth, 39; + origin of Weems's anecdotes about, 41-44; + their absurdity and evil results, 45-48; + early schooling, 48; + plan to send him to sea, 49, 50; + studies to be a surveyor, 51; + his rules of behavior, 52; + his family connections with Fairfaxes, 54, 55; + his friendship with Lord Fairfax, 56; + surveys Fairfax's estate, 57, 58, 59; + made public surveyor, 60; + his life at the time, 60, 61; + influenced by Fairfax's cultivation, 62; + goes to West Indies with his brother, 62; + has the small-pox, 63; + observations on the voyage, 63, 64; + returns to Virginia, 64; + becomes guardian of his brother's daughter, 64. + + _Service against the French and Indians_. + Receives military training, 65; + a military appointment, 66; + goes on expedition to treat with French, 66; + meets Indians, 67; + deals with French, 67; + dangers of journey, 68; + his impersonal account, 69, 70; + appointed to command force against French, 71, 72; + his anger at neglect of Virginia Assembly, 73; + attacks and defeats force of Jumonville, 74; + called murderer by the French, 74; + surrounded by French at Great Meadows, 76; + surrenders, 76; + recklessness of his expedition, 77, 78; + effect of experience upon, 79; + gains a European notoriety, 79; + thanked by Virginia, 79; + protests against Dinwiddie's organization of soldiers, 80; + refuses to serve when ranked by British officers, 81; + accepts position on Braddock's staff, 82; + his treatment there, 82; + advises Braddock, 84; + rebuked for warning against surprise, 85; + his bravery in the battle, 86; + conducts retreat, 86, 87; + effect of experience on him, 87; + declines to solicit command of Virginia troops, 88; + accepts it when offered, 88; + his difficulties with Assembly, 89; + and with troops, 90; + settles question of rank, 91; + writes freely in criticism of government, 91, 92; + retires for rest to Mt. Vernon, 93; + offers services to General Forbes, 93; + irritated at slowness of English, 93, 94; + his love affairs, 95, 96; + journey to Boston, 97-101; + at festivities in New York and Philadelphia, 99; + meets Martha Custis, 101; + his wedding, 101, 102; + elected to House of Burgesses, 102; + confused at being thanked by Assembly, 102; + his local position, 103; + tries to farm his estate, 104; + his management of slaves, 105, 106, 108, 109; + cares for interests of old soldiers, 109; + rebukes a coward, 110; + cares for education of stepson, 111; + his furnishing of house, 112; + hunting habits, 113-115; + punishes a poacher, 116; + participates in colonial and local government, 117; + enters into society, 117, 118. + + _Congressional delegate from Virginia_. + His influence in Assembly, 119; + discusses Stamp Act with Mason, 119; + foresees result to be independence, 119; + rejoices at its repeal, but notes Declaratory Act, 120; + ready to use force to defend colonial rights, 120; + presents non-importation resolutions to Burgesses, 121; + abstains from English products, 121; + notes ominous movements among Indians, 122; + on good terms with royal governors, 122, 123; + observes fast on account of Boston Port Bill, 123; + has controversy with Bryan Fairfax over Parliamentary policy, + 124, 125, 126; + presides at Fairfax County meeting, 126; + declares himself ready for action, 126; + at convention of counties, offers to march to relief of Boston, 127; + elected to Continental Congress, 127; + his journey, 128; + silent in Congress, 129; + writes to a British officer that independence is not + desired, but war is certain, 130, 131; + returns to Virginia, 132; + aids in military preparations, 132; + his opinion after Concord, 133; + at second Continental Congress, wears uniform, 134; + made commander-in-chief, 134; + his modesty and courage in accepting position, 134, 135; + political motives for his choice, 135; + his popularity, 136; + his journey to Boston, 136, 137; + receives news of Bunker Hill, 136; + is received by Massachusetts Provincial Assembly, 137. + + _Commander of the Army_. + Takes command at Cambridge, 137; + his impression upon people, 137, 138, 139; + begins reorganization of army, 139; + secures number of troops, 140; + enforces discipline, his difficulties, 140, 141; + forced to lead Congress, 142; + to arrange rank of officers, 142; + organizes privateers, 142; + discovers lack of powder, 143; + plans campaigns in Canada and elsewhere, 143, 144; + his plans of attack on Boston overruled by council of war, 144; + writes to Gage urging that captives be treated as prisoners of war, + 145; + skill of his letter, 146; + retorts to Gage's reply, 147; + continues dispute with Howe, 148; + annoyed by insufficiency of provisions, 149; + and by desertions, 149; + stops quarrel between Virginia and Marblehead soldiers, 149; + suggests admiralty committees, 150; + annoyed by army contractors, 150; + and criticism, 151; + letter to Joseph Reed, 151; + occupies Dorchester Heights, 152; + begins to like New England men better, 152; + rejoices at prospect of a fight, 153; + departure of British due to his leadership, 154; + sends troops immediately to New York, 155; + enters Boston, 156; + expects a hard war, 156; + urges upon Congress the necessity of preparing for a long struggle, + 156; + his growing hatred of Tories, 156, 157; + goes to New York, 157, 158; + difficulties of the situation, 158; + suppresses Tories, 159; + urges Congress to declare independence, 159, 160; + discovers and punishes a conspiracy to assassinate, 160; + insists on his title in correspondence with Howe, 161; + justice of his position, 162; + quiets sectional jealousies in army, 162; + his military inferiority to British, 163; + obliged by political considerations to attempt defense of New York, + 163, 164; + assumes command on Long Island, 164; + sees defeat of his troops, 165; + sees plan of British fleet to cut off retreat, 166; + secures retreat of army, 167; + explains his policy of avoiding a pitched battle, 167; + anger at flight of militia at Kip's Bay, 168; + again secures safe retreat, 169; + secures slight advantage in a skirmish, 170; + continues to urge Congress to action, 170, 171; + success of his letters in securing a permanent army, 171; + surprised by advance of British fleet, 172; + moves to White Plains, 173; + blocks British advance, 174; + advises abandonment of American forts, 174; + blames himself for their capture, 175; + leads diminishing army through New Jersey, 175; + makes vain appeals for aid, 176; + resolves to take the offensive, 177; + desperateness of his situation, 178; + pledges his estate and private fortune to raise men, 179; + orders disregarded by officers, 180; + crosses Delaware and captures Hessians, 180, 181; + has difficulty in retaining soldiers, 181; + repulses Cornwallis at Assunpink, 181; + outwits Cornwallis and wins battle at Princeton, 182; + excellence of his strategy, 183; + effect of this campaign in saving Revolution, 183, 184; + withdraws to Morristown, 185; + fluctuations in size of army, 186; + his determination to keep the field, 186, 187; + criticised by Congress for not fighting, 187; + hampered by Congressional interference, 188; + issues proclamation requiring oath of allegiance, 188; + attacked in Congress for so doing, 189; + annoyed by Congressional alterations of rank, 189; + and by foreign military adventurers, 191; + value of his services in suppressing them, 192; + his American feelings, 191, 193; + warns Congress in vain that Howe means to attack Philadelphia, 193; + baffles Howe's advance across New Jersey, 195; + learning of his sailing, marches to defend Philadelphia, 195; + offers battle at Brandywine, 196, 197; + out-generaled and beaten, 197; + rallies army and prepares to fight again, 198; + prevented by storm, 199; + attacks British at Germantown, 199; + defeated, 200; + exposes himself in battle, 200; + real success of his action, 201; + despised by English, 202; + foresees danger of Burgoyne's invasion, 203; + sends instructions to Schuyler, 204; + urges use of New England and New York militia, 304; + dreads northern advance of Howe, 205; + determines to hold him at all hazards, 206, 207; + not cast down by loss of Ticonderoga, 207; + urges New England to rise, 208; + sends all possible troops, 208; + refuses to appoint a commander for Northern army, 208; + his probable reasons, 209; + continues to send suggestions, 210; + slighted by Gates after Burgoyne's surrender, 211; + rise of opposition in Congress, 212; + arouses ill-feeling by his frankness, 212, 213; + distrusted by Samuel and John Adams, 214; + by others, 214, 215; + formation of a plan to supplant him by Gates, 215; + opposed by Gates, Mifflin, and Conway, 215, 216; + angers Conway by preventing his increase in rank, 216; + is refused troops by Gates, 217; + defends and loses Delaware forts, 217; + refuses to attack Howe, 218; + propriety of his action, 219; + becomes aware of cabal, 220; + alarms them by showing extent of his knowledge, 221; + attacked bitterly in Congress, 222; + insulted by Gates, 223; + refuses to resign, 224; + refuses to notice cabal publicly, 224; + complains privately of slight support from Pennsylvania, 225; + continues to push Gates for explanations, 226; + regains complete control after collapse of cabal, 226, 227; + withdraws to Valley Forge, 227; + desperation of his situation, 228; + criticised by Pennsylvania legislature for going into winter quarters, + 229; + his bitter reply, 229; + his unbending resolution, 230; + continues to urge improvements in army organization, 231; + manages to hold army together, 232; + sends Lafayette to watch Philadelphia, 233; + determines to fight, 234; + checked by Lee, 234; + pursues Clinton, 235; + orders Lee to attack British rearguard, 235; + discovers his force retreating, 236; + rebukes Lee and punishes him, 236, 237; + takes command and stops retreat, 237; + repulses British and assumes offensive, 238; + success due to his work at Valley Forge, 239; + celebrates French alliance, 241; + has to confront difficulty of managing allies, 241, 242; + welcomes D'Estaing, 243; + obliged to quiet recrimination after Newport failure, 244; + his letter to Sullivan, 244; + to Lafayette, 245; + to D'Estaing, 246; + tact and good effect of his letters, 246; + offers to cooperate in an attack on New York, 247; + furnishes admirable suggestions to D'Estaing, 247; + not dazzled by French, 248; + objects to giving rank to foreign officers, 248, 249; + opposes transfer of Steuben from inspectorship to the line, 249; + his thoroughly American position, 250; + absence of provinciality, 251, 252; + a national leader, 252; + opposes invasion of Canada, 253; + foresees danger of its recapture by France, 254, 255; + his clear understanding of French motives, 255, 256; + rejoices in condition of patriot cause, 257; + foresees ruin to army in financial troubles, 258; + has to appease mutinies among unpaid troops, 258; + appeals to Congress, 259; + urges election of better delegates to Congress, 259; + angry with speculators, 260, 261; + futility of his efforts, 261, 262; + his increasing alarm at social demoralization, 263; + effect of his exertions, 264; + conceals his doubts of the French, 264; + watches New York, 264; + keeps dreading an English campaign, 265; + labors with Congress to form a navy, 266; + plans expedition to chastise Indians, 266; + realizes that things are at a standstill in the North, 267; + sees danger to lie in the South, but determines to remain himself near + New York, 267; + not consulted by Congress in naming general for Southern army, 268; + plans attack on Stony Point, 268; + hatred of ravaging methods of British warfare, 270; + again has great difficulties in winter quarters, 270; + unable to act on offensive in the spring, 270, 272; + unable to help South, 272; + advises abandonment of Charleston, 273; + learns of arrival of French army, 274; + plans a number of enterprises with it, 275, 276; + refuses, even after loss of Charleston, to abandon Hudson, 276; + welcomes Rochambeau, 277; + writes to Congress against too optimistic feelings, 278, 279; + has extreme difficulty in holding army together, 280; + urges French to attack New York, 280; + sends Maryland troops South after Camden, 281; + arranges meeting with Rochambeau at Hartford, 282; + popular enthusiasm over him, 283; + goes to West Point, 284; + surprised at Arnold's absence, 284; + learns of his treachery, 284, 285; + his cool behavior, 285; + his real feelings, 286; + his conduct toward André, 287; + its justice, 287, 288; + his opinion of Arnold, 288, 289; + his responsibility in the general breakdown of the Congress and army, + 290; + obliged to quell food mutinies in army, 291, 292; + difficulty of situation, 292; + his influence the salvation of army, 293; + his greatness best shown in this way, 293; + rebukes Congress, 294; + appoints Greene to command Southern army, 295; + sends Knox to confer with state governors, 296; + secures temporary relief for army, 296; + sees the real defect is in weak government, 296; + urges adoption of Articles of Confederation, 297; + works for improvements in executive, 298,299; + still keeps a Southern movement in mind, 301; + unable to do anything through lack of naval power, 303; + rebukes Lund Washington for entertaining British at Mt. Vernon, 303; + still unable to fight, 304; + tries to frighten Clinton into remaining in New York, 305; + succeeds with aid of Rochambeau, 306; + explains his plan to French and to Congress, 306; + learns of De Grasse's approach, prepares to move South, 306; + writes to De Grasse to meet him in Chesapeake, 308; + fears a premature peace, 308; + pecuniary difficulties, 309; + absolute need of command of sea, 310; + persuades De Barras to join De Grasse, 311; + starts on march for Chesapeake, 311; + hampered by lack of supplies, 312; + and by threat of Congress to reduce army, 313; + passes through Mt. Vernon, 314; + succeeds in persuading De Grasse not to abandon him, 315; + besieges Cornwallis, 315; + sees capture of redoubts, 316; + receives surrender of Cornwallis, 317; + admirable strategy and management of campaign, 318; + his personal influence the cause of success, 318; + especially his use of the fleet, 319; + his management of Cornwallis through Lafayette, 319; + his boldness in transferring army away from New York, 320; + does not lose his head over victory, 321; + urges De Grasse to repeat success against Charleston, 322; + returns north, 322; + saddened by death of Custis, 322; + continues to urge Congress to action, 323; + writes letters to the States, 323; + does not expect English surrender, 324; + urges renewed vigor, 324; + points out that war actually continues, 325; + urges not to give up army until peace is actually secured, 325; + failure of his appeals, 326; + reduced to inactivity, 326; + angered at murder of Huddy, 327; + threatens Carleton with retaliation, 328; + releases Asgill at request of Vergennes and order of Congress, + 329, 330; + disclaims credit, 330; + justification of his behavior, 330; + his tenderness toward the soldiers, 331; + jealousy of Congress toward him, 332; + warns Congress of danger of further neglect of army, 333, 334; + takes control of mutinous movement, 335; + his address to the soldiers, 336; + its effect, 336; + movement among soldiers to make him dictator, 337; + replies to revolutionary proposals, 337; + reality of the danger, 339; + causes for his behaviour, 340, 341; + a friend of strong government, but devoid of personal ambition, 342; + chafes under delay to disband army, 343; + tries to secure Western posts, 343; + makes a journey through New York, 343; + gives Congress excellent but futile advice, 344; + issues circular letter to governors, 344; + and farewell address to army, 345; + enters New York after departure of British, 345; + his farewell to his officers, 345; + adjusts his accounts, 346; + appears before Congress, 347; + French account of his action, 347; + makes speech resigning commission, 348, 349. + + _In Retirement_. + Returns to Mt. Vernon, ii. I; + tries to resume old life, 2; + gives up hunting, 2; + pursued by lion-hunters and artists, 3; + overwhelmed with correspondence, 3; + receives letters from Europe, 4; + from cranks, 4; + from officers, 4; + his share in Society of Cincinnati, 4; + manages his estate, 5; + visits Western lands, 5; + family cares, 5, 6; + continues to have interest in public affairs, 6; + advises Congress regarding peace establishment, 6; + urges acquisition of Western posts, 7; + his broad national views, 7; + alone in realizing future greatness of country, 7, 8; + appreciates importance of the West, 8; + urges development of inland navigation, 9; + asks Jefferson's aid, 9, 10; + lays canal scheme before Virginia legislature, 10; + his arguments, 10; + troubled by offer of stock, 11; + uses it to endow two schools, 12; + significance of his scheme, 12, 13; + his political purposes in binding West to East, 13; + willing to leave Mississippi closed for this purpose, 14, 15, 16; + feels need of firmer union during Revolution, 17; + his arguments, 18, 19; + his influence starts movement for reform, 20; + continues to urge it during retirement, 21; + foresees disasters of confederation, 21; + urges impost scheme, 22; + condemns action of States, 22, 23, 25; + favours commercial agreement between Maryland and Virginia, 23; + stung by contempt of foreign powers, 24; + his arguments for a national government, 24; + points out designs of England, 25; + works against paper money craze in States, 26; + his opinion of Shays's rebellion, 26; + his position contrasted with Jefferson's, 27; + influence of his letters, 28, 29; + shrinks from participating in Federal convention, 29; + elected unanimously, 30; + refuses to go to a feeble convention, 30, 31; + finally makes up his mind, 31. + + _In the Federal Convention_. + Speech attributed to Washington by Morris on duties of delegates, + 31, 32; + chosen to preside, 33; + takes no part in debate, 34; + his influence in convention, 34, 35; + despairs of success, 35; + signs the Constitution, 36; + words attributed to him, 36; + silent as to his thoughts, 36, 37; + sees clearly danger of failure to ratify, 37; + tries at first to act indifferently, 38; + begins to work for ratification, 38; + writes letters to various people, 38, 39; + circulates copies of "Federalist," 40; + saves ratification in Virginia, 40; + urges election of Federalists to Congress, 41; + receives general request to accept presidency, 41; + his objections, 41, 42; + dreads failure and responsibility, 42; + elected, 42; + his journey to New York, 42-46; + speech at Alexandria, 43; + popular reception at all points, 44, 45; + his feelings, 46; + his inauguration, 46. + + _President_. + His speech to Congress, 48; + urges no specific policy, 48, 49; + his solemn feelings, 49; + his sober view of necessities of situation, 50; + question of his title, 52; + arranges to communicate with Senate by writing, 52, 53; + discusses social etiquette, 53; + takes middle ground, 54; + wisdom of his action, 55; + criticisms by Democrats, 55, 56; + accused of monarchical leanings, 56, 57; + familiarizes himself with work already accomplished under + Confederation, 58; + his business habits, 58; + refuses special privileges to French minister, 59, 60; + skill of his reply, 60, 61; + solicited for office, 61; + his views on appointment, 62; + favors friends of Constitution and old soldiers, 62; + success of his appointments, 63; + selects a cabinet, 64; + his regard for Knox 65; + for Morris, 66; + his skill in choosing, 66; + his appreciation of Hamilton, 67; + his grounds for choosing Jefferson, 68; + his contrast with Jefferson, 69; + his choice a mistake in policy, 70; + his partisan characteristics, 70, 71; + excludes anti-Federalists, 71; + nominates justices of Supreme Court, 72; + their party character, 73; + illness, 73; + visits the Eastern States, 73; + his reasons, 74; + stirs popular enthusiasm, 74; + snubbed by Hancock in Massachusetts, 75; + accepts Hancock's apology, 75; + importance of his action, 76; + success of journey, 76; + opens Congress, 78, 79; + his speech and its recommendations, 81; + how far carried out, 81-83; + national character of the speech, 83; + his fitness to deal with Indians, 87; + his policy, 88; + appoints commission to treat with Creeks, 90; + ascribes its failure to Spanish intrigue, 90; + succeeds by a personal interview in making treaty, 91; + wisdom of his policy, 92; + orders an expedition against Western Indians, 93; + angered at its failure, 94; + and at conduct of frontiersmen, 94; + prepares St. Clair's expedition, 95; + warns against ambush, 95; + hopes for decisive results, 97; + learns of St. Clair's defeat, 97; + his self-control, 97; + his outburst of anger against St. Clair, 97, 98; + masters his feelings, 98; + treats St. Clair kindly, 99; + determines on a second campaign, 100; + selects Wayne and other officers, 100; + tries to secure peace with tribes, 101; + efforts prevented by English influence, 101, 102; + and in South by conduct of Georgia, 103; + general results of his Indian policy, 104; + popular misunderstandings and criticism, 104, 105; + favors assumption of state debts by the government, 107, 108; + satisfied with bargain between Hamilton and Jefferson, 108; + his respectful attitude toward Constitution, 109; + asks opinions of cabinet on constitutionality of bank, 110; + signs bill creating it, 110; + reasons for his decision, 111; + supports Hamilton's financial policy, 112; + supports Hamilton's views on protection, 115, 116; + appreciates evil economic condition of Virginia, 116, 117; + sees necessity for self-sufficient industries in war time, 117; + urges protection, 118, 119, 120; + his purpose to build up national feeling, 121; + approves national excise tax, 122, 123; + does not realize unpopularity of method, 123; + ready to modify but insists on obedience, 124, 125; + issues proclamation against rioters, 125; + since Pennsylvania frontier continues rebellious, issues second + proclamation threatening to use force, 127; + calls out the militia, 127; + his advice to leaders and troops, 128; + importance of Washington's firmness, 129; + his good judgment and patience, 130; + decides success of the central authority, 130; + early advocacy of separation of United States from European politics, + 133; + studies situation, 134, 135; + sees importance of binding West with Eastern States, 135; + sees necessity of good relations with England, 137; + authorizes Morris to sound England as to exchange of ministers and a + commercial treaty, 137; + not disturbed by British bad manners, 138; + succeeds in establishing diplomatic relations, 138; + early foresees danger of excess in French Revolution, 139, 140; + states a policy of strict neutrality, 140, 142, 143; + difficulties of his situation, 142; + objects to action of National Assembly on tobacco and oil, 144; + denies reported request by United States that England mediate with + Indians, 145; + announces neutrality in case of a European war, 146; + instructs cabinet to prepare a neutrality proclamation, 147; + importance of this step not understood at time, 148, 149; + foresees coming difficulties, 149, 150; + acts cautiously toward _émigrés_, 151; + contrast with Genet, 152; + greets him coldly, 152; + orders steps taken to prevent violations of neutrality, 153, 154; + retires to Mt. Vernon for rest, 154; + on returning finds Jefferson has allowed Little Sarah to escape, 156; + writes a sharp note to Jefferson, 156; + anger at escape, 157; + takes matters out of Jefferson's hands, 157; + determines on asking recall of Genet, 158; + revokes exequatur of Duplaine, French consul, 159; + insulted by Genet, 159, 160; + refuses to deny Jay's card, 160; + upheld by popular feeling, 160; + his annoyance at the episode, 160; + obliged to teach American people self-respect, 162, 163; + deals with troubles incited by Genet in the West, 162, 163; + sympathizes with frontiersmen, 163; + comprehends value of Mississippi, 164, 165; + sends a commission to Madrid to negotiate about free navigation, 166; + later sends Thomas Pinckney, 166; + despairs of success, 166; + apparent conflict between French treaties and neutrality, 169, 170; + value of Washington's policy to England, 171; + in spite of England's attitude, intends to keep peace, 177; + wishes to send Hamilton as envoy, 177; + after his refusal appoints Jay, 177; + fears that England intends war, 178; + determines to be prepared, 178; + urges upon Jay the absolute necessity of England's giving up Western + posts, 179; + dissatisfied with Jay treaty but willing to sign it, 184; + in doubt as to meaning of conditional ratification, 184; + protests against English "provision order" and refuses signature, 185; + meets uproar against treaty alone, 188; + determines to sign, 189; + answers resolutions of Boston town meeting, 190; + refuses to abandon his judgment to popular outcry, 190; + distinguishes temporary from permanent feeling, 191; + fears effect of excitement upon French government, 192; + his view of dangers of situation, 193, 194; + recalled to Philadelphia by cabinet, 195; + receives intercepted correspondence of Fauchet, 195, 196; + his course of action already determined, 197, 198; + not influenced by the Fauchet letter, 198; + evidence of this, 199, 200; + reasons for ratifying before showing letter to Randolph, 199, 200; + signs treaty, 201; + evidence that he did not sacrifice Randolph, 201, 202; + fairness of his action, 203; + refuses to reply to Randolph's attack, 204; + reasons for signing treaty, 205; + justified in course of time, 206; + refuses on constitutional grounds the call of representatives for + documents, 208; + insists on independence of treaty-making by executive and Senate, 209; + overcomes hostile majority in House, 210; + wishes Madison to succeed Morris at Paris, 211; + appoints Monroe, 216; + his mistake in not appointing a political supporter, 212; + disgusted at Monroe's behavior, 213, 214; + recalls Monroe and appoints C.C. Pinckney, 214; + angered at French policy, 214; + his contempt for Monroe's self-justification, 215, 216; + review of foreign policy, 216-219; + his guiding principle national independence, 216; + and abstention from European politics, 217; + desires peace and time for growth, 217, 218; + wishes development of the West, 218, 219; + wisdom of his policy, 219; + considers parties dangerous, 220; + but chooses cabinet from Federalists, 220; + prepared to undergo criticism, 221; + willingness to bear it, 221; + desires to learn public feeling, by travels, 221, 222; + feels that body of people will support national government, 222; + sees and deplores sectional feelings in the South, 222, 223; + objects to utterances of newspapers, 223; + attacked by "National Gazette," 227; + receives attacks on Hamilton from Jefferson and his friends, 228, 229; + sends charges to Hamilton, 229; + made anxious by signs of party division, 229; + urges both Hamilton and Jefferson to cease quarrel, 230, 231; + dreads an open division in cabinet, 232; + desirous to rule without party, 233; + accomplishes feat of keeping both secretaries in cabinet, 233; + keeps confidence in Hamilton, 234; + urged by all parties to accept presidency again, 235; + willing to be reelected, 235; + pleased at unanimous vote, 235; + his early immunity from attacks, 237; + later attacked by Freneau and Bache, 238; + regards opposition as dangerous to country, 239; + asserts his intention to disregard them, 240; + his success in Genet affair, 241; + disgusted at "democratic" societies, 242; + thinks they fomented Whiskey Rebellion, 242; + denounces them to Congress, 243; + effect of his remarks, 244; + accused of tyranny after Jay treaty, 244; + of embezzlement, 245; + of aristocracy, 245; + realizes that he must compose cabinet of sympathizers, 246; + reconstructs it, 246; + states determination to govern by party, 247; + slighted by House, 247; + refuses a third term, 248; + publishes Farewell Address, 248; + his justification for so doing, 248; + his wise advice, 249; + address Attacked by Democrats, 250, 251; + assailed in Congress by Giles, 251; + resents charge of being a British sympathizer, 252; + his scrupulously fair conduct toward France, 253; + his resentment at English policy, 254; + his retirement celebrated by the opposition, 255; + remarks of the "Aurora," 256; + forged letters of British circulated, 257; + he repudiates them, 257; + his view of opposition, 259. + + _In Retirement_. + Regards Adams's administration as continuation of his own, 259; + understands Jefferson's attitude, 259; + wishes generals of provisional army to be Federalist, 260; + doubts fidelity of opposition as soldiers, 260; + dreads their poisoning mind of army, 261; + his condemnation of Democrats, 261, 262; + snubs Dr. Logan for assuming an unofficial mission to France, 263-265; + alarmed at Virginia and Kentucky resolutions, 266; + urges Henry to oppose Virginia resolutions, 267; + condemns the French party as unpatriotic, 267; + refuses request to stand again for presidency, 269; + comments on partisanship of Democrats, 269; + believes that he would be no better candidate than any other + Federalist, 270, 271; + error of statement that Washington was not a party man, 271, 272; + slow to relinquish non-partisan position, 272; + not the man to shrink from declaring his position, 273; + becomes a member of Federalist party, 273, 274; + eager for end of term of office, 275; + his farewell dinner, 275; + at Adams's inauguration, 276; + popular enthusiasm at Philadelphia, 276; + at Baltimore, 277; + returns to Mt. Vernon, 279; + describes his farm life, 278, 279; + burdened by necessities of hospitality, 280; + account of his meeting with Bernard, 281-283; + continued interest in politics, 284; + accepts command of provisional army, 285; + selects Hamilton, Pinckney, and Knox as major-generals, 286; + surprised at Adams's objection to Hamilton, 286; + rebukes Adams for altering order of rank of generals, 286, 287; + not influenced by intrigue, 287; + annoyed by Adams's conduct, 288; + tries to soothe Knox's irritation, 289; + fails to pacify him, 289; + carries out organization of army, 290; + does not expect actual war, 291; + disapproves of Gerry's conduct, 292; + disapproves of Adams's nomination of Vans Murray, 292; + his dread of French Revolution, 295; + distrusts Adams's attempts at peace, 296; + approves Alien and Sedition laws, 296; + his defense of them, 297; + distressed by dissensions among Federalists, 298; + predicts their defeat, 298; + his sudden illness, 299-302; + death, 303. + + _Character_, + misunderstood, 304; + extravagantly praised, 304; + disliked on account of being called faultless, 305; + bitterly attacked in lifetime, 306; + sneered at by Jefferson, 306; + by Pickering, 307; + called an Englishman, not an American, 307, 308; + difference of his type from that of Lincoln, 310; + none the less American, 311, 312; + compared with Hampden, 312; + his manners those of the times elsewhere in America, 314; + aristocratic, but of a non-English type, 314-316; + less affected by Southern limitations than his neighbors, 316; + early dislike of New England changed to respect, 316, 317; + friendly with people of humble origin, 317, 318; + never an enemy of democracy, 318; + but opposes French excesses, 318; + his self-directed and American training, 319, 320; + early conception of a nation, 321; + works toward national government during Revolution, 321; + his interest in Western expansion, 321, 322; + national character of his Indian policy, 322; + of his desire to secure free Mississippi navigation, 322; + of his opposition to war as a danger to Union, 323; + his anger at accusation of foreign subservience, 323; + continually asserts necessity for independent American policy, + 324, 325; + opposes foreign educational influences, 325, 326; + favors foundation of a national university, 326; + breadth and strength of his national feeling, 327; + absence of boastfulness about country, 328; + faith in it, 328; + charge that he was merely a figure-head, 329; + its injustice, 330; + charged with commonplaceness of intellect, 330; + incident of the deathbed explained, 330, 331; + falsity of the charge, 331; + inability of mere moral qualities to achieve what he did, 331; + charged with dullness and coldness, 332; + his seriousness, 333; + responsibility from early youth, 333; + his habits of keen observation, 333; + power of judging men, 334; + ability to use them for what they were worth, 335; + anecdote of advice to Hamilton and Meade, 335; + deceived only by Arnold, 336; + imperfect education, 337; + continual efforts to improve it, 337, 338; + modest regarding his literary ability, 339, 340; + interested in education, 339; + character of his writing, 340; + tastes in reading, 341; + modest but effective in conversation, 342; + his manner and interest described by Bernard, 343-347; + attractiveness of the picture, 347, 348; + his pleasure in society, 348; + power of paying compliments, letter to Mrs. Stockton, 349; + to Charles Thompson, 350; + to De Chastellux, 351; + his warmth of heart, 352; + extreme exactness in pecuniary matters, 352; + illustrative anecdotes, 353,354; + favorable opinion of teller of anecdotes, 356; + stern towards dishonesty or cowardice, 357; + treatment of André and Asgill, 357, 358; + sensitive to human suffering, 357, 358; + kind and courteous to poor, 359; + conversation with Cleaveland, 359; + sense of dignity in public office, 360; + hospitality at Mt. Vernon, 360, 361; + his intimate friendships, 361,362; + relations with Hamilton, Knox, Mason, Henry Lee, Craik, 362, 363; + the officers of the army, 363; + Trumbull, Robert and Gouverneur Morris, 363; + regard for and courtesy toward Franklin, 364; + love for Lafayette, 365; + care for his family, 366; + lasting regard for Fairfaxes, 366, 367; + kindness to Taft family, 367, 368; + destroys correspondence with his wife, 368; + their devoted relationship, 368; + care for his step-children and relatives, 369, 370; + charged with lack of humor, 371; + but never made himself ridiculous, 372; + not joyous in temperament, 372; + but had keen pleasure in sport, 373; + enjoyed a joke, even during Revolution, 374; + appreciates wit, 375; + writes a humorous letter, 376-378; + not devoid of worldly wisdom, 378, 379; + enjoys cards, dancing, the theatre, 380; + loves horses, 380; + thorough in small affairs as well as great, 381; + controversy over site of church, 381; + his careful domestic economy, 382; + love of method, 383; + of excellence in dress and furniture, 383, 384; + gives dignity to American cause, 385; + his personal appearance, 385; + statements of Houdon, 386; + of Ackerson, 386, 387; + his tremendous muscular strength, 388; + great personal impressiveness, 389, 390; + lacking in imagination, 391; + strong passions, 391; + fierce temper, 392; + anecdotes of outbreaks, 392; + his absence of self-love, 393; + confident in judgment of posterity, 393; + religious faith, 394; + summary and conclusion, 394, 395. + + _Characteristics of_. + General view, ii. 304-395; + general admiration for, i. 1-7; + myths about, i. 9-12, ii. 307 ff.; + comparisons with Jefferson, ii. 69; + with Lincoln, ii. 310-312; + with Hampden, ii. 312, 313; + absence of self-seeking, i. 341; + affectionateness, i. 111, 285,331,345, ii. 332, 362-371; + agreeableness, ii. 344-347, 377; + Americanism, ii. 307-328; + aristocratic habits, ii. 314, 316; + business ability, i. 105, 109, ii. 5, 352, 382; + coldness on occasion, i. 223, 224, 263, ii. 318; + courage, i. 77, 78, 86, 127, 168, 292; + dignity, i. 81,161, ii. 52-57, 76; + hospitality, ii. 360; + impressiveness, i. 56, 83, 130, 138, 319, ii. 385; + indomitableness, i. 177, 181, 227; + judgments of men, i. 295, ii. 64, 86, 334, 335; + justice and sternness, i. 287, 330, ii. 203, 352-358, 389; + kindliness, ii. 349-356, 359; + lack of education, i. 62, ii. 337; + love of reading, i. 62, ii. 341, 342; + love of sport, i. 56, 98, 113-116, 118, ii. 380; + manners, ii. 282-283, 314; + military ability, i. 154, 166, 174, 183, 197, 204, 207, 239, 247, + 265, 267, 305-320, ii. 331; + modesty, i. 102, 134; + not a figure-head, ii. 329, 330; + not a prig, i. 10-12, 41-47; + not cold and inhuman, ii. 332, 342; + not dull or commonplace, ii. 330, 332; + not superhuman and distant, i. 9, 10, 12, ii. 304, 305; + open-mindedness, ii. 317; + passionateness, i. 58, 73, 90; + personal appearance, i. 57, 136, 137, ii. 282, 343, 385-389; + religious views, i. 321, ii. 393; + romantic traits, i. 95-97; + sense of humor, ii. 371-377; + silence regarding self, i. 14, 69, 70, 116, 129, 285; ii. 37, 336; + simplicity, i. 59, 69, 348; ii. 50, 340; + sobriety, i. 49, 52, 134; ii. 43, 45, 333, 373; + tact, i. 162, 243, 244-246; + temper, i. 73, 92, 110, 168, 236, 237, 260; ii. 98, 392; + thoroughness, i. 112, 323, 341, ii. 381. + + _Political Opinions_. + On Alien and Sedition Acts, ii. 196; + American nationality, i. 191, 250, 251, 255, 262, 279, ii. 7, 61, + 133, 145, 324, 325, 327, 328; + Articles of Confederation, i. 297, ii. 17, 24; + bank, ii. 110, 111; + colonial rights, i. 120, 124-126, 130; + Constitution, i. 38-41; + democracy, ii. 317-319; + Democratic party, ii. 214, 239, 240, 258, 261, 267, 268; + disunion, ii. 22; + duties of the executive, ii. 190; + education, ii. 81, 326, 330; + Federalist party, ii. 71, 246, 247, 259, 260, 261, 269-274, 298; + finance, ii. 107, 108, 112, 122; + foreign relations, ii. 25, 134, 142, 145, 147, 179, 217-219, 323; + French Revolution, ii. 139, 140, 295, 318; + independence of colonies, i. 131, 159, 160; + Indian policy, ii. 82, 87, 88, 91, 92, 104, 105; + Jay treaty, ii. 184-205; + judiciary, i. 150; + nominations to office, ii. 62; + party, ii. 70, 222, 233, 249; + protection, ii. 116-122; + slavery, i. 106-108; + Stamp Act, i. 119; + strong government, i. 298, ii. 18, 24, 129, 130; + treaty power, ii. 190, 207-210; + Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, ii. 266, 267; + Western expansion, ii. 6, 8-16, 135, 163-165, 218, 322. + + Washington, George Steptoe, + his sons educated by Washington, ii. 370. + + Washington, John, brother of George, + letter of Washington, to, i. 132. + + Washington, Lawrence, brother of George Washington, + educated in England, i. 54; + has military career, 54; + returns to Virginia and builds Mt. Vernon, 54; + marries into Fairfax family, 54, 55; + goes to West Indies for his health, 62; + dies, leaving George guardian of his daughter, 64; + chief manager of Ohio Company, 65; + gives George military education, 65. + + Washington, Lund, + letter of Washington to, i. 152; + rebuked by Washington for entertaining British, ii. 303. + + Washington, Martha, widow of Daniel P. Custis, + meets Washington, i. 101; + courtship of, and marriage, 101, 102; + hunts with her husband, 114; + joins him at Boston, 151; + holds levees as wife of President, ii. 54; + during his last illness, 300; + her correspondence destroyed, 368; + her relations with her husband, 368, 369. + + Washington, Mary, + married to Augustine Washington, i. 39; + mother of George Washington, 39; + limited education but strong character, 40, 41; + wishes George to earn a living, 49; + opposes his going to sea, 49; + letters to, 88; + visited by her son, ii. 5. + + Waters, Henry E., + establishes Washington pedigree, i. 32. + + Wayne, Anthony, + defeated after Brandywine, i. 198; + his opinion of Germantown, 199; + at Monmouth urges Washington to come, 235; + ready to attack Stony Point, 268; + his successful exploit, 269; + joins Lafayette in Virginia, 307; + appointed to command against Indians, ii. 100; + his character, 100; + organizes his force, 101; + his march, 102; + defeats the Indians, 103. + + Weems, Mason L., + influence of his life of Washington on popular opinion, i. 10; + originates idea of his priggishness, 11; + his character, 41, 43; + character of his book, 42; + his mythical "rectorate" of Mt. Vernon, 43, 44; + invents anecdotes of Washington's childhood, 44; + folly of cherry-tree and other stories, 46; + their evil influence, 47. + + West, the, + its importance realized by Washington, ii. 7-16; + his influence counteracted by inertia of Congress, 8; + forwards inland navigation, 9; + desires to bind East to West, 9-11, 14; + formation of companies, 11-13; + on Mississippi navigation, 14-16, 164; + projects of Genet in, 162; + its attitude understood by Washington, 163, 164; + Washington wishes peace in order to develop it, 218, 219, 321. + + "Whiskey Rebellion," + passage of excise law, ii. 123; + outbreaks of violence in Pennsylvania and North Carolina, 124; + proclamation issued warning rioters to desist, 125; + renewed outbreaks in Pennsylvania, 125, 126; + the militia called out, 127; + suppression of the insurrection, 128; + real danger of movement, 129; + its suppression emphasizes national authority, 129, 130; + supposed by Washington to have been stirred up by Democratic clubs, + 242. + + White Plains, + battle at, i. 173. + + Wilkinson, James, + brings Gates's message to Washington at Trenton, i. 180; + brings news of Saratoga to Congress, 220; + nettled at Sherman's sarcasm, discloses Conway cabal, 220; + quarrels with Gates, 223; + resigns from board of war, 223, 226; + leads expedition against Indians, ii. 95. + + Willett, Colonel, + commissioner to Creeks, his success, ii. 91. + + William and Mary College, + Washington Chancellor of, ii. 339. + + Williams, + Washington's teacher, i. 48, 51. + + Willis, Lewis, + story of Washington's school days, i. 95. + + Wilson, James, + appointed to Supreme Court, ii. 72. + + Wilson, James, "of England," + hunts with Washington, i. 115. + + Wolcott, Oliver, + receives Fauchet letter, ii. 195; + succeeds Hamilton as Secretary of Treasury, 246. + + Wooster, Mrs., + letter of Washington to, ii. 61. + + + YORKTOWN, + siege of, i. 315-318. + + "Young Man's Companion," + used by George Washington, origin of his rules of conduct, i. 52. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's George Washington, Vol. II, by Henry Cabot Lodge + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GEORGE WASHINGTON, VOL. 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II</title> +<style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[*/ + + <!-- + body {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + p {text-align: justify;} + blockquote {text-align: justify;} + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5 {text-align: center;} + h6 {text-align: left;} + pre {font-size: 0.7em;} + + hr {text-align: center; width: 50%;} + html>body hr {margin-right: 25%; margin-left: 25%; width: 50%;} + hr.full {width: 100%;} + html>body hr.full {margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 0%; width: 100%;} + hr.short {text-align: center; width: 20%;} + html>body hr.short {margin-right: 40%; margin-left: 40%; width: 20%;} + + .note + {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + + span.pagenum + {position: absolute; left: 1%; right: 91%; font-size: 8pt;} + + .poem + {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; margin-bottom: 1em; text-align: left;} + .poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .poem p {margin: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem p.i2 {margin-left: 1em;} + .poem p.i4 {margin-left: 2em;} + .poem p.i6 {margin-left: 3em;} + .poem p.i8 {margin-left: 4em;} + .poem p.i10 {margin-left: 5em;} + .index { margin-left: 5%; font-size: 10pt; margin-bottom: 1em; text-align: left;} + .index .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .index p {margin: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .index p.i2 {margin-left: 1em;} + .index p.i4 {margin-left: 2em;} + + .figure, .figcenter, .figright, .figleft + {padding: 1em; margin: 0; text-align: center; font-size: 0.8em;} + .figure img, .figcenter img, .figright img, .figleft img + {border: none;} + .figure p, .figcenter p, .figright p, .figleft p + {margin: 0; text-indent: 1em;} + .figcenter {margin: auto;} + .figright {float: right;} + .figleft {float: left;} + + .footnote_ORIGINAL {font-size: 0.9em; margin-right: 10%; margin-left: 10%;} + .footnote {font-size: 0.85em; + margin-right: 3%; + margin-left: 3%;} + + .side { float:right; + font-size: 75%; + width: 25%; + padding-left:10px; + border-left: dashed thin; + margin-left: 10px; + text-align: left; + text-indent: 0; + font-weight: bold; + font-style: italic;} + --> +/*]]>*/ +</style> +</head> + +<body> + + +<pre> + +Project Gutenberg's George Washington, Vol. II, by Henry Cabot Lodge + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: George Washington, Vol. II + +Author: Henry Cabot Lodge + +Release Date: June 19, 2004 [EBook #12653] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GEORGE WASHINGTON, VOL. II *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Tim Koeller and PG Distributed +Proofreaders + + + + + + +</pre> + + <p> </p> + + <h5>American Statesmen</h5> + <hr /> + + <h1>GEORGE WASHINGTON</h1> + + <h4>In Two Volumes</h4> + + <h3>VOL. II.</h3> + + <h4>By</h4> + + <h3>HENRY CABOT LODGE</h3> + + <h4>1899</h4> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"> + <a href="images/illus0455.jpg"><img width="100%" src= + "images/illus0455.jpg" alt="MARTHA WASHINGTON" /></a><br /> + <i>Frontispiece I</i>.<br /> + MARTHA WASHINGTON + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"> + <a href="images/illus0457.jpg"><img width="100%" src= + "images/illus0457.jpg" alt="Mount Vernon" /></a><br /> + <i>Frontispiece II</i>.<br /> + Mount Vernon + </div> + <hr /> + + <h2>Table of Contents</h2> + + <p><a href="#I">Chapter I</a> — WORKING FOR + UNION</p> + + <p><a href="#II">Chapter II</a> — STARTING THE + GOVERNMENT</p> + + <p><a href="#III">Chapter III</a> — DOMESTIC + AFFAIRS</p> + + <p><a href="#IV">Chapter IV</a> — FOREIGN + RELATIONS</p> + + <p><a href="#V">Chapter V</a> — WASHINGTON AS A + PARTY MAN</p> + + <p><a href="#VI">Chapter VI</a> — THE LAST + YEARS</p> + + <p><a href="#VII">Chapter VII</a> — GEORGE + WASHINGTON</p> + + <p><a href="#INDEX">INDEX</a></p> + <hr /> + + <h2>List of Illustrations</h2> + + <p><a href="images/illus0455.jpg">MARTHA WASHINGTON</a></p> + + <p>From the painting by Gilbert Stuart in the Museum of Fine + Arts, Boston. This painting is owned by the Boston Athenæum + and is known as the Athenæum portrait.</p> + + <p>Autograph from letter written from Valley Forge, March 7, + 1778, now in the possession of Hon. Winslow Warren.</p> + + <p><a href="images/illus0457.jpg">VIGNETTE of MOUNT + VERNON.</a></p> + + <p>From a photograph.</p> + + <p><a href="images/illus0459.jpg">WASHINGTON RESIGNING HIS + COMMISSION AT ANNAPOLIS</a></p> + + <p>From the original painting by Trumbull in the Art Gallery of + Yale University.</p> + + <p><a href="images/illus0461.jpg">LAFAYETTE</a></p> + + <p>From a contemporary French folio engraving in the Emmet + collection, New York Public Library, Lenox Building.</p> + + <p><a href="images/illus0463.jpg">HENRY KNOX</a></p> + + <p>From the original portrait by Gilbert Stuart in the Museum of + Fine Arts, Boston.</p> + + <p>Autograph from Winsor's "America."</p> + + <p><a href="images/illus0465.jpg">NATHANAEL GREENE</a></p> + + <p>From the original painting by C.W. Peale, by kind permission + of its present owner, Mrs. Wm. Brenton Greene, Jr., Princeton, + N.J.</p> + + <p>Autograph from Winsor's "America."</p> + + <p> </p> + <hr /> + + <h2>GEORGE WASHINGTON</h2> + + <h2><a name="I" id="I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2> + + <h2>WORKING FOR UNION</h2> + + <p>Having resigned his commission, Washington stood not upon the + order of his going, but went at once to Virginia, and reached + Mount Vernon the next day, in season to enjoy the Christmas-tide + at home. It was with a deep sigh of relief that he sat himself + down again by his own fireside, for all through the war the one + longing that never left his mind was for the banks of the + Potomac. He loved home after the fashion of his race, but with + more than common intensity, and the country life was dear to him + in all its phases. He liked its quiet occupations and wholesome + sports, and, like most strong and simple natures, he loved above + all an open-air existence. He felt that he had earned his rest, + with all the temperate pleasures and employments which came with + it, and he fondly believed that he was about to renew the habits + which he had abandoned for eight weary years. Four days after his + return he wrote to Governor Clinton: "The scene is at last + closed. I feel myself eased of a load of public care. I hope to + spend the remainder of my days in cultivating the affections of + good men and in the practice of the domestic virtues." That the + hope was sincere we may well suppose, but that it was more than a + hope may be doubted. It was a wish, not a belief, for Washington + must have felt that there was still work which he would surely be + called to do. Still for the present the old life was there, and + he threw himself into it with eager zest, though age and care put + some of the former habits aside. He resumed his hunting, and + Lafayette sent him a pack of splendid French wolf-hounds. But + they proved somewhat fierce and unmanageable, and were given up, + and after that the following of the hounds was never resumed. In + other respects there was little change. The work of the + plantation and the affairs of the estate, much disordered by his + absence, once more took shape and moved on successfully under the + owner's eye. There were, as of old, the long days in the saddle, + the open house and generous hospitality, the quiet evenings, and + the thousand and one simple labors and enjoyments of rural life. + But with all this were the newer and deeper cares, born of the + change which had been wrought in the destiny of the country. The + past broke in and could not be pushed aside, the future knocked + at the door and demanded an answer to its questionings.</p> + + <p>He had left home a distinguished Virginian; he returned one of + the most famous men in the world, and such celebrity brought its + usual penalties. Every foreigner of any position who came to the + country made a pilgrimage to Mount Vernon, and many Americans did + the same. Their coming was not allowed to alter the mode of life, + but they were all hospitably received, and they consumed many + hours of their host's precious time. Then there were the artists + and sculptors, who came to paint his portrait or model his bust. + "<i>In for a penny, in for a pound</i> is an old adage," he wrote + to Hopkinson in 1785. "I am so hackneyed to the touches of + painters' pencils that I am now altogether at their beck, and sit + 'like patience on a monument,' whilst they are delineating the + lines of my face. It is a proof, among many others, of what habit + and custom can accomplish." Then there were the people who + desired to write his memoirs, and the historians who wished to + have his reminiscences, in their accounts of the Revolution. Some + of these inquiring and admiring souls came in person, while + others assailed him by letter and added to the vast flood of + correspondence which poured in upon him by every post. His + correspondence, in fact, in the needless part of it, was the most + formidable waste of his time. He seems to have formed no correct + idea of his own fame and what it meant, for he did not have a + secretary until he found not only that he could not arrange his + immense mass of papers, but that he could not even keep up with + his daily letters. His correspondence came from all parts of his + own country, and of Europe as well. The French officers who had + been his companions in arms wrote him with affectionate interest, + and he was urged by them, one and all, and even by the king and + queen, to visit France. These were letters which he was only too + happy to answer, and he would fain have crossed the water in + response to their kindly invitation; but he professed himself too + old, which was a mere excuse, and objected his ignorance of the + language, which to a man of his temperament was a real obstacle. + Besides these letters of friendship, there were the schemers + everywhere who sought his counsel and assistance. The notorious + Lady Huntington, for example, pursued him with her project of + Christianizing the Indians by means of a missionary colony in our + western region, and her persistent ladyship cost him a good deal + of time and thought, and some long and careful letters. Then + there was the inventor Kumsey, with his steamboat, to which he + gave careful attention, as he did to everything that seemed to + have merit. Another class of correspondents were his officers, + who wanted his aid with Congress and in a thousand other ways, + and to these old comrades he never turned a deaf ear. In this + connection also came the affairs of the Society of the + Cincinnati. He took an active part in the formation of the + society, became its head, steered it through its early + difficulties, and finally saved it from the wreck with which it + was threatened by unreasoning popular prejudice. All these things + were successfully managed, but at much expense of time and + thought.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"> + <a href="images/illus0459.jpg"><img width="100%" src= + "images/illus0459.jpg" alt= + "WASHINGTON RESIGNING HIS COMMISSION AT ANNAPOLIS" /></a> + WASHINGTON RESIGNING HIS COMMISSION AT ANNAPOLIS + </div> + + <p>Then again, apart from this mass of labor thrust upon him by + outsiders, there were his own concerns. His personal affairs + required looking after, and he regulated accounts, an elaborate + business always with him, put his farms in order, corresponded + with his merchants in England, and introduced agricultural + improvements, which always interested him deeply. He had large + investments in land, of which from boyhood he had been a bold and + sagacious purchaser. These investments had been neglected and + needed his personal inspection; so in September, 1784, he mounted + his horse, and with a companion and a servant rode away to the + western country to look after his property. He camped out, as in + the early days, and heartily enjoyed it, although reports that + the Indians were moving in a restless and menacing manner + shortened his trip, and prevented his penetrating beyond his + settled lands to the wild tracts which he owned to the westward. + Still he managed to ride some six hundred and eighty miles and + get a good taste of that wild life which he never ceased to love, + besides gathering a stock of information on many points of deeper + and wider interest than his own property.</p> + + <p>In the midst of all these employments, too, he attended + closely to his domestic duties. At frequent intervals he + journeyed to Fredericksburg to visit his mother, who still lived, + and to whom he was always a dutiful and affectionate son. He + watched over Mrs. Washington's grandchildren, and two or three + nephews of his own, whose education he had undertaken, with all + the solicitude of a father, and at the expense again of much + thought and many wise letters of instruction and advice.</p> + + <p>Even from this brief list it is possible to gain some idea of + the occupations which filled Washington's time, and the only + wonder is that he dealt with them so easily and effectively. Yet + the greatest and most important work, that which most deeply + absorbed his mind, and which affected the whole country, still + remains to be described. With all his longing for repose and + privacy, Washington could not separate himself from the great + problems which he had solved, or from the solution of the still + greater problems which he had done more than any man to bring + into existence. In reality, despite his reiterated wish for the + quiet of home, he never ceased to labor at the new questions + which confronted the country, and the old issues which were the + legacy of the Revolution.</p> + + <p>In the latter class was the peace establishment, on which he + advised Congress, much in vain; for their idea of a peace + establishment was to get rid of the army as rapidly as possible, + and retain only a corporal's guard in the service of the + confederation. Another question was that concerning the western + posts. As has been already pointed out, Washington's keen eye had + at once detected that this was the perilous point in the treaty, + and he made a prompt but unavailing effort to secure these posts + in the first flush of good feeling when peace had just been made. + After he had retired he observed with regret the feebleness of + Congress in this matter, and he continued to write about it. He + wrote especially to Knox, who was in charge of the war + department, and advised him to establish posts on our side, since + we could not obtain the withdrawal of the British. This deep + anxiety as to the western posts was due not merely to his + profound distrust of the intention of England, but to his extreme + solicitude as to the unsettled regions of the West. He repeatedly + referred to the United States, even before the close of the war, + as an infant empire, and he saw before any one else the destined + growth of the country.</p> + + <p>No man of that time, with the exception of Hamilton, ever + grasped and realized as he did the imperial future which + stretched before the United States. It was a difficult thing for + men who had been born colonists to rise to a sense of national + opportunities, but Washington passed at a single step from being + a Virginian to being an American, and in so doing he stood alone. + He was really and thoroughly national from the beginning of the + war, at a time when, except for a few oratorical phrases, no one + had ever thought of such a thing as a practical and living + question. In the same way he had passed rapidly to an accurate + conception of the probable growth and greatness of the country, + and again he stood alone. Hamilton, born outside the colonies, + unhampered by local prejudices and attachments, and living in + Washington's family, as soon as he turned his mind to the + subject, became, like his chief, entirely national and imperial + in his views; but the other American statesmen of that day, with + the exception of Franklin, only followed gradually and sometimes + reluctantly in adopting their opinions. Some of them never + adopted them at all, but remained imbedded in local ideas, and + very few got beyond the region of words and actually grasped the + facts with the absolutely clear perception which Washington had + from the outset. Thus it was that when the war closed, one of the + two ruling ideas in Washington's mind was to assure the future + which he saw opening before the country. He perceived at a glance + that the key and the guarantee of that future were in the wild + regions of the West. Hence his constant anxiety as to the western + posts, as to our Indian policy, and as to the maintenance of a + sufficient armed force upon our borders to check the aggressions + of Englishmen or of savages, and to secure free scope for + settlement. In advancing these ideas on a national scale, + however, he was rendered helpless by the utter weakness of + Congress, which even his influence was powerless to overcome. He + therefore began, immediately after his retreat to private life, + to formulate and bring into existence such practical measures as + were possible for the development of the West, believing that if + Congress could not act, the people would, if any opportunity were + given to their natural enterprise.</p> + + <p>The scheme which he proposed was to open the western country + by means of inland navigation. The thought had long been in his + mind. It had come to him before the Revolution, and can be traced + back to the early days when he was making surveys, buying wild + lands, and meditating very deeply, but very practically, on the + possible commercial development of the colonies. Now the idea + assumed much larger proportions and a much graver aspect. He + perceived in it the first step toward the empire which he + foresaw, and when he had laid down his sword and awoke in the + peaceful morning at Mount Vernon, "with a strange sense of + freedom from official cares," he directed his attention at once + to this plan, in which he really could do something, despite an + inert Congress and a dissolving confederation. His first letter + on the subject was written in March, 1784, and addressed to + Jefferson, who was then in Congress, and who sympathized with + Washington's views without seeing how far they reached. He told + Jefferson how he despaired of government aid, and how he + therefore intended to revive the scheme of a company, which he + had started in 1775, and which had been abandoned on account of + the war. He showed the varying interests which it was necessary + to conciliate, asked Jefferson to see the governor of Maryland, + so that that State might be brought into the undertaking, and + referred to the danger of being anticipated and beaten by New + York, a chord of local pride which he continued to touch most + adroitly as the business proceeded. Very characteristically, too, + he took pains to call attention to the fact that by his ownership + of land he had a personal interest in the enterprise. He looked + far beyond his own lands, but he was glad to have his property + developed, and with his usual freedom from anything like + pretense, he drew attention to the fact of his personal + interests.</p> + + <p>On his return from his tour in the autumn, he proceeded to + bring the matter to public attention and to the consideration of + the legislature. With this end in view he addressed a long letter + to Governor Harrison, in which he laid out his whole scheme. + Detroit was to be the objective point, and he indicated the + different routes by which inland navigation could thence be + obtained, thus opening the Indian trade, and affording an outlet + at the same time for the settlers who were sure to pour in when + once the fear of British aggression was removed. He dwelt + strongly upon the danger of Virginia losing these advantages by + the action of other States, and yet at the same time he suggested + the methods by which Maryland and Pennsylvania could be brought + into the plan. Then he advanced a series of arguments which were + purely national in their scope. He insisted on the necessity of + binding to the old colonies by strong ties the Western States, + which might easily be decoyed away if Spain or England had the + sense to do it. This point he argued with great force, for it was + now no longer a Virginian argument, but an argument for all the + States.</p> + + <p>The practical result was that the legislature took the + question up, more in deference to the writer's wishes and in + gratitude for his services, than from any comprehension of what + the scheme meant. The companies were duly organized, and the + promoter was given a hundred and fifty shares, on the ground that + the legislature wished to take every opportunity of testifying + their sense of "the unexampled merits of George Washington + towards his country." Washington was much touched and not a + little troubled by this action. He had been willing, as he said, + to give up his cherished privacy and repose in order to forward + the enterprise. He had gone to Maryland even, and worked to + engage that State in the scheme, but he could not bear the idea + of taking money for what he regarded as part of a great public + policy. "I would wish," he said, "that every individual who may + hear that it was a favorite plan of mine may know also that I had + no other motive for promoting it than the advantage of which I + conceived it would be productive to the Union, and to this State + in particular, by cementing the eastern and western territory + together, at the same time that it will give vigor and increase + to our commerce, and be a convenience to our citizens."</p> + + <p>"How would this matter be viewed, then, by the eye of the + world, and what would be the opinion of it, when it comes to be + related that George Washington has received twenty thousand + dollars and five thousand pounds sterling of the public money as + an interest therein?" He thought it would make him look like a + "pensioner or dependent" to accept this gratuity, and he recoiled + from the idea. There is something entirely frank and human in the + way in which he says "George Washington," instead of using the + first pronoun singular. He always saw facts as they were; he + understood the fact called "George Washington" as perfectly as + any other, and although he wanted retirement and privacy, he had + no mock modesty in estimating his own place in the world. At the + same time, while he wished to be rid of the kindly gift, he + shrank from putting on what he called the appearance of + "ostentatious disinterestedness" by refusing it. Finally he took + the stock and endowed two charity schools with the dividends. The + scheme turned out successfully, and the work still endures, like + the early surveys and various other things of a very different + kind to which Washington put his hand. In the greater forces + which were presently set in motion for the preservation of the + future empire, the inland navigation, started in Virginia, + dropped out of sight, and became merely one of the rills which + fed the mighty river. But it was the only really practical + movement possible at the precise moment when it was begun, and it + was characteristic of its author, who always found, even in the + most discouraging conditions, something that could be done. It + might be only a very little something, but still that was better + than nothing to the strong man ever dealing with facts as they + actually were on this confused earth, and not turning aside + because things were not as they ought to be. Thus many a battle + and campaign had been saved, and so inland navigation played its + part now. It helped, among other things, to bring Maryland and + Virginia together, and their combination was the first step + toward the Constitution of the United States. There is nothing + fanciful in all this. No one would pretend that the Constitution + of the United States was descended from Washington's James River + and Potomac River companies. But he worked at them with that end + in view, and so did what was nearest to his hand and most + practical toward union, empire, and the development of national + sentiment.</p> + + <p>Ah, says some critic in critic's fashion, you are carried away + by your subject; you see in a simple business enterprise, + intended merely to open western lands, the far-reaching ideas of + a statesman. Perhaps our critic is right, for as one goes on + living with this Virginian soldier, studying his letters and his + thoughts, one comes to believe many things of him, and to detect + much meaning in his sayings and doings. Let us, however, show our + evidence at least. Here is what he wrote to his friend Humphreys + a year after his scheme was afoot: "My attention is more + immediately engaged in a project which I think big with great + political as well as commercial consequences to the States, + especially the middle ones;" and then he went on to argue the + necessity of fastening the Western States to the Atlantic + seaboard and thus thwarting Spain and England. This looks like + more than a money-making scheme; in fact, it justifies all that + has been said, especially if read in connection with certain + other letters of this period. Great political results, as well as + lumber and peltry, were what Washington intended to float along + his rivers and canals.</p> + + <p>In this same letter to Humphreys he touched also on another + point in connection with the development of the West, which was + of vast importance to the future of the country, and was even + then agitating men's minds. He said: "I may be singular in my + ideas, but they are these: that, to open a door to, and make easy + the way for those settlers to the westward (who ought to advance + regularly and compactly), before we make any stir about the + navigation of the Mississippi, and before our settlements are far + advanced towards that river, would be our true line of policy." + Again he wrote: "However singular the opinion may be, I cannot + divest myself of it, that the navigation of the Mississippi, + <i>at this time</i> [1785], ought to be no object with us. On the + contrary, until we have a little time allowed to open and make + easy the ways between the Atlantic States and the western + territory, the obstructions had better remain." He was right in + describing himself as "singular" in his views on this matter, + which just then was exciting much attention.</p> + + <p>At that time indeed much feeling existed, and there were many + sharp divisions about the Mississippi question. One party, for + the sake of a commercial treaty with Spain, and to get a + troublesome business out of the way, was ready to give up our + claims to a free navigation of the great river; and this was + probably the prevalent sentiment in Congress, for to most of the + members the Mississippi seemed a very remote affair indeed. On + the other side was a smaller and more violent party, which was + for obtaining the free navigation immediately and at all hazards, + and was furious at the proposition to make such a sacrifice as + its opponents proposed. Finally, there was Spain herself + intriguing to get possession of the West, holding out free + navigation as a bait to the settlers of Kentucky, and keeping + paid agents in that region to foster her schemes. Washington saw + too far and too clearly to think for one moment of giving up the + navigation of the Mississippi, but he also perceived what no one + else seems to have thought of, that free navigation at that + moment would give the western settlements "the habit of trade" + with New Orleans before they had formed it with the Atlantic + seaboard, and would thus detach them from the United States. He + wished, therefore, to have the Mississippi question left open, + and all our claims reserved, so that trade by the river should be + obstructed until we had time to open our inland navigation and + bind 'the western people to us by ties too strong to be broken. + The fear that the river would be lost by waiting did not disturb + him in the least, provided our claims were kept alive. He wrote + to Lee in June, 1786: "Whenever the new States become so + populous, and so extended to the westward, as really to need it, + there will be no power which can deprive them of the use of the + Mississippi." Again, a year later, while the convention was + sitting in Philadelphia, he said: "My sentiments with respect to + the navigation of the Mississippi have been long fixed, and are + not dissimilar to those which are expressed in your letter. I + have ever been of opinion that the true policy of the Atlantic + States, instead of contending prematurely for the free navigation + of that river (which eventually, and perhaps as soon as it will + be our true interest to obtain it, must happen), would be to open + and improve the natural communications with the western country." + The event justified his sagacity in all respects, for the + bickerings went on until the United States were able to compel + Spain to give what was wanted to the western communities, which + by that time had been firmly bound to those of the Atlantic + coast.</p> + + <p>Much as Washington thought about holding fast the western + country, there was yet one idea that overruled it as well as all + others. There was one plan which he knew would be a quick + solution of the dangers and difficulties for which inland + navigation and trade connections were at best but palliatives. He + had learned by bitter experience, as no other man had learned, + the vital need and value of union. He felt it as soon as he took + command of the army, and it rode like black care behind him from + Cambridge to Yorktown. He had hoped something from the + confederation, but he soon saw that it was as worthless as the + utter lack of system which it replaced, and amounted merely to + substituting one kind of impotence and confusion for another. + Others might be deceived by phrases as to nationality and a + general government, but he had dwelt among hard facts, and he + knew that these things did not exist. He knew that what passed + for them, stood in their place and wore their semblance, were + merely temporary creations born of the common danger, and doomed, + when the pressure of war was gone, to fall to pieces in + imbecility and inertness. To the lack of a proper union, which + meant to his mind national and energetic government, he + attributed the failures of the campaigns, the long-drawn + miseries, and in a word the needless prolongation of the + Revolution. He saw, too, that what had been so nearly ruinous in + war would be absolutely so in peace, and before the treaty was + actually signed he had begun to call attention to the great + question on the right settlement of which the future of the + country depended.</p> + + <p>To Hamilton he wrote on March 4, 1783: "It is clearly my + opinion, unless Congress have powers competent to all general + purposes, that the distresses we have encountered, the expense we + have incurred, and the blood we have spilt, will avail us + nothing." Again he wrote to Hamilton, a few weeks later: "My wish + to see the union of these States established upon liberal and + permanent principles, and inclination to contribute my mite in + pointing out the defects of the present constitution, are equally + great. All my private letters have teemed with these sentiments, + and whenever this topic has been the subject of conversation, I + have endeavored to diffuse and enforce them." His circular letter + to the governors of the States at the close of the war, which was + as eloquent as it was forcible, was devoted to urging the + necessity of a better central government. "With this conviction," + he said, "of the importance of the present crisis, silence in me + would be a crime. I will therefore speak to your Excellency the + language of freedom and of sincerity without disguise.... There + are four things which I humbly conceive are essential to the + well-being, I may even venture to say, to the existence, of the + United States, as an independent power:—</p> + + <p>"First. An indissoluble union of the States under one federal + head.</p> + + <p>"Second. A regard to public justice.</p> + + <p>"Third. The adoption of a proper peace establishment; and,</p> + + <p>"Fourth. The prevalence of that pacific and friendly + disposition among the people of the United States, which will + induce them to forget their local prejudices and policies; to + make those mutual concessions which are requisite to the general + prosperity; and in some instances to sacrifice their individual + advantages to the interest of the community." The same appeal + went forth again in his last address to the army, when he said: + "Although the general has so frequently given it as his opinion, + in the most public and explicit manner, that unless the + principles of the federal government were properly supported, and + the powers of the Union increased, the honor, dignity, and + justice of the nation would be lost forever; yet he cannot help + repeating on this occasion so interesting a sentiment, and + leaving it as his last injunction to every soldier, who may view + the subject in the same serious point of light, to add his best + endeavors to those of his worthy fellow-citizens towards + effecting those great and valuable purposes on which our very + existence as a nation so materially depends."</p> + + <p>These two papers were the first strong public appeals for + union. The letter to the governors argued the question + elaborately, and was intended for the general public. The address + to the army was simply a watchword and last general order; for + the army needed no arguments to prove the crying need of better + government. Before this, Hamilton had written his famous letters + to Duane and Morris, and Madison was just beginning to turn his + thoughts toward the problem of federal government; but with these + exceptions Washington stood alone. In sending out these two + papers he began the real work that led to the Constitution. What + he said was read and heeded throughout the country, for at the + close of the war his personal influence was enormous, and with + the army his utterances were those of an oracle. By his appeal he + made each officer and soldier a missionary in the cause of the + Union, and by his arguments to the governors he gave ground and + motive for a party devoted to procuring better government. Thus + he started the great movement which, struggling through many + obstacles, culminated in the Constitution and the union of the + States. No other man could have done it, for no one but + Washington had a tithe of the influence necessary to arrest + public attention; and, save Hamilton, no other man then had even + begun to understand the situation which Washington grasped so + easily and firmly in all its completeness.</p> + + <p>He sent out these appeals as his last words to his countrymen + at the close of their conflict; but he had no intention of + stopping there. He had written and spoken, as he said, to every + one on every occasion upon this topic, and he continued to do so + until the work was done. He had no sooner laid aside the military + harness than he began at once to push on the cause of union. In + the bottom of his heart he must have known that his work was but + half done, and with the same pen with which he reiterated his + intention to live in repose and privacy, and spend his declining + years beneath his own vine and fig-tree, he wrote urgent appeals + and wove strong arguments addressed to leaders in every State. He + had not been at home five days before he wrote to the younger + Trumbull, congratulating him on his father's vigorous message in + behalf of better federal government, which had not been very well + received by the Connecticut legislature. He spoke of "the + jealousies and contracted temper" of the States, but avowed his + belief that public sentiment was improving. "Everything," he + concluded, "my dear Trumbull, will come right at last, as we have + often prophesied. My only fear is that we shall lose a little + reputation first." A fortnight later he wrote to the governor of + Virginia: "That the prospect before us is, as you justly observe, + fair, none can deny; but what use we shall make of it is + exceedingly problematical; not but that I believe all things will + come right at last, but like a young heir come a little + prematurely to a large inheritance, we shall wanton and run riot + until we have brought our reputation to the brink of ruin, and + then like him shall have to labor with the current of opinion, + when compelled, perhaps, to do what prudence and common policy + pointed out as plain as any problem in Euclid in the first + instance." The soundness of the view is only equaled by the + accuracy of the prediction. He might five years later have + repeated this sentence, word for word, only altering the tenses, + and he would have rehearsed exactly the course of events.</p> + + <p>While he wrote thus he keenly watched Congress, and marked its + sure and not very gradual decline. He did what he could to bring + about useful measures, and saw them one after the other come to + naught. He urged the impost scheme, and felt that its failure was + fatal to the financial welfare of the country, on which so much + depended. He always was striving to do the best with existing + conditions, but the hopelessness of every effort soon satisfied + him that it was a waste of time and energy. So he turned again in + the midst of his canal schemes to renew his exhortations to + leading men in the various States on the need of union as the + only true solution of existing troubles.</p> + + <p>To James McHenry, of Maryland, he wrote in August, 1785: "I + confess to you candidly that I can foresee no evil greater than + disunion; than those unreasonable jealousies which are + continually poisoning our minds and filling them with imaginary + evils for the prevention of real ones." To William Grayson of + Virginia, then a member of Congress, he wrote at the same time: + "I have ever been a friend to adequate congressional powers; + consequently I wish to see the ninth article of the confederation + amended and extended. Without these powers we cannot support a + national character, and must appear contemptible in the eyes of + Europe. But to you, my dear Sir, I will candidly confess that in + my opinion it is of little avail to give them to Congress." He + was already clearly of opinion that the existing system was + hopeless, and the following spring he wrote still more sharply as + to the state of public affairs to Henry Lee, in Congress. "My + sentiments," he said, "with respect to the federal government are + well known. Publicly and privately have they been communicated + without reserve; but my opinion is that there is more wickedness + than ignorance in the conduct of the States, or, in other words, + in the conduct of those who have too much influence in the + government of them; and until the curtain is withdrawn, and the + private views and selfish principles upon which these men act are + exposed to public notice, I have little hope of amendment without + another convulsion."</p> + + <p>He did not confine himself, however, to letters, important as + the work done in this way was, but used all his influence toward + practical measures outside of Congress, of whose action he quite + despaired. The plan for a commercial agreement between Maryland + and Virginia was concerted at Mount Vernon, and led to a call to + all the States to meet at Annapolis for the same object. This, of + course, received Washington's hearty approval and encouragement, + but he evidently regarded it, although important, as merely a + preliminary step to something wider and better. He wrote to + Lafayette describing the proposed gathering at Annapolis, and + added: "A general convention is talked of by many for the purpose + of revising and correcting the defects of the federal government; + but whilst this is the wish of some, it is the dread of others, + from an opinion that matters are not yet sufficiently ripe for + such an event." This expressed his own feeling, for although he + was entirely convinced that only a radical reform would do, he + questioned whether the time had yet arrived, and whether things + had become bad enough, to make such a reform either possible or + lasting. He was chiefly disturbed because he felt that there was + "more wickedness than ignorance mixed in our councils," and he + grew more and more anxious as public affairs declined without + apparently producing a reaction. The growing contempt shown by + foreign nations and the arrogant conduct of Great Britain + especially alarmed him, while the rapid sinking of the national + reputation stung him to the quick. "I do not conceive," he wrote + to Jay, in August, 1786, "we can exist long as a nation without + having lodged somewhere a power which will pervade the whole + Union in as energetic a manner as the authority of the state + governments extends over the several States." Thus with unerring + judgment he put his finger on the vital point in the whole + question, which was the need of a national government that should + deal with the individual citizens of the whole country and not + with the States. "To be fearful," he continued, "of investing + Congress, constituted as that body is, with ample authorities for + national purposes, appears to me the very climax of popular + absurdity and madness.... Requisitions are actually little better + than a jest and a byword throughout the land. If you tell the + legislatures they have violated the treaty of peace, and invaded + the prerogatives of the confederacy, they will laugh in your + face.... It is much to be feared, as you observe, that the better + kind of people, being disgusted with the circumstances, will have + their minds prepared for any revolution whatever.... I am told + that even respectable characters speak of a monarchical + government without horror. From thinking proceeds speaking; + thence to acting is often but a single step. But how irrevocable + and tremendous! What a triumph for our enemies to verify their + predictions!... It is not my business to embark again upon a sea + of troubles. Nor could it be expected that my sentiments and + opinions would have much weight on the minds of my countrymen. + They have been neglected, though given as a last legacy in the + most solemn manner. I had then perhaps some claims to public + attention. I consider myself as having none at present."</p> + + <p>It is interesting to observe the ease and certainty with + which, in dealing with the central question, he grasped all + phases of the subject and judged of the effect of the existing + weakness with regard to every relation of the country and to the + politics of each State. He pointed out again and again the manner + in which we were exposed to foreign hostility, and analyzed the + designs of England, rightly detecting a settled policy on her + part to injure and divide where she had failed to conquer. Others + were blind to the meaning of the English attitude as to the + western posts, commerce, and international relations. Washington + brought it to the attention of our leading men, educating them on + this as on other points, and showing, too, the stupidity of Great + Britain in her attempt to belittle the trade of a country which, + as he wrote Lafayette in prophetic vein, would one day "have + weight in the scale of empires."</p> + + <p>He followed with the same care the course of events in the + several States. In them all he resisted the craze for issuing + irredeemable paper money, writing to his various correspondents, + and urging energetic opposition to this specious and pernicious + form of public dishonesty. It was to Massachusetts, however, that + his attention was most strongly attracted by the social disorders + which culminated in the Shays rebellion. There the miserable + condition of public affairs was bearing bitter fruit, and + Washington watched the progress of the troubles with profound + anxiety. He wrote to Lee: "You talk, my good sir, of employing + influence to appease the present tumults in Massachusetts. I know + not where that influence is to be found, or, if attainable, that + it would be a proper remedy for the disorders. <i>Influence</i> + is not <i>government</i>. Let us have a government by which our + lives, liberties, and properties will be secured, or let us know + the worst at once." Through "all this mist of intoxication and + folly," however, Washington saw that the Shays insurrection would + probably be the means of frightening the indifferent, and of + driving those who seemed impervious to every appeal to reason + into an active support of some better form of government. He + rightly thought that riot and bloodshed would prove convincing + arguments.</p> + + <p>In order to understand the utter demoralization of society, + politics, and public opinion at that time, the offspring of a + wasting civil war and of colonial habits of thought, it is + interesting to contrast the attitude of Washington with that of + another distinguished American in regard to the Shays rebellion. + While Washington was looking solemnly at this manifestation of + weakness and disorder, and was urging strong measures with + passionate vehemence, Jefferson was writing from Paris in the + flippant vein of the fashionable French theorists, and uttering + such ineffable nonsense as the famous sentence about "once in + twenty years watering the tree of liberty with the blood of + tyrants." There could be no better illustration of what + Washington was than this contrast between the man of words and + the man of action, between the astute leader of a party, the + shrewd manager of men, and the silent leader of armies, the + master builder of states and governments.</p> + + <p>I have followed Washington through the correspondence of this + time with some minuteness, because it is the only way by which + his work in overcoming the obstacles in the path to good + government can be seen. He held no public office; he had no means + of reaching the popular ear. He was neither a professional orator + nor a writer of pamphlets, and the press of that day, if he had + controlled it, had no power to mould or direct public thought. + Yet, despite these obstacles, he set himself to develop public + opinion in favor of a better government, and he worked at this + difficult and impalpable task without ceasing, from the day that + he resigned from the army until he was called to the presidency + of the United States. He did it by means of private letters, a + feeble instrument to-day, but much more effective then. Jefferson + never made speeches nor published essays, but he built up a great + party, and carried himself into power as its leader by means of + letters. In the same fashion Washington started the scheme for + internal waterways, in order to bind the East and the West + together, set on foot the policy of commercial agreements between + the States, and argued on the "imperial theme" with leading men + everywhere. A study of these letters reveals a strong, logical, + and deliberate working towards the desired end. There was no + scattering fire. Whether he was writing of canals, or the + Mississippi, or the Western posts, or paper money, or the impost, + or the local disorders, he always was arguing and urging union + and an energetic central government. These letters went to the + leaders of thought and opinion, and were quoted and passed from + hand to hand. They brought immediately to the cause all the + soldiers and officers of the army, and they aroused and convinced + the strongest and ablest men in every State. Washington's + personal influence was very great, something we of this + generation, with a vast territory and seventy millions of people, + cannot readily understand. To many persons his word was law; to + all that was best in the community, everything he said had + immense weight. This influence he used with care and without + waste. Every blow he struck went home. It is impossible to + estimate just how much he effected, but it is safe to say that it + is to Washington, aided first by Hamilton and then by Madison, + that we owe the development of public opinion and the formation + of the party which devised and carried the Constitution. Events + of course worked with them, but they used events, and did not + suffer the golden opportunities, which without them would have + been lost, to slip by.</p> + + <p>When Washington wrote of the Shays rebellion to Lee, the + movement toward a better union, which he had begun, was on the + brink of success. That ill-starred insurrection became, as he + foresaw, a powerful spur to the policy started at Mount Vernon, + and adopted by Virginia and Maryland. From this had come the + Annapolis convention, and thence the call for another convention + at Philadelphia. As soon as the word went abroad that a general + convention was to be held, the demand for Washington as a + delegate was heard on all sides. At first he shrank from it. + Despite the work which he had been doing, and which he must have + known would bring him once more into public service, he still + clung to the vision of home life which he had brought with him + from the army. November 18, 1786, he wrote to Madison, that from + a sense of obligation he should go to the convention, were it not + that he had declined on account of his retirement, age, and + rheumatism to be at a meeting of the Cincinnati at the same time + and place. But no one heeded him, and Virginia elected him + unanimously to head her delegation at Philadelphia. He wrote to + Governor Randolph, acknowledging the honor, but reiterating what + he had said to Madison, and urging the choice of some one else in + his place. Still Virginia held the question open, and on February + 3 he wrote to Knox that his private intention was not to attend. + The pressure continued, and, as usual when the struggle drew + near, the love of battle and the sense of duty began to reassert + themselves. March 8 he again wrote to Knox that he had not meant + to come, but that the question had occurred to him, "Whether my + non-attendance in the convention will not be considered as + dereliction of republicanism; nay, more, whether other motives + may not, however injuriously, be ascribed for my not exerting + myself on this occasion in support of it;" and therefore he + wished to be informed as to the public expectation on the matter. + On March 28 he wrote again to Randolph that ill-health might + prevent his going, and therefore it would be well to appoint some + one in his place. April 2 he said that if representation of the + States was to be partial, or powers cramped, he did not want to + be a sharer in the business. "If the delegates assemble," he + wrote, "with such powers as will enable the convention to probe + the defects of the constitution to the bottom and point out + radical cures, it would be an honorable employment; otherwise + not." This idea of inefficiency and failure in the convention had + long been present to his mind, and he had already said that, if + their powers were insufficient, the convention should go boldly + over and beyond them and make a government with the means of + coercion, and able to enforce obedience, without which it would + be, in his opinion, quite worthless. Thus he pondered on the + difficulties, and held back his acceptance of the post; but when + the hour of action drew near, the rheumatism and the misgivings + alike disappeared before the inevitable, and Washington arrived + in Philadelphia, punctual as usual, on May 13, the day before the + opening of the convention.</p> + + <p>The other members were by no means equally prompt, and a week + elapsed before a bare quorum was obtained and the convention + enabled to organize. In this interval of waiting there appears to + have been some informal discussion among the members present, + between those who favored an entirely new Constitution and those + who timidly desired only half-way measures. On one of these + occasions Washington is reported by Gouverneur Morris, in a + eulogy delivered twelve years later, to have said: "It is too + probable that no plan we propose will be adopted. Perhaps another + dreadful conflict is to be sustained. If, to please the people, + we offer what we ourselves disapprove, how can we afterwards + defend our work? Let us raise a standard to which the wise and + honest can repair. The event is in the hand of God." The language + is no doubt that of Morris, speaking from memory and in a highly + rhetorical vein, but we may readily believe that the quotation + accurately embodied Washington's opinion, and that he took this + high ground at the outset, and strove from the beginning to + inculcate upon his fellow-members the absolute need of bold and + decisive action. The words savor of the orator who quoted them, + but the noble and courageous sentiment which they express is + thoroughly characteristic of the man to whom they were + attributed.<a id="footnotetag1" name="footnotetag1"></a><a href= + "#footnote1"><sup>1</sup></a></p> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote1" name="footnote1"></a>[<b>Footnote 1:</b> + <a href="#footnotetag1">(return)</a> It is necessary to say a + few words in regard to this quotation of Washington's words + made by Morris, because both Mr. Bancroft (<i>History of the + Constitution</i>, ii. 8) and Mr. John Fiske (<i>The Critical + Period of American History</i>, p. 232) quote them as if they + were absolutely and verbally authentic. It is perfectly certain + that from May 25 to September 17 Washington spoke but once; + that is, he spoke but once in the convention after it became + such by organization. This point is determined by Madison's + statement (Notes, in. 1600), that when Washington took the + floor in behalf of Gorham's amendment, "it was the only occasion + on which the president entered <i>at all</i> into the + discussions of the convention." (The italics are mine.) I have + examined the manuscript at the State Department, and these + words are written in Madison's own hand in the body of the text + and inclosed in brackets. Madison was the most accurate of men. + His notes are only abstracts of what was said, but he was never + absent from the convention, and there can be no question that + if Washington had uttered the words attributed to him by + Morris, a speech so important would have been given as fully as + possible, and Madison would not have said distinctly that the + Gorham amendment was the only occasion when the president + entered into the discussions of the convention. + + <p>It is, therefore, certain that Washington said nothing in + the convention except on the occasion of the Gorham amendment, + and Mr. Bancroft rightly assigns the Morris quotation to some + time during the week which elapsed between the date fixed for + the assembling of the convention and that on which a quorum of + States was obtained. The words given by Morris, if uttered at + all, must have been spoken informally in the way of + conversation before there was any convention, strictly + speaking, and of course before Washington was chosen president. + Mr. Fiske, who devotes a page to these sentences from the + eulogy, describes Washington as rising from his president's + chair and addressing the convention with great solemnity. There + is no authority whatever to show that he rose from the chair to + address the other delegates, and, if he used the words quoted + by Morris, he was certainly not president of the convention + when he did so. The latter blunder, however, is Morris's own, + and in making it he contradicts himself. These are his words: + "He is their president. It is a question previous to their + first meeting what course shall be pursued." In other words, he + was their president before they had met and chosen a president. + This is a fair illustration of the loose and rhetorical + character of the passage in which Washington's admonition is + quoted. The entire paragraph, with its mixture of tenses + arising from the use of the historical present which Morris's + classical fancies led him to employ, is, in fact, purely + rhetorical, and has only the authority due to performances of + that character. It seems to me impossible, therefore, to fairly + suppose that the words quoted by Morris were anything more than + his own presentation of a sentiment which he, no doubt, heard + Washington urge frequently and forcibly. Even in this limited + acceptation his account is both interesting and valuable, as + indicating Washington's opinion and the tone he took with his + fellow-members; but this, I think, is the utmost weight that + can be attached to it. I have discussed the point thus minutely + because two authorities so distinguished as Mr. Bancroft and + Mr. Fiske have laid so much stress on the words given by + Morris, and have seemed to me to accord to them a greater + weight and a higher authenticity than the facts warrant. + Morris's eulogy on Washington was delivered in New York, and + may be found most readily in a little volume entitled + <i>Washingtoniana</i> (p. 110), published at Lancaster in + 1802.]</p> + </blockquote> + + <p>When a quorum was finally obtained, Washington was unanimously + chosen to preside over the convention; and there he sat during + the sessions of four months, silent, patient, except on a single + occasion,<a id="footnotetag1-2" name= + "footnotetag1-2"></a><a href="#footnote1-2"><sup>1</sup></a> + taking no part in debate, but guiding the business, and using all + his powers with steady persistence to compass the great end. The + debates of that remarkable body have been preserved in outline in + the full and careful notes of Madison. Its history has been + elaborately written, and the arguments and opinions of its + members have been minutely examined and unsparingly criticised. + We are still ignorant, and shall always remain ignorant, of just + how much was due to Washington for the final completion of the + work. His general views and his line of action are clearly to be + seen in his letters and in the words attributed to him by Morris. + That he labored day and night for success we know, and that his + influence with his fellow-members was vast we also know, but the + rest we can only conjecture. There came a time when everything + was at a standstill, and when it looked as if no agreement could + be reached by the men representing so many conflicting interests. + Hamilton had made his great speech, and, finding the vote of his + State cast against him by his two colleagues on every question, + had gone home in a frame of mind which we may easily believe was + neither very contented nor very sanguine. Even Franklin, most + hopeful and buoyant of men, was nearly ready to despair. + Washington himself wrote to Hamilton, on July 10: "When I refer + you to the state of the counsels which prevailed at the period + you left this city, and add that they are now, if possible, in a + worse train than ever, you will find but little ground on which + the hope of a good establishment can be formed. In a word, I + almost despair of seeing a favorable issue to the proceedings of + our convention, and do therefore repent having had any agency in + the business." Matters were certainly in a bad state when + Washington could write in this strain, and when his passion for + success was so cooled that he repented of agency in the business. + There was much virtue, however, in that little word "almost." He + did not quite despair yet, and, after his fashion, he held on + with grim tenacity. We know what the compromises finally were, + and how they were brought about, but we can never do exact + justice to the iron will which held men together when all + compromises seemed impossible, and which even in the darkest hour + would not wholly despair. All that can be said is, that without + the influence and the labors of Washington the convention of + 1787, in all probability, would have failed of success.</p> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote1-2" name="footnote1-2"></a>[<b>Footnote + 1:</b><a href="#footnotetag1-2">(return)</a> Just at the close + of the convention, when the Constitution in its last draft was + in the final stage and on the eve of adoption, Mr. Gorham of + Massachusetts moved to amend by reducing the limit of + population in a congressional district from forty to thirty + thousand. Washington took the floor and argued briefly and + modestly in favor of the change. His mere request was + sufficient, and the amendment was unanimously adopted.] + </blockquote> + + <p>At all events it did not fail, and after much tribulation the + work was done. On September 17, 1787, a day ever to be memorable, + Washington affixed his bold and handsome signature to the + Constitution of the United States. Tradition has it that as he + stood by the table, pen in hand, he said: "Should the States + reject this excellent Constitution, the probability is that + opportunity will never be offered to cancel another in peace; the + next will be drawn in blood." Whether the tradition is well or + ill founded, the sentence has the ring of truth. A great work had + been accomplished. If it were cast aside, Washington knew that + the sword and not the pen would make the next Constitution, and + he regarded that awful alternative with dread. He signed first, + and was followed by all the members present, with three notable + exceptions. Then the delegates dined together at the city tavern, + and took a cordial leave of each other. "After which," the + president of the convention wrote in his diary, "I returned to my + lodgings, did some business with, and received the papers from, + the secretary of the convention, and retired to meditate upon the + momentous work which had been executed." It is a simple sentence, + but how much it means! The world would be glad to-day to know + what the thoughts were which filled Washington's mind as he sat + alone in the quiet of that summer afternoon, with the new + Constitution lying before him. But he was then as ever silent. He + did not go alone to his room to exhibit himself on paper for the + admiration of posterity. He went there to meditate for his own + guidance on what had been done for the benefit of his country. + The city bells had rung a joyful chime when he arrived four + months before. Ought they to ring again with a new gladness, or + should they toll for the death of bright hopes, now the task was + done? Washington was intensely human. In that hour of silent + thought his heart must have swelled with a consciousness that he + had led his people through a successful Revolution, and now again + from the darkness of political confusion and dissolution to the + threshold of a new existence. But at the same time he never + deceived himself. The new Constitution was but an experiment and + an opportunity. Would the States accept it? And if they accepted + it, would they abide by it? Was this instrument of government, + wrought out so painfully, destined to go to pieces after a few + years of trial, or was it to prove strong enough to become the + charter of a nation and hold the States together indissolubly + against all the shocks of politics and revolution? Washington, + with his foresight and strong national instinct, plainly saw + these momentous questions, somewhat dim then, although clear to + all the world to-day. We can guess how solemnly he thought about + them as he meditated alone in his room on that September + afternoon. Whatever his reflections, his conclusions were simple. + He made up his mind that the only chance for the country lay in + the adoption of the new scheme, but he was sober enough in his + opinions as to the Constitution itself. He said of it to + Lafayette the day after the signing: "It is the result of four + months' deliberation. It is now a child of fortune, to be + fostered by some and buffeted by others. What will be the general + opinion or the reception of it is not for me to decide; nor shall + I say anything for or against it. If it be good, I suppose it + will work its way; if bad, it will recoil on the framers." We + catch sight here of the old theory that his public life was at an + end, and now, when this exceptional duty had been performed, that + he would retire once more to remote privacy. This fancy, as well + as the extremely philosophical mood about the fate of the + Constitution, apparent in this letter, soon disappeared. Within a + week he wrote to Henry, in whom he probably already suspected the + most formidable opponent of the new plan in Virginia: "I wish the + Constitution, which is offered, had been more perfect; but I + sincerely believe it is the best that could be obtained at this + time, and as a constitutional door is opened for amendments + hereafter, the adoption of it under the present circumstances of + the Union is, in my opinion, desirable." Copies of this letter + were sent to Harrison and Nelson, and the correspondence thus + started soon increased rapidly. He wrote to Hamilton and Madison + to counsel with them as to the prospects of the Constitution, and + to Knox to supply him with arguments and urge him to energetic + work. By January of the new year the tone of indifference and + doubt manifested in the letter to Lafayette had quite gone, and + we find him writing to Governor Randolph, in reply to that + gentleman's objections: "There are some things in the new form, I + will readily acknowledge, which never did, and I am persuaded + never will, obtain my cordial approbation, but I did then + conceive and do now most firmly believe that in the aggregate it + is the best Constitution that can be obtained at this epoch, and + that this or a dissolution of the Union awaits our choice, and is + the only alternative before us. Thus believing, I had not, nor + have I now, any hesitation in deciding on which to lean."</p> + + <p>Thus the few letters to a few friends extended to many letters + to many friends, and traveled into every State. They all urged + the necessity of adopting the Constitution as the best that could + be obtained. What Washington's precise objections to the + Constitution were is not clear. In a general way it was not + energetic enough to come up to his ideal, but he never + particularized in his criticisms. He may have admitted the + existence of defects in order simply to disarm opposition, and + doubtless he, like most of the framers, was by no means + completely satisfied with his work. But he brushed all faults + aside, and drove steadily forward to the great end in view. He + was as far removed as possible from that highly virtuous and very + ineffective class of persons who will not support anything that + is not perfect, and who generally contrive to do more harm than + all the avowed enemies of sound government. Washington did not + stop to worry over and argue about details, but sought steadily + to bring to pass the main object at which he aimed. As he had + labored for the convention, so he now labored for the + Constitution, and his letters to his friends not only had great + weight in forming a Federal party and directing its movements, + but extracts from them were quoted and published, thus exerting a + direct and powerful influence on public opinion.</p> + + <p>He made himself deeply felt in this way everywhere, but of + course more in his own State than anywhere else. His confidence + at first in regard to Virginia changed gradually to an intense + and well-grounded anxiety, and he not only used every means, as + the conflict extended, to strengthen his friends and gain votes, + but he received and circulated personally copies of "The + Federalist," in order to educate public opinion. The contest in + the Virginia convention was for a long time doubtful, but finally + the end was reached, and the decision was favorable. Without + Washington's influence, it is safe to say that the Constitution + would have been lost in Virginia, and without Virginia the great + experiment would probably have failed. In the same spirit he + worked on after the new scheme had secured enough States to + insure a trial. The Constitution had been ratified; it must now + be made to work, and Washington wrote earnestly to the leaders in + the various States, urging them to see to it that "Federalists," + stanch friends of the Constitution, were elected to Congress. + There was no vagueness about his notions on this point. A party + had carried the Constitution and secured its ratification, and to + that party he wished the administration and establishment of the + new system to be intrusted. He did not take the view that, + because the fight was over, it was henceforth to be considered + that there had been no fight, and that all men were politically + alike. He was quite ready to do all in his power to conciliate + the opponents of union and the Constitution, but he did not + believe that the momentous task of converting the paper system + into a living organism should be confided to any hands other than + those of its tried and trusty friends.</p> + + <p>But while he was looking so carefully after the choice of the + right men to fill the legislature of the new government, the + people of the country turned to him with the universal demand + that he should stand at the head of it, and fill the great office + of first President of the Republic. In response to the first + suggestion that came, he recognized the fact that he was likely + to be again called upon for another great public service, and + added simply that at his age it involved a sacrifice which + admitted of no compensation. He maintained this tone whenever he + alluded to the subject, in response to the numerous letters + urging him to accept. But although he declined to announce any + decision, he had made up his mind to the inevitable. He had put + his hand to the plough, and he would not turn back. His only + anxiety was that the people should know that he shrank from the + office, and would only leave his farm to take it from a sense of + overmastering duty. Besides his reluctance to engage in a fresh + struggle, and his fear that his motives might be misunderstood, + he had the same diffidence in his own abilities which weighed + upon him when he took command of the armies. His passion for + success, which determined him to accept the presidency, if it was + deemed indispensable that he should do so, made him dread failure + with an almost morbid keenness, although his courage was too high + and his will too strong ever to draw back. Responsibility weighed + upon his spirits, but it could not daunt him. He wrote to + Trumbull in December, 1788, that he saw "nothing but clouds and + darkness before him," but when the hour came he was ready. The + elections were favorable to the Federalists. The electoral + colleges gave Washington their unanimous vote, and on April 16, + having been duly notified by Congress of his election, he left + Mount Vernon for New York, to assume the conduct of the + government, and stand at the head of the new Union in its first + battle for life.</p> + + <p>From the early day when he went out to seek Shirley and win + redress against the assumptions of British officers, Washington's + journeys to the North had been memorable in their purposes. He + had traveled northward to sit in the first continental congress, + to take command of the army, and to preside over the + constitutional convention. Now he went, in the fullness of his + fame, to enter upon a task less dangerous, perhaps, than leading + armies, but more beset with difficulties, and more perilous to + his reputation and peace of mind, than any he had yet undertaken. + He felt all this keenly, and noted in his diary: "About ten + o'clock I bade adieu to Mount Vernon, to private life, and to + domestic felicity; and with a mind oppressed with more anxious + and painful sensations than I have words to express, set out for + New York, with the best disposition to render service to my + country, in obedience to its call, but with less hope of + answering its expectations."</p> + + <p>The first stage of his journey took him only to Alexandria, a + few miles from his home, where a public dinner was given to him + by his friends and neighbors. He was deeply moved when he rose to + reply to the words of affection addressed to him by the mayor as + spokesman of the people. "All that now remains for me," he said, + "is to commit myself and you to the care of that beneficent Being + who, on a former occasion, happily brought us together after a + long and distressing separation. Perhaps the same gracious + Providence will again indulge me. But words fail me. Unutterable + sensations must then be left to more expressive silence, while + from an aching heart I bid all my affectionate friends and kind + neighbors farewell."</p> + + <p>So he left his home, sad at the parting, looking steadily, but + not joyfully, to the future, and silent as was his wont. The + simple dinner with his friends and neighbors at Alexandria was + but the beginning of the chorus of praise and Godspeed which rose + higher and stronger as he advanced. The road, as he traveled, was + lined with people, to see him and cheer him as he passed. In + every village the people from the farm and workshop crowded the + streets to watch for his carriage, and the ringing of bells and + firing of guns marked his coming and his going. At Baltimore a + cavalcade of citizens escorted him, and cannon roared a welcome. + At the Pennsylvania line Governor Mifflin, with soldiers and + citizens, gathered to greet him. At Chester he mounted a horse, + and in the midst of a troop of cavalry rode into Philadelphia, + beneath triumphal arches, for a day of public rejoicing and + festivity. At Trenton, instead of snow and darkness, and a sudden + onslaught upon surprised Hessians, there was mellow sunshine, an + arch of triumph, and young girls walking before him, strewing + flowers in his path, and singing songs of praise and gratitude. + When he reached Elizabethtown Point, the committees of Congress + met him, and he there went on board a barge manned by thirteen + pilots in white uniform, and was rowed to the city of New York. A + long procession of barges swept after him with music and song, + while the ships in the harbor, covered with flags, fired salutes + in his honor. When he reached the landing he declined to enter a + carriage, but walked to his house, accompanied by Governor + Clinton. He was dressed in the familiar buff and blue, and, as + the people caught sight of the stately figure and the beloved + colors, hats went off and the crowd bowed as he went by, bending + like the ripened grain when the summer wind passes over it, and + breaking forth into loud and repeated cheers.</p> + + <p>From Mount Vernon to New York it had been one long triumphal + march. There was no imperial government to lend its power and + military pageantry. There were no armies, with trophies to dazzle + the eyes of the beholders; nor were there wealth and luxury to + give pomp and splendor to the occasion. It was the simple + outpouring of popular feeling, untaught and true, but full of + reverence and gratitude to a great man. It was the noble instinct + of hero-worship, always keen in humanity when the real hero comes + to awaken it to life. Such an experience, rightly apprehended, + would have impressed any man, and it affected Washington + profoundly. He was deeply moved and touched, but he was neither + excited nor elated. He took it all with soberness, almost with + sadness, and when he was alone wrote in his diary:—</p> + + <p>"The display of boats which attended and joined us on this + occasion, some with vocal and some with instrumental music on + board; the decorations of the ships, the roar of cannon and the + loud acclamations of the people, which rent the skies as I passed + along the wharves, filled my mind with sensations as painful + (considering the reverse of this scene, which may be the case + after all my labors to do good) as they were pleasing."</p> + + <p>In the very moment of the highest personal glory, the only + thought is of the work which he has to do. There is neither + elation nor cynicism, neither indifference nor self-deception, + but only deep feeling and a firm, clear look into the future of + work and conflict which lay silent and unknown beyond the + triumphal arches and the loud acclaim of the people.</p> + + <p>On April 30 he was inaugurated. He went in procession to the + hall, was received in the senate chamber, and thence proceeded to + the balcony to take the oath. He was dressed in dark brown cloth + of American manufacture, with a steel-hilted sword, and with his + hair powdered and drawn back in the fashion of the time. When he + appeared, a shout went up from the great crowd gathered beneath + the balcony. Much overcome, he bowed in silence to the people, + and there was an instant hush over all. Then Chancellor + Livingston administered the oath. Washington laid his hand upon + the Bible, bowed, and said solemnly when the oath was concluded, + "I swear, so help me God," and, bending reverently, kissed the + book. Livingston stepped forward, and raising his hand cried, + "Long live George Washington, President of the United States!" + Then the cheers broke forth again, the cannon roared, and the + bells rang out. Washington withdrew to the hall, where he read + his inaugural address to Congress, and the history of the United + States of America under the Constitution was begun.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <h2><a name="II" id="II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2> + + <h2>STARTING THE GOVERNMENT</h2> + + <p>Washington was deeply gratified by his reception at the hands + of the people from Alexandria to New York. He was profoundly + moved by the ceremonies of his inauguration, and when he turned + from the balcony to the senate chamber he showed in his manner + and voice how much he felt the meaning of all that had occurred. + His speech to the assembled Congress was solemn and impressive, + and with simple reverence he acknowledged the guiding hand of + Providence in the fortunes of the States. He made no + recommendations to Congress, but expressed his confidence in + their wisdom and patriotism, adjured them to remember that the + success of republican government would probably be finally + settled by the success of their experiment, reminded them that + amendments to the Constitution were to be considered, and + informed them that he could not receive any pecuniary + compensation for his services, and expected only that his + expenses should be paid as in the Revolution. This was all. The + first inaugural of the first President expressed only one + thought, but that thought was pressed home with force. Washington + wished the Congress to understand as he understood the weight and + meaning of the task which had been imposed upon them, for he felt + that if he could do this all would be well. How far he succeeded + it would be impossible to say, but there can be no doubt as to + the wisdom of his position. To have attempted to direct the first + movements of Congress before he had really grasped the reins of + the government would have given rise, very probably, to jealousy + and opposition at the outset. When he had developed a policy, + then it would be time to advise the senators and representatives + how to carry it out. Meanwhile it was better to arouse their + patriotism, awaken their sense of responsibility, and leave them + free to begin their work under the guidance of these + impressions.</p> + + <p>As for himself, his feelings remained unchanged. He had + accepted the great post with solemn anxiety, and when the prayers + had all been said, and the last guns fired, when the music had + ceased and the cheers had died away, and the illuminations had + flickered and gone out, he wrote that in taking office he had + given up all expectation of private happiness, but that he was + encouraged by the popular affection, as well as by the belief + that his motives were appreciated, and that, thus supported, he + would do his best. In a few words, written some months later, he + tersely stated what his office meant to him, and what grave + difficulties surrounded his path.</p> + + <p>"The establishment of our new government," he said, "seemed to + be the last great experiment for promoting human happiness by a + reasonable compact in civil society. It was to be, in the first + instance, in a considerable degree, a government of accommodation + as well as a government of laws. Much was to be done by prudence, + much by conciliation, much by firmness. Few who are not + philosophical spectators can realize the difficult and delicate + part which a man in my situation had to act. All see, and most + admire, the glare which hovers round the external happiness of + elevated office. To me there is nothing in it beyond the lustre + which may be reflected from its connection with a power of + promoting human felicity. In our progress towards political + happiness my station is new, and, if I may use the expression, I + walk on untrodden ground. There is scarcely an action the motive + of which may not be subject to a double interpretation. There is + scarcely any part of my conduct which may not hereafter be drawn + into precedent. If, after all my humble but faithful endeavors to + advance the felicity of my country and mankind, I may indulge a + hope that my labors have not been altogether without success, it + will be the only real compensation I can receive in the closing + scenes of life."</p> + + <p>There is nothing very stimulating to the imagination in this + soberness of mind and calmness of utterance. The military + conquerors and the saviors of society, with epigrammatic sayings, + dramatic effects and rhythmic proclamations, are much more + exciting and dazzle the fancy much better. But it is this + seriousness of mind, coupled with intensity of purpose and grim + persistence, which has made the English-speaking race spread over + the world and carry successful government in its train. The + personal empire of Napoleon had crumbled before he died an exile + in St. Helena, but the work of Washington still endures. Just + what that work was, and how it was achieved, is all that still + remains to be considered.</p> + + <p>The policies set on foot and carried through under the first + federal administration were so brilliant and so successful that + we are apt to forget that months elapsed before the first of them + was even announced. When Washington, on May 1, 1789, began his + duties, there was absolutely nothing of the government of the + United States in existence but a President and a Congress. The + imperfect and broken machinery of the confederation still moved + feebly, and performed some of the absolutely necessary functions + of government. But the new organization had nothing to work with + except these outworn remnants of a discarded system. There were + no departments, and no arrangements for the collection of revenue + or the management of the postal service. A few scattered soldiers + formed the army, and no navy existed. There were no funds and no + financial resources. There were not even traditions and forms of + government, and, slight as these things may seem, settled methods + of doing public business are essential to its prompt and proper + transaction. These forms had to be devised and adopted first, and + although they seem matters of course now, after a century of use, + they were the subject of much thought and of some sharp + controversy in 1789. The manner in which the President was to be + addressed caused some heated discussion even before the + inauguration. America had but just emerged from the colonial + condition, and the colonial habits were still unbroken. In + private letters we find Washington referred to as "His Highness," + and in some newspapers as "His Highness the President-General," + while the Senate committee reported in favor of addressing him as + "His Highness the President of the United States and Protector of + their Liberties." In the House, however, the democratic spirit + was strong, there was a fierce attack upon the proposed titles, + and that body ended by addressing Washington simply as the + "President of the United States," which, as it happened, settled + the question finally. Washington personally cared little for + titles, although, as John Adams wrote to Mrs. Warren, he thought + them appropriate to high office. But in this case he saw that + there was a real danger lurking in the empty name, and so he was + pleased by the decision of the House. Another matter was the + relation between the President and the Senate. Should he + communicate with them in writing or orally, being present during + their deliberations as if they formed an executive council? It + was promptly decided that nominations should be made in writing; + but as to treaties, it was at first thought best that the + President should deliver them to the Senate in person, and it was + arranged with minute care where he should sit, beside the + Vice-President, while the matter was under discussion. This + arrangement, however, was abandoned after a single trial, and it + was agreed that treaties, like nominations, should come with + written messages.</p> + + <p>Last and most important of all was the question of the mode of + conduct and the etiquette to be established with regard to the + President himself. In this, as in the matter of titles, + Washington saw a real importance in what many persons might + esteem only empty forms, and he proceeded with his customary + thoroughness in dealing with the subject. What he did would be a + precedent for the future as well as a target for present + criticism, and he determined to devise a scheme which would + resist attack, and be worthy to stand as an example for his + successors. He therefore wrote to Madison: "The true medium, I + conceive, must lie in pursuing such a course as will allow him + (the President) time for all the official duties of his station. + This should be the primary object. The next, to avoid as much as + may be the charge of superciliousness, and seclusion from + information, by too much reserve and too great a withdrawal of + himself from company on the one hand, and the inconveniences, as + well as a diminution of respectability, from too free an + intercourse and too much familiarity on the other." This letter, + with a set of queries, was also sent to the Vice-President, to + Jay, and to Hamilton. They all agreed in the general views + outlined by Washington. Adams, fresh from Europe, was inclined to + surround the office, of which he justly had a lofty conception, + with a good deal of ceremony, because he felt that these things + were necessary in our relations with foreign nations. In the + main, however, the advice of all who were consulted was in favor + of keeping the nice line between too much reserve and too much + familiarity, and this line, after all the advising, Washington of + course drew for himself. He did it in this way. He decided that + he would return no calls, and that he would receive no general + visits except on specified days, and official visitors at fixed + hours. The third point was in regard to dinner parties. The + presidents of Congress hitherto had asked every one to dine, and + had ended by keeping a sort of public table, to the waste of both + time and dignity. Many persons, disgusted with this system, + thought that the President ought not to ask anybody to dinner. + But Washington, never given to extremes, decided that he would + invite to dinner persons of official rank and strangers of + distinction, but no one else, and that he would accept no + invitations for himself. After a time he arranged to have a + reception every Tuesday, from three to four in the afternoon, and + Mrs. Washington held a similar levee on Fridays. These + receptions, with a public dinner every week, were all the social + entertainments for which the President had either time or + health.</p> + + <p>By these sensible and apparently unimportant arrangements, + Washington managed to give free access to every one who was + entitled to it, and yet preserved the dignity and reserve due to + his office. It was one of the real although unmarked services + which he rendered to the new government, and which contributed so + much to its establishment, for it would have been very easy to + have lowered the presidential office by a false idea of + republican simplicity. It would have been equally easy to have + made it odious by a cold seclusion on the one hand, or by pomp + and ostentation on the other. With his usual good judgment and + perfect taste, Washington steered between the opposing dangers, + and yet notwithstanding the wisdom of his arrangements, and in + spite of their simplicity, he did not escape calumny on account + of them. One criticism was that at his reception every one stood, + which was thought to savor of incipient monarchy. To this + Washington replied, with the directness of which he was always + capable, that it was not usual to sit on such occasions, and, if + it were, he had no room large enough for the number of chairs + that would be required, and that, as the whole thing was + perfectly unceremonious, every one could come and go as he + pleased. Fault was also found with the manner in which he bowed, + an accusation to which he answered with an irony not untinged + with bitterness and contempt: "That I have not been able to make + bows to the taste of poor Colonel B. (who, by the by, I believe + never saw one of them) is to be regretted, especially too, as, + upon those occasions, they were indiscriminately bestowed, and + the best I was master of. Would it not have been better to throw + the veil of charity over them, ascribing their stiffness to the + effects of age, or to the unskillfulness of my teacher, rather + than to pride and dignity of office, which God knows has no + charms for me?"</p> + + <p>As party hostility developed, these attacks passed from the + region of private conversation to the columns of newspapers and + the declamation of mob orators, and an especial snarl was raised + over the circumstance that at some public ball the President and + Mrs. Washington were escorted to a sofa on a raised platform, and + that guests passed before them and bowed. Much monarchy and + aristocracy were perceived in this little matter, and Jefferson + carefully set it down in that collection of withered slanders + which he gave to an admiring posterity, after the grave had + safely covered both him and those whom he feared and hated in his + lifetime. This incident, however, was but an example of the + political capital which was sought for in the conduct of the + presidential office. The celebration of the birthday, the + proposition to put Washington's head upon the coins, and many + other similar trifles, were all twisted to the same purpose. The + dynasty of Cleon has been a long one, so long that even the + succession of the Popes seems temporary beside it, and it + flourished in Washington's time as rankly as it did in Athens, or + as it does to-day. The object of the assault varies, but the + motives and the purpose are as old and as lasting as human + nature. Envy and malice will always find a convenient shelter in + pretended devotion to the public weal, and will seek revenge for + their own lack of success by putting on the cloak of the tribune + of the people, and perverting the noblest of offices to the + basest uses.</p> + + <p>But time sets all things even. The demagogues and the critics + who assailed Washington's demeanor and behavior are forgotten, + while the wise and simple customs which he established and framed + for the great office that he honored, still prevail by virtue of + their good sense. We part gladly with all remembrance of those + bold defenders of liberty who saw in these slight forms + forerunners of monarchy. We would even consent to drop into + oblivion the precious legacy of Jefferson. But we will never part + with the picture drawn by a loving hand of that stately figure, + clad in black velvet, with the hand on the hilt of the sword, + standing at one of Mrs. Washington's levees, and receiving with + gentle and quiet dignity, full of kindliness but untinged by + cheap familiarity, the crowd that came to pay their respects. It + was well for the republic that at the threshold of its existence + it had for President a man who, by the kindness of his heart, by + his good sense, good manners, and fine breeding, gave to the + office which he held and the government he founded the simple + dignity which was part of himself and of his own high + character.</p> + + <p>Thus the forms and shows, important in their way, were dealt + with, while behind them came the sterner realities of government, + demanding regulation and settlement. At the outset Washington + knew about the affairs of the government, especially for the last + six years, only in a general way. He felt it to be his first + duty, therefore, to familiarize himself with all these matters, + and, although he was in the midst of the stir and bustle of a new + government, he nevertheless sent for all the papers of each + department of the confederation since the signature of the treaty + of peace, went through them systematically, and made notes and + summaries of their contents. This habit he continued throughout + his presidency in dealing with all official documents. The + natural result followed. He knew more at the start about the + facts in each and every department of the public business than + any other one man, and he continued to know more throughout his + administration. In this method and this capacity for taking + infinite pains is to be found a partial explanation at least of + the easy mastery of affairs which he always showed, whether on + the plantation, in the camp, or in the cabinet. It was in truth a + striking instance of that "long patience" which the great French + naturalist said was genius.</p> + + <p>While he was thus regulating forms of business, and + familiarizing himself with public questions, it became necessary + to fix the manner of dealing with foreign powers. There were not + many representatives of foreign nations present at the birth of + the republic, but there was one who felt, and perhaps not without + reason, that he was entitled to peculiar privileges. The Count de + Moustier, minister of France, desired to have private access to + the President, and even to discuss matters of business with him. + Washington's reply to this demand was, in its way, a model. After + saying that the only matter which could come up would relate to + commerce, with which he was unfamiliar, he continued: "Every one, + who has any knowledge of my manner of acting in public life, will + be persuaded that I am not accustomed to impede the dispatch or + frustrate the success of business by a ceremonious attention to + idle forms. Any person of that description will also be satisfied + that I should not readily consent to lose one of the most + important functions of my office for the sake of preserving an + imaginary dignity. But perhaps, if there are rules of proceeding + which have originated from the wisdom of statesmen, and are + sanctioned by the common consent of nations, it would not be + prudent for a young state to dispense with them altogether, at + least without some substantial cause for so doing. I have myself + been induced to think, possibly from habits of experience, that + in general the best mode of conducting negotiations, the detail + and progress of which might be liable to accidental mistakes or + unintentional misrepresentations, is by writing. This mode, if I + was obliged by myself to negotiate with any one, I should still + pursue. I have, however, been taught to believe that there is in + most polished nations a system established with regard to the + foreign as well as the other great departments, which, from the + utility, the necessity, and the reason of the thing, provides + that business should be digested and prepared by the heads of + those departments."</p> + + <p>The Count de Moustier hastened to excuse himself on the ground + that he expressed himself badly in English, which was + over-modest, for he expressed himself extremely well. He also + explained and defended his original propositions by trying to + show that they were reasonable and usual; but it was labor lost. + Washington's letter was final, and the French minister knew it. + The count was aware that he was dealing with a good soldier, but + in statecraft he probably felt he had to do with a novice. His + intention was to take advantage of the position of France, secure + for her peculiar privileges, and put her in the attitude of + patronizing inoffensively but effectively the new government + founded by the people she had helped to free. He found himself + turned aside quietly, almost deferentially, and yet so firmly and + decidedly that there was no appeal. No nation, he discovered, was + to have especial privileges. France was the good friend and ally + of the United States, but she was an equal, not a superior. It + was also fixed by this correspondence that the President, + representing the sovereignty of the people, was to have the + respect to which that sovereignty was entitled. The pomp and + pageant of diplomacy in the old world were neither desired nor + sought in America; yet the President was not to be approached in + person, but through the proper cabinet officer, and all + diplomatic communications after the fashion of civilized + governments were to be in writing. Thus within a month France, + and in consequence other nations, were quietly given to + understand that the new republic was to be treated like other + free and independent governments, and that there was to be + nothing colonial or subservient in her attitude to foreign + nations, whether those nations had been friends or foes in the + past.</p> + + <p>It required tact, firmness, and a sure judgment to establish + proper relations with foreign ministers. But once done, it was + done for all time. This was not the case with another and far + more important class of people, whose relation to the new + administration had to be determined at the very first hour of its + existence. Indeed, before Washington left Mount Vernon he had + begun to receive letters from persons who considered themselves + peculiarly well fitted to serve the government in return for a + small but certain salary. In a letter to Mrs. Wooster, for whom + as the widow of an old soldier he felt the tenderest sympathy, he + wrote soon after his arrival in New York: "As a public man acting + only with reference to the public good, I must be allowed to + decide upon all points of my duty, without consulting my private + inclinations and wishes. I must be permitted, with the best + lights I can obtain, and upon a general view of characters and + circumstances, to nominate such persons alone to offices as in my + judgment shall be the best qualified to discharge the functions + of the departments to which they shall be appointed." This + sentiment in varying forms has been declared since 1789 by many + Presidents and many parties. Washington, however, lived up + exactly to his declarations. At the same time he did not by any + means attempt to act merely as an examining board.</p> + + <p>Great political organizations, as we have known them since, + did not exist at the beginning of the government, but there were + nevertheless two parties, divided by the issue which had been + settled by the adoption of the Constitution. Washington took, and + purposed to take, his appointees so far as he could from those + who had favored the Constitution and were friends of the new + system. It is also clear that he made every effort to give the + preference to the soldiers and officers of the army, toward whom + his affectionate thought ever turned. Beyond this it can only be + said that he was almost nervously anxious to avoid any appearance + of personal feeling in making appointments, as was shown in the + letter refusing to make his nephew Bushrod a district attorney, + and that he resented personal pressure of any kind. He preferred + always to reach his conclusions so far as possible from a careful + study of written testimony. These principles, rigidly adhered to, + his own keen perception of character, and his knowledge of men, + resulted in a series of appointments running through eight years + which were really marvelously successful. The only rejection, + outside the special case of John Rutledge, was that of Benjamin + Fishbourn for naval officer of the port of Savannah, which was + due apparently to the personal hostility of the Georgia senators. + Washington, conscious of his own painstaking, was not a little + provoked by this setting aside of an old soldier. He sent in a + sharp message on the subject, pointing out the trouble he took to + make sure of the fitness of an appointment, and intimated that + the same effort would not come amiss in the Senate when they + rejected one of his nominees. In view of the fact that it was a + new government, the absence of mistakes in the appointments is + quite extraordinary, and the value of such success can be + realized by considering the disastrous consequences which would + have come from inefficient officers or malfeasance in office when + the great experiment was just put on trial, and was surrounded by + doubters and critics ready and eager to pick flaws and find + faults.</p> + + <p>The general tone of the government and its reputation at + widely scattered points depended largely on the persons appointed + to the smaller executive offices. Important, however, as these + were, the fate of the republic under the new Constitution was + infinitely more involved in the men whom Washington called about + him in his cabinet, to decide with him as to the policies which + were to be begun, and on which the living vital government was to + be founded. Congress, troubled about many things, and struggling + with questions of revenue and taxation, managed in the course of + the summer to establish and provide for three executive + departments and for an attorney-general. To the selection of the + men to fill these high offices Washington gave, of course, the + most careful thought, and succeeded in forming a cabinet which, + in its aggregate ability, never has been equaled in this + country.</p> + + <p>Edmund Randolph was appointed attorney-general. Losing his + father at an early age, and entering the army, he had been + watched over and protected by Washington with an almost paternal + care, and at the time of his appointment he was one of the most + conspicuous men in public life, as well as a leading lawyer at + the bar of Virginia. He came from one of the oldest and strongest + of the Virginian families, and had been governor of his State, + and a leader in the constitutional convention, where he had + introduced what was known as the Virginian plan. He had refused + to sign the Constitution, but had come round finally to its + support, largely through Washington's influence. There was then, + and there can be now, no question as to Randolph's really fine + talents, or as to his fitness for his post. His defect was a lack + of force of character and strength of will, which was manifested + by a certain timidity of action, and by an infirmity of purpose, + such as had appeared in his course about the Constitution. He + performed the duties of his office admirably, but in the decision + of the momentous questions which came before the cabinet he + showed an uncertainty of opinion which was felt by all his + colleagues.<a id="footnotetag1-3" name= + "footnotetag1-3"></a><a href="#footnote1-3"><sup>1</sup></a></p> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote1-3" name="footnote1-3"></a>[<b>Footnote 1:</b> + <a href="#footnotetag1-3">(return)</a> This passage was written + before the recent appearance of Mr. Conway's <i>Life of + Randolph</i>. That ample biography, in my opinion, confirms the + view of Randolph here given. If, in the light of this new + material, I have erred at all, it is, I think, on the + charitable side. Mr. Conway, in order to vindicate Randolph, + has sacrificed so far as he could nearly every conspicuous + public man of that period. From Washington, whom he charges + with senility, down, there is hardly a man who ever crossed + Randolph's path whom he has not assailed. Yet he presents no + reason, so far as I can see, to alter the present opinion of + Randolph.] + </blockquote> + + <p>Henry Knox of Massachusetts was head of the War Department + under the confederacy, and was continued in office by Washington, + who appointed him secretary of war under the new arrangement. It + was a natural and excellent selection. Knox was a distinguished + soldier, he had served well through the Revolution, and + Washington was warmly attached to him. He was not a statesman by + training or habit of mind, nor was he possessed of commanding + talents. But he was an able man, sound in his views and diligent + in his office, devoted to his chief and unswerving in his loyalty + to the administration and all its measures. There was never any + doubt as to the attitude of Henry Knox, and Washington found him + as faithful and efficient in the cabinet as he had always been in + the field.</p> + + <p>Second in rank, but first in importance, was the secretaryship + of the treasury. "Finance! Ah, my friend, all that remains of the + American Revolution grounds there." So Gouverneur Morris had + written to Jay. So might he have written again of the American + Union, for the fate of the experiment rested at the outset on the + Treasury Department. Yet there was probably less hesitation as to + the proper man for this place than for any other. Washington no + doubt would have been glad to give it to Robert Morris, whose + great services in the Revolution he could never forget. But this + could not be, and acting on his own judgment, fortified by that + of Morris himself, he made Alexander Hamilton secretary of the + treasury.</p> + + <p>It is one of the familiar marks of greatness to know how to + choose the right men to perform the tasks which no man, either in + war or peace, can complete single-handed. Napoleon's marshals + were conspicuous proofs of his genius, and Washington had a + similar power of selection. The generals whom he trusted were the + best generals, the statesmen whom he consulted stand highest in + history. He was fallible, as other mortals are fallible. He, too, + had his Varus, and the time was coming when he could echo the + bitter cry of the great emperor for his lost legions. But the + mistakes were the exceptions. He chose with the sureness of a + strong and penetrating mind, and the most signal example of this + capacity was his secretary of the treasury. He knew Hamilton + well. He had known him as his staff officer, active, + accomplished, and efficient. He had seen him leave his side in a + tempest of boyish rage, and he had watched him charging with + splendid gallantry the Yorktown redoubts. He was familiar with + Hamilton's extraordinary mastery of financial and political + problems, and he had found him a powerful leader in the work of + forming the Constitution. He understood Hamilton's strength, and + he knew where his dangers lay. Now he called him to his cabinet, + and gave into his hands the department on which the immediate + success of the government hinged. It was a brilliant choice. The + mark in his lifetime for all the assaults of his political + opponents, the leader and the victim of the schism which rent his + own party, Hamilton, after his death, was made the target for + attack and reprobation by his political foes, who for nearly + sixty years, with few intermissions, controlled the government. + His work, however, could not be undone, and as passions have + subsided his fame has proved to be of that highest and rarest + kind which broadens and rises with the lapse of years, until in + the light of history it overtops that of any of our statesmen, + except of his own great chief and Abraham Lincoln. The work to + which he was called was that of organizing a national government, + and in the performance of this work he showed that he + belonged to the highest type of constructive statesmen, and + was one of the rare men who build, and whose building stands the + test of time.</p> + + <p>Last to be mentioned, but first in rank, was the Department of + State. For this high place Washington chose Thomas Jefferson, who + was then our minister in Paris, and who did not return to take up + his official duties until the following March. Of the four + cabinet offices, this was the only one where Washington proceeded + entirely on public grounds. He took Jefferson on account of his + wide reputation, his unquestioned ability, his standing before + the country, and his experience in our foreign relations. With + the other three there was a strong element of personal friendship + and familiarity. With the secretary of state his intercourse had + been, so far as we can judge, almost wholly of a public + character, and, so far as can be inferred from an expression of + some years before, the selection was made by Washington in + deference simply to what he believed to be the public interest. + The only allusion to Jefferson in all the printed volumes of + correspondence prior to 1789 occurs in a letter to Robert + Livingston, of January 8, 1783. He there said: "What office is + Mr. Jefferson appointed to that he has, you say, lately accepted? + If it is that of commissioner of peace, I hope he will arrive too + late to have any hand in it." There is no indication that their + personal relations were then or afterwards other than pleasant. + Yet this brief sentence is a strong expression of distrust, and + especially so from the fact that Washington was not at all given + to criticising other people in his letters. What he distrusted + was not Jefferson's ability, for that no man could doubt, still + less his patriotism. But Washington read character well, and he + felt that Jefferson might be lacking in the qualities of boldness + and determination, so needful in a negotiation like that which + resulted in the acknowledgment of our independence.</p> + + <p>The truth was that the two men were radically different, and + never could have been sympathetic. Washington was strong, direct, + masculine, and at times fierce in anger. Jefferson was adroit, + subtle, and feminine in his sensitiveness. Washington was + essentially a fighting man, tamed by a stern self-control from + the recklessness of his early days, but always a fighter. + Jefferson was a lover of peace, given to quiet, hating quarrels + and bloodshed, and at times timid in dealing with public + questions. Washington was deliberate and conservative, after the + fashion of his race. Jefferson was quick, impressionable, and + always fascinated by new notions, even if they were somewhat + fantastic. A thoroughly liberal and open-minded man, Washington + never turned a deaf ear to any new suggestion, whether it was a + public policy or a mechanical invention, but to all alike he gave + careful consideration before he adopted them. To Jefferson, on + the other hand, mere novelty had a peculiar charm, and he jumped + at any device, either to govern a state or improve a plough, + provided that it had the flavor of ingenuity. The two men might + easily have thought the same concerning the republic, but they + started from opposite poles, and no full communion of thought and + feeling was possible between them. That Washington chose fitly + from purely public and outside considerations can not be + questioned, but he made a mistake when he put next to himself a + man for whom he did not have the personal regard and sympathy + which he felt for his other advisers. The necessary result + finally came, after many troubles in the cabinet, in dislike and + distrust, if not positive alienation.</p> + + <p>Looking at the cabinet, however, as it stood in the beginning, + we can only admire the wisdom of the selection and the high + abilities which were thus brought together for the administration + and construction of a great national government. It has always + been the fashion to speak of this first cabinet as made up + without reference to party, but the idea is a mistaken one from + any point of view. Washington himself gave it color, for he felt + very rightly that he was the choice of the whole people and not + of a party. He wished to rise above party, and in fact to have no + party, but a devotion of all to the good of the country. The time + came when he sorrowed for and censured party bitterness and party + strife, but it is to be observed that the party feeling which he + most deplored was that which grew up against his own policies and + his own administration. The fact was that Washington, who rose + above party more than any other statesman in our history, was + nevertheless, like most men of strong will and robust mind, and + like all great political leaders, a party man, as we shall have + occasion to see further on. It is true that his cabinet contained + the chiefs and founders of two great schools of political + thought, which have ever since divided the country; but when + these parties were once fairly developed, the cabinet became a + scene of conflict and went to pieces, only to be reformed on + party lines. When it was first made up, the two parties of our + subsequent history, with which we are familiar, did not exist, + and it was in the administration of Washington that they were + developed. Yet the cabinet of 1789 was, so far as there were + parties, a partisan body. The only political struggle that we had + had was over the adoption of the Constitution. The parties of the + first Congress were the Federalists and the anti-Federalists, the + friends and the enemies of the Constitution. Among those who + opposed the Constitution were many able and distinguished men, + but Washington did not invite Sam Adams, or George Mason, or + Patrick Henry, or George Clinton to enter his cabinet. On the + contrary, he took only friends and supporters of the + Constitution. Hamilton was its most illustrious advocate. + Randolph, after some vacillation, had done very much to turn the + wavering scale in Virginia in its favor. Knox was its devoted + friend; and Jefferson, although he had carped at it and + criticised it in his letters, was not known to have done so, and + was considered, and rightly considered, to be friendly to the new + system. In other words, the cabinet was made up exclusively of + the party of the Constitution, which was the victorious party of + the moment. This was of course wholly right, and Washington was + too great and wise a leader to have done anything else. The + cabinet was formed with regard to existing divisions, and, when + those divisions changed, the cabinet which gave birth to them + changed too.</p> + + <p>Outside the cabinet, the most weighty appointments were those + of the Supreme Court. No one then quite appreciated, probably, + the vast importance which this branch of the government was + destined to assume, or the great part it was to play in the + history of the country and the development of our institutions. + At the same time no one could fail to see that much depended on + the composition of the body which was to be the ultimate + interpreter of the Constitution. The safety of the entire scheme + might easily have been imperiled by the selection of men as + judges who were lacking in ability or character. Washington chose + with his wonted sureness. At the head of the court he placed John + Jay, one of the most distinguished of the public men of the day, + who gave to the office at once the impress of his own high + character and spotless reputation. With him were associated + Wilson of Pennsylvania, Cushing of Massachusetts, Blair of + Virginia, Iredell of North Carolina, and Rutledge of South + Carolina. They were all able and well-known men, sound lawyers, + and also, be it noted, warm friends of the Constitution.</p> + + <p>Thus the business of organizing the government in the first + great and essential points was completed. It was the work of the + President, and, anxious and arduous as it was, it is worth + remembering, too, that it was done, and thoroughly done, in the + midst of severe physical suffering. Just after the inauguration, + Washington was laid up with an anthrax or carbuncle in his thigh, + which brought him at one time very near death. For six weeks he + could lie only on one side, endured the most constant and acute + pain, and was almost incapable of motion. He referred to his + illness at the time in a casual and perfectly simple way, and + mind and will so prevailed over the bodily suffering that the + great task of organizing the government was never suspended nor + interrupted.</p> + + <p>When the work was done and Congress had adjourned, Washington, + feeling that he had earned a little rest and recreation, + proceeded to carry out a purpose, which he had formed very early + in his presidency, of visiting the Eastern States. This was the + first part of a general plan which he had conceived of visiting + while in office all portions of the Union. The personal + appearance of the President, representing the whole people, would + serve to bring home to the public mind the existence and reality + of a central government, which to many if not to most persons in + the outlying States seemed shadowy and distant. But General + Washington was neither shadowy nor distant to any one. Every man, + woman, and child had heard of and loved the leader of the + Revolution. To his countrymen everywhere, his name meant + political freedom and victory in battle; and when he came among + them as the head of a new government, that government took on in + some measure the character of its chief. His journey was a + well-calculated appeal, not for himself but for his cause, to the + warm human interest which a man readily excites, but which only + gathers slowly around constitutions and forms of government. The + world owes a good deal to the right kind of hero-worship, and the + United States have been no exception.</p> + + <p>The journey itself was uneventful, and was carried out with + Washington's usual precision. It served its purpose, too, and + brought out a popular enthusiasm which spoke well for the + prospects of the federal government, and which was the first + promise of the loyal support which New England gave to the + President, as she had already given it to the general. In the + succession of crowds and processions and celebrations which + marked the public rejoicing, one incident of this journey stands + out as still memorable, and possessed of real meaning. Mr. John + Hancock was governor of Massachusetts. There is no need to dwell + upon him. He was a man of slender abilities, large wealth, and + ready patriotism, with a great sense of his own importance, and a + fine taste for impressive display. Every external thing about + him, from his handsome house and his Copley portrait to his + imposing gout and his immortal signature, was showy and + effective. He was governor of Massachusetts, and very proud of + that proud old commonwealth as well as of her governor. Within + her bounds he was the representative of her sovereignty, and he + felt that deference was due to him from the President of the + United States when they both stood on the soil of Massachusetts. + He did not meet Washington on his arrival, and Washington + thereupon did not dine with the governor as he had agreed to do. + It looked a little stormy. Here was evidently a man with some new + views as to the sovereignty of States and the standing of the + union of States. It might have done for Governor Hancock to allow + the President of Congress to pass out of Massachusetts without + seeing its governor, and thereby learn a valuable lesson, but it + would never do to have such a thing happen in the case of George + Washington, no matter what office he might hold. A little after + noon on Sunday, October 26, therefore, the governor wrote a note + to the President, apologizing for not calling before, and asking + if he might call in half an hour, even though it was at the + hazard of his health. Washington answered at once, expressing his + pleasure at the prospect of seeing his excellency, but begging + him, with a touch of irony, not to do anything to endanger his + health. So in half an hour Hancock appeared. Picturesque, even if + defeated, he was borne up-stairs on men's shoulders, swathed in + flannels, and then and there made his call. The old house in + Boston where this happened has had since then a series of + successors, but the ground on which it stood has been duly + remembered and commemorated. It is a more important spot than we + are wont to think; for there it was settled, on that autumn + Sunday, that the idea that the States were able to own and to + bully the Union they had formed was dead, and that the President + of the new United States was henceforth to be regarded as the + official superior of every governor in the land. It was a mere + question of etiquette, nothing more. But how the general + government would have sunk in popular estimation if the President + had not asserted, with perfect dignity and yet entire firmness, + its position! Men are governed very largely by impressions, and + Washington knew it. Hence his settling at once and forever the + question of precedence between the Union and the States. + Everywhere and at all times, according to his doctrine, the + nation was to be first.<a id="footnotetag1-4" name= + "footnotetag1-4"></a><a href="#footnote1-4"><sup>1</sup></a></p> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote1-4" name="footnote1-4"></a>[<b>Footnote 1:</b> + <a href="#footnotetag1-4">(return)</a> The most lately + published contemporary account of this affair with Hancock can + be found in the <i>Magazine of American History</i>, June, + 1888, p. 508, entitled "Incidents in the Life of John Hancock, + as related by Dorothy Quincy Hancock Scott (from the Diary of + Gen. W.H. Sumner)."] + </blockquote> + + <p>So the President traveled on to the North, and then back by + another road to New York, and that excellent bit of work in + familiarizing the people with their federal government was + accomplished. Meantime the wheels had started, the machine was in + motion, and the chief officers were at their places. The + preliminary work had been done, and the next step was to + determine what policies should be adopted, and to find out if the + new system could really perform the task for which it had been + created.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <h2><a name="III" id="III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2> + + <h2>DOMESTIC AFFAIRS</h2> + + <p>To trace in detail the events of Washington's administration + would be to write the history of the country during that period. + It is only possible here to show, without much regard to + chronological sequence, the part of the President in developing + the policy of the government at home, and his attitude toward + each question as it arose. We are concerned here merely with the + influence and effect of Washington in our history, and not with + the history itself. What did he do, and what light do we get on + the man himself from his words and deeds? These are the only + questions that a brief study of a career so far-reaching can + attempt to answer.</p> + + <p>Congress came together for the first time with the government + actually organized on January 4, 1790. On the day when the + session opened, Washington drove down to the hall where the + Congress met, alone in his own coach drawn by four horses. He was + preceded by Colonel Humphreys and Major Jackson, mounted on his + two white horses, while immediately behind came his chariot with + his private secretaries, and Mr. Lewis on horseback. Then + followed in their own coaches the chief justice and the + secretaries of war and of the treasury. When the President + reached the hall he was met at the entrance by the doorkeeper of + the Congress, and was escorted to the Senate chamber. There he + passed between the members of each branch, drawn up on either + hand, and took his seat by the Vice-President. When order and + silence were obtained, he rose and spoke to the assembled + representatives of the people standing before him. Having + concluded his speech, he bowed and withdrew with his suite as he + had come. Jefferson killed this simple ceremonial, and + substituted for it the written message, sent by a secretary and + read by a clerk in the midst of talk and bustle, which is the + form we have to-day. Jefferson's change was made, of course, in + the name of liberty, and also because he was averse to public + speaking. From the latter point of view, it was reasonable + enough, but the ostensible cause was as hollow and meaningless as + any of the French notions to which it was close akin. It is well + for the head of the state to meet face to face the + representatives of the same people who elected him. For more than + a century this has been the practice in Massachusetts, to take a + single instance, and liberty in that commonwealth has not been + imperiled, nor has the State been obliged to ask Federal aid to + secure to her a republican form of government because of her + adherence to this ancient custom.</p> + + <p>The forms adopted by Washington had the grave and simple + dignity which marked all he did, and it was senseless to abandon + what his faultless taste and patriotic feeling approved. Forms + are in their way important things: they may conceal perils to + liberty, or they may lend dignity and call forth respect to all + that liberty holds most dear. The net result of all this business + has been very curious. Jefferson's written message prevails; and + yet at the same time we inaugurate our Presidents with a pomp and + parade to which those of the dreaded Federalists seem poor and + quiet, and which would make the hero of the message-in-writing + fancy that the air was darkened by the shadows of monarchy and + despotism. The author of the Declaration of Independence was a + patriotic man and lover of freedom, but he who fought out the + Revolution in the field was quite as safe a guardian of American + liberty; and his clear mind was never confused by the fantasies + of that Parisian liberty which confused facts with names, and + ended in the Terror and the first Empire. The people of the + United States to-day surround the first office of the land with a + respect and dignity which they deem equal to the mighty + sovereignty that it represents, and in this is to be found the + genuine American feeling expressed by Washington in the plain and + simple ceremonial which he adopted for his meetings with the + Congress.</p> + + <p>In this first speech, thus delivered, Washington indicated the + subjects to which he wished Congress to direct their attention, + and which in their development formed the policies of his + administration. His first recommendation was to provide for the + common defense by a proper military establishment. His last and + most elaborate was in behalf of education, for which he invoked + the aid of Congress and urged the foundation of a national + university, a scheme he had much at heart, and to which he + constantly returned. The history of these two recommendations is + soon told. Provision was made for the army, inadequate enough, as + Washington thought, but still without dispute, and such + additional provision was afterwards made from time to time as the + passing exigency of the moment demanded. For education nothing + was done, and the national university has never advanced beyond + the recommendation of the first President.</p> + + <p>He also advised the adoption of a uniform standard of coinage, + weights, and measures. In two years a mint was duly established + after an able report from Hamilton, and out of his efforts and + those of Jefferson came our decimal system. There was debate over + the devices on the coins in which the ever-vigilant Jeffersonians + scented monarchical dangers, but with this exception the country + got its uniform coinage peacefully enough. The weights and + measures did not fare so well. They obtained a long report from + Jefferson, and a still longer and more learned disquisition from + John Quincy Adams thirty years later. But that was all. We still + use the rule of thumb systems inherited from our English + ancestors, and Washington's uniform standard, except for the two + reports, has gone no further than the national university.</p> + + <p>Another recommendation to the effect that invention ought to + be encouraged and protected bore fruit in this same year in + patent and copyright laws, which became the foundation of our + present system. The same good fortune befell the recommendation + for a uniform rule for naturalization, and the law of 1790 was + quietly enacted, no one then imagining that its alteration less + than ten years later was destined to form part of a policy which, + after a fierce struggle, settled the fate of parties and decided + the control of the government. The post-office was also commended + to the care of Congress, and for that, as for the army, provision + was duly made, insufficient at the outset, but growing steadily + from this small beginning, as it was called upon to meet the + spread and increase of population.</p> + + <p>Provision was also made gradually, and with much occasional + conflict, for a diplomatic service such as the President advised. + But this was merely the machinery to carry out our foreign policy + on which, in a few years, our political history largely turned, + and which will demand a chapter by itself.</p> + + <p>A paragraph devoted to Indian affairs informed Congress that + measures were on foot to establish pacific relations with our + savage neighbors, but that it would be well to be prepared to use + force. This brief sentence was the beginning of an important + policy, which, in its consequences and effects, played a large + part in the history of the next eight years.</p> + + <p>These various matters thus disposed of, there remained only + the request to the House to provide for the revenue and the + public credit. From this came Hamilton's financial policy which + created parties, and with it was interwoven in the body of the + speech the general recommendation to make all proper effort for + the advancement of manufactures, commerce, and agriculture.</p> + + <p>The speech as a whole, short though it was, drew the outline + of a vigorous system, which aimed at the establishment of a + strong government with enlarged powers. It cut at a blow all ties + between the new government and the feeble strivings of the dead + confederation. It displayed a broad conception of the duties of + the government under the Constitution, and in every paragraph it + breathed the spirit of a robust nationality, calculated to touch + the people directly in every State of the Union.</p> + + <p>Before taking up the financial question, which became the + great issue in our domestic affairs, it will be well to trace + briefly the story of our relations with the Indians. The policy + of the new administration in this respect was peculiarly + Washington's own, and, although it affected more or less the + general course of events at that period, it did not directly + become the subject of party differences. The "Indian problem" is + still with us, but it is now a very mild problem indeed. Within a + few years, it is true, we have had Indian wars, conducted by the + forces of the United States, and ever-recurring outbreaks between + savages and frontiersmen. But it has been a very distant + business. To the great mass of the American people it has been + little more than interesting news, to be leisurely scanned in the + newspaper without any sense of immediate and personal concern. + Moreover, the popular conception of the Indian has for a long + time been wildly inaccurate. We have known him in various + capacities, as the innocent victim of corrupt agents and traders, + and as the brutal robber and murderer with the vices and force of + the Western frontiersman, but without any of the latter's + redeeming virtues. Last and most important of all, we have known + him as the rare hero and the conventional villain of romance, + ranging from the admirable stories of Cooper to the last + production of the "penny dreadful." The result has been to create + in the public mind a being who probably never existed anywhere + except in the popular imagination, and who certainly is not the + North American Indian.</p> + + <p>We are always loath to admit that our conceptions are formed + by fiction, but in the case of people remote from our daily + observation it plays in nine instances out of ten a leading part, + and it has certainly done so here. In this way we have been + provided with two types simple and well defined, which represent + the abnormally good on the one hand and the inconceivably bad on + the other. The Indian hero is a person of phenomenal nobility of + character, and of an ability which would do credit to the + training of a highly refined civilization. He is the product of + the orator, the novelist, or the philanthropist, and has but + slight and distant relation to facts. The usual type, however, + and the one which has entered most largely into the popular mind, + is the Indian villain. He is portrayed invariably as cunning, + treacherous, cruel, and cowardly, without any relieving quality. + In this there is of course much truth. As a matter of fact, + Indians are cunning, treacherous, and cruel, but they are also + bold fighters. The leading idea of the Indian that has come down + from Cooper's time, and which depicts him as a "cowardly + redskin," unable to stand for a moment against a white man in + fair fight, is a complete delusion designed to flatter the + superior race. It has been in a large measure dissipated by + Parkman's masterly histories, but the ideas born of popular + fiction die hard. They are due in part to the theory that cruelty + implies cowardice, just as we say that a bully must be a coward, + another mistaken bit of proverbial wisdom.</p> + + <p>As a matter of fact, the records show that the North American + Indian is one of the most remarkable savage warriors of whom we + have any knowledge; and the number of white men killed for each + Indian slain in war exhibits an astonishing disproportion of + loss. Captain James Smith, for many years a captive, and who + figured in most of the campaigns of the last century, estimated + that fifty of our people were killed to one of theirs. This of + course includes women and children; and yet even in the battle of + the Big Kanawha, the Virginia riflemen, although they defeated + the Indians with an inferior force, lost two to one, and a + similar disproportion seems to have continued to the present + day.</p> + + <p>The Indian, moreover, not only fought well and to the death, + if surrounded, but he had a discipline and plan of battle which + were most effective for the wilderness. It seems probable that, + if the experiment had been properly tried, the Indians might have + been turned into better soldiers than the famous Sikhs; and the + French, who used the red men skillfully, if without much + discipline, found them formidable and effective allies. They cut + off more than one English and American army, and the fact that + they resorted to ambush and surprise does not detract from their + exploits. It was a legitimate mode of warfare, and was used by + them with terrible effect. They have fought more than one pitched + battle against superior numbers when the victory hung long in the + balance, and they have carried on guerrilla wars for years + against overwhelming forces with extraordinary persistence and + success. There is no savage, except the Zulu or Maori, who has + begun to exhibit the natural fighting quality of the American + Indian; and although the Zulu appears to have displayed greater + dash, the Indian, by his mastery of the tactics of surprise, has + shown a far better head. In a word, the Indian has always been a + formidable savage, treacherous, cruel, and cunning to an extreme + degree, no doubt, but a desperate and dogged fighter, with a + natural instinct for war. It must be remembered, too, that he was + far more formidable in 1790 than he is to-day, with the + ever-rising tide of civilized population flowing upon him and + hemming him in. When the Constitution came into being, the + Indians were pretty well out of the Atlantic States, but beyond + the Alleghanies all was theirs, and they had the unbroken + wilderness as their ally and their refuge. There they lay like a + dark line on the near frontier, threatening war and pillage and + severe check to the westward advance of our people. They were a + serious matter to a new government, limited in resources and + representing only three millions of people.</p> + + <p>Fortunately the President was of all men best fitted to deal + with this grave question, for he knew the Indians thoroughly. His + earliest public service had been to negotiate with them, and from + that time on he had been familiar with them in peace and in + diplomacy, while he had fought with them in war over and over + again. He was not in the least confused in his notions about + them, but saw them, as he did most facts, exactly as they were. + He had none of the false sentimentality about the noble and + injured red man, which in later days has been at times highly + mischievous, nor on the other hand did he take the purely brutal + view of the fighting scout or backwoodsman. He knew the Indian as + he was, and understood him as + a dangerous, treacherous, fighting savage. Better than any one + else he appreciated the difficulties of Indian warfare when an + army had to be launched into the wilderness and cut off from a + base of supplies. He was well aware, too, that the western tribes + were a constant temptation to England and Spain on either border, + and might be used against us with terrible effect. In taking up + the question for solution, he believed first, as was his nature, + in justice, and he resolved to push every pacific measure, and + strive unremittingly by fair dealing and binding treaties to keep + a peace which was of great moment to the young republic. But he + also felt that pacific measures were an uncertain reliance, and + that sharp, decisive blows were often the only means of + maintaining peace and quiet on the frontier, and of warding off + English and Spanish intrigue. This was the policy he indicated in + the brief sentences of his first speech, and it only remains to + see how he carried it out.</p> + + <p>The outlook in regard to the Indians, when Washington assumed + the presidency, was threatening enough. The Continental Congress + had shown in this respect most honorable intention and some + vigor, but their honest purposes had been in large measure + thwarted by the action of the various States, which they were + unable to control. In New York peace reigned, despite some + grumbling; for the Six Nations had made a general treaty, and + also two special treaties, not long before, which were on the + whole just and satisfactory. At the same time a general treaty + had been made with the western Indians, which modified some of + the injustices of the treaties of 1785, and which were also fair + and reasonable. In this treaty, however, the tribes of the Wabash + were not included, and they therefore were engaged in war with + the Kentucky people. Those hardy backwoodsmen were quick enough + to retaliate, and they generally proceeded on the simple + backwoods principle that tribal distinctions were futile, and + that every Indian was an enemy. This view, it must be admitted, + saved a good deal of thought, but it led the Kentuckians in their + raids to kill many Indians who did not belong to the Wabash + tribes, but to those protected by treaty. The result of this + impartiality was, that, besides the chronic Wabash troubles, + there was every probability that a general war with all the + western and northwestern tribes might break out at any + moment.</p> + + <p>South of the Ohio, matters were even worse. The Choctaws, it + is true, owing to their distance from our frontier settlements, + were on excellent terms with our government. But the Cherokees + had just been beaten and driven back by Sevier and his followers + from the short-lived state of Franklin, and had taken refuge with + the Creeks. These last were a formidable people. Not only were + they good fighters, but they were also well armed, thanks to + their alliance with the Spaniards, from whom they obtained not + only countenance, but guns, ammunition, and supplies. They were + led also by a chief of remarkable ability, a Scotch half-breed, + educated at Charlestown, and named Alexander McGillivray. With a + tribe so constituted and commanded, it was not difficult to bring + on trouble, as soon proved to be the case. Georgia had claimed + and seized certain lands under treaties which she alleged had + been made, whereupon the Creeks denied the validity of these + treaties and went to war, in which they were highly successful. + The Georgians had already asked assistance from their neighbors, + and they now demanded it from the new general government. + Thereupon, under an act of Congress, Washington appointed as + commissioners to arrange the difficulties General Lincoln, + Colonel Humphrey, and David Griffin of Virginia, all remote from + the scene of conflict, and all judicious selections. The Creeks + readily met the new commissioners, but when they found that no + lands were to be given up, they declined to treat further, and + said they would await a new negotiation.</p> + + <p>Washington attributed this failure, and no doubt correctly, to + the intrigues and influence of Spain. On the day the report of + the commissioners went to Congress, he wrote to Governor Pinckney + of South Carolina: "For my own part I am entirely persuaded that + the present general government will endeavor to lay the + foundations for its proceedings in national justice, faith, and + honor. But should the government, after having attempted in vain + every reasonable pacific measure, be obliged to have recourse to + arms for the defense of its citizens, I am also of opinion that + sound policy and good economy will point to a prompt and decisive + effort, rather than to defensive and lingering operations." + "Lingering" had been the curse of our Indian policy, and it was + this above all things that Washington was determined to be rid + of. Whether peace or war, there was to be quick and decisive + action. He therefore, in this spirit, at once sent southward + another commissioner, Colonel Willett, who very shrewdly + succeeded in getting McGillivray and his chiefs to agree to + accompany him to New York. Thither they accordingly came in due + time, the Scotch half-breed and twenty-eight of his chiefs. They + were entertained and well treated at the seat of government, and + there, with Knox acting for the United States, they made a treaty + which involved concessions on both sides. The Creeks gave up all + claims to lands north and east of the Oconee, and the United + States, under a recent general act regulating trade and + intercourse with the Indians, gave up all lands south and west of + the same river, and agreed to make the tribes an annual present. + Then Washington gave them wampum and tobacco, and shook hands + with them, and the chiefs went home. There was grumbling on both + sides, especially among the Georgians, but nevertheless the + treaty held for a time at least, and there was peace.</p> + + <p>Washington's policy of justice had succeeded, and the Indians + got an idea of the power and fair dealing of the new government, + which was of real value. More valuable still was the lesson to + the people of the United States that this central government + meant to deal justly with the Indians, and would try to prevent + any single State from frustrating by bad faith the policy + designed to benefit the whole country. Trouble soon began again + in this direction, and in later days States inflated with + state-right doctrines carried this resistance in Indian affairs + to a much greater extent, and flouted the acts of the federal + government. This, however, does not detract from the wisdom of + the President, who inaugurated the policy of acting justly toward + the Indians, and of overruling the selfish injustice of the State + immediately affected. If the policy of justice and firmness + adopted by Washington had never been abandoned, it would have + been better for the honor and the interest both of the nation and + the separate States.</p> + + <p>The same pacific policy which had succeeded in the south was + tried in the west and failed. The English, with their usual + thoughtfulness, incited the Indians to claim the Ohio as their + boundary, which meant war and murderous assaults on all our + people traveling on the river. Retaliation, of course, followed, + and in April, 1790, Colonel Harmer with a body of Kentucky + militia invaded the Indian country, burned a deserted village, + and returned without having accomplished anything substantial. + The desultory warfare of murder and pillage went on for a time, + and then Washington felt that the moment had come for the other + branch of his policy. At all events there should be no lingering, + and there should be action. Peaceful measures having failed, + there should be war and a settlement in some fashion.</p> + + <p>Accordingly, in the fall of 1790, soon after his successful + Creek negotiation, he ordered out some three hundred regulars and + eleven hundred militia from Pennsylvania and Kentucky, and sent + them under Harmer into the Miami country. The expedition burned a + village on the Scioto; and then Colonel Hardin, detached with + some hundred and fifty men in pursuit of the Indians, was caught + in an ambush and his regulars cut off, the militia running away + apparently quite successfully. Thereupon Harmer retreated; but, + changing his mind in a day or two, advanced again, and again sent + out Hardin with a larger force than before. Then the advance was + again surprised, and the regulars nearly all killed, while the + militia, who stood their ground better this time, lost about a + hundred men. The end was the repulse of the whites after a pretty + savage fight. Then Harmer withdrew altogether, declaring, with a + strange absence of humor, if of no more important quality, that + he had won a victory. After reaching home, this mismanaged + expedition caused much crimination and heart-burning, followed by + courts-martial on Hardin and Harmer, who were both acquitted, and + by the resignation of the latter.</p> + + <p>This defeat of course simply made worse the state of affairs + in general, and the Six Nations, who had hitherto been quiet, + became uneasy and were kept so by the ever-kind incitement of the + English. Various mediations with these powerful tribes failed; + but Colonel Pickering, appointed a special commissioner, managed + at last to appease their discontents. To the southward also the + Cherokees began to move and threaten, but were pacified by the + exertions of Governor Blount of the Southwest Territory. Meantime + an act had been passed to increase the army, and Arthur St. Clair + was appointed major-general. Washington, who had been greatly + disturbed by the failure of Harmer, was both angered and + disheartened by the conduct of the States and of the frontier + settlers. "Land-jobbing, the intermeddling of the States, and the + disorderly conduct of the borderers, who were indifferent as to + the killing of an Indian," were in his opinion the great + obstacles in the way of success. Yet these very men who shot + Indians at sight and plundered them of their lands, as well as + the States immediately concerned, were the first to cry out for + aid from the general government when a war, brought about usually + by their own violation of the treaties of the United States, was + upon them. On the other hand, the Indians themselves were warlike + and quarrelsome, and they were spurred on by England and Spain in + a way difficult to understand at the present day.</p> + + <p>In all this perplexity, however, one thing was now clear to + Washington. There could not longer be any doubt that the western + troubles must be put down vigorously and by the armed hand. Even + while he was negotiating in the north and south, therefore, he + threw himself heart and soul into the preparation of St. Clair's + expedition, pushing forward all necessary arrangements, and + planning the campaign with a care and foresight made possible by + his military ability and by his experience as an Indian fighter. + While the main army was thus getting ready, two lesser + expeditions, one under Scott and one under Wilkinson, were sent + into the Indian country; but beyond burning some deserted + villages and killing a few stray savages both were fruitless.</p> + + <p>At last all was ready. St. Clair had an interview with + Washington, in which the whole plan of campaign was gone over, + and especial warning given against ambuscades. He then took his + departure at once for the west, and late in September left + Cincinnati with some two thousand men. The plan of campaign was + to build a line of forts, and accordingly one named Fort Hamilton + was erected twenty-four miles north on the Miami, and then Fort + Jefferson was built forty-four miles north of that point. Thence + St. Clair pushed slowly on for twenty-nine miles until he reached + the head-waters of the Wabash. He had been joined on the march by + some Kentucky militia, who were disorderly and undisciplined. + Sixty of them promptly deserted, and it became necessary to send + a regiment after them to prevent their plundering the baggage + trains. At the same time some Chickasaw auxiliaries, with the + true rat instinct, deserted and went home. Nevertheless St. Clair + kept on, and finally reached what proved to be his last camp, + with about fourteen hundred men. The militia were on one side of + the stream, the regulars on the other. At sunrise the next day + the Indians surprised the militia, drove them back on the other + camp, and shattered the first line of the regulars. The second + line stood their ground, and a desperate fight ensued; but it was + all in vain. The Indians charged up to the guns, and, though they + were repulsed by the bayonet, St. Clair, who was ill in his tent, + was at last forced to order a retreat. The retreat soon became a + rout, and the broken army, leaving their artillery and throwing + away their arms, fled back to Fort Jefferson, where they left + their wounded, and hurried on to their starting-point at Fort + Washington. It was Braddock over again. General Butler, the + second in command, was killed on the field, while the total loss + reached nine hundred men and fifty-nine officers, and of these + six hundred were killed. The Indians do not appear to have + numbered much more than a thousand. No excuse for such a disaster + and such murderous slaughter is possible, for nothing but the + grossest carelessness could have permitted a surprise of that + nature upon an established camp. The troops, too, were not only + surprised, but apparently utterly unprepared to fight, and the + battle was merely a wild struggle for life.</p> + + <p>Washington was above all things a soldier, and his heart was + always with his armies whenever he had one in the field. In this + case particularly he hoped much, for he looked to this powerful + expedition to settle the Indian troubles for a time, and give + room for that great western movement which always was in his + thoughts. He therefore awaited reports from St. Clair with keen + anxiety, but in this case the ill tidings did not attain their + proverbial speed. The battle was fought on November 4, and it was + not until the close of a December day that the officer carrying + dispatches from the frontier reached Philadelphia. He rode at + once to the President's house, and Washington was called out from + dinner, where he had company. He remained away some time, and on + returning to the table said nothing as to what he had heard, + talked with every one at Mrs. Washington's reception afterwards, + and gave no sign. Through all the weary evening he was as calm + and courteous as ever. When the last guest had gone he walked up + and down the room for a few minutes and then suddenly broke out: + "It's all over—St. Clair's defeated—routed; the + officers nearly all killed, the men by wholesale; the rout + complete—too shocking to think of—and a surprise into + the bargain." He paused and strode up and down the room; stopped + again and burst forth in a torrent of indignant wrath: "Here on + this very spot I took leave of him; I wished him success and + honor; 'You have your instructions,' I said, 'from the + secretary of war; I had a strict eye to them, and will add but + one word—Beware of a surprise! I repeat it—<i>beware + of a surprise</i>! You know how the Indians fight us.' He went + off with that as my last solemn warning thrown into his ears. And + yet, to suffer that army to be cut to pieces, hacked, butchered, + tomahawked, by a surprise, the very thing I guarded him against! + O God, O God, he's worse than a murderer! How can he answer it to + his country! The blood of the slain is upon him, the curse of + widows and orphans, the curse of Heaven!"</p> + + <p>His secretary was appalled and silent, while Washington again + strode fiercely up and down the room. Then he sat down, collected + himself, and said, "This must not go beyond this room." Then a + long silence. Then, "General St. Clair shall have justice. I + looked hastily through the dispatches, saw the whole disaster, + but not all the particulars; I will receive him without + displeasure; I will hear him without prejudice; he shall have + full justice." The description of this scene by an eye-witness + has been in print for many years, and yet we find people who say + that Washington was cold of heart and lacking in human sympathy. + What could be more intensely human than this? What a warm heart + is here, and what a lightning glimpse of a passionate nature + bursting through silence into burning speech! Then comes the iron + will which has mastered all the problems of his life. "He shall + have full justice;" and St. Clair had justice. He had been an + unfortunate choice, but as a Revolutionary soldier and governor + of the Northwest Territory his selection had been natural. He had + never been a successful general, for it was not in him to be so. + Something he lacked, energy, decision, foresight, it matters not + what. But at least he was brave. Broken by sickness, he had + displayed the utmost personal courage on that stricken field; and + for this Washington would always forgive much. He received the + unfortunate general kindly. He could not order a court martial, + for there were no officers of sufficient rank to form one; but he + gave St. Clair every opportunity for vindication, and a committee + of Congress investigated the campaign and exculpated the leader. + His personal bravery saved him and his reputation, but nothing + can alter the fact that the surprise was unpardonable and the + disaster awful.</p> + + <p>Immediate results of the St. Clair defeat were not so bad as + might have been expected. Panic, of course, ran rampant along the + frontier, reaching even to Pittsburg; but the Indians failed to + follow up their advantage, and did not come. Still the alarm was + there, and Pennsylvania and Virginia ordered troops to be raised, + while Congress also took action. Another increase of the army was + ordered, with consequent increase of appropriation, so that this + Indian victory entered at this point into the great current of + the financial policy, and thus played its part in the events on + which parties were dividing, and history was being made.</p> + + <p>No matter what happened, however, there was to be neither + lingering nor delay in this business. The President set to work + at once to organize a fresh army, and fight out a settlement of + the troubles. His first thought for a new commander was of Henry + Lee of Virginia, but considerations of rank deterred him. He then + selected and appointed Wayne, who recently had got into politics + and been deprived, on a contested election, of his seat in the + House. No little grumbling ensued over this appointment, + especially in Virginia, but it was unheeded by the President, and + its causes now are not very clear. The event proved the wisdom of + the choice, as so often happened with Washington, and it is easy + to see the reason for it. Wayne was one of the shining figures of + our Revolution, appealing strongly to the imagination of + posterity. He was not a great general in the highest sense, but + he was a brilliant corps-commander, capable of daring feats of + arms like the storming of Stony Point. He was capable also of + dashing with heedless courage into desperate places, and + incurring thereby defeat and consequent censure, but escaping + entire ruin through the same quickness of action which had + involved him in trouble. He was well fitted for the bold and + rapid movement required in Indian warfare, and with him + Washington put well-chosen subordinates, selected evidently for + their fighting capacity, for he clearly was determined that this + should be at all events a fighting campaign.</p> + + <p>Wayne, after his appointment, betook himself to Pittsburg, and + proceeded with characteristic energy to raise and organize his + army, a work of no little difficulty because he wished to have + picked men. Washington did all that could be done to help him, + and at the same time pushed negotiations with admirable patience, + but with very varying success. Kirkland brought chiefs of the Six + Nations to Congress with good results, and the Cherokees were + pacified by additional presents. On the other hand, the Creeks + were restless, stirred up always by Spain, and two brave + officers, sent to try for peace with the western tribes, were + murdered in cold blood. Nevertheless, treaties were patched up + with some of them, and a great council was held in the fall of + 1792, the Six Nations acting as mediators, which resulted in a + badly kept armistice, but in nothing of lasting value. The next + year Congress passed a general act regulating trade and + intercourse with the Indians, and Washington appointed yet + another commission to visit the northwestern tribes, more to + satisfy public opinion than with any hope of peace. Indeed, these + commissioners never succeeded in even meeting the Indians, who + rejected in advance all proposals which would not concede the + Ohio as the boundary. English influence, it was said, was at the + bottom of this demand, and there seems to be little doubt that + such was the case, for England and France were now at war, and + England thereupon had redoubled her efforts to injure the United + States by every sort of petty outrage both on sea and land. This + masterly policy had perhaps reasons for its existence which pass + beyond the average understanding, but, so far as any one can now + discover, it seems to have had no possible motive except to feed + an ancient grudge and drive the country into the arms of France. + Carried on for a long time in secret, this Indian intrigue came + to the surface in a speech made by Lord Dorchester to the western + tribes, in which he prophesied a speedy rupture with the United + States and urged his hearers to continue war. It is worth + remembering that for five years, covertly or openly, England did + her best to keep an Indian war with all that it implied alive + upon our borders,—the borders of a friendly nation with + whom she was at peace.</p> + + <p>But while Washington persistently negotiated, he as + persistently prepared to fight, not trusting overmuch either the + savages or the English. Wayne, with similar views, moved his army + forward in the autumn of 1793 to a point six miles beyond Fort + Jefferson, and then went into winter quarters. Early in the + spring of 1794 he was in motion again and advanced to St. Clair's + battlefield, where he built Fort Recovery, and where he was + attacked by the Indians, whom he repulsed after two days' + fighting. He then marched in an unexpected direction and struck + the central villages at the junction of the Au Glaize and Maumee. + The surprised savages fled, and Wayne burned their village, laid + waste their extensive fields, and built Fort Defiance. To the + Indians, who had retreated thirty miles down the Maumee to the + shelter of a British post, he sent word that he was ready to + treat. The reply came back asking for a delay of ten days; but + Wayne at once advanced, and found the Indians prepared for battle + near the English fort. The ground was unfavorable, especially for + cavalry, but Wayne made good arrangements and attacked. The + Indians gave way before the bayonet, and were completely routed, + the American loss being only one hundred and seven men. The army + was not averse to storming the English fort; but Wayne, with + unusual caution, contented himself with a sharp correspondence + with the commandant, and then withdrew after a most successful + campaign. The next year, strengthened by his victory and by the + surrender of the British posts under the Jay treaty, Wayne made a + treaty with the western tribes by which vast tracts of disputed + territory were ceded to the United States, and peace was + established in that long troubled region.</p> + + <p>On the southern frontier there were no such fortunate results. + While Washington was negotiating and fighting in the north and + west, all his patient efforts were frustrated in the south by the + conduct of Georgia. The borderers kept assailing the Indians, + peaceful tribes being generally chosen for the purpose; and the + State itself broke through and disregarded all treaties and all + arrangements made by the United States. The result was constant + disquiet and chronic war, with the usual accompaniments of fire, + murder, and pillage.</p> + + <p>On the whole, however, when Washington left the presidency, + his Indian policy had been a marked success. In place of + uncertainty and weakness, a definite general system had been + adopted. The northern and western tribes had been beaten and + pacified, and the southern incursions and disorders had been much + checked. The British posts, the most dangerous centres of Indian + intrigue, had been abandoned, and the great regions of the west + and northwest had been opened to the tide of settlement. These + results were due to a well-defined plan, and above all to the + persistent vigor which pushed steadily forward to its object + without swinging, as had been done before, between feverish and + often misdirected activity on the one side and complete and + feeble inaction on the other. They were achieved, too, amid many + difficulties, for there was anything but a unanimous support of + the government in its Indian affairs. The opposition grumbled at + the expense, and said that money needlessly raised by taxation + was squandered in Indian wars, while the great body of the + people, living safely along the eastern coast, thought but little + about the frontier. Some persons took the sentimental view and + considered the government barbarous to make causeless war. Others + believed that altogether too much of the public time and money + were wasted in looking after outlying settlements. The borderers + themselves, on the other hand, thought that the general + government was in league with the savages, and broke through + treaties, and destroyed so far as they could the national policy. + St. Clair was hissed and jeered as he traveled home, but a + wakeful opposition turned from the unsuccessful general to a vain + attempt to prove that ambushed savages and sleeping sentries were + due to a weak war department and a corrupt and inefficient + treasury. The mass of moderate people, no doubt, desired + tranquillity on the frontier, and sustained the President's + labors for that end, but for the most part they were silent. The + voices that Washington heard most loudly joined in a discordant + chorus of disapproval around his Indian policy. No one understood + that here was an important part of a scheme to build up a nation, + to make all the movements of the United States broad and + national, and to open the vast west to the people who were to + make it theirs. Washington heard all the criticism and saw all + the opposition, and still pressed forward to his goal, not + attaining all he wished, but fighting in a very clear and manful + spirit, and not laboring in vain.</p> + + <p>The Indian question in its management touched, as has been + seen, at various points our financial policy and our foreign + relations, on which the history of the country really turned in + those years. The latter had not risen to their later importance + when the government began, but the former was knocking + importunately at the door of Congress when it first assembled. + The condition of affairs is soon told. The Revolution narrowly + escaped shipwreck on the financial reefs, and the shaky + government of the confederation had there gone to pieces. The + country, as a political organism, was bankrupt. It owed sums of + money, which were vast in amount for those days, both at home and + abroad, and it could not pay these debts, nor was there any + provision for them. All interest was in arrears, there were no + means provided for meeting it, and the national credit everywhere + was dishonored and gone. The continental currency had + disappeared, and the circulating medium was represented by a + confused jumble of foreign coins and worthless scrip. Many of the + States were up to their eyes in schemes of inflation, paper + money, and repudiation. There was no money in the treasury to pay + the ordinary charges of government; there was no revenue and no + policy for raising one, or for funding the debt. This picture is + darkly drawn, but it is not exaggerated. That high spirit of + public honor, which seventy-five years later rose above the + ravages of war and the temptings of dishonesty to pay the debt + and the interest, dollar for dollar in gold, seemed in 1789 to be + wellnigh extinct. But it was not dead. It was confused and + overclouded in the minds of the people, but it was still there, + and it was strong, clear, and determined in Washington and those + who followed him.</p> + + <p>Congress grappled with the financial difficulties in the most + courageous and honest way, but it struggled with them rather + helplessly despite its good disposition. It could lay taxes in + one way or another so as to get money, but this was plainly + insufficient. It could not formulate a coherent policy, which was + the one essential thing, nor could it settle the thousand and one + perplexing questions which hedged the subject on every side. The + members turned, therefore, with a sigh of relief to the new + Secretary of the Treasury, asked him the questions which were + troubling them, and having directed him to make various reports, + adjourned.</p> + + <p>The result is well known. The great statesman to whom the task + was confided assumed it with the boldness and ease of conscious + power, and when Congress reassembled it listened to the first + report on the public credit. In that great state paper all the + confusions disappeared, and in terse sentences an entire scheme + for funding the debt, disposing of the worthless currency, and + raising the necessary revenue came out clear and distinct, so + that all men could comprehend it. The provision for the foreign + debt passed without resistance. That for the domestic debt + excited much debate, and also passed. Last came the assumption of + the state debts, and over that there sprang up a fierce struggle. + It was carried by a narrow majority, and then defeated by the + votes of the North Carolina members, who had just taken their + seats. Washington strongly favored this hotly contested measure. + He defended it in a letter to David Stuart, and again to + Jefferson, at a later time, when that statesman was trying to + undermine Hamilton by wailing about a "corrupt squadron" in + Congress.</p> + + <p>To Washington, assumption seemed as obviously just as it does + to posterity. All the debts had been incurred in a common cause, + he said, why should they not be cared for by the common + government? He had no patience with the sectional argument that + assumption was unfair, because some States got more out of it + than others. Some States had suffered more than others, but all + shared in the freedom that had been won.<a id="footnotetag1-5" + name="footnotetag1-5"></a><a href="#footnote1-5"><sup>1</sup></a> + He saw in it, moreover, as Hamilton had seen, something far more + important than a mere provision for the debts and for the payment + of money to this community or to that. Assumption was essentially + a union measure. The other debts were incurred by the central + government directly, but the state debts were incurred by the + States for a common cause. If the United States assumed them, it + showed to the people and to the world that there were no state + lines when the interests of the whole country were involved. It + was therefore a national measure, a breeder of national + sentiment, a new bond to fasten the States to each other and to + the Union. This was enough to assure Washington's hearty + approval; but the measure was saved and carried finally by the + famous arrangement between Hamilton and Jefferson, which took the + capital to the Potomac and made the war debts of the States a + part of the national debt. Washington was more than satisfied + with this solution, for both sides of the agreement pleased him, + and there was nothing in the compromise which meant sacrifice on + his part. He rejoiced in the successful adoption of the great + financial policy of his administration, and he was much pleased + to have the capital, in which he was intensely interested, placed + near to his own Mount Vernon, in the very region he would have + selected if he had had the power of fixing it.</p> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote1-5" name="footnote1-5"></a>[<b>Footnote 1:</b> + <a href="#footnotetag1-5">(return)</a> Sparks, <i>Writings of + Washington</i>, x. 98.] + </blockquote> + + <p>The next great step in the development of the financial policy + was the establishment of the national bank, and on this there + arose another bitter contest in Congress and in the newspapers. A + sharp opposition had developed by this time, and the supporters + of the Secretary of the Treasury became on their side + correspondingly ardent. In this debate much stress was laid on + the constitutional point that Congress had no power to charter a + bank. Nevertheless, the bill passed and went to the President, + with the constitutional doubts following it and pressed home in + this last resort. As has been seen from his letters written just + after the Philadelphia convention, Washington was not a blind + worshiper of the Constitution which he had helped so largely to + make; but he believed it would work, and every day confirmed his + belief. He felt, moreover, that one great element of its lasting + success lay in creating a genuine reverence for it among the + people, and it was therefore of the utmost importance that this + reverence should begin among those to whom the management of the + government had been intrusted. For this reason he exercised a + jealous care in everything touching the organic law of the Union, + and he was peculiarly sensitive to constitutional objections to + any given measure. In the case of the national bank, the + objections were strongly as well as vigorously urged, and + Washington paused, before signing, to the utmost limit of the + time allowed. He turned to Jefferson and Randolph, both opposed + to the bill, and asked them for their objections to its + constitutionality. They gave him in response two able reports. + These he sent to Hamilton, who returned them with that most + masterly argument, in which he not only defended the bank + charter, but vindicated, in a manner never afterwards surpassed, + the new doctrine of the implied powers of the Constitution. With + both sides thus before him, Washington considered the question, + and signed the bill.</p> + + <p>Rives, in his "Life of Madison," intimates that Washington had + doubts even after signing, but of this there is no evidence of + any weight. He was not a man who indulged in doubts after he had + made up his mind and rendered a decision, and it was not in his + nature to fret over what had been done and was past, whether in + war or peace. The story that he was worried about his action in + this instance arose from his delay in signing, and from the + disappointment of those who had hoped much from his hesitation. + This pause, however, was both natural and characteristic. + Washington had approved Morris's bank policy in the Revolution, + and remembered the service it rendered. He was familiar with + Hamilton's views on the subject, and knew that they were the + result of long study and careful thought. He must also have known + that any financial policy devised by his Secretary of the + Treasury would contain as an integral part a national bank. There + can be no doubt that both the plan for the bank and the report + which embodied it were submitted to him before they went in to + Congress, but the violence of the objections raised there on + constitutional grounds awakened his attention in a new direction. + He saw at once the gravity of a question, which involved not + merely the incorporation of a bank, but which opened up a new + field of constitutional powers and constitutional construction. + When such far-reaching results were involved he paused and + reflected, and, as was always the case with him under such + circumstances, listened to and examined all the arguments on both + sides. This done he decided, and with his national feeling he + could not have decided otherwise than he did. The doctrine of the + implied powers of the Constitution was the greatest weapon + possible for those whose leading thought was to develop the union + of States into a great and imperial nation; and we may well + believe that it was this feeling, and not merely faith in the + bank as a financial engine, which led Washington to sign the + bill. When he did so he assented to the charter of a national + bank, but he also assented to the doctrine of the implied powers + and gave to that far-reaching construction of the Constitution + the great weight of his name and character. It was, perhaps, the + most important single act of his presidency.</p> + + <p>It is impossible here, even were it necessary, to follow + Washington's action in regard to all the details which went to + make up and to sustain Hamilton's policy, to which, as a whole, + Washington gave his hearty approval and support. The revenue + system, the public lands, the arrangement of loans, the mint, all + alike met with his active concurrence. He was too great a man not + to value rightly Hamilton's work, and the way in which that work + brought order, credit, honor, and prosperity out of a chaos of + debt and bankruptcy appealed peculiarly to his own love for + method, organization, and sound business principles. He met every + criticism on Hamilton's policy without concession, and defended + it when it was attacked. To Hamilton's genius that policy must be + credited, but it gained its success and strength largely from the + firm support of Washington.</p> + + <p>There are two matters, however, connected with the Treasury + Department, which cannot be passed over in this general way. One + was a policy reasoned out and published by Hamilton, but never + during his lifetime put into the form of law in the broad and + systematic manner which he desired. The other was a consequence + of his financial policy as adopted, but which reached far beyond + the bounds of financial arrangements. The first was the policy + set forth in Hamilton's Report on Manufactures. The second was + the enforcement of the excise and its results.</p> + + <p>The defense of our commerce against foreign discriminations + was a proximate cause of the movement which resulted in the + Constitution of the United States, and closely allied to it was + the anxious wish to develop our internal resources and our + domestic industry. This idea was not at all new. Sporadic + attempts to start and carry on various industries had been made + during the colonial period. They had all failed, either because + the watchful mother-country took pains to stifle them, or because + lack of capital and experience, in addition to foreign + competition, killed them almost at their birth. The idea of + developing American industries was generally diffused for the + first time when the colonists strove to bring England to terms by + non-intercourse acts. The Americans then thought that they could + carry their points by making war upon the British pocket, and + excluding English merchants from their markets. The next step, of + course, was to supply their own markets themselves; and the + non-intercourse agreements, which were economically prohibitory + tariff acts, gave a fitful impulse to various simple industries. + In the clash of arms this idea naturally dropped out of the + popular mind, but it began to revive soon after the return of + peace. The government of the confederation was too feeble to + adopt any policy in this or any other matter, but in the first + Congress the desire to develop American industries found + expression. The first tariff was laid primarily to raise the + revenue so sorely needed at that moment. But the effort to do + this gave rise to a debate in which the policy of protection, + strongly advocated by the Pennsylvanian members, was freely + discussed. Nobody, however, at that time, had any comprehensive + plan or general system, so that the efforts for protection were + incoherent, and resulted only in certain special protective + features in the tariff bill, and not in a broad and well-rounded + measure. Still the protective idea was there; it was recognized + in the preamble of the act, and the constitutionality of the + policy was affirmed by the framers and contemporaries of the + Constitution.</p> + + <p>Hamilton, of course, watched all these movements intently. His + guiding thought in all things was the creation of a great nation. + For this he strove for national unity and national sentiment, and + he saw of course that one essential condition of national + greatness was industrial independence, in addition to the + political independence already won. One of the greatest thinkers + of the time on all matters of public finance and political + economy, he perceived at once that the irregular attempts of + Congress to encourage home industries could have at best but + partial results. He saw that a system broad, just, and + continental in its scope must take the place of the isolated + industries which now and again obtained an uncertain protection + under the haphazard measures of Congress. With these views and + purposes he wrote and sent to Congress his Report on + Manufactures. In that great state paper he made an argument in + behalf of protection, as applied to the United States and to the + development of home industries, which has never been overthrown. + The system which he proposed was imperial in its range and + national in its design, like everything that proceeded from + Hamilton's mind. He argued, of course, with reference to existing + economic conditions, and in behalf only of what he then + sought,—industrial independence and the establishment and + diversification of industries. The social side of the question, + which to-day overshadows all others, was not visible a hundred + years ago. The Report, however, bore no immediate fruit, and + Hamilton had been in his grave for years before the country + turned from this practice of accidental protection, and tried to + replace it by a broad, coherent system as set forth by the great + Secretary.</p> + + <p>But although it had no result at the moment, the Report on + Manufactures, which laid the foundation of the American + protective system, and which has so powerfully influenced + American political thought, was one of the very greatest events + of Washington's administration. To trace its effects and history + through the succeeding century would be wholly out of place here. + All that concerns us is Washington's relation to this + far-reaching policy of his Secretary. If we had not a word or a + line on the subject from his pen, we should still know that the + policy of Hamilton was his policy too, for Washington was the + head of his own administration, and was responsible and meant to + be responsible for all its acts and policies. With his keen + foresight he saw the full import of the Report on Manufactures, + and we may be sure that when it went forth it was with his full + and cordial approval, and after that minute consideration which + he gave to all public questions. But we are not left to + inference. We have Washington's views and feelings on this matter + set forth again and again, and they show that the principle of + the Report on Manufactures was as near and dear to him, and as + full of meaning, as it was to Hamilton.</p> + + <p>Washington was brought up and had lived all his life under a + system which came as near as possible to the ideal of the modern + free-trader. The people of Virginia were devoted almost entirely + to a single interest, tobacco-growing, that being the occupation + in which they could most profitably engage. No legislative + artifices had been employed to enable them to diversify their + industries or to establish manufactures. They bought in the + cheapest market every luxury and most of the necessities of life. + British merchants supplied all their wants, carried their + tobacco, and advanced them money. Cheap labor, a single staple + with wide fluctuations of value, a credit system, entire + dependence on foreigners, and absolute free trade according to + the Manchester theories, should have produced an earthly + paradise. As a matter of fact, the Virginia planters had little + ready money and were deeply in debt. Bankruptcy, as has been + already said, seems to have come to them about once in a + generation. The land, rapidly exhausted by tobacco, was + prodigally wasted, and the general prosperity declined. + Washington, with his strong sense and perfect business methods, + personally escaped most of these evils, but he saw the mischief + of the system all the more clearly. It was bad enough in his + time, but he did not live to see Virginia with her wasted and + exhausted lands stand still, while her sister States to the north + passed her with giant strides in the race for wealth and + population. He did not live to see her become, as a result of her + colonial system, a mere breeder of slaves for the plantations of + the Gulf States. But he saw enough, and the lesson taught him by + the results of industrial dependence was well learned.</p> + + <p>When the war came and he was carrying the terrible burden of + the Revolution, he learned the same lesson in a new and more + bitter way. Nothing went so near to wreck the American cause as + lack of all the supplies by which war was carried on, for the + United States produced little or nothing of what was then needed. + The resources of the northern colonies were soon exhausted, and + the South had none. Powder, cannon, muskets, clothing, medical + stores, all were lacking, and the fate of the nation hung + trembling in the balance on account of the dependence in which + the colonies had been kept by the skillful policy of England. + These were teachings that a lesser man than Washington + would have taken to heart and pondered deeply. In the midst of + the struggle he wrote to James Warren (March 31, 1779): "Let + vigorous measures be adopted, ... to punish speculators, + forestallers, and extortioners, and, above all, to sink the money + by heavy taxes, to promote public and private economy, and <i>to + encourage manufactures</i>.<a id="footnotetag1-6" name= + "footnotetag1-6"></a><a href="#footnote1-6"><sup>1</sup></a> + Measures of this sort, gone heartily into by the several States, + would strike at once at the root of all our evils, and give the + <i>coup de grâce</i> to the British hope of subjugating + this continent either by their arms or their acts."</p> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote1-6" name="footnote1-6"></a>[<b>Footnote 1:</b> + <a href="#footnotetag1-6">(return)</a> The italics are mine.] + </blockquote> + + <p>To Lafayette he wrote in 1789: "Though I would not force the + introduction of manufactures by extravagant encouragements and to + the prejudice of agriculture, yet I conceive much might be done + in that way by women, children, and others, without taking one + really necessary hand from tilling the earth. Certain it is, + great savings are already made in many articles of apparel, + furniture, and consumption. Equally certain it is, that no + diminution in agriculture has taken place at this time, when + greater and more substantial improvements in manufactures are + making than were ever before known in America."</p> + + <p>In the same year he wrote to Governor Randolph, favoring + bounties, the strongest form of protection; and this + encouragement he wished to have given to that industry which a + hundred years later has been held up as one of the least + deserving of all that have received the assistance of + legislation. He said in this letter: "From the original letter, + which I forward herewith, your Excellency will comprehend the + nature of a proposal for introducing and establishing the woolen + manufacture in the State of Virginia. In the present stage of + population and agriculture, I do not pretend to determine how far + that plan may be practicable and advisable; or, in case it should + be deemed so, whether any or what public encouragement ought to + be given to facilitate its execution. <i>I have, however, no + doubt as to the good policy of increasing the number of sheep in + every state</i>.<a id="footnotetag1-7" name= + "footnotetag1-7"></a><a href="#footnote1-7"><sup>1</sup></a> By a + little legislative encouragement the farmers of Connecticut have, + in two years past, added one hundred thousand to their former + stock. If a greater quantity of wool could be produced, and if + the hands which are often in a manner idle could be employed in + manufacturing it, a spirit of industry might be promoted, a great + diminution might be made in the annual expenses of individual + families, and the public would eventually be exceedingly + benefited." The only hesitation is as to the time of applying the + policy. There is no doubt as to the wisdom of the policy itself, + of giving protection and encouragement in every proper + legislative form to domestic industry.</p> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote1-7" name="footnote1-7"></a>[<b>Footnote 1:</b> + <a href="#footnotetag1-7">(return)</a> The italics are mine.] + </blockquote> + + <p>In his first speech to Congress he recommended measures for + the advancement of manufactures, having already affixed his + signature to the bill which declared their encouragement to be + one of its objects. At the same time he wrote, in reply to an + address: "The promotion of domestic manufactures will, in my + conception, be among the first consequences which may naturally + be expected to flow from an energetic government." In 1791 he + consulted Hamilton as to the advisability of urging Congress to + offer bounties for the culture of cotton and hemp, his only + doubts being as to the power of the general government in this + respect, and as to the temper of the time in regard to such an + expenditure of public money. The following year Hamilton's Report + on Manufactures was given to the country, finally establishing + the position of the administration as to our economic policy.</p> + + <p>The general drift of legislation, although it was not + systematized, followed the direction pointed out by the + administration. But this did not satisfy Washington. In his + speech to Congress, December 7, 1796, he said: "Congress has + repeatedly, and not without success, directed their attention to + the encouragement of manufactures. <i>The object is of too much + consequence not to insure a continuance of their efforts in every + way which shall appear eligible.</i>"<a id="footnotetag1-8" name= + "footnotetag1-8"></a><a href="#footnote1-8"><sup>1</sup></a> He + then goes on to argue at some length that, although manufacturing + on the public account is usually inexpedient, it should be + established and carried on to supply all that was needed for the + public force in time of war. This was his last address to + Congress, and his last word on this matter was to approve the + course of Congress in following the recommendation of his first + speech. All his utterances and all his opinions on the subject + were uniform. Washington had never been a student of public + finance or political economy like Hamilton, and he lived before + the days of the Manchester school and its new gospel of procuring + heaven on earth by special methods of transacting the country's + business. But Washington was a great man, a state-builder who + fought wars and founded governments. He knew that nations were + raised up and made great and efficient, and that civilization was + advanced, not by <i>laissez aller</i> and <i>laissez faire</i>, + but by much patient human striving. He had fought and conquered, + and again he had fought and been defeated, and through all he had + come to victory, and to certain conclusive results both in peace + and war. He had not done this by sitting still and letting each + man go his way, but by strong brain and strong will, and by much + organization and compulsion. He had set his hand to the building + of a nation. He had studied his country and understood it, and + with calm, far-seeing eyes he had looked forward into the future + of his people. Neither the study nor the outlook were vain, and + both told him that political independence was only part of the + work, and that national sentiment, independent thinking, and + industrial independence also must be reached. The first two, time + alone could bring. The last, wise laws could help to produce; and + so he favored protection by legislation to American industry and + manufactures, threw all his potent influence into the scale, and + gave his support to the protective policy set forth by his + Secretary.</p> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote1-8" name="footnote1-8"></a>[<b>Footnote 1:</b> + <a href="#footnotetag1-8">(return)</a> The italics are mine.] + </blockquote> + + <p>Two matters connected with the treasury, I have said, deserved + fuller consideration than a general review could give. The one + just described, the policy of the Report on Manufactures, came, + as has been seen, to no clear and immediate result. The other + reached a very sharp and definite conclusion, not without great + effect on the new government of the United States, both at the + moment and in the future. When Hamilton "struck the rock of the + national resources," the stream of revenue which he sought at the + outset was that flowing from duties on imports, for this, in his + theory, was not only the first source, but the best. He would + fain have had it the only one; but the situation drove him + forward. The assumption of the state debts, a part of the legacy + of the Revolution, and the continuing and at first increasing + expenses of unavoidable Indian wars, made additional revenue + absolutely essential. He turned therefore to the excise on + domestic spirits to furnish what was needed.</p> + + <p>Washington approved assumption. It was a measure of honesty, + it would raise the public credit, and above all, it was + thoroughly national in its operation and results. The + appropriations for Indian wars he of course approved, for their + energetic prosecution was part of the vigorous policy toward our + wild neighbors upon which he was so determined. It followed, of + course, that he did not shrink from imposing the taxes thus made + necessary; and to raise the money from domestic spirits seemed to + him, under the existing exigency, to be what it + was,—thoroughly proper and reasonable both in form and + subject.</p> + + <p>It would seem, however, that neither Washington nor Hamilton + realized the unpopularity of this mode of getting revenue. The + frontier settlers along the line of the Alleghanies in + Pennsylvania, Virginia, and North Carolina, who distilled + whiskey, were not very familiar, perhaps, with Johnson's + dictionary, but they would have cordially accepted his definition + of an excise. To them it was indeed a "hateful tax," and nothing + else. In fact, the word was one disliked throughout the States, + for it brought up evil memories, and excited much jealous + hostility and prejudice. The first excise law, therefore, when it + went into force, was the signal for a general outburst of + opposition; and in the Alleghany region, as might have been + expected, the resistance was immediate and most bitter. State + legislatures passed resolutions, public meetings were held and + more resolutions were passed, while in the wilder parts of the + country threats of violence were freely uttered. All these + murmurings and menaces came on the passage of the first bill in + 1791. The administration, however, had no desire to precipitate + an uncalled-for strife, and so the law was softened and amended + in the following year, the tax being lowered and the most + obnoxious features removed. The result was general acquiescence + throughout most of the States, and renewed opposition in the + western counties of Pennsylvania and North Carolina. In the + former a meeting was held denouncing the law, pledging the people + to "boycott" the officers, and hinting at forcible resistance. If + the people engaged in this business had stopped to consider the + men with whom they had to deal, they would have been saved a + great deal of suffering and humiliation. The President and his + Secretary of the Treasury were not men who could be frightened by + opposition or violent speeches. But angry frontiersmen, stirred + up by demagogues, are not given to much reflection, and they + meant to have their own way.</p> + + <p>Washington was quite clear in his policy from the beginning. + He was ready to make every proper concession, but when this was + done he meant on his side to have his own way, which was the way + of law and order and good government. He wrote to Hamilton in + August, 1792: "If, after these regulations are in operation, + opposition to the due exercise of the collection is still + experienced, and peaceable procedure is no longer effectual, the + public interests and my duty will make it necessary to enforce + the laws respecting this matter; and however disagreeable this + would be to me, it must nevertheless take place."</p> + + <p>Meantime the disorders went on, and the officers were insulted + and thwarted in the execution of their duty. Washington's next + letter (September 7) has a touch of anger. He hated disorder and + riot anywhere, but he was disgusted when they came from the very + people for whose defense the Indian war was pushed and the excise + made necessary. He approved of Hamilton's sending out an officer + to examine into the survey, and said: "If, notwithstanding, + opposition is still given to the due execution of the law, I have + no hesitation in declaring, if the evidence of it is clear and + unequivocal, that I shall, however reluctantly I exercise them, + exert all the legal powers with which the executive is invested + to check so daring and unwarrantable a spirit. It is my duty to + see the laws executed. To permit them to be trampled upon with + impunity would be repugnant to it; nor can the government longer + remain a passive spectator of the contempt with which they are + treated. Forbearance, under a hope that the inhabitants of that + survey would recover from the delirium and folly into which they + were plunged, seems to have had no other effect than to increase + the disorder."</p> + + <p>A few weeks later he issued a proclamation, declaring formally + and publicly what he had already said in private. He warned the + people engaged in resistance to the law that the law would be + enforced, and exhorted them to desist. The proclamation was + effective in the south, and the opposition died out in North + Carolina. Not so in Pennsylvania. There the Scotch-Irish + borderers who lived in the western counties were bent on having + their way. A brave, self-willed, hotheaded, turbulent people, + they were going to have their fight out. They had ridden + rough-shod over the Quaker and German government in Pennsylvania + before this, and they no doubt thought they could do the same + with this new government of the United States. They merely made a + mistake about the man at the head of the government; nothing more + than that. Such mistakes have been made before. The Paris mob, + for example, made a similar blunder on the 13th + Vendémiaire, when Bonaparte settled matters by the famous + whiff of grape-shot. There is some excuse for the error of our + Scotch-Irish borderers in their past experience, more excuse + still in the drift of other events that touched all men just then + with the madness of France, and gave birth to certain democratic + societies which applauded any resistance to law, even if the + cause was no nobler than a whiskey still.</p> + + <p>Perhaps, too, the Pennsylvanians were encouraged by the + moderation and deliberate movement of the government. A lull came + after the proclamation of 1792. Then every effort was made to + settle the troubles by civil processes and by personal + negotiation, but all proved vain. The disturbances went on + increasing for two years, until law was at an end in the + insurgent counties. The mails were stopped and robbed, there were + violence, bloodshed, rioting, attacks on the officers of the + United States, and meetings threatening still worse things.</p> + + <p>Meanwhile Washington had waited and watched, and bided his + time. He felt now that the moment had come when, if ever, public + opinion must be with him, and that the hour had arrived when he + must put his fortune to the touch, and "try if it were current + gold indeed." On August 7 he issued a second proclamation, + setting forth the outrages committed, and announcing his power to + call out the militia, and his intention to do so if unconditional + submission did not follow at once. As he wrote to a friend three + days later: "Actual rebellion exists against the laws of the + United States." On the crucial point, however, he felt safe. He + was confident that all the public opinion worth having was now on + his side, and that the people were ready to stand by the + government. The quick and unconditional submission did not come, + and on September 25 he issued a third proclamation, reciting the + facts and calling out the militia of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, + Maryland, and Virginia.</p> + + <p>Washington had judged rightly. The States responded, and the + troops came to the number of fifteen thousand, for he was in the + habit of doing things thoroughly, and meant to have an + overwhelming force. To Governor Lee of Virginia the command of + the combined forces was intrusted. "I am perfectly in sentiment + with you, that the business we are drawn out upon should be + effectually + executed, and that the daring and factious spirit which + threatens to overturn the laws and to subvert the Constitution + ought to be subdued." Thus he wrote to Morgan, while the + commissioners from the insurgents were politely received, and + told that the march of the troops could not be countermanded. + Washington would fain have gone himself, in command of the army, + but he felt that he could not leave the seat of government for so + long a time with propriety. He went as far as Bedford with the + troops, and then parted from them. When he took leave, he wrote a + letter to Lee, to be read to the army, in which he said: "No + citizen of the United States can ever be engaged in a service + more important to their country. It is nothing less than to + consolidate and to preserve the blessings of that revolution + which at much expense of blood and treasure constituted us a free + and independent nation." Thus admonished, the army marched, + Hamilton going with them in characteristic fashion to the end. + They did their work thoroughly. The insurrection disappeared, and + resistance dropped suddenly out of sight. The Scotch-Irish of the + border, with all their love of fighting, found too late that they + were dealing with a power very different from that of their own + State. The ringleaders of the insurrection were arrested and + tried by civil process, the disorders ceased, law reigned once + more, and the "hateful tax" was duly paid and collected.</p> + + <p>The "Whiskey Rebellion" has never received due weight in the + history of the United States. Its story has been told in the + utmost detail, but its details are unimportant. As a fact, + however, it is full of meaning, and this meaning has been too + much overlooked. That this should be so, is not to be wondered + at, for everything has conspired to make it seem, after a century + has gone by, both mean and trivial. Its very name suggests + ridicule and contempt, and it collapsed so utterly that people + laughed at it and despised it. Its leaders, with the exception of + Gallatin, were cheap and talkative persons of little worth, and + the cause itself was neither noble, romantic, nor inspiriting. + Nevertheless, it was a dangerous and formidable business, for it + was the first direct challenge to the new government. It was the + first clear utterance of the stern question asked of every people + striving to live as a nation, Have you a right to live? Have you + a government able to fight and to endure? Have you men ready to + take up the challenge? These questions were put by rough frontier + settlers, and put in the name and for the sake of distilling + whiskey unvexed by law. But they were there, they had to be + answered, and on the reply the existence of the government was at + stake. If it failed, all was over. If the States did not respond + to this first demand, that they should put down disorder and + dissension within the borders of one of their number, the + experiment had failed. It came, as it almost always does come, to + one man to make the answer. That man took up the challenge. He + did not move too soon. He waited with unerring judgment, as + Lincoln waited with the Proclamation of Emancipation, until he + had gathered public opinion behind him by his firmness and + moderation. Then he struck, and struck so hard that the whole + fabric of insurrection and riot fell helplessly to pieces, and + wiseacres looked on and laughed, and thought it had been but a + slight matter after all. The action of the government vindicated + the right of the United States to live, because they had proved + themselves able to keep order. It showed to the American people + that their government was a reality of force and power. If it had + gone wrong, the history of the United States would not have + differed widely from that of the confederation. No mistake was + made, and people regarded the whole thing as an insignificant + incident, and historians treat it as an episode. There could be + no greater tribute to the strong and silent man who did the work + and bore the stress of waiting for nearly five years. He did his + duty so well and so completely that it seems nothing now, and yet + the crushing of that insurrection in the western counties of + Pennsylvania was one of the turning-points in a nation's + life.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <h2><a name="IV" id="IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2> + + <h2>FOREIGN RELATIONS</h2> + + <p>Our present relations with foreign nations fill as a rule but + a slight place in American politics, and excite generally only a + languid interest, not nearly so much as their importance + deserves. We have separated ourselves so completely from the + affairs of other people that it is difficult to realize how + commanding and disproportionate a place they occupied when the + government was founded. We were then a new nation, and our + attitude toward the rest of the world was wholly undefined. There + was, therefore, among the American people much anxiety to + discover what that attitude would be, for the unknown is always + full of interest. Moreover, Europe was still our neighbor, for + England, France, and Spain were all upon our borders, and had + large territorial interests in the northern half of the New + World. Within fifteen years we had been colonies, and all our + politics, except those which were purely local and provincial, + had been the politics of Europe; for during the eighteenth + century we had been drawn into and had played a part in every + European complication, and every European war in which England + had the slightest share. Thus the American people came to + consider themselves a part of the European system, and looked to + Europe for their politics, which was a habit of thought both + natural and congenial to colonists. We ceased to be colonists + when the Treaty of Paris was signed; but treaties, although they + settle boundaries and divide nations, do not change customs and + habits of thought by a few strokes of the pen. The free and + independent people of the United States, as there has already + been occasion to point out, when they set out to govern + themselves under their new Constitution, were still dominated by + colonial ideas and prejudices. They felt, no doubt, that the new + system would put them in a more respectable attitude toward the + other nations of the earth. But this was probably the only + definite popular notion on the subject. What our actual relations + with other nations should be, was something wholly vague, and + very varying ideas were entertained about it by communities and + by individuals, according to their various prejudices, opinions, + and interests.</p> + + <p>The one idea, however, that the American people did not have + on this subject was, that they should hold themselves entirely + aloof from the politics of the Old World, and have with other + nations outside the Americas no relations except those born of + commerce. It had not occurred to them that they should march + steadily forward on a course which would drive out European + governments, and sever the connections of those governments with + the North American continent. After a century's familiarity, this + policy looks so simple and obvious that it is difficult to + believe that our forefathers could even have considered any other + seriously; but in 1789 it was so strange that no one dreamed of + it, except perhaps a few thinkers speculating on the future of + the infant nation. It was something so novel that when it was + propounded it struck the people like a sudden shock of + electricity. It was so broad, so national, so thoroughly + American, that men still struggling in the fetters of colonial + thought could not comprehend it. But there was one man to whom it + was neither strange nor speculative. To Washington it was not a + vague idea, but a well-defined system, which he had been long + maturing in his mind.</p> + + <p>Before he had been chosen President, he wrote to Sir Edward + Newenham: "I hope the United States of America will be able to + keep disengaged from the labyrinth of European politics and wars; + and that before long they will, by the adoption of a good + national government, have become respectable in the eyes of the + world, so that none of the maritime powers, especially none of + those who hold possessions in the New World or the West Indies, + shall presume to treat them with insult or contempt. It should be + the policy of the United States to administer to their wants + without being engaged in their quarrels. And it is not in the + power of the proudest and most polite people on earth to prevent + us from becoming a great, a respectable, and a commercial nation + if we shall continue united and faithful to ourselves." This + plain statement shows his fixed belief that in an absolute + breaking with the political affairs of other peoples lay the most + important part of the work which was to make us a nation in + spirit and in truth. He carried this belief with him when he took + up the Presidency, and it was the chief burden of the last words + of counsel which he gave to his countrymen when he retired to + private life. To have begun and carried on to a firm + establishment this policy of a separation from Europe would have + required time, skill, and patience even under the calmest and + most favorable conditions. But it was the fate of the new + government to be born just on the eve of the French Revolution. + The United States were at once caught up and tossed by the waves + of that terrific storm, and it was in the midst of that awful + hurly-burly, when the misdeeds of centuries of wrong-doing were + brought to an account, that Washington opened and developed his + foreign policy. It was a great task, and the manner of its + performance deserves much and serious consideration.</p> + + <p>His first act in foreign affairs, on entering the Presidency, + was to make the minister of France understand that the government + of the United States was to be treated with due formality and + respect. His second was to examine the whole mass of foreign + correspondence collected in the State Department of the + confederation, and he did this, as has been said, pencil in hand, + making notes and abstracts as he went. It was well worth doing, + for he learned much, and from this laborious study and thorough + knowledge certain facts became apparent, for the most part of a + hard and unpleasant nature. First, he saw that England, taking + advantage of our failure to fulfill completely our obligations + under the treaty, had openly violated hers, and continued to hold + the fortified posts along the northwestern and western borders. + Here was a dangerous thorn which pricked sharply, for the posts + in British hands offered constant temptations to Indian risings, + and threatened war both with the savages and with Great Britain. + Further west still, Spain held the Mississippi, closed + navigation, and intrigued to separate our western settlers from + the Union. No immediate danger lay here, but still peril and need + of close watching, for the Mississippi was never to slip out of + our power. The mighty river and the great region through which it + flows were important features in that empire which Washington + foresaw. His plan was that we should get them by binding the + settlers beyond the Alleghanies to the old States with roads, + canals, and trade, and then trust to those hardy pioneers to keep + the river and its valley for themselves and their country. All + that was needed for this were time, and vigilant firmness with + Spain.</p> + + <p>Beyond the sea were the West India Islands, the home of a + commerce long carried on by the colonies and of much profit to + them, especially to those of New England. This trade was now + hampered by England, and was soon to be still further blocked, + and thereby become the cause of much bickering and ill-will.</p> + + <p>Across the ocean we maintained with the Barbary States the + relations usual between brigands and victims, and we tried to + make treaties with them, and really paid tribute to them, as was + the fashion in dealing with those pirates at that period. With + Holland, Sweden, and Prussia we had commercial treaties, and the + Dutch sent a minister to the United States. With France alone + were our relations close. She had been our ally, and we had + formed with her a treaty of alliance and a treaty of commerce, as + well as a consular convention, which we were at this time engaged + in revising. To most of the nations of the world, however, we + were simply an unknown quantity, an unconsidered trifle. The only + people who really knew anything about us were the English, with + whom we had fought, and from whom we had separated; the French, + who had helped us to win our independence; and the Dutch, from + whom we had borrowed money. Even these nations, with so many + reasons for intelligent and profitable interest in the new + republic, failed, not unnaturally, to see the possibilities shut + up in the wild American continent.</p> + + <p>To the young nation just starting thus unnoticed and unheeded, + Washington believed that honorable peace was essential, if a firm + establishment of the new government, and of a respectable and + respected position in the eyes of the world, was ever to be + attained; and it was toward England, therefore, as the source of + most probable trouble, that Washington turned to begin his + foreign policy. The return of John Adams had left us without a + minister at London, and England had sent no representative to the + United States. The President, therefore, authorized Gouverneur + Morris, who was going abroad on private business, to sound the + English government informally as to an exchange of ministers, the + complete execution of the treaty of peace, and the negotiation of + a commercial treaty. The mission was one of inquiry, and was born + of good and generous feelings as well as of broad and wise views + of public policy. "It is in my opinion very important," he wrote + to Morris, "that we avoid errors in our system of policy + respecting Great Britain; and this can only be done by forming a + right judgment of their disposition and views."</p> + + <p>What was the response to these fair and sensible suggestions? + On the first point the assent was ready enough; but on the other + two, which looked to the carrying out of the treaty and the + making of a treaty of commerce, there was no satisfaction. + Morris, who was as high-spirited as he was able, was irritated by + the indifference and hardly concealed insolence shown to him and + his business. It was the fit beginning of the conduct by + which + England for nearly a century has succeeded in alienating the + good-will of the people of the United States. Such a policy was + neither generous nor intelligent, and politically it was a gross + blunder. Washington, however, was too great a man to be disturbed + by the bad temper and narrow ideas of English ministers. After + his fashion he persevered in what he knew to be right and for his + country's interest, and in due time a diplomatic representation + was established, while later still, in the midst of difficulties + of which he little dreamed at the outset, he carried through a + treaty that removed the existing grievances. In a word, he kept + the peace, and it lasted long enough to give the United States + the breathing space they so much needed at the beginning of their + history.</p> + + <p>The greatest perils in our foreign relations came, as it + happened, from another quarter, where peace seemed most secure, + and where no man looked for trouble. The government of the United + States and the French revolution began almost together, and it is + one of the strangest facts of history that the nation which + helped so powerfully to give freedom to America brought the + results of that freedom into the gravest peril by its own + struggle for liberty. When the great movement in France began, it + was hailed in this country with general applause, and with a + sympathy as hearty as it was genuine, for every one felt that + France was now to gain all the blessings of free government with + which America was familiar. Our glorious example, it was clear, + was destined to change the world, and monarchies and despotisms + were to disappear. There was to be a new political birth for all + the nations, and the reign of peace and good-will was to come at + once upon the earth at the hands of liberated peoples freely + governing themselves. It was a natural delusion, and a kindly + one. History, in the modern sense, was still unwritten, and men + did not then understand that the force and character of a + revolution are determined by the duration and intensity of the + tyranny and misgovernment which have preceded and caused it. The + vast benefit destined to flow from the French revolution was to + come many years after all those who saw it begin were in their + graves, but at the moment it was expected to arrive immediately, + and in a form widely different from that which, in the slow + process of time, it ultimately assumed. Moreover, Americans did + not realize that the well-ordered liberty of the English-speaking + race was something unknown and inconceivable to the French.</p> + + <p>There were a few Americans who were never deceived for a + moment, even by their hopes. Hamilton, who "divined Europe," as + Talleyrand said, and Gouverneur Morris, studying the situation on + the spot with keen and practical observation, soon apprehended + the truth, while others more or less quickly followed in their + wake. But Washington, whom no one ever credited with divination, + and who never crossed the Atlantic, saw the realities of the + thing sooner, and looked more deeply into the future than anybody + else. No man lived more loyal than he, or more true to the duties + of gratitude; but he looked upon the world of facts with vision + never dimmed nor dazzled, and watched in silence, while others + slept and dreamed. Let us follow his letters for a moment. In + October, 1789, in the first flush of hope and sympathy, he wrote + to Morris: "The revolution which has been effected in France is + of so wonderful a nature that the mind can hardly realize the + fact. If it ends as our last accounts to the first of August + predict, that nation will be the most powerful and happy in + Europe; but I fear though it has gone triumphantly through the + first paroxysm, it is not the last it has to encounter before + matters are finally settled. In a word, the revolution is of too + great magnitude to be effected in so short a space, and with the + loss of so little blood.... To forbear running from one extreme + to another is no easy matter; and should this be the case, rocks + and shelves, not visible at present, may wreck the vessel, and + give a higher-toned despotism than the one which existed + before."</p> + + <p>Seven years afterwards, reviewing his opinions in respect to + France, he wrote to Pickering: "My conduct in public and private + life, as it relates to the important struggle in which the latter + is engaged, has been uniform from the commencement of it, and may + be summed up in a few words: that I have always wished well to + the French revolution; that I have always given it as my decided + opinion that no nation had a right to intermeddle in the internal + concerns of another; that every one had a right to form and adopt + whatever government they liked best to live under themselves; and + that if this country could, consistently with its engagements, + maintain a strict neutrality and thereby preserve peace, it was + bound to do so by motives of policy, interest, and every other + consideration that ought to actuate a people situated as we are, + already deeply in debt, and in a convalescent state from the + struggle we have been engaged in ourselves."</p> + + <p>Thus prepared, Washington waited and saw his cautious + predictions verified, and the revolution rush headlong from one + extreme to another. He also saw the flames spread beyond the + borders of France, changing and dividing public opinion + everywhere; and he knew it was only a question of time how soon + the new nation, at whose head he stood, would be affected. + Histories and biographies which treat of that period, as a rule + convey the idea that the foreign policy of our first + administration dealt with the complications that arose as they + came upon us. Nothing could be further from the truth, for the + general policy was matured at the outset, as has been seen in the + letter to Newenham, and the occasions for its application were + sure to come sooner or later, in one form or another. Washington + was not surprised by the presence of the perils that he feared, + and danger only made him more set on carrying out the policy upon + which he had long since determined. In July, 1791, he wrote to + Morris: "I trust we shall never so far lose sight of our own + interest and happiness as to become unnecessarily a party to + these political disputes. Our local situation enables us to + maintain that state with respect to them which otherwise could + not, perhaps, be preserved by human wisdom." He followed this up + with a strong and concise argument as to the advantage and + necessity of this policy, showing a complete grasp of the + subject, which came from long and patient thought.</p> + + <p>All his firmness and knowledge were needed, for the position + was most trying. With every ship that brought news of the + extraordinary doings in Europe, the applause which greeted the + early uprisings of Paris grew less general. The wise, the + prudent, the conservative, cooled gradually at first, and then + more quickly in their admiration of the French; but in the + beginning, this deepening and increasing hostility to the + revolution kept silence. It was popular to be the friend of + France, and highly unpopular to be anything else. But when + excesses multiplied and blood flowed, when religion tottered and + the foundations of society were shaken, this silence was broken. + Discussion took the place of harmonious congratulation, and it + soon became apparent that there was to be a sharp and bitter + division of public opinion, growing out of the affairs of France. + It was necessary for the government to maintain a friendly yet + cautious attitude toward our former ally, and not endanger the + stability of the Union and the dignity of the country by giving + to the French sympathizers any good ground for accusing them of + ingratitude, or of lukewarmness toward the cause of human rights. + That a time would soon come when decisive action must be taken, + Washington saw plainly enough; and when that moment arrived, the + risk of fierce party divisions on a question of foreign politics + could not be avoided. Meantime domestic bitterness on these + matters was to be repressed and delayed, and yet in so doing no + step was to be taken which would involve the country in any + inconsistency, or compel a change of position when the crisis was + actually reached. The policy of separating the United States from + all foreign politics is usually dated from what is called the + neutrality proclamation; but the theory, as has been pointed out, + was clear and well defined in Washington's mind when he entered + upon the presidency. The outlines were marked out and pursued in + practice long before the outbreak of war between France and + England put his system to the touch. In everything he said or + wrote, whether in public or private, his tone toward France was + so friendly that her most zealous supporter could not take + offense, and at the same time it was so absolutely guarded that + the country was committed to nothing which could hamper it in the + future. The course of the administration as a whole, and its + substantive acts as well, were in harmony with the tone of + expression used by the President; for Washington, it may be + repeated, was the head of his own administration, a fact which + the biographers of the very able men who surrounded him are too + prone to overlook. In this case he was not only the leader, but + the work was peculiarly his own, and a few extracts from his + letters will show the completeness of his policy and the firmness + with which he followed it whenever occasion came.</p> + + <p>To Lafayette he wrote in July, 1791, a letter full of + sympathy, but with an undertone of warning none the less + significant because it was veiled. Coming to a point where there + was an intimation of trouble between the two countries, he said: + "The decrees of the National Assembly respecting our tobacco and + oil do not appear to be very pleasing to the people of this + country; but I do not presume that any hasty measures will be + adopted in consequence thereof; for we have never entertained a + doubt of the friendly disposition of the French nation toward us, + and are therefore persuaded that, if they have done anything + which seems to bear hard upon us at a time when the Assembly must + have been occupied in very important matters, and which, perhaps, + would not allow time for a due consideration of the subject, they + will in the moment of calm deliberation alter it and do what is + right."</p> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:40%;"> + <a href="images/illus0461.jpg"><img width="100%" src= + "images/illus0461.jpg" alt="LAFAYETTE" /></a>LAFAYETTE + </div> + + <p>The unfriendly act was noted, so that Lafayette would + understand that no tame submission was intended, and yet no + resentment was expressed. The same tone can be noticed in a + widely different direction. Washington foresaw that the troubles + in France, sooner or later, would involve her in war with + England. The United States, as the former allies of the French, + were certain to attract the attention of the mother country, and + so he watched on that side also with equal caution. England, if + possible, was to be made to understand that the American policy + was not dictated by anything but the interests and the dignity of + the United States, and their resolve to hold aloof from European + complications. In June, 1792, he wrote to Morris: "One thing, + however, I must not pass over in silence, lest you should infer + from it that Mr. D. had authority for reporting that the United + States had asked the mediation of Great Britain to bring about a + peace between them and the Indians. You may be fully assured, + sir, that such mediation never was asked, that the asking of it + never was in contemplation, and I think I might go further and + say that it not only never will be asked, but would be rejected + if offered. The United States will never have occasion, I hope, + to ask for the interposition of that power, or any other, to + establish peace within their own territory."</p> + + <p>Here is again the same note, always so true and clear, that + the United States are not colonies but an independent nation. So + far as it was in the power of the President, this was something + which should be heard by all men, even at the risk of much + reiteration. It was a fact not understood at home and not + recognized abroad, but Washington proposed to insist upon it so + far as in him lay, until it was both understood and admitted.</p> + + <p>Meantime the flames were ever spreading from Paris, consuming + and threatening to consume the heaped up rubbish of centuries, + and also burning up many other more valuable things, as is the + way with great fires when they get beyond control. Many persons + were interested in the things of worth now threatened with + destruction, and many others in the rubbish and the tyrannous + abuses. It was clear that war of a wide and far-reaching kind + could not be long put off. In March, 1793, Washington wrote: "All + our late accounts from Europe hold up the expectation of a + general war in that quarter. For the sake of humanity, I hope + such an event will not take place. But if it should, I trust that + we shall have too just a sense of our own interest to originate + any cause that may involve us in it."</p> + + <p>Even while he wrote, the general war that he anticipated, the + war between France and England, had come. The news reached him at + Mount Vernon, and in the letter to Jefferson announcing his + immediate departure for Philadelphia he said: "War having + actually commenced between France and Great Britain, it behooves + the government of this country to use every means in its power to + prevent the citizens thereof from embroiling us with either of + those powers, by endeavoring to maintain a strict neutrality. I + therefore require that you will give the subject mature + consideration, that such measures as shall be deemed most likely + to effect this desirable purpose may be adopted without delay." + These instructions were written on April 12, and on the 18th + Washington was in Philadelphia, and had sent out a series of + questions to be considered by his cabinet and answered on the + following day. After much discussion, it was unanimously agreed + to issue a proclamation of neutrality, to receive the new French + minister, and not to convene Congress in extra session. The + remaining questions were put over for further consideration.</p> + + <p>Hamilton framed the questions, say the historians; Randolph + drafted the proclamation, says his biographer, in a very + instructive and fresh discussion of the relations between the + Secretary of State and the Attorney-General. It is interesting to + know what share the President's advisers took when he consulted + them on this momentous question, but the leading idea was his + own. When the moment came, the policy long meditated and matured + was put in force. The world was told that a new power had come + into being, which meant to hold aloof from Europe, and which took + no interest in the balance of power or the fate of dynasties, but + looked only to the welfare of its own people and to the conquest + and mastery of a continent as its allotted tasks. The policy + declared by the proclamation was purely American in its + conception, and severed the colonial tradition at a stroke. In + the din then prevailing among civilized men, it was but little + heeded, and even at home it was almost totally misunderstood; yet + nevertheless it did its work. For twenty-five years afterward the + American people slowly advanced toward the ground then taken, + until the ideas of the neutrality proclamation received their + final acceptance and extension at the hands of the younger Adams, + in the promulgation of the Monroe doctrine. The shaping of this + policy which was then launched was a great work of far-sighted + and native statesmanship, and it was preëminently the work + of the President himself.</p> + + <p>Moreover, it did not stop here. A circular to the officers of + the customs provided for securing notice of infractions of the + law, and the task of enforcing the principles laid down in the + proclamation began. As it happened, the theory of neutrality was + destined at once to receive rude tests of its soundness in + practice. The new French minister was landing on our shores, and + beginning his brief career in this country, while the + proclamation was going from town to town and telling the people, + in sharp and unaccustomed tones, that they were Americans and not + colonists, and must govern themselves accordingly.</p> + + <p>Everything, in fact, seemed to conspire to make the path of + the new policy rough and thorny. In the excitement of the time a + large portion of the population regarded it as a party measure + aimed against our beloved allies, while, to make the situation + worse, France on one side and England on the other proceeded, as + if deliberately, to do everything in their power to render + neutrality impossible, and to drive us into war with some + one.</p> + + <p>The new minister, Genet, could not have been better chosen, if + the special errand for which he had been employed had been to + make trouble. Light-headed and vain, with but little ability and + a vast store of unintelligent zeal, the whirl of the French + revolution flung him on our shores, where he had a glorious + chance for mischief. This opportunity he at once seized. As soon + as he landed he proceeded to arm privateers at Charleston. Thence + he took his way north, and the enthusiastic popular acclaim which + everywhere greeted his arrival almost crazed him, and drew forth + a series of high-flown and most injudicious speeches. By the time + he reached Philadelphia, and before he had presented his + credentials, he had induced enough violations of neutrality, and + sown the seeds of enough trouble, to embarrass our government for + months to come.</p> + + <p>Washington had written to Governor Lee on May 6: "I foresaw in + the moment information of that event (the war) came to me, the + necessity for announcing the disposition of this country towards + the belligerent powers, and the propriety of restraining, as far + as a proclamation would do it, our citizens from taking part in + that contest.... The affairs of France would seem to me to be in + the highest paroxysm of disorder; not so much from the presence + of foreign enemies, for in the cause of liberty this ought to be + fuel to the fire of a patriot soldier and to increase his ardor, + but because those in whose hands the government is intrusted are + ready to tear each other to pieces, and will more than probably + prove the worst foes the country has."</p> + + <p>He easily foresaw the moment of trial, when he would be forced + to the declaration of his policy, which was so momentous for the + United States, and he also understood the condition of affairs at + Paris, and the probable tendencies and proximate results of the + Revolution. It was evident that the great social convulsion had + brought forth men of genius and force, and had maddened them with + the lust of blood and power. But it was less easy to foresee, + what was equally natural, that the revolution would also throw to + the surface men who had neither genius nor force, but who were as + wild and dangerous as their betters. No one, surely, could have + been prepared to meet in the person of the minister of a great + nation such a feather-headed mischief-maker as Genet.</p> + + <p>In everything relating to France Washington had observed the + utmost caution, and his friendliness had been all the more marked + because he had felt obliged to be guarded. He had exercised this + care even in personal matters, and had refrained, so far as + possible, from seeing the <i>émigrés</i> who had + begun to come to this country. Such men as the Vicomte de + Noailles had been referred to the State Department, and in many + cases the maintenance of this attitude had tried his feelings + severely, for the exiles were not infrequently men who had fought + or sympathized with us in our day of conflict. Now came the new + minister of the republic, a being apparently devoid of training + or manners. Before he had been received, or had appeared at the + seat of government, before he had even taken possession of his + predecessor's papers, he had behaved in a way which would not + have been inappropriate to a Roman governor of a conquered + province. He had ordered the French consuls to act as admiralty + courts, he had armed cruisers, enlisted and commissioned American + citizens, and had seen the vessels of a power with which the + United States were at peace captured in American waters, and + condemned in the States by French consular courts. Three weeks + before Genet's audience Jefferson had a memorial from the British + minister, justly complaining of the injuries done his country + under cover of our flag; and while the government was considering + this pleasant incident, Genet was faring gayly northward, + fêted and caressed, cheered and applauded, the subject of + ovations and receptions everywhere. At Philadelphia he was + received by a great concourse of citizens, called together by the + guns of the very privateer that had violated our neutrality, and + led by provincial persons, who thought it fine to name themselves + "citizen" Smith and "citizen" Brown, because that particular + folly was the fashion in France. A day was passed in receiving + addresses, and then Genet was presented to the President.</p> + + <p>A stranger contrast could not easily have been found even in + that strange time, and two men more utterly unlike probably never + faced each other as representatives of two great nations. In the + difference between them the philosopher may find, perhaps, some + explanation of the difference in the character and results of the + revolutions which came so near together in the two countries. + Nothing, moreover, could well be conceived more distasteful to + Washington than the Frenchman's conduct except the Frenchman + himself. There was about the man and his performances everything + most calculated to bring one of those gusts of passionate + contempt which now and again had made things unpleasant for some + one who had failed in sense, decency, and duty. This was + impossible to a President, but nevertheless his self-restraint + from the beginning to the end of his intercourse with Genet was + very remarkable in a man of his temperament. At their first + interview his demeanor may have been a little colder than usual, + and the dignified reserve somewhat more marked, but there was no + trace of any feeling. His manner, nevertheless, chilled Genet and + came upon him like a cold bath after the warm atmosphere of + popular plaudits and turgid addresses. He went away grumbling, + and complained that he had seen medallions of the Capets on the + walls of the President's room.</p> + + <p>But although Washington was calm and polite, he was also + watchful and prepared, as he had good reason to be, for Genet + immediately began, in addition to his wild public utterances, to + pour in notes upon the State Department. He demanded money; he + announced in florid style the opening of the French ports; he + wrote that he was ready to make a new treaty; and finally he + filed an answer to the complaints of the British minister. His + arguments were wretched, but they seemed to weigh with Jefferson, + although not with the President; and meantime the dragon's teeth + which he had plentifully sown began to come up and bear an + abundant harvest. More prizes were made by his cruisers, and + after many remonstrances one was ordered away, and two Americans + whom Genet had enlisted were indicted. Genet declared that this + was an act which his pen almost refused to state; but still it + was done, and the administration pushed on and ordered the + seizure of privateers fitting in American ports. Governor Clinton + made a good beginning with one at New York, and in hot haste + Genet wrote another note more furious and impertinent than any he + had yet sent. He was answered civilly, and the work of stopping + the sale of prizes went on.</p> + + <p>Meantime the opposition were not idle. The French sympathizers + bestirred themselves, and attacks began to be made even on the + President himself. The popular noise and clamor were all against + the administration, but the support of it was really growing + stronger, although the President and his secretaries could not + see it. Jefferson, on whom the conduct of foreign affairs rested, + was uneasy and wavering. He wrote able letters, as he was + directed, but held, it is to be feared, quite different language + in his conversations with Genet. Randolph argued and hesitated, + while Hamilton, backed by Knox, was filled with wrath and wished + more decisive measures. Still, as we look at it now across a + century, we can observe that the policy went calmly forward, + consistent and unchecked. The French minister was held back, + privateers were stopped, the English minister's complaints were + answered, every effort was made for exact justice, and neutrality + was preserved. It was hard and trying work, especially to a man + of strong temper and fighting propensities. Still it was done, + and toward the end of June Washington went for a little rest to + Mount Vernon.</p> + + <p>Then came a sudden explosion. One July morning the rumor ran + through Philadelphia that the Little Sarah, a prize of the French + man-of-war, was fitting out as a privateer. The reaction in favor + of the administration was beginning, and men, indignant at the + proceeding, carried the news to Governor Mifflin, and also to the + Secretary of State. Great disturbance of mind thereupon ensued to + these two gentlemen, who were both much interested in France and + the rights of man. The brig would not sail before the arrival of + the President, said the Secretary of State. Still the arming went + on apace, and then came movements on the part of the governor. + Dallas, Secretary of State for Pennsylvania, went at midnight to + expostulate with Genet, who burst into a passion, and declared + that the vessel should sail. This defiance roused the governor, + and a company of militia marched to the vessel and took + possession. Greatly excited, Jefferson went next morning to + Genet, who very honestly declined to promise to detain the + vessel, but said that she would not be ready to sail until + Wednesday. This announcement, which was distinctly not a promise, + the Secretary of State chose to accept as such, and as he was + very far from being a fool, he did so either from timidity, or + from a very unworthy political preference for another nation's + interests to the dignity of his own country. At all events, he + had the troops withdrawn, and the Little Sarah, now rejoicing in + the name of the Petit Democrat, dropped down to Chester. Hamilton + and Knox, being neither afraid nor un-American, were for putting + a battery on Mud Island and sinking the privateer if she + attempted to go by. Great saving of trouble and bloodshed would + have been accomplished by the setting up of this battery and the + sinking of this vessel, for it would have informed the world that + though the United States were weak and young, they were ready + nevertheless to fight as a nation, a fact which we subsequently + were obliged to prove by a three years' war.</p> + + <p>Jefferson, however, opposed decisive measures, and while the + cabinet wrangled, Washington, hurrying back from Mount Vernon, + reached Philadelphia. He was full of just anger at what had been + done and left undone. Jefferson, feeling uneasy, had gone to the + country, where he was fond of making a retreat at unpleasant + moments, and Washington at once wrote him a letter, which could + not have been very agreeable to the discoverer of diplomatic + promises in a refusal to give any. "What," said the President, + "is to be done in the case of the Little Sarah, now at Chester? + Is the minister of the French Republic to set the acts of this + government at defiance <i>with impunity</i>? and then threaten + the executive with an appeal to the people? What must the world + think of such conduct, and of the government of the United States + in submitting to it?" Then came a demand for an immediate + opinion.</p> + + <p>To the tender feelings of the Secretary of State, who had not + been considering the affair from an American standpoint, this + must have seemed a violent and almost a coarse way of treating + the "great republic," and he replied that the French minister had + assured him that the vessel would not sail until the President + reached a decision. Having got the vessel to Chester, however, by + telling the truth, Genet now changed his tack. He lied about + detaining her, and she went to sea. This performance filled the + cup of Washington's disgust almost to overflowing, for he had + what Jefferson seems to have totally lost at this + juncture—a keen national feeling, and it was touched to the + quick. The truth was, that in all this business Jefferson was + thinking too much of France and of the cause of human liberty in + Paris, while Washington thought of the United States alone. The + result was the escape of the vessel, owing to Washington's + absence, and the consequent humiliation to the government. To + refrain from ordering Genet out of the country at once required a + strong effort of self-control; but he wished to keep the peace as + long as possible, and he proposed to get rid of him speedily but + decorously. He resolved also that no more such outrages should be + committed through his absence, and the consequent differences + among his advisers. He continued, of course, to consult his + cabinet, but he took the immediate control, more definitely even + than before, into his own hands. On July 25 he wrote to + Jefferson, whose vigor at this critical time he evidently + doubted: "As the letter of the minister of the Republic of + France, dated the 22d of June, lies yet unanswered, and as the + official conduct of that gentleman, relative to the affairs of + this government, will have to undergo a very serious + consideration, ... in order to decide upon measures proper to be + taken thereupon, it is my desire that all the letters to and from + that minister may be ready to be laid before me, the heads of + departments, and the attorney-general, whom I shall advise with + on the occasion." He also saw to it that better precautions + should be taken by the officers of the customs to prevent similar + attempts to break neutrality, and set the administration and the + laws of the country at defiance.</p> + + <p>The cabinet consultations soon bore good fruit, and Genet's + recall was determined on during the first days of August. There + was some discussion over the manner of requesting the recall, but + the terms were made gentle by Jefferson, to the disgust of the + Secretary of the Treasury and the Secretary of War, who desired + direct methods and stronger language. As finally toned up and + agreed upon by the President and cabinet, the document was + sufficiently vigorous to annoy Genet, and led to bitter + reproaches addressed to his friend in the State Department. Then + there was question about publishing the correspondence, and again + Jefferson intervened in behalf of mildness. The substantive fact, + however, was settled, and the letter asking Genet's recall, as + desired by Washington, went in due time, and in the following + February came a successor. Genet, however, did not go back to his + native land, for he preferred to remain here and save his head, + valueless as that article would seem to have been. He spent the + rest of his days in America, married, harmless, and quite + obscure. His noise and fireworks were soon over, and one wonders + now how he could ever have made as much flare and explosion as he + did.</p> + + <p>But even while his recall was being decided, before he knew of + it himself, and long before his successor came, Genet's folly + produced more trouble than ever, and his insolence rose to a + higher pitch. The arming of privateers had been checked, but the + consuls continued to arrogate powers which no self-respecting + nation could permit, and for some gross offense Washington + revoked the <i>exequatur</i> of Duplaine, consul at Boston. An + insolent note from Genet thereupon declared that the President + had overstepped his authority, and that he should appeal to the + sovereign State of Massachusetts. Next there was riot and the + attempted murder of a man from St. Domingo who was accused by the + refugees. Then it began to get abroad that Genet had threatened + to appeal from the President to the people, and frantic denials + ensued from all the opposition press; whereupon a card appeared + from John Jay and Rufus King, which stated that they were + authority for the story and believed it. Apologies now took the + place of denial, and were backed by ferocious attacks on the + signers of the card. Unluckily, intelligent people seemed to put + faith in Jay and King rather than in the opposition newspapers, + and the tide, which had turned some time before, now ran faster + every moment against the French. To make it flow with + overwhelming force and rapidity was reserved for Genet himself, + who was furious at the Jay card, and wrote to the President, + demanding a denial of the statement which it contained. A cool + note informed him that the President did not consider it proper + or material to make denials, and pointed out to him that he must + address his communications to the State Department. This + correspondence was published, and the mass of the people were at + last aroused, and turned from Genet in disgust. The leaders tried + vainly to separate the minister from his country, and Genet + himself frothed and foamed, demanded that Randolph should sue Jay + and King for libel, and declared that America was no longer free. + This sad statement had little effect. Washington had triumphed + completely, and without haste but with perfect firmness had + brought the people round to his side as that of the national + dignity and honor.</p> + + <p>The victory had been won at no little cost to Washington + himself in the way of self-control. He had been irritated and + angered at every step, so much so that he even referred in a + letter to Richard Henry Lee to the trial of temper to which he + had been put, a bit of personal allusion in which he rarely + indulged. "The specimens you have seen," he wrote, "of Mr. + Genet's sentiments and conduct in the gazettes form a small part + only of the aggregate. But you can judge from them to what test + the temper of the executive has been put in its various + transactions with this gentleman. It is probable that the whole + will be exhibited to public view in the course of the next + session of Congress. Delicacy towards his nation has restrained + the doing of it hitherto. The best that can be said of this agent + is, that he is entirely unfit for the mission on which he is + employed; unless (which I hope is not the case), contrary to the + express and unequivocal declaration of his country made through + himself, it is meant to involve ours in all the horrors of a + European war."</p> + + <p>But there was another side to the neutrality question even + more full of difficulties and unpopularity, which began to open + just as the worst of the contests with Genet was being brought to + a successful close. Genet had not confined his efforts to the + seaboard, nor been content with civic banquets, privateers, + rioting, and insolent notes to the government. He had fitted out + ships, and he intended also to levy armies. With this end in view + he had sent his agents through the south and west to raise men in + order to invade the Floridas on the one hand and seize New + Orleans on the other. To conceive of such a performance by a + foreign minister on the soil of the United States, requires an + effort of the imagination to-day almost equal to that which would + be necessary for an acceptance of the reality of the Arabian + nights. It brings home with startling clearness not merely the + crazy insolence of Genet, but a painful sense of the manner in + which we were regarded by the nations of Europe. Still worse is + the fact that they had good reason for their view. The imbecility + of the confederation had bred contempt, and it was now seen that + we were still so wholly provincial that a large part of the + people was not only ready to condone but even to defend the + conduct of the minister who engaged in such work. Worst of all, + the people among whom the French agents went received their + propositions with much pleasure. In South Carolina, where it was + said five thousand men had been enlisted, there was sufficient + self-respect to stop the precious scheme. The assembly arrested + certain persons and ordered an inquiry, which came to nothing; + but the effect of their action was sufficient. In Kentucky, on + the other hand, the authorities would not interfere. The people + there were always quite ready for a march against New Orleans, + and that it did not proceed was due to Genet's inability to get + money; for the governor declined to meddle, and the democratic + society of Lexington demanded war. Matters looked so serious that + the cavalry was sent to Kentucky, and the rest of the army + wintered in Ohio. It was actually necessary to teach the American + people by the presence of the troops of the United States that + they must not enroll themselves in the army of a foreign + minister.</p> + + <p>Nothing can show more strikingly than this the almost + inconceivable difficulties with which the President was + contending. To develop a policy of wise and dignified neutrality, + and to impress it upon the world, was a great enough task in + itself. But Washington was obliged to impress it also upon his + own people, and to teach them that they must have a policy of + their own toward other nations. He had to carry this through in + the teeth of an opposition so utterly colonial that it could not + grasp the idea of having any policy but that which, from sympathy + or hate, they took from foreigners. Beyond the mountains, he had + to bring this home to men to whom American nationality was such a + dead letter that they were willing to defy their own government, + throw off their allegiance, and enlist for an offensive war under + the banners of a crazy French Girondist. It is neither easy nor + pleasant to carry out a new foreign policy in time of general + war, with one's own people united in its support; but when the + foreign divisions are repeated at home, the task is enhanced in + difficulty a thousand-fold. Nevertheless, there was the work to + do, and the President faced it. He dealt with Genet, he prevailed + in public opinion on the seaboard, and in some fashion he + maintained order west of the mountains.</p> + + <p>Washington also saw, as we can see now very plainly, that, + wrong and unpatriotic as the Kentucky attitude was, there was + still an excuse for it. Those bold pioneers, to whom the country + owes so much, had very substantial grievances. They knew nothing + of the laws of nations, and did not yet realize that they had a + country and a nationality; but they had the instincts of all + great conquering races. They looked upon the Mississippi and felt + that it was of right theirs, and that it must belong to the vast + empire which they were winning from the wilderness. They saw the + mighty river held and controlled by Spaniards, and they were + harassed and interfered with by Spanish officials, whom they both + hated and despised. To men of their mould and training there was + but one solution conceivable. They must fight the Spaniard, and + drive him from the land forever. Their purposes were quite right, + but their methods were faulty. Washington, born to a life of + adventure and backwoods conquest, had a good deal of real + sympathy with these men, for he knew them to be in the main + right, and his ultimate purposes were the same as theirs. But he + had a nation in his charge to whom peace was precious. To have + the backwoodsmen of Kentucky go down the river and harry the + Spaniards out of the country, as their descendants afterwards + harried the Mexicans out of Texas, would have been a refreshing + sight, but it would have interfered sadly with the nation which + was rising on the Atlantic seaboard, and of which Kentucky was a + part. War was to be avoided, and above all a war into which we + should have been dragged as the vassal of France; so Washington + intended to wait, and he managed to make the Kentuckians wait + too, a process by no means agreeable to that enterprising + people.</p> + + <p>His own policy about the Mississippi, which has already been + described, never wavered. He meant to have the great river, for + his ideas of the empire of the future were quite as extended as + those of the pioneers, and much more definite, but his way of + getting it was to build up the Atlantic States and bind them, + with their established resources, to the settlers over the + mountains. This done, time would do the rest; and the sequel + showed that he was right. A little more than a year after he came + to the presidency he wrote to Lafayette: "Gradually recovering + from the distresses in which the war left us, patiently advancing + in our task of civil government, unentangled in the crooked + politics of Europe, <i>wanting scarcely anything but the free + navigation of the Mississippi, which we must have, and as + certainly shall have, if we remain a nation</i>,"<a id= + "footnotetag1-9" name="footnotetag1-9"></a><a href= + "#footnote1-9"><sup>1</sup></a> etc.</p> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote1-9" name="footnote1-9"></a>[<b>Footnote 1:</b> + <a href="#footnotetag1-9">(return)</a> The italics are mine.] + </blockquote> + + <p>Time and peace, sufficient for the up-building of the nation, + that is the theme everywhere. Yet he knew that a sacrifice of + everything for peace was the surest road both to war and ruin. + Peace must be kept; yet war was still the last resort, and he was + ready to go to war with the Spaniards, as with the Indians, if + all else failed. But he did not mean to have all else fail, nor + did he mean to submit to Spanish insolence and exactions. The + grievances of the pioneers of the West were to be removed, if + possible, by treaty, and if that way was impossible, then by + fighting.</p> + + <p>Carmichael, who had been minister at Madrid under the + confederation, had been continued there by the new government. + But while the intrigues of Spain to detach Kentucky, and the + interference and exactions of Spanish officials, went on, our + negotiation for the settlement of our rights to the navigation of + the Mississippi halted. Tired of this inaction, Washington, late + in 1791, united William Short, our minister to Holland, in a + commission with Carmichael, to open a fresh and special + negotiation as to the Mississippi, and at the same time a + confidential agent was sent to Florida to seek some arrangements + with the governor as to fugitive slaves, a matter of burning + interest to the planters on the border. The joint commission bore + no fruit, and the troubles in the West increased. Fostered by + Genet, they came near bringing on war and detaching the western + settlements from the Union, so that it was clearly necessary to + take more vigorous measures.</p> + + <p>Accordingly, in 1794, after Genet had been dismissed, + Washington sent Thomas Pinckney, who for some years had been + minister in London, on a special treaty-making mission to Madrid. + The first results were vexatious and unpromising enough, and + Pinckney wrote at the outset that he had had two interviews with + the Duke de Alcudia, but to no purpose. It was the old game of + delay, he said, with inquiries as to why we had not replied to + propositions, which in fact never had been made. Even what + Pinckney wrote, unsatisfactory as it was, could not be wholly + made out, for some passages were in a cipher to which the State + Department had no key. Washington wrote to Pickering, then acting + as Secretary of State: "A kind of fatality seems to have pursued + this negotiation, and, in short, all our concerns with Spain, + from the appointment of Mr. Carmichael, under the new government, + as minister to that country, to the present day.... Enough, + however, appears already to show the temper and policy of the + Spanish court, and its undignified conduct as it respects + themselves, and insulting as it relates to us; and I fear it will + prove that the late treaty of peace with France portends nothing + favorable to these United States." Washington's patience had been + sorely tried by the delays and shifty evasions of Spain, but he + was now on the brink of success, just as he concluded that + negotiation was hopeless.</p> + + <p>He had made a good choice in Thomas Pinckney, better even than + he knew. Triumphing over all obstacles, with persistence, + boldness, and good management, Pinckney made a treaty and brought + it home with him. Still more remarkable was the fact that it was + an extremely good treaty, and conceded all we asked. By it the + Florida boundary was settled, and the free navigation of the + Mississippi was obtained. We also gained the right to a place of + deposit at New Orleans, a pledge to leave the Indians alone, a + commercial agreement modeled on that with France, and a board of + arbitration to settle American claims. All this Pinckney + obtained, not as the representative of a great and powerful + state, but as the envoy of a new nation, distant, unknown, + disliked, and embroiled in various complications with other + powers. Our history can show very few diplomatic achievements to + be compared with this, for it was brilliant in execution, and + complete and valuable in result. Yet it has passed into history + almost unnoticed, and both the treaty and its maker have been + singularly and most unjustly neglected. Even the accurate and + painstaking Hildreth omits the date and circumstances of + Pinckney's appointment, while the last elaborate history of the + United States scarcely alludes to the matter, and finds no place + in its index for the name of its author. It was in fact one of + the best pieces of work done during Washington's administration, + and perfected its policy on a most difficult and essential point. + It is high time that justice were done to the gallant soldier and + accomplished diplomatist who conducted the negotiation and + rendered such a solid service to his country. Thomas Pinckney, + who really did something, who did work worth doing and without + many words, has been forgotten, while many of his contemporaries, + who simply made a noise, are freshly remembered in the pages of + history.</p> + + <p>There was, however, another nation out on our western and + northern border more difficult to deal with than Spain; and in + this quarter there was less evasion and delay, but more arrogance + and bad temper. It was to England that Washington turned first + when he took up the presidency, and it was in her control of the + western posts and her influence among the Indian tribes that he + saw the greatest dangers to the continental movement of our + people. Morris, as we have seen, sounded the British government + with but little success. Still they promised to send a minister, + and in due time Mr. George Hammond arrived in that capacity, and + opened a long and somewhat fruitless correspondence with the + Secretary of State on the various matters of difference existing + between the two countries. This interchange of letters went on + peaceably and somewhat monotonously for many months, and then + suddenly became very vivid and animated. This was the effect of + the arrival of Genet; and at this point begins the long series of + mistakes made by Great Britain in her dealings with the United + States.</p> + + <p>The principle of the declaration of neutrality could be easily + upheld on broad political grounds, but technically its defense + was by no means so simple. By the treaty of commerce with France + we were bound to admit her privateers and prizes to our ports; + and here, as any one could see, and as the sequel amply proved, + was a fertile source of dangerous complications. Then by the + treaty of alliance we guaranteed to France her West Indian + possessions, binding ourselves to aid her in their defense; and a + proclamation of neutrality when France was actually at war with a + great naval power was an immediate and obvious limitation upon + this guarantee. Hamilton argued that while France had an + undoubted right to change her government, the treaty applied to a + totally different state of affairs, and was therefore in + suspense. He also argued that we were not bound in case of + offensive war, and that this war was offensive. Jefferson and + Randolph held that the treaties were as binding and as much in + force now as they had ever been; but they both assented to the + proclamation of neutrality. There can be little question that on + the general legal principle Jefferson and Randolph were right. + Hamilton's argument was ingenious and very fine-spun. But when he + made the point about the character of the war as relieving us + from the guarantee, he was unanswerable; and this of itself was a + sufficient ground. He went beyond it in order to make his + reasoning fit existing conditions consistently and throughout, + and then it was that his position became untenable. In reality + the French revolution was showing itself so wholly abnormal and + was so rapid in its changes, that as a matter of practical + statesmanship it was worse than idle even to suppose that + previous treaties, made with an established government, were in + force with this ever-shifting thing which the revolution had + brought forth. Still the general doctrine as to the binding force + of treaties remained unaltered, and this conflict between fact + and principle was what constituted the great difficulty in the + way of Washington and Hamilton. The latter met it with one clever + and adroit argument which it was difficult to sustain, and + avoided it with a second, which was narrower, but at the same + time sound and all-sufficient, as to the character of the war. + Jefferson and Randolph stood by the general principle, but + abandoned it in practice under pressure of imperious facts, as + men generally do, while France herself soon removed all technical + difficulties by abrogating by her measures the treaty of + commerce, an act which relieved us of any further obligations and + justified Hamilton's position. But in the beginning this was not + known, and yet action was none the less necessary.</p> + + <p>The result was right, and Washington had his way, which it + must be confessed he had fully determined on before his cabinet + supplied him with technical arguments.</p> + + <p>All these points must have been plain enough to Hammond and + the English ministry. They could not see the full scope of the + neutrality policy in its national meaning, and they very + naturally failed to perceive that it marked the rise of a new + power wholly disconnected from Europe, to which their own views + were confined. But they were quite able to understand the + immediate aspect of the case. They saw Washington adopt and carry + out a policy of dignified impartiality; they were well able to + value rightly the technical objections which stood in his path, + and they could see also that this policy was at the outset very + unpopular in America. The remembrance of old injuries and of the + war for independence was still fresh, and the hatred of England + was well nigh universal in the United States. On the other hand, + a lively sense of gratitude to France, and a sympathy with the + objects of the revolution, made affection for that country + uniform and general. The easy and popular course was for our + government to range itself more or less directly with the French, + and the refusal to do so was bold and in the highest degree + creditable to the administration. It was, moreover, an important + advantage to England that the United States should not ally + themselves with her enemy, for next to herself, the Americans + were the great seafaring people of the world, and were in a + position to ravage her commerce, and, aided by France, to break + up her West Indian possessions. If the United States had followed + the natural prejudices of the time and had espoused the cause of + France, it would have been wise and right for England to attack + them and break them down if possible. But when, from a sense of + national dignity and of fair dealing, the United States stood + apart from the conflict and placed their former foe on the same + footing as their friend and ancient ally, a very small allowance + of good sense would have led the British ministry to encourage + them in so doing. By favorable treatment, and by a friendly and + conciliatory policy, they should have helped Washington in his + struggle against popular prejudices, and endeavored by so doing + to keep the United States neutral, and lead them, if possible, to + their side; but with a fatuity almost incomprehensible they + pursued an almost exactly opposite course. By similar conduct + England had brought on the war for independence, which ended in + the division of her empire. In precisely the same way she now + proceeded to make it as arduous as possible for Washington to + maintain neutrality, and thereby played directly into the hands + of the party that supported France. The true policy demanded no + sacrifices on the part of Great Britain. Civility and + consideration in her dealings, and a careful abstention from + wanton aggression and insult, were all-sufficient. But England + disliked us, as was quite natural; she did not wish us to thrive + and prosper, and she knew that we were weak and not in a position + to enter upon an offensive war.</p> + + <p>As soon as it became known that Genet's privateers, manned by + seamen enlisted in our ports, were preying on British commerce, + and that the French man-of-war L'Ambuscade had taken an English + vessel, The Grange, within the capes of the Delaware, Hammond + filed a memorial in regard to these incidents. In so doing he was + of course quite right, and the government responded immediately, + and proceeded in good faith to make every effort to repair these + breaches of neutrality, and to redress the wrongs suffered by + Great Britain. Hammond, however, instead of doing all in his + power, not merely to gain his own ends, but to make it easy for + our government to satisfy him, assumed at once a disagreeable + tone with a strong flavor of bullying, which was not calculated + to conciliate the statesmen with whom he was dealing. It was a + small matter enough, but unfortunately it was an indication of + what was to come.</p> + + <p>On November 6, 1793, a British order in council was passed, + but not immediately published, directing the seizure of all + vessels carrying the produce of the French islands, or loaded + with provisions for the use of the French colonies. The object of + the order was to destroy all neutral trade, and it was aimed + particularly at the commerce of the United States. The moment + selected for its adoption was when the troubles with Genet had + culminated, when we were on the point of getting rid of that very + objectionable person, and when we had proved that we meant to + maintain an honest and a real neutrality. It was as well + calculated as any move could have been to drive us back into the + arms of France, yet the manner of executing the order was far + worse than the order itself. Our merchantmen and traders had been + quick to take advantage of the opening of the French ports, and + they had gone in swarms to the French islands. Now, without a + word of warning, their vessels were seized by the cruisers of a + nation with which we were supposed to be at peace. Every petty + governor of an English island sat as a judge in admiralty. Many + of them were corrupt, all were unfit for the duty, and our + vessels were condemned and pillaged. The crews were made + prisoners, and in many cases thrown into loathsome and unhealthy + places of confinement, while the ships were left to rot in the + harbors. The tale of the outrages and miseries thus inflicted on + citizens of the United States without any warning, and by a + nation considered to be at peace with us, fills an American with + shame and anger even to-day. If our people remonstrated, they + were told that England meant to have no neutrals, and that six of + their frigates could blockade our coast. A course of kind + treatment would have made us the friends of Great Britain, but + the experiment was not even tried. The truth was that we were + weak, and this was not only a misfortune but apparently an + unpardonable sin. England could not conquer us, but she could + harry our coasts, and let loose her Indians on our borders; and + we had no navy with which to retaliate. She meant that there + should be no neutrals, and so adopted a policy which would make + us the active ally of France. It was no answer to say, what was + perfectly true, that French privateers preyed upon our commerce + with that fine indifference to rights and treaties which + characterized the governments of the Revolution. If both sides + maltreated us, the natural course was to unite with the power to + which we at least owed a debt of gratitude.</p> + + <p>About the same time a speech was reported from Quebec, in + which Lord Dorchester told the Indians that they should soon take + the war-path for England against the United States. Lord + Grenville denied in Parliament, and subsequently to Jay, that the + ministry had ever taken any step to incite the Indians against + the United States, and the authenticity of Lord Dorchester's + utterances has been questioned in later days; but it was not + disavowed at the time, even by Hammond in a sharp correspondence + which he held on that and other topics with Randolph. The speech, + as is now known and proved, was probably made, whether it was + authorized or not, and it was universally accepted at the moment + as both true and authoritative.</p> + + <p>This menace of desolating savage war in the West, in addition + to the unquestioned outrages to our seamen, the loss of our + ships, and the destruction of our commerce, with consequent ruin + to all our seaboard towns, led to a general outburst of + indignation from men of all parties, and Congress began to + prepare for war. Many of the methods suggested were feeble and + inadequate, but there could be no doubt of either the spirit or + intentions which dictated them. News that an order of January 8, + 1794, modified that of November 6, and confined the seizure to + vessels carrying French property, and reports that some of our + vessels were being restored, moderated the movements of Congress, + but it was nevertheless evident that a resolution cutting off + commercial intercourse with Great Britain would soon pass. In the + existing state of things such a step in all probability meant + war, and Washington was thus brought face to face with the most + serious problem of his administration. It did not take him + unawares, nor find him unprepared, for he had anticipated the + situation, and his mind was made up. He had no intention of + letting the country drift into war without a great effort to + prevent it, and the time for that effort had now come. As in the + case of Spain, he was resolved to send a special envoy to make a + treaty. His first choice for this important mission was Hamilton, + which, like most of his selections, would have been the best + choice that could have been made. Hamilton, however, was so + conspicuous as the great leader of the party which supported both + the foreign and domestic policy of the administration, and he was + so hated by the opposition, that a loud outcry was at once raised + against his appointment. At that particular juncture it was very + important that the envoy should depart with as much general + good-will and public confidence as possible, so Hamilton + sacrificed himself to this necessity, and withdrew his name + voluntarily. His withdrawal was a mistake, but it was a wholly + natural one under the circumstances. Washington then made the + next best choice, and appointed John Jay, who was a man of most + spotless character, honorable, high-minded, and skilled in public + affairs. He was chief justice of the United States, and that fact + gave additional weight to the mission. The only point in which he + fell behind Hamilton was in aggressiveness of character, and this + negotiation demanded, not merely firmness and tact, which Jay had + in abundance, but a boldness verging on audacity. The immediate + purpose, however, was answered, and Jay set forth on his journey + with much good feeling toward himself, and with a very solemn + sense among the people of the gravity of his undertaking. + Washington himself saw Jay depart with many misgivings, and the + act of sending such a mission at all was very trying to him, for + the conduct of England galled him to the quick. He had long + suspected Great Britain, as well as Spain, of inciting the + Indians secretly to assail our settlements, and knowing as he did + the character of savage warfare, and feeling deeply the bloodshed + and expense of our Indian wars, he cherished a profound dislike + for those who could be capable of promoting such misery to the + injury of a friendly and-civilized nation. As England became more + and more hostile, he made up his mind that she was bent on + attacking us, and in March, 1794, he wrote to Governor Clinton + that he had no doubts as to the authenticity of Lord Dorchester's + speech, and that he believed England intended war. He therefore + urged the governor to inquire carefully into the state of feeling + in Canada, and as to the military strength of the country, + especially on the border. He put no trust in the disclaimers of + the ministry when he saw the long familiar signs of hostile + intrigue among the Indians, and he was quite determined that, if + war should come, all the suffering should not be on one side.</p> + + <p>This belief in the coming of war, however, only strengthened + him in his well-matured plans to leave nothing undone to prevent + it. It was in this spirit that he despatched the special mission, + although his first letter to Jay shows that he had no very strong + hopes of peace, and that his uppermost thoughts were of the + wrongs which had been perpetrated, and of the perils which hung + over the border. He did not wish the commissioner to mince + matters at all. "There does not remain a doubt," he wrote, "in + the mind of any well-informed person in this country, not shut + against conviction, that all the difficulties we encounter with + the Indians, their hostilities, the murder of helpless women and + innocent children along our frontiers, result from the conduct of + the agents of Great Britain in this country.... Can it be + expected, I ask, so long as these things are known in the United + States, or at least firmly believed, and suffered with impunity + by Great Britain, that there ever will or can be any cordiality + between the two countries? I answer, No. And I will undertake, + without the gift of prophecy, to predict that it will be + impossible to keep this country in a state of amity with Great + Britain long, if the posts are not surrendered. A knowledge of + these being my sentiments would have little weight, I am + persuaded, with the British administration, and perhaps not with + the nation, in effecting the measure; but both may rest satisfied + that, if they want to be in peace with this country, and to enjoy + the benefits of its trade, to give up the posts is the only road + to it. Withholding them, and the consequences we feel at present + continuing, war will be inevitable."</p> + + <p>Jay meantime had been well received in England. Lord Grenville + expressed the most friendly feelings, and every desire that the + negotiation might succeed. Jay was also received at court, where + he was said to have kissed the queen's hand, a crime, so the + opposition declared, for which his lips ought to have been + blistered to the bone, a difficult and by no means common form of + punishment. Receptions, dinner parties, and a ready welcome + everywhere, did not, however, make a treaty. When it came to + business, the English did not differ materially from their + neighbors whom Canning satirized.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>"The fault of the Dutch</p> + + <p>Is giving too little and asking too much."</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>So the Americans now found it with Lord Grenville. There were + many subjects of dispute, some dangerous, and all requiring + settlement for the benefit of both countries. Boundaries, negro + claims, and British debts were easily disposed of by reference to + boards of arbitration. Two others, awkward and threatening, but + not immediately pressing, were the impressment of British seamen, + real or pretended, from American ships, and the exclusion of + American vessels from the trade of the British West Indies. The + latter circumstance was no doubt disagreeable to us, and deprived + us of profit; but it is difficult to see what right we had to + complain of it, for the ports of the British West Indies belonged + to Great Britain, and if she chose to close them to us, or + anybody else, she was quite within her rights. At all events, + Lord Grenville declined to let us in, except in a very limited + way and under most onerous conditions. The right of search and + the right of impressment were simply the rights of the powerful + over the weak. England wanted to get seamen where she could for + her navy; and so long as she could violate our flag and carry off + as recruits any able-bodied seaman who spoke English, she meant + to do it. It was worse than idle to negotiate about it. When we + should be ready and willing to fight we could settle that + question, but not before. In due time we were ready to fight. + England defeated us in various battles, ravaged our coasts, and + burned our capital; while we whipped her frigates and lake + flotillas, and repulsed her Peninsula veterans with heavy + slaughter at New Orleans. Impressment was not mentioned in the + treaty which concluded that war, but it ended at that time. The + English are a brave and combative people, but rather than get + into wars with nations that will fight, and fight hard, they will + desist from wanton and illegal aggressions, in which they do not + differ greatly from the rest of mankind; and so the practical + abandonment of impressment came with the war of 1812. The fact + was officially stated by Webster, not many years later, when he + announced that the flag covered and protected all those who lived + or traded under it.</p> + + <p>But in 1794 impressment was a negotiable question, because we + were not ready to go to war about it then and there. So Jay, + wisely enough, allowed this especial from of bullying to drift + aside, along with the exclusion from the West India trade, and + addressed himself to the two points which it was essential to + have settled at that particular moment. These questions were: the + retention of the western posts, and neutral rights at sea. In + return for the agreement on our part to pay the British debts, as + determined by arbitration, England agreed to surrender the posts + on June 1, 1796. There was to be mutual reciprocity in inland + trade on the North American continent; but coastwise, while we + opened all our harbors and rivers to the British, they shut us + out from theirs in the colonies and the territory of the Hudson's + Bay Company. In the eighteen articles, limited in duration to two + years after the conclusion of the existing war, a treaty of + commerce was practically formed and neutral rights dealt with. We + were to be admitted to British ports in Europe and the East + Indies on terms of equality with British vessels, but we were + refused admission to the East Indian coasting trade, and to that + between East India and Europe. We gained the right to trade to + the West Indies, but only on condition that we should give up the + transportation from America to Europe of any of the principal + products of the colonies. These were enumerated, and besides + sugar, molasses, coffee, and cocoa, included cotton, which had + just become an export from the southern States, and which already + promised to assume the importance that it afterwards reached. The + vexed questions of privateers, prizes, and contraband of war were + also settled and determined.</p> + + <p>The treaty as a whole was not a very brilliant one for the + United States, but its treatment was far worse than its deserts, + and it was received with such a universal outburst of indignation + that even to this day it has never freed itself from the bad name + it then acquired. Nobody, not even its supporters, liked it, and + yet it may be doubted whether anything materially better was + possible at the time. The admirers of Hamilton, from that day to + this, have believed that if he had been sent, his boldness, + ability, and force would have wrung better terms from England. + This is not at all improbable; but that they would have been + materially improved, even by Hamilton, does not seem very likely. + The treaty, in reality, was by no means bad; on the contrary, it + had many good points. It disposed satisfactorily and fairly of + all the minor questions which were vexatious and threatening to + the peaceful relation of the two countries. It settled the + British debts, gave us the western posts, which was a matter of + the utmost importance, and arranged the disputed and thorny + question of neutral rights, for the time being at least. It left + impressment totally unsettled, simply because we were still too + weak to be ready to fight England profitably on that theme. It + opened to us the West Indian ports, which was the matter most + nearly affecting our interests and our pockets, but it did so + under limitations and concessions which were excessive and even + humiliating. We were obliged to pay a price far too high for this + coveted privilege, and it was on this point that the controversy + finally hinged.</p> + + <p>The treaty reached Philadelphia on March 7. Nothing was said + of its arrival, which does not seem to have been known to any one + but the President and Randolph, who had meantime succeeded + Jefferson as Secretary of State. Three months later, on June 8, + the Senate was called together in special session, and the treaty + was laid before them. Washington did not like it and never + changed his feeling in that respect, but he had made up his mind + upon full reflection to accept it; and the Senate, after most + careful consideration, voted by exactly the necessary two thirds + to ratify it, provided that the objectionable West Indian article + could be modified. On no terms could we consent to forego the + exportation of cotton, and it is difficult to see how the Senate + could have taken any other ground upon this point. Their action, + however, opened some delicate questions. Washington wrote to + Randolph: "First, is or is not that resolution intended to be the + final act of the Senate; or do they expect that the new article + which is proposed shall be submitted to them before the treaty + takes effect? Secondly, does or does not the Constitution permit + the President to ratify the treaty, without submitting the new + article, after it shall be agreed to by the British King, to the + Senate for their further advice and consent?"</p> + + <p>These questions were carefully considered, and Washington had + made up his mind to ratify conditionally on the modification of + the West Indian article, when news arrived which caused him to + suspend action. England, having made the treaty, and before any + news could have been received of our attitude in regard to it, + took steps to render its ratification both difficult and + offensive, if not impossible. The mode adopted was to renew the + "provision order," as it was called, which directed the seizure + of all vessels carrying food products to France, and thus give to + the Jay treaty the interpretation it was designed to avoid, that + provisions could be declared contraband at the pleasure of one of + the belligerents. It was a stupid thing to do, for if England + desired to have peace with us, as her making the treaty + indicated, she should not have renewed the most irritating of all + her past performances before we had had opportunity even to sign + and ratify. Washington, on hearing of this move, withheld his + signature, bade Randolph prepare a strong memorial against the + provision order, and then betook himself to Mount Vernon on some + urgent private business.</p> + + <p>Before he started, however, the storm of popular rage had + begun to break. Bache had the substance of the treaty in the + "Aurora" on June 29, and Mr. Stevens Thomson Mason, senator from + Virginia, was so pained by some slight inaccuracies in this + version that he wrote Mr. Bache a note, and sent him a copy of + the treaty despite the injunction of secrecy by which he as a + senator was bound. Mr. Mason gained great present glory by this + frank breach of promise, and curiously enough this single + discreditable act is the only thing that keeps his name and + memory alive in history. All that he achieved at the moment was + to hurry the inevitable disclosure of the contents of a treaty + which no one desired to conceal, except in deference to official + form. Mason's note and copy of the treaty, made up into a + pamphlet, were issued from Bache's press on July 2, and hundreds + of copies were soon being carried by eager riders north and south + throughout the Union.</p> + + <p>Everywhere, as the treaty traveled, the popular wrath was + kindled. The first explosion came in Boston, Federalist Boston, + devoted beyond any other town in the country to Washington and + his administration. There was a town meeting in Faneuil Hall, + violent speeches were made, and a committee was appointed to draw + up a memorial to the President against ratification. This + remonstrance was despatched at once by special messenger, who + seemed to carry the torch of Malise instead of a set of dry + resolutions. Everywhere the anger and indignation flamed forth. + The ground had been carefully prepared, for, ever since Jay + sailed, the partisans of the French had been denouncing him and + his mission, predicting failure, and, in one case at least, + burning him in effigy before it was known whether he had done + anything at all. As soon as the news spread that the treaty had + actually arrived, the attacks were multiplied in number and grew + ever more bitter as the Senate consulted. The popular mind was so + worked up that in Boston a British vessel had been burned on + suspicion that she was a privateer, while in New York there had + been street fights and rioting because of an insult to a French + flag. In such a state of feeling, artificially stimulated and + ingeniously misled, the most brilliant diplomatic triumph would + have had but slight chance of approval. Jay's moderate + achievement was better than his enemies expected, but it was + sufficient for their purpose, and the popular fury blazed up and + ran through the country, like a whirlwind of fire over the + parched prairie. Everywhere the example of Boston was followed, + meetings were held, committees appointed, and memorials against + the treaty sent to the President. In New York Hamilton was stoned + when he attempted to speak in favor of ratification; and less + illustrious persons, who ventured to differ from the crowd, were + ducked and otherwise maltreated. Jay was hanged and burned in + effigy in every way that imagination could devise, and copies of + his treaty suffered the same fate at the hands of the hangman. + Feeling ran highest in the larger towns where there was a mob, + but even some of the smaller places and those most Federal in + their politics were carried away. The excitement seems also to + have been confined for the most part to the seaboard, but after + all that was where the bulk of the population lived. The crowd, + moreover, was not led by obscure agitators or by violent and + irresponsible partisans. The Livingstons in New York, Rodney in + Delaware, Gadsden and the Rutledges in South Carolina, were some + of the men who guided the meetings and denounced the treaty. On + the other hand, the friends and supporters of the administration + appeared stunned, and for weeks no opposition to the popular + movement except that attempted by Hamilton was apparent. Even the + administration was divided, for Randolph was as hostile to the + treaty as it was possible for a man of his temperament to be.</p> + + <p>The crisis was indeed a serious one. There have been worse in + our history, but this was one of the gravest; and never did a + President stand, so far as any one could see, so utterly alone. + With his own party silenced and even divided, with the opposition + rampant, and with popular excitement at fever heat, Washington + was left to take his course alone and unsupported. It was the + severest trial of his political life, but he met it, as he met + the reverses of 1776, calmly and without flinching. He was always + glad to have advice and suggestions. No man ever sought them or + benefited from them more than he; yet no man ever lived so little + dependent on others and so perfectly capable of standing alone as + Washington. After the Senate had acted, he made up his mind to + conditional ratification. He withheld his signature on hearing of + the provision order, and was ready to sign as soon as that order + was withdrawn. Whether he would make its withdrawal another + condition of his signature he had not determined when he left + Philadelphia for Mount Vernon, and on his arrival he wrote to + Randolph: "The conditional ratification (if the late order, which + we have heard of, respecting provision vessels is not in + operation) may, on all fit occasions, be spoken of as my + determination. Unless, from anything you have heard or met with + since I left you, it should be thought more advisable to + communicate further with me on the subject, my opinion respecting + the treaty is the same now that it was, namely, not favorable to + it; but that it is better to ratify it in the manner the Senate + have advised, and with the reservation already mentioned, than to + suffer matters to remain as they are, unsettled." He had already + received the Boston resolutions, and had sent them to his cabinet + for their consideration. He did not for a moment underrate their + importance, and he saw that they were the harbingers of others of + like character, although he could not yet estimate the full + violence of the storm of popular disapprobation. On July 28 he + sent his answer to the selectmen of Boston, and it is such an + important paper that it must be given in full. It was as + follows:—</p> + + <blockquote> + <p>UNITED STATES, <i>28th of July</i>, 1795.</p> + + <p>GENTLEMEN: In every act of my administration I have sought + the happiness of my fellow-citizens. My system for the + attainment of this object has uniformly been to overlook all + personal, local, and partial considerations; to contemplate the + United States as one great whole; to confide that sudden + impressions, and erroneous, would yield to candid reflections; + and to consult only the substantial and permanent interests of + our country.</p> + + <p>Nor have I departed from this line of conduct on the + occasion which has produced the resolutions contained in your + letter of the 13th inst.</p> + + <p>Without a predilection for my own judgment, I have weighed + with attention every argument which has at any time been + brought into view. But the Constitution is the guide which I + never can abandon. It has assigned to the President the power + of making treaties with the advice and consent of the Senate. + It was doubtless supposed that these two branches of government + would combine, without passion and with the best means of + information, those facts and principles upon which the success + of our foreign relations will always depend; that they ought + not to substitute for their own convictions the opinions of + others, or to seek truth through any channel but that of a + temperate and well-informed investigation.</p> + + <p>Under this persuasion, I have resolved on the manner of + executing the duty before me. To the high responsibility + attached to it, I fully submit; and you, gentlemen, are at + liberty to make these sentiments known as the grounds of my + procedure. While I feel the most lively gratitude for the many + instances of approbation from my country, I can no otherwise + deserve it than by obeying the dictates of my conscience. With + due respect, I am, etc.</p> + </blockquote> + + <p>It will be noticed that this letter is dated "The United + States, 28th of July," which is, I think, the only instance of + the sort to be found in his letters. In all his vast + correspondence there possibly may be other cases in which he used + this method of dating, but one cannot help feeling that on this + occasion at least it had a particular significance. It was not + George Washington writing from Mount Vernon, but the President, + who represented the whole country, pointing out to the people of + Boston that the day of small things and of local considerations + had gone by. This letter served also as a model for many others. + The Boston address had a multitude of successors, and they were + all answered in the same strain. Washington was not a man to + underrate popular feeling, for he knew that the strongest bulwark + of the government was in sound public opinion. On the other hand, + he was one of the rare men who could distinguish between a + temporary excitement, no matter how universal, and an abiding + sentiment. In this case he quietly resisted the noisy popular + demand, believing that the sober second thought of the people + would surely be with him; but at the same time the outcry against + the treaty, while it could not make him waver in his + determination to do what he believed to be right, caused him deep + anxiety. The day after he sent his answer to Boston he wrote to + Randolph:—</p> + + <blockquote> + <p>"I view the opposition which the treaty is receiving from + the meetings in different parts of the Union in a very serious + light; not because there is more weight in any of the + objections which are made to it than was foreseen at first, for + there is none in some of them, and gross misrepresentations in + others; nor as it respects myself personally, for this shall + have no influence on my conduct, plainly perceiving, and I am + accordingly preparing my mind for it, the obloquy which + disappointment and malice are collecting to heap upon me. But I + am alarmed at the effect it may have on and the advantage the + French government may be disposed to make of, the spirit which + is at work to cherish a belief in them that the treaty is + calculated to favor Great Britain at their expense.... To sum + the whole up in a few words I have never, since I have been in + the administration of the government, seen a crisis, which, in + my judgment, has been so pregnant with interesting events, nor + one from which more is to be apprehended, whether viewed on one + side or the other."</p> + </blockquote> + + <p>He already felt that it might be necessary for him to return + to Philadelphia at any moment; and, writing to Randolph to this + effect two days later, he said:—</p> + + <blockquote> + <p>"To be wise and temperate, as well as firm, the present + crisis most eminently calls for. There is too much reason to + believe, from the pains which have been taken before, at, and + since the advice of the Senate respecting the treaty, that the + prejudices against it are more extensive than is generally + imagined. This I have lately understood to be the case in this + quarter from men who are of no party, but well-disposed to the + present administration. Nor should it be otherwise, when no + stone has been left unturned that could impress on the minds of + the people the most arrant misrepresentation of facts; that + their rights have not only been <i>neglected</i>, but + absolutely <i>sold</i>; that there are no reciprocal advantages + in the treaty; that the benefits are all on the side of Great + Britain; and, what seems to have had more weight with them than + all the rest, and to have been most pressed, that the treaty is + made with the design to oppress the French, in open violation + of our treaty with that nation, and contrary, too, to every + principle of gratitude and sound policy. In time, when passion + shall have yielded to sober reason, the current may possibly + turn; but, in the mean while, this government, in relation to + France and England, may be compared to a ship between the rocks + of Scylla and Charybdis. If the treaty is ratified, partisans + of the French, or rather of war and confusion, will excite them + to hostile measures, or at least to unfriendly sentiments; if + it is not, there is no foreseeing all the consequences which + may follow, as it respects Great Britain.</p> + + <p>"It is not to be inferred from hence that I am disposed to + quit the ground I have taken, unless circumstances more + imperious than have yet come to my knowledge should compel it; + for there is but one straight course, and that is to seek + truth, and pursue it steadily. But these things are mentioned + to show that a close investigation of the subject is more than + ever necessary, and that there are strong evidences of the + necessity of the most circumspect conduct in carrying the + determination of government into effect, with prudence, as it + respects our own people, and with every exertion to produce a + change for the better from Great Britain.</p> + + <p>"The memorial seems well designed to answer the end + proposed, and by the time it is revised and new-dressed, you + will probably (either in the resolutions which are or will be + handed to me, or in the newspaper publications, which you + promise to be attentive to) have seen all the objections + against the treaty which have any real force in them, and which + may be fit subjects for representation in a memorial, or in the + instructions, or both. But how much longer the presentation of + the memorial can be delayed without exciting unpleasant + sensations here, or involving serious evils elsewhere, you, who + are at the scene of information and action, can decide better + than I. In a matter, however, so interesting and pregnant with + consequences as this treaty, there ought to be no + precipitation; but on the contrary, every step should be + explored before it is taken, and every word weighed before it + is uttered or delivered in writing.</p> + + <p>"The form of the ratification requires more diplomatic + experience and legal knowledge than I possess, or have the + means of acquiring at this place, and therefore I shall say + nothing about it."</p> + </blockquote> + + <p>Three days later, on August 3, he wrote again to Randolph to + say that the mails had been delayed, and that he had not received + the Baltimore resolutions. He then continued:—</p> + + <blockquote> + <p>"The like may be expected from Richmond, a meeting having + been had there also, at which Mr. Wythe, it is said, was seated + as moderator; by chance more than design, it is added. A queer + chance this for the chancellor of the state.</p> + + <p>"All these things do not shake my determination with respect + to the proposed ratifications, nor will they, unless something + more imperious and unknown to me should, in the judgment of + yourself and the gentlemen with you, make it advisable for me + to pause."</p> + </blockquote> + + <p>A few days later Washington was recalled by a letter from + Randolph, and also by a private note from Pickering, which said, + mysteriously, that there was a "special reason" for his immediate + return. He had been expecting to be recalled at any moment, and + he now hastened to Philadelphia, reaching there on August 11. He + little dreamed, however, of what had led his two secretaries, one + ignorantly and the other wittingly, to hasten his return. On the + very day when he dated his letter to the selectmen of Boston as + from the United States, the British minister placed in the hands + of Mr. Wolcott, the Secretary of the Treasury, an intercepted + letter from Fauchet, the French minister, to his own government. + This dispatch, bearing the number 10, had come into the + possession of Mr. Hammond by a series of accidents; but the + British government and its representatives were quick to perceive + that the chances of the sea had thrown into their hands a prize + of much more value than many French merchantmen. The dispatch + thus rescued from the water, where its bearer had cast it, was + filled with a long and somewhat imaginative dissertation on + political parties in the United States, and with an account of + the whiskey rebellion. It also gave the substance of some + conversations held by the writer with the Secretary of State. + This is not the place, nor would space serve, to examine the + details of this famous dispatch, with reference to the American + statesman whom it incriminated. On its face it showed that + Randolph had held conversations with the French minister which no + American Secretary of State ought to have held with any + representative of a foreign government, and it appeared further + that the most obvious interpretation of certain sentences, in + view of the readiness of man to think ill of his neighbor, was + that Randolph had suggested corrupt practices. Such was the + document, implicating in a most serious way the character of his + chief cabinet officer, which Pickering and Wolcott placed in + Washington's hands on his arrival in Philadelphia.</p> + + <p>Mr. Conway, in his biography of Randolph, devotes many pages + to explaining what now followed. His explanations show, + certainly, a most refined ingenuity, and form the most elaborate + discussion of this incident that has ever appeared. All this + effort and ingenuity are needless, however, unless the object be + to prove that Randolph was wholly without fault, which is an + impossible task. There was nothing complicated about the affair, + and nothing strange about the President's course, if we confine + ourselves to the plain facts and the order of their + occurrence.</p> + + <p>Before the treaty went to the Senate, Washington made up his + mind to sign it, and when the Senate ratified conditionally, he + still adhered to his former opinion. Then came the news of the + provision order, and thereupon he paused and withheld his + signature, at the same time ordering a memorial against the order + to be prepared. But there is no evidence whatever that he changed + his mind, or that he had determined to make his signature + conditional upon the revocation of the order. To argue that he + had is, in fact, misrepresentation. In the letter of July 22, on + which so much stress was laid afterwards by Randolph, Washington + said that his intention to ratify conditionally was to be + announced, if the provision order was not in operation. Put in + the converse form, his intention was not to be announced if the + order was in operation; but this is very different from saying + that his intention had altered, and that he would not sign unless + the order was revoked. This last idea was Randolph's, but not + Washington's. Indeed, in the very next lines of the same letter + he said expressly that his opinion had not changed, that he did + not like the treaty, but that it was best to ratify. It is a fair + inference, no doubt, that he was considering whether he should + change his intention and make his signature conditional; but if + this was the case, it is sure beyond a peradventure that his + original opinion was only confirmed as the days went by.</p> + + <p>He examined with the utmost care all the remonstrances and + addresses that were poured in upon him, and found few solid + objections, and none that he had not already weighed and disposed + of. On July 31 he wrote to Randolph that it was not to be + inferred that he was disposed to quit his ground unless more + imperious circumstances than had yet come to his knowledge should + compel him to do so. The provision order was of course within his + knowledge, and therefore had not led him to change his mind. On + August 3 he wrote even more strongly that nothing had come to his + knowledge to shake his determination. In his letter to Randolph + of October 21, giving him full liberty to have and publish + everything he desired for his vindication, Washington said: "You + know that it was my determination to ratify before submission to + the Senate; that the doubts which arose proceeded from the + provision order." Doubts are mentioned here, and not changes of + intention. If he had changed his mind at any time he would have + said so, for he was neither timid nor dishonest, but as a matter + of fact he never had changed his mind. He came to Philadelphia + with his mind made up to ratify, and that being the case, it was + clear that further delay would be wrong and impolitic. The surest + way to check the popular excitement and rally the friends of the + administration was to act. Suspense fostered opposition more than + ratification, for most people accept the inevitable when the deed + is done.</p> + + <p>The Fauchet letter, therefore, although its revelations + astounded and grieved him, had no effect upon his action, which + would have been the same in any event; for he had said over and + over again that he had not changed his first opinion. In the + letter to Randolph, just quoted, he also said: "And finally you + know the grounds on which my ultimate decision was taken, as the + same were expressed to you, the other secretaries of departments, + and the late attorney-general, after a thorough investigation of + the subject in all the aspects in which it could be placed." As + the Fauchet letter was not disclosed to Randolph until after the + treaty had been signed, it was impossible that it should have + been one of the grounds of the President's decision, for + Washington said to him, "You knew the grounds." If we are to + suppose that the Fauchet letter had anything to do with the + ratification so far as the President himself was concerned, we + must, in the face of this letter, set Washington down as a + deliberate liar, which is so wholly impossible that it disposes + at once of the theory that he was driven into signing by a clever + British intrigue.</p> + + <p>Here as elsewhere the simple and obvious explanation is the + true one, although the whole matter is sufficiently plain on the + mere narration of facts. The treaty was a great public question, + to be decided on its merits, and the only new point raised by the + Fauchet dispatch was how to deal with Randolph himself at this + particular juncture. To have shown the letter to him at once + would have been to break the cabinet, with the treaty unsigned. + It would have resulted in much delay, extending to weeks, unless + the President was ready to have an acting secretary sign both + treaty and memorial; and it would have added during the continued + suspense a fresh subject of excitement to the popular mind. + Washington's duty plainly was to carry out his policy and bring + the matter to an immediate conclusion, and, as was his custom, he + did his duty. If, as Mr. Conway thinks, the Fauchet letter was + what compelled the ratification, Washington would have given it + to the world at once, and then, having by this means discredited + the opposition and roused a feeling against the French, would + have signed the treaty. England, of course, had taken advantage + of this letter, and equally of course her minister and his + influence were against Randolph, who was thought to be + unfriendly. Hammond intrigued with our public men just as all the + French ministers did. It is humiliating that such should have + been the case, but it was due to our recent escape from a + colonial condition, and to the way in which we allowed our + politics to turn on foreign affairs. Having made up his mind to + ratify and end the question, Washington very properly kept + silence as to the Fauchet letter until the work was done. To do + this, it was necessary of course that he should make no change in + his personal attitude toward Randolph, nor was he obliged to do + so, for he was too just a man to assume Randolph's guilt until + his defense had been made. The ratification was brought before + the cabinet at once. There was a sharp discussion, in which it + appeared that Randolph had advanced a good deal in his hostility + to the treaty, a fact not tending to make the Fauchet business + look better; and then ratification was voted, and a memorial + against the provision order was adopted. On August 18 the treaty + was signed, and on the 19th, Washington, in the presence of his + cabinet, placed the Fauchet letter in Randolph's hands. Randolph + read it, made some comments, and asked time to offer suitable + explanations. He then withdrew, and in a few hours sent in his + resignation.</p> + + <p>There would be no need, so far as Washington is concerned, to + say more on this unfortunate affair of the Secretary of State, + were it not for the recent statements made by Randolph's + biographer. In order to clear his hero, Mr. Conway represents + that Washington, knowing Randolph to be innocent, sacrificed him + in great anguish of heart to an imperious political necessity, + while the fact was, that nobody sacrificed Randolph except + himself. He was represented in a dispatch written by the French + minister in a light which, as Washington said, gave rise to + strong suspicions; a moderate statement in which every candid man + who knew anything about the matter has agreed from that day to + this. According to Fauchet, Randolph not only had held + conversations wholly unbecoming his position, but on the same + authority he was represented to have asked for money. That the + Secretary of State was corrupt, no one who knew him, as Jefferson + said, for one moment believed. Whether he disposed of this charge + or not, it was plain to his friends, as it is to posterity, that + Randolph was a perfectly honorable man. But neither his own + vindication nor that of his biographer have in the least + palliated or even touched the real error which he committed.</p> + + <p>As Secretary of State, the head of the cabinet, and in charge + of our foreign relations, he had, according to Fauchet's dispatch + and to his own admissions, entered into relations with a foreign + minister which ought to have been as impossible as they were + discreditable to an American statesman. That Fauchet believed + that Randolph deceived him did not affect the merits of the case, + nor, if true, did it excuse Randolph, especially as everybody + with whom he was brought into close contact seems at some time or + other to have had doubts of his sincerity. As a matter of fact, + Randolph could find no defense except to attack Washington and + discuss our foreign relations, and his biographer has followed + the same line. What was it then that Washington had actually done + which called for assault? He had been put in possession of an + official document which on its face implicated his Secretary of + State in the intrigues of a foreign minister, and suggested that + he was open to corruption. These were the views which the public, + having no personal knowledge of Randolph, would be sure to take, + and as a matter of fact actually took, when the affair became + known. There was a great international question to be settled, + and settled without delay. This was done in a week, during which + time Washington kept silent, as his public duty required. The + moment the treaty was signed he handed Fauchet's dispatch to + Randolph and asked for an explanation. None knew of the dispatch + except the cabinet officers, through whom it had necessarily + come. Washington did not prejudge the case; he did not dismiss + Randolph with any mark of his pleasure, as he would have been + quite justified in doing. He simply asked for explanation, and + threw open his own correspondence and the archives of the + department, so that Randolph might have every opportunity for + defense. It is difficult to see how Washington could have done + less in dealing with Randolph, or in what way he could have shown + greater consideration.</p> + + <p>Randolph resigned of his own motion, and then cried out + against Washington because he had been obliged to pay the penalty + of his own errors. When it is considered that Washington did + absolutely nothing to Randolph except to hand him Fauchet's + dispatch and accept his consequent resignation, the talk about + Randolph's forgiving him becomes simply ludicrous. Randolph saw + his own error, was angry with himself, and, like the rest of + humanity, proceeded to vent his anger on somebody else, but + unfortunately he had the bad taste to turn at the outset to the + newspapers. Like Mr. Snodgrass, he took off his coat in public + and announced in a loud voice that he was going to begin. The + President's only response was to open the archives and bid him + publish everything he desired. Randolph then wrote the President + a private letter, which was angry and impertinent; "full of + innuendoes," said the recipient. Washington drafted a sharp + reply, and then out of pure kindness withheld it, and let the + private letter drop into silence, whither the bulky + "Vindication," which vindicated nobody, soon followed it. The + fact was, that Washington treated Randolph with great kindness + and forbearance. He had known him long; he was fond of him on his + own account as well as his father's; he appreciated Randolph's + talents; but he knew on reading that dispatch, if he had never + guessed it before, that Randolph, although honest and clever, and + certainly not bad, was a dangerously weak man. Others among our + public men had put themselves into relations with foreign + representatives which it is now intolerable to contemplate, but + Randolph, besides being found out at the moment, had, after the + fashion of weak natures, gone further and shown more feebleness + than any one else had. Washington's conduct was so perfectly + simple, and the facts of the case were so plain, that it would + seem impossible to complicate them. The contemporary verdict was + harsh, crushing, and unjust in many respects to Randolph. The + verdict of posterity, which is both gentler and fairer to the + secretary, will certainly at the same time sustain Washington's + course at every point as sensible, direct, and proper.</p> + + <p>Only one question remains which demands a word before tracing + briefly the subsequent fate of the Jay treaty, and that is, to + know exactly why the President signed it. The answer is + fortunately not difficult. There was a choice of evils. When + Washington determined to send a special envoy, he said: "My + objects are, to prevent a war, if justice can be obtained by fair + and strong representations (to be made by a special envoy) of the + injuries which this country has sustained from Great Britain in + various ways; to put it into a complete state of military + defense; and to provide eventually such measures for execution as + seem to be now pending in Congress, if negotiation in a + reasonable time proves unsuccessful." From these views he never + varied. The treaty was not a perfect one, but it had good + features and was probably, as has been said, the best that could + then be obtained. It settled some vexed questions, and it gave us + time. If the United States could only have time without making + undue sacrifice, they could pass beyond the stage when a foreign + war with its consequent suffering and debt would endanger our + national existence. If they could only have time to grow into a + nation, there would be no difficulty in settling all their + disputes with other people satisfactorily, either by war or + negotiation. But if the national bonds were loosened, then all + was lost. It was in this spirit that Washington signed the Jay + treaty; and although there was much in it that he did not like, + and although men were bitterly divided about the ratification, a + dispassionate posterity has come to believe that he was right at + the most difficult if not the most perilous crisis in his + career.</p> + + <p>The signature of the treaty, however, did not put an end to + the attacks upon it, or upon the action of the Senate and the + Executive. Nevertheless, it turned the tide, and, as Washington + foresaw, brought out a strong movement in its favor. Hamilton + began the work by the publication of the letters of "Camillus." + The opposition newspapers sneered, but after Jefferson had read a + few numbers he begged Madison in alarm to answer them. His fears + were well grounded, for the letters were reprinted in newspapers + throughout the country, and their powerful and temperate + arguments made converts and strengthened the friends of the + administration everywhere. The approaching surrender of the posts + gratified the western people when they at last stopped to think + about it. The obnoxious provision order was revoked, and the + traders and merchants found that security and commerce even under + unpleasant restrictions were a great deal better than the + uncertainty and the vexatious hostilities to which they had + before been exposed. Those who had been silent, although friendly + to the policy of the government, now began to meet in their turn + and send addresses to Congress; for in the House of + Representatives the last battle was to be fought.</p> + + <p>That body came together under the impression of the agitation + and excitement which had been going on all through the summer. + There was a little wrangling at the opening over the terms to be + employed in the answer to the President's message, and then the + House relapsed into quiet, awaiting the formal announcement of + the treaty. At last the treaty arrived with the addition of the + suspending article, and the President proclaimed it to be the law + of the land, and sent a copy to the House. Livingston, of New + York, at once moved a resolution, asking the President to send in + all the papers relating to the negotiation, and boldly placed the + motion on the ground that the House was vested with a + discretionary power as to carrying the treaty into execution. On + this principle the debate went on for three weeks, and then the + resolution passed by 62 to 37. A great constitutional question + was thus raised, for there was no pretense that the papers were + really needed, inasmuch as committees had seen them all, and they + contained practically nothing which was not already known.</p> + + <p>Washington took the request into consideration, and asked his + cabinet whether the House had the right, as set forth in the + resolutions, to call for the papers, and if not, whether it was + expedient to furnish them. Both questions were unanimously + answered in the negative. The inquiry was largely formal, and + Washington had no real doubts on the point involved. He wrote to + Hamilton: "I had from the first moment, and from the fullest + conviction in my own mind, resolved <i>to resist the + principle</i>, which was evidently intended to be established by + the call of the House of Representatives; and only deliberated on + the manner in which this could be done with the least bad + consequences." His only question was as to the method of + resistance, and he finally decided to refuse absolutely, and did + so in a message setting forth his reasons. He said that the + intention of the constitutional convention was known to him, and + that they had intended to vest the treaty-making power + exclusively in the Executive and Senate. On that principle he had + acted, and in that belief foreign nations had negotiated, and the + House had hitherto acquiesced. He declared further that the + assent of the House was not necessary to the validity of + treaties; that they had all necessary information; and "as it is + essential to the due administration of the government that the + boundaries fixed by the Constitution should be preserved, a just + regard to the Constitution and to the duty of my office, under + all the circumstances of this case, forbid a compliance with your + request." The question was a difficult one, but there could be no + doubt as to Washington's opinion, and the weight of authority has + sustained his view. From the practical and political side there + can be little question that his position was extremely sound. In + a letter to Carrington he gave the reasons for his action, and no + better statement of the argument in a general way has ever been + made. He wrote:—</p> + + <blockquote> + <p>"No candid man in the least degree acquainted with the + progress of this business will believe for a moment that the + <i>ostensible</i> dispute was about papers, or whether the + British treaty was a good one or a bad one, but whether there + should be a treaty at all without the concurrence of the House + of Representatives. This was striking at once, and that boldly, + too, at the fundamental principles of the Constitution; and, if + it were established, would render the treaty-making power not + only a nullity, but such an absolute absurdity as to reflect + disgrace on the framers of it. For will any one suppose that + they who framed, or those who adopted, that instrument ever + intended to give the power to the President and Senate to make + treaties, and, declaring that when made and ratified they + should be the supreme law of the land, would in the same breath + place it in the power of the House of Representatives to fix + their vote on them, unless apparent marks of fraud or + corruption (which in equity would set aside any contract) + accompanied the measure, or such striking evidence of national + injury attended their adoption as to make a war or any other + evil preferable? Every unbiased mind will answer in the + negative.</p> + + <p>"What the source and what the object of all this struggle + is, I submit to my fellow-citizens. Charity would lead me to + hope that the motives to it would be pure. Suspicions, however, + speak a different language, and my tongue for the present shall + be silent."</p> + </blockquote> + + <p>No man who has ever held high office in this country had a + more real deference for the popular will than Washington. But he + also had always a keen sensitiveness to the dignity and the + prerogatives of the office which he happened to hold, whether it + was that of president or general of the armies. This arose from + no personal feeling, for he was too great a man ever to worry + about his own dignity; but he esteemed the great offices to which + he was called to be trusts, which were to suffer no injury while + in his hands. He regarded the attempt of the House of + Representatives to demand the papers as a matter of right as an + encroachment on the rights of the Executive Department, and he + therefore resisted it at once, and after his usual fashion left + no one in any doubt as to his views. So far as the President was + concerned, the struggle ended here; but it was continued for some + time longer in the House, where the debate went on for a + fortnight, with the hostile majority surely and steadily + declining. The current out-doors ran more and more strongly every + day in favor of the administration, until at last the contest + ended with Ames's great speech, and then the resolution to carry + out the treaty prevailed. Washington's policy had triumphed, and + was accepted by the country.</p> + + <p>The Jay treaty and its ratification had, however, other + results than mere domestic conflicts. Spain, acting under French + influence, threatened to rescind the Pinckney treaty which had + just been made so advantageously to the United States; but, like + most Spanish performances at that time, these threats evaporated + in words, and the Mississippi remained open. With France, + however, the case was very different. Our demand for the recall + of Genet had been met by a counter-demand for the recall of + Morris, to which, of course, we were obliged to accede, and the + question as to the latter's successor was a difficult and + important one. Washington himself had been perfectly satisfied + with the conduct of Morris, but he was also aware that the known + dislike of that brilliant diplomatist to the revolutionary + methods then dominant in Paris had seriously complicated our + relations with France. He wished by all fair means to keep France + in good humor, and he therefore determined that Morris's + successor should be a man whose friendship toward the French + republic was well known. His first choice was Madison, which + would have answered admirably, for Madison was preëminently + a safe man. Very unluckily, however, Madison either could not or + would not go, and the President's final choice was by no means + equally good.</p> + + <p>It was, of course, most desirable that the new minister should + be <i>persona grata</i> to the republic, but it was vastly more + important that he should be in cordial sympathy with the + administration at home, for no administration ought ever to + select for a foreign mission, especially at a critical moment, + any one outside the ranks of its own supporters. This was the + mistake which Washington, from the best of motives, now committed + by appointing James Monroe to be minister to France. It is one of + the puzzles of our history to reconcile the respectable and + common-place gentleman, who for two terms as President of the + United States had less opposition than ever fell to the lot of + any other man in that office, with the violent, unscrupulous, and + extremely light-headed politician who figured as senator from + Virginia and minister to France at the close of the last century. + Monroe at the time of his appointment had distinguished himself + chiefly by his extreme opposition to the administration, and by + his intrigues against Hamilton, which were so dishonestly + conducted that they ultimately compelled the publication of the + "Reynolds Pamphlet," a sore trial to its author, and a lasting + blot on the fame of the enemy who made the publication necessary. + From such a man loyalty to the President who appointed him was + hardly to be expected. But there was no reason to suppose that he + would lose his head, and forget that he was an American, and not + a French citizen.</p> + + <p>Monroe reached Paris in the summer of 1794. He was publicly + received by the Convention, made an undignified and florid + speech, received the national embrace from the president of the + Convention, and then effected an exchange of flags with more + embracings and addresses. But when he came to ask redress for the + wrongs committed against our merchants, he got no satisfaction. + So far as he was concerned, this appears to have been a matter of + indifference, for he at once occupied himself with the French + proposition that we should lend France five millions of dollars, + and France in return was to see to it that we obtained control of + the Spanish possessions in North America. Monroe fell in with + this precious scheme to make the United States a dependency of + France, and received as a reward vast promises as to what the + great republic would do for us. Meantime he regarded with + suspicion Jay's movements in England, and endeavored to obtain + information, if not control, of that negotiation. In this he + completely failed; but he led the French government to believe, + first, that the English treaty would not be made, then that it + would not be ratified, and finally that the House would not make + the appropriations necessary to carry it into effect; and all the + time he was compromising his own government by his absurd efforts + to involve it in an offensive alliance with France. The upshot of + it all was that he was disowned at home, discredited in France, + and brought our relations with that nation into a state of + dangerous complication, without obtaining any redress for our + injuries.</p> + + <p>Washington at first, little as he liked the theatrical + performances with which Monroe opened his mission, wrote about + him with great moderation to Jay, who was naturally much annoyed + by the manner in which Monroe had tried to interfere with his + negotiations. Six months later, however, Washington saw only too + plainly that he had been mistaken in his minister to France. He + wrote to Randolph on July 24, 1795: "The conduct of Mr. Monroe is + of a piece with that of the other; and one can scarcely forbear + thinking that these acts are part of a premeditated system to + embarrass the executive government." When it became clear that + Monroe had omitted to explain properly our reasons for treating + with England, that he had held out hopes to the French government + which were totally unauthorized, that he had brought on a renewal + of the hostilities of that government, and that he had placed us + in all ways in the most unenviable light, Washington recalled + him, and appointed Charles Cotesworth Pinckney in his place. By + this time too he was thoroughly disgusted with Monroe's + performances, and in his letter to Pinckney, on July 8, 1796, + offering him the appointment to Paris, he said: "It is a fact too + notorious to be denied that the greatest embarrassments under + which the administration of this government labors proceed from + the counter-action of people among ourselves, who are more + disposed to promote the views of another nation than to establish + a national character of their own; and that, unless the virtuous + and independent men of this country will come forward, it is not + difficult to predict the consequences. Such is my decided + opinion." He felt, as he wrote to Hamilton at the close of his + administration, that "the conduct of France towards this country + is, according to my ideas of it, outrageous beyond conception; + not to be warranted by her treaty with us, by the law of nations, + by any principle of justice, or even by a regard to decent + appearances." This was after we had begun to reap the + humiliations which Monroe's folly had prepared for us, and it is + easy to understand that Washington regarded their author with + anything but satisfaction or approval.</p> + + <p>The culprit himself took a very different view, came home + presently in great wrath, and proceeded to pose as a martyr and + compile a vindication, which he entitled "A View of the Conduct + of the Executive," and which surpassed in bulk any of the + vindications in which that period of our history was prolific. It + was published after Washington had retired to private life, and + did not much disturb his serenity. In a letter to Nicholas, on + March 8, 1798, he said: "If the executive is chargeable with + 'premeditating the destruction of Mr. Monroe in his appointment, + because he was the <i>centre</i> around which the Republican + party rallied in the Senate' (a circumstance quite new to me), it + is to be hoped he will give it credit for its lenity toward that + gentleman in having designated several others, not of the Senate, + as victims to this office <i>before</i> the sacrifice of Mr. + Monroe was even had in contemplation. As this must be some + consolation to him and his friends, I hope they will embrace + it."</p> + + <p>Washington apparently did not think Monroe was worthy of + anything more serious than a little sarcasm, and he was quite + content, as he said, to leave the book to the tribunal to which + the author himself had appealed. He read the book, however, with + care, and in his methodical way he appended a number of notes, + which are worth consideration by all persons interested in the + character of Washington. They are especially to be commended to + those who think that he was merely good and wise and solemn, for + it would be difficult to find a better piece of destructive + criticism, or a more ready and thorough knowledge of complicated + foreign relations, than are contained in these brief notes. His + own opinion of Monroe is concisely stated in one of them. + Referring to one of that gentleman's statements he said: "For + this there is no better proof than his own opinion; whilst there + is abundant evidence of his being a mere tool in the hands of the + French government, cajoled and led away always by unmeaning + assurances of friendship." With this brief comment we may leave + the Monroe incident. His appointment was a mistake, and increased + existing complications, which were not finally settled until the + next administration.</p> + + <p>Monroe's recall was the last act, however, in the long contest + of the Jay treaty, and it was also, as it happened, the last + important act in Washington's foreign policy. That policy has + been traced here in its various branches, but it is worth while + to look at it as a whole before leaving it, in order to see just + what the President aimed at and just what he effected. The + guiding principle, which had been with him from the day when he + took command of the army at Cambridge, was to make the United + States independent. The war had achieved this so far as our + connection with England was concerned, but it still remained to + prove to the world that we were an independent nation in fact as + well as in name. For this the neutrality policy was adopted and + carried out. We were not only to cease from dependence on the + nations of Europe, but we were to go on our own way with a policy + of our own wholly apart from them. It was also necessary to lift + up our own politics, to detach our minds from those of other + nations, and to make us truly Americans. All this Washington's + policy did so far as it was possible to do it in the time given + to him. A new generation had to come upon the stage before our + politics were finally taken out of colonialism and made national + and American, but the idea was that of the first President. It + was the foresight and the courage of Washington which at the + outset placed the United States in their relations with foreign + nations on the ground of a firm, independent, and American + policy.</p> + + <p>His foreign policy had, however, some immediate practical + results which were of vast importance. In December, 1795, he + wrote to Morris: "It is well known that peace has been (to borrow + a modern phrase) the order of the day with me since the + disturbances in Europe first commenced. My policy has been, and + will continue to be while I have the honor to remain in the + administration, to maintain friendly terms with, but to be + independent of, all the nations of the earth; to share in the + broils of none; to fulfill our own engagements; to supply the + wants and be carriers for them all; being thoroughly convinced + that it is our policy and interest to do so. Nothing short of + self-respect and that justice which is essential to a national + character ought to involve us in war; for sure I am, if this + country is preserved in tranquillity twenty years longer, it may + bid defiance in a just cause to any power whatever; such in that + time would be its population, wealth, and resources."</p> + + <p>He wanted time, but he wanted space also for his country; and + if we look for a moment at the results of his foreign policy we + see clearly how he got both. The time gained by peace without any + humiliating concessions is plain enough. If we look a little + further and a little deeper, we can see how he compassed his + other object. The true and the first mission of the American + people was, in Washington's theory, the conquest of the continent + which stretched away wild and silent behind them, for in that + direction lay the sure road to national greatness. The first step + was to bind by interest, trade, and habit of communication the + Atlantic States with the settlements beyond the mountains, and + for this he had planned canals and highways in the days of the + confederation. The next step was to remove every obstacle which + fettered the march of American settlement; and for this he rolled + back the Indian tribes, patiently negotiated with Spain until the + Mississippi was opened, and at great personal sacrifice and trial + signed the Jay treaty, and obtained the surrender of the British + posts. When Washington went out of office, the way was open to + the western movement; the dangers of disintegration by reason of + foreign intrigues on the frontier were removed; peace had been + maintained; and the national sentiment had had opportunity for + rapid growth. France had discovered that, although she had been + our ally, we were not her dependants; other nations had been + brought to perceive that the United States meant to have a + foreign policy all its own; and the American people were taught + that their first duty was to be Americans and nothing else. There + is no need to comment on or to praise the greatness of a policy + with such objects and results as these. The mere summary is + enough, and it speaks for itself and for its author in a way + which makes words needless.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <h2><a name="V" id="V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2> + + <h2>WASHINGTON AS A PARTY MAN</h2> + + <p>Washington was not chosen to office by a political party; he + considered parties to be perilous things, and he entered the + presidency determined to have nothing to do with them. Yet, as + has already been pointed out, he took the members of his cabinet + entirely from one of the two parties which then existed, and + which had been produced by the divisions over the Constitution + and its adoption. To this charge he would no doubt have replied + that the parties caused by the constitutional differences had + ceased to exist when that instrument went into operation, and + that it was to be supposed that all men were then united in + support of the government. Accepting this view of it, it only + remains to see how he fared when new and purely political + parties, as was inevitable, sprang into active life.</p> + + <p>Whatever his own opinions may have been as to parties and + party-strife, Washington was under no delusions in regard either + to human nature or to himself, and he had no expectation that + everything he said or did would meet with universal approbation. + He well knew that there would be dissatisfaction, and no man ever + took high office with a mind more ready to bear criticism and to + profit by it. Three months after his inauguration he wrote to his + friend David Stuart: "I should like to be informed of the public + opinion of both men and measures, and of none more than myself; + not so much of what may be thought commendable parts, if any, of + my conduct, as of those which are conceived to be of a different + complexion. The man who means to commit no wrong will never be + guilty of enormities; consequently he can never be unwilling to + learn what are ascribed to him as foibles. If they are really + such, the knowledge of them in a well-disposed mind will go + half-way towards a reform. If they are not errors, he can explain + and justify the motives of his actions." This readiness to hear + criticism and this watching of public opinion were + characteristic, for his one desire was to know the truth and + never deceive himself. His journey through New England in the + autumn of that year, his visit to Rhode Island a year later, and + his trip through the southern States in the spring of 1791, had a + double motive. He wished to bring home to the people the + existence and the character of the new government by his + appearance among them as its representative; and he desired also + to learn from his own observation, and from inquiries made on the + spot, what the people thought of the administration and its + policies, and of the doings of Congress. He was a keen observer + and a good gatherer of information; for he was patient and + persistent, and had that best of all gifts for getting at public + opinion, an absolute and cheerful readiness to listen to advice + from any one. His travels all had the same result. In the South + as in New England he found that the people were pleased with the + new government, and contented with the prosperity which began at + once to flow from the adoption of a stable national system.</p> + + <p>More credit, if anything, was given to it than it really + deserved; for, as he had written to Lafayette before the + Constitution went into effect, "Many blessings will be attributed + to our new government which are now taking their rise from that + industry and frugality into which the people have been forced + from necessity." Whether this were true or not, the new + government was entitled to the benefit of all accidents, and + Washington's correct conclusion was that the great body of the + people were heartily with him and his administration. But he was + also quite aware that all the criticism was not friendly, and as + the measures of the government one by one passed Congress, he saw + divisions of sentiment appear, slight at first, but deepening and + hardening with each successive contest. Indeed, he had not been + in office a year when he wrote a long letter to Stuart deploring + the sectionalism which had begun to show itself. The South was + complaining that everything was done in the interest of the + northern and eastern States, and against this idea Washington + argued with great force. He was especially severe on the + unreasonable and childish character of such grievances, and he + attributed the feeling in certain States largely to the outcries + of persons who had come home disappointed in some personal matter + from the seat of government. "It is to be lamented," he said, + "that the editors of the different gazettes in the Union do not + more generally and more correctly (instead of stuffing their + papers with scurrility and nonsensical declamation, which few + would read if they were apprised of the contents) publish the + debates in Congress on all great national questions. And this, + with no uncommon pains, every one of them might do." Washington + evidently believed that there was no serious danger of the people + going wrong if they were only fully informed. But the able + editors of that day no doubt felt that they and their + correspondents were better fitted to enlighten the public than + any one else could be, and there is no evidence that any of them + ever followed the President's suggestion.</p> + + <p>The jealousies and the divisions in Congress, which Washington + watched with hearty dislike on account of their sectional + character, began, as is well known, with the financial measures + of the Treasury. As time went on they became steadily more marked + and better defined, and at last they spread to the cabinet. + Jefferson had returned to take his place as Secretary of State + after an absence of many years, and during that time he had + necessarily dropped out of the course of home politics. He came + back with a very moderate liking for the Constitution, and an + intention undoubtedly to do his best as a member of the cabinet. + His first and most natural impulse, of course, was to fall in + with the administration of which he was a part; and so completely + did he do this that it was at his table that the famous bargain + was made which assumed the state debts and took the capital to + the banks of the Potomac.</p> + + <p>Exactly what led to the first breach between Jefferson and + Hamilton, whose financial policy was then in the full tide of + success, is not now very easy to determine. Jefferson's action + was probably due to a mixture of motives and a variety of causes, + as is generally the case with men, even when they are founders of + the democratic party. In the first place, Jefferson very soon + discovered that Hamilton was looked upon as the leader in the + cabinet and in the policies of the administration, and this fact + excited a very natural jealousy on his part, because he was the + official head of the President's advisers. In the second place, + it was inevitable that Jefferson should dislike Hamilton, for + there never were two men more unlike in character and in their + ways of looking at things. Hamilton was bold, direct, imperious, + and masculine; he went straight to his mark, and if he + encountered opposition he either rode over it or broke it down. + When Jefferson met with opposition he went round it or undermined + it; he was adroit, flexible, and extremely averse to open + fighting. There was also good ground for a genuine difference of + opinion between the two secretaries in regard to the policy of + the government. Jefferson was a thorough representative of the + great democratic movement of the time. At bottom his democracy + was of the sensible, practical American type, but he had come + home badly bitten by many of the wild notions which at that + moment pervaded Paris. A man of much less insight than Jefferson + would have had no difficulty in perceiving that Hamilton and his + friends were not in sympathy with these ideas. They hoped for the + establishment of a republic, but they desired for it a highly + energetic and centralized government not devoid of aristocratic + tendencies. This fundamental difference of opinion, increased as + it was by personal jealousies, soon put Jefferson, therefore, + into an attitude of hostility to the men who were then guiding + the policy of the government. The new administration had been so + successful that there was at first practically no party of + opposition, and the task before Jefferson involved the creation + of a party, the formulation of principles, and the definition of + issues, with appropriate shibboleths for popular consumption. + Jefferson knew that Hamilton and all who fought with him were as + sincerely in favor of a republic as he himself was; but his + unerring genius in political management told him that he could + never raise a party or make a party-cry out of the statement + that, while he favored a democratic republic, the men to whom he + was opposed preferred one of a more aristocratic caste. It was + necessary to have something much more highly seasoned than this. + So he took the ground that his opponents were monarchists, bent + on establishing a monarchy in this country, and were backed by a + "corrupt squadron" in Congress in the pay of the Treasury. This + was of course utter nonsense, but it served its purpose + admirably. Jefferson, indeed, shouted these cries so much that he + almost came to believe in them himself, and sympathetic writers + to this day repeat them as if they had reality instead of having + been mere noise to frighten the unwary. The prime object of it + all was to make the great leaders odious by connecting them in + the popular mind with the royal government that had been + overthrown.</p> + + <p>Jefferson's first move was a covert one. In the spring of 1791 + he received Thomas Paine's "Rights of Man," and straightway sent + the pamphlet to the printer with a note of approbation reflecting + upon John Adams. The pamphlet promptly appeared in a reprint with + the note prefixed. It made much stir, and the published approval + of the Secretary of State excited a great deal of criticism, much + of which was very hostile. Jefferson thereupon expressed extreme + surprise that his note had been printed, and on the plea of + explaining the matter wrote to Washington a letter, in which he + declared that his friend Mr. Adams, for whom he had a most + cordial esteem, was an apostate to hereditary monarchy and + nobility. He further described his old friend as a political + heretic and as the bellwether Davila, upon whom and whose + writings Mr. Adams had recently been publishing some discourses. + It is but fair to say that no more ingenious attack on the + Vice-President could have been made, but the purpose of it was + simply to arrest the public attention for the real struggle which + was to follow.</p> + + <p>The true object of all these movements was to rally a party + and break down Jefferson's great colleague in the cabinet. The + "Rights of Man" served to start the discussion; and the next step + was to bring on from New York Philip Freneau, a verse-writer and + journalist, and make him translating clerk in the State + Department, and editor of an opposition newspaper known as the + "National Gazette." The new journal proceeded to do its work + after the fashion of the time. It teemed with abuse not only of + Hamilton and Adams and all the supporters of the treasury + measures, denouncing them as "monarchists," "aristocrats," and "a + corrupt squadron," but it even began a series of coarse assaults + upon the President himself. Jefferson, of course, denied that he + had anything to do with the writing in the newspaper, and Freneau + made oath at the time that the Secretary wrote nothing; but in + his old age he declared that Jefferson wrote or dictated all the + most abusive articles, and he showed a file of the "Gazette" with + these articles marked. Strict veracity was not the strongest + characteristic of either Freneau or Jefferson, and it is really + of but little consequence whether Freneau was lying in his old + age or in the prime of life. The undoubted facts of the case are + enough to fix the responsibility upon Jefferson, where it + belongs. The editor of a newspaper devoted to abusing the + administration was brought to Philadelphia by the Secretary of + State, was given a place in his department, and was his + confidential friend. Jefferson himself took advantage of his + position to gather material for attacks upon his chief, and upon + his colleagues, to whom he was bound to be loyal by every rule + which dictates the conduct of honorable men. He did not, + moreover, content himself with this outside work. It has been too + much overlooked that Jefferson, in addition to forming a party + and organizing attacks upon the Secretary of the Treasury and his + friends, sought in the first instance to break down Hamilton in + the cabinet, to deprive him of the confidence of Washington, and + by driving him from the administration to get control himself. At + no time did Jefferson ever understand Washington, but he knew him + well enough to be quite aware that he would never give up a + friend like Hamilton on account of any newspaper attacks. He + therefore took a more insidious method.</p> + + <p>Knowing that Washington was in the habit of consulting with + old friends at home of all shades of opinion in regard to public + affairs, he contrived through their agency to have his own + charges against Hamilton laid before the President. He also, to + make perfectly sure, wrote himself to Washington, candidly + setting forth outside criticism, and his letter took the form of + a well-arranged indictment of the Treasury measures. This method + had the advantage of assailing Hamilton without incurring any + responsibility, and the charges were skilfully formulated and + ingeniously constructed to raise in the mind of the reader every + possible suspicion. At this point Washington comes for the first + time into the famous controversy from which our two great + political parties were born. He did exactly what Jefferson would + not have done, sent the charges all duly formulated to Hamilton, + and asked him his opinion about them. As the accusations thus + made against the policies of the government and the Secretary of + the Treasury were all mere wind of the "monarchist" and "corrupt + squadron" order, Hamilton disposed of them with very little + difficulty. The whole proceeding, if Jefferson was aware of it at + the time, must have been a great disappointment to him. But his + mistake was the natural error of an ingenious man wasting his + efforts on one of great directness and perfect simplicity of + character. Hamilton's answer was what Washington undoubtedly + expected. He knew the hollowness of the attack, but none the less + he was made anxious by it as an indication of the serious party + divisions rising about him. This, however, was but the beginning, + and he was soon to have much more direct evidence of the grave + nature of a political conflict, which he then could not bring + himself to believe was irrepressible.</p> + + <p>Hamilton, on his side, was not the most patient of men, and + although he bore the attacks of Frenean for some time in silence + he finally retaliated. He did not get any one to do his fighting + for him, but under a thin disguise proceeded to answer in Fenno's + newspaper the abuse of the "National Gazette." He was the best + political writer in the country, and when he struck, his blows + told. Jefferson winced and cried out under the punishment, but it + would have been more dignified in Hamilton to have kept out of + the newspapers. Still there was the fight. It had gone from the + cabinet to the press, and the public knew that the two principal + secretaries were at swords' points and were marshaling behind + them strong political forces. The point had been reached where + the President was compelled to interfere unless he wished his + administration to be thoroughly discredited by the bitter and + open conflicts of its members.</p> + + <p>He wrote to both secretaries in a grave and almost pathetic + tone of remonstrance, urging them to abandon their quarrel, and, + sinking minor differences, to work with him for the success of + the Constitution to which they were both devoted. Each man + replied after his fashion. Hamilton's letter was short and + straight-forward. He could not profess to have changed his + opinion as to the conduct or purpose of his colleague, but he + regretted the strife which had arisen, and promised to do all + that was in his power to allay it by ceasing from further + attacks. Jefferson wrote at great length, controverting + Hamilton's published letters in a way which showed that he was + still smarting from the well-aimed shafts. He also contrived to + make his own defense the vehicle for a renewal of all his + accusations against the Treasury, and he wound up by saying that + he looked forward to retirement with the longing of "a wave-worn + mariner," and that he should reserve any further fighting that he + had to do until he was out of office. Soon after he followed this + letter with another, containing a collection of extracts from his + own correspondence while in Paris, to show his devotion to the + Constitution. One is irresistibly reminded by all this of the + Player Queen—"The lady protests too much, methinks." + Washington had not accused Jefferson of lack of loyalty to the + Constitution, indeed he had made no accusations against him of + any kind; but Jefferson knew that his own position was a false + one, and he could not refrain from taking a defensive tone. + Washington, in his reply, said that he needed no proofs of + Jefferson's fidelity to the Constitution, and reiterated his + earnest desire for an accommodation of all differences. "I will + frankly and solemnly declare," he said, "that I believe the views + of both of you to be pure and well-meant, and that experience + only will decide with respect to the salutariness of the measures + which are the subjects of dispute.... I could, and indeed was + about to, add more on this interesting subject, but will forbear, + at least for the present, after expressing a wish that the cup + which has been presented to us may not be snatched from our lips + by a discordance of action, when I am persuaded there is no + discordance in your views."</p> + + <p>The difficulty was that there was not only discordance in the + views of the two secretaries, but a fundamental political + difference, extending throughout the people, which they typified. + The accommodation of views and the support of the Constitution + could only mean a support of Washington's administration and its + measures. Those measures not only had the President's approval, + but they were in many respects peculiarly his own, and in them he + rightly saw the success and maintenance of the Constitution. But, + unfortunately for the interests of harmony, these measures were + either devised or ardently sustained by the Secretary of the + Treasury. They were not the measures of the Secretary of State, + and received from him either lukewarm support or active, if + furtive, hostility. The only peace possible was in Jefferson's + giving in his entire adherence to the policies of Washington and + Hamilton, which were radically opposed to his own. In one word, a + real, profound, and inevitable party division had come, and it + had found the opposing chiefs side by side in the cabinet.</p> + + <p>Against this conclusion Washington struggled hard. He had come + in as the representative and by the votes of the whole people, + and he shrank from any step which would seem to make him lean on + a party for support in his administration. He had made up his + cabinet with what he very justly considered the strongest + material. He believed that a breaking up of the cabinet or a + change in its membership would be an injury to the cause of good + government, and he was so entirely single-minded in his own views + and wishes, that, with all his knowledge of human nature, he + found it difficult to understand how any one could differ from + him materially. Moreover, having started with the firm intention + of governing without party, he determined, with his usual + persistence, to carry it through, if it were possible. When party + feeling had once developed, and division had sprung up between + the two principal officers of his cabinet, no greater risk could + have been run than that which Washington took in refusing to make + the changes which were necessary to render the administration + harmonious. With any lesser man, such a perilous experiment would + have failed and brought with it disastrous consequences. There is + no greater proof of the force of his will and the weight and + strength of his character than the fact that he held in his + cabinet Jefferson and Hamilton, despite their hatred for each + other and each other's principles, and that he not only prevented + any harm, but actually drew great results from the talents of + each of them. Yet, with all his strength of grasp, this + ill-assorted combination could not last, although Washington + resisted the inevitable in a surprising way, and he even begged + Jefferson to remain when the impossibility of doing so had become + quite clear to that gentleman.</p> + + <p>The remonstrance in regard to the Freneau matter had but a + temporary effect. Hamilton stopped his attacks, it is true; but + Jefferson did not discontinue his, and he set on foot a movement + which was designed to destroy his rival's public and private + reputation. Hamilton met this attack in Congress, where he + refuted it signally; and although the ostensible movers were + members of the House, the defeat recoiled on the Secretary of + State. Having failed in Congress and before the public to ruin + his opponent, and having failed equally to shake Washington's + confidence in Hamilton or the latter's influence in the + administration, Jefferson made up his mind that the cabinet was + no longer the place for him. He became more than ever satisfied + that he was a "wave-worn mariner," and after some hesitation he + finally resigned and transferred his political operations to + another field. A year later Hamilton, from very different reasons + of a purely private character, followed him.</p> + + <p>Meantime many events had occurred which all tended to show the + growing intensity of party divisions, and which were not without + their effect upon the mind of the President. In 1792 it became + necessary to consider the question of the approaching election, + and all elements united in urging upon Washington the absolute + necessity of accepting the presidency a second time. Hamilton and + the Federalists, of course, desired Washington's reëlection, + because they regarded him as their leader, as the friend and + supporter of their measures, and as the great bulwark of the + government. Jefferson, who was equally urgent, felt that in the + unformed condition of his own party the withdrawal of Washington, + in addition to its injury to the general welfare, would leave his + incoherent forces at the mercy of an avowed and thorough-going + Federalist administration.</p> + + <p>So it came about that Washington received another unanimous + election. He had no great longing for public office, but at this + time he seems to have been not without a desire to continue + President, in order that he might carry his measures to + completion. In the unanimity of the choice he took a perfectly + natural pleasure, for besides the personal satisfaction, he could + not but feel that it greatly strengthened his hands in doing the + work which he had at heart. On January 20, 1793, he wrote to + Henry Lee: "A mind must be insensible, indeed, not to be + gratefully impressed by so distinguished and honorable a + testimony of public approbation and confidence; and as I suffered + my name to be contemplated on this occasion, it is more than + probable that I should, for a moment, have experienced chagrin if + my reëlection had not been by a pretty respectable vote. But + to say I feel pleasure from the prospect of commencing another + tour of duty would be a departure from the truth." Some time was + still to pass before Washington, either by word or deed, would + acknowledge himself to be the chief or even a member of a party; + but before he entered the presidency a second time, he had no + manner of doubt that a party existed which was opposed to him and + to all his measures.</p> + + <p>The establishment of the government and the treasury measures + had very quickly rallied a strong party, which kept the name that + it had adopted while fighting the battles of the Constitution. + They were known in their own day, and have been known ever since + to history, as the Federalists. The opposition, composed chiefly + of those who had resisted the adoption of the Constitution, were + discredited at the very start by the success of the union and the + new government. When Jefferson took hold of them they were + disorganized and even nameless, having no better appellation than + that of "Anti-Federalists." In the process of time their great + chief gave them a name, a set of principles, a war-cry, an + organization, and at last an overwhelming victory. They began to + take on something like form and coherence in resisting Hamilton's + financial measures; but the success of his policy was so dazzling + that they were rather cowed by it, and were left by their defeat + little better off in the way of discipline than before. The + French Revolution and its consequences, including a war with + England, gave them a much better opportunity. It is melancholy to + think that American parties should have entered upon their first + struggle purely on questions of foreign politics. The only + explanation is to repeat that we were still colonists in all but + name and allegiance, and it was Washington's task not only to + establish a dignified and independent policy of his own abroad, + but to beat down colonial politics at home.</p> + + <p>In the first burst of rejoicing over the uprising of the + French people, no divisions were apparent; but the arrival of + Genet was the signal for their beginning. The extraordinary + spectacle was then presented of an American party arrayed against + the administration under the lead of the French minister, and + with the strong, although covert sympathy of the Secretary of + State. The popular feeling in fact was so strongly with France + that the new party seemed on the surface to have almost universal + support. The firm attitude of the administration and Washington's + unyielding adherence to his policy of neutrality gave them their + first serious check, but also embittered their attacks. In the + first three years of the government almost every one refrained + from attacking Washington personally. The unlimited love and + respect in which he was held were the principal causes of this + moderation, but even those opponents who were not influenced by + feelings of respect were restrained by a wholesome prudence from + bringing upon themselves the odium of being enemies of the + President.</p> + + <p>The fiction that the king could do no wrong was carried to the + last extreme by the Long Parliament when they made war on Charles + in order to remove him from evil counselors. It was, no doubt, + the exercise of a wise conservatism in that instance; but in the + United States, and in the ordinary condition of politics, such a + position was of course untenable. The President was responsible + for his cabinet and for the measures of his administration, and + it was impossible to separate them long, even when the chief + magistrate was so great and so well-beloved as Washington. + Freneau, editing his newspaper from the office of the Secretary + of State, seems to have been the first to break the line. He + passed speedily from attacks on measures to attacks on men, and + among the latter he soon included the President. Washington had + had too much experience of slander and abuse during the + revolutionary war to be worried by them. But Freneau took pains + to send him copies of his newspapers, a piece of impertinence + which apparently led to a little vigorous denunciation, the + account of which seems probable, although our only authority is + in Jefferson's "Ana." As the attacks went on and were extended, + and when Bache joined in with the "Aurora," Washington was not + long in coming to the unpleasant conclusion that all this + opposition proceeded from a well-formed plan, and was the work of + a party which designed to break down his measures and ruin his + administration. All statesmen intrusted in a representative + system with the work of government are naturally prone to think + that their opponents are also the enemies of the public welfare, + and Washington was no exception to the rule. Such an opinion is + indeed unavoidable, for a public man must have faith that his own + measures are the best for the country, and if he did not, he + would be but a faint-hearted representative, unfit to govern and + unable to lead. History has agreed with Washington in his view of + the work of his administration, and has set it down as essential + to the right and successful foundation of the government. It is + not to be wondered at that at the moment Washington should regard + a party swayed by the French minister and seeking to involve us + in war as unpatriotic and dangerous. He even thought that one + probable solution of Genet's conduct was that he was the tool and + not the leader of the party which sustained him. In fact, his + general view of the opposition was marked by that perfect + clearness which was characteristic of all his opinions when he + had fully formed them. In July, 1793, he wrote to Henry + Lee:—</p> + + <p>"That there are in this as well as in all other countries, + discontented characters, I well know; as also that these + characters are actuated by very different views: some good, from + an opinion that the general measures of the government are + impure; some bad, and, if I might be allowed to use so harsh an + expression, diabolical, inasmuch as they are not only meant to + impede the measures of that government generally, but more + especially, as a great means toward the accomplishment of it, to + destroy the confidence which it is necessary for the people to + place, until they have unequivocal proof of demerit, in their + public servants. In this light I consider myself whilst I am an + occupant of office; and if they were to go further and call me + their slave during this period, I would not dispute the + point.</p> + + <p>"But in what will this abuse terminate? For the result, as it + respects myself, I care not; for I have a consolation within that + no earthly efforts can deprive me of, and that is, that neither + ambition nor interested motives have influenced my conduct. The + arrows of malevolence, therefore, however barbed and well + pointed, never can reach the most vulnerable part of me; though, + whilst I am up as a <i>mark</i>, they will be continually aimed. + The publications in Freneau's and Bache's papers are outrages on + common decency, and they progress in that style in proportion as + their pieces are treated with contempt, and are passed by in + silence by those at whom they are aimed. The tendency of them, + however, is too obvious to be mistaken by men of cool and + dispassionate minds, and, in my opinion, ought to alarm them, + because it is difficult to prescribe bounds to the effect."</p> + + <p>He was not much given, however, to talking about his + assailants. If he said anything, it was usually only in the way + of contemptuous sarcasm, as when he wrote to Morris: "The affairs + of this country <i>cannot go amiss</i>. There are <i>so many + watchful guardians of them</i>, and such <i>infallible + guides</i>, that one is at no loss for a director at every turn. + But of these matters I shall say little." If these attacks had + any effect on him, it was only to make him more determined in + carrying out his purposes. In the first skirmish, which ended in + the recall of Genet, he not only prevailed, but the French + minister's audacity especially in venturing to appeal to the + people against their President, demoralized the opposition and + brought public opinion round to the side of the administration + with an overwhelming force.</p> + + <p>Genet's mischief, however, did not end with him. He had sown + the seeds of many troubles, and among others the idea of + societies on the model of the famous Jacobin Club of Paris. That + American citizens should have so little self-respect as to borrow + the political jargon and ape the political manners of Paris was + sad enough. To put on red caps, drink confusion to tyrants, sing + <i>Ça ira</i>, and call each other "citizen," was foolish + to the verge of idiocy, but it was at least harmless. When, + however, they began to form "democratic societies" on the model + of the Jacobins, for the defense of liberty against a government + which the people themselves had made, they ceased to be fatuous + and became mischievous. These societies, senseless imitations of + French examples, and having no real cause to defend liberty, + became simply party organizations, with a strong tendency to + foster license and disorder. Washington regarded them with + unmixed disgust, for he attributed to them the agitation and + discontent of the settlers beyond the mountains, which threatened + to embroil us with Spain, and he believed also that the much more + serious matter of the whiskey rebellion was their doing. After + having exhausted every reasonable means of concession and + compromise, and having concentrated the best public opinion of + the country behind him, he resolved to put down this "rebellion" + with a strong hand, and he wrote to Henry Lee, just as he was + preparing to take the last step: "It is with equal pride and + satisfaction I add that, as far as my information extends, this + insurrection is viewed with universal indignation and abhorrence, + except by those who have never missed an opportunity, by + side-blows or otherwise, to attack the general government; and + even among these there is not a spirit hardy enough yet openly to + justify the daring infractions of law and order; but by + palliatives they are attempting to suspend all proceedings + against the insurgents, until Congress shall have decided on the + case, thereby intending to gain time, and, if possible, to make + the evil more extensive, more formidable, and, of course, more + difficult to counteract and subdue.</p> + + <p>"I consider this insurrection as the first formidable fruit of + the democratic societies, brought forth, I believe, too + prematurely for their own views, which may contribute to the + annihilation of them."</p> + + <p>The insurrection vanished on the advance of the forces of the + United States. It had been formidable enough to alarm all + conservative people, and its inglorious end left the opposition, + which had given it a certain encouragement, much discredited. + This matter being settled, Washington determined to strike next + at what he considered the chief sources of the evil, the clubs, + which, to use his own words, "were instituted for the express + purpose of poisoning the minds of the people of this country, and + making them discontented with the government." Accordingly, in + his speech to the next Congress he denounced the democratic + societies. After tracing the course of the whiskey rebellion, he + said:—</p> + + <p>"And when in the calm moments of reflection they [the citizens + of the United States] shall have traced the origin and progress + of the insurrection, let them determine whether it has not been + fomented by combinations of men, who, careless of consequences, + and disregarding the unerring truth, that those who rouse cannot + always appease a civil convulsion, have disseminated, from an + ignorance or perversion of facts, suspicions, jealousies, and + accusations of the whole government."</p> + + <p>The opposition both in Congress and in the newspapers shrieked + loudly over this plain speaking; but when Washington struck a + blow, it was usually well timed, and the present instance was no + exception. Coming immediately after the failure of the + insurrection, and the triumph of the government, this strong + expression of the President's disapproval had a fatal effect upon + the democratic societies. They withered away with the rapidity of + weeds when their roots have been skillfully cut.</p> + + <p>After this, even if Washington still refused to consider + himself the head of a party, the opposition no longer had any + doubts on that point. They not only regarded him as the chief of + the Federalists, but also, and with perfect justice, as their own + most dangerous enemy, and the man who had dealt them and their + cause the most deadly blows. Whatever restraint they may have + hitherto placed upon themselves in dealing with him personally, + they now abandoned, and the opportunity for open war soon came to + them in the vexed question of the British treaty, where they + occupied much better ground than in the Genet affair, and + commanded much more popular sympathy. Their orators did not + hesitate to say that the conduct of the President in this affair + had been improper and monarchical, and that he ought to be + impeached. After the treaty was signed, the "Aurora" declared + that the President had violated the Constitution, and made a + treaty with a nation abhorred by our people; that he answered the + respectful remonstrances of Boston and New York as if he were the + omnipotent director of a seraglio, and had thundered contempt + upon the people with as much confidence as if he sat upon the + throne of "Industan."</p> + + <p>All these remarks and many more of like tenor have been + gathered together and very picturesquely arranged by Mr. + McMaster, in whose volumes they may be studied with advantage by + any one who has doubts as to Washington's political position. It + is not probable that the writer of the brilliant diatribe just + quoted had any very distinct idea about either seraglios or + "Industan," but he, and others of like mind, probably took + pleasure in the words, as did the old woman who always loved to + hear Mesopotamia mentioned. Other persons, however, were more + definite in their statements. John Beckley, who had once been + clerk of the House, writing under the very opposite signature of + "A Calm Observer," declared that Washington had been overdrawing + his salary in defiance of law, and had actually stolen in this + way $4,750. Such being the case, the "Calm Observer" very + naturally inquired: "What will posterity say of the man who has + done this thing? Will it not say that the mask of political + hypocrisy has been worn by Caesar, by Cromwell, and by + Washington?" Another patriot, also of the Democratic party, + declared that the President had been false to a republican + government. He said that Washington maintained the seclusion of a + monk and the supercilious distance of a tyrant; and that the + concealing carriage drawn by supernumerary horses expressed the + will of the President, and defined the loyal duty of the + people.</p> + + <p>The support of Genet, the democratic societies, and now this + concerted and bitter opposition to the Jay treaty, convinced + Washington, if conviction were needed, that he could carry on his + administration only by the help of those who were thoroughly in + sympathy with his policy and purposes. When Jefferson left the + State Department, the President promoted Randolph, and put + Bradford, a Federalist, in the place of Attorney-General. When + Hamilton left the Treasury, Oliver Wolcott, Hamilton's right-hand + man, and the staunchest of party men, was given the position thus + left vacant. If Randolph had remained in the cabinet, he would + have become a Federalist. Like all men disposed to turn, when he + was compelled to jump he sprang far, as was shown by his signing + the treaty and memorial, both of which he strongly disapproved. + He was quite ready to fall in with the rest of the cabinet, but + on account of the Fauchet dispatch he resigned. Then Washington, + after offering the portfolio to several persons known to be in + hearty sympathy with him, took the risk of giving it to Timothy + Pickering, who was by no means a safe leader, rather than take + any chance of getting another adviser who was not entirely of his + own way of thinking. At the same time he gave the secretaryship + of war to James McHenry, a most devoted personal friend and + follower. He still held back from calling himself a party chief, + but he had discovered, as William of Orange discovered, that he + could not, even with his iron will and lofty intent, overcome the + impossible, alter human nature, or carry on a successful + government under a representative system, without the assistance + of a party. He stated his conclusion with his wonted plainness in + a letter to Pickering written in September, 1795, in the midst of + the struggle over the treaty. "I shall not," he said, "whilst I + have the honor to administer the government, bring a man into any + office of consequence knowingly, whose political tenets are + adverse to the measures which the general government are + pursuing; for this, in my opinion, would be a sort of political + suicide. That it would embarrass its movements is most certain." + A terser statement of the doctrine of party government it would + be difficult to find, and in the conduct of Monroe and the course + of the opposition journals Washington had ample proofs of the + soundness of his theory.</p> + + <p>If he had needed to be strengthened in his determination, his + opponents furnished the requisite aid. In February, 1796, the + House refused to adjourn on his birthday for half an hour, in + order to go and pay him their respects, as had been the pleasant + custom up to that time. The Democrats of that day were in no + confusion of mind as to the party to which Washington belonged, + and they did not hesitate to put this deliberate slight upon him + in order to mark their dislike. This was not the utterance of a + newspaper editor, but the well-considered act of the + representatives of a party in Congress. Party feeling, indeed, + could hardly have gone further; and this single incident is + sufficient to dispel the pleasing delusion that party strife and + bitterness are the product of modern days, and of more advanced + forms of political organization.</p> + + <p>Yet despite all these attacks there can be no doubt that + Washington's hold upon the masses of the people was substantially + unshaken. They would have gladly seen him assume the presidency + for the third time, and if the test had been made, thousands of + men who gave their votes to the opposition would have still + supported him for the greatest office in their gift. But this + time Washington would not yield to the wishes of his friends or + of the country. He felt that he had done his work and earned the + rest and the privacy for which he longed above all earthly + things. In September, 1796, he published his farewell address, + and no man ever left a nobler political testament. Through much + tribulation he had done his great part in establishing the + government of the Union, which might easily have come to naught + without his commanding influence. He had imparted to it the + dignity of his own great character. He had sustained the splendid + financial policy of Hamilton. He had struck a fatal blow at the + colonial spirit in our politics, and had lifted up our foreign + policy to a plane worthy of an independent nation. He had + stricken off the fetters which impeded the march of western + settlement, and without loss of honor had gained time to enable + our institutions to harden and become strong. He had made peace + with our most dangerous enemies, and, except in the case of + France, where there were perilous complications to be solved by + his successor, he left the United States in far better and more + honorable relations with the rest of the world than even the most + sanguine would have dared to hope when the Constitution was + formed. Now from the heights of great achievement he turned to + say farewell to the people whom he so much loved, and whom he had + so greatly served. Every word was instinct with the purest and + wisest patriotism. "Be united," he said; "be Americans. The name + which belongs to you, in your national capacity, must exalt the + just pride of patriotism more than any appellation derived from + local discriminations. Let there be no sectionalism, no North, + South, East or West; you are all dependent one on another, and + should be one in union. Beware of attacks, open or covert, upon + the Constitution. Beware of the baneful effects of party spirit + and of the ruin to which its extremes must lead. Do not encourage + party spirit, but use every effort to mitigate and assuage it. + Keep the departments of government separate, promote education, + cherish the public credit, avoid debt. Observe justice and good + faith toward all nations; have neither passionate hatreds nor + passionate attachments to any; and be independent politically of + all. In one word, be a nation, be Americans, and be true to + yourselves."</p> + + <p>His admonitions were received by the people at large with + profound respect, and sank deep into the public mind. As the + generations have come and gone, the farewell address has grown + dearer to the hearts of the people, and the children and the + children's children of those to whom it was addressed have turned + to it in all times and known that there was no room for error in + following its counsel.</p> + + <p>Yet at the moment, notwithstanding the general sadness at + Washington's retirement and the deep regard for his last words of + advice, the opposition was so thoroughly hostile that they seized + on the address itself as a theme for renewed attack upon its + author. "His character," said one Democrat, "can only be + respectable while it is not known; he is arbitrary, avaricious, + ostentatious; without skill as a soldier, he has crept into fame + by the places he has held. His financial measures burdened the + many to enrich the few. History will tear the pages devoted to + his praise. France and his country gave him fame, and they will + take that fame away." "His glory has dissolved in mist," said + another writer, "and he has sunk from the high level of Solon or + Lycurgus to the mean rank of a Dutch Stadtholder or a Venetian + Doge. Posterity will look in vain for any marks of wisdom in his + administration."</p> + + <p>To thoughtful persons these observations are not without a + curious interest, as showing that even the wisest of men may be + in error. The distinguished Democrat who uttered these remarks + has been forgotten, and the page of history on which Washington's + name was inscribed is still untorn. The passage of the address, + however, which gave the most offense, as Mr. McMaster points out, + was, as might have been expected from the colonial condition of + our politics, that which declared it to be our true policy "to + steer clear of permanent alliances with any portion of the + foreign world." This, it was held, simply meant that, having made + a treaty with England, we were to be stopped from making one with + France. Another distinguished editor declared that the farewell + address came from the meanest of motives; that the President knew + he could not be reelected because the Republicans would have + united to supersede him with Adams, who had the simplicity of a + Republican, while Washington had the ostentation of an Eastern + Pasha, and it was in order to save himself from this humiliation + that he had cunningly resigned.</p> + + <p>When Washington met his last Congress, William Giles of + Virginia took the opportunity afforded by the usual answer to the + President's speech to assail him personally. It would be of + course a gross injustice to suppose that a coarse political + ruffian like Giles really represented the Democratic party. But + he represented the extreme wing, and after he had declared in his + place that Washington was neither wise nor patriotic, and that + his retirement was anything but a calamity, he got twelve of his + party friends to sustain his sentiments by voting with him. The + press was even more unbridled, and it was said in the "Aurora" at + this time that Washington had debauched and deceived the nation, + and that his administration had shown that the mask of patriotism + may be worn to conceal the foulest dangers to the liberties of + the people. Over and over again it was said by these writers that + he had betrayed France and was the slave of England.</p> + + <p>This charge of being a British sympathizer was the only one of + all the abuse heaped upon him by the opposition that Washington + seems really to have resented. In August, 1794, when this slander + first started from the prolific source of all attacks against the + government, he wrote to Henry Lee: "With respect to the words + said to have been uttered by Mr. Jefferson, they would be + enigmatical to those who are acquainted with the characters about + me, unless supposed to be spoken ironically; and in that case + they are too injurious to me, and have too little foundation in + truth, to be ascribed to him. There could not be the trace of + doubt in his mind of predilection in mine toward Great Britain or + her politics, unless, which I do not believe, he has set me down + as one of the most deceitful and uncandid men living; because, + not only in private conversations between ourselves on this + subject, but in my meetings with the confidential servants of the + public, he has heard me often, when occasions presented + themselves, express very different sentiments, with an energy + that could not be mistaken by any one present.</p> + + <p>"Having determined, as far as lay within the power of the + executive, to keep this country in a state of neutrality, I have + made my public conduct accord with the system; and whilst so + acting as a public character, consistency and propriety as a + private man forbid those intemperate expressions in favor of one + nation, or to the prejudice of another, which may have wedged + themselves in, and, I will venture to add, to the embarrassment + of government, without producing any good to the country."</p> + + <p>He had shown by his acts as well as by his words his real + friendship for France, such as a proper sense of gratitude + required. As has been already pointed out, rather than run the + risk of seeming to reflect in the slightest degree upon the + government of the French republic, he had refused even to receive + distinguished <i>émigrés</i> like Noailles, + Liancourt, and Talleyrand.<a id="footnotetag1-10" name= + "footnotetag1-10"></a><a href="#footnote1-10"><sup>1</sup></a> He + was so scrupulous in this respect that he actually did violence + to his own strong desires in not taking into his house at once + the son of Lafayette; and when it became necessary to choose a + successor to Morris, his anxiety was so great to select some one + agreeable to France that he took such an avowed opponent of his + administration as Monroe.</p> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote1-10" name="footnote1-10"></a>[<b>Footnote + 1:</b> <a href="#footnotetag1-10">(return)</a> See the Letter + to the Due de Liancourt explaining the reasons for his not + being received by the President. (Sparks, xi. 161.)] + </blockquote> + + <p>On the other hand, he had never lost the strong feeling of + hostility toward England which he, above all men, had felt during + the Revolution. The conduct of England, when he was seeking an + honorable peace with her, tried his patience severely. He wrote + to Morris in 1795: "I give you these details (and if you should + again converse with Lord Grenville on the subject, you are at + liberty, unofficially, to mention them, or any of them, according + to circumstances), as evidences of the unpolitic conduct (for so + it strikes me) of the British government towards these United + States; that it may be seen how difficult it has been for the + executive, under such an accumulation of irritating + circumstances, to maintain the ground of neutrality which had + been taken; and at a time when the remembrance of the aid we had + received from France in the Revolution was fresh in every mind, + and while the partisans of that country were continually + contrasting the affections of <i>that</i> people with the + unfriendly disposition of the <i>British government</i>. And + that, too, as I have observed before, while <i>their own</i> + sufferings during the war with the latter had not been + forgotten." The one man in the country who above all others had + the highest conception of American nationality, who was the first + to seek to lift up our politics from the low level of + colonialism, who was the author of the neutrality policy, had + reason to resent the bitter irony of an attack which represented + him as a British sympathizer. The truth is, that the only foreign + party at that time was that which identified itself with France, + and which was the party of Jefferson and the opposition. The + Federalists and the administration under the lead of Washington + and Hamilton were determined that the government should be + American and not French, and this in the eyes of their opponents + was equivalent to being in the control of England. In after + years, when the Federalists fell from power and declined into the + position of a factious minority, they became British + sympathizers, and as thoroughly colonial in their politics as the + party of Jefferson had been. If they had had the wisdom of their + better days they would then have made themselves the champions of + the American idea, and would have led the country in the + determined effort to free itself once for all from colonial + politics, even if they were obliged to fight somebody to + accomplish it. They proved unequal to the task, and it fell to a + younger generation led by Henry Clay and his contemporaries to + sweep Federalist and Jeffersonian republican alike, with their + French and British politics, out of existence. In so doing the + younger generation did but complete the work of Washington, for + he it was who first trod the path and marked the way for a true + American policy in the midst of men who could not understand his + purposes.</p> + + <p>Bitter and violent as had been the attacks upon Washington + while he held office, they were as nothing compared to the shout + of fierce exultation which went up from the opposition journals + when he finally retired from the presidency. One extract will + serve as an example of the general tone of the opposition + journals throughout the country. It is to be found in the + "Aurora" of March 6, 1797:—</p> + + <blockquote> + <p>"'Lord, now lettest Thou Thy servant depart in peace,' was + the pious ejaculation of a pious man who beheld a flood of + happiness rushing in upon mankind. If ever there was a time + that would license the reiteration of the ejaculation, that + time has now arrived, for the man who is the source of all the + misfortunes of our country is this day reduced to a level with + his fellow-citizens, and is no longer possessed of power to + multiply evils upon the United States. If ever there was a + period for rejoicing, this is the moment. Every heart in unison + with the freedom and happiness of the people ought to beat high + with exultation that the name of Washington ceases from this + day to give currency to political insults, and to legalize + corruption. A new era is now opening upon us, an era which + promises much to the people, for public measures must now stand + upon their own merits, and nefarious projects can no longer be + supported by a name. When a retrospect has been taken of the + Washingtonian administration for eight years, it is a subject + of the greatest astonishment that a single individual should + have cankered the principles of republicanism in an enlightened + people just emerged from the gulf of despotism, and should have + carried his designs against the public liberty so far as to + have put in jeopardy its very existence. Such, however, are the + facts, and with these staring us in the face, the day ought to + be a JUBILEE in the United States."</p> + </blockquote> + + <p>This was not the outburst of a single malevolent spirit. The + article was copied and imitated in New York and Boston, and + wherever the party that called Jefferson leader had a + representative among the newspapers. It is not probable that + stuff of this sort gave Washington himself a moment's anxiety, + for he knew too well what he had done, and he was too sure of his + own hold upon the hearts of the people, to be in the least + disturbed by the attacks of hostile editors. But the extracts are + of interest as showing that the opposition party of that time, + the party organized and led by Jefferson, regarded Washington as + their worst enemy, and assailed him and slandered him to the + utmost. They even went so far as to borrow materials from the + enemies of the country with whom we had lately been at war, by + publishing the forged letters attributed to Washington, and + circulated by the British in 1777, in order to discredit the + American general. One of Washington's last acts, on March 3, + 1797, was to file in the State Department a solemn declaration + that these letters, then republished by an American political + party, were base forgeries, of English origin in a time of war. + His own view of this performance is given in a letter to Benjamin + Walker, in which he said: "Amongst other attempts, ... spurious + letters, known at the time of their first publication (I believe + in the year 1777) to be forgeries, are (or extracts from them) + brought forward with the highest emblazoning of which they are + susceptible, with a view to attach principles to me which every + action of my life has given the lie to. But that is no + stumbling-block with the editors of these papers and their + supporters."</p> + + <p>Two or three extracts from private letters will show how + Washington regarded the course of the opposition, and the + interpretation he put upon their attacks. After sketching in a + letter to David Stuart the general course of the hostilities + toward his administration, he said: "This not working so well as + was expected, from a supposition that there was too much + confidence in, and perhaps personal regard for, the present chief + magistrate and his politics, the batteries have lately been + leveled against him particularly and personally. Although he is + soon to become a private citizen, his opinions are knocked down, + and his character reduced as low as they are capable of sinking + it, even by resorting to absolute falsehoods." Again he said, + just before leaving office: "To misrepresent my motives, to + reprobate my politics, and to weaken the confidence which has + been reposed in my administration, are objects which cannot be + relinquished by those who will be satisfied with nothing short of + a change in our political system." He at least labored under no + misapprehension after eight years of trial as to the position or + purposes of the party which had fought him and his + administration, and which had savagely denounced his measures at + every step, and with ever-increasing violence.</p> + + <p>Having defined the attitude of the opposition, we can now + consider that of Washington himself after he had retired from + office, and no longer felt restrained by the circumstances of his + election to the presidency from openly declaring his views, or + publicly identifying himself with a political party. He rightly + regarded the administration of Mr. Adams as a continuation of his + own, and he gave to it a cordial support. He was equally clear + and determined in his distrust and dislike of the opposition. Not + long before leaving office he had written a letter to Jefferson, + which, while it exonerated that gentleman from being the author + of certain peculiarly malicious attacks, showed very plainly that + the writer completely understood the position occupied by his + former secretary. It was a letter which must have been most + unpleasant reading for the person to whom it was addressed. A + year later he wrote to John Nicholas in regard to Jefferson: + "Nothing short of the evidence you have adduced, corroborative of + intimations which I had received long before through another + channel, could have shaken my belief in the sincerity of a + friendship which I had conceived was possessed for me by the + person to whom you allude." There was no doubt in his mind now as + to Jefferson's conduct, and he knew at last that he had been his + foe even when a member of his political household.</p> + + <p>When the time came to fill the offices in the provisional army + made necessary by the menace of war with France, Washington wrote + to the President that he ought to have generals who were men of + activity, energy, health, and "sound politics," carrying + apparently his suspicion of the opposition even to disbelieving + in them as soldiers. He repeated the same idea in a letter to + McHenry, in which he said: "I do not conceive that a desirable + set could be formed from the old generals, some having never + displayed any talent for enterprise, and others having shown a + general opposition to the government, or predilection to French + measures, be their present conduct what it may."</p> + + <p>When the question arose in regard to the relative rank of the + major-generals, Washington said to Knox: "No doubt remained in my + mind that Colonel Hamilton was designated second in command (and + first, if I should decline an acceptance) by the Federal + characters of Congress; whence alone anything like a public + sentiment relative thereto could be deduced." He was quite clear + that there was no use in looking beyond the confines of the + Federal party for any public sentiment worth considering. He had + serious doubts also as to the advisability of having the + opponents of the government in the army, and wrote to McHenry on + September 30, 1798, that brawlers against the government in + certain parts of Virginia had suddenly become silent and were + seeking commissions in the army. "The motives ascribed to them + are that in such a situation they would endeavor to divide and + contaminate the army by artful and seditious discourses, and + perhaps at a critical moment bring on confusion. What weight to + give to these conjectures you can judge as well as I. But as + there will be characters enough of an opposite description who + are ready to receive appointments, circumspection is necessary. + Finding the resentment of the people at the conduct of France too + strong to be resisted, they have in appearance adopted their + sentiments, and pretend that, notwithstanding the misconduct of + the government has brought it upon us, yet if an invasion should + take place, it will be found that <i>they</i> will be among the + first to defend it. This is their story at all elections and + election meetings, and told in many instances with effect." He + wrote again in the same strain to McHenry, on October 21: + "Possibly no injustice would be done, if I were to proceed a step + further, and give it as an opinion that most of the candidates + [for the army] brought forward by the opposition members possess + sentiments similar to their own, and might poison the army by + disseminating them, if they were appointed." In this period of + danger, when the country was on the verge of war, the attitude of + the opposition gave Washington much food for thought because it + appeared to him so false and unpatriotic. In a letter to + Lafayette, written on Christmas day, 1798, he gave the following + brief sketch of the opposition: "A party exists in the United + States, formed by a combination of causes, which opposed the + government in all its measures, and are determined, as all their + conduct evinces, by clogging its wheels indirectly to change the + nature of it, and to subvert the Constitution. The friends of + government, who are anxious to maintain its neutrality and to + preserve the country in peace, and adopt measures to secure these + objects, are charged by them as being monarchists, aristocrats, + and infractors of the Constitution, which according to their + interpretation of it would be a mere cipher. They arrogated to + themselves ... the sole merit of being the friends of France, + when in fact they had no more regard for that nation than for the + Grand Turk, further than their own views were promoted by it; + denouncing those who differed in opinion (those principles are + purely American and whose sole view was to observe a strict + neutrality) as acting under British influence, and being directed + by her counsels, or as being her pensioners."</p> + + <p>Shortly before this sharp definition was written, an incident + had occurred which had given Washington an opportunity of + impressing his views directly and personally upon a distinguished + leader of the opposite party. Dr. Logan of Philadelphia, under + the promptings of Jefferson, as was commonly supposed, had gone + on a volunteer mission to Paris for the purpose of bringing about + peace between the two republics. He had apparently a fixed idea + that there was something very monstrous in our having any + differences with France, and being somewhat of a busybody, + although a most worthy man, he felt called upon to settle the + international complications which were then puzzling the brains + and trying the patience of the ablest men in America. It is + needless to say that his mission was not a success, and he was + eventually so unmercifully ridiculed by the Federalist editors + that he published a long pamphlet in his own defense. Upon his + return, however, he seems to have been not a little pleased with + himself, and he took occasion to call upon Washington, who was + then in Philadelphia on business. It would be difficult to + conceive anything more distasteful to Washington than such a + mission as Logan's, or that he could have a more hearty contempt + for any one than for a meddler of this description, who by his + interference might help to bring his country into contempt. He + was sufficiently impressed, however, by Dr. Logan's call to draw + up a memorandum, which gave a very realistic and amusing account + of it. It may be surmised that when Washington wished to be cold + in his manner, he was capable of being very freezing, and he was + not very apt at concealing his emotions when he found himself in + the presence of any one whom he disliked and disapproved. The + memorandum is as follows:—</p> + + <p>"<i>Tuesday, November</i> 13, 1798.—Mr. Lear, my + secretary, being from our lodgings on business, one of my + servants came into the room where I was writing and informed me + that a gentleman in the parlor below desired to see me; no name + was sent up. In a few minutes I went down, and found the Rev. Dr. + Blackwell and Dr. Logan there. I advanced towards and gave my + hand to the former; the latter did the same towards me. I was + backward in giving mine. He, possibly supposing from hence that I + did not recollect him, said his name was Logan. Finally, in a + very cold manner, and with an air of marked indifference, I gave + him my hand and asked <i>Dr. Blackwell to be seated</i>; the + other <i>took</i> a seat at the same time. I addressed <i>all</i> + my conversation to Dr. Blackwell; the other all his to me, to + which I only gave negative or affirmative answers as laconically + as I could, except asking him how Mrs. Logan did. He seemed + disposed to be very polite, and while Dr. Blackwell and myself + were conversing on the late calamitous fever, offered me an + asylum at his house, if it should return or I thought myself in + any danger in the city, and two or three rooms, by way of + accommodation. I thanked him slightly, observing there would be + no call for it."</p> + + <p>"About this time Dr. Blackwell took his leave. We all rose + from our seats, and I moved a few paces toward the door of the + room, expecting the other would follow and take his leave + also."</p> + + <p>The worthy Quaker, however, was not to be got rid of so + easily. He literally stood his ground, and went on talking of a + number of things, chiefly about Lafayette and his family, and an + interview with Mr. Murray, our minister in Holland. Washington, + meanwhile, stood facing him, and to use his own words, "showed + the utmost inattention," while his visitor described his journey + to Paris. Finally Logan said that his purpose in going to France + was to ameliorate the condition of our relations with that + country. "This," said Washington, "drew my attention more + pointedly to what he was saying and induced me to remark that + there was something very singular in this; that <i>he</i>, who + could only be viewed as a private character, unarmed with proper + powers, and presumptively unknown in France, should suppose he + could effect what three gentlemen of the first respectability in + our country, especially charged under the authority of the + government, were unable to do." One is not surprised to be then + told that Dr. Logan seemed a little confounded at this + observation; but he recovered himself, and went on to say that + only five persons knew of his going, and that his letters from + Mr. Jefferson and Mr. McKean obtained for him an interview with + M. Merlin, president of the Directory, who had been most friendly + in his expressions. To this Washington replied with some very + severe strictures on the conduct of France; and the conversation, + which must by this time have become a little strained, soon after + came to an end. One cannot help feeling a good deal of sympathy + for the excellent doctor, although he was certainly a busybody + and, one would naturally infer, a bore as well. It would have + been, however, a pity to have lost this memorandum, and there is + every reason to regret that Washington did not oftener exercise + his evident powers for realistic reporting. Nothing, moreover, + could bring out better his thorough contempt for the opposition + and their attitude toward France than this interview with the + volunteer commissioner.</p> + + <p>There were, however, much more serious movements made by the + Democratic party than well-meant and meddling attempts to make + peace with France. This was the year of the Kentucky and Virginia + resolutions, the first note of that disunion sentiment which was + destined one day to involve the country in civil war and be + fought out on a hundred battlefields. Washington, with his love + for the Union and for nationality ever uppermost in his heart, + was quick to take alarm, and it cut him especially to think that + a movement which he esteemed at once desperate and wicked should + emanate from his own State, and as we now know, and as he perhaps + suspected, from a great Virginian whom he had once trusted. He + straightway set himself to oppose this movement with all his + might, and he summoned to his aid that other great Virginian who + in his early days had been the first to rouse the people against + oppression, and who now in his old age, in response to + Washington's appeal, came again into the forefront in behalf of + the Constitution and the union of the States. The letter which + Washington wrote to Patrick Henry on this occasion is one of the + most important that he ever penned, but there is room to quote + only a single passage here.</p> + + <p>"At such a crisis as this," he said, "when everything dear and + valuable to us is assailed, when this party hangs upon the wheels + of government as a dead weight, opposing every measure that is + calculated for defense and self-preservation, abetting the + nefarious views of another nation upon our rights, preferring, as + long as they dare contend openly against the spirit and + resentment of the people, the interest of France to the welfare + of their own country, justifying the former at the expense of the + latter; when every act of their own government is tortured, by + constructions they will not bear, into attempts to infringe and + trample upon the Constitution with a view to introduce monarchy; + when the most unceasing and the purest exertions which were + making to maintain a neutrality ... are charged with being + measures calculated to favor Great Britain at the expense of + France, and all those who had any agency in it are accused of + being under the influence of the former and her pensioners; when + measures are systematically and pertinaciously pursued, which + must eventually dissolve the Union or produce coercion; I say, + when these things have become so obvious, ought characters who + are best able to rescue their country from the pending evil to + remain at home?...</p> + + <p>"Vain will it be to look for peace and happiness, or for the + security of liberty or property, if civil discord should ensue. + And what else can result from the policy of those among us, who, + by all the measures in their power, are driving matters to + extremity, if they cannot be counteracted effectually? The views + of men can only be known, or guessed at, by their words or + actions. Can those of the <i>leaders</i> of opposition be + mistaken, then, if judged by this rule? That they are followed by + numbers, who are unacquainted with their designs and suspect as + little the tendency of their principles, I am fully persuaded. + But if their conduct is viewed with indifference, if there are + activity and misrepresentations on one side and supineness on the + other, their numbers accumulated by intriguing and discontented + foreigners under proscription, who were at war with their own + government, and the greater part of them with <i>all</i> + governments, they will increase, and nothing short of omniscience + can foretell the consequences."</p> + + <p>It would have been difficult to draw a severer indictment of + the opposition party than that given in this letter, but there is + one other letter even more striking in its contents, without + which no account of the relation of Washington to the two great + parties which sprang up under his administration would be + complete. It was addressed to Governor Trumbull of Connecticut, + was written on July 21, 1799, less than six months before his + death, and although printed, has been hidden away in the appendix + to the "Life of Benjamin Silliman." Governor Trumbull, who bore + the name and filled the office of Washington's old revolutionary + friend, had written to the general, as many other Federalists + were writing at that time, urging him to come forward and stand + once more for the presidency, that he might heal the dissensions + in his own party and save the country from the impending disaster + of Jefferson's election. That Washington refused all these + requests is of course well known, but his reasons as stated to + Trumbull are of great interest. "I come now," he said, "my dear + sir, to pay particular attention to that part of your letter + which respects myself.</p> + + <p>"I remember well the conversation which you allude to. I have + not forgot the answer I gave you. In my judgment it applies with + as much force <i>now</i> as <i>then</i>; nay, more, because at + that time the line between the parties was not so clearly drawn, + and the views of the opposition so clearly developed as they are + at present. Of course allowing your observation (as it respects + myself) to be well founded, personal influence would be of no + avail.</p> + + <p>"Let that party set up a broomstick, and call it a true son of + liberty,—a democrat,—or give it any other epithet + that will suit their purpose, and it will command their votes + <i>in toto</i>!<a id="footnotetag1-11" name= + "footnotetag1-11"></a><a href="#footnote1-11"><sup>1</sup></a> + Will not the Federalists meet, or rather defend, their cause on + the opposite ground? Surely they must, or they will discover a + want of policy, indicative of weakness and pregnant of mischief, + which cannot be admitted. Wherein, then, would lie the difference + between the present gentleman in office and myself?</p> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote1-11" name="footnote1-11"></a>[<b>Footnote + 1:</b> <a href="#footnotetag1-11">(return)</a> "As an analysis + of this position, look to the pending election of governor in + Pennsylvania."] + </blockquote> + + <p>"It would be matter of grave regret to me if I could believe + that a serious thought was turned toward me as his successor, not + only as it respects my ardent wishes to pass through the vale of + life in retirement, undisturbed in the remnant of the days I have + to sojourn here, unless called upon to defend my country (which + every citizen is bound to do); but on public grounds also; for + although I have abundant cause to be thankful for the good health + with which I am blessed, yet I am not insensible to my + declination in other respects. It would be criminal, therefore, + in me, although it should be the wish of my countrymen and I + could be elected, to accept an office under this conviction which + another would discharge with more ability; and this, too, at a + time when I am thoroughly convinced I should not draw a + <i>single</i> vote from the anti-Federal side, and of course + should stand upon no other ground <i>than any other Federal + character</i><a id="footnotetag1-12" name= + "footnotetag1-12"></a><a href="#footnote1-12"><sup>1</sup></a> + well supported; and when I should become a mark for the shafts of + envenomed malice and the basest calumny to fire at,—when I + should be charged not only with irresolution but with concealed + ambition, which waits only an occasion to blaze out, and, in + short, with dotage and imbecility.</p> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote1-12" name="footnote1-12"></a>[<b>Footnote + 1:</b> <a href="#footnotetag1-12">(return)</a> These italics + are mine.] + </blockquote> + + <p>"All this, I grant, ought to be like dust in the balance, when + put in competition with a <i>great</i> public good, when the + accomplishment of it is apparent. But, as no problem is better + defined in my mind than that principle, not men, is now, and will + be, the object of contention; and that I could not obtain a + <i>solitary</i> vote from that party; <i>that any other + respectable Federal character could receive the same suffrages + that I should</i>;<a id="footnotetag1-13" name= + "footnotetag1-13"></a><a href="#footnote1-13"><sup>1</sup></a> + that at my time of life (verging towards threescore and ten) I + should expose myself without rendering any essential service to + my country, or answering the end contemplated; prudence on my + part must avert any attempt of the well-meant but mistaken views + of my friends to introduce me again into the chair of + government."</p> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote1-13" name="footnote1-13"></a>[<b>Footnote + 1:</b> <a href="#footnotetag1-13">(return)</a> These italics + are mine.] + </blockquote> + + <p>It does not fall within the scope of this biography to attempt + to portray the history or weigh the merits of the two parties + which came into existence at the close of the last century, and + which, under varying names, have divided the people of the United + States ever since. But it is essential here to define the + relation of Washington toward them because one hears it + constantly said and sees it as constantly written down, that + Washington belonged to no party, which is perhaps a natural, but + is certainly a complete misconception. Washington came to the + presidency by a unanimous vote. He had in his mind very strongly + the idea of the framers of the Constitution that the President, + by the method of his election and by his independence of the + other departments of government, was to be above and beyond + party, and the representative of the whole people. In addition to + this he was so absorbed by the great conception which he had of + the future of the country, and was so confident of the purity and + rectitude of his own purposes, that he was loath to think that + party divisions could arise while he held the chief magistracy. + It was not long before he was undeceived on this point, and he + soon found that party divisions sprang up from the measures of + his own administration. Nevertheless, he clung to his + determination to govern without the assistance of a party as + such. When this, too, became impossible, he still felt that the + unanimity of his election required that he should not declare + himself to be the head of a party; but he had become thoroughly + convinced that under the representative system of the + Constitution party government could not be avoided. In his + farewell address he warned the people against the excesses of + that party spirit which he deplored; but he did not suggest that + it could be extinguished. Being a wise and far-seeing man, he saw + that if party government was an evil, it also was under a free + representative system, and in the present condition of human + nature a necessary evil, furnishing the only machinery by which + public affairs could be carried on.</p> + + <p>In a time of deep political excitement and strong party + feeling, Washington was the last man in the world not to be + decidedly on one side or the other. He was possessed of too much + sense, force, and virility to be content to hold himself aloof + and croak over the wickedness of people, who were trying to do + something, even if they did not always try in the most perfect + way. He was himself preëminently a doer of deeds, and not a + critic or a phrase-maker, and we can read very distinctly in the + extracts which have been brought together in this chapter what he + thought on party and public questions. He was opposed to the + party which had resisted all the great measures of his + administration from the foundation of the government of the + United States. They had assailed and maligned him and his + ministers, and he regarded them as political enemies. He believed + in the principles of that party which had supported the financial + policy of Hamilton and his own policy of neutrality toward + foreign nations. He was opposed to the party which introduced the + interests of France as the leading issue of American politics, + and which embodied the doctrines of nullification and separatism + in the resolutions of Kentucky and Virginia. In one word, + Washington, in policies and politics, was an American and a + Nationalist; and the National and American party, from 1789 to + 1801, was the Federalist party. It may be added that it was the + only party which, at that precise time, could claim those + qualities. While he remained in the presidency he would not + declare himself to be of any party; but as soon as this fetter + was removed, he declared himself freely after his fashion, + expressing in words what he had formerly only expressed in + action. His feelings warmed and strengthened as the controversy + with France deepened, and as the attitude of the opposition + became more un-American and leaned more and more to separatism. + They culminated at last in the eloquent letter to Patrick Henry, + and in the carefully weighed words with which he tells Trumbull + that he can hope for no more votes than "any other Federal + character."</p> + + <p> </p> + + <h2><a name="VI" id="VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2> + + <h2>THE LAST YEARS</h2> + + <p>Washington had entered upon the presidency with the utmost + reluctance, and at the sacrifice of all he considered pleasantest + and best in life. He took it and held it for eight years from a + sense of duty, and with no desire to retain it beyond that which + every man feels who wishes to finish a great work that he has + undertaken. He looked forward to the approaching end of his + second term with a feeling of intense relief, and compared + himself to the wearied traveler who sees the resting-place where + he is at length to have repose. On March 3 he gave a farewell + dinner to the President and Vice-President elect, the foreign + ministers and their wives, and other distinguished persons, from + one of whom we learn that it was a very pleasant and lively + gathering. When the cloth was removed Washington filled his glass + and said: "Ladies and gentlemen, this is the last time I shall + drink your health as a public man. I do it with sincerity, + wishing you all possible happiness." The company did not take the + same cheerful view as their host of this leave-taking. There was + a pause in the gayety, some of the ladies shed tears, and the + little incident only served to show the warm affection felt for + Washington by every one who came in close contact with him.</p> + + <p>The next day the last official ceremonies were performed. + After Jefferson had taken the oath as Vice-President and had + proceeded with the Senate to the House of Representatives, which + was densely crowded, Washington entered and was received with + cheers and shouts, the waving of handkerchiefs, and an enthusiasm + which seemed to know no bounds. Mr. Adams followed him almost + immediately and delivered his inaugural address, in which he paid + a stately compliment to the great virtues of his predecessor. It + was the setting and not the rising sun, however, that drew the + attention of the multitude, and as Washington left the hall there + was a wild rush from the galleries to the corridors and then into + the streets to see him pass. He took off his hat and bowed to the + people, but they followed him even to his own door, where he + turned once more and, unable to speak, waved to them a silent + farewell.</p> + + <p>In the evening of the same day a great banquet was given to + him by the merchants of Philadelphia, and when he entered the + band played "Washington's March," and a series of emblematic + paintings were disclosed, the chief of which represented the + ex-President at Mount Vernon surrounded by the allegorical + figures then so fashionable. After the festivities Washington + lingered for a few days in Philadelphia to settle various private + matters and then started for home. Whether he was going or + coming, whether he was about to take the great office of + President or retire to the privacy of Mount Vernon, the same + popular enthusiasm greeted him. When he was really brought in + contact with the people, the clamors of the opposition press and + the attacks of the Jeffersonian editors all faded away and were + forgotten. On March 12 he reached Baltimore, and the local + newspaper of the next day said:—</p> + + <p>"Last evening arrived in this city, on his way to Mount + Vernon, the illustrious object of veneration and gratitude, + GEORGE WASHINGTON. His excellency was accompanied by his lady and + Miss Custis, and by the son of the unfortunate Lafayette and his + preceptor. At a distance from the city, he was met by a crowd of + citizens, on horse and foot, who thronged the road to greet him, + and by a detachment from Captain Hollingsworth's troop, who + escorted him in through as great a concourse of people as + Baltimore ever witnessed. On alighting at the Fountain Inn, the + general was saluted with reiterated and thundering huzzas from + the spectators. His excellency, with the companions of his + journey, leaves town, we understand, this morning."</p> + + <p>Thus with the cheers and the acclamations still ringing in his + ears he came home again to Mount Vernon, where he found at once + plenty of occupation, which in some form was always a necessity + to him. An absence of eight years had not improved the property. + On April 3 he wrote to McHenry: "I find myself in the situation + nearly of a new beginner; for, although I have not houses to + build (except one, which I must erect for the accommodation and + security of my military, civil, and private papers, which are + voluminous and may be interesting), yet I have scarcely anything + else about me that does not require considerable repairs. In a + word, I am already surrounded by joiners, masons, and painters; + and such is my anxiety to get out of their hands, that I have + scarcely a room to put a friend into or to sit in myself without + the music of hammers or the odoriferous scent of paint." He + easily dropped back into the round of country duties and + pleasures, and the care of farms and plantations, which had + always had for him so much attraction. "To make and sell a little + flour annually," he wrote to Wolcott, "to repair houses going + fast to ruin, to build one for the security of my papers of a + public nature, will constitute employment for the few years I + have to remain on this terrestrial globe." Again he said to + McHenry: "You are at the source of information, and can find many + things to relate, while I have nothing to say that would either + inform or amuse a secretary of war at Philadelphia. I might tell + him that I begin my diurnal course with the sun; that if my + hirelings are not in their places by that time I send them + messages of sorrow for their indisposition; that having put these + wheels in motion I examine the state of things further; that the + more they are probed the deeper I find the wounds which my + buildings have sustained by an absence and neglect of eight + years; that by the time I have accomplished these matters + breakfast (a little after seven o'clock, about the time I presume + that you are taking leave of Mrs. McHenry) is ready; that this + being over I mount my horse and ride round my farms, which + employs me until it is time to dress for dinner, at which I + rarely miss seeing strange faces, come, as they say, out of + respect for me. Pray, would not the word curiosity answer as + well? And how different this from having a few social friends at + a cheerful board. The usual time of sitting at table, a walk, and + tea bring me within the dawn of candle-light; previous to which, + if not prevented by company, I resolve that as soon as the + glimmering taper supplies the place of the great luminary I will + retire to my writing-table and acknowledge the letters I have + received; that when the lights are brought I feel tired and + disinclined to engage in this work, conceiving that the next + night will do as well. The next night comes and with it the same + causes for postponement, and so on. Having given you the history + of a day, it will serve for a year, and I am persuaded you will + not require a second edition of it. But it may strike you that in + this detail no mention is made of any portion of time allotted + for reading. The remark would be just, for I have not looked into + a book since I came home; nor shall I be able to do it until I + have discharged my workmen; probably not before the nights grow + longer, when possibly I may be looking in Doomsday book."</p> + + <p>There is not much that can be added to his own concise + description of the simple life he led at home. The rest and quiet + were very pleasant, but still there was a touch of sadness in his + words. The long interval of absence made the changes which time + had wrought stand out more vividly than if they had come one by + one in the course of daily life at home. Washington looked on the + ruins of Belvoir, and sighed to think of the many happy hours he + had passed with the Fairfaxes, now gone from the land forever. + Other old friends had been taken away by death, and the gaps were + not filled by the new faces of which he speaks to McHenry. + Indeed, the crowd of visitors coming to Mount Vernon from all + parts of his own country and of the world, whether they came from + respect or curiosity, brought a good deal of weariness to a man + tired with the cares of state and longing for absolute repose. + Yet he would not close his doors to any one, for the Virginian + sense of hospitality, always peculiarly strong in him, forbade + such action. To relieve himself, therefore, in this respect, he + sent for his nephew Lawrence Lewis, who took the social burden + from his shoulders. But although the visitors tired him when he + felt responsible for their pleasure, he did not shut himself up + now any more than at any other time in self-contemplation. He was + constantly thinking of others; and the education of his nephews, + the care of young Lafayette until he should return to France, as + well as the happy love-match of Nellie Custis and his nephew, + supplied the human interest without which he was never happy.</p> + + <p>Before we trace his connection with public affairs in these + closing years, let us take one look at him, through the eyes of a + disinterested but keen observer. John Bernard, an English actor, + who had come to this country in the year when Washington left the + presidency, was playing an engagement with his company at + Annapolis, in 1798. One day he mounted his horse and rode down + below Alexandria, to pay a visit to an acquaintance who lived on + the banks of the Potomac. When he was returning, a chaise in + front of him, containing a man and a young woman, was overturned, + and the occupants were thrown out. As Bernard rode to the scene + of the accident, another horseman galloped up from the opposite + direction. The two riders dismounted, found that the driver was + not hurt, and succeeded in restoring the young woman to + consciousness; an event which was marked, Bernard tells us, by a + volley of invectives addressed to her unfortunate husband. "The + horse," continues Bernard, "was now on his legs, but the vehicle + still prostrate, heavy in its frame, and laden with at least half + a ton of luggage. My fellow-helper set me an example of activity + in relieving it of the internal weight; and when all was clear, + we grasped the wheel between us, and to the peril of our spinal + columns righted the conveyance. The horse was then put in, and we + lent a hand to help up the luggage. All this helping, hauling, + and lifting occupied at least half an hour, under a meridian sun, + in the middle of July, which fairly boiled the perspiration out + of our foreheads." The possessor of the chaise beguiled the labor + by a full personal history of himself and his wife, and when the + work was done invited the two Samaritans to go with him to + Alexandria, and take a drop of "something sociable." This being + declined, the couple mounted into the chaise and drove on. + "Then," says Bernard, "my companion, after an exclamation at the + heat, offered very courteously to dust my coat, a favor the + return of which enabled me to take deliberate survey of his + person. He was a tall, erect, well-made man, evidently advanced + in years, but who appeared to have retained all the vigor and + elasticity resulting from a life of temperance and exercise. His + dress was a blue coat buttoned to his chin, and buckskin + breeches. Though the instant he took off his hat I could not + avoid the recognition of familiar lineaments, which indeed I was + in the habit of seeing on every sign-post and over every + fireplace, still I failed to identify him, and to my surprise I + found that I was an object of equal speculation in his eyes." The + actor evidently did not have the royal gift of remembering faces, + but the stranger possessed that quality, for after a moment's + pause he said, "Mr. Bernard, I believe," and mentioned the + occasion on which he had seen him play in Philadelphia. He then + asked Bernard to go home with him for a couple of hours' rest, + and pointed out the house in the distance. At last Bernard knew + to whom he was speaking. "'Mount Vernon!' I exclaimed; and then + drawing back with a stare of wonder, 'Have I the honor of + addressing General Washington?' With a smile whose expression of + benevolence I have rarely seen equaled, he offered his hand and + replied: 'An odd sort of introduction, Mr. Bernard; but I am + pleased to find you can play so active a part in private, and + without a prompter.'" So they rode on together to the house and + had a chat, to which we must recur further on.</p> + + <p>There is no contemporary narrative of which I am aware that + shows Washington to us more clearly than this little adventure + with Bernard, for it is in the common affairs of daily life that + men come nearest to each other, and the same rule holds good in + history. We know Washington much better from these few lines of + description left by a chance acquaintance on the road than we do + from volumes of state papers. It is such a pleasant story, too. + There is the great man, retired from the world, still handsome + and imposing in his old age, with the strong and ready hand to + succor those who had fallen by the wayside; there are the genuine + hospitality, the perfect manners, and the well-turned little + sentence with which he complimented the actor, put him at his + ease, and asked him to his house. Nothing can well be added to + the picture of Washington as we see him here, not long before the + end of all things came. We must break off, however, from the + quiet charm of home life, and turn again briefly to the affairs + of state. Let us, therefore, leave these two riding along the + road together in the warm Virginia sunshine to the house which + has since become one of the Meccas of humanity, in memory of the + man who once dwelt in it.</p> + + <p>The highly prized retirement to Mount Vernon did not now, more + than at any previous time, separate Washington from the affairs + of the country. He continued to take a keen interest in all that + went on, to correspond with his friends, and to use his influence + for what he thought wisest and best for the general welfare. + These were stirring times, too, and the progress of events + brought him to take a more active part than he had ever expected + to play again; for France, having failed, thanks to his policy, + to draw us either by fair words or trickery from our independent + and neutral position, determined, apparently, to try the effect + of force and ill usage. Pinckney, sent out as minister, had been + rebuffed; and then Adams, with the cordial support of the + country, had made another effort for peace by sending Pinckney, + Marshall, and Gerry as a special commission. The history of that + commission is one of the best known episodes in our history. Our + envoys were insulted, asked for bribes, and browbeaten, until the + two who retained a proper sense of their own and their country's + dignity took their passports and departed. The publication of the + famous X, Y, Z letters, which displayed the conduct of France, + roused a storm of righteous indignation from one end of the + United States to the other. The party of France and of the + opposition bent before the storm, and the Federalists were at + last all-powerful. A cry for war went up from every corner, and + Congress provided rapidly for the formation of an army and the + beginning of a navy.</p> + + <p>Then the whole country turned, as a matter of course, to one + man to stand at the head of the national forces of the United + States, and Adams wrote to Washington, urging him to take command + of the provisional army. To any other appeal to come forward + Washington would have been deaf, but he could never refuse a call + to arms. He wrote to Adams on July 4, 1798: "In case of <i>actual + invasion</i> by a formidable force, I certainly should not + intrench myself under the cover of age or retirement, if my + services should be required by my country to assist in repelling + it." He agreed, therefore, to take command of the army, provided + that he should not be called into active service except in the + case of actual hostilities, and that he should have the + appointment of the general's staff. To these terms Adams of + course acceded. But out of the apparently simple condition + relating to the appointment of officers there grew a very serious + trouble. There were to be three major-generals, the first of them + to have also the rank of inspector-general, and to be the virtual + commander-in-chief until the army was actually called into the + field. For these places, Washington after much reflection + selected Hamilton, Pinckney, and Knox, in the order named, and in + doing so he very wisely went on the general principle that the + army was to be organized <i>de novo</i>, without reference to + prior service. Apart from personal and political jealousies, + nothing could have been more proper and more sound than this + arrangement; but at this point the President's dislike of + Hamilton got beyond control, and he made up his mind to reverse + the order, and send in Knox's name first. The Federalist leaders + were of course utterly disgusted by this attempt to set Hamilton + aside, which was certainly ill-judged, and which proved to be the + beginning of the dissensions that ended in the ruin of the + Federalist party. After every effort, therefore, to move Adams + had failed, Pickering and others, including Hamilton himself, + appealed to Washington. At a distance from the scene of action, + and unfamiliar with the growth of differences within the party, + Washington was not only surprised, but annoyed by the President's + conduct. In addition to the evils which he believed would result + in a military way from this change, he felt that the conditions + which he had made had been violated, and that he had not been + treated fairly. He therefore wrote to the President with his + wonted plainness, on September 25, and pointed out that his + stipulations had not been complied with, that the change of order + among the major-generals was thoroughly wrong, and that the + President's meddling with the inferior appointments had been + hurtful and injudicious. His views were expressed in the most + courteous way, although with an undertone of severe disapproval. + There was no mistaking the meaning of the letter, however, and + Adams, bold man and President as he was, gave way at once. Mr. + Adams thought at the time that there had been about this matter + of the major-generals too much intrigue, by which Washington had + been deceived and he himself made a victim; but there seems no + good reason to take this view of it, for there is no indication + whatever that Washington did not know and understand the facts; + and it was on the facts that he made his decision, and not on the + methods by which they were conveyed to him. The propriety of the + decision will hardly now be questioned, although it did not tend + to make the relations between the ex-President and his successor + very cordial. They had always a great respect for each other, but + not much sympathy, for they differed too widely in temperament. + Even if Washington would have permitted it, it would have been + impossible for the President to have quarreled with him, but at + the same time he felt not a little awkwardness in dealing with + his successor, and was inclined to think that that gentleman did + not show him all the respect that was due. He wrote to McHenry on + October 1: "As no mode is yet adopted by the President by which + the battalion officers are to be appointed, and as I think I + stand on very precarious ground in my relation to him, I am not + over-zealous in taking <i>unauthorized</i> steps when those that + I thought <i>were authorized</i> are not likely to meet with much + respect."</p> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:40%;"> + <a href="images/illus0463.jpg"><img width="100%" src= + "images/illus0463.jpg" alt="HENRY KNOX" /></a>HENRY KNOX + </div> + + <p>There was, however, another consequence of this affair which + gave Washington much more pain than any differences with the + President. His old friend and companion in arms, General Knox, + was profoundly hurt at the decision which placed Hamilton at the + head of the army. One cannot be surprised at Knox's feelings, for + he had been a distinguished officer, and had outranked both + Hamilton and Pinckney. He felt that he ought to command the army, + and that he was quite capable of doing so; and he did not relish + being told in this official manner that he had grown old, and + that the time had come for younger and abler men to pass beyond + him. The archbishop in "Gil Blas" is one of the most universal + types of human nature that we have. Nobody feels kindly to the + monitor who points out the failings which time has brought, and + we are all inclined to dismiss him with every wish that he may + fare well and have a little more taste. Poor Knox could not + dismiss his Gil Blas, and he felt the unpleasant admonition all + the more bitterly from the fact that the blow was dealt by the + two men whom he most loved and admired. Hamilton wrote him the + best and most graceful of letters, but failed to soothe him; and + Washington was no more fortunate. He tried with the utmost + kindliness, and in his most courteous manner, to soften the + disappointment, and to show Knox how convincing were the reasons + for his action. But the case was not one where argument could be + of avail, and when Knox persisted in his refusal to take the + place assigned him, Washington, with all his sympathy, was + perfectly frank in expressing his views.</p> + + <p>In a second letter, complaining of the injustice with which he + had been treated, Knox intimated that he would be willing to + serve on the personal staff of the commander-in-chief. This was + all very well; but much as Washington grieved for his old + friend's disappointment, there was to be no misunderstanding in + the matter. He wrote Knox on October 21: "After having expressed + these sentiments with the frankness of undisguised friendship, it + is hardly necessary to add that, if you should finally decline + the appointment of major-general, there is none to whom I would + give a more decided preference as an aide-de-camp, the offer of + which is highly flattering, honorable, and grateful to my + feelings, and for which I entertain a high sense. But, my dear + General Knox, and here again I speak to you in a language of + candor and friendship, examine well your mind upon this subject. + Do not unite yourself to the suite of a man whom you may consider + as the primary cause of what you call a degradation, with + unpleasant sensations. This, while it was gnawing upon you, + would, if I should come to the knowledge of it, make me unhappy; + as my first wish would be that my military family and the whole + army should consider themselves a band of brothers, willing and + ready to die for each other."</p> + + <p>Knox would not serve; and his ill temper, irritated still + further by the apparent preference of the President and by the + talk of his immediate circle, prevailed. On the other hand, + Pinckney, one of the most generous and patriotic of men, accepted + service at once without a syllable of complaint on the score that + he had ranked Hamilton in the former war. It was with these two, + therefore, that Washington carried on the work of organizing the + provisional army. Despite his determination to remain in + retirement until called to the field, his desire for perfection + in any work that he undertook brought him out, and he gave much + time and attention not only to the general questions which were + raised, but to the details of the business, and on November 10 he + addressed a series of inquiries, both general and particular, to + Hamilton and Pinckney. These inquiries covered the whole scope of + possible events, probable military operations, and the formation + of the army. They were written in Philadelphia, whither he had + gone, and where he passed a month with the two major-generals in + the discussion of plans and measures. The result of their + conferences was an elaborate and masterly report on army + organization drawn up by Hamilton, upon whom, throughout this + period of impending war, the brunt of the work fell.</p> + + <p>Careful and painstaking, however, as Washington was in the + matter of appointments and organization, dealing with them as if + he was about to take the field at the head of the army, there was + never a moment when he felt that there was danger of actual war. + He had studied foreign affairs and the conditions of Europe too + well to be much deceived about them, and least of all in regard + to France. He felt from the beginning that the moment we + displayed a proper spirit, began to arm, and fought one or two + French ships successfully, that France would leave off bullying + and abusing us, and make a satisfactory peace. The declared + adherent of the maxim that to prepare for war was the most + effectual means of preserving peace, he felt that never was it + more important to carry out this doctrine than now; and it was + for this reason that he labored so hard and gave so much thought + to army organization at a time when he felt more than ever the + need of repose, and shrank from the least semblance of a return + to public life. In all his long career there was never a better + instance of his devoted patriotism than his coming forward in + this way at the sacrifice of every personal wish after his + retirement from the presidency.</p> + + <p>Yet, although he closely watched the course of politics, and + gave, as has been said, a cordial support to the administration, + his sympathies were rather with the opponents of the President + within the ranks of their common party. The conduct of Gerry, who + had been Adams's personal selection for a commissioner, was very + distasteful to Washington, and was very far from exciting in his + mind the approval which it drew from Mr. Adams. He wrote to + Pickering on October 18: "With respect to Mr. Gerry, his own + character and public satisfaction require better evidence than + his letter to the minister of foreign relations to prove the + propriety of his conduct during his envoyship." He did not + believe that we were to have war with France, but he was very + confident that a bold and somewhat uncompromising attitude was + the best one for the country, and that above all we should not + palter with France after the affronts to which we had been + subjected. When President Adams, therefore, made his sudden + change of policy by nominating Murray as a special envoy, + Washington, despite his desire for peace, was by no means + enthusiastic in his approval of the methods by which it was + sought. The President wrote him announcing the appointment of + Murray, and Washington acknowledged the letter and the + information without any comment. He saw, of course, that as the + President had seen fit to take the step he must be sustained, and + he wrote to Murray to impress upon him the gravity of the mission + with which he was intrusted; but he had serious doubts as to the + success of such a mission under such conditions, and when delays + occurred he was not without hopes of a final abandonment. The day + after his letter to Murray he wrote to Hamilton: "I was surprised + at the <i>measure</i>, how much more so at the manner of it! This + business seems to have commenced in an evil hour, and under + unfavorable auspices. I wish mischief may not tread in all its + steps, and be the final result of the measure. A wide door was + open, through which a retreat might have been made from the first + <i>faux pas</i>, the shutting of which, to those who are not + behind the curtain and are as little acquainted with the secrets + of the cabinet as I am, is, from the present aspect of European + affairs, quite incomprehensible." He hoped but little good from + the mission, although it had his fervent wishes for its success, + expressed repeatedly in letters to members of the cabinet; and + while he was full of apprehension, he had a firm faith that all + would end well.</p> + + <p>For this anxiety, indeed, there was abundant reason. A violent + change of policy toward France, the disorders occasioned by + political dissensions at home, and the sudden appearance of the + deadly doctrine of nullification, all combined to excite alarm in + the mind of a man who looked as far into the future and as deep + beneath the surface of things as did Washington. It was then that + he urged Patrick Henry to reenter public life, and exerted his + own influence wherever he could to check the separatist movement + set on foot by Jefferson. He was deeply disturbed, too, by the + tendencies of the times in other directions. The delirium of the + French Revolution was not confined to France. Her soldiers bore + with them the new doctrines, while far beyond the utmost reach of + her armies flew the ideas engendered in the fevered air of Paris. + Wherever they alighted they touched men and stung them to + madness, and the madness that they bred was not confined to those + who believed the new gospel, but was shared equally by those who + resisted and loathed it. Burke, in his way, was as much crazed as + Camille Desmoulins, and it seemed impossible for people living in + the midst of that terrific convulsion of society to retain their + judgment. Nowhere ought men to have been better able to withstand + the contagion of the revolution than in America, and yet even + here it produced the same results as in countries nearly affected + by it. The party of opposition to the government became first + ludicrous and then dangerous, in their wild admiration and + senseless imitation of ideas and practices as utterly alien to + the people of the United States as cannibalism or fire-worship. + Then the Federalists, on their side, fell beneath the spell. The + overthrow of religion, society, property, and morals, which they + beheld in Paris, seemed to them to be threatening their own + country, and they became as extreme as their opponents in the + exactly opposite direction. Federalist divines came to look upon + Jefferson, the most timid and prudent of men, as a Marat or + Robespierre, ready to reproduce the excesses of his prototypes; + while Pickering, Wolcott, and all their friends in public life + regarded themselves as engaged in a struggle for the preservation + of order and society and of all that they held most dear. They + were in the habit of comparing French principles to a pestilence, + and the French republic to a raging tiger. Even Hamilton was so + moved as to believe that the United States were on the verge of + anarchy, and he laid down his life at last in a senseless duel + because he thought that his refusal to fight would disable him + for leading the forces of order when the final crash came.</p> + + <p>Washington, with his strong, calm judgment and his penetrating + vision, was less affected than any of those who had followed and + sustained him; but he was by no means untouched, and if we try to + put ourselves in his place, his views seem far from unreasonable. + He had at the outset wished well to the great movement in France, + although even then he doubted its final success. Very soon, + however, doubts changed to suspicions, and suspicions to + conviction. As he saw the French revolution move on in its + inevitable path, he came to hate and dread its deeds, its + policies, and its doctrines. To a man of his temper it could not + have been otherwise, for license and disorder were above all + things detestable to him. They were the immediate fruits of the + French revolution, and when he saw a party devoted to France + preaching the same ideas in the United States, he could not but + feel that there was a real and practical danger confronting the + country. This was why he felt that we needed an energetic policy, + and it was on this account that he distrusted the President's + renewed effort for peace. The course of the opposition, as he saw + it, threatened not merely the existence of the Union, but + wittingly or unwittingly struck at the very foundations of + society. His anxiety did not make him violent, as was the case + with lesser men, but it convinced him of the necessity of strong + measures, and he was not a man to shrink from vigorous action. He + was quite prepared to do all that could be done to maintain the + authority of the government, which he considered equivalent to + the protection of society, and for this reason he approved of the + Alien and Sedition acts.</p> + + <p>In the process of time these two famous laws have come to be + universally condemned, and those who have not questioned their + constitutionality have declared them wrong, inexpedient and + impolitic, and the immediate cause of the overthrow of the party + responsible for them. Everybody has made haste to disown them, + and there has been a general effort on the part of Federalist + sympathizers to throw the blame for them on persons unknown. + Biographers, especially, have tried zealously to clear the skirts + of their heroes from any connection with these obnoxious acts; + but the truth is, that, whether right or wrong, wise or unwise, + these laws had the entire support of the ruling party from the + President down. Hamilton, who objected to the first draft because + it was needlessly violent, approved the purpose and principle of + the legislation; and Washington was no exception to the general + rule. He was calm about it, but his approbation was none the less + distinct, and he took pains to circulate a sound argument, when + he met with one, in justification of the Alien and Sedition + acts.<a id="footnotetag1-14" name="footnotetag1-14"></a><a href= + "#footnote1-14"><sup>1</sup></a> In November, 1798, Alexander + Spotswood wrote to him, asking his judgment on those laws. As the + writer announced himself to be thoroughly convinced of their + unconstitutionally, Washington, with a little sarcasm, declined + to enter into argument with him. "But," he continued, "I will + take the liberty of advising such as are not 'thoroughly + convinced,' and whose minds are yet open to conviction, to read + the pieces and hear the arguments which have been adduced in + favor of, as well as those against, the constitutionality and + expediency of those laws, before they decide and consider to what + lengths a certain description of men in our country have already + driven, and seem resolved further to drive matters, and then ask + themselves if it is not time and expedient to resort to + protecting laws against aliens (for citizens, you certainly know, + are not affected by that law), who acknowledge no allegiance to + this country, and in many instances are sent among us, as there + is the best circumstantial evidence to prove, for the express + purpose of poisoning the minds of our people and sowing + dissensions among them, in order to alienate their affections + from the government of their choice, thereby endeavoring to + dissolve the Union, and of course the fair and happy prospects + which are unfolding to our view from the Revolution."</p> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote1-14" name="footnote1-14"></a>[<b>Footnote + 1:</b> <a href="#footnotetag1-14">(return)</a> See letter to + Bushrod Washington, Sparks, vi. p. 387.] + </blockquote> + + <p>With these strong and decided feelings as to the proper policy + to be adopted, and with such grave apprehensions as to the + outcome of existing difficulties, Washington was deeply + distressed by the divisions which he saw springing up among the + Federalists. From his point of view it was bad enough to have the + people of the country divided into two great parties; but that + one of those parties, that which was devoted to the maintenance + of order and the preservation of the Union, should be torn by + internal dissensions, seemed to him almost inconceivable. He + regarded the conduct of the party and of its leaders with quite + as much indignation as sorrow, for it seemed to him that they + were unpatriotic and false to their trust in permitting for a + moment these personal factions which could have but one result. + He wrote to Trumbull on August 30, 1799:—</p> + + <p>"It is too interesting not to be again repeated, that if + principles instead of men are not the steady pursuit of the + Federalists, their cause will soon be at an end; if these are + pursued they will not <i>divide</i> at the next election of + President; if they do divide on so <i>important</i> a point, it + would be dangerous to trust them on any other,—and none + except those who might be solicitous to fill the chair of + government would do it."<a id="footnotetag1-15" name= + "footnotetag1-15"></a><a href= + "#footnote1-15"><sup>1</sup></a></p> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote1-15" name="footnote1-15"></a>[<b>Footnote + 1:</b> <a href="#footnotetag1-15">(return)</a> <i>Life of + Silliman</i>, vol. ii. p. 385.] + </blockquote> + + <p>He was a true prophet, but he did not live to see the + verification of his predictions, which would have been to him a + source of so much grief. In the midst of his anxieties about + public affairs, and of the quiet, homely interests which made the + days at Mount Vernon so pleasant, the end suddenly came. There + was no more forewarning than if he had been struck down by + accident or violence. He had always been a man of great physical + vigor, and although he had had one or two acute and dangerous + illnesses arising from mental strain and much overwork, there is + no indication that he had any organic disease, and since his + retirement from the presidency he had been better than for many + years. There was not only no sign of breaking up, but he appeared + full of health and activity, and led his usual wholesome outdoor + life with keen enjoyment.</p> + + <p>The morning of December 12 was overcast. He wrote to Hamilton + warmly approving the scheme for a military academy; and having + finished this, which was probably the last letter he ever wrote, + he mounted his horse and rode off for his usual round of duties. + He noted in his diary, where he always described the weather with + methodical exactness, that it began to snow about one o'clock, + soon after to hail, and then turned to a settled cold rain. He + stayed out notwithstanding for about two hours, and then came + back to the house and franked his letters. Mr. Lear noticed that + his hair was damp with snow, and expressed a fear that he had got + wet; but the General said no, that his coat had kept him dry, and + sat down to dinner without changing his clothes. The next morning + snow was still falling so that he did not ride, and he complained + of a slight sore throat, but nevertheless went out in the + afternoon to mark some trees that were to be cut down. His + hoarseness increased toward night, yet still he made light of it, + and read the newspapers and chatted with Mrs. Washington during + the evening.</p> + + <p>When he went to bed Mr. Lear urged him to take something for + his cold. "No," he replied, "you know I never take anything for a + cold. Let it go as it came." In the night he had a severe chill, + followed by difficulty in breathing; and between two and three in + the morning he awoke Mrs. Washington, but would not allow her to + get up and call a servant lest she should take cold. At daybreak + Mr. Lear was summoned, and found Washington breathing with + difficulty and hardly able to speak. Dr. Craik, the friend and + companion of many years, was sent for at once, and meantime the + General was bled slightly by one of the overseers. A futile + effort was also made to gargle his throat, and external + applications were tried without affording relief. Dr. Craik + arrived between eight and nine o'clock with two other physicians, + when other remedies were tried and the patient was bled again, + all without avail. About half-past four he called Mrs. Washington + to his bedside and asked her to get two wills from his desk. She + did so, and after looking them over he ordered one to be + destroyed and gave her the other to keep. He then said to Lear, + speaking with the utmost difficulty, but saying what he had to + say with characteristic determination and clearness: "I find I am + going; my breath cannot last long. I believed from the first that + the disorder would prove fatal. Do you arrange and record all my + late military letters and papers. Arrange my accounts and settle + my books, as you know more about them than any one else; and let + Mr. Rawlins finish recording my other letters, which he has + begun." He then asked if Lear recollected anything which it was + essential for him to do, as he had but a very short time to + continue with them. Lear replied that he could recollect nothing, + but that he hoped the end was not so near. Washington smiled, and + said that he certainly was dying, and that as it was the debt + which we must all pay, he looked to the event with perfect + resignation.</p> + + <p>The disease which was killing him was acute oedematous + laryngitis,<a id="footnotetag1-16" name= + "footnotetag1-16"></a><a href="#footnote1-16"><sup>1</sup></a> + which is as simple as it is rare and fatal,<a id= + "footnotetag2-17" name="footnotetag2-17"></a><a href= + "#footnote2-17"><sup>2</sup></a> and he was being slowly + strangled to death by the closing of the throat. He bore the + suffering, which must have been intense, with his usual calm + self-control, but as the afternoon wore on the keen distress and + the difficulty of breathing made him restless. From time to time + Mr. Lear tried to raise him and make his position easier. The + General said, "I fear I fatigue you too much;" and again, on + being assured to the contrary, "Well, it is a debt we must pay to + each other, and I hope when you want aid of this kind you will + find it." He was courteous and thoughtful of others to the last, + and told his servant, who had been standing all day in attendance + upon him, to sit down. To Dr. Craik he said: "I die hard, but I + am not afraid to go. I believed from my first attack that I + should not survive it. My breath cannot last long." When a little + later the other physicians came in and assisted him to sit up, he + said: "I feel I am going. I thank you for your attentions, but I + pray you will take no more trouble about me. Let me go off + quietly. I cannot last long." He lay there for some hours longer, + restless and suffering, but utterly uncomplaining, taking such + remedies as the physicians ordered in silence. About ten o'clock + he spoke again to Lear, although it required a most desperate + effort to do so. "I am just going," he said. "Have me decently + buried, and do not let my body be put into the vault in less than + three days after I am dead." Lear bowed, and Washington said, "Do + you understand me?" Lear answered, "Yes." "'Tis well," he said, + and with these last words again fell silent. A little later he + felt his own pulse, and, as he was counting the strokes, Lear saw + his countenance change. His hand dropped back from the wrist he + had been holding, and all was over. The end had come. Washington + was dead. He died as he had lived, simply and bravely, without + parade and without affectation. The last duties were done, the + last words said, the last trials borne with the quiet fitness, + the gracious dignity, that even the gathering mists of the + supreme hour could neither dim nor tarnish. He had faced life + with a calm, high, victorious spirit. So did he face death and + the unknown when Fate knocked at the door.</p> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote1-16" name="footnote1-16"></a>[<b>Footnote + 1:</b> <a href="#footnotetag1-16">(return)</a> It was called at + the time a quinsy.] + </blockquote> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote2-17" name="footnote2-17"></a>[<b>Footnote + 2:</b> <a href="#footnotetag2-17">(return)</a> See Memoir on + <i>The Last Sickness of Washington</i>, by James Jackson, M.D. + In response to an inquiry as to the modern treatment of this + disease, the late Dr. F.H. Hooper of Boston, well known as an + authority on diseases of the throat, wrote me: "Washington's + physicians are not to be criticised for their treatment, for + they acted according to their best light and knowledge. To + treat such a case in such a manner in the year 1889 would be + little short of criminal. At the present time the physicians + would use the laryngoscope and <i>look</i> and <i>see</i> what + the trouble was. (The laryngoscope has only been used since + 1857.) In this disease the function most interfered with is + breathing. The one thing which saves a patient in this disease + is a <i>timely tracheotomy</i>. (I doubt if tracheotomy had + ever been performed in Virginia in Washington's time.) + Washington ought to have been tracheotomized, or rather that is + the way cases are saved to-day. No one would think of antimony, + calomel, or bleeding now. The point is to let in the air, and + not to let out the blood. After tracheotomy has been performed, + the oedema and swelling of the larynx subside in three to six + days. The tracheotomy tube is then removed, and respiration + goes on again through the natural channels."] + </blockquote> + + <p> </p> + + <h2><a name="VII" id="VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2> + + <h2>GEORGE WASHINGTON</h2> + + <p>This last chapter cannot begin more fitly than by quoting + again the words of Mr. McMaster: "George Washington is an unknown + man." Mr. McMaster might have added that to no man in our history + has greater injustice of a certain kind been done, or more + misunderstanding been meted out, than to Washington, and although + this sounds like the merest paradox, it is nevertheless true. + From the hour when the door of the tomb at Mount Vernon closed + behind his coffin to the present instant, the chorus of praise + and eulogy has never ceased, but has swelled deeper and louder + with each succeeding year. He has been set apart high above all + other men, and reverenced with the unquestioning veneration + accorded only to the leaders of mankind and the founders of + nations; and in this very devotion lies one secret at least of + the fact that, while all men have praised Washington, + comparatively few have understood him. He has been lifted high up + into a lonely greatness, and unconsciously put outside the range + of human sympathy. He has been accepted as a being as nearly + perfect as it is given to man to be, but our warm personal + interest has been reserved for other and lesser men who seemed to + be nearer to us in their virtues and their errors alike. Such + isolation, lofty though it be, is perilous and leads to grievous + misunderstandings. From it has come the widespread idea that + Washington was cold, and as devoid of human sympathies as he was + free from the common failings of humanity.</p> + + <p>Of this there will be something to say presently, but meantime + there is another more prolific source of error in regard to + Washington to be considered. Men who are loudly proclaimed to be + faultless always excite a certain kind of resentment. It is a + dangerous eminence for any one to occupy. The temples of Greece + are in ruins, and her marvelous literature is little more than a + collection of fragments, but the feelings of the citizens who + exiled Aristides because they were weary of hearing him called + "just," exist still, unchanged and unchangeable. Washington has + not only been called "just," but he has had every other good + quality attributed to him by countless biographers and eulogists + with an almost painful iteration, and the natural result has + followed. Many persons have felt the sense of fatigue which the + Athenians expressed practically by their oyster shells, and have + been led to cast doubts on Washington's perfection as the only + consolation for their own sense of injury. Then, again, + Washington's fame has been so overshadowing, and his greatness so + immutable, that he has been very inconvenient to the admirers and + the biographers of other distinguished men. From these two + sources, from the general jealousy of the classic Greek variety, + and the particular jealousy born of the necessities of some other + hero, much adverse and misleading criticism has come. It has + never been a safe or popular amusement to assail Washington + directly, and this course usually has been shunned; but although + the attacks have been veiled they have none the less existed, and + they have been all the more dangerous because they were + insidious.</p> + + <p>In his lifetime Washington had his enemies and detractors in + abundance. During the Revolution he was abused and intrigued + against, thwarted and belittled, to a point which posterity in + general scarcely realizes. Final and conclusive victory brought + an end to this, and he passed to the presidency amid a general + acclaim. Then the attacks began again. Their character has been + shown in a previous chapter, but they were of no real moment + except as illustrations of the existence and meaning of party + divisions. The ravings of Bache and Freneau, and the coarse + insults of Giles, were all totally unimportant in themselves. + They merely define the purposes and character of the party which + opposed Washington, and but for him would be forgotten. Among his + eminent contemporaries, Jefferson and Pickering, bitterly opposed + in all things else, have left memoranda and letters reflecting + upon the abilities of their former chief. Jefferson disliked him + because he blocked his path, but with habitual caution he never + proceeded beyond a covert sneer implying that Washington's mental + powers, at no time very great, were impaired by age during his + presidency, and that he was easily deceived by practised + intriguers. Pickering, with more boldness, set Washington down as + commonplace, not original in his thought, and vastly inferior to + Hamilton, apparently because he was not violent, and did not make + up his mind before he knew the facts.</p> + + <p>Adverse contemporary criticism, however, is slight in amount + and vague in character; it can be readily dismissed, and it has + in no case weight enough to demand much consideration. Modern + criticism of the same kind has been even less direct, but is much + more serious and cannot be lightly passed over. It invariably + proceeds by negations setting out with an apparently complete + acceptance of Washington's greatness, and then assailing him by + telling us what he was not. Few persons who have not given this + matter a careful study realize how far criticism of this sort has + gone, and there is indeed no better way of learning what + Washington really was than by examining the various negations + which tell us what he was not.</p> + + <p>Let us take the gravest first. It has been confidently + asserted that Washington was not an American in anything but the + technical sense. This idea is more diffused than, perhaps, would + be generally supposed, and it has also been formally set down in + print, in which we are more fortunate than in many other + instances where the accusation has not got beyond the elusive + condition of loose talk.</p> + + <p>In that most noble poem, the "Commemoration Ode," Mr. Lowell + speaks of Lincoln as "the first American." The poet's winged + words fly far, and find a resting-place in many minds. This idea + has become widespread, and has recently found fuller expression + in Mr. Clarence King's prefatory note to the great life of + Lincoln by Hay and Nicolay.<a id="footnotetag1-18" name= + "footnotetag1-18"></a><a href="#footnote1-18"><sup>1</sup></a> + Mr. King says: "Abraham Lincoln was the first American to reach + the lonely height of immortal fame. Before him, within the narrow + compass of our history, were but two preëminent + names,—Columbus the discoverer, and Washington the founder; + the one an Italian seer, the other an English country gentleman. + In a narrow sense, of course, Washington was an American.... For + all that he was English in his nature, habits, moral standards, + and social theories; in short, in all points which, aside from + mere geographical position, make up a man, he was as + thorough-going a British colonial gentleman as one could find + anywhere beneath the Union Jack. The genuine American of + Lincoln's type came later.... George Washington, an English + commoner, vanquished George, an English king."</p> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote1-18" name="footnote1-18"></a>[<b>Footnote + 1:</b> <a href="#footnotetag1-18">(return)</a> Mr. Matthew + Arnold, and more recently Professor Goldwin Smith, have both + spoken of Washington as an Englishman. I do not mention this to + discredit the statements of Mr. Lowell or Mr. King, but merely + to indicate how far this mistaken idea has traveled.] + </blockquote> + + <p>In order to point his sentence and prove his first postulate, + Mr. King is obliged not only to dispose of Washington, but to + introduce Columbus, who never was imagined in the wildest fantasy + to be an American, and to omit Franklin. The omission of itself + is fatal to Mr. King's case. Franklin has certainly a + "preëminent name." He has, too, "immortal fame," although of + course of a widely different character from that of either + Washington or Lincoln, but he was a great man in the broad sense + of a world-wide reputation. Yet no one has ever ventured to call + Benjamin Franklin an Englishman. He was a colonial American, of + course, but he was as intensely an American as any man who has + lived on this continent before or since. A man of the people, he + was American by the character of his genius, by his versatility, + the vivacity of his intellect, and his mental dexterity. In his + abilities, his virtues, and his defects he was an American, and + so plainly one as to be beyond the reach of doubt or question. + There were others of that period, too, who were as genuine + Americans as Franklin or Lincoln. Such were Jonathan Edwards, the + peculiar product of New England Calvinism; Patrick Henry, who + first broke down colonial lines to declare himself an American; + Samuel Adams, the great forerunner of the race of American + politicians; Thomas Jefferson, the idol of American democracy. + These and many others Mr. King might exclude on the ground that + they did not reach the lonely height of immortal fame. But + Franklin is enough. Unless one is prepared to set Franklin down + as an Englishman, which would be as reasonable as to say that + Daniel Webster was a fine example of the Slavic race, it must be + admitted that it was possible for the thirteen colonies to + produce in the eighteenth century a genuine American who won + immortal fame. If they could produce one of one type, they could + produce a second of another type, and there was, therefore, + nothing inherently impossible in existing conditions to prevent + Washington from being an American.</p> + + <p>Lincoln was undoubtedly the first great American of his type, + but that is not the only type of American. It is one which, as + bodied forth in Abraham Lincoln, commands the love and veneration + of the people of the United States, and the admiration of the + world wherever his name is known. To the noble and towering + greatness of his mind and character it does not add one hair's + breadth to say that he was the first American, or that he was of + a common or uncommon type. Greatness like Lincoln's is far beyond + such qualifications, and least of all is it necessary to his fame + to push Washington from his birthright. To say that George + Washington, an English commoner, vanquished George, an English + king, is clever and picturesque, but like many other pleasing + antitheses it is painfully inaccurate. Allegiance does not make + race or nationality. The Hindoos are subjects of Victoria, but + they are not Englishmen.</p> + + <p>Franklin shows that it was possible to produce a most genuine + American of unquestioned greatness in the eighteenth century, and + with all possible deference to Mr. Lowell and Mr. King, I venture + the assertion that George Washington was as genuine an American + as Lincoln or Franklin. He was an American of the eighteenth and + not of the nineteenth century, but he was none the less an + American. I will go further. Washington was not only an American + of a pure and noble type, but he was the first thorough American + in the broad, national sense, as distinct from the colonial + American of his time.</p> + + <p>After all, what is it to be an American? Surely it does not + consist in the number of generations merely which separate the + individual from his forefathers who first settled here. + Washington was fourth in descent from the first American of his + name, while Lincoln was in the sixth generation. This difference + certainly constitutes no real distinction. There are people + to-day, not many luckily, whose families have been here for two + hundred and fifty years, and who are as utterly un-American as it + is possible to be, while there are others, whose fathers were + immigrants, who are as intensely American as any one can desire + or imagine. In a new country, peopled in two hundred and fifty + years by immigrants from the Old World and their descendants, the + process of Americanization is not limited by any hard and fast + rules as to time and generations, but is altogether a matter of + individual and race temperament. The production of the + well-defined American types and of the fixed national + characteristics which now exist has been going on during all that + period, but in any special instance the type to which a given man + belongs must be settled by special study and examination.</p> + + <p>Washington belonged to the English-speaking race. So did + Lincoln. Both sprang from the splendid stock which was formed + during centuries from a mixture of the Celtic, Teutonic, + Scandinavian, and Norman peoples, and which is known to the world + as English. Both, so far as we can tell, had nothing but English + blood, as it would be commonly called, in their veins, and both + were of that part of the English race which emigrated to America, + where it has been the principal factor in the development of the + new people called Americans. They were men of English race, + modified and changed in the fourth and sixth generations by the + new country, the new conditions, and the new life, and by the + contact and admixture of other races. Lincoln, a very great man, + one who has reached "immortal fame," was clearly an American of a + type that the Old World cannot show, or at least has not + produced. The idea of many persons in regard to Washington seems + to be, that he was a great man of a type which the Old World, or, + to be more exact, which England, had produced. One hears it often + said that Washington was simply an American Hampden. Such a + comparison is an easy method of description, nothing more. + Hampden is memorable among men, not for his abilities, which + there is no reason to suppose were very extraordinary, but for + his devoted and unselfish patriotism, his courage, his honor, and + his pure and lofty spirit. He embodied what his countrymen + believe to be the moral qualities of their race in their finest + flower, and no nation, be it said, could have a nobler ideal. + Washington was conspicuous for the same qualities, exhibited in + like fashion. Is there a single one of the essential attributes + of Hampden that Lincoln also did not possess? Was he not an + unselfish and devoted patriot, pure in heart, gentle of spirit, + high of honor, brave, merciful, and temperate? Did he not lay + down his life for his country in the box at Ford's Theatre as + ungrudgingly as Hampden offered his in the smoke of battle upon + Chalgrove field? Surely we must answer Yes. In other words, these + three men all had the great moral attributes which are the + characteristics of the English race in its highest and purest + development on either side of the Atlantic. Yet no one has ever + called Lincoln an American Hampden simply because Hampden and + Washington were men of ancient family, members of an aristocracy + by birth, and Lincoln was not. This is the distinction between + them; and how vain it is, in the light of their lives and deeds, + which make all pedigrees and social ranks look so poor and + worthless! The differences among them are trivial, the + resemblances deep and lasting.</p> + + <p>I have followed out this comparison because it illustrates + perfectly the entirely superficial character of the reasons which + have led men to speak of Washington as an English country + gentleman. It has been said that he was English in his habits, + moral standards, and social theories, which has an important + sound, but which for the most part comes down to a question of + dress and manners. He wore black velvet and powdered hair, + knee-breeches and diamond buckles, which are certainly not + American fashions to-day. But they were American fashions in the + last century, and every man wore them who could afford to, no + matter what his origin. Let it be remembered, however, that + Washington also wore the hunting-shirt and fringed leggins of the + backwoodsman, and that it was he who introduced this purely + American dress into the army as a uniform.</p> + + <p>His manners likewise were those of the century in which he + lived, formal and stately, and of course colored by his own + temperament. His moral standards were those of a high-minded, + honorable man. Are we ready to say that they were not American? + Did they differ in any vital point from those of Lincoln? His + social theories were simple in the extreme. He neither overvalued + nor underrated social conventions, for he knew that they were a + part of the fabric of civilized society, not vitally important + and yet not wholly trivial. He was a member of an aristocracy, it + is true, both by birth and situation. There was a recognized + social aristocracy in every colony before the Revolution, for the + drum-beat of the great democratic march had not then sounded. In + the northern colonies it was never strong, and in New England it + was especially weak, for the governments and people there were + essentially democratic, although they hardly recognized it + themselves. In Virginia and the southern colonies, on the other + hand, there was a vigorous aristocracy resting on the permanent + foundation of slavery. Where slaves are there must be masters, + and where there are masters there are aristocrats; but it was an + American and not an English aristocracy. Lineage and family had + weight in the south as in the north, but that which put a man + undeniably in the ruling class was the ownership of black slaves + and the possession of a white skin. This aristocracy lasted with + its faults and its virtues until it perished in the shock of + civil war, when its foundation of human slavery was torn from + under it. From the slave-holding aristocracy of Virginia came, + with the exception of Patrick Henry, all the great men of that + State who did so much for American freedom, and who rendered such + imperishable service to the republic in law, in politics, and in + war. From this aristocracy came Marshall, and Mason, and Madison, + the Lees, the Randolphs, the Harrisons, and the rest. From it + came also Thomas Jefferson, the hero of American democracy; and + to it was added Patrick Henry, not by lineage or slave-holding, + but by virtue of his brilliant abilities, and because he, too, + was an aristocrat by the immutable division of race. It was this + aristocracy into which Washington was born, and amid which he was + brought up. To say that it colored his feelings and habits is + simply to say that he was human; but to urge that it made him + un-American is to exclude at once from the ranks of Americans all + the great men given to the country by the South. Washington, in + fact, was less affected by his surroundings, and rose above them + more quickly, than any other man of his day, because he was the + greatest man of his time, with a splendid breadth of vision.</p> + + <p>When he first went among the New England troops at the siege + of Boston, the rough, democratic ways of the people jarred upon + him, and offended especially his military instincts, for he was + not only a Virginian but he was a great soldier, and military + discipline is essentially aristocratic. These volunteer soldiers, + called together from the plough and the fishing-smack, were free + and independent men, unaccustomed to any rule but their own, and + they had still to learn the first rudiments of military service. + To Washington, soldiers who elected and deposed their officers, + and who went home when they felt that they had a right to do so, + seemed well-nigh useless and quite incomprehensible. They angered + him and tried his patience almost beyond endurance, and he spoke + of them at the outset in harsh terms by no means wholly + unwarranted. But they were part of his problem, and he studied + them. He was a soldier, but not an aristocrat wrapped up in + immutable prejudices, and he learned to know these men, and they + came to love, obey, and follow him with an intelligent devotion + far better than anything born of mere discipline. Before the year + was out, he wrote to Lund Washington praising the New England + troops in the highest terms, and at the close of the war he said + that practically the whole army then was composed of New England + soldiers. They stayed by him to the end, and as they were + steadfast in war so they remained in peace. He trusted and + confided in New England, and her sturdy democracy gave him a + loyal and unflinching support to the day of his death.</p> + + <p>This openness of mind and superiority to prejudice were + American in the truest and best sense; but Washington showed the + same qualities in private life and toward individuals which he + displayed in regard to communities. He was free, of course, from + the cheap claptrap which abuses the name of democracy by saying + that birth, breeding, and education are undemocratic, and + therefore to be reckoned against a man. He valued these qualities + rightly, but he looked to see what a man was and not who he was, + which is true democracy. The two men who were perhaps nearest to + his affections were Knox and Hamilton. One was a Boston + bookseller, who rose to distinction by bravery and good service, + and the other was a young adventurer from the West Indies, + without either family or money at his back. It was the same with + much humbler persons. He never failed, on his way to + Philadelphia, to stop at Wilmington and have a chat with one + Captain O'Flinn, who kept a tavern and had been a Revolutionary + soldier; and this was but a single instance among many of like + character. Any soldier of the Revolution was always sure of a + welcome at the hands of his old commander. Eminent statesmen, + especially of the opposition, often found his manner cold, but no + old soldier ever complained of it, no servant ever left him, and + the country people about Mount Vernon loved him as a neighbor and + friend, and not as the distant great man of the army and the + presidency.</p> + + <p>He believed thoroughly in popular government. One does not + find in his letters the bitter references to democracy and to the + populace which can be discovered in the writings of so many of + his party friends, legacies of pre-revolutionary ideas inflamed + by hatred of Parisian mobs. He always spoke of the people at + large with a simple respect, because he knew that the future of + the United States was in their hands and not in that of any + class, and because he believed that they would fulfill their + mission. The French Revolution never carried him away, and when + it bred anarchy and bloodshed he became hostile to French + influence, because license and disorder were above all things + hateful to him. Yet he did not lose his balance in the other + direction, as was the case with so many of his friends. He + resisted and opposed French ideas and French democracy, so + admired and so loudly preached by Jefferson and his followers, + because he esteemed them perilous to the country. But there is + not a word to indicate that he did not think that such dangers + would be finally overcome, even if at the cost of much suffering, + by the sane sense and ingrained conservatism of the American + people. Other men talked more noisily about the people, but no + one trusted them in the best sense more than Washington, and his + only fear was that evils might come from their being misled by + false lights.</p> + + <p>Once more, what is it to be an American? Putting aside all the + outer shows of dress and manners, social customs and physical + peculiarities, is it not to believe in America and in the + American people? Is it not to have an abiding and moving faith in + the future and in the destiny of America?—something above + and beyond the patriotism and love which every man whose soul is + not dead within him feels for the land of his birth? Is it not to + be national and not sectional, independent and not colonial? Is + it not to have a high conception of what this great new country + should be, and to follow out that ideal with loyalty and + truth?</p> + + <p>Has any man in our history fulfilled these conditions more + perfectly and completely than George Washington? Has any man ever + lived who served the American people more faithfully, or with a + higher and truer conception of the destiny and possibilities of + the country? Born of an old and distinguished family, he found + himself, when a boy just out of school, dependent on his mother, + and with an inheritance that promised him more acres than + shillings. He did not seek to live along upon what he could get + from the estate, and still less did he feel that it was only + possible for him to enter one of the learned professions. Had he + been an Englishman in fact or in feeling, he would have felt very + naturally the force of the limitations imposed by his social + position. But being an American, his one idea was to earn his + living honestly, because it was the creed of his country that + earning an honest living is the most creditable thing a man can + do. Boy as he was, he went out manfully into the world to win + with his own hands the money which would make him self-supporting + and independent. His business as a surveyor took him into the + wilderness, and there he learned that the first great work before + the American people was to be the conquest of the continent. He + dropped the surveyor's rod and chain to negotiate with the + savages, and then took up the sword to fight them and the French, + so that the New World might be secured to the English-speaking + race. A more purely American training cannot be imagined. It was + not the education of universities or of courts, but that of + hard-earned personal independence, won in the backwoods and by + frontier fighting. Thus trained, he gave the prime of his manhood + to leading the Revolution which made his country free, and his + riper years to building up that independent nationality without + which freedom would have been utterly vain.</p> + + <p>He was the first to rise above all colonial or state lines, + and grasp firmly the conception of a nation to be formed from the + thirteen jarring colonies. The necessity of national action in + the army was of course at once apparent to him, although not to + others; but he carried the same broad views into widely different + fields, where at the time they wholly escaped notice. It was + Washington, oppressed by a thousand cares, who in the early days + of the Revolution saw the need of Federal courts for admiralty + cases and for other purposes. It was he who suggested this + scheme, years before any one even dreamed of the Constitution; + and from the special committees of Congress, formed for this + object in accordance with this advice, came, in the process of + time, the Federal judiciary of the United States.<a id= + "footnotetag1-19" name="footnotetag1-19"></a><a href= + "#footnote1-19"><sup>1</sup></a> Even in that early dawn of the + Revolution, Washington had clear in his own mind the need of a + continental system for war, diplomacy, finance, and law, and he + worked steadily to bring this policy to fulfilment.</p> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote1-19" name="footnote1-19"></a>[<b>Footnote + 1:</b> <a href="#footnotetag1-19">(return)</a> See the very + interesting memoir on this subject by the Hon. J.C. Bancroft + Davis.] + </blockquote> + + <p>When the war was over, the thought that engaged his mind most + was of the best means to give room for expansion, and to open up + the unconquered continent to the forerunners of a mighty army of + settlers. For this purpose all his projects for roads, canals, + and surveys were formed and forced into public notice. He looked + beyond the limits of the Atlantic colonies. His vision went far + over the barriers of the Alleghanies; and where others saw + thirteen infant States backed by the wilderness, he beheld the + germs of a great empire. While striving thus to lay the West open + to the march of the settler, he threw himself into the great + struggle, where Hamilton and Madison, and all who "thought + continentally," were laboring for that union without which all + else was worse than futile.</p> + + <p>From the presidency of the convention that formed the + Constitution, he went to the presidency of the government which + that convention brought into being; and in all that followed, the + one guiding thought was to clear the way for the advance of the + people, and to make that people and their government independent + in thought, in policy, and in character, as the Revolution had + made them independent politically. The same spirit which led him + to write during the war that our battles must be fought and our + victories won by Americans, if victory and independence were to + be won at all, or to have any real and solid worth, pervaded his + whole administration. We see it in his Indian policy, which was + directed not only to pacifying the tribes, but to putting it out + of their power to arrest or even delay western settlement. We see + it in his attitude toward foreign ministers, and in his watchful + persistence in regard to the Mississippi, which ended in our + securing the navigation of the great river. We see it again in + his anxious desire to keep peace until we had passed the point + where war might bring a dissolution; and how real that danger + was, and how clear and just his perception of it, is shown by the + Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions and by the separatist movement + in New England during the later war of 1812. Even in 1812 the + national existence was menaced, but the danger would have proved + fatal if it had come twenty years earlier, with parties divided + by their sympathies with contending foreign nations. It was for + the sake of the Union that Washington was so patient with France, + and faced so quietly the storm of indignation aroused by the Jay + treaty.</p> + + <p>In his whole foreign policy, which was so peculiarly his own, + the American spirit was his pole star; and of all the attacks + made upon him, the only one which really tried his soul was the + accusation that he was influenced by foreign predilections. The + blind injustice, which would not comprehend that his one purpose + was to be American and to make the people and the government + American, touched him more deeply than anything else. As party + strife grew keener over the issues raised by the war between + France and England, and as French politics and French ideas + became more popular, his feelings found more frequent utterance, + and it is interesting to see how this man, who, we are now told, + was an English country gentleman, wrote and felt on this matter + in very trying times. Let us remember, as we listen to him now in + his own defense, that he was an extremely honest man, silent for + the most part in doing his work, but when he spoke meaning every + word he said, and saying exactly what he meant. This was the way + in which he wrote to Patrick Henry in October, 1795, when he + offered him the secretaryship of State:—</p> + + <p>"My ardent desire is, and my aim has been as far as depended + upon the executive department, to comply strictly with all our + engagements, foreign and domestic; but to keep the United States + free from political connection with every other country, to see + them independent of all and under the influence of none. In a + word, I want an <i>American</i> character, that the powers of + Europe may be convinced that we act for <i>ourselves</i>, and not + for others. This, in my judgment, is the only way to be respected + abroad and happy at home; and not, by becoming partisans of Great + Britain or France, create dissensions, disturb the public + tranquillity, and destroy, perhaps forever, the cement which + binds the Union."</p> + + <p>Not quite a year later, when the Jay treaty was still + agitating the public mind in regard to our relations with France, + he wrote to Pickering:—</p> + + <p>"The Executive has a plain road to pursue, namely, to fulfill + all the engagements which duty requires; be influenced beyond + this by none of the contending parties; maintain a strict + neutrality unless obliged by imperious circumstances to depart + from it; do justice to all, and never forget that we are + Americans, the remembrance of which will convince us that we + ought not to be French or English."</p> + + <p>After leaving the presidency, when our difficulties with + France seemed to be thickening, and the sky looked very dark, he + wrote to a friend saying that he firmly believed that all would + come out well, and then added: "To me this is so demonstrable, + that not a particle of doubt could dwell on my mind relative + thereto, if our citizens would advocate their own cause, instead + of that of any other nation under the sun; that is, if, instead + of being Frenchmen or Englishmen in politics they would be + Americans, indignant at every attempt of either or any other + powers to establish an influence in our councils or presume to + sow the seeds of discord or disunion among us."</p> + + <p>A few days later he wrote to Thomas Pinckney:</p> + + <p>"It remains to be seen whether our country will stand upon + independent ground, or be directed in its political concerns by + any other nation. A little time will show who are its true + friends, or, what is synonymous, who are true Americans."</p> + + <p>But this eager desire for a true Americanism did not stop at + our foreign policy, or our domestic politics. He wished it to + enter into every part of the life and thought of the people, and + when it was proposed to bring over the entire staff of a Genevan + university to take charge of a national university here, he threw + his influence against it, expressing grave doubts as to the + advantage of importing an entire "seminary of foreigners," for + the purpose of American education. The letter on this subject, + which was addressed to John Adams, then continued:—</p> + + <p>"My opinion with respect to emigration is that except of + useful mechanics, and some particular descriptions of men or + professions, there is no need of encouragement; while the policy + or advantage of its taking place in a body (I mean the settling + of them in a body) may be much questioned; for by so doing they + retain the language, habits, and principles, good or bad, which + they bring with them. Whereas by an intermixture with our people, + they or their descendants get assimilated to our customs, + measures, and laws; in a word, soon become one people."</p> + + <p>He had this thought so constantly in his mind that it found + expression in his will, in the clause bequeathing certain + property for the foundation of a university in the District of + Columbia. "I proceed," he said, "after this recital for the more + correct understanding of the case, to declare that it has always + been a source of serious regret with me to see the youth of these + United States sent to foreign countries for the purposes of + education, often before their minds were formed, or they had + imbibed any adequate ideas of the happiness of their own; + contracting too frequently not only habits of dissipation and + extravagance, but <i>principles unfriendly to republican + government and to the true and genuine liberties of mankind</i>, + which thereafter are rarely overcome; for these reasons it has + been my ardent wish to see a plan devised on a liberal scale, + which would have a tendency to spread systematic ideas through + all parts of this rising empire, thereby to do away with local + attachments and state prejudices, as far as the nature of things + would or indeed ought to admit, from our national councils."</p> + + <p>Were these the words of an English country gentleman, who + chanced to be born in one of England's colonies? Persons of the + English country gentleman pattern at that time were for the most + part loyalists; excellent people, very likely, but not of the + Washington type. Their hopes and ideals, their policies and their + beliefs were in the mother country, not here. The faith, the + hope, the thought, of Washington were all in the United States. + His one purpose was to make America independent in thought and + action, and he strove day and night to build up a nation. He + labored unceasingly to lay the foundations of the great empire + which, with almost prophetic vision, he saw beyond the mountains, + by opening the way for the western movement. His foreign policy + was a declaration to the world of a new national existence, and + he strained every nerve to lift our politics from the colonial + condition of foreign issues. He wished all immigration to be + absorbed and moulded here, so that we might be one people, one in + speech and in political faith. His last words, given to the world + after the grave had closed over him, were a solemn plea for a + home training for the youth of the Republic, so that all men + might think as Americans, untainted by foreign ideas, and rise + above all local prejudices. He did not believe that mere material + development was the only or the highest goal; for he knew that + the true greatness of a nation was moral and intellectual, and + his last thoughts were for the up-building of character and + intelligence. He was never a braggart, and mere boasting about + his country as about himself was utterly repugnant to him. He + never hesitated to censure what he believed to be wrong, but he + addressed his criticisms to his countrymen in order to lead them + to better things, and did not indulge in them in order to express + his own discontent, or to amuse or curry favor with foreigners. + In a word, he loved his country, and had an abiding faith in its + future and in its people, upon whom his most earnest thoughts and + loftiest aspirations were centred. No higher, purer, or more + thorough Americanism than his could be imagined. It was a + conception far in advance of the time, possible only to a + powerful mind, capable of lifting itself out of existing + conditions and alien influences, so that it might look with + undazzled gaze upon the distant future. The first American in the + broad national sense, there has never been a man more thoroughly + and truly American than Washington. It will be a sorry day when + we consent to take that noble figure from "the forefront of the + nation's life," and rank George Washington as anything but an + American of Americans, instinct with the ideas, as he was devoted + to the fortunes of the New World which gave him birth.</p> + + <p>There is another class of critics who have attacked Washington + from another side. These are the gentlemen who find him in the + way of their own heroes. Washington was a man of decided opinions + about men as well as measures, and he was extremely positive. He + had his enemies as well as his friends, his likes and his + dislikes, strong and clear, according to his nature. The respect + which he commanded in his life has lasted unimpaired since his + death, and it is an awkward thing for the biographers of some of + his contemporaries to know that Washington opposed, distrusted, + or disliked their heroes. Therefore, in one way or another they + have gone round a stumbling-block which they could not remove. + The commonest method is to eliminate Washington by representing + him vaguely as the great man with whom every one agreed, who + belonged to no party, and favored all; then he is pushed quietly + aside. Evils and wrong-doing existed under his administration + from the opposition point of view, but they were the work of his + ministers and of wicked advisers. The king could do no wrong, and + this pleasant theory, which is untrue in fact, amounts to saying + that Washington had no opinions, but was simply a grand and + imposing figure-head. The only ground for it which is even + suggested is that he sought advice, that he used other men's + ideas, and that he made up his mind slowly. All this is true, and + these very qualities help to show his greatness, for only small + minds mistake their relations with the universe, and confuse + their finite powers with omniscience. The great man, who sees + facts and reads the future, uses other men, knows the bounds of + possibility in action, can decide instantly if need be, but + leaves rash conclusions to those who are incapable of reaching + any others. In reality there never was a man who had more + definite and vigorous opinions than Washington, and the + responsibility which he bore he never shifted to other shoulders. + The work of the Revolution and the presidency, whether good or + bad, was his own, and he was ready to stand or fall by it.</p> + + <p>There is a still further extension of the idea that Washington + represented all parties and all views, and had neither party nor + opinions of his own. This theory is to the effect that he was + great by character alone, but that in other respects he did not + rise above the level of dignified common-place. Such, for + instance, is apparently the view of Mr. Parton, who in a clever + essay discusses in philosophical fashion the possible advantages + arising from the success attained by mere character, as in the + case of Washington. Mr. Parton points his theory by that last + incident of counting the pulse as death drew nigh. How + characteristic, he exclaims, of the methodical, common-place man, + is such an act. It was not common, be it said, even were it + common-place. It was certainly a very simple action, but rare + enough so far as we know on the every-day deathbed, or in the + supreme hour of dying greatness, and it was wholly free from that + affectation which Dr. Johnson thought almost inseparable from the + last solemn moment. Irregularity is not proof of genius any more + than method, and of the two, the latter is the surer companion of + greatness. The last hour of Washington showed that calm, + collected courage which had never failed in war or peace; and so + far it was proof of character. But was it not something more? The + common-place action of counting the pulse was in reality + profoundly characteristic, for it was the last exhibition of the + determined purpose to know the truth, and grasp the fact. Death + was upon him; he would know the fact. He had looked facts in the + face all his life, and when the mists gathered, he would face + them still.</p> + + <p>High and splendid character, great moral qualities for + after-ages to admire, he had beyond any man of modern times. But + to suppose that in other respects he belonged to the ranks of + mediocrity is not only a contradiction in terms, but utterly + false. It was not character that fought the Trenton campaign and + carried the revolution to victory. It was military genius. It was + not character that read the future of America and created our + foreign policy. It was statesmanship of the highest order. + Without the great moral qualities which he possessed, his career + would not have been possible; but it would have been quite as + impossible if the intellect had not equaled the character. There + is no need to argue the truism that Washington was a great man, + for that is universally admitted. But it is very needful that his + greatness should be rightly understood, and the right + understanding of it is by no means universal. His character has + been exalted at the expense of his intellect, and his goodness + has been so much insisted upon both by admirers and critics that + we are in danger of forgetting that he had a great mind as well + as high moral worth.</p> + + <p>This false attitude both of praise and criticism has been so + persisted in that if we accept the premises we are forced to the + conclusion that Washington was actually dull, while with much + more openness it is asserted that he was cold and at times even + harsh. "In the mean time," says Mr. McMaster, "Washington was + deprived of the services of the only two men his cold heart ever + really loved." "A Cromwell with the juice squeezed out," says + Carlyle somewhere, in his rough and summary fashion. Are these + judgments correct? Was Washington really, with all his greatness, + dull and cold? He was a great general and a great President, + first in war and first in peace and all that, says our caviler, + but his relaxation was in farm accounts, and his business war and + politics. He could plan a campaign, preserve a dignified manner, + and conduct an administration, but he could write nothing more + entertaining than a state paper or a military report. He gave + himself up to great affairs, he was hardly human, and he shunned + the graces, the wit, and all the salt of life, and passed them by + on the other side.</p> + + <p>That Washington was serious and earnest cannot be doubted, for + no man could have done what he did and been otherwise. He had + little time for the lighter sides of life, and he never exerted + himself to say brilliant and striking things. He was not a maker + of phrases and proclamations, and the quality of the charlatan, + so often found in men of the highest genius, was utterly lacking + in him. He never talked or acted with an eye to dramatic effect, + and this is one reason for the notion that he was dull and dry; + for the world dearly loves a little charlatanism, and is never + happier than in being brilliantly duped. But was he therefore + really dull and juiceless, unlovable and unloving? Responsibility + came upon him when a boy, and he was hardly of age when he was + carrying in his hands the defense of his colony and the heavy + burden of other human lives. Experience like this makes a man who + is good for anything sober; but sobriety is not dullness, and if + we look a little below the surface we find the ready refutation + of such an idea. In his letters and even in the silent diaries we + detect the keenest observation. He looked at the country, as he + traveled, with the eye of the soldier and the farmer, and + mastered its features and read its meaning with rapid and certain + glance. It was not to him a mere panorama of fields and woods, of + rivers and mountains. He saw the beauties of nature and the + opportunities of the farmer, the trader, or the manufacturer + wherever his gaze rested. He gathered in the same way the + statistics of the people and of their various industries. In the + West Indies, on the Virginian frontier, in his journeys when he + was President, he read the story of all he saw as he would have + read a book, and brought it home with him for use.</p> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:40%;"> + <a href="images/illus0465.jpg"><img width="100%" src= + "images/illus0465.jpg" alt="NATHANAEL GREENE" /></a>NATHANAEL + GREENE + </div> + + <p>In the same way he read and understood men, and had that power + of choosing among them which is essential in its highest form to + the great soldier or statesman. His selection never erred unless + in a rare instance like that of Monroe, forced on him by + political exigencies, or when the man of his choice would not + serve. Congress chose Gates for the southern campaign, but + Washington selected Greene, in whom he saw great military ability + before any one else realized it. He took Hamilton, young and + unknown, from the captaincy of an artillery company, and placed + him on his personal staff. He bore with Hamilton's outbreak of + temper, kept him ever in his confidence, and finally gave him the + opportunity to prove himself the most brilliant of American + statesmen. In the crowd of foreign volunteers, the men whom he + especially selected and trusted were Lafayette and Steuben, each + in his way of real value to the service. Even more remarkable + than the ability to recognize great talent was his capacity to + weigh and value with a nice exactness the worth of men who did + not rise to the level of greatness. There is a recently published + letter, too long for quotation here, in which he gives his + opinions of all the leading officers of the Revolution,<a id= + "footnotetag1-20" name="footnotetag1-20"></a><a href= + "#footnote1-20"><sup>1</sup></a> and each one shows the most + remarkable insight, as well as a sharp definiteness of outline + that indicates complete mastery. These compact judgments were so + sound that even the lapse of a century and all the study of + historians and biographers find nothing in their keen analysis to + alter and little to add. He did not expect to discover genius + everywhere, or to find a marshal's baton in every knapsack, but + he used men according to their value and possibilities, which is + quite as essential as the preliminary work of selection. His + military staff illustrated this faculty admirably. Every man, + after a few trials and changes, fitted his place and did his + particular task better than any one else could have done it. + Colonel Meade, loyal and gallant, a good soldier and planter, + said that Hamilton did the headwork of Washington's staff and he + the riding. When the war was drawing to a close, Washington said + one day to Hamilton, "You must go to the Bar, which you can reach + in six months." Then turning to Meade, "Friend Dick, you must go + to your plantation; you will make a good farmer, and an honest + foreman of the grand jury."<a id="footnotetag2-21" name= + "footnotetag2-21"></a><a href="#footnote2-21"><sup>2</sup></a> + The prediction was exactly fulfilled, with all that it implied, + in both cases. But let it not be supposed that there was any + touch of contempt in the advice to Meade. On the contrary, there + was a little warmer affection, if anything, for he honored + success in any honest pursuit, especially in farming, which he + himself loved. But he distinguished the two men perfectly, and he + knew what each was and what each meant. It seems little to say, + but if we stop to think of it, this power to read men aright and + see the truth in them and about them is a power more precious + than any other bestowed by the kindest of fairy godmothers. The + lame devil of Le Sage looked into the secrets of life through the + roofs of houses, and much did he find of the secret story of + humanity. But the great man looking with truth and kindliness + into men's natures, and reading their characters and abilities in + their words and acts, has a higher and better power than that + attributed to the wandering sprite, for such a man holds in his + hand the surest key to success. Washington, quiet and always on + the watch, after the fashion of silent greatness, studied + untiringly the ever recurring human problems, and his just + conclusions were powerful factors in the great result. He was + slow, when he had plenty of time, in adopting a policy or plan, + or in settling a public question, but he read men very quickly. + He was never under any delusion as to Lee, Gates, Conway, or any + of the rest who engaged against him because they were restless + from the first under the suspicion that he knew them thoroughly. + Arnold deceived him because his treason was utterly inconceivable + to Washington, and because his remarkable gallantry excused his + many faults. But with this exception it may be safely said that + Washington was never misled as to men, either as general or + President. His instruments were not invariably the best and + sometimes failed him, but they were always the best he could get, + and he knew their defects and ran the inevitable risks with his + eyes open. Such sure and rapid judgments of men and their + capabilities were possible only to a man of keen perception and + accurate observation, neither of which is characteristic of a + slow or common-place mind.</p> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote1-20" name="footnote1-20"></a>[<b>Footnote + 1:</b> <a href="#footnotetag1-20">(return)</a> <i>Magazine of + American History</i>, vol. iii., 1879, p. 81.] + </blockquote> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote2-21" name="footnote2-21"></a>[<b>Footnote + 2:</b> <a href="#footnotetag2-21">(return)</a> <i>Memoir of Rt. + Rev. William Meade</i>, by Philip Slaughter, D.D., p. 7.] + </blockquote> + + <p>These qualities were, of course, gifts of nature, improved and + developed by the training of a life of action on a great scale. + He had received, indeed, little teaching except that of + experience, and the world of war and politics had been to him + both school and college. His education had been limited in the + extreme, scarcely going beyond the most rudimentary branches + except in mathematics, and this is very apparent in his early + letters. He seems always to have written a handsome hand and to + have been good at figures, but his spelling at the outset was far + from perfect, and his style, although vigorous, was abrupt and + rough. He felt this himself, took great pains to correct his + faults in this respect, and succeeded, as he did in most things. + Mr. Sparks has produced a false impression in this matter by + smoothing and amending in very extensive fashion all the earlier + letters, so as to give an appearance of uniformity throughout the + correspondence; a process which not only destroyed much of the + vigor and force of the early writings, but made them somewhat + unnatural. The surveyor and frontier soldier wrote very + differently from the general of the army and the President of the + United States, and the improvements of Mr. Sparks only served to + hide the real man.<a id="footnotetag1-22" name= + "footnotetag1-22"></a><a href= + "#footnote1-22"><sup>1</sup></a></p> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote1-22" name="footnote1-22"></a>[<b>Footnote + 1:</b> <a href="#footnotetag1-22">(return)</a> These facts in + regard to Washington's early letters, and to his correspondence + generally, were first brought to public attention by the Reed + letters, and by the controversy between Mr. Sparks and Lord + Mahon. They have, of course, been long familiar to students of + the original manuscripts. The full extent, however, of the + changes made by Mr. Sparks, and of the mischief he wrought, and + of the injustice thus done both to his hero and to posterity, + has but lately been made known generally by the new edition of + Washington's papers which have been published, under the + supervision of Mr. W.C. Ford. Washington himself, when he + undertook to arrange his military and state papers after his + retirement from the presidency, began to correct the style of + some of his earlier letters. This was natural enough, and he + had a right to do what he pleased with his own, even if he + thereby injured the material of the future historian and + biographer. But he did not proceed far in his work, and the + fact that he corrected a few of his own letters gave Mr. Sparks + no right whatever to enter upon a wholesale revision.] + </blockquote> + + <p>If Washington had been of coarse fibre and heavy mind, this + lack of education would have troubled him but little. His great + success in that case would have served only to convince him of + the uselessness of education except for inferior persons, who + could not get along in the world without artificial aids. As it + was, he never ceased to regret his deficiency in this respect, + and when Humphreys urged him to prepare a history or memoirs of + the war, he replied: "In a former letter I informed you, my dear + Humphreys, that if I had talent for it, I have not leisure to + turn my thoughts to commentaries. A consciousness of a defective + education and a certainty of a want of time unfit me for such an + undertaking." He was misled by his own modesty as to his + capacity, but his strong feeling as to his lack of schooling + haunted and troubled him always, although it did not make him + either indifferent or bitter. He only admired more that which he + himself had missed. He regarded education, and especially the + higher forms, with an almost pathetic reverence, and its + advancement was never absent from his thoughts. When he was made + chancellor of the college of William and Mary, he was more deeply + pleased than by any honor ever conferred upon him, and he + accepted the position with a diffidence and a seriousness which + were touching in such a man. In the same spirit he gave money to + the Alexandria Academy, and every scheme to promote public + education in Virginia had his eager support. His interest was not + confined by state lines, for there was nothing so near his heart + as the foundation of a national university. He urged its + establishment upon Congress over and over again, and, as has been + seen, left money in his will for its endowment.</p> + + <p>All his sympathies and tastes were those of a man of refined + mind, and of a lover of scholarship and sound learning. Naturally + a very modest man, and utterly devoid of any pretense, he + underrated, as a matter of fact, his own accomplishments. He + distrusted himself so much that he always turned to Hamilton, + both during the Revolution and afterwards, as well as in the + preparation of the farewell address, to aid him in clothing his + thoughts in a proper dress, which he felt himself unable to give + them. His tendency was to be too diffuse and too involved, but as + a rule his style was sufficiently clear, and he could express + himself with nervous force when the occasion demanded, and with a + genuine and stately eloquence when he was deeply moved, as in the + farewell to Congress at the close of the war. It is not a little + remarkable that in his letters after the first years there is + nothing to betray any lack of early training. They are the + letters, not of a scholar or a literary man, but of an educated + gentleman; and although he seldom indulged in similes or + allusions, when he did so they were apt and correct. This was due + to his perfect sanity of mind, and to his aversion to all display + or to any attempt to shine in borrowed plumage. He never + undertook to speak or write on any subject, or to make any + reference, which he did not understand. He was a lover of books, + collected a library, and read always as much as his crowded life + would permit. When he was at Newburgh, at the close of the war, + he wrote to Colonel Smith in New York to send him the following + books:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>"Charles the XIIth of Sweden.</p> + + <p>Lewis the XVth, 2 vols.</p> + + <p>History of the Life and Reign of the Czar Peter the + Great.</p> + + <p>Campaigns of Marshal Turenne.</p> + + <p>Locke on the Human Understanding.</p> + + <p>Robertson's History of America, 2 vols.</p> + + <p>Robertson's History of Charles V.</p> + + <p>Voltaire's Letters.</p> + + <p>Life of Gustavus Adolphus.</p> + + <p>Sully's Memoirs.</p> + + <p>Goldsmith's Natural History.</p> + + <p>Mildman on Trees.</p> + + <p>Vertot's Revolution of Rome, 3 vols.</p> + + <p>Vertot's Revolution of Portugal, 3 vols.</p> + + <p>{The Vertot's if they are in estimation.}</p> + </div> + </div> + + <blockquote> + <p>If there is a good Bookseller's shop in the City, I would + thank you for sending me a catalogue of the Books and their + prices that I may choose such as I want."</p> + </blockquote> + + <p>His tastes ran to history and to works treating of war or + agriculture, as is indicated both by this list and some earlier + ones. It is not probable that he gave so much attention to + lighter literature, although he wrote verses in his youth, and by + an occasional allusion in his letters he seems to have been + familiar with some of the great works of the imagination, like + "Don Quixote."<a id="footnotetag1-23" name= + "footnotetag1-23"></a><a href= + "#footnote1-23"><sup>1</sup></a></p> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote1-23" name="footnote1-23"></a>[<b>Footnote + 1:</b> <a href="#footnotetag1-23">(return)</a> At his death the + appraisers of the estate found 863 volumes in his library, + besides a great number of pamphlets, magazines, and maps. This + was a large collection of books for those days, and showed that + the possessor, although purely a man of affairs, loved reading + and had literary tastes.] + </blockquote> + + <p>He never freed himself from the self-distrust caused by his + profound sense of his own deficiencies in education, on the one + hand, and his deep reverence for learning, on the other. He had + fought the Revolution, which opened the way for a new nation, and + was at the height of his fame when he wrote to the French + officers, who begged him to visit France, that he was "too old to + learn French or to talk with ladies;" and it was this feeling in + a large measure which kept him from ever being a maker of phrases + or a sayer of brilliant things. In other words, the fact that he + was modest and sensitive has been the chief cause of his being + thought dull and cold. This idea, moreover, is wholly that of + posterity, for there is not the slightest indication on the part + of any contemporary that Washington could not talk well and did + not appear to great advantage in society. It is posterity, + looking with natural weariness at endless volumes of official + letters with all the angles smoothed off by the editorial plane, + that has come to suspect him of being dull in mind and heavy in + wit. His contemporaries knew him to be dignified and often found + him stern, but they never for a moment considered him stupid, or + thought him a man at whom the shafts of wit could be shot with + impunity. They were fully conscious that he was as able to hold + his own in conversation as he was in the cabinet or in the field; + and we can easily see the justice of contemporary opinion if we + take the trouble to break through the official bark and get at + the real man who wrote the letters. In many cases we find that he + could employ irony and sarcasm with real force, and his powers of + description, even if stilted at times, were vigorous and + effective. All these qualities come out strongly in his letters, + if carefully read, and his private correspondence in particular + shows a keenness and point which the formalities of public + intercourse veiled generally from view. We are fortunate in + having the account of a disinterested and acute observer of the + manner in which Washington impressed a casual acquaintance in + conversation. The actor Bernard, whom we have already quoted, and + whom we left with Washington at the gates of Mount Vernon, gives + us the following vivid picture of what ensued:—</p> + + <p>"In conversation his face had not much variety of expression. + A look of thoughtfulness was given by the compression of the + mouth and the indentations of the brow (suggesting an habitual + conflict with, and mastery over, passion), which did not seem so + much to disdain a sympathy with trivialities as to be incapable + of denoting them. Nor had his voice, so far as I could discover + in our quiet talk, much change or richness of intonation, but he + always spoke with earnestness, and his eyes (glorious conductors + of the light within) burned with a steady fire which no one could + mistake for mere affability; they were one grand expression of + the well-known line: 'I am a man, and interested in all that + concerns humanity.' In one hour and a half's conversation he + touched on every topic that I brought before him with an even + current of good sense, if he embellished it with little wit or + verbal elegance. He spoke like a man who had felt as much as he + had reflected, and reflected more than he had spoken; like one + who had looked upon society rather in the mass than in detail, + and who regarded the happiness of America but as the first link + in a series of universal victories; for his full faith in the + power of those results of civil liberty which he saw all around + him led him to foresee that it would, erelong, prevail in other + countries, and that the social millennium of Europe would usher + in the political. When I mentioned to him the difference I + perceived between the inhabitants of New England and of the + Southern States, he remarked: 'I esteem those people greatly; + they are the stamina of the Union and its greatest benefactors. + They are continually spreading themselves too, to settle and + enlighten less favored quarters. Dr. Franklin is a New + Englander.' When I remarked that his observations were flattering + to my country, he replied, with great good-humor, 'Yes, yes, Mr. + Bernard, but I consider your country the cradle of free + principles, not their armchair. Liberty in England is a sort of + idol; people are bred up in the belief and love of it, but see + little of its doings. They walk about freely, but then it is + between high walls; and the error of its government was in + supposing that after a portion of their subjects had crossed the + sea to live upon a common, they would permit their friends at + home to build up those walls about them.' A black coming in at + this moment with a jug of spring water, I could not repress a + smile, which the general at once interpreted. 'This may seem a + contradiction,' he continued, 'but I think you must perceive that + it is neither a crime nor an absurdity. When we profess, as our + fundamental principle, that liberty is the inalienable right of + every man, we do not include madmen or idiots; liberty in their + hands would become a scourge. Till the mind of the slave has been + educated to perceive what are the obligations of a state of + freedom, and not confound a man's with a brute's, the gift would + insure its abuse. We might as well be asked to pull down our old + warehouses before trade has increased to demand enlarged new + ones. Both houses and slaves were bequeathed to us by Europeans, + and time alone can change them; an event, sir, which, you may + believe me, no man desires more heartily than I do. Not only do I + pray for it, on the score of human dignity, but I can already + foresee that nothing but the rooting out of slavery can + perpetuate the existence of our Union, by consolidating it in a + common bond of principle.'</p> + + <p>"I now referred to the pleasant hours I had passed in + Philadelphia, and my agreeable surprise at finding there so many + men of talent, at which his face lit up vividly. 'I am glad to + hear you, sir, who are an Englishman, say so, because you must + now perceive how ungenerous are the assertions people are always + making on your side of the water. One gentleman, of high literary + standing,—I allude to the Abbé Raynal,—has + demanded whether America has yet produced one great poet, + statesman, or philosopher. The question shows anything but + observation, because it is easy to perceive the causes which have + combined to render the genius of this country scientific rather + than imaginative. And, in this respect, America has surely + furnished her quota. Franklin, Rittenhouse, and Rush are no mean + names, to which, without shame, I may append those of Jefferson + and Adams, as politicians; while I am told that the works of + President Edwards of Rhode Island are a text-book in polemics in + many European colleges.'</p> + + <p>"Of the replies which I made to his inquiries respecting + England, he listened to none with so much interest as to those + which described the character of my royal patron, the Prince of + Wales. 'He holds out every promise,' remarked the general, 'of a + brilliant career. He has been well educated by <i>events</i>, and + I doubt not that, in his time, England will receive the benefit + of her child's emancipation. She is at present bent double, and + has to walk with crutches; but her offspring may teach her the + secret of regaining strength, erectness, and independence.' In + reference to my own pursuits he repeated the sentiments of + Franklin. He feared the country was too poor to be a patron of + the drama, and that only arts of a practical nature would for + some time be esteemed. The stage he considered to be an + indispensable resource for settled society, and a chief refiner; + not merely interesting as a comment on the history of social + happiness by its exhibition of manners, but an agent of good as a + school for poetry, in holding up to honor the noblest principles. + 'I am too old and too far removed,' he added, 'to seek for or + require this pleasure myself, but the cause is not to droop on my + account. There's my friend Mr. Jefferson has time and taste; he + goes always to the play, and I'll introduce you to him,' a + promise which he kept, and which proved to me the source of the + greatest benefit and pleasure."</p> + + <p>This is by far the best account of Washington in the ordinary + converse of daily life that has come down to us. The narrator + belonged to the race who live by amusing their fellow-beings, and + are in consequence quick to notice peculiarities and highly + susceptible to being bored. Bernard, after the first interest of + seeing a very eminent man had worn off, would never have lingered + for an hour and a half of chat and then gone away reluctantly if + his host had been either dull of speech or cold and forbidding of + manner. It is evident that Washington talked well, easily, and + simply, ranging widely over varied topics with a sure touch, and + that he drew from the ample resources of a well-stored and + reflective mind. The scraps of conversation which Bernard + preserves are interesting and above the average of ordinary talk, + without manifesting any attempt to be either brilliant or + striking, and it is also apparent that Washington had the art of + putting his guest entirely at his ease by his own pleasant and + friendly manner. He had picked up the English actor on the road, + liked his readiness to be helpful (always an attraction to him in + any one), found him well-mannered and intelligent, and brought + him home to rest and chat in the pleasant summer afternoon. To + Bernard he was simply the plain Virginia gentleman, with a + liberal and cultivated interest in men and things, and not a + trace of oppressive and conscious greatness about him. It is to + be suspected that he was by no means equally genial to the herd + of sight-seers who pursued him in his retirement, but in this + meeting he appeared as he must always have appeared to his family + and friends.</p> + + <p>We get the same idea from the scattered allusions that we have + to Washington in private life. Although silent and reserved as to + himself, he was by no means averse to society, and in his own + house all his guests, both great and small, felt at their ease + with him, although with no temptation to be familiar. We know + from more than one account that the dinners at the presidential + house, as well as at Mount Vernon, were always agreeable. It was + his wont to sit at table after the cloth was removed sipping a + glass of wine and eating nuts, of which he was very fond, while + he listened to the conversation and caused it to flow easily, not + so much by what he said as by the kindly smile and ready sympathy + which made all feel at home. We can gather an idea also of the + charm which he had in the informal intercourse of daily life from + some of his letters on trifling matters. Here is a little note + written to Mrs. Stockton in acknowledgment of a pastoral poem + which she had sent him:—</p> + + <blockquote> + <p>"MOUNT VERNON, February 18, 1784.</p> + + <p>"Dear Madam: The intemperate weather and very great care + which the post riders take of themselves prevented your letter + of the 4th of last month from reaching my hands till the 10th + of this. I was then in the very act of setting off on a visit + to my aged mother, from whence I am just returned. These + reasons I beg leave to offer as an apology for my silence until + now.</p> + + <p>"It would be a pity indeed, my dear madam, if the muses + should be restrained in you; it is only to be regretted that + the hero of your poetical talents is not more deserving their + lays. I cannot, however, from motives of pure delicacy (because + I happen to be the principal character in your Pastoral) + withhold my encomiums on the performance; for I think the easy, + simple, and beautiful strain with which the dialogue is + supported does great justice to your genius; and will not only + secure Lucinda and Amista from wits and critics, but draw from + them, however unwillingly, their highest plaudits; if they can + relish the praises that are given, as they must admire the + manner of bestowing them.</p> + + <p>"Mrs. Washington, equally sensible with myself of the honor + you have done her, joins me in most affectionate compliments to + yourself, and the young ladies and gentlemen of your + family.</p> + + <p>"With sentiments of esteem, regard and respect, I have the + honor to be —— ——"</p> + </blockquote> + + <p>This is not a matter of "great pith or moment," but it shows + how pleasantly he could acknowledge a civility. The turn of the + sentences smacks of the formality of the time. They sound a + little labored, perhaps, to modern ears, but they were graceful + according to the standard of his day, and they have a gentle + courtesy which can never be out of fashion.</p> + + <p>He had the power also of paying a compliment in an impressive + and really splendid manner whenever he felt it to be deserved. + When Charles Thomson, who for fifteen years had been the honored + secretary of the Continental Congress, wrote to announce his + retirement, Washington replied: "The present age does so much + justice to the unsullied reputation with which you have always + conducted yourself in the execution of the duties of your office, + and posterity will find your name so honorably connected with the + verification of such a multitude of astonishing facts, that my + single suffrage would add little to the illustration of your + merits. Yet I cannot withhold any just testimonial in favor of so + old, so faithful, and so able a public officer, which might tend + to soothe his mind in the shades of retirement. Accept, then, + this serious declaration, that your services have been important, + as your patriotism was distinguished; and enjoy that best of all + rewards, the consciousness of having done your duty well."</p> + + <p>Dull men do not write in this fashion. It is one thing to pay + a handsome compliment, although even that is not by itself easy, + but to give it in addition the note of sincerity which alone + makes it of real value demands both art and good feeling. Let us + take one more example of this sort before we drop the subject. + When the French officers were leaving America Washington wrote to + De Chastellux to bid him farewell. "Our good friend, the Marquis + of Lafayette," he said, "prepared me, long before I had the honor + to see you, for those impressions of esteem which opportunities + and your own benevolent mind have since improved into a deep and + lasting friendship; a friendship which neither time nor distance + can eradicate. I can truly say that never in my life have I + parted with a man to whom my soul clave more sincerely than it + did to you. My warmest wishes will attend you in your voyage + across the Atlantic to the rewards of a generous prince, the arms + of affectionate friends; and be assured that it will be one of my + highest gratifications to keep up a regular intercourse with you + by letter."</p> + + <p>These letters exhibit not only the grace and point born of + intelligence, but also the best of manners; by which I mean + private manners, not those of the public man, of which there will + be something to say hereafter. The attraction of Washington's + society as a private gentleman lay in his good sense, breadth of + knowledge, and good manners. Now the essence of good manners of + the highest and most genuine kind is good feeling, which is + thoughtful of others, and which is impossible to a cold, hard, or + insensible nature. Such manners as we see in Washington's private + letters and private life would have been strange offspring from + the cold heart attributed to him by Mr. McMaster. In justice to + Mr. McMaster, however, be it said, the charge is not a new one. + It has been hinted at and spoken of elsewhere, and many persons + have suspected that such was the case from the well-meant efforts + of what may be called the cherry-tree school to elevate + Washington's character by depicting him as a soulless, bloodless + prig. The blundering efforts of the latter need not be noticed, + but the reflections of serious critics cannot be passed by. The + theory of the cold heart and the unfeeling nature seems to + proceed in this wise. Washington was silent and reserved, he did + not wear his heart upon his sleeve for daws to peck at, therefore + he was cold; just as if mere noise and chatter had any relation + to warm affections. He would take no salary from Congress, says + Mr. McMaster, in fine antithesis, but he exacted his due from the + family of the poor mason. This has an unpleasant sound, and + suggests the man who is generous in public, and hard and grasping + in private. Mr. McMaster in this sentence, however, whether + intentionally or not, is not quite accurate in his facts, and + conveys by his mode of statement an entirely false impression. + The story to which he refers is given by Parkinson, who wrote a + book about his experiences in America in 1798-1800. Parkinson had + the story from one General Stone, and it was to this + effect:<a id="footnotetag1-24" name= + "footnotetag1-24"></a><a href="#footnote1-24"><sup>1</sup></a> A + room was plastered at Mount Vernon on one occasion, and was paid + for during the owner's absence. When Washington returned he + examined the work and had it measured, as was his habit. It then + appeared that an error had been made, and that fifteen shillings + too much had been paid. Meantime the plasterer had died. His + widow married again, and her second husband advertised in the + newspapers that he was prepared to pay the debts of his + predecessor and collect all moneys due him. Thereupon Washington + put in his claim, which was paid as a matter of course. He did + not extort the debt from the family of the poor mason, but + collected it from the second husband of the widow, in response to + a voluntary advertisement. It was very careful and even close + dealing, but it was neither harsh nor unjust, and the writer who + has preserved the story would be not a little surprised at the + interpretation that has been put upon it, for he cited it, as he + expressly says, merely to illustrate the extraordinary regularity + and method to which he attributed much of Washington's + success.</p> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote1-24" name="footnote1-24"></a>[<b>Footnote + 1:</b> <a href="#footnotetag1-24">(return)</a> Parkinson's + <i>Tour in America</i>, 1798-1800, 437 and ff.] + </blockquote> + + <p>Parkinson, in this same connection, tells several other + stories, vague in origin, and sounding like mere gossip, but + still worthy of consideration. According to one of them, + Washington maintained a public ferry, which was customary among + the planters, and the public paid regular tolls for its use. On + one occasion General Stone, the authority for the previous + anecdote, crossed the ferry and offered a moidore in payment. The + ferryman objected to receiving it, on the ground that it was + short weight, but Stone insisted, and it was finally accepted. On + being given to Washington it was weighed, and being found three + half-pence short, the ferryman was ordered to collect the balance + due. On another occasion a tenant could not make the exact change + in paying his rent, and Washington would not accept the money + until the tenant went to Alexandria and brought back the precise + sum. There is, however, still another anecdote, which completes + this series, and which shows a different application of the same + rule. Washington, in traveling, was in the habit of paying at + inns the same for his servants as for himself. An innkeeper once + charged him three shillings and ninepence for himself, and three + shillings for his servant. Thereupon Washington sent for his + host, said that his servant ate as much as he, and insisted on + paying the additional ninepence.</p> + + <p>This extreme exactness in money matters, down even to the most + trifling sums, was no doubt a foible, but it is well to observe + that it was not a foible which sought only a selfish advantage, + for the rule which he applied to others he applied also to + himself. He meant to have his due, no matter how trivial, and he + meant also that others should have theirs. In trifles, as in + greater things, he was scrupulously just, and although he was + always generous and ready to give, he insisted rigidly on what + was justly his. A gift was one thing, a business transaction was + another. The man himself who told these very stories was a good + example of the kindliness which went hand in hand with this + exactness in business affairs. Parkinson was an Englishman, of + great narrowness of mind, who came out here to be a farmer, + failed, and went home to write a book in denunciation of the + country. America never had a more hostile critic. According to + this profound observer, there was no good land in America, and no + possibility of successful agriculture. The horses were bad, the + cattle were bad, and sheep-raising was impossible. There was no + game, the fish and oysters were poor and watery, and no one could + ever hope in this wretchedly barren land for either wealth or + comfort. It was a country fit only for the reception of convicts, + and the cast-off mistress of an Englishman made a good wife for + an American. A person who held such views as these was not likely + to be biased in favor of anything American, and his evidence as + to Washington may be safely trusted as not likely to be unduly + favorable. He tells us that on his arrival at Mount Vernon, with + letters of introduction, he was kindly received; that this + hospitality was never relaxed; and that the general lent him + money. He was at least grateful, and these are his last words as + to Washington:—</p> + + <p>"To me he appeared a mild, friendly man, in company rather + reserved, in private speaking with candor. His behavior to me was + such that I shall ever revere his name.</p> + + <p>"General Washington lived a great man, and died the same.</p> + + <p>"I am of opinion that the general never knowingly did anything + wrong, but did to all men as he would they should do to him."</p> + + <p>Evidently he appeared to Mr. Parkinson kindly and generous, as + well as exactly just. It is well to have the truth about + Washington, and nothing but the truth. Yet in escaping from the + falsehoods of the eulogist and the myth-maker, let us beware of + those which spring from the reaction against the current and + accepted views. I have quoted the Parkinson stories at length, + because they enforce this point admirably. No <i>a priori</i> + theory is safe, and to assume that Washington must have committed + grave errors and been guilty of mean actions because they are + common to humanity, and have not been admitted in his case, is + just as misleading as to assume, as is usually done, that he was + absolutely perfect and without fault.</p> + + <p>Let it be admitted that Washington, ever ready to pay his own + dues, was strict, and sometimes severe, in demanding them of + others; but let it be also remembered, this is the worst that can + be said. He was always ready to overlook faults of omission or + commission; he would pardon easily mismanagement or extravagance + on his estate or in his household; but he had no mercy for + anything that savored of ingratitude, treachery, or dishonesty, + and he carried this same feeling into public as well as private + affairs. No officer who had bravely done his best had anything to + fear in defeat from Washington's anger. He was never unjust, and + he was always kind to misfortune or mistake, but to the coward or + the traitor he was entirely unforgiving. This it was which made + Arnold's treason so bitter to him. Not only had he been deceived, + but the country as well as himself had been most basely betrayed; + and for this reason he was relentless to André, whom it is + said he never saw, living or dead. The young Englishman had taken + part in a wretched piece of treachery, and for the sake of the + country, and as a warning to traitors, Washington would not spare + him. He would never have ordered a political prisoner to be taken + out and shot in a ditch, after the fashion of Napoleon; nor would + he have dealt with any people as the Duke of Cumberland dealt + with the clansmen after Culloden. Such performances would have + seemed to him wanton as well as cruel, and he was too wise and + too humane a man to be either. Indian atrocities, for instance, + with which he was familiar, never led him to retaliate in kind. + But he was perfectly prepared to exact the extremest penalty by + just and recognized methods; and had it not been for the urgent + entreaties of his friends, he would have sent Asgill to the + scaffold, repugnant as it was to his feelings, because he felt + that the murder of Huddy was a crime for which the English army + was responsible, and which demanded a just and striking + vengeance. He was, it may be freely confessed, of anything but a + tame nature. There was a good deal of Berserker in his make-up, + and he was fierce in his anger when he believed that a great + wrong had been done. But because he was stern and unrelenting + when he felt that justice and his duty required him to be so, no + more proves that he had a cold heart than does the fact that he + was silent, dignified, and reserved. Cold-blooded men are not + fierce in seeking to redress the wrongs of others, nor are the + fluent of speech the only kind and generous members of the human + family.</p> + + <p>Washington's whole life, indeed, contradicts the charge that + he was cold of heart and sluggish of feeling. The man who wrote + as he did in his extreme youth, when Indians were harrying the + frontier where he commanded, was not lacking in humanity or + sympathy; and such as he then was he remained to the end of his + life. A soldier by instinct and experience, he never grew + indifferent to the miseries of war. Human suffering always + appealed to him and moved him deeply, and when it was wantonly + inflicted stirred him to anger and to the desire for the wild + justice of revenge.</p> + + <p>The goodness and kindness of man's heart, however, are much + more truly shown in the little details of life than in the great + matters which affect classes or communities. Washington was + considerate and helpful to all men, and if he was ever cold and + distant in his manner, it was to the great, and not to the poor + or humble. As has been indicated by his recognition of the actor + Bernard, he had in high degree the royal gift of remembering + names and faces. When he was at Senator Dalton's house in + Newburyport, on his New England tour of 1789, he met an old + servant whom he had not seen since the French war, thirty years + before. He knew the man at once, spoke to him, and welcomed him. + So it was with the old soldiers of the Revolution, who were + always sure of a welcome, and, if he had ever seen them, of a + recognition. No man ever turned from his presence wounded by a + cold forgetfulness. When he was at Ipswich, on this same journey, + Mr. Cleaveland, the minister of the town, was presented to him. + As he approached, hat in hand, Washington said, "Put on your hat, + parson, and I will shake hands with you." "I cannot wear my hat + in your presence, general," was the reply, "when I think of what + you have done for this country." "You did as much as I." "No, + no," protested the parson. "Yes," said Washington, "you did what + you could, and I've done no more." What a gracious, kindly + courtesy is this, and not without the salt of wit! Does it not + show the perfection of good manners which deals with all men for + what they are, and is full of a warm sympathy born of a good + heart? He was criticised for coldness and accused of monarchical + leanings, because, at Mrs. Washington's receptions and his own + public levees, he stood, dressed in black velvet, with one hand + on the hilt of his sword and the other behind his back, and shook + hands with no one, although he talked with all. He did this + because he thought it became the President of the United States + upon state occasions, and his sense of the dignity of his office + was always paramount. But away from forms and ceremonies, with + the old servant or the old soldier, or the country parson, his + hand was never behind his back, and his manners were those of a + great but simple gentleman, and came straight from a kind heart, + full of sympathy and good feeling.</p> + + <p>He was, too, the most hospitable of men in the best sense, and + his house was always open to all who came. When he was away + during the war or the presidency, his instructions to his agents + were to keep up the hospitality of Mount Vernon, just as if he + had been there himself; and he was especially careful in + directing that, if there were general distress, poor persons of + the neighborhood should have help from his kitchen or his + granaries.</p> + + <p>His own more immediate hospitality was of the same kind. He + always entertained in the most liberal manner, both as general + and President, and in a style which he thought befitted the + station he occupied. But apart from all this, his table, whether + at home or abroad, was never without its guest. "Dine with us," + he wrote to Lear on July 31, 1797, "or we shall do what we have + not done for twenty years, dine alone." The real hospitality + which opens the door and spreads the board for the friend or + stranger, admitting them to the family without form or ceremony, + was his also. "My manner of living is plain," he wrote to a + friend after the Revolution; "I do not mean to be put out of it. + A glass of wine and a bit of mutton are always ready; and such as + will be content to partake of them are always welcome. Those who + expect more will be disappointed, but no change will be effected + by it." Genuine hospitality as unstinted as it was sincere was + not characteristic of a cold man, or of one who sought to avoid + his fellows. It is one of the lighter graces of life, perhaps, + but when it comes freely and simply, and not as a vehicle for the + display or the aggrandizement of its dispenser, it is not without + a meaning to the student of character.</p> + + <p>Washington was not much given to professions of friendship, + nor was he one of the great men who keep a circle of intimates + and sometimes of flatterers about them. He was extremely + independent of the world and perfectly self-sufficing, but it is + a mistake to suppose that because he unbosomed himself to + scarcely any one, and had the loneliness of greatness and of high + responsibilities, he was therefore without friends. He had as + many friends as usually fall to the lot of any man; and although + he laid bare his inmost heart to none, some were very close and + all were very dear to him. In war and politics, as has already + been said, the two men who came nearest to him were Hamilton and + Knox, and his diary shows that when he was President he consulted + with them nearly every day wholly apart from the regular cabinet + meetings. They were the two advisers who were friends as well as + secretaries, and who followed and sustained him as a matter of + affection as much as politics. At home his neighbor, George + Mason, although they came to differ, was a strong friend whom he + liked and respected, and whose opinion, whether favorable or + adverse, he always sought. His feeling to Patrick Henry was much + deeper than mere political or official acquaintance, and the + lovable qualities of the brilliant orator, clear even now across + the gulf of a century, were evidently strongly felt by + Washington. They differed about the Constitution, but Washington + was eager at a later day to have Henry by his side in the + cabinet, and in the last years they stood shoulder to shoulder in + defense of the Union with a personal sympathy deeper than any + born of a mere similarity of opinion. Henry Lee, the son of his + old sweetheart, he loved with a tender and peculiar affection. He + watched over him and helped him, rejoiced in the dashing + gallantry which made him famous as Light-horse Harry, and, when + he had won civil as well as military distinction, trusted him and + counseled with him. Dr. Craik, the companion of his youth and his + life-long physician, was always a dear and close friend, and the + regard between the two is very pleasant to look at, as we see it + glancing out here and there in the midst of state papers and + official cases. For the officers of the army he had a peculiarly + warm feeling, and he had among them many close friends, like + Carrington of Virginia, and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney of South + Carolina. His immediate staff he regarded with especial + affection, and it is worthy of notice that they all not only + admired their great chief, but followed him with a personal + devotion which is not a little curious if Washington was cold of + heart and distant of manner in the intimate association of a + military family.</p> + + <p>This feeling for his soldiers and his officers extended also + to those civilians who had stood by him and the army, and who had + labored for victory in all those trying years. Such a one was old + Governor Trumbull, "Brother Jonathan," who never failed to + respond when a call was made for men and money, and upon whose + friendship and advice Washington always leaned. Such, too, were + Robert and Gouverneur Morris. The sacrifices and energy of the + one and the zeal and brilliant abilities of the other endeared + both to him, and his friendship for them never wavered when + misfortune overtook the elder, and when the younger was driven by + malice, both foreign and domestic, from the place he had filled + so well. Another, again, of this kind was Franklin. In the dark + days of the old French war, Washington had seen displayed for the + first time the force and tact of Franklin, which alone obtained + the necessary wagons and enabled Braddock's army to move. The + early impression thus obtained was never lost, and Franklin's + patriotism, his sympathy for the general and the army in the + Revolution, as well as the stanch support he gave them, aroused + in Washington a sense of obligation and friendship of the + sincerest kind. In proportion as he loathed ingratitude was he + grateful himself. He loved Franklin for his friendship and + support, he admired him for his successful diplomacy, and he + reverenced him for his scientific attainments. The only American + whose fame could for a moment come in competition with his own, + he regarded the old philosopher with affectionate veneration, and + when, after his own fashion, and not at all after the fashion of + the time, he arrived in Philadelphia on the exact day set for the + Constitutional Convention, his first act was to call upon Dr. + Franklin and pay his respects to him. The courtesy and kindliness + of this little act on the part of a man who had come to the town + in the midst of shouting crowds, with joy bells ringing above his + head, speak well for the simple, honest heart that dictated + it.</p> + + <p>After all, it may be said that a passing civility of this sort + involved but little trouble, and was more a matter of + good-breeding than anything else. Let us look, then, at another + and widely different case. Of all the men whom the fortunes of + war brought across Washington's path there was none who became + dearer to him than Lafayette, for the generous, high-spirited + young Frenchman, full of fresh enthusiasm and brave as a lion, + appealed at once to Washington's heart. He quickly admitted him + to his confidence, and the excellent service of Lafayette in the + field, together with his invaluable help in securing the French + alliance, deepened and strengthened the sympathy and affection + which were entirely reciprocal. After Lafayette departed, a + constant correspondence was maintained; and when the Bastille + fell, it was to Washington that Lafayette sent its key, which + still hangs on the wall of Mt. Vernon. As Lafayette rose rapidly + to the dangerous heights of revolutionary leadership, he had at + every step Washington's advice and sympathy. Then the tide + turned; he fell headlong from power, and brought up in an + Austrian prison. From that moment Washington spared no pains to + help his unhappy friend, although his own position was one of + extreme difficulty. Lafayette was not only the proscribed exile + of one country, but also the political prisoner of another, and + the President could not compromise the United States at that + critical moment by showing too much interest in the fate of his + unhappy friend. He nevertheless went to the very edge of prudence + in trying to save him, and the ministers of the United States + were instructed to use every private effort to secure Lafayette's + release, or at least the mitigation of his confinement. All these + attempts failed, but Washington was more successful in other + directions. He sent money to Madame de Lafayette, who was + absolutely beggared at the moment, and represented to her that it + was in settlement of an account which he owed the marquis. When + Lafayette's son and his own namesake came to this country for an + asylum, he had him cared for in Boston and New York by his + personal friends; George Cabot in the one case, and Hamilton in + the other. As soon as public affairs made it proper for him to do + it, he took the lad into his own household, treated him like a + son, and kept him near him until events permitted the boy to + return to Europe and rejoin his father. The sufferings and + dangers of Lafayette and his family were indeed a source of great + unhappiness to Washington, and we have the authority of Bradford, + his attorney-general, that when the President attempted to talk + about Lafayette he was so much affected that he shed + tears,—a very rare exhibition of emotion in a man so + intensely reserved.</p> + + <p>Absence had as little effect upon his memory of old friends as + misfortune. The latter stimulated recollection, and the former + could not dim it. He found time, in the very heat and fire of war + and revolution, to write to Bryan Fairfax lamenting the death of + "the good old lord" whose house had been open to him, and whose + hand had ever helped him when he was a young and unknown man just + beginning his career. When he returned to Mount Vernon after the + presidency, full of years and honors, one of his first acts was + to write to Mrs. Fairfax in England to assure her of his lasting + remembrance, and to breathe a sigh over the changes time had + brought, and over the by-gone years when they had been young + together.</p> + + <p>The loyalty of nature which made his remembrance of old + friends so real and lasting found expression also in the + thoughtfulness which he showed toward casual acquaintances, and + this was especially the case when he had received attention or + service at any one's hands, or when he felt that he was able to + give pleasure by a slight effort on his own part. A little + incident which occurred during the first year of his presidency + illustrates this trait in his character very well. Uxbridge was + one among the many places where he stopped on his New England + tour, and when he got to Hartford he wrote to Mr. Taft, who had + been his host in the former town, and who evidently cherished for + him a very keen admiration, the following note:—</p> + + <blockquote> + <p>"November 8, 1789.</p> + + <p>"Sir: Being informed that you have given my name to one of + your sons, and called another after Mrs. Washington's family, + and being moreover very much pleased with the modest and + innocent looks of your two daughters, Patty and Polly, I do for + these reasons send each of these girls a piece of chintz; and + to Patty, who bears the name of Mrs. Washington, and who waited + more upon us than Polly did, I send five guineas, with which + she may buy herself any little ornament she may want, or she + may dispose of them in any other manner more agreeable to + herself. As I do not give these things with a view to having it + talked of, or even to its being known, the less there is said + about the matter the better you will please me; but, that I may + be sure the chintz and money have got safe to hand, let Patty, + who I dare say is equal to it, write me a line informing me + thereof, directed to 'The President of the United States at New + York.' I wish you and your family well, and am," etc.</p> + </blockquote> + + <p>Let us turn now from friendship to nearer and closer + relations. Washington was not only too reserved, but he had too + much true sentiment, to leave his correspondence with Mrs. + Washington behind him; for he knew that his vast collection of + papers would become the material of history, and he had no mind + that strangers should look into the sacred recesses of his + private life. Only one letter to Mrs. Washington apparently has + survived. It is simple and full of affection, as one would + expect, and tells, as well as many volumes could, of the happy + relations between husband and wife. Washington had many love + affairs in his youth, but he proved in the end a constant lover. + His wife was a high-bred, intelligent woman, simple and dignified + in her manners, efficient in all ways to be the helpmate of her + husband in the high places to which he was called. No shadow ever + rested on their married life, and when the end came Mrs. + Washington only said, "All is over now. I shall soon follow him." + She could not conceive of life without the presence of the + unchanging love and noble character which had been by her side so + long.</p> + + <p>Children were denied to Washington, but although this was a + disappointment it did not chill him nor narrow his sympathies, as + is so often the case. He took to his heart his wife's children as + if they were his own. He watched over them and cared for them, + and their deaths caused him the deepest sorrow. He afterwards + adopted his wife's two grandchildren, and watched over them, too, + in the same way. In the midst of all the cares of the presidency, + Washington found time always to write to George Custis, a boy at + school or at college; while Nellie Custis was as dear to him as + his own daughter, and her marriage a source of the most + affectionate interest. Indeed, it is evident from various little + anecdotes that he was much less strict with these children than + was Mrs. Washington, and much more disposed to condone faults. + Certain it is that they loved him tenderly, and in a way that + only long years of loving-kindness could have made possible.</p> + + <p>He showed the same feeling to all his own kindred. His mother + was ever the object of the most loyal affection, and even at the + head of the armies he would turn aside to visit her with the same + respect and devotion as when he was a mere boy. He was ever + mindful of his brothers and sisters, and their fortunes. None of + them were ever forgotten, and he was especially kind to the + children of those who had been least fortunate and most needed + his help. He educated and counseled his favorite nephew Bushrod, + and did the same for the sons of George Steptoe Washington. + Nothing is pleasanter than to read in the midst of official + papers the long letters in which he gave these boys great store + of wise and kindly advice, guided their education, strove to form + their characters, and traced for them the honorable careers which + he wished them to pursue. Very few men who had risen to the + heights reached by Washington would have found time, in the midst + of engrossing cares, to write such letters as he wrote to friends + and kinsmen. A kind heart prompted them, but they were much more + than merely kind, for when Washington undertook to do anything he + did it thoroughly. Whether it was a treaty with England, the + education of a boy, or the service of a friend, he gave it his + best thought and his utmost care. Where those he loved were + concerned, he was never too busy to think of them, and he spared + no pains to help them; censuring faults where they existed, and + giving praise in generous manner where praise was due.</p> + + <p>To any one who carefully studies his life, it is evident that + Washington was as warm-hearted and affectionate as he was great + in character and ability, and that he was so without noise or + pretense. This really only amounts to saying that he was a + well-balanced man, and yet even this cannot be said without + admitting still another quality. The sanest of all senses is the + sense of humor, and the nature in which it is wholly lacking + cannot be thoroughly rounded and complete. Humor is not the most + lofty of qualities, but it is one of the most essential, and it + is generally assumed that Washington was very deficient in humor. + This idea has arisen from a hasty consideration of the subject, + and from a superficial conception of humor itself. To utter + jests, or to say or write witty, brilliant, or amusing things, no + doubt implies the possession of humor, but they are not the whole + of it, for a man may have a fine sense of humor, and yet never + make a joke nor utter a sarcasm. The distinction between humor + and the want of it lies much deeper than word of mouth. The man + without a sense of humor is sure to make a certain number of + solemn blunders. They may be in matters of importance or in the + merest trifles, but they are blunders none the less, and come + from insensibility to the incongruous, the ludicrous, or the + impossible. It may be said that common sense suffices to avoid + these pitfalls, but this is really begging the question, inasmuch + as common sense of a high order amounting almost to genius cannot + exist without humor, for humor is the root and foundation of + common sense. Let us apply this test to Washington and we shall + find that there never was a man who made fewer mistakes than he, + down even to matters of the smallest detail. Search his career + from beginning to end, and there is not a solemn blunder to be + found in it. He was attacked and assailed both as general and + President, but he was never laughed at. In other words, he had a + sense of humor which made it impossible for him to blunder + solemnly, or to do or say anything which ridicule could + touch.</p> + + <p>It is not, however, necessary to leave his possession of a + sense of humor to inference from his career and his freedom from + blunders. That he had humor strong, sane, and abundant is + susceptible of much more direct proof; and the idea that he was + lacking in this respect arose undoubtedly from the gravity of + demeanor which was characteristic of the man. He had assumed the + heavy responsibilities of an important military command in the + French war at an age when most men are just leaving college and + beginning to study a profession. This of itself sobered him, and + added to his natural quiet and reserve, so that in estimating him + in after-life this early and severe discipline at a most + impressionable age ought never to be overlooked, for it had a + very marked effect upon his character.</p> + + <p>He was not perhaps exactly joyous or gay of nature, but he had + a contented and happy disposition, and, like all robust, + well-balanced men, he possessed strong animal spirits and a keen + sense of enjoyment. He loved a wild, open-air life, and was + devoted to rough out-door sports. He liked to wrestle and run, to + shoot, ride or dance, and to engage in all trials of skill and + strength, for which his great muscular development suited him + admirably. With such tastes, it followed almost as a matter of + course that he loved laughter and fun. Good, hearty, country fun, + a ludicrous mishap, a practical joke, all merriment of a simple, + honest kind, were highly congenial to him, especially in his + youth and early manhood. Here is the way, for example, in which + he described in his diary a ball he attended in 1760: "In a + convenient room, detached for the purpose, abounded great plenty + of bread and butter, some biscuits, with tea and coffee which the + drinkers of could not distinguish from hot water sweetened. Be it + remembered that pocket handkerchiefs served the purposes of + tablecloths, and that no apologies were made for them. I shall + therefore distinguish this ball by the style and title of the + bread-and-butter ball." The wit is not brilliant, but there was a + good hearty laugh in the young man who jots down this little + memorandum in his diary.</p> + + <p>The years after the French war were happy years, free from + care and full of simple pleasures. Then came the Revolution, + bringing with it a burden such as has seldom been laid upon any + man, and the seriousness bred by earlier experiences, came back + with tenfold force. The popular saying was that Washington never + smiled during the war, and, roughly speaking, this was quite + true. In all those years of danger and trial, inasmuch as he was + a man big of heart and brain, he had the gravity and the sadness + born of responsibility, and the suffering sure to come to an + unselfish mind. It was at this time that he began to be most + closely observed of men, and hence came the idea that he never + laughed, and therefore was a being devoid of humor, the most + sympathetic of gifts. But as a matter of fact, the old sense of + fun never left him. It would come to his aid at the most serious + moments, just as an endless flow of stories brought relief to + Lincoln and carried him round many jagged corners. With + Washington it was hearty, laughing mirth at some ludicrous + incident. Putnam riding into Cambridge with an old woman clinging + behind him; Greene searching for his wig while it was on his + head; a young braggart flung over the head of an unbroken colt; + or a good, rollicking story from Colonel Seammel or Major + Fairlie,—all these would delight Washington, and send him + off into peals of inextinguishable laughter. It was ever the old, + hearty love of fun born of animal spirits, which never left him, + and which would always break out on sufficient provocation. Mr. + Parton would have us believe that this was all, and that the + common-place hero whom he describes never rose above the level of + the humor conveyed by grinning through a horse-collar. Even + admitting the truth of this, a real love of honest fun and of a + hearty laugh is a kindly quality that all men like.</p> + + <p>But was this all? Is it quite true that Washington had only a + love of boisterous fun, and nothing else? It is worth looking a + little deeper than the current stories of the camp to find out, + and yet one of these very camp-stories raises at once a strong + suspicion that Mr. Parton's conclusion in this regard, like so + many conclusions about Washington, is unfounded. When General Lee + took the oath of allegiance to the United States, he remarked, in + making abjuration of his former allegiance, that he was perfectly + ready to abjure the king, but could not bring himself to abjure + the Prince of Wales, at which bit of irony Washington was greatly + amused. The wit of the remark is a little cold to-day, but at the + moment, accompanying as it did a solemn act of abjuration, it was + keen enough. Washington himself, moreover, was perfectly capable + of good-natured banter. Colonel Humphreys challenged him one day + to jump over a hedge. Washington, always ready to accept a + challenge where riding was concerned, told the colonel to go on. + Humphreys put his horse at the hedge, cleared it, and landed in a + quagmire on the other side up to his horse's girths; whereupon + Washington rode up, stopped, and looking blandly at his + struggling friend, remarked, "Ah, colonel, you are too deep for + me." "Take care," he wrote to young Custis, when he sent him + money for his college gown, "not to buy without advice; otherwise + you may be more distinguished by your folly than your dress."</p> + + <p>We find in his letters here and there a good-natured raillery, + and jesting, which show a sense of humor that goes beyond the + limits of mere fun and horse-play. Here is a letter he wrote + toward the close of the war, asking some ladies to dine with him + in his quarters at West Point:—</p> + + <blockquote> + <p>"WEST POINT, August 16, 1779.</p> + + <p>"Dear Doctor: I have asked Mrs. Cochran and Mrs. Livingston + to dine with me to-morrow; but ought I not to apprise you of + their fare? As I hate deception, even where imagination is + concerned, I will.</p> + + <p>"It is needless to premise that my table is large enough to + hold the ladies: of this they had ocular demonstration + yesterday. To say how it is usually covered is rather more + essential, and this shall be the purport of my letter.</p> + + <p>"Since my arrival at this happy spot, we have had a ham, + sometimes a shoulder of bacon, to grace the head of the table. + A piece of roast beef adorns the foot, and a small dish of + green beans—almost imperceptible—decorates the + centre. When the cook has a mind to cut a figure,—and + this I presume he will attempt to-morrow,—we have two + beefsteak pies, or dishes of crabs, in addition, one on each + side of the centre dish, dividing the space, and reducing the + distance between dish and dish to about six feet, which without + them would be nearly twelve feet apart. Of late he has had the + surprising luck to discover that apples will make pies; and it + is a question if, amidst the violence of his efforts, we do not + get one of apples instead of having both of beef.</p> + + <p>"If the ladies can put up with such entertainment, and + submit to partake of it on plates once tin, but now iron, not + become so by the labor of hard scouring, I shall be happy to + see them."</p> + </blockquote> + + <p>We may be sure that the ladies found their dinner a pleasant + one, and that the writer of the note was neither a stiff nor + unsocial host. A much more charming letter is one to Nellie + Custis, on the occasion of her first ball. It is too long for + quotation, but it is a model of affectionate wisdom tinged with a + gentle humor, and designed to guide a young girl just beginning + the world of society.</p> + + <p>Here, however, is another extract from a letter to Madame de + Lafayette, of rather more serious purport, but in the same + strain, and full of a simple and, as we should call it, an + old-fashioned grace. He was replying to an invitation to visit + France, which he felt obliged to decline. After giving his + reasons, he said: "This, my dear Marchioness (indulge the + freedom), is not the case with you. You have youth (and, if you + should incline to leave your children, you can leave them with + all the advantages of education), and must have a curiosity to + see the country, young, rude, and uncultivated as it is, for the + liberties of which your husband has fought, bled, and acquired + much glory, where everybody admires, everybody loves him. Come, + then, let me entreat you, and call my cottage your home; for your + own doors do not open to you with more readiness than mine would. + You will see the plain manner in which we live, and meet with + rustic civility; and you shall taste the simplicity of rural + life. It will diversify the scene, and may give you a higher + relish for the gayeties of the court when you return to + Versailles."</p> + + <p>There is also apparent in many of his letters a vein of + worldly wisdom, shrewd but kindly, too gentle to be called + cynical, and yet touched with the humor which reads and + appreciates the foibles of humanity. Of an officer who grumbled + at disappointments during the war he wrote: "General McIntosh is + only experiencing upon a small scale what I have had an ample + share of upon a large one; and must, as I have been obliged to do + in a variety of instances, yield to necessity; that is, to use a + vulgar phrase, 'shape his coat according to his cloth,' or in + other words, if he cannot do as he wishes, he must do what he + can." The philosophy is homely and common enough, but the manner + in which the reproof was administered shows kindly tact, one of + the most difficult of arts. Here is another passage, touching on + something outside the range of war and politics. He was writing + to Lund Washington in regard to Mrs. Washington's + daughter-in-law, Mrs. Custis, who was contemplating a second + marriage. "For my own part," he said, "I never did, nor do I + believe I ever shall, give advice to a woman who is setting out + on a matrimonial voyage: first, because I never could advise one + to marry without her own consent; and secondly, because I know it + is to no purpose to advise her to refrain when she has obtained + it. A woman very rarely asks an opinion or requires advice on + such an occasion till her resolution is formed; and then it is + with the hope and expectation of obtaining a sanction, not that + she means to be governed by your disapprobation, that she + applies. In a word, the plain English of the application may be + summed up in these words: 'I wish you to think as I do; but if + unhappily you differ from me in opinion, my heart, I must + confess, is fixed, and I have gone too far <i>now</i> to + retract.'"</p> + + <p>In the same spirit, but this time with a lurking smile at + himself, did he write to the secretary of Congress for his + commission: "If my commission is not necessary for the files of + Congress, I should be glad to have it deposited among my own + papers. It may serve <i>my grandchildren</i>, some fifty or a + hundred years hence, for a theme to ruminate upon, if <i>they</i> + should be contemplatively disposed."</p> + + <p>He knew human nature well, and had a smile for its little + weaknesses when they came to his mind. It was this same human + sympathy which made him also love amusements of all sorts; but he + was as little their slave as their enemy. No man ever carried + great burdens with a higher or more serious spirit, but his cares + never made him forbidding, nor rendered him impatient of the + pleasure of others. He liked to amuse himself, and knew the value + of a change of thought and scene, and he was always ready, when + duty permitted, for a chat. He liked to take a comfortable seat + and have his talk out, and he had the talent so rare in great men + of being a good and appreciative listener. We hear of him playing + cards at Tappan during the war, and he was always fond of a game + in the evening, realizing the force of Talleyrand's remark to the + despiser of cards: "Quelle triste vieillesse vous vous + préparez." In 1779 it is recorded that at a party he + danced for three hours with Mrs. Greene without sitting down or + resting, which speaks well for the health and spirits both of the + lady and the gentleman. Even after Yorktown, he was ready to walk + a minuet at a ball, and to the end he liked to see young people + dance, as he had danced himself in his youth. As has been seen + from his treatment of Bernard, he liked the theatre and the + actors, and when he was in Philadelphia he was a constant + attendant at the play, as he had been ever since he went to see + "George Barnwell" in the Barbadoes. His love of horses stayed + with him to the last. He not only rode and drove and trained + horses,<a id="footnotetag1-25" name= + "footnotetag1-25"></a><a href="#footnote1-25"><sup>1</sup></a> + but he enjoyed the sport of the race-course. He was probably + aware, like the Shah of Persia who declined to go to the Derby, + that one horse could run faster than another, but nevertheless he + liked to see them run, and we hear of him, after he had reached + the presidency, acting as judge at a race, and seeing his own + colt Magnolia beaten, which he no doubt considered the next best + thing to winning.</p> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote1-25" name="footnote1-25"></a>[<b>Footnote + 1:</b> <a href="#footnotetag1-25">(return)</a> The Marquis de + Chastelleux speaks of the perfect training of Washington's + saddle horses, and says the general broke them himself. He adds + "He (the general) is an excellent and bold horseman, leaping + the highest fences and going extremely quick, without standing + upon his stirrups, bearing on the bridle or letting his horse + run wild; circumstances which our young men look upon as so + essential a part of English horsemanship, that they would + rather break a leg or an arm than renounce them."] + </blockquote> + + <p>He had, indeed, in all ways a thoroughly well-balanced mind + and temper. In great affairs he knew how to spare himself the + details to which others could attend as well as he, and yet he + was in no wise a despiser of small things. Before the Revolution, + there was a warm discussion in the Truro parish as to the proper + site for the Pohick Church. Washington and George Mason led + respectively the opposing forces, and each confidently asserted + that the site he preferred was the most convenient for the + largest number of parishioners. Finally, after much debate and no + conclusion, Washington appeared at a vestry meeting with a + collection of statistics. He had measured the distance from each + proposed site to the house of each parishioner, and found, as he + declared, that his site was nearer to more people than the other. + It is needless to add that he carried his point, and that the + spot he desired for the church was the one chosen.</p> + + <p>The fact was that, if he confided a task of any sort to + another, he let it go on without meddling; but if he undertook + anything himself, he did it with the utmost thoroughness, and + there is much success in this capacity to take pains even in + small things. He managed his plantations entirely himself when he + was at home, and did it well. He knew the qualities of each + field, and the rotation of its crops. No improvement in + agriculture and no ingenious invention escaped his attention, + although he was not to be carried away by mere novelty, which had + such a fascination for his ex-secretary at Monticello. Every + resource of his estate was turned to good use, and his flour and + tobacco commanded absolute confidence with his brand upon them. + He followed in the same painstaking way all his business affairs, + and his accounts, all in his own hand, are wonderfully minute and + accurate. He was very exact in all business as well as very + shrewd at a bargain, and the tradition is that his neighbors + considered the general a formidable man in a horse-trade, that + most difficult of transactions. Parkinson mentions that + everything purchased or brought to the house was weighed, + measured, or counted, generally in the presence of the master + himself. Some of his letters to Lear, his private secretary, show + that he looked after his china and servants, the packing and + removal of his furniture with great minuteness. To some persons + this appears evidence of a petty mind in a great man, but to + those who reflect a little more deeply it will occur that this + accuracy and care in trifles were the same qualities which kept + the American army together, and enabled their owner to arrive on + time and in full preparation at Yorktown and Trenton. The worst + that can be said is that from his love of perfection and + completeness he may in this respect have wasted time and + strength, but his untiring industry and his capacity for work + were so great that he accomplished so far as we can see all this + drudgery without ever neglecting in the least more important + duties. It was a satisfaction to him to do it; for he was + methodical and exact to the last degree, and he was never happy + unless he held everything in which he was concerned easily within + his grasp.</p> + + <p>He had the same attention to details in external things, and + he wished everything about him to be of the best, if not + "express'd in fancy." He had the handsomest carriages and the + finest horses always in his stables. It was necessary that the + furniture of his house should be as good as could be procured, + and he was most particular in regard to it. When he was preparing + as President to move to Philadelphia, he made the most searching + inquiries as to horses, stables, servants, schools for young + Custis, and everything affecting the household. He sent at the + same time most minute directions to his agents as to the + furniture of his house, touching upon everything, down to the + color of the curtains and the form of his wine-coolers. He had a + like feeling in regard to dress. His fancy for handsome and + appropriate dress in his youth has already been alluded to, but + he never ceased to take an interest in it; and in a letter to + McHenry, written in the last year of his life, he discusses with + great care the details of the uniform to be prescribed for + himself as commander-in-chief of the new army. It would be a + mistake, of course, to infer that he was a dandy, or that he gave + to dress and furniture the importance set upon them by shallow + minds. He simply valued them rightly, and enjoyed the good things + of this world. He had the best possible taste and the keenest + sense of what was appropriate, and it was this good taste and + sense of fitness which saved him from blundering in trifles, as + much as his ability and his sense of humor preserved him from + error in the conduct of great affairs.</p> + + <p>The value of all this to the country he served cannot be too + often reiterated, for ridicule was a real danger to the + Revolutionary cause when it started. The raw levies, headed by + volunteer officers from the shop, the plough, the work-bench, or + the trading vessel, despite their patriotism and the nobility of + their cause, could easily have been made subjects of derision, a + perilous enemy to all new undertakings. Men prefer to be shot at, + if they are taken seriously, rather than to be laughed at and + made objects of contempt. The same principle holds true of a + revolution seeking the sympathy of a hostile world. When + Washington drew his sword beneath the Cambridge elm and put + himself at the head of the American army, effective ridicule + became impossible, for the dignity of the cause was seen in that + of its leader. The British generals soon found that they not only + had a dangerous enemy to encounter, but that they were dealing + with a man whose pride in his country and whose own sense of + self-respect reduced any assumption of personal superiority on + their part to speedy contempt. In the same way he brought dignity + to the new government of the Constitution when he was placed at + its head. The confederation had excited the just contempt of the + world, and Washington as President, by the force of his own + character and reputation, gave the United States at once the + respect not only of the American people, but of those of Europe + as well. Men felt instinctively that no government over which he + presided could ever fall into feebleness or disrepute.</p> + + <p>In addition to the effect on the popular mind of his character + and services was that of his personal presence. If contemporary + testimony can be believed, few men have ever lived who had the + power to impress those who looked upon them so profoundly as + Washington. He was richly endowed by nature in all physical + attributes. Well over six feet high,<a id="footnotetag1-26" name= + "footnotetag1-26"></a><a href="#footnote1-26"><sup>1</sup></a> + large, powerfully built, and of uncommon muscular strength, he + had the force that always comes from great physical power. He had + a fine head, a strong face, with blue eyes set wide apart in deep + orbits, and beneath, a square jaw and firm-set mouth which told + of a relentless will. Houdon the sculptor, no bad judge, said he + had no conception of the majesty and grandeur of Washington's + form and features until he studied him as a subject for a statue. + Pages might be filled with extracts from the descriptions of + Washington given by French officers, by all sorts of strangers, + and by his own countrymen, but they all repeat the same story. + Every one who met him told of the commanding presence, and noble + person, the ineffable dignity, and the calm, simple, and stately + manners. No man ever left Washington's presence without a feeling + of reverence and respect amounting almost to awe.</p> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote1-26" name="footnote1-26"></a>[<b>Footnote + 1:</b> <a href="#footnotetag1-26">(return)</a> Lear in his + memoranda published recently in full in McClure's Magazine for + February, 1898, states that Washington measured after death six + feet three and one half inches in height, a foot and nine + inches across the shoulders, two feet across the elbows; + evidently a spare man with muscular arms, which we know to have + been also of unusual length.] + </blockquote> + + <p>I will quote only a single one of the numerous descriptions of + Washington, and I select it because, although it is the least + favorable of the many I have seen, and is written in homely + phrase, it displays the most evident and entire sincerity. The + extract is from a letter written by David Ackerson of Alexandria, + Va., in 1811, in answer to an inquiry by his son. Mr. Ackerson + commanded a company in the Revolutionary war.</p> + + <p>"Washington was not," he wrote, "what ladies would call a + pretty man, but in military costume a heroic figure, such as + would impress the memory ever afterward."</p> + + <p>The writer had a good view of Washington three days before the + crossing of the Delaware.</p> + + <p>"Washington," he says, "had a large thick nose, and it was + very red that day, giving me the impression that he was not so + moderate in the use of liquors as he was supposed to be. I found + afterward that this was a peculiarity. His nose was apt to turn + scarlet in a cold wind. He was standing near a small camp-fire, + evidently lost in thought and making no effort to keep warm. He + seemed six feet and a half in height, was as erect as an Indian, + and did not for a moment relax from a military attitude. + Washington's exact height was six feet two inches in his boots. + He was then a little lame from striking his knee against a tree. + His eye was so gray that it looked almost white, and he had a + troubled look on his colorless face. He had a piece of woolen + tied around his throat and was quite hoarse. Perhaps the throat + trouble from which he finally died had its origin about then. + Washington's boots were enormous. They were number 13. His + ordinary walking-shoes were number 11. His hands were large in + proportion, and he could not buy a glove to fit him and had to + have his gloves made to order. His mouth was his strong feature, + the lips being always tightly compressed. That day they were + compressed so tightly as to be painful to look at. At that time + he weighed two hundred pounds, and there was no surplus flesh + about him. He was tremendously muscled, and the fame of his great + strength was everywhere. His large tent when wrapped up with the + poles was so heavy that it required two men to place it in the + camp-wagon. Washington would lift it with one hand and throw it + in the wagon as easily as if it were a pair of saddle-bags. He + could hold a musket with one hand and shoot with precision as + easily as other men did with a horse-pistol. His lungs were his + weak point, and his voice was never strong. He was at that time + in the prime of life. His hair was a chestnut brown, his cheeks + were prominent, and his head was not large in contrast to every + other part of his body, which seemed large and bony at all + points. His finger-joints and wrists were so large as to be + genuine curiosities. As to his habits at that period I found out + much that might be interesting. He was an enormous eater, but was + content with bread and meat, if he had plenty of it. But hunger + seemed to put him in a rage. It was his custom to take a drink of + rum or whiskey on awakening in the morning. Of course all this + was changed when he grew old. I saw him at Alexandria a year + before he died. His hair was very gray, and his form was slightly + bent. His chest was very thin. He had false teeth, which did not + fit and pushed his under lip outward."<a id="footnotetag1-27" + name="footnotetag1-27"></a><a href= + "#footnote1-27"><sup>1</sup></a></p> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote1-27" name="footnote1-27"></a>[<b>Footnote + 1:</b> <a href="#footnotetag1-27">(return)</a> This letter, + recently printed, is in the collection of Dr. Toner, at + Washington. It contains some obvious errors, as in regard to + the color of the eyes, but it is nevertheless very interesting + and valuable.] + </blockquote> + + <p>This description is certainly not a flattering one, and all + other accounts as well as the best portraits prove that + Washington was a much handsomer man than this letter would + indicate. Yet the writer, despite his freedom from all illusions + and his readiness to state frankly all defects, was profoundly + impressed by Washington's appearance as he watched him meditating + by the camp-fire at the crisis of the country's fate, and herein + lies the principal interest of his description.</p> + + <p>This personal impressiveness, however, affected every one upon + all occasions.</p> + + <p>Mr. Rush, for instance, saw Washington go on one occasion to + open Congress. He drove to the hall in a handsome carriage of his + own, with his servants dressed in white liveries. When he had + alighted he stopped on the step, and pausing faced round to wait + for his secretary. The vast crowd looked at him in dead silence, + and then, when he turned away, broke into wild cheering. At his + second inauguration he was dressed in deep mourning for the death + of his nephew. He took the oath of office in the Senate Chamber, + and Major Forman, who was present, wrote in his diary: "Every eye + was on him. When he said, 'I, George Washington,' my blood seemed + to run cold and every one seemed to start." At the inauguration + of Adams, another eye-witness wrote that Washington, dressed in + black velvet, with a military hat and black cockade, was the + central figure in the scene, and when he left the chamber the + crowds followed him, cheering and shouting to the door of his own + house.</p> + + <p>There must have been something very impressive about a man + who, with no pretensions to the art of the orator and with no + touch of the charlatan, could so move and affect vast bodies of + men by his presence alone. But the people, with the keen eye of + affection, looked beyond the mere outward nobility of form. They + saw the soldier who had given them victory, the great statesman + who had led them out of confusion and faction to order and good + government. Party newspapers might rave, but the instinct of the + people was never at fault. They loved, trusted and well-nigh + worshiped Washington living, and they have honored and reverenced + him with an unchanging fidelity since his death, nearly a century + ago.</p> + + <p>But little more remains to be said. Washington had his faults, + for he was human; but they are not easy to point out, so perfect + was his mastery of himself. He was intensely reserved and very + silent, and these are the qualities which gave him the reputation + in history of being distant and unsympathetic. In truth, he had + not only warm affections and a generous heart, but there was a + strong vein of sentiment in his composition. At the same time he + was in no wise romantic, and the ruling element in his make-up + was prose, good solid prose, and not poetry. He did not have the + poetical and imaginative quality so strongly developed in + Lincoln. Yet he was not devoid of imagination, although it was + here that he was lacking, if anywhere. He saw facts, knew them, + mastered and used them, and never gave much play to fancy; but as + his business in life was with men and facts, this deficiency, if + it was one, was of little moment. He was also a man of the + strongest passions in every way, but he dominated them; they + never ruled him. Vigorous animal passions were inevitable, of + course, in a man of such a physical make-up as his. How far he + gave way to them in his youth no one knows, but the scandals + which many persons now desire to have printed, ostensibly for the + sake of truth, are, so far as I have been able to learn, with one + or two dubious exceptions, of entirely modern parentage. I have + run many of them to earth; nearly all are destitute of + contemporary authority, and they may be relegated to the + dust-heaps.<a id="footnotetag1-28" name= + "footnotetag1-28"></a><a href="#footnote1-28"><sup>1</sup></a> If + he gave way to these propensities in his youth, the only + conclusion that I have been able to come to is that he mastered + them when he reached man's estate.</p> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote1-28" name="footnote1-28"></a>[<b>Footnote + 1:</b> <a href="#footnotetag1-28">(return)</a> The charge in + the pamphlet purporting to give an account of the trial of the + New York conspirators in 1776 is of such doubtful origin and + character that it hardly merits consideration, and the only + other allusion is in the well-known intercepted letter of + Harrison, which is of doubtful authenticity in certain + passages, open to suspicion from having been intercepted and + published by the enemy and quite likely to have been at best + merely a coarse jest of a character very common at that period + and entirely in keeping with the notorious habits of life and + speech peculiar to the writer. (See Life of John Adams, iii. + 35.)] + </blockquote> + + <p>He had, too, a fierce temper, and although he gradually + subdued it, he would sometimes lose control of himself and burst + out into a tempest of rage. When he did so he would use strong + and even violent language, as he did at Kip's Landing and at + Monmouth. Well-intentioned persons in their desire to make him a + faultless being have argued at great length that Washington never + swore, and but for their argument the matter would never have + attracted much attention. He was anything but a profane man, but + the evidence is beyond question that if deeply angered he would + use a hearty English oath; and not seldom the action accompanied + the word, as when he rode among the fleeing soldiers at Kip's + Landing, striking them with his sword, and almost beside himself + at their cowardice. Judge Marshall used to tell also of an + occasion when Washington sent out an officer to cross a river and + bring back some information about the enemy, on which the action + of the morrow would depend. The officer was gone some time, came + back, and found the general impatiently pacing his tent. On being + asked what he had learned, he replied that the night was dark and + stormy, the river full of ice, and that he had not been able to + cross. Washington glared at him a moment, seized a large leaden + inkstand from the table, hurled it at the offender's head, and + said with a fierce oath, "Be off, and send me a <i>man</i>!" The + officer went, crossed the river, and brought back the + information.</p> + + <p>But although he would now and then give way to these + tremendous bursts of anger, Washington was never unjust. As he + said to one officer, "I never judge the propriety of actions by + after events;" and in that sound philosophy is found the secret + not only of much of his own success, but of the devotion of his + officers and men. He might be angry with them, but he was never + unfair. In truth, he was too generous to be unjust or even + over-severe to any one, and there is not a line in all his + writings which even suggests that he ever envied any man. So long + as the work in hand was done, he cared not who had the glory, and + he was perfectly magnanimous and perfectly at ease about his own + reputation. He never showed the slightest anxiety to write his + own memoirs, and he was not in the least alarmed when it was + proposed to publish the memoirs of other people, like General + Charles Lee, which would probably reflect upon him.</p> + + <p>He had the same confidence in the judgment of posterity that + he had in the future beyond the grave. He regarded death with + entire calmness and even indifference not only when it came to + him, but when in previous years it had threatened him. He loved + life and tasted of it deeply, but the courage which never forsook + him made him ready to face the inevitable at any moment with an + unruffled spirit. In this he was helped by his religious faith, + which was as simple as it was profound. He had been brought up in + the Protestant Episcopal Church, and to that church he always + adhered; for its splendid liturgy and stately forms appealed to + him and satisfied him. He loved it too as the church of his home + and his childhood. Yet he was as far as possible from being + sectarian, and there is not a word of his which shows anything + but the most entire liberality and toleration. He made no parade + of his religion, for in this as in other things he was perfectly + simple and sincere. He was tortured by no doubts or questionings, + but believed always in an overruling Providence and in a merciful + God, to whom he knelt and prayed in the day of darkness or in the + hour of triumph with a supreme and childlike confidence.</p> + <hr /> + + <p>As I bring these volumes to a close I am conscious that they + speak, so far as they speak at all, in a tone of almost unbroken + praise of the great man they attempt to portray. If this be so, + it is because I could come to no other conclusions. For many + years I have studied minutely the career of Washington, and with + every step the greatness of the man has grown upon me, for + analysis has failed to discover the act of his life which, under + the conditions of the time, I could unhesitatingly pronounce to + have been an error. Such has been my experience, and although my + deductions may be wrong, they at least have been carefully and + slowly made. I see in Washington a great soldier who fought a + trying war to a successful end impossible without him; a great + statesman who did more than all other men to lay the foundations + of a republic which has endured in prosperity for more than a + century. I find in him a marvelous judgment which was never at + fault, a penetrating vision which beheld the future of America + when it was dim to other eyes, a great intellectual force, a will + of iron, an unyielding grasp of facts, and an unequaled strength + of patriotic purpose. I see in him too a pure and high-minded + gentleman of dauntless courage and stainless honor, simple and + stately of manner, kind and generous of heart. Such he was in + truth. The historian and the biographer may fail to do him + justice, but the instinct of mankind will not fail. The real hero + needs not books to give him worshipers. George Washington will + always hold the love and reverence of men because they see + embodied in him the noblest possibilities of humanity.</p> + + <p> </p> + <hr /> + + <h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX for Volumes I & + II</h2> + + <div class="index"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">ACKERSON, DAVID,</p> + + <p class="i4">describes Washington's personal appearance, ii. + 386-388.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Adams, Abigail,</p> + + <p class="i4">on Washington's appearance in 1775, i. 137.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Adams, John,</p> + + <p class="i4">moves appointment of Washington as + commander-in-chief, i. 134;</p> + + <p class="i4">on political necessity for his appointment, + 135;</p> + + <p class="i4">and objections to it, 135;</p> + + <p class="i4">statement as to Washington's difficulties, + 163;</p> + + <p class="i4">over-sanguine as to American prospects, + 171;</p> + + <p class="i4">finds fault with Washington, 214, 215;</p> + + <p class="i4">one of few national statesmen, 252;</p> + + <p class="i4">on Washington's opinion of titles, ii. 52;</p> + + <p class="i4">advocates ceremony, 54;</p> + + <p class="i4">returns to United States, 137;</p> + + <p class="i4">attacked by Jefferson as a monarchist, 226;</p> + + <p class="i4">praised by Democrats as superior to Washington, + 251;</p> + + <p class="i4">his administration upheld by Washington, + 259;</p> + + <p class="i4">advised by Washington, 260;</p> + + <p class="i4">his inauguration, 276;</p> + + <p class="i4">sends special mission to France, 284;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges Washington to take command of provisional + army, 285;</p> + + <p class="i4">wishes to make Knox senior to Hamilton, + 286;</p> + + <p class="i4">censured by Washington, gives way, 287;</p> + + <p class="i4">lack of sympathy with Washington, 287;</p> + + <p class="i4">his nomination of Murray disapproved by + Washington, 292, 293;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, on immigration, + 326.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Adams, J.Q.,</p> + + <p class="i4">on weights and measures, ii. 81.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Adams, Samuel,</p> + + <p class="i4">not sympathized with by Washington in working + for independence, i. 131;</p> + + <p class="i4">his inability to sympathize with Washington, + 204;</p> + + <p class="i4">an enemy of Constitution, ii. 71;</p> + + <p class="i4">a genuine American, 309.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Alcudia, Duke de,</p> + + <p class="i4">interviews with Pinckney, ii. 166.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Alexander, Philip,</p> + + <p class="i4">hunts with Washington, i. 115.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Alien and Sedition Laws,</p> + + <p class="i4">approved by Washington and Federalists, ii. + 290, 297.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Ames, Fisher,</p> + + <p class="i4">speech on behalf of administration in Jay + treaty affair, ii. 210.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">André, Major,</p> + + <p class="i4">meets Arnold, i. 282;</p> + + <p class="i4">announces capture to Arnold, 284;</p> + + <p class="i4">confesses, 284;</p> + + <p class="i4">condemned and executed, 287;</p> + + <p class="i4">justice of the sentence, 287, 288;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's opinion of, 288, ii. 357.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Armstrong, John, Major,</p> + + <p class="i4">writes Newburg address, i. 335.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Army of the Revolution,</p> + + <p class="i4">at Boston, adopted by Congress, i. 134;</p> + + <p class="i4">its organization and character, 136-143;</p> + + <p class="i4">sectional jealousies in, at New York, 162;</p> + + <p class="i4">goes to pieces after defeat, 167, 175, 176;</p> + + <p class="i4">condition in winter of 1777, 186;</p> + + <p class="i4">difficulties between officers, 189;</p> + + <p class="i4">with foreign officers, 190-192;</p> + + <p class="i4">improvement as shown by condition after + Brandywine and Germantown, 200, 201;</p> + + <p class="i4">hard winter at Valley Forge, 228;</p> + + <p class="i4">maintained alive only by Washington, 227, 228, + 232;</p> + + <p class="i4">improved morale at Monmouth, 239;</p> + + <p class="i4">mutinies for lack of pay, 258;</p> + + <p class="i4">suffers during 1779, 270;</p> + + <p class="i4">bad condition in 1780, 279;</p> + + <p class="i4">again mutinies for pay, 291, 292, 295;</p> + + <p class="i4">conduct of troops, 292, 293;</p> + + <p class="i4">jealousy of people towards, 332;</p> + + <p class="i4">badly treated by States and by Congress, + 333;</p> + + <p class="i4">grows mutinous, 334;</p> + + <p class="i4">adopts Newburg addresses, 335, 336;</p> + + <p class="i4">ready for a military dictatorship, 338, + 340;</p> + + <p class="i4">farewell of Washington to, 345.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Arnold, Benedict,</p> + + <p class="i4">sent by Washington to attack Quebec, i. + 144;</p> + + <p class="i4">sent against Burgoyne, 210;</p> + + <p class="i4">plans treason, 281;</p> + + <p class="i4">shows loyalist letter to Washington, 282;</p> + + <p class="i4">meets André, 282;</p> + + <p class="i4">receives news of André's capture, + 284;</p> + + <p class="i4">escapes, 284, 285;</p> + + <p class="i4">previous benefits from Washington, 286;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's opinion of, 288;</p> + + <p class="i4">ravages Virginia, 303;</p> + + <p class="i4">sent back to New York, 303;</p> + + <p class="i4">one of the few men who deceived Washington, ii. + 336.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Arnold, Mrs.,</p> + + <p class="i4">entertains Washington at time of her husband's + treachery, i. 284, 285.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Articles of Confederation,</p> + + <p class="i4">their inadequacy early seen by Washington, i. + 297, 298; ii. 17.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Asgill, Capt.,</p> + + <p class="i4">selected for retaliation for murder of Huddy, + i. 328;</p> + + <p class="i4">efforts for his release, 329;</p> + + <p class="i4">release ordered by Congress, 330.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">BACHE, B.F.,</p> + + <p class="i4">publishes Jay treaty in "Aurora," ii. 185;</p> + + <p class="i4">joins in attack on Washington, 238, 244;</p> + + <p class="i4">rejoices over his retirement, 256.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Baker,——,</p> + + <p class="i4">works out a pedigree for Washington, i. 31.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Ball, Joseph,</p> + + <p class="i4">advises against sending Washington to sea, i. + 49, 50.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Barbadoes,</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's description of, i. 64.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Beckley, John,</p> + + <p class="i4">accuses Washington of embezzling, ii. 245.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Bernard, John,</p> + + <p class="i4">his conversation with Washington referred to, + i. 58, 107;</p> + + <p class="i4">describes encounter with Washington, ii. + 281-283;</p> + + <p class="i4">his description of Washington's conversation, + 343-348.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Blackwell, Rev. Dr.,</p> + + <p class="i4">calls on Washington with Dr. Logan, ii. + 264.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Blair, John,</p> + + <p class="i4">appointed to Supreme Court, ii. 73.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Bland, Mary,</p> + + <p class="i4">"Lowland Beauty," admired by Washington, i. 95, + 96.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Blount, Governor,</p> + + <p class="i4">pacifies Cherokees, ii. 94.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Boston,</p> + + <p class="i4">visit of Washington to, i. 97, 99;</p> + + <p class="i4">political troubles in, 120;</p> + + <p class="i4">British measures against condemned by Virginia, + 122, 123;</p> + + <p class="i4">appeals to colonies, 124;</p> + + <p class="i4">protests against Jay treaty, ii. 186;</p> + + <p class="i4">answered by Washington, 190.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Botetourt, Lord, Governor of Virginia,</p> + + <p class="i4">quarrels with Assembly, i. 121;</p> + + <p class="i4">manages to calm dissension, 122;</p> + + <p class="i4">on friendly terms with Washington, 122.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Braddock, General Edward,</p> + + <p class="i4">arrives in Virginia, i. 82;</p> + + <p class="i4">invites Washington to serve on his staff, + 82;</p> + + <p class="i4">respects him, 83;</p> + + <p class="i4">his character and unfitness for his position, + 83;</p> + + <p class="i4">despises provincials, 83;</p> + + <p class="i4">accepts Washington's advice as to dividing + force, 84;</p> + + <p class="i4">rebukes Washington for warning against ambush, + 85;</p> + + <p class="i4">insists on fighting by rule, 85;</p> + + <p class="i4">defeated and mortally wounded, 85;</p> + + <p class="i4">death and burial, 87.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Bradford, William,</p> + + <p class="i4">succeeds Randolph, ii. 246.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Brandywine,</p> + + <p class="i4">battle of, i. 196-198.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Bunker Hill,</p> + + <p class="i4">question of Washington regarding battle of, i. + 136.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Burgoyne, General John,</p> + + <p class="i4">junction of Howe with, feared by Washington, i. + 194, 195, 205, 206;</p> + + <p class="i4">significance of his defeat, 202;</p> + + <p class="i4">danger of his invasion foreseen by Washington, + 203-206;</p> + + <p class="i4">captures Ticonderoga, 207;</p> + + <p class="i4">outnumbered and defeated, 210;</p> + + <p class="i4">surrenders, 211.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Burke, Edmund,</p> + + <p class="i4">understands significance of Washington's + leadership, i. 202;</p> + + <p class="i4">unsettled by French Revolution, ii. 294.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">CABOT, GEORGE,</p> + + <p class="i4">entertains Lafayette's son, ii. 366.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Cadwalader, General,</p> + + <p class="i4">fails to cross Delaware to help Washington, i. + 180;</p> + + <p class="i4">duel with Conway, 226.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Calvert, Eleanor,</p> + + <p class="i4">misgivings of Washington over her marriage to + John Custis, i. 111.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Camden, battle of, i. 281.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Canada,</p> + + <p class="i4">captured by Wolfe, i. 94;</p> + + <p class="i4">expedition of Montgomery against, 143, 144;</p> + + <p class="i4">project of Conway cabal against, 222; 253;</p> + + <p class="i4">project of Lafayette to attack, 254;</p> + + <p class="i4">plan considered dangerous by Washington, 254, + 255;</p> + + <p class="i4">not undertaken by France, 256.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Carleton, Sir Guy,</p> + + <p class="i4">informs Washington of address of Commons for + peace, i. 324;</p> + + <p class="i4">suspected by Washington, 325;</p> + + <p class="i4">remonstrates against retaliation by Washington + for murder of</p> + + <p class="i2">Huddy, 328;</p> + + <p class="i4">disavows Lippencott, 328;</p> + + <p class="i4">fears plunder of New York city, 345;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges Indians to attack the United States, ii. + 102, 175.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Carlisle, Earl of,</p> + + <p class="i4">peace commissioner, i. 233.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Carlyle, Thomas,</p> + + <p class="i4">sneers at Washington, i. 4, 14;</p> + + <p class="i4">calls him "a bloodless Cromwell," i. 69, ii. + 332;</p> + + <p class="i4">fails to understand his reticence, i. 70;</p> + + <p class="i4">despises him for not seizing power, 341.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Carmichael, William,</p> + + <p class="i4">minister at Madrid, ii. 165;</p> + + <p class="i4">on commission regarding the Mississippi, + 166.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Carrington, Paul,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 208;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's friendship for, 363.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Cary, Mary,</p> + + <p class="i4">early love affair of Washington with, i. + 96.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Chamberlayne, Major,</p> + + <p class="i4">entertains Washington at Williams' Ferry, i. + 101.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Charleston,</p> + + <p class="i4">siege and capture of, i. 273, 274, 276.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Chastellux, Marquis de,</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's friendship for and letter to, ii. + 351;</p> + + <p class="i4">on Washington's training of horses, 380.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Cherokees,</p> + + <p class="i4">beaten by Sevier, ii. 89;</p> + + <p class="i4">pacified by Blount, 94,101.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Chester, Colonel,</p> + + <p class="i4">researches on Washington pedigree, i. 31.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Chickasaws,</p> + + <p class="i4">desert from St. Clair, ii. 96.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">China,</p> + + <p class="i4">honors Washington, i. 6.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Choctaws,</p> + + <p class="i4">peaceable in 1788, ii. 89.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Cincinnati, Society of the,</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's connection with, ii. 4.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Clarke, Governor,</p> + + <p class="i4">thinks Washington is invading popular rights, + i. 215.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Cleaveland, Rev.——,</p> + + <p class="i4">complimented by Washington, ii. 359.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Clinton, George,</p> + + <p class="i4">appealed to by Washington to attack Burgoyne, + i. 210;</p> + + <p class="i4">journey with Washington to Ticonderoga, + 343;</p> + + <p class="i4">enters New York city, 345;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 1;</p> + + <p class="i4">meets Washington on journey to inauguration, + 45;</p> + + <p class="i4">opponent of the Constitution, 71;</p> + + <p class="i4">orders seizure of French privateers, 153.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Clinton, Sir Henry,</p> + + <p class="i4">fails to help Burgoyne, i. 210;</p> + + <p class="i4">replaces Howe at Philadelphia, his character, + 232;</p> + + <p class="i4">tries to cut off Lafayette, 233;</p> + + <p class="i4">leaves Philadelphia, 234;</p> + + <p class="i4">defeats Lee at Monmouth, 236;</p> + + <p class="i4">retreats to New York, 238;</p> + + <p class="i4">withdraws from Newport, 248;</p> + + <p class="i4">makes a raid, 265;</p> + + <p class="i4">fortifies Stony Point, 268;</p> + + <p class="i4">his aimless warfare, 269, 270;</p> + + <p class="i4">after capturing Charleston returns to New York, + 276;</p> + + <p class="i4">tries to save André, 287;</p> + + <p class="i4">alarmed at attacks on New York, 306;</p> + + <p class="i4">jealous of Cornwallis, refuses to send + reinforcements, 308;</p> + + <p class="i4">deceived by Washington, 311;</p> + + <p class="i4">sends Graves to relieve Cornwallis, 312.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Congress, Continental,</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's journey to, i. 128;</p> + + <p class="i4">its character and ability, 129;</p> + + <p class="i4">its state papers, 129;</p> + + <p class="i4">adjourns, 132;</p> + + <p class="i4">in second session, resolves to petition the + king, 133;</p> + + <p class="i4">adopts Massachusetts army and makes Washington + commander, 134;</p> + + <p class="i4">reasons for his choice, 135;</p> + + <p class="i4">adheres to short-term enlistments, 149;</p> + + <p class="i4">influenced to declare independence by + Washington, 160;</p> + + <p class="i4">hampers Washington in campaign of New York, + 167;</p> + + <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, 170, 179, 212, 225, + 229, 266, 278, 295, 321, 323, 333;</p> + + <p class="i4">takes steps to make army permanent, 171;</p> + + <p class="i4">its over-confidence, 171;</p> + + <p class="i4">insists on holding Forts Washington and Lee, + 174;</p> + + <p class="i4">dissatisfied with Washington's inactivity, + 187;</p> + + <p class="i4">criticises his proclamation requiring oath of + allegiance, 189;</p> + + <p class="i4">makes unwise appointments of officers, 189;</p> + + <p class="i4">especially of foreigners, 190-192; 248, + 249;</p> + + <p class="i4">applauds Washington's efforts at Germantown, + 200;</p> + + <p class="i4">deposes Schuyler and St. Clair, 208;</p> + + <p class="i4">appoints Gates, 210;</p> + + <p class="i4">irritation against Washington, 212-215;</p> + + <p class="i4">falls under guidance of Conway cabal, 221, + 222;</p> + + <p class="i4">discovers incompetence of cabal, 223;</p> + + <p class="i4">meddles with prisoners and officers, 231;</p> + + <p class="i4">rejects English peace offers, 233;</p> + + <p class="i4">makes alliance with France, 241;</p> + + <p class="i4">suppresses protests of officers against + D'Estaing, 244;</p> + + <p class="i4">decline in its character, 257;</p> + + <p class="i4">becomes feeble, 258;</p> + + <p class="i4">improvement urged by Washington, 259, 266;</p> + + <p class="i4">appoints Gates to command in South, 268;</p> + + <p class="i4">loses interest in war, 278;</p> + + <p class="i4">asks Washington to name general for the South, + 295;</p> + + <p class="i4">considers reduction of army, 313;</p> + + <p class="i4">elated by Yorktown, 323;</p> + + <p class="i4">its unfair treatment of army, 333, 335;</p> + + <p class="i4">driven from Philadelphia by Pennsylvania + troops, 340;</p> + + <p class="i4">passes half-pay act, 342;</p> + + <p class="i4">receives commission of Washington, 347-349;</p> + + <p class="i4">disbands army, ii. 6;</p> + + <p class="i4">indifferent to Western expansion, 15;</p> + + <p class="i4">continues to decline, 22;</p> + + <p class="i4">merit of its Indian policy, 88.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Congress, Federal,</p> + + <p class="i4">establishes departments, ii. 64;</p> + + <p class="i4">opened by Washington, 78, 79;</p> + + <p class="i4">ceremonial abolished by Jefferson, 79;</p> + + <p class="i4">recommendations made to by Washington, + 81-83;</p> + + <p class="i4">acts upon them, 81-83;</p> + + <p class="i4">creates commission to treat with Creeks, + 90;</p> + + <p class="i4">increases army, 94, 99;</p> + + <p class="i4">fails to solve financial problems, 106;</p> + + <p class="i4">debates Hamilton's report on credit, 107, + 108;</p> + + <p class="i4">establishes national bank, 109;</p> + + <p class="i4">establishes protective revenue duties, 113;</p> + + <p class="i4">imposes an excise tax, 123;</p> + + <p class="i4">prepares for retaliation on Great Britain, + 176;</p> + + <p class="i4">Senate ratifies Jay treaty conditionally, + 184;</p> + + <p class="i4">House demands papers, 207;</p> + + <p class="i4">debates over its right to concur in treaty, + 208-210;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses to adjourn on Washington's birthday, + 247;</p> + + <p class="i4">prepares for war with France, 285;</p> + + <p class="i4">passes Alien and Sedition Laws, 296.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Constitution, Federal,</p> + + <p class="i4">necessity of, foreseen by Washington, ii. + 17-18, 23, 24;</p> + + <p class="i4">the Annapolis Convention, 23-29;</p> + + <p class="i4">the Federal Convention, 30-36;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's attitude in, 31,34;</p> + + <p class="i4">his influence, 36;</p> + + <p class="i4">campaign for ratification, 38-41.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Contrecoeur, Captain,</p> + + <p class="i4">leader of French and Indians in Virginia, i. + 75.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">"Conway cabal,"</p> + + <p class="i4">elements of in Congress, i. 214, 215;</p> + + <p class="i4">in the army, 215;</p> + + <p class="i4">organized by Conway, 217;</p> + + <p class="i4">discovered by Washington, 220;</p> + + <p class="i4">gets control of Board of War, 221;</p> + + <p class="i4">tries to make Washington resign, 222, 224;</p> + + <p class="i4">fails to invade Canada or provide supplies, + 222, 223;</p> + + <p class="i4">harassed by Washington's letters, 223,226;</p> + + <p class="i4">breaks down, 226.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Conway, Moncure D.,</p> + + <p class="i4">his life of Randolph, ii. 65, note, 196;</p> + + <p class="i4">his defense of Randolph in Fauchet letter + affair, 196;</p> + + <p class="i4">on Washington's motives, 200;</p> + + <p class="i4">on his unfair treatment of Randolph, 201, + 202.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Conway, Thomas,</p> + + <p class="i4">demand for higher rank refused by Washington, + i. 216;</p> + + <p class="i4">plots against him, 217;</p> + + <p class="i4">his letter discovered by Washington, 221;</p> + + <p class="i4">made inspector-general, 221, 222;</p> + + <p class="i4">complains to Congress of his reception at camp, + 225;</p> + + <p class="i4">resigns, has duel with Cadwalader, 226;</p> + + <p class="i4">apologizes to Washington and leaves country, + 226.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Cooke, Governor,</p> + + <p class="i4">remonstrated with by Washington for raising + state troops, i. 186.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Cornwallis, Lord,</p> + + <p class="i4">pursues Washington in New Jersey, i. 175;</p> + + <p class="i4">repulsed at Assunpink, 181;</p> + + <p class="i4">outgeneraled by Washington, 182;</p> + + <p class="i4">surprises Sullivan at Brandywine, 197;</p> + + <p class="i4">defeats Lee at Monmouth, 236;</p> + + <p class="i4">pursues Greene in vain, 302;</p> + + <p class="i4">wins battle of Guilford Court House, 302;</p> + + <p class="i4">retreats into Virginia, 302;</p> + + <p class="i4">joins British troops in Virginia, 303;</p> + + <p class="i4">his dangerous position, 304;</p> + + <p class="i4">urged by Clinton to return troops to New York, + 306;</p> + + <p class="i4">plunders Virginia, 307;</p> + + <p class="i4">defeats Lafayette and Wayne, 307;</p> + + <p class="i4">wishes to retreat South, 307;</p> + + <p class="i4">ordered by ministry to stay on the Chesapeake, + 307;</p> + + <p class="i4">abandoned by Clinton, 308;</p> + + <p class="i4">establishes himself at Yorktown, 308;</p> + + <p class="i4">withdraws into town, 315;</p> + + <p class="i4">besieged, 316, 317;</p> + + <p class="i4">surrenders, 317;</p> + + <p class="i4">outgeneraled by Washington, 319, 320.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Cowpens,</p> + + <p class="i4">battle of, i. 301.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Craik, Dr.,</p> + + <p class="i4">attends Washington in last illness, ii. + 300-302;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's friendship with, 363.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Creeks,</p> + + <p class="i4">their relations with Spaniards, ii. 89, 90;</p> + + <p class="i4">quarrel with Georgia, 90;</p> + + <p class="i4">agree to treaty with United States, 91;</p> + + <p class="i4">stirred up by Spain, 101.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Curwen, Samuel,</p> + + <p class="i4">on Washington's appearance, i. 137.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Cushing, Caleb,</p> + + <p class="i4">appointed to Supreme Court, ii. 72.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Custis, Daniel Parke,</p> + + <p class="i4">first husband of Martha Washington, i. 101.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Custis, G.W.P.,</p> + + <p class="i4">tells mythical story of Washington and the + colt, i. 45;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's care for, ii. 369.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Custis, John,</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's tenderness toward, i. 111;</p> + + <p class="i4">care for his education and marriage, 111;</p> + + <p class="i4">hunts with Washington, 141;</p> + + <p class="i4">death of, 322.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Custis, Nellie,</p> + + <p class="i4">marriage with Washington's nephew, ii. 281, + 369;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, 377.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">DAGWORTHY, CAPTAIN,</p> + + <p class="i4">claims to outrank Washington in Virginia army, + i. 91, 97.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Dallas, Alexander,</p> + + <p class="i4">protests to Genet against sailing of Little + Sarah, ii. 155.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Dalton, Senator,</p> + + <p class="i4">entertains Washington at Newburyport, ii. + 359.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Deane, Silas,</p> + + <p class="i4">promises commissions to foreign military + adventurers, i. 190.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">De Barras,</p> + + <p class="i4">jealous of De Grasse, decides not to aid him, + i. 310;</p> + + <p class="i4">persuaded to do so by Washington and + Rochambeau, 311;</p> + + <p class="i4">reaches Chesapeake, 312.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">De Grasse, Comte,</p> + + <p class="i4">announces intention of coming to Washington, i. + 305;</p> + + <p class="i4">warned by Washington not to come to New York, + 305;</p> + + <p class="i4">sails to Chesapeake, 306;</p> + + <p class="i4">asked to meet Washington there, 308;</p> + + <p class="i4">reaches Chesapeake, 312;</p> + + <p class="i4">repulses British fleet, 312;</p> + + <p class="i4">wishes to return to West Indies, 315;</p> + + <p class="i4">persuaded to remain by Washington, 315;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses to join Washington in attack on + Charleston, 322;</p> + + <p class="i4">returns to West Indies, 322.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">De Guichen,——,</p> + + <p class="i4">commander of French fleet in West Indies, i. + 280;</p> + + <p class="i4">appealed to for aid by Washington, 281;</p> + + <p class="i4">returns home, 282.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Delancey, Oliver,</p> + + <p class="i4">escapes American attack, i. 306.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Democratic party,</p> + + <p class="i4">its formation as a French party, ii. 225;</p> + + <p class="i4">furnished with catch-words by Jefferson, + 226;</p> + + <p class="i4">with a newspaper organ, 227;</p> + + <p class="i4">not ready to oppose Washington for president in + 1792, 235;</p> + + <p class="i4">organized against treasury measure, 236;</p> + + <p class="i4">stimulated by French Revolution, 238;</p> + + <p class="i4">supports Genet, 237;</p> + + <p class="i4">begins to attack Washington, 238;</p> + + <p class="i4">his opinion of it, 239, 240, 258, 261, 267, + 268;</p> + + <p class="i4">forms clubs on French model, 241;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's opinion of, 242, 243;</p> + + <p class="i4">continues to abuse him, 244, 245, 250, 252;</p> + + <p class="i4">exults at his retirement, 256;</p> + + <p class="i4">prints slanders, 257.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Demont, William,</p> + + <p class="i4">betrays plans of Fort Washington to Howe, i. + 175.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">D'Estaing, Admiral,</p> + + <p class="i4">reaches America, i. 242;</p> + + <p class="i4">welcomed by Washington, 243;</p> + + <p class="i4">fails to cut off Howe and goes to Newport, + 243;</p> + + <p class="i4">after battle with Howe goes to Boston, 244;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, 246;</p> + + <p class="i4">sails to West Indies, 246;</p> + + <p class="i4">second letter of Washington to, 247;</p> + + <p class="i4">attacks Savannah, 248;</p> + + <p class="i4">withdraws, 248.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">De Rochambeau, Comte,</p> + + <p class="i4">arrives at Newport, i. 277;</p> + + <p class="i4">ordered to await second division of army, + 278;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses to attack New York, 280;</p> + + <p class="i4">wishes a conference with Washington, 282;</p> + + <p class="i4">meets him at Hartford, 282;</p> + + <p class="i4">disapproves attacking Florida, 301;</p> + + <p class="i4">joins Washington before New York, 306;</p> + + <p class="i4">persuades De Barras to join De Grasse, 311;</p> + + <p class="i4">accompanies Washington to Yorktown, 314.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Dickinson, John,</p> + + <p class="i4">commands scouts at Monmouth, i. 326.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Digby, Admiral,</p> + + <p class="i4">bitter comments of Washington on, i. 325.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Dinwiddie, Governor,</p> + + <p class="i4">remonstrates against French encroachments, i. + 66;</p> + + <p class="i4">sends Washington on mission to French, 66;</p> + + <p class="i4">quarrels with the Virginia Assembly, 71;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, 73;</p> + + <p class="i4">wishes Washington to attack French, 79;</p> + + <p class="i4">tries to quiet discussions between regular and + provincial troops, 80;</p> + + <p class="i4">military schemes condemned by Washington, + 91;</p> + + <p class="i4">prevents his getting a royal commission, + 93.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Diplomatic History:</p> + + <p class="i4">refusal by Washington of special privileges to + French minister, ii. 59-61;</p> + + <p class="i4">slow growth of idea of non-intervention, 132, + 133;</p> + + <p class="i4">difficulties owing to French Revolution, + 134;</p> + + <p class="i4">to English retention of frontier posts, + 135;</p> + + <p class="i4">attitude of Spain, 135;</p> + + <p class="i4">relations with Barbary States, 136;</p> + + <p class="i4">mission of Gouverneur Morris to sound English + feeling, 137;</p> + + <p class="i4">assertion by Washington of non-intervention + policy toward Europe, 145, 146;</p> + + <p class="i4">issue of neutrality proclamation, 147, 148;</p> + + <p class="i4">its importance, 148;</p> + + <p class="i4">mission of Genet, 148-162;</p> + + <p class="i4">guarded attitude of Washington toward + émigrés, 151;</p> + + <p class="i4">excesses of Genet, 151;</p> + + <p class="i4">neutrality enforced, 153, 154;</p> + + <p class="i4">the Little Sarah episode, 154-157;</p> + + <p class="i4">recall of Genet demanded, 158;</p> + + <p class="i4">futile missions of Carmichael and Short to + Spain, 165, 166;</p> + + <p class="i4">successful treaty of Thomas Pinckney, + 166-168;</p> + + <p class="i4">question as to binding nature of French treaty + of commerce, 169-171;</p> + + <p class="i4">irritating relations with England, 173-176;</p> + + <p class="i4">Jay's mission, 177-184;</p> + + <p class="i4">the questions at issue, 180, 181;</p> + + <p class="i4">terms of the treaty agreed upon, 182;</p> + + <p class="i4">good and bad points, 183;</p> + + <p class="i4">ratified by Senate, 184;</p> + + <p class="i4">signing delayed by renewal of provision order, + 185;</p> + + <p class="i4">war with England prevented by signing, 205;</p> + + <p class="i4">difficulties with France over Morris and + Monroe, 211-214;</p> + + <p class="i4">doings of Monroe, 212, 213;</p> + + <p class="i4">United States compromised by him, 213, 214;</p> + + <p class="i4">Monroe replaced by Pinckney, 214;</p> + + <p class="i4">review of Washington's foreign policy, + 216-219;</p> + + <p class="i4">mission of Pinckney, Marshall, and Gerry to + France, 284;</p> + + <p class="i4">the X.Y.Z. affair, 285.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Donop, Count,</p> + + <p class="i4">drives Griffin out of New Jersey, i. 180;</p> + + <p class="i4">killed at Fort Mercer, 217.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Dorchester, Lord.</p> + + <p class="i4">See Carleton.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Duane, James,</p> + + <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, i. 294, 329.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Dumas, Comte,</p> + + <p class="i4">describes enthusiasm of people for Washington, + i. 288.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Dunbar, Colonel,</p> + + <p class="i4">connection with Braddock's expedition, i. 84, + 87.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Dunmore, Lord,</p> + + <p class="i4">arrives in Virginia as governor, i. 122;</p> + + <p class="i4">on friendly terms with Washington, 122, + 123;</p> + + <p class="i4">dissolves assembly, 123.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Duplaine, French consul,</p> + + <p class="i4">exequatur of revoked, ii. 159.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">EDEN, WILLIAM,</p> + + <p class="i4">peace commissioner, i. 233.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Edwards, Jonathan,</p> + + <p class="i4">a typical New England American, ii. 309.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Emerson, Rev. Dr.,</p> + + <p class="i4">describes Washington's reforms in army before + Boston, i. 140.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Emigrés,</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's treatment of, ii. 151, 253.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">England,</p> + + <p class="i4">honors Washington, i. 20;</p> + + <p class="i4">arrogant behavior toward colonists, 80, 81, 82, + 148;</p> + + <p class="i4">its policy towards Boston condemned by + Virginia, 119, 121, 123, 126;</p> + + <p class="i4">by Washington, 124, 125,126;</p> + + <p class="i4">sends incompetent officers to America, 155, + 201, 202, 233;</p> + + <p class="i4">stupidity of its operations, 203, 205, 206, + 265;</p> + + <p class="i4">sincerity of its desire for peace doubted by + Washington, 324, 325;</p> + + <p class="i4">arrogant conduct of toward the United States + after peace, ii. 24, 25;</p> + + <p class="i4">stirs up the Six Nations and Northwestern + Indians, 92, 94, 101;</p> + + <p class="i4">folly of her policy, 102;</p> + + <p class="i4">sends Hammond as minister, 169;</p> + + <p class="i4">its opportunity to win United States as ally + against France, 171, 172;</p> + + <p class="i4">adopts contrary policy of opposition, 172, + 173;</p> + + <p class="i4">adopts "provision order," 174;</p> + + <p class="i4">incites Indians against United States, 175;</p> + + <p class="i4">indignation of America against, 176;</p> + + <p class="i4">receives Jay well, but refuses to yield points + at issue, 180;</p> + + <p class="i4">insists on monopoly of West India trade, + 180;</p> + + <p class="i4">and on impressment, 181;</p> + + <p class="i4">later history of, 181;</p> + + <p class="i4">renews provision order, 185;</p> + + <p class="i4">danger of war with, 193;</p> + + <p class="i4">avoided by Jay treaty, 205;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington said to sympathize with England, + 252;</p> + + <p class="i4">his real hostility toward, 254;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's opinion of liberty in, 344.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Ewing, General James,</p> + + <p class="i4">fails to help Washington at Trenton, i. + 180.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">FAIRFAX, BRYAN,</p> + + <p class="i4">hunts with Washington, i. 115;</p> + + <p class="i4">remonstrates with Washington against violence + of patriots, 124;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's replies to, 124, 126, 127;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to in Revolution, ii. + 366.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Fairfax, George,</p> + + <p class="i4">married to Miss Cary, i. 55;</p> + + <p class="i4">accompanies Washington on surveying expedition, + 58;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, 133.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Fairfax, Mrs.——,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 367.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Fairfax, Thomas, Lord,</p> + + <p class="i4">his career in England, i. 55;</p> + + <p class="i4">comes to his Virginia estates, 55;</p> + + <p class="i4">his character, 55;</p> + + <p class="i4">his friendship for Washington, 56;</p> + + <p class="i4">sends him to survey estates, 56;</p> + + <p class="i4">plans a manor across the Blue Ridge, 59;</p> + + <p class="i4">secures for Washington position as public + surveyor, 60;</p> + + <p class="i4">probably influential in securing his + appointment as envoy to</p> + + <p class="i2">French, 66;</p> + + <p class="i4">hunts with Washington, 115;</p> + + <p class="i4">his death remembered by Washington, ii. + 366.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Fairlie, Major,</p> + + <p class="i4">amuses Washington, ii. 374.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Farewell Address, ii. 248, 249.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Fauchet, M.,——,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of, incriminating Randolph, ii. 195,196, + 202.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Fauntleroy, Betsy,</p> + + <p class="i4">love affair of Washington with, i. 97.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Fauquier, Francis, Governor,</p> + + <p class="i4">at Washington's wedding, i. 101.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Federal courts,</p> + + <p class="i4">suggested by Washington, i. 150.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">"Federalist,"</p> + + <p class="i4">circulated by Washington, ii. 40.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Federalist party,</p> + + <p class="i4">begun by Hamilton's controversy with Jefferson, + ii. 230;</p> + + <p class="i4">supports Washington for reëlection, + 235;</p> + + <p class="i4">organized in support of financial measures, + 236;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington looked upon by Democrats as its + head, 244, 247;</p> + + <p class="i4">only its members trusted by Washington, 246, + 247, 259, 260, 261;</p> + + <p class="i4">becomes a British party, 255;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington considers himself a member of, + 269-274;</p> + + <p class="i4">the only American party until 1800, 273;</p> + + <p class="i4">strengthened by X, Y, Z affair, 285;</p> + + <p class="i4">dissensions in, over army appointments, + 286-290;</p> + + <p class="i4">its horror at French Revolution, 294, 295;</p> + + <p class="i4">attempts of Washington to heal divisions in, + 298.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Fenno's newspaper,</p> + + <p class="i4">used by Hamilton against the "National + Gazette," ii. 230.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Finances of the Revolution,</p> + + <p class="i4">effect of paper money on war, i. 258, 262;</p> + + <p class="i4">difficulties in paying troops, 258;</p> + + <p class="i4">labors of Robert Morris, 259, 264, 312;</p> + + <p class="i4">connection of Washington with, 263;</p> + + <p class="i4">continued collapse, 280, 290, 312.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Financial History,</p> + + <p class="i4">bad condition in 1789, ii. 105;</p> + + <p class="i4">decay of credit, paper, and revenue, 106;</p> + + <p class="i4">futile propositions, 106;</p> + + <p class="i4">Hamilton's report on credit, 107;</p> + + <p class="i4">debate over assumption of state debt, 107;</p> + + <p class="i4">bargain between Hamilton and Jefferson, + 108;</p> + + <p class="i4">establishment of bank, 109;</p> + + <p class="i4">other measures adopted, 112;</p> + + <p class="i4">protection in the first Congress, 112-115;</p> + + <p class="i4">the excise tax imposed, 123;</p> + + <p class="i4">opposition to, 123-127;</p> + + <p class="i4">"Whiskey Rebellion," 127-128.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Fishbourn, Benjamin,</p> + + <p class="i4">nomination rejected by Senate, ii. 63.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Fontanes, M. de,</p> + + <p class="i4">delivers funeral oration on Washington, i. + 1.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Forbes, General,</p> + + <p class="i4">renews attack on French in Ohio, i. 93.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Forman, Major,</p> + + <p class="i4">describes impressiveness of Washington, ii. + 389.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Fox, Charles James,</p> + + <p class="i4">understands significance of Washington's + leadership, i. 202.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">France,</p> + + <p class="i4">pays honors to Washington, i. I, 6;</p> + + <p class="i4">war with England, see French and Indian + war;</p> + + <p class="i4">takes possession of Ohio, 65;</p> + + <p class="i4">considers Jumonville assassinated by + Washington, 74;</p> + + <p class="i4">importance of alliance with foreseen by + Washington, 191;</p> + + <p class="i4">impressed by battle of Germantown, 200;</p> + + <p class="i4">makes treaty of alliance with United States, + 241;</p> + + <p class="i4">sends D'Estaing, 243;</p> + + <p class="i4">declines to attack Canada, 256;</p> + + <p class="i4">sends army and fleet, 274, 277;</p> + + <p class="i4">relations of French to Washington, 318, + 319;</p> + + <p class="i4">absolute necessity of their naval aid, 318, + 319;</p> + + <p class="i4">Revolution in, applauded by America, ii. 138, + 139, 142;</p> + + <p class="i4">real character understood by Washington and + others, 139-142, 295;</p> + + <p class="i4">debate over in America, 142;</p> + + <p class="i4">question of relations with United States, 143, + 144;</p> + + <p class="i4">warned by Washington, 144, 145;</p> + + <p class="i4">neutrality toward declared, 147;</p> + + <p class="i4">tries to drive United States into alliance, + 149;</p> + + <p class="i4">terms of the treaty with, 169;</p> + + <p class="i4">latter held to be no longer binding, + 169-171;</p> + + <p class="i4">abrogates it, 171;</p> + + <p class="i4">demands recall of Morris, 211;</p> + + <p class="i4">mission of Monroe to, 211-214;</p> + + <p class="i4">makes vague promises, 212, 213;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's fairness toward, 253;</p> + + <p class="i4">tries to bully or corrupt American ministers, + 284;</p> + + <p class="i4">the X, Y, Z affair, 285;</p> + + <p class="i4">war with not expected by Washington, 291;</p> + + <p class="i4">danger of concession to, 292, 293;</p> + + <p class="i4">progress of Revolution in, 294.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Franklin, Benjamin,</p> + + <p class="i4">gets wagons for Braddock's expedition, i. + 84;</p> + + <p class="i4">remark on Howe in Philadelphia, 219;</p> + + <p class="i4">national, like Washington, 252, ii. 8;</p> + + <p class="i4">despairs of success of Constitutional + Convention, 35;</p> + + <p class="i4">his unquestioned Americanism, 309;</p> + + <p class="i4">respect of Washington for, 344, 346, 364.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Frederick II., the Great,</p> + + <p class="i4">his opinion of Trenton campaign, i. 183;</p> + + <p class="i4">of Monmouth campaign, 239.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">French and Indian war, i. 64-94;</p> + + <p class="i4">inevitable conflict, 65;</p> + + <p class="i4">efforts to negotiate, 66, 67;</p> + + <p class="i4">hostilities begun, 72;</p> + + <p class="i4">the Jumonville affair, 74;</p> + + <p class="i4">defeat of Washington, 76;</p> + + <p class="i4">Braddock's campaign, 82-88;</p> + + <p class="i4">ravages in Virginia, 90;</p> + + <p class="i4">carried to a favorable conclusion by Pitt, 93, + 94.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Freneau, Philip,</p> + + <p class="i4">brought to Philadelphia and given clerkship by + Jefferson, ii. 227;</p> + + <p class="i4">attacks Adams, Hamilton, and Washington in + "National Gazette," 227;</p> + + <p class="i4">makes conflicting statements as to Jefferson's + share in the paper, 227, 228;</p> + + <p class="i4">the first to attack Washington, 238.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Fry, Colonel,</p> + + <p class="i4">commands a Virginia regiment against French and + Indians, i. 71;</p> + + <p class="i4">dies, leaving Washington in command, 75.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">GAGE, GENERAL THOMAS,</p> + + <p class="i4">conduct at Boston condemned by Washington, i. + 126;</p> + + <p class="i4">his treatment of prisoners protested against by + Washington, 145;</p> + + <p class="i4">sends an arrogant reply, 147;</p> + + <p class="i4">second letter of Washington to, 147, 156.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Gallatin, Albert,</p> + + <p class="i4">connection with Whiskey Rebellion, ii. 129.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Gates, Horatio,</p> + + <p class="i4">visits Mt. Vernon, his character, i. 132;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses to cooperate with Washington at + Trenton, 180;</p> + + <p class="i4">his appointment as commander against Burgoyne + urged, 208;</p> + + <p class="i4">chosen by Congress, 209;</p> + + <p class="i4">his part in defeating Burgoyne, 210;</p> + + <p class="i4">neglects to inform Washington, 211;</p> + + <p class="i4">loses his head and wishes to supplant + Washington, 215;</p> + + <p class="i4">forced to send troops South, 216, 217;</p> + + <p class="i4">his attitude discovered by Washington, 221;</p> + + <p class="i4">makes feeble efforts at opposition, 221, + 223;</p> + + <p class="i4">correspondence with Washington, 221, 223, + 226;</p> + + <p class="i4">becomes head of board of war, 221;</p> + + <p class="i4">quarrels with Wilkinson, 223;</p> + + <p class="i4">sent to his command, 226;</p> + + <p class="i4">fears attack of British on Boston, 265;</p> + + <p class="i4">sent by Congress to command in South, 268;</p> + + <p class="i4">defeated at Camden, 281, 294;</p> + + <p class="i4">loses support of Congress, 294.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Genet, Edmond Charles,</p> + + <p class="i4">arrives as French minister, ii. 148;</p> + + <p class="i4">his character, 149;</p> + + <p class="i4">violates neutrality, 151;</p> + + <p class="i4">his journey to Philadelphia, 151;</p> + + <p class="i4">reception by Washington, 152;</p> + + <p class="i4">complains of it, 153;</p> + + <p class="i4">makes demands upon State Department, 153;</p> + + <p class="i4">protests at seizure of privateers, 153;</p> + + <p class="i4">insists on sailing of Little Sarah, 155;</p> + + <p class="i4">succeeds in getting vessel away, 157;</p> + + <p class="i4">his recall demanded, 158;</p> + + <p class="i4">reproaches Jefferson, 158;</p> + + <p class="i4">remains in America, 158;</p> + + <p class="i4">threatens to appeal from Washington to + Massachusetts, 159;</p> + + <p class="i4">demands denial from Washington of Jay's + statements, 159;</p> + + <p class="i4">loses popular support, 160;</p> + + <p class="i4">tries to raise a force to invade Southwest, + 161;</p> + + <p class="i4">prevented by state and federal authorities, + 162;</p> + + <p class="i4">his arrival the signal for divisions of + parties, 237;</p> + + <p class="i4">hurts Democratic party by his excesses, + 241;</p> + + <p class="i4">suggests clubs, 241.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">George IV.,</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's opinion of, ii. 346.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Georgia,</p> + + <p class="i4">quarrels with Creeks, asks aid of United + States, ii. 90;</p> + + <p class="i4">becomes dissatisfied with treaty, 91;</p> + + <p class="i4">disregards treaties of the United States, + 103.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Gerard, M.,</p> + + <p class="i4">notifies Washington of return of D'Estaing, i. + 246.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Germantown,</p> + + <p class="i4">battle of, i. 199.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Gerry, Elbridge,</p> + + <p class="i4">on special mission to France, ii. 284;</p> + + <p class="i4">disliked by Washington, 292.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Giles, W.B.,</p> + + <p class="i4">attacks Washington in Congress, ii. 251, + 252.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Gist, Christopher,</p> + + <p class="i4">accompanies Washington on his mission to + French, i. 66;</p> + + <p class="i4">wishes to shoot French Indians, 68.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Gordon,——,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, i. 227.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Graves, Admiral,</p> + + <p class="i4">sent to relieve Cornwallis, i. 312; defeated by + De Grasse, 312.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Grayson, William,</p> + + <p class="i4">hunts with Washington, i. 115; letter to, ii. + 22.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Green Springs,</p> + + <p class="i4">battle of, i. 307.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Greene, General Nathanael,</p> + + <p class="i4">commands at Long Island, ill with fever, i. + 164;</p> + + <p class="i4">wishes forts on Hudson held, 174;</p> + + <p class="i4">late in attacking at Germantown, 199;</p> + + <p class="i4">conducts retreat, 200;</p> + + <p class="i4">succeeds Mifflin as quartermaster-general, + 232;</p> + + <p class="i4">selected by Washington to command in South, + 268;</p> + + <p class="i4">commands army at New York in absence of + Washington, 282;</p> + + <p class="i4">appointed to command Southern army, 295;</p> + + <p class="i4">retreats from Cornwallis, 302;</p> + + <p class="i4">fights battle of Guilford Court House, 302;</p> + + <p class="i4">clears Southern States of enemy, 302;</p> + + <p class="i4">strong position, 304;</p> + + <p class="i4">reinforced by Washington, 322;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter to, 325;</p> + + <p class="i4">his military capacity early recognized by + Washington, ii. 334;</p> + + <p class="i4">amuses Washington, 374.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Greene, Mrs.——,</p> + + <p class="i4">dances three hours with Washington, ii. + 380.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Grenville, Lord,</p> + + <p class="i4">denies that ministry has incited Indians + against United States, ii. 175;</p> + + <p class="i4">receives Jay, 180;</p> + + <p class="i4">declines to grant United States trade with West + Indies, 181.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Griffin, David,</p> + + <p class="i4">commissioner to treat with Creeks, ii. 90.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Griffin,——,</p> + + <p class="i4">fails to help Washington at Trenton, i. + 180.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Grymes, Lucy,</p> + + <p class="i4">the "Lowland Beauty," love affair of Washington + with, i. 95;</p> + + <p class="i4">marries Henry Lee, 96.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">HALDIMAND, SIR FREDERICK,</p> + + <p class="i4">leads Indians against colonists, i. 325.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Hale, Nathan, compared with André, i. + 288.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Half-King,</p> + + <p class="i4">kept to English alliance by Washington, i. + 68;</p> + + <p class="i4">his criticism of Washington's first campaign, + 76.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Hamilton, Alexander,</p> + + <p class="i4">forces Gates to send back troops to Washington, + i. 216, 217;</p> + + <p class="i4">remark on councils of war before Monmouth, + 234;</p> + + <p class="i4">informs Washington of Arnold's treason, + 284;</p> + + <p class="i4">sent to intercept Arnold, 285;</p> + + <p class="i4">writes letters on government and finance, + 298;</p> + + <p class="i4">leads attack at Yorktown, i. 316;</p> + + <p class="i4">requests release of Asgill, 329;</p> + + <p class="i4">aids Washington in Congress, 333;</p> + + <p class="i4">only man beside Washington and Franklin to + realize American future, ii. 7;</p> + + <p class="i4">letters of Washington to on necessity of a + strong government, 17, 18;</p> + + <p class="i4">writes letters to Duane and Morris, 19;</p> + + <p class="i4">speech in Federal Convention and departure, + 35;</p> + + <p class="i4">counseled by Washington, 39;</p> + + <p class="i4">consulted by Washington as to etiquette, + 54;</p> + + <p class="i4">made secretary of treasury, 66;</p> + + <p class="i4">his character, 67;</p> + + <p class="i4">his report on the mint, 81;</p> + + <p class="i4">on the public credit, 107;</p> + + <p class="i4">upheld by Washington, 107, 108;</p> + + <p class="i4">his arrangement with Jefferson, 108;</p> + + <p class="i4">argument on the bank, 110;</p> + + <p class="i4">his success largely due to Washington, 112;</p> + + <p class="i4">his report on manufactures, 112, 114, 116;</p> + + <p class="i4">advocates an excise, 122;</p> + + <p class="i4">fails to realize its unpopularity, 123;</p> + + <p class="i4">accompanies expedition to suppress Whiskey + Rebellion, 128;</p> + + <p class="i4">comprehends French Revolution, 139;</p> + + <p class="i4">frames questions to cabinet on neutrality, + 147;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges decisive measures against Genet, 154;</p> + + <p class="i4">argues against United States being bound by + French treaty, 169;</p> + + <p class="i4">selected for English mission, but withdraws, + 177;</p> + + <p class="i4">not likely to have done better than Jay, + 183;</p> + + <p class="i4">mobbed in defending Jay treaty, 187;</p> + + <p class="i4">writes Camillus letters in favor of Jay treaty, + 206;</p> + + <p class="i4">intrigued against by Monroe, 212;</p> + + <p class="i4">causes for his breach with Jefferson, 224;</p> + + <p class="i4">his aristocratic tendencies, 225;</p> + + <p class="i4">attacked by Jefferson and his friends, 228, + 229;</p> + + <p class="i4">disposes of the charges, 229;</p> + + <p class="i4">retorts in newspapers with effect, 230;</p> + + <p class="i4">ceases at Washington's request, 230, 234;</p> + + <p class="i4">resigns from the cabinet, 234;</p> + + <p class="i4">desires Washington's reëlection, 235;</p> + + <p class="i4">selected by Washing, ton as senior general, + 286;</p> + + <p class="i4">appeals to Washington against Adams's reversal + of rank, 286;</p> + + <p class="i4">fails to soothe Knox's anger, 288;</p> + + <p class="i4">report on army organization, 290;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, condemning Adams's + French mission, 293;</p> + + <p class="i4">fears anarchy from Democratic success, 295;</p> + + <p class="i4">approves Alien and Sedition Acts, 296;</p> + + <p class="i4">his scheme of a military academy approved by + Washington, 299;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's affection for, 317, 362;</p> + + <p class="i4">his ability early recognized by Washington, + 334, 335;</p> + + <p class="i4">aids Washington in literary points, 340;</p> + + <p class="i4">takes care of Lafayette's son, 366.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Hammond, George,</p> + + <p class="i4">protests against violations of neutrality, ii. + 151;</p> + + <p class="i4">his arrival as British minister, 169;</p> + + <p class="i4">his offensive tone, 173;</p> + + <p class="i4">does not disavow Lord Dorchester's speech to + Indians, 176;</p> + + <p class="i4">gives Fauchet letters to Wolcott, 195;</p> + + <p class="i4">intrigues with American public men, 200.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Hampden, John,</p> + + <p class="i4">compared with Washington, ii. 312, 313.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Hancock, John,</p> + + <p class="i4">disappointed at Washington's receiving command + of army, i. 135;</p> + + <p class="i4">his character, ii. 74;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses to call first on Washington as + President, 75;</p> + + <p class="i4">apologizes and calls, 75, 76.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Hardin, Colonel,</p> + + <p class="i4">twice surprised and defeated by Indians, ii. + 93.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Harmar, Colonel,</p> + + <p class="i4">invades Indian country, ii. 92;</p> + + <p class="i4">attacks the Miamis, 93;</p> + + <p class="i4">sends out unsuccessful expeditions and + retreats, 93;</p> + + <p class="i4">court-martialed and resigns, 93.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Harrison, Benjamin,</p> + + <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, i. 259, 261; ii. + 10.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Hartley, Mrs.——,</p> + + <p class="i4">admired by Washington, i. 95.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Heard, Sir Isaac,</p> + + <p class="i4">Garter King at Arms, makes out a pedigree for + Washington, i. 30, 31.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Heath, General,</p> + + <p class="i4">checks Howe at Frog's Point, i. 173;</p> + + <p class="i4">left in command at New York, 311.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Henry, Patrick,</p> + + <p class="i4">his resolutions supported by Washington, i. + 119;</p> + + <p class="i4">accompanies him to Philadelphia, 128;</p> + + <p class="i4">his tribute to Washington's influence, 130;</p> + + <p class="i4">ready for war, 132;</p> + + <p class="i4">letters of Conway cabal to against Washington, + 222;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, 225;</p> + + <p class="i4">appealed to by Washington on behalf of + Constitution, ii. 38;</p> + + <p class="i4">an opponent of the Constitution, 71;</p> + + <p class="i4">urged by Washington to oppose Virginia + resolutions, 266-268, 293;</p> + + <p class="i4">a genuine American, 309;</p> + + <p class="i4">offered secretaryship of state, 324;</p> + + <p class="i4">friendship of Washington for, 362.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Hertburn, Sir William de,</p> + + <p class="i4">ancestor of Washington family, i. 31, 33.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Hessians,</p> + + <p class="i4">in Revolution, i. 194.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Hickey, Thomas,</p> + + <p class="i4">hanged for plotting to murder Washington, i. + 160.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Hobby,——, a sexton,</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's earliest teacher, i. 48.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Hopkinson, Francis,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 3.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Houdon, J.A., sculptor,</p> + + <p class="i4">on Washington's appearance, ii. 386.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Howe, Lord,</p> + + <p class="i4">arrives at New York with power to negotiate and + pardon, i. 161;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses to give Washington his title, 161;</p> + + <p class="i4">tries to negotiate with Congress, 167;</p> + + <p class="i4">escapes D'Estaing at Delaware, 244;</p> + + <p class="i4">attacks D'Estaing off Newport, 244.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Howe, Sir William,</p> + + <p class="i4">has controversy with Washington over treatment + of prisoners, i. 148;</p> + + <p class="i4">checked at Frog's Point, 173;</p> + + <p class="i4">attacks cautiously at Chatterton Hill, 173;</p> + + <p class="i4">retreats and attacks forts on Hudson, 174;</p> + + <p class="i4">takes Fort Washington, 175;</p> + + <p class="i4">goes into winter quarters in New York, 177, + 186;</p> + + <p class="i4">suspected of purpose to meet Burgoyne, 194, + 195;</p> + + <p class="i4">baffled in advance across New Jersey by + Washington, 194;</p> + + <p class="i4">goes by sea, 195;</p> + + <p class="i4">arrives at Head of Elk, 196;</p> + + <p class="i4">defeats Washington at Brandywine, 197;</p> + + <p class="i4">camps at Germantown, 199;</p> + + <p class="i4">withdraws after Germantown into Philadelphia, + 201;</p> + + <p class="i4">folly of his failure to meet Burgoyne, 205, + 206;</p> + + <p class="i4">offers battle in vain to Washington, 218;</p> + + <p class="i4">replaced by Clinton, 232;</p> + + <p class="i4">tries to cut off Lafayette, 233.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Huddy, Captain,</p> + + <p class="i4">captured by English, hanged by Tories, i. + 327.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Humphreys, Colonel,</p> + + <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, ii. 13, 339;</p> + + <p class="i4">at opening of Congress, 78;</p> + + <p class="i4">commissioner to treat with Creeks, 90;</p> + + <p class="i4">anecdote of, 375.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Huntington, Lady,</p> + + <p class="i4">asks Washington's aid in Christianizing + Indians, ii. 4.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">IMPRESSMENT,</p> + + <p class="i4">right of, maintained by England, ii. 181.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Independence,</p> + + <p class="i4">not wished, but foreseen, by Washington, i. + 131, 156;</p> + + <p class="i4">declared by Congress, possibly through + Washington's influence, 160.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Indians,</p> + + <p class="i4">wars with in Virginia, i. 37, 38;</p> + + <p class="i4">in French and Indian war, 67,68;</p> + + <p class="i4">desert English, 76;</p> + + <p class="i4">in Braddock's defeat, 85, 86, 88;</p> + + <p class="i4">restless before Revolution, 122;</p> + + <p class="i4">in War of Revolution, 266, 270;</p> + + <p class="i4">punished by Sullivan, 269;</p> + + <p class="i4">policy toward, early suggested by Washington, + 344;</p> + + <p class="i4">recommendations relative to in Washington's + address to Congress, ii. 82;</p> + + <p class="i4">the "Indian problem" under Washington's + administration, 83-105;</p> + + <p class="i4">erroneous popular ideas of, 84, 85;</p> + + <p class="i4">real character and military ability, 85-87;</p> + + <p class="i4">understood by Washington, 87, 88;</p> + + <p class="i4">a real danger in 1788, 88;</p> + + <p class="i4">situation in the Northwest, 89;</p> + + <p class="i4">difficulties with Cherokees and Creeks, 89, + 90;</p> + + <p class="i4">influence of Spanish intrigue, 90;</p> + + <p class="i4">successful treaty with Creeks, 90, 91;</p> + + <p class="i4">wisdom of this policy, 92;</p> + + <p class="i4">warfare in the Northwest, 92;</p> + + <p class="i4">defeats of Harmar and Hardin, 93;</p> + + <p class="i4">causes for the failure, 93, 94;</p> + + <p class="i4">intrigues of England, 92, 94, 175, 178;</p> + + <p class="i4">expedition and defeat of St. Clair, 95-97;</p> + + <p class="i4">results, 99;</p> + + <p class="i4">expedition of Wayne, 100, 102;</p> + + <p class="i4">his victory, 103;</p> + + <p class="i4">success of Washington's policy toward, 104, + 105.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Iredell, James,</p> + + <p class="i4">appointed to Supreme Court, ii. 73.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">JACKSON, MAJOR,</p> + + <p class="i4">accompanies Washington to opening of Congress, + ii. 78.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Jameson, Colonel,</p> + + <p class="i4">forwards Andrews letter to Arnold, i. 284;</p> + + <p class="i4">receives orders from Washington, 285.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Jay, John,</p> + + <p class="i4">on opposition in Congress, to Washington, i. + 222;</p> + + <p class="i4">consulted by Washington as to etiquette, ii. + 54;</p> + + <p class="i4">appointed chief justice, 72;</p> + + <p class="i4">publishes card against Genet, 159;</p> + + <p class="i4">appointed on special mission to England, + 177;</p> + + <p class="i4">his character, 177;</p> + + <p class="i4">instructions from Washington, 179;</p> + + <p class="i4">his reception in England, 180;</p> + + <p class="i4">difficulties in negotiating, 181;</p> + + <p class="i4">concludes treaty, 182;</p> + + <p class="i4">burnt in effigy while absent, 186;</p> + + <p class="i4">execrated after news of treaty, 187;</p> + + <p class="i4">hampered by Monroe in France, 213.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Jay treaty, ii. 180-184;</p> + + <p class="i4">opposition to and debate over signing, + 184-201;</p> + + <p class="i4">reasons of Washington for signing, 205.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Jefferson, Thomas,</p> + + <p class="i4">his flight from Cornwallis, i. 307;</p> + + <p class="i4">discusses with Washington needs of government, + ii. 9;</p> + + <p class="i4">adopts French democratic phraseology, 27;</p> + + <p class="i4">contrast with Washington, 27, 28, 69;</p> + + <p class="i4">criticises Washington's manners, 56;</p> + + <p class="i4">made secretary of state, 68;</p> + + <p class="i4">his previous relations with Washington, 68;</p> + + <p class="i4">his character, 69;</p> + + <p class="i4">supposed to be a friend of the Constitution, + 72;</p> + + <p class="i4">his objections to President's opening Congress, + 79;</p> + + <p class="i4">on weights and measures, 81;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to on assumption of state + debts, 107;</p> + + <p class="i4">makes bargain with Hamilton, 108;</p> + + <p class="i4">opposes a bank, 110;</p> + + <p class="i4">asked to prepare neutrality instructions, + 146;</p> + + <p class="i4">upholds Genet, 153;</p> + + <p class="i4">argues against him publicly, supports him + privately, 154;</p> + + <p class="i4">notified of French privateer Little Sarah, + 155;</p> + + <p class="i4">allows it to sail, 155;</p> + + <p class="i4">retires to country and is censured by + Washington, 156;</p> + + <p class="i4">assures Washington that vessel will wait his + decision, 156;</p> + + <p class="i4">his un-American attitude, 157;</p> + + <p class="i4">wishes to make terms of note demanding Genet's + recall mild, 158;</p> + + <p class="i4">argues that United States is bound by French + treaty, 170, 171;</p> + + <p class="i4">begs Madison to answer Hamilton's "Camillus" + letters, 206;</p> + + <p class="i4">his attitude upon first entering cabinet, + 223;</p> + + <p class="i4">causes for his breach with Hamilton, 224;</p> + + <p class="i4">jealousy, incompatibility of temper, 224;</p> + + <p class="i4">his democratic opinions, 225;</p> + + <p class="i4">skill in creating party catch-words, 225;</p> + + <p class="i4">prints "Rights of Man" with note against Adams, + 226;</p> + + <p class="i4">attacks him further in letter to Washington, + 226;</p> + + <p class="i4">brings Freneau to Philadelphia and gives him an + office, 227;</p> + + <p class="i4">denies any connection with Freneau's newspaper, + 227;</p> + + <p class="i4">his real responsibility, 228;</p> + + <p class="i4">his purpose to undermine Hamilton, 228;</p> + + <p class="i4">causes his friends to attack him, 229;</p> + + <p class="i4">writes a letter to Washington attacking + Hamilton's treasury measures, 229;</p> + + <p class="i4">fails to produce any effect, 230;</p> + + <p class="i4">winces under Hamilton's counter attacks, + 230;</p> + + <p class="i4">reiterates charges and asserts devotion to + Constitution, 231;</p> + + <p class="i4">continues attacks and resigns, 234;</p> + + <p class="i4">wishes reëlection of Washington, 235;</p> + + <p class="i4">his charge of British sympathies resented by + Washington, 252;</p> + + <p class="i4">plain letter of Washington to, 259;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's opinion of, 259;</p> + + <p class="i4">suggests Logan's mission to France, 262, + 265;</p> + + <p class="i4">takes oath as vice-president, 276;</p> + + <p class="i4">regarded as a Jacobin by Federalists, 294;</p> + + <p class="i4">jealous of Washington, 306;</p> + + <p class="i4">accuses him of senility, 307;</p> + + <p class="i4">a genuine American, 309.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Johnson, William,</p> + + <p class="i4">Tory leader in New York, i. 143.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Johnstone, Governor,</p> + + <p class="i4">peace commissioner, i. 233.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Jumonville, De, French leader,</p> + + <p class="i4">declared to have been assassinated by + Washington, i. 74,79;</p> + + <p class="i4">really a scout and spy, 75.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">KENTUCKY RESOLUTIONS,</p> + + <p class="i4">condemned by Washington, ii. 266-268.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">King, Clarence,</p> + + <p class="i4">his opinion that Washington was not American, + ii. 308.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">King, Rufus,</p> + + <p class="i4">publishes card exposing Genet, ii. 159.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">King's Bridge,</p> + + <p class="i4">fight at, i. 170.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Kip's Landing,</p> + + <p class="i4">fight at, i. 168.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Kirkland, Rev. Samuel,</p> + + <p class="i4">negotiates with Six Nations, ii. 101.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Knox, Henry,</p> + + <p class="i4">brings artillery to Boston from Ticonderoga, i. + 152;</p> + + <p class="i4">accompanies Washington to meet De Rochambeau, + 283;</p> + + <p class="i4">at West Point, 285;</p> + + <p class="i4">sent by Washington to confer with governors of + States, 295;</p> + + <p class="i4">urged by Washington to establish Western posts, + ii. 7;</p> + + <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, 30, 39;</p> + + <p class="i4">made secretary of war, 65;</p> + + <p class="i4">his character, 65;</p> + + <p class="i4">a Federalist, 71;</p> + + <p class="i4">deals with Creeks, 91;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges decisive measure against Genet, 154, + 155;</p> + + <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, 260;</p> + + <p class="i4">selected by Washington as third major-general, + 286;</p> + + <p class="i4">given first place by Adams, 286;</p> + + <p class="i4">angry at Hamilton's higher rank, 288;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses the office, 289;</p> + + <p class="i4">his offer to serve on Washington's staff + refused, 289;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's affection for, 317, 362.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">LAFAYETTE, Madame de,</p> + + <p class="i4">aided by Washington, ii. 366;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, 377.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Lafayette, Marquis de,</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's regard for, i. 192;</p> + + <p class="i4">his opinion of Continental troops, 196;</p> + + <p class="i4">sent on fruitless journey to the lakes by + cabal, 222, 253;</p> + + <p class="i4">encouraged by Washington, 225;</p> + + <p class="i4">narrowly escapes being cut off by Clinton, + 233;</p> + + <p class="i4">appointed to attack British rear, 235;</p> + + <p class="i4">superseded by Lee, 235;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges Washington to come, 235;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, regarding quarrel + between D'Estaing and Sullivan, 245;</p> + + <p class="i4">regard of Washington for, 249;</p> + + <p class="i4">desires to conquer Canada, 254;</p> + + <p class="i4">his plan not supported in France, 256;</p> + + <p class="i4">works to get a French army sent, 264;</p> + + <p class="i4">brings news of French army and fleet, 274;</p> + + <p class="i4">tries to get De Rochambeau to attack New York, + 280;</p> + + <p class="i4">accompanies Washington to meet De Rochambeau, + 283;</p> + + <p class="i4">told by Washington of Arnold's treachery, + 285;</p> + + <p class="i4">on court to try André, 287;</p> + + <p class="i4">opinion of Continental soldiers, 293;</p> + + <p class="i4">harasses Cornwallis, 307;</p> + + <p class="i4">defeated at Green Springs, 307;</p> + + <p class="i4">watches Cornwallis at Yorktown, 308;</p> + + <p class="i4">reinforced by De Grasse, 312;</p> + + <p class="i4">persuades him to remain, 315;</p> + + <p class="i4">sends Washington French wolf-hounds, ii. 2;</p> + + <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, 23, 26, 118, 144, + 165, 222, 261;</p> + + <p class="i4">his son not received by Washington, 253;</p> + + <p class="i4">later taken care of, 277, 281, 366;</p> + + <p class="i4">his worth, early seen by Washington, 334;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's affection for, 365;</p> + + <p class="i4">sends key of Bastile to Mt. Vernon, 365;</p> + + <p class="i4">helped by Washington, 365,366.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Laurens, Henry,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Conway cabal to, making attack on + Washington, i. 222;</p> + + <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, 254, 288;</p> + + <p class="i4">sent to Paris to get loans, 299.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Lauzun, Duc de,</p> + + <p class="i4">repulses Tarleton at Yorktown, i. 317.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Lear, Tobias,</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's secretary, ii. 263;</p> + + <p class="i4">his account of Washington's last illness, + 299-303, 385;</p> + + <p class="i4">letters to, 361, 382.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Lee, Arthur,</p> + + <p class="i4">example of Virginia gentleman educated abroad, + i. 23.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Lee, Charles,</p> + + <p class="i4">visits Mt. Vernon, his character, i. 132;</p> + + <p class="i4">accompanies Washington to Boston, 136;</p> + + <p class="i4">aids Washington in organizing army, 140;</p> + + <p class="i4">disobeys orders and is captured, 175;</p> + + <p class="i4">objects to attacking Clinton, 234;</p> + + <p class="i4">first refuses, then claims command of van, + 235;</p> + + <p class="i4">disobeys orders and retreats, 236;</p> + + <p class="i4">rebuked by Washington, 236, 237;</p> + + <p class="i4">court martial of and dismissal from army, + 237;</p> + + <p class="i4">his witty remark on taking oath of allegiance, + ii. 375.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Lee, Henry, marries Lucy Grymes,</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's "Lowland Beauty," i. 96.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Lee, Henry,</p> + + <p class="i4">son of Lucy Grymes, Washington's "Lowland + Beauty," i. 96; ii. 362;</p> + + <p class="i4">captures Paulus Hook, i. 269;</p> + + <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, ii. 23, 26, 149, 235, + 239, 242, 252;</p> + + <p class="i4">considered for command against Indians, + 100;</p> + + <p class="i4">commands troops to suppress Whiskey Rebellion, + 127;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's affection for, 362.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Lee, Richard Henry,</p> + + <p class="i4">unfriendly to Washington, i. 214;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 160.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Lewis, Lawrence,</p> + + <p class="i4">at opening of Congress, ii. 78;</p> + + <p class="i4">takes social duties at Mt. Vernon, 280.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Liancourt, Duc de,</p> + + <p class="i4">refused reception by Washington, ii. 253.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Lincoln, Abraham,</p> + + <p class="i4">compared with Washington, i. 349; ii. + 308-313.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Lincoln, Benjamin,</p> + + <p class="i4">sent by Washington against Burgoyne, i. + 210;</p> + + <p class="i4">fails to understand Washington's policy and + tries to hold Charleston, 273, 274;</p> + + <p class="i4">captured, 276;</p> + + <p class="i4">commissioner to treat with Creeks, ii. 90.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Lippencott, Captain,</p> + + <p class="i4">orders hanging of Huddy, i. 327;</p> + + <p class="i4">acquitted by English court martial, 328.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Little Sarah,</p> + + <p class="i4">the affair of, 155-157.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Livingston, Chancellor,</p> + + <p class="i4">administers oath at Washington's inauguration, + ii. 46.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Livingston, Edward,</p> + + <p class="i4">moves call for papers relating to Jay treaty, + ii. 207.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Logan, Dr. George,</p> + + <p class="i4">goes on volunteer mission to France, ii. + 262;</p> + + <p class="i4">ridiculed by Federalists, publishes defense, + 263;</p> + + <p class="i4">calls upon Washington, 263;</p> + + <p class="i4">mercilessly snubbed, 263-265.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Long Island,</p> + + <p class="i4">battle of, i. 164,165.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">London, Lord,</p> + + <p class="i4">disappoints Washington by his inefficiency, i. + 91.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Lovell, James,</p> + + <p class="i4">follows the Adamses in opposing Washington, i. + 214;</p> + + <p class="i4">wishes to supplant him by Gates, 215;</p> + + <p class="i4">writes hostile letters, 222.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">MACKENZIE, CAPTAIN,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, i. 130.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Madison, James,</p> + + <p class="i4">begins to desire a stronger government, ii. 19, + 29;</p> + + <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, 30, 39, 53;</p> + + <p class="i4">chosen for French mission, but does not go, + 211.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Magaw, Colonel,</p> + + <p class="i4">betrayed at Fort Washington, i. 175.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">"Magnolia,"</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's pet colt, beaten in a race, i. 99, + 113; ii. 381.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Marshall, John,</p> + + <p class="i4">Chief Justice, on special commission to France, + ii. 284;</p> + + <p class="i4">tells anecdote of Washington's anger at + cowardice, 392.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Maryland, the Washington family in, i.36.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Mason, George,</p> + + <p class="i4">discusses political outlook with Washington, i. + 119;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, 263;</p> + + <p class="i4">an opponent of the Constitution, ii. 71;</p> + + <p class="i4">friendship of Washington for, 362;</p> + + <p class="i4">debates with Washington the site of Pohick + Church, 381.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Mason, S.T.,</p> + + <p class="i4">communicates Jay treaty to Bache, ii. 185.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Massey, Rev. Lee,</p> + + <p class="i4">rector of Pohick Church, i. 44.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Mathews, George,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, i. 294.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Matthews, Edward,</p> + + <p class="i4">makes raids in Virginia, i. 269.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Mawhood, General,</p> + + <p class="i4">defeated at Princeton, i. 182.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">McGillivray, Alexander,</p> + + <p class="i4">chief of the Creeks, ii. 90;</p> + + <p class="i4">his journey to New York and interview with + Washington, 91.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">McHenry, James,</p> + + <p class="i4">at West Point, i. 284;</p> + + <p class="i4">letters to, 325, ii. 22, 278, 287, 384;</p> + + <p class="i4">becomes secretary of war, 246;</p> + + <p class="i4">advised by Washington not to appoint Democrats, + 260, 261.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">McKean, Thomas, given letters to Dr. Logan, ii. + 265.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">McMaster, John B.,</p> + + <p class="i4">calls Washington "an unknown man," i. 7, ii. + 304;</p> + + <p class="i4">calls him cold, 332, 352;</p> + + <p class="i4">and avaricious in small ways, 352.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Meade, Colonel Richard,</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's opinion of, ii. 335.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Mercer, Hugh,</p> + + <p class="i4">killed at Princeton, i. 182.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Merlin,——,</p> + + <p class="i4">president of Directory, interview with Dr. + Logan, ii. 265.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Mifflin, Thomas,</p> + + <p class="i4">wishes to supplant Washington by Gates, i. + 216;</p> + + <p class="i4">member of board of war, 221;</p> + + <p class="i4">put under Washington's orders, 226;</p> + + <p class="i4">replies to Washington's surrender of + commission, 349;</p> + + <p class="i4">meets Washington on journey to inauguration, + ii. 44;</p> + + <p class="i4">notified of the Little Sarah, French privateer, + 154;</p> + + <p class="i4">orders its seizure, 155.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Militia,</p> + + <p class="i4">abandon Continental army, i. 167;</p> + + <p class="i4">cowardice of, 168;</p> + + <p class="i4">despised by Washington, 169;</p> + + <p class="i4">leave army again, 175;</p> + + <p class="i4">assist in defeat of Burgoyne, 211.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Mischianza, i. 232.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Monmouth,</p> + + <p class="i4">battle of, i. 235-239.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Monroe, James,</p> + + <p class="i4">appointed minister to France, ii. 211;</p> + + <p class="i4">his character, 212;</p> + + <p class="i4">intrigues against Hamilton, 212;</p> + + <p class="i4">effusively received in Paris, 212;</p> + + <p class="i4">acts foolishly, 213;</p> + + <p class="i4">tries to interfere with Jay, 213;</p> + + <p class="i4">upheld, then condemned and recalled by + Washington, 213, 214;</p> + + <p class="i4">writes a vindication, 215;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's opinion of him, 215, 216;</p> + + <p class="i4">his selection one of Washington's few mistakes, + 334.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Montgomery, General Richard,</p> + + <p class="i4">sent by Washington to invade Canada, i. + 143.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Morgan, Daniel,</p> + + <p class="i4">sent against Burgoyne by Washington, i. + 208;</p> + + <p class="i4">at Saratoga, 210;</p> + + <p class="i4">wins battle of Cowpens, joins Greene, 301.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Morris, Gouverneur,</p> + + <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, i. 248, 263;</p> + + <p class="i4">efforts towards financial reform, 264;</p> + + <p class="i4">quotes speech of Washington at Federal + convention in his eulogy, ii. 31;</p> + + <p class="i4">discussion as to his value as an authority, 32, + note;</p> + + <p class="i4">goes to England on unofficial mission, 137;</p> + + <p class="i4">balked by English insolence, 137;</p> + + <p class="i4">comprehends French Revolution, 139;</p> + + <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, on the Revolution, + 140,142,145;</p> + + <p class="i4">recall demanded by France, 211;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, 217,240, 254;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's friendship for, 363.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Morris, Robert,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, i. 187;</p> + + <p class="i4">helps Washington to pay troops, 259;</p> + + <p class="i4">efforts towards financial reform, 264;</p> + + <p class="i4">difficulty in helping Washington in 1781, 309, + 312;</p> + + <p class="i4">considered for secretary of treasury, ii. + 66;</p> + + <p class="i4">his bank policy approved by Washington, + 110;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's friendship for, 363.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Moustier,</p> + + <p class="i4">demands private access to Washington, ii. + 59;</p> + + <p class="i4">refused, 59, 60.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Murray, Vans, minister in Holland,</p> + + <p class="i4">interview with Dr. Logan, ii. 264;</p> + + <p class="i4">nominated for French mission by Adams, 292;</p> + + <p class="i4">written to by Washington, 292.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Muse, Adjutant,</p> + + <p class="i4">trains Washington in tactics and art of war, i. + 65.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">NAPOLEON,</p> + + <p class="i4">orders public mourning for Washington's death, + i. 1.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Nelson, General,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, i. 257.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Newburgh,</p> + + <p class="i4">addresses, ii. 335.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">New England,</p> + + <p class="i4">character of people, i. 138;</p> + + <p class="i4">attitude toward Washington, 138, 139;</p> + + <p class="i4">troops disliked by Washington, 152;</p> + + <p class="i4">later praised by him, 152, 317, 344;</p> + + <p class="i4">threatened by Burgoyne's invasion, 204;</p> + + <p class="i4">its delegates in Congress demand appointment of + Gates, 208;</p> + + <p class="i4">and oppose Washington, 214;</p> + + <p class="i4">welcomes Washington on tour as President, ii. + 74;</p> + + <p class="i4">more democratic than other colonies before + Revolution, 315;</p> + + <p class="i4">disliked by Washington for this reason, + 316.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Newenham, Sir Edward,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to on American foreign + policy, ii. 133.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">New York,</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's first visit to, i. 99, 100;</p> + + <p class="i4">defense of, in Revolution, 159-169;</p> + + <p class="i4">abandoned by Washington, 169;</p> + + <p class="i4">Howe establishes himself in, 177;</p> + + <p class="i4">reoccupied by Clinton, 264;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's journey to, ii. 44;</p> + + <p class="i4">inauguration in, 46;</p> + + <p class="i4">rioting in, against Jay treaty, 187.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Nicholas, John,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 259.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Nicola, Col.,</p> + + <p class="i4">urges Washington to establish a despotism, i. + 337.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Noailles, Vicomte de, French + émigré,</p> + + <p class="i4">referred to State Department, ii. 151, 253.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">O'FLINN, CAPTAIN,</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's friendship with, ii. 318.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Organization of the national government,</p> + + <p class="i4">absence of materials to work with, ii. 51;</p> + + <p class="i4">debate over title of President, 52;</p> + + <p class="i4">over his communications with Senate, 53;</p> + + <p class="i4">over presidential etiquette, 53-56;</p> + + <p class="i4">appointment of officials to cabinet offices + established by Congress, 64-71;</p> + + <p class="i4">appointment of supreme court judges, 72.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Orme,——,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, i. 84.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">PAINE, THOMAS,</p> + + <p class="i4">his "Rights of Man" reprinted by Jefferson, ii. + 226.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Parkinson, Richard,</p> + + <p class="i4">says Washington was harsh to slaves, i. + 105;</p> + + <p class="i4">contradicts statement elsewhere, 106;</p> + + <p class="i4">tells stories of Washington's pecuniary + exactness, ii. 353, 354, 382;</p> + + <p class="i4">his character, 355;</p> + + <p class="i4">his high opinion of Washington, 356.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Parton, James,</p> + + <p class="i4">considers Washington as good but commonplace, + ii. 330, 374.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Peachey, Captain,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, i. 92.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Pendleton, Edmund,</p> + + <p class="i4">Virginia delegate to Continental Congress, i. + 128.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Pennsylvania,</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses to fight the French, i. 72,83;</p> + + <p class="i4">fails to help Washington, 225;</p> + + <p class="i4">remonstrates against his going into winter + quarters, 229;</p> + + <p class="i4">condemned by Washington, 229;</p> + + <p class="i4">compromises with mutineers, 292.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Philipse, Mary,</p> + + <p class="i4">brief love-affair of Washington with, i. 99, + 100.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Phillips, General,</p> + + <p class="i4">commands British troops in Virginia, i. + 303;</p> + + <p class="i4">death of, 303.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Pickering, Colonel, quiets Six Nations, ii. + 94.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Pickering, Timothy,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, on French Revolution, + ii. 140;</p> + + <p class="i4">on failure of Spanish negotiations, 166;</p> + + <p class="i4">recalls Washington to Philadelphia to receive + Fauchet letter, 195;</p> + + <p class="i4">succeeds Randolph, 246;</p> + + <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, on party government, + 247;</p> + + <p class="i4">appeals to Washington against Adams's reversal + of Hamilton's rank, 286;</p> + + <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, 292, 324;</p> + + <p class="i4">criticises Washington as a commonplace person, + 307.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Pinckney, Charles C.,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 90;</p> + + <p class="i4">appointed to succeed Monroe as minister to + France, 214;</p> + + <p class="i4">refused reception, 284;</p> + + <p class="i4">sent on special commission, 284;</p> + + <p class="i4">named by Washington as general, 286;</p> + + <p class="i4">accepts without complaint of Hamilton's higher + rank, 290;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's friendship with, 363.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Pinckney, Thomas,</p> + + <p class="i4">sent on special mission to Spain, ii. 166;</p> + + <p class="i4">unsuccessful at first, 166;</p> + + <p class="i4">succeeds in making a good treaty, 167;</p> + + <p class="i4">credit of his exploit, 168;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, 325.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Pitt, William,</p> + + <p class="i4">his conduct of French war, i. 93, 94.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Princeton,</p> + + <p class="i4">battle of, i. 181-3.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Privateers,</p> + + <p class="i4">sent out by Washington, i. 150.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">"Protection"</p> + + <p class="i4">favored in the first Congress, ii. 113-115;</p> + + <p class="i4">arguments of Hamilton for, 114, 115;</p> + + <p class="i4">of Washington, 116-122.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Provincialism,</p> + + <p class="i4">of Americans, i. 193;</p> + + <p class="i4">with regard to foreign officers, 193, 234, + 250-252;</p> + + <p class="i4">with regard to foreign politics, ii. 131, 132, + 163, 237, 255.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Putnam, Israel,</p> + + <p class="i4">escapes with difficulty from New York, i. + 169;</p> + + <p class="i4">fails to help Washington at Trenton, 180;</p> + + <p class="i4">warned to defend the Hudson, 195;</p> + + <p class="i4">tells Washington of Burgoyne's surrender, + 211;</p> + + <p class="i4">rebuked by Washington, 217;</p> + + <p class="i4">amuses Washington, ii. 374.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">RAHL, COLONEL,</p> + + <p class="i4">defeated and killed at Trenton, i. 181.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Randolph, Edmund,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 30, 39;</p> + + <p class="i4">relations with Washington, 64;</p> + + <p class="i4">appointed attorney-general, 64;</p> + + <p class="i4">his character, 64, 65;</p> + + <p class="i4">a friend of the Constitution, 71;</p> + + <p class="i4">opposes a bank, 110;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, on protective + bounties, 118;</p> + + <p class="i4">drafts neutrality proclamation, 147;</p> + + <p class="i4">vacillates with regard to Genet, 154;</p> + + <p class="i4">argues that United States is bound by French + alliance, 170;</p> + + <p class="i4">succeeds Jefferson as secretary of state, + 184;</p> + + <p class="i4">directed to prepare a remonstrance against + English "provision order," 185;</p> + + <p class="i4">opposed to Jay treaty, 188;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, on conditional + ratification, 189, 191, 192, 194;</p> + + <p class="i4">guilty, apparently, from Fauchet letter, of + corrupt practices, 196;</p> + + <p class="i4">his position not a cause for Washington's + signing treaty, 196-200;</p> + + <p class="i4">receives Fauchet letter, resigns, 201;</p> + + <p class="i4">his personal honesty, 201;</p> + + <p class="i4">his discreditable carelessness, 202;</p> + + <p class="i4">fairly treated by Washington, 203, 204;</p> + + <p class="i4">his complaints against Washington, 203;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, concerning Monroe, + 213;</p> + + <p class="i4">at first a Federalist, 246.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Randolph, John,</p> + + <p class="i4">on early disappearance of Virginia colonial + society, i. 15.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Rawdon, Lord,</p> + + <p class="i4">commands British forces in South, too distant + to help Cornwallis, i. 304.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Reed, Joseph,</p> + + <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, i. 151, 260.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Revolution, War of,</p> + + <p class="i4">foreseen by Washington, i. 120, 122;</p> + + <p class="i4">Lexington and Concord, 133;</p> + + <p class="i4">Bunker Hill, 136;</p> + + <p class="i4">siege of Boston, 137-154;</p> + + <p class="i4">organization of army, 139-142;</p> + + <p class="i4">operations in New York, 143;</p> + + <p class="i4">invasion of Canada, 143, 144;</p> + + <p class="i4">question as to treatment of prisoners, + 145-148;</p> + + <p class="i4">causes of British defeat, 154, 155;</p> + + <p class="i4">campaign near New York, 161-177;</p> + + <p class="i4">causes for attempted defense of Brooklyn, 163, + 164;</p> + + <p class="i4">battle of Long Island, 164-165;</p> + + <p class="i4">escape of Americans, 166;</p> + + <p class="i4">affair at Kip's Bay, 168;</p> + + <p class="i4">at King's Bridge, 170;</p> + + <p class="i4">at Frog's Point, 173;</p> + + <p class="i4">battle of White Plains, 173;</p> + + <p class="i4">at Chatterton Hill, 174;</p> + + <p class="i4">capture of Forts Washington and Lee, 174, + 175;</p> + + <p class="i4">pursuit of Washington into New Jersey, + 175-177;</p> + + <p class="i4">retirement of Howe to New York, 177;</p> + + <p class="i4">battle of Trenton, 180, 181;</p> + + <p class="i4">campaign of Princeton, 181-183;</p> + + <p class="i4">its brilliancy, 183;</p> + + <p class="i4">Philadelphia campaign, 194-202;</p> + + <p class="i4">British march across New Jersey prevented by + Washington, 194;</p> + + <p class="i4">sea voyage to Delaware, 195;</p> + + <p class="i4">battle of the Brandywine, 196-198;</p> + + <p class="i4">causes for defeat, 198;</p> + + <p class="i4">defeat of Wayne, 198;</p> + + <p class="i4">Philadelphia taken by Howe, 199;</p> + + <p class="i4">battle of Germantown, 199;</p> + + <p class="i4">its significance, 200, 201;</p> + + <p class="i4">Burgoyne's invasion, 203-211;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's preparations for, 204-206;</p> + + <p class="i4">Howe's error in neglecting to cooperate, + 205;</p> + + <p class="i4">capture of Ticonderoga, 207;</p> + + <p class="i4">battles of Bennington, Oriskany, Fort Schuyler, + 210;</p> + + <p class="i4">battle of Saratoga, 211;</p> + + <p class="i4">British repulse at Fort Mercer, 217;</p> + + <p class="i4">destruction of the forts, 217;</p> + + <p class="i4">fruitless skirmishing before Philadelphia, + 218;</p> + + <p class="i4">Valley Forge, 228-232;</p> + + <p class="i4">evacuation of Philadelphia, 234;</p> + + <p class="i4">battle of Monmouth, 235-239;</p> + + <p class="i4">its effect, 239;</p> + + <p class="i4">cruise and failure of D'Estaing at Newport, + 243, 244;</p> + + <p class="i4">failure of D'Estaing at Savannah, 247, 248;</p> + + <p class="i4">storming of Stony Point, 268, 269;</p> + + <p class="i4">Tory raids near New York, 269;</p> + + <p class="i4">standstill in 1780, 272;</p> + + <p class="i4">siege and capture of Charleston, 273, 274, + 276;</p> + + <p class="i4">operations of French and Americans near + Newport, 277, 278;</p> + + <p class="i4">battle of Camden, 281;</p> + + <p class="i4">treason of Arnold, 281-289;</p> + + <p class="i4">battle of Cowpens, 301;</p> + + <p class="i4">retreat of Greene before Cornwallis, 302;</p> + + <p class="i4">battle of Guilford Court House, 302;</p> + + <p class="i4">successful operations of Greene, 302, 303;</p> + + <p class="i4">Southern campaign planned by Washington, + 304-311;</p> + + <p class="i4">feints against Clinton, 306;</p> + + <p class="i4">operations of Cornwallis and Lafayette in + Virginia, 307;</p> + + <p class="i4">naval supremacy secured by Washington, 310, + 311;</p> + + <p class="i4">battle of De Grasse and Graves off Chesapeake, + 312;</p> + + <p class="i4">transport of American army to Virginia, + 311-313;</p> + + <p class="i4">siege and capture of Yorktown, 315-318;</p> + + <p class="i4">masterly character of campaign, 318-320;</p> + + <p class="i4">petty operations before New York, 326;</p> + + <p class="i4">treaty of peace, 342.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Rives,</p> + + <p class="i4">on Washington's doubts of constitutionality of + Bank, ii. 110.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Robinson, Beverly,</p> + + <p class="i4">speaker of Virginia House of Burgesses, his + compliment to Washington, i. 102.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Robinson, Colonel,</p> + + <p class="i4">loyalist, i. 282.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Rumsey, James,</p> + + <p class="i4">the inventor, asks Washington's consideration + of his steamboat, ii. 4.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Rush, Benjamin,</p> + + <p class="i4">describes Washington's impressiveness, ii. + 389.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Rutledge, John,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, i. 281;</p> + + <p class="i4">nomination rejected by Senate, ii. 63;</p> + + <p class="i4">nominated to Supreme Court, 73.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">ST. CLAIR, Arthur,</p> + + <p class="i4">removed after loss of Ticonderoga, i. 208;</p> + + <p class="i4">appointed to command against Indians, ii. + 94;</p> + + <p class="i4">receives instructions and begins expedition, + 95;</p> + + <p class="i4">defeated, 96;</p> + + <p class="i4">his character, 99;</p> + + <p class="i4">fair treatment by Washington, 99;</p> + + <p class="i4">popular execration of, 105.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">St. Pierre, M. de,</p> + + <p class="i4">French governor in Ohio, i. 67.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">St. Simon, Count,</p> + + <p class="i4">reinforces Lafayette, i. 312.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Sandwich, Lord,</p> + + <p class="i4">calls all Yankees cowards, i. 155.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Saratoga,</p> + + <p class="i4">anecdote concerning, i. 202.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Savage, Edward,</p> + + <p class="i4">characteristics of his portrait of Washington, + i. 13.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Savannah,</p> + + <p class="i4">siege of, i. 247.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Scammel, Colonel,</p> + + <p class="i4">amuses Washington, ii. 374.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Schuyler, Philip,</p> + + <p class="i4">accompanies Washington to Boston, i. 136;</p> + + <p class="i4">appointed military head in New York, 136;</p> + + <p class="i4">directed by Washington how to meet Burgoyne, + 204;</p> + + <p class="i4">fails to carry out directions, 207;</p> + + <p class="i4">removed, 208;</p> + + <p class="i4">value of his preparations, 209.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Scott, Charles, commands expedition against + Indians, ii. 95.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Sea-power,</p> + + <p class="i4">its necessity seen by Washington, i. 283, 303, + 304, 306, 310, 318, 319.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Sectional feeling,</p> + + <p class="i4">deplored by Washington, ii. 222.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Sharpe, Governor,</p> + + <p class="i4">offers Washington a company, i. 80;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's reply to, 81.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Shays's Rebellion,</p> + + <p class="i4">comments of Washington and Jefferson upon, ii. + 26, 27.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Sherman, Roger,</p> + + <p class="i4">makes sarcastic remark about Wilkinson, i. + 220.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Shirley, Governor William,</p> + + <p class="i4">adjusts matter of Washington's rank, i. 91, + 97.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Short, William, minister to Holland,</p> + + <p class="i4">on commission regarding opening of Mississippi, + ii. 166.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Six Nations,</p> + + <p class="i4">make satisfactory treaties, ii. 88;</p> + + <p class="i4">stirred up by English, 94;</p> + + <p class="i4">but pacified, 94, 101.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Slavery,</p> + + <p class="i4">in Virginia, i. 20;</p> + + <p class="i4">its evil effects, 104;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's attitude toward slaves, 105;</p> + + <p class="i4">his condemnation of the system, 106, 107;</p> + + <p class="i4">gradual emancipation favored, 107, 108.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Smith, Colonel,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 340.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Spain,</p> + + <p class="i4">instigates Indians to hostilities, ii. 89, 94, + 101;</p> + + <p class="i4">blocks Mississippi, 135;</p> + + <p class="i4">makes treaty with Pinckney opening Mississippi, + 167, 168;</p> + + <p class="i4">angered at Jay treaty, 210.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Sparks, Jared,</p> + + <p class="i4">his alterations of Washington's letters, ii. + 337, 338.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Spotswood, Alexander,</p> + + <p class="i4">asks Washington's opinion of Alien and Sedition + Acts, ii. 297.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Stamp Act,</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's opinion of, i. 119, 120.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Stark, General,</p> + + <p class="i4">leads attack at Trenton, i. 181.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">States, in the Revolutionary war,</p> + + <p class="i4">appeals of Washington to, i. 142, 186, 204, + 259, 277, 295, 306, 323, 324, 326, 344;</p> + + <p class="i4">issue paper money, 258;</p> + + <p class="i4">grow tired of the war, 290;</p> + + <p class="i4">alarmed by mutinies, 294;</p> + + <p class="i4">try to appease soldiers, 295, 296;</p> + + <p class="i4">their selfishness condemned by Washington, 333; + ii. 21, 23;</p> + + <p class="i4">thwart Indian policy of Congress, 88.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Stephen, Adam,</p> + + <p class="i4">late in attacking at Germantown, i. 199.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Steuben, Baron,</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's appreciation of, i. 192, 249;</p> + + <p class="i4">drills the army at Valley Forge, 232;</p> + + <p class="i4">annoys Washington by wishing higher command, + 249;</p> + + <p class="i4">sent on mission to demand surrender of Western + posts, 343;</p> + + <p class="i4">his worth recognized by Washington, ii. + 334.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Stirling, Lord,</p> + + <p class="i4">defeated and captured at Long Island, i. + 165.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Stockton, Mrs.,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 349.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Stone, General,</p> + + <p class="i4">tells stories of Washington's closeness, ii. + 353, 354.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Stuart, David,</p> + + <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, ii. 107, 221, 222, + 258.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Stuart, Gilbert,</p> + + <p class="i4">his portrait of Washington contrasted with + Savage's, i. 13.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Sullivan, John, General,</p> + + <p class="i4">surprised at Long Island, i. 165;</p> + + <p class="i4">attacks at Trenton, 180;</p> + + <p class="i4">surprised and crushed at Brandywine, 197, + 198;</p> + + <p class="i4">unites with D'Estaing to attack Newport, + 243;</p> + + <p class="i4">angry at D'Estaing's desertion, 244;</p> + + <p class="i4">soothed by Washington, 244;</p> + + <p class="i4">sent against Indians, 266, 269.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Supreme Court,</p> + + <p class="i4">appointed by Washington, ii. 72.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">TAFT,——,</p> + + <p class="i4">kindness of Washington toward, ii. 367.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Talleyrand,</p> + + <p class="i4">eulogistic report to Napoleon on death of + Washington, i. 1, note;</p> + + <p class="i4">remark on Hamilton, ii. 139;</p> + + <p class="i4">refused reception by Washington, 253.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Tarleton, Sir Banastre,</p> + + <p class="i4">tries to escape at Yorktown, i. 317.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Thatcher, Dr.,</p> + + <p class="i4">on Washington's appearance when taking command + of army, i. 137.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Thomson, Charles,</p> + + <p class="i4">complimented by Washington on retiring from + secretary-ship of Continental Congress, ii. 350.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Tories,</p> + + <p class="i4">hated by Washington, i. 156;</p> + + <p class="i4">his reasons, 157;</p> + + <p class="i4">active in New York, 158;</p> + + <p class="i4">suppressed by Washington, 159;</p> + + <p class="i4">in Philadelphia, impressed by Continental army, + 196;</p> + + <p class="i4">make raids on frontier, 266;</p> + + <p class="i4">strong in Southern States, 267;</p> + + <p class="i4">raids under Tryon, 269.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Trent, Captain,</p> + + <p class="i4">his incompetence in dealing with Indians and + French, i. 72.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Trenton, campaign of, i. 180-183.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Trumbull, Governor,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, refusing to stand for + a third term, ii. 269-271;</p> + + <p class="i4">other letters, 298.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Trumbull, John,</p> + + <p class="i4">on New England army before Boston, i. 139.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Trumbull, Jonathan,</p> + + <p class="i4">his message on better government praised by + Washington, ii. 21;</p> + + <p class="i4">letters to, 42;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's friendship for, 363.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Tryon, Governor,</p> + + <p class="i4">Tory leader in New York, i. 143;</p> + + <p class="i4">his intrigues stopped by Washington, 158, + 159;</p> + + <p class="i4">conspires to murder Washington, 160;</p> + + <p class="i4">makes raids in Connecticut, 269.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">VALLEY FORGE,</p> + + <p class="i4">Continental Army at, i. 228-232.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Van Braam, Jacob,</p> + + <p class="i4">friend of Lawrence Washington, trains George in + fencing, i. 65;</p> + + <p class="i4">accompanies him on mission to French, 66.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Vergennes,</p> + + <p class="i4">requests release of Asgill, i. 329, 330;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, 330;</p> + + <p class="i4">proposes to submit disposition of a subsidy to + Washington, 332.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Virginia, society in,</p> + + <p class="i4">before the Revolution, i. 15-29;</p> + + <p class="i4">its entire change since then, 15, 16;</p> + + <p class="i4">population, distribution, and numbers, 17, + 18;</p> + + <p class="i4">absence of towns, 18;</p> + + <p class="i4">and town life, 19;</p> + + <p class="i4">trade and travel in, 19;</p> + + <p class="i4">social classes, 20-24;</p> + + <p class="i4">slaves and poor whites, 20;</p> + + <p class="i4">clergy, 21;</p> + + <p class="i4">planters and their estates, 22;</p> + + <p class="i4">their life, 22;</p> + + <p class="i4">education, 23;</p> + + <p class="i4">habits of governing, 24;</p> + + <p class="i4">luxury and extravagance, 25;</p> + + <p class="i4">apparent wealth, 26;</p> + + <p class="i4">agreeableness of life, 27;</p> + + <p class="i4">aristocratic ideals, 28;</p> + + <p class="i4">vigor of stock, 29;</p> + + <p class="i4">unwilling to fight French, 71;</p> + + <p class="i4">quarrels with Dinwiddie, 71;</p> + + <p class="i4">thanks Washington after his French campaign, + 79;</p> + + <p class="i4">terrified at Braddock's defeat, 88;</p> + + <p class="i4">gives Washington command, 89;</p> + + <p class="i4">fails to support him, 89, 90, 93;</p> + + <p class="i4">bad economic conditions in, 104,105;</p> + + <p class="i4">local government in, 117;</p> + + <p class="i4">condemns Stamp Act, 119;</p> + + <p class="i4">adopts non-importation, 121;</p> + + <p class="i4">condemns Boston Port Bill, 123;</p> + + <p class="i4">asks opinion of counties, 124;</p> + + <p class="i4">chooses delegates to a congress, 127;</p> + + <p class="i4">prepares for war, 132;</p> + + <p class="i4">British campaign in, 307, 315-318;</p> + + <p class="i4">ratifies Constitution, ii. 40;</p> + + <p class="i4">evil effect of free trade upon, 116, 117;</p> + + <p class="i4">nullification resolutions, 266;</p> + + <p class="i4">strength of its aristocracy, 315.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">WADE, COLONEL,</p> + + <p class="i4">in command at West Point after Arnold's flight, + i. 285.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Walker, Benjamin,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 257.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Warren, James,</p> + + <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, i. 262, ii. 118.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Washington,</p> + + <p class="i4">ancestry, i. 30-40;</p> + + <p class="i4">early genealogical researches concerning, + 30-32;</p> + + <p class="i4">pedigree finally established, 32;</p> + + <p class="i4">origin of family, 33;</p> + + <p class="i4">various members during middle ages, 34;</p> + + <p class="i4">on royalist side in English civil war, 34, + 36;</p> + + <p class="i4">character of family, 35;</p> + + <p class="i4">emigration to Virginia, 35, 36;</p> + + <p class="i4">career of Washingtons in Maryland, 37;</p> + + <p class="i4">in Virginia history, 38;</p> + + <p class="i4">their estates, 39.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Washington, Augustine, father of George + Washington,</p> + + <p class="i4">birth, i. 35;</p> + + <p class="i4">death, 39;</p> + + <p class="i4">character, 39;</p> + + <p class="i4">his estate, 41;</p> + + <p class="i4">ridiculous part played by in Weems's anecdotes, + 44, 47.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Washington, Augustine, half brother of George + Washington,</p> + + <p class="i4">keeps him after his father's death, i. 48.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Washington, Bushrod,</p> + + <p class="i4">refused appointment as attorney by Washington, + ii. 62;</p> + + <p class="i4">educated by him, 370.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Washington, George,</p> + + <p class="i4">honors to his memory in France, i. 1;</p> + + <p class="i4">in England, 2;</p> + + <p class="i4">grief in America, 3, 4;</p> + + <p class="i4">general admission of his greatness, 4;</p> + + <p class="i4">its significance, 5, 6;</p> + + <p class="i4">tributes from England, 6;</p> + + <p class="i4">from other countries, 6, 7;</p> + + <p class="i4">yet an "unknown" man, 7;</p> + + <p class="i4">minuteness of knowledge concerning, 8;</p> + + <p class="i4">has become subject of myths, 9;</p> + + <p class="i4">development of the Weems myth about, 10, + 11;</p> + + <p class="i4">necessity of a new treatment of, 12;</p> + + <p class="i4">significant difference of real and ideal + portraits of, 13;</p> + + <p class="i4">his silence regarding himself, 14;</p> + + <p class="i4">underlying traits, 14.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2"><i>Early Life</i>.</p> + + <p class="i4">Ancestry, 30-41;</p> + + <p class="i4">birth, 39;</p> + + <p class="i4">origin of Weems's anecdotes about, 41-44;</p> + + <p class="i4">their absurdity and evil results, 45-48;</p> + + <p class="i4">early schooling, 48;</p> + + <p class="i4">plan to send him to sea, 49, 50;</p> + + <p class="i4">studies to be a surveyor, 51;</p> + + <p class="i4">his rules of behavior, 52;</p> + + <p class="i4">his family connections with Fairfaxes, 54, + 55;</p> + + <p class="i4">his friendship with Lord Fairfax, 56;</p> + + <p class="i4">surveys Fairfax's estate, 57, 58, 59;</p> + + <p class="i4">made public surveyor, 60;</p> + + <p class="i4">his life at the time, 60, 61;</p> + + <p class="i4">influenced by Fairfax's cultivation, 62;</p> + + <p class="i4">goes to West Indies with his brother, 62;</p> + + <p class="i4">has the small-pox, 63;</p> + + <p class="i4">observations on the voyage, 63, 64;</p> + + <p class="i4">returns to Virginia, 64;</p> + + <p class="i4">becomes guardian of his brother's daughter, + 64.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2"><i>Service against the French and + Indians</i>.</p> + + <p class="i4">Receives military training, 65;</p> + + <p class="i4">a military appointment, 66;</p> + + <p class="i4">goes on expedition to treat with French, + 66;</p> + + <p class="i4">meets Indians, 67;</p> + + <p class="i4">deals with French, 67;</p> + + <p class="i4">dangers of journey, 68;</p> + + <p class="i4">his impersonal account, 69, 70;</p> + + <p class="i4">appointed to command force against French, 71, + 72;</p> + + <p class="i4">his anger at neglect of Virginia Assembly, + 73;</p> + + <p class="i4">attacks and defeats force of Jumonville, + 74;</p> + + <p class="i4">called murderer by the French, 74;</p> + + <p class="i4">surrounded by French at Great Meadows, 76;</p> + + <p class="i4">surrenders, 76;</p> + + <p class="i4">recklessness of his expedition, 77, 78;</p> + + <p class="i4">effect of experience upon, 79;</p> + + <p class="i4">gains a European notoriety, 79;</p> + + <p class="i4">thanked by Virginia, 79;</p> + + <p class="i4">protests against Dinwiddie's organization of + soldiers, 80;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses to serve when ranked by British + officers, 81;</p> + + <p class="i4">accepts position on Braddock's staff, 82;</p> + + <p class="i4">his treatment there, 82;</p> + + <p class="i4">advises Braddock, 84;</p> + + <p class="i4">rebuked for warning against surprise, 85;</p> + + <p class="i4">his bravery in the battle, 86;</p> + + <p class="i4">conducts retreat, 86, 87;</p> + + <p class="i4">effect of experience on him, 87;</p> + + <p class="i4">declines to solicit command of Virginia troops, + 88;</p> + + <p class="i4">accepts it when offered, 88;</p> + + <p class="i4">his difficulties with Assembly, 89;</p> + + <p class="i4">and with troops, 90;</p> + + <p class="i4">settles question of rank, 91;</p> + + <p class="i4">writes freely in criticism of government, 91, + 92;</p> + + <p class="i4">retires for rest to Mt. Vernon, 93;</p> + + <p class="i4">offers services to General Forbes, 93;</p> + + <p class="i4">irritated at slowness of English, 93, 94;</p> + + <p class="i4">his love affairs, 95, 96;</p> + + <p class="i4">journey to Boston, 97-101;</p> + + <p class="i4">at festivities in New York and Philadelphia, + 99;</p> + + <p class="i4">meets Martha Custis, 101;</p> + + <p class="i4">his wedding, 101, 102;</p> + + <p class="i4">elected to House of Burgesses, 102;</p> + + <p class="i4">confused at being thanked by Assembly, 102;</p> + + <p class="i4">his local position, 103;</p> + + <p class="i4">tries to farm his estate, 104;</p> + + <p class="i4">his management of slaves, 105, 106, 108, + 109;</p> + + <p class="i4">cares for interests of old soldiers, 109;</p> + + <p class="i4">rebukes a coward, 110;</p> + + <p class="i4">cares for education of stepson, 111;</p> + + <p class="i4">his furnishing of house, 112;</p> + + <p class="i4">hunting habits, 113-115;</p> + + <p class="i4">punishes a poacher, 116;</p> + + <p class="i4">participates in colonial and local government, + 117;</p> + + <p class="i4">enters into society, 117, 118.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2"><i>Congressional delegate from + Virginia</i>.</p> + + <p class="i4">His influence in Assembly, 119;</p> + + <p class="i4">discusses Stamp Act with Mason, 119;</p> + + <p class="i4">foresees result to be independence, 119;</p> + + <p class="i4">rejoices at its repeal, but notes Declaratory + Act, 120;</p> + + <p class="i4">ready to use force to defend colonial rights, + 120;</p> + + <p class="i4">presents non-importation resolutions to + Burgesses, 121;</p> + + <p class="i4">abstains from English products, 121;</p> + + <p class="i4">notes ominous movements among Indians, 122;</p> + + <p class="i4">on good terms with royal governors, 122, + 123;</p> + + <p class="i4">observes fast on account of Boston Port Bill, + 123;</p> + + <p class="i4">has controversy with Bryan Fairfax over + Parliamentary policy, 124, 125, 126;</p> + + <p class="i4">presides at Fairfax County meeting, 126;</p> + + <p class="i4">declares himself ready for action, 126;</p> + + <p class="i4">at convention of counties, offers to march to + relief of Boston, 127;</p> + + <p class="i4">elected to Continental Congress, 127;</p> + + <p class="i4">his journey, 128;</p> + + <p class="i4">silent in Congress, 129;</p> + + <p class="i4">writes to a British officer that independence + is not</p> + + <p class="i4">desired, but war is certain, 130, 131;</p> + + <p class="i4">returns to Virginia, 132;</p> + + <p class="i4">aids in military preparations, 132;</p> + + <p class="i4">his opinion after Concord, 133;</p> + + <p class="i4">at second Continental Congress, wears uniform, + 134;</p> + + <p class="i4">made commander-in-chief, 134;</p> + + <p class="i4">his modesty and courage in accepting position, + 134, 135;</p> + + <p class="i4">political motives for his choice, 135;</p> + + <p class="i4">his popularity, 136;</p> + + <p class="i4">his journey to Boston, 136, 137;</p> + + <p class="i4">receives news of Bunker Hill, 136;</p> + + <p class="i4">is received by Massachusetts Provincial + Assembly, 137.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2"><i>Commander of the Army</i>.</p> + + <p class="i4">Takes command at Cambridge, 137;</p> + + <p class="i4">his impression upon people, 137, 138, 139;</p> + + <p class="i4">begins reorganization of army, 139;</p> + + <p class="i4">secures number of troops, 140;</p> + + <p class="i4">enforces discipline, his difficulties, 140, + 141;</p> + + <p class="i4">forced to lead Congress, 142;</p> + + <p class="i4">to arrange rank of officers, 142;</p> + + <p class="i4">organizes privateers, 142;</p> + + <p class="i4">discovers lack of powder, 143;</p> + + <p class="i4">plans campaigns in Canada and elsewhere, 143, + 144;</p> + + <p class="i4">his plans of attack on Boston overruled by + council of war, 144;</p> + + <p class="i4">writes to Gage urging that captives be treated + as prisoners of war, 145;</p> + + <p class="i4">skill of his letter, 146;</p> + + <p class="i4">retorts to Gage's reply, 147;</p> + + <p class="i4">continues dispute with Howe, 148;</p> + + <p class="i4">annoyed by insufficiency of provisions, + 149;</p> + + <p class="i4">and by desertions, 149;</p> + + <p class="i4">stops quarrel between Virginia and Marblehead + soldiers, 149;</p> + + <p class="i4">suggests admiralty committees, 150;</p> + + <p class="i4">annoyed by army contractors, 150;</p> + + <p class="i4">and criticism, 151;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter to Joseph Reed, 151;</p> + + <p class="i4">occupies Dorchester Heights, 152;</p> + + <p class="i4">begins to like New England men better, 152;</p> + + <p class="i4">rejoices at prospect of a fight, 153;</p> + + <p class="i4">departure of British due to his leadership, + 154;</p> + + <p class="i4">sends troops immediately to New York, 155;</p> + + <p class="i4">enters Boston, 156;</p> + + <p class="i4">expects a hard war, 156;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges upon Congress the necessity of preparing + for a long struggle, 156;</p> + + <p class="i4">his growing hatred of Tories, 156, 157;</p> + + <p class="i4">goes to New York, 157, 158;</p> + + <p class="i4">difficulties of the situation, 158;</p> + + <p class="i4">suppresses Tories, 159;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges Congress to declare independence, 159, + 160;</p> + + <p class="i4">discovers and punishes a conspiracy to + assassinate, 160;</p> + + <p class="i4">insists on his title in correspondence with + Howe, 161;</p> + + <p class="i4">justice of his position, 162;</p> + + <p class="i4">quiets sectional jealousies in army, 162;</p> + + <p class="i4">his military inferiority to British, 163;</p> + + <p class="i4">obliged by political considerations to attempt + defense of New York, 163, 164;</p> + + <p class="i4">assumes command on Long Island, 164;</p> + + <p class="i4">sees defeat of his troops, 165;</p> + + <p class="i4">sees plan of British fleet to cut off retreat, + 166;</p> + + <p class="i4">secures retreat of army, 167;</p> + + <p class="i4">explains his policy of avoiding a pitched + battle, 167;</p> + + <p class="i4">anger at flight of militia at Kip's Bay, + 168;</p> + + <p class="i4">again secures safe retreat, 169;</p> + + <p class="i4">secures slight advantage in a skirmish, + 170;</p> + + <p class="i4">continues to urge Congress to action, 170, + 171;</p> + + <p class="i4">success of his letters in securing a permanent + army, 171;</p> + + <p class="i4">surprised by advance of British fleet, 172;</p> + + <p class="i4">moves to White Plains, 173;</p> + + <p class="i4">blocks British advance, 174;</p> + + <p class="i4">advises abandonment of American forts, 174;</p> + + <p class="i4">blames himself for their capture, 175;</p> + + <p class="i4">leads diminishing army through New Jersey, + 175;</p> + + <p class="i4">makes vain appeals for aid, 176;</p> + + <p class="i4">resolves to take the offensive, 177;</p> + + <p class="i4">desperateness of his situation, 178;</p> + + <p class="i4">pledges his estate and private fortune to raise + men, 179;</p> + + <p class="i4">orders disregarded by officers, 180;</p> + + <p class="i4">crosses Delaware and captures Hessians, 180, + 181;</p> + + <p class="i4">has difficulty in retaining soldiers, 181;</p> + + <p class="i4">repulses Cornwallis at Assunpink, 181;</p> + + <p class="i4">outwits Cornwallis and wins battle at + Princeton, 182;</p> + + <p class="i4">excellence of his strategy, 183;</p> + + <p class="i4">effect of this campaign in saving Revolution, + 183, 184;</p> + + <p class="i4">withdraws to Morristown, 185;</p> + + <p class="i4">fluctuations in size of army, 186;</p> + + <p class="i4">his determination to keep the field, 186, + 187;</p> + + <p class="i4">criticised by Congress for not fighting, + 187;</p> + + <p class="i4">hampered by Congressional interference, + 188;</p> + + <p class="i4">issues proclamation requiring oath of + allegiance, 188;</p> + + <p class="i4">attacked in Congress for so doing, 189;</p> + + <p class="i4">annoyed by Congressional alterations of rank, + 189;</p> + + <p class="i4">and by foreign military adventurers, 191;</p> + + <p class="i4">value of his services in suppressing them, + 192;</p> + + <p class="i4">his American feelings, 191, 193;</p> + + <p class="i4">warns Congress in vain that Howe means to + attack Philadelphia, 193;</p> + + <p class="i4">baffles Howe's advance across New Jersey, + 195;</p> + + <p class="i4">learning of his sailing, marches to defend + Philadelphia, 195;</p> + + <p class="i4">offers battle at Brandywine, 196, 197;</p> + + <p class="i4">out-generaled and beaten, 197;</p> + + <p class="i4">rallies army and prepares to fight again, + 198;</p> + + <p class="i4">prevented by storm, 199;</p> + + <p class="i4">attacks British at Germantown, 199;</p> + + <p class="i4">defeated, 200;</p> + + <p class="i4">exposes himself in battle, 200;</p> + + <p class="i4">real success of his action, 201;</p> + + <p class="i4">despised by English, 202;</p> + + <p class="i4">foresees danger of Burgoyne's invasion, + 203;</p> + + <p class="i4">sends instructions to Schuyler, 204;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges use of New England and New York militia, + 304;</p> + + <p class="i4">dreads northern advance of Howe, 205;</p> + + <p class="i4">determines to hold him at all hazards, 206, + 207;</p> + + <p class="i4">not cast down by loss of Ticonderoga, 207;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges New England to rise, 208;</p> + + <p class="i4">sends all possible troops, 208;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses to appoint a commander for Northern + army, 208;</p> + + <p class="i4">his probable reasons, 209;</p> + + <p class="i4">continues to send suggestions, 210;</p> + + <p class="i4">slighted by Gates after Burgoyne's surrender, + 211;</p> + + <p class="i4">rise of opposition in Congress, 212;</p> + + <p class="i4">arouses ill-feeling by his frankness, 212, + 213;</p> + + <p class="i4">distrusted by Samuel and John Adams, 214;</p> + + <p class="i4">by others, 214, 215;</p> + + <p class="i4">formation of a plan to supplant him by Gates, + 215;</p> + + <p class="i4">opposed by Gates, Mifflin, and Conway, 215, + 216;</p> + + <p class="i4">angers Conway by preventing his increase in + rank, 216;</p> + + <p class="i4">is refused troops by Gates, 217;</p> + + <p class="i4">defends and loses Delaware forts, 217;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses to attack Howe, 218;</p> + + <p class="i4">propriety of his action, 219;</p> + + <p class="i4">becomes aware of cabal, 220;</p> + + <p class="i4">alarms them by showing extent of his knowledge, + 221;</p> + + <p class="i4">attacked bitterly in Congress, 222;</p> + + <p class="i4">insulted by Gates, 223;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses to resign, 224;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses to notice cabal publicly, 224;</p> + + <p class="i4">complains privately of slight support from + Pennsylvania, 225;</p> + + <p class="i4">continues to push Gates for explanations, + 226;</p> + + <p class="i4">regains complete control after collapse of + cabal, 226, 227;</p> + + <p class="i4">withdraws to Valley Forge, 227;</p> + + <p class="i4">desperation of his situation, 228;</p> + + <p class="i4">criticised by Pennsylvania legislature for + going into winter quarters, 229;</p> + + <p class="i4">his bitter reply, 229;</p> + + <p class="i4">his unbending resolution, 230;</p> + + <p class="i4">continues to urge improvements in army + organization, 231;</p> + + <p class="i4">manages to hold army together, 232;</p> + + <p class="i4">sends Lafayette to watch Philadelphia, 233;</p> + + <p class="i4">determines to fight, 234;</p> + + <p class="i4">checked by Lee, 234;</p> + + <p class="i4">pursues Clinton, 235;</p> + + <p class="i4">orders Lee to attack British rearguard, + 235;</p> + + <p class="i4">discovers his force retreating, 236;</p> + + <p class="i4">rebukes Lee and punishes him, 236, 237;</p> + + <p class="i4">takes command and stops retreat, 237;</p> + + <p class="i4">repulses British and assumes offensive, + 238;</p> + + <p class="i4">success due to his work at Valley Forge, + 239;</p> + + <p class="i4">celebrates French alliance, 241;</p> + + <p class="i4">has to confront difficulty of managing allies, + 241, 242;</p> + + <p class="i4">welcomes D'Estaing, 243;</p> + + <p class="i4">obliged to quiet recrimination after Newport + failure, 244;</p> + + <p class="i4">his letter to Sullivan, 244;</p> + + <p class="i4">to Lafayette, 245;</p> + + <p class="i4">to D'Estaing, 246;</p> + + <p class="i4">tact and good effect of his letters, 246;</p> + + <p class="i4">offers to cooperate in an attack on New York, + 247;</p> + + <p class="i4">furnishes admirable suggestions to D'Estaing, + 247;</p> + + <p class="i4">not dazzled by French, 248;</p> + + <p class="i4">objects to giving rank to foreign officers, + 248, 249;</p> + + <p class="i4">opposes transfer of Steuben from inspectorship + to the line, 249;</p> + + <p class="i4">his thoroughly American position, 250;</p> + + <p class="i4">absence of provinciality, 251, 252;</p> + + <p class="i4">a national leader, 252;</p> + + <p class="i4">opposes invasion of Canada, 253;</p> + + <p class="i4">foresees danger of its recapture by France, + 254, 255;</p> + + <p class="i4">his clear understanding of French motives, 255, + 256;</p> + + <p class="i4">rejoices in condition of patriot cause, + 257;</p> + + <p class="i4">foresees ruin to army in financial troubles, + 258;</p> + + <p class="i4">has to appease mutinies among unpaid troops, + 258;</p> + + <p class="i4">appeals to Congress, 259;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges election of better delegates to Congress, + 259;</p> + + <p class="i4">angry with speculators, 260, 261;</p> + + <p class="i4">futility of his efforts, 261, 262;</p> + + <p class="i4">his increasing alarm at social demoralization, + 263;</p> + + <p class="i4">effect of his exertions, 264;</p> + + <p class="i4">conceals his doubts of the French, 264;</p> + + <p class="i4">watches New York, 264;</p> + + <p class="i4">keeps dreading an English campaign, 265;</p> + + <p class="i4">labors with Congress to form a navy, 266;</p> + + <p class="i4">plans expedition to chastise Indians, 266;</p> + + <p class="i4">realizes that things are at a standstill in the + North, 267;</p> + + <p class="i4">sees danger to lie in the South, but determines + to remain himself near New York, 267;</p> + + <p class="i4">not consulted by Congress in naming general for + Southern army, 268;</p> + + <p class="i4">plans attack on Stony Point, 268;</p> + + <p class="i4">hatred of ravaging methods of British warfare, + 270;</p> + + <p class="i4">again has great difficulties in winter + quarters, 270;</p> + + <p class="i4">unable to act on offensive in the spring, 270, + 272;</p> + + <p class="i4">unable to help South, 272;</p> + + <p class="i4">advises abandonment of Charleston, 273;</p> + + <p class="i4">learns of arrival of French army, 274;</p> + + <p class="i4">plans a number of enterprises with it, 275, + 276;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses, even after loss of Charleston, to + abandon Hudson, 276;</p> + + <p class="i4">welcomes Rochambeau, 277;</p> + + <p class="i4">writes to Congress against too optimistic + feelings, 278, 279;</p> + + <p class="i4">has extreme difficulty in holding army + together, 280;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges French to attack New York, 280;</p> + + <p class="i4">sends Maryland troops South after Camden, + 281;</p> + + <p class="i4">arranges meeting with Rochambeau at Hartford, + 282;</p> + + <p class="i4">popular enthusiasm over him, 283;</p> + + <p class="i4">goes to West Point, 284;</p> + + <p class="i4">surprised at Arnold's absence, 284;</p> + + <p class="i4">learns of his treachery, 284, 285;</p> + + <p class="i4">his cool behavior, 285;</p> + + <p class="i4">his real feelings, 286;</p> + + <p class="i4">his conduct toward André, 287;</p> + + <p class="i4">its justice, 287, 288;</p> + + <p class="i4">his opinion of Arnold, 288, 289;</p> + + <p class="i4">his responsibility in the general breakdown of + the Congress and army, 290;</p> + + <p class="i4">obliged to quell food mutinies in army, 291, + 292;</p> + + <p class="i4">difficulty of situation, 292;</p> + + <p class="i4">his influence the salvation of army, 293;</p> + + <p class="i4">his greatness best shown in this way, 293;</p> + + <p class="i4">rebukes Congress, 294;</p> + + <p class="i4">appoints Greene to command Southern army, + 295;</p> + + <p class="i4">sends Knox to confer with state governors, + 296;</p> + + <p class="i4">secures temporary relief for army, 296;</p> + + <p class="i4">sees the real defect is in weak government, + 296;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges adoption of Articles of Confederation, + 297;</p> + + <p class="i4">works for improvements in executive, + 298,299;</p> + + <p class="i4">still keeps a Southern movement in mind, + 301;</p> + + <p class="i4">unable to do anything through lack of naval + power, 303;</p> + + <p class="i4">rebukes Lund Washington for entertaining + British at Mt. Vernon, 303;</p> + + <p class="i4">still unable to fight, 304;</p> + + <p class="i4">tries to frighten Clinton into remaining in New + York, 305;</p> + + <p class="i4">succeeds with aid of Rochambeau, 306;</p> + + <p class="i4">explains his plan to French and to Congress, + 306;</p> + + <p class="i4">learns of De Grasse's approach, prepares to + move South, 306;</p> + + <p class="i4">writes to De Grasse to meet him in Chesapeake, + 308;</p> + + <p class="i4">fears a premature peace, 308;</p> + + <p class="i4">pecuniary difficulties, 309;</p> + + <p class="i4">absolute need of command of sea, 310;</p> + + <p class="i4">persuades De Barras to join De Grasse, 311;</p> + + <p class="i4">starts on march for Chesapeake, 311;</p> + + <p class="i4">hampered by lack of supplies, 312;</p> + + <p class="i4">and by threat of Congress to reduce army, + 313;</p> + + <p class="i4">passes through Mt. Vernon, 314;</p> + + <p class="i4">succeeds in persuading De Grasse not to abandon + him, 315;</p> + + <p class="i4">besieges Cornwallis, 315;</p> + + <p class="i4">sees capture of redoubts, 316;</p> + + <p class="i4">receives surrender of Cornwallis, 317;</p> + + <p class="i4">admirable strategy and management of campaign, + 318;</p> + + <p class="i4">his personal influence the cause of success, + 318;</p> + + <p class="i4">especially his use of the fleet, 319;</p> + + <p class="i4">his management of Cornwallis through Lafayette, + 319;</p> + + <p class="i4">his boldness in transferring army away from New + York, 320;</p> + + <p class="i4">does not lose his head over victory, 321;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges De Grasse to repeat success against + Charleston, 322;</p> + + <p class="i4">returns north, 322;</p> + + <p class="i4">saddened by death of Custis, 322;</p> + + <p class="i4">continues to urge Congress to action, 323;</p> + + <p class="i4">writes letters to the States, 323;</p> + + <p class="i4">does not expect English surrender, 324;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges renewed vigor, 324;</p> + + <p class="i4">points out that war actually continues, + 325;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges not to give up army until peace is + actually secured, 325;</p> + + <p class="i4">failure of his appeals, 326;</p> + + <p class="i4">reduced to inactivity, 326;</p> + + <p class="i4">angered at murder of Huddy, 327;</p> + + <p class="i4">threatens Carleton with retaliation, 328;</p> + + <p class="i4">releases Asgill at request of Vergennes and + order of Congress, 329, 330;</p> + + <p class="i4">disclaims credit, 330;</p> + + <p class="i4">justification of his behavior, 330;</p> + + <p class="i4">his tenderness toward the soldiers, 331;</p> + + <p class="i4">jealousy of Congress toward him, 332;</p> + + <p class="i4">warns Congress of danger of further neglect of + army, 333, 334;</p> + + <p class="i4">takes control of mutinous movement, 335;</p> + + <p class="i4">his address to the soldiers, 336;</p> + + <p class="i4">its effect, 336;</p> + + <p class="i4">movement among soldiers to make him dictator, + 337;</p> + + <p class="i4">replies to revolutionary proposals, 337;</p> + + <p class="i4">reality of the danger, 339;</p> + + <p class="i4">causes for his behaviour, 340, 341;</p> + + <p class="i4">a friend of strong government, but devoid of + personal ambition, 342;</p> + + <p class="i4">chafes under delay to disband army, 343;</p> + + <p class="i4">tries to secure Western posts, 343;</p> + + <p class="i4">makes a journey through New York, 343;</p> + + <p class="i4">gives Congress excellent but futile advice, + 344;</p> + + <p class="i4">issues circular letter to governors, 344;</p> + + <p class="i4">and farewell address to army, 345;</p> + + <p class="i4">enters New York after departure of British, + 345;</p> + + <p class="i4">his farewell to his officers, 345;</p> + + <p class="i4">adjusts his accounts, 346;</p> + + <p class="i4">appears before Congress, 347;</p> + + <p class="i4">French account of his action, 347;</p> + + <p class="i4">makes speech resigning commission, 348, + 349.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2"><i>In Retirement</i>.</p> + + <p class="i4">Returns to Mt. Vernon, ii. I;</p> + + <p class="i4">tries to resume old life, 2;</p> + + <p class="i4">gives up hunting, 2;</p> + + <p class="i4">pursued by lion-hunters and artists, 3;</p> + + <p class="i4">overwhelmed with correspondence, 3;</p> + + <p class="i4">receives letters from Europe, 4;</p> + + <p class="i4">from cranks, 4;</p> + + <p class="i4">from officers, 4;</p> + + <p class="i4">his share in Society of Cincinnati, 4;</p> + + <p class="i4">manages his estate, 5;</p> + + <p class="i4">visits Western lands, 5;</p> + + <p class="i4">family cares, 5, 6;</p> + + <p class="i4">continues to have interest in public affairs, + 6;</p> + + <p class="i4">advises Congress regarding peace establishment, + 6;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges acquisition of Western posts, 7;</p> + + <p class="i4">his broad national views, 7;</p> + + <p class="i4">alone in realizing future greatness of country, + 7, 8;</p> + + <p class="i4">appreciates importance of the West, 8;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges development of inland navigation, 9;</p> + + <p class="i4">asks Jefferson's aid, 9, 10;</p> + + <p class="i4">lays canal scheme before Virginia legislature, + 10;</p> + + <p class="i4">his arguments, 10;</p> + + <p class="i4">troubled by offer of stock, 11;</p> + + <p class="i4">uses it to endow two schools, 12;</p> + + <p class="i4">significance of his scheme, 12, 13;</p> + + <p class="i4">his political purposes in binding West to East, + 13;</p> + + <p class="i4">willing to leave Mississippi closed for this + purpose, 14, 15, 16;</p> + + <p class="i4">feels need of firmer union during Revolution, + 17;</p> + + <p class="i4">his arguments, 18, 19;</p> + + <p class="i4">his influence starts movement for reform, + 20;</p> + + <p class="i4">continues to urge it during retirement, 21;</p> + + <p class="i4">foresees disasters of confederation, 21;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges impost scheme, 22;</p> + + <p class="i4">condemns action of States, 22, 23, 25;</p> + + <p class="i4">favours commercial agreement between Maryland + and Virginia, 23;</p> + + <p class="i4">stung by contempt of foreign powers, 24;</p> + + <p class="i4">his arguments for a national government, + 24;</p> + + <p class="i4">points out designs of England, 25;</p> + + <p class="i4">works against paper money craze in States, + 26;</p> + + <p class="i4">his opinion of Shays's rebellion, 26;</p> + + <p class="i4">his position contrasted with Jefferson's, + 27;</p> + + <p class="i4">influence of his letters, 28, 29;</p> + + <p class="i4">shrinks from participating in Federal + convention, 29;</p> + + <p class="i4">elected unanimously, 30;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses to go to a feeble convention, 30, + 31;</p> + + <p class="i4">finally makes up his mind, 31.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2"><i>In the Federal Convention</i>.</p> + + <p class="i4">Speech attributed to Washington by Morris on + duties of delegates, 31, 32;</p> + + <p class="i4">chosen to preside, 33;</p> + + <p class="i4">takes no part in debate, 34;</p> + + <p class="i4">his influence in convention, 34, 35;</p> + + <p class="i4">despairs of success, 35;</p> + + <p class="i4">signs the Constitution, 36;</p> + + <p class="i4">words attributed to him, 36;</p> + + <p class="i4">silent as to his thoughts, 36, 37;</p> + + <p class="i4">sees clearly danger of failure to ratify, + 37;</p> + + <p class="i4">tries at first to act indifferently, 38;</p> + + <p class="i4">begins to work for ratification, 38;</p> + + <p class="i4">writes letters to various people, 38, 39;</p> + + <p class="i4">circulates copies of "Federalist," 40;</p> + + <p class="i4">saves ratification in Virginia, 40;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges election of Federalists to Congress, + 41;</p> + + <p class="i4">receives general request to accept presidency, + 41;</p> + + <p class="i4">his objections, 41, 42;</p> + + <p class="i4">dreads failure and responsibility, 42;</p> + + <p class="i4">elected, 42;</p> + + <p class="i4">his journey to New York, 42-46;</p> + + <p class="i4">speech at Alexandria, 43;</p> + + <p class="i4">popular reception at all points, 44, 45;</p> + + <p class="i4">his feelings, 46;</p> + + <p class="i4">his inauguration, 46.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2"><i>President</i>.</p> + + <p class="i4">His speech to Congress, 48;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges no specific policy, 48, 49;</p> + + <p class="i4">his solemn feelings, 49;</p> + + <p class="i4">his sober view of necessities of situation, + 50;</p> + + <p class="i4">question of his title, 52;</p> + + <p class="i4">arranges to communicate with Senate by writing, + 52, 53;</p> + + <p class="i4">discusses social etiquette, 53;</p> + + <p class="i4">takes middle ground, 54;</p> + + <p class="i4">wisdom of his action, 55;</p> + + <p class="i4">criticisms by Democrats, 55, 56;</p> + + <p class="i4">accused of monarchical leanings, 56, 57;</p> + + <p class="i4">familiarizes himself with work already + accomplished under Confederation, 58;</p> + + <p class="i4">his business habits, 58;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses special privileges to French minister, + 59, 60;</p> + + <p class="i4">skill of his reply, 60, 61;</p> + + <p class="i4">solicited for office, 61;</p> + + <p class="i4">his views on appointment, 62;</p> + + <p class="i4">favors friends of Constitution and old + soldiers, 62;</p> + + <p class="i4">success of his appointments, 63;</p> + + <p class="i4">selects a cabinet, 64;</p> + + <p class="i4">his regard for Knox 65;</p> + + <p class="i4">for Morris, 66;</p> + + <p class="i4">his skill in choosing, 66;</p> + + <p class="i4">his appreciation of Hamilton, 67;</p> + + <p class="i4">his grounds for choosing Jefferson, 68;</p> + + <p class="i4">his contrast with Jefferson, 69;</p> + + <p class="i4">his choice a mistake in policy, 70;</p> + + <p class="i4">his partisan characteristics, 70, 71;</p> + + <p class="i4">excludes anti-Federalists, 71;</p> + + <p class="i4">nominates justices of Supreme Court, 72;</p> + + <p class="i4">their party character, 73;</p> + + <p class="i4">illness, 73;</p> + + <p class="i4">visits the Eastern States, 73;</p> + + <p class="i4">his reasons, 74;</p> + + <p class="i4">stirs popular enthusiasm, 74;</p> + + <p class="i4">snubbed by Hancock in Massachusetts, 75;</p> + + <p class="i4">accepts Hancock's apology, 75;</p> + + <p class="i4">importance of his action, 76;</p> + + <p class="i4">success of journey, 76;</p> + + <p class="i4">opens Congress, 78, 79;</p> + + <p class="i4">his speech and its recommendations, 81;</p> + + <p class="i4">how far carried out, 81-83;</p> + + <p class="i4">national character of the speech, 83;</p> + + <p class="i4">his fitness to deal with Indians, 87;</p> + + <p class="i4">his policy, 88;</p> + + <p class="i4">appoints commission to treat with Creeks, + 90;</p> + + <p class="i4">ascribes its failure to Spanish intrigue, + 90;</p> + + <p class="i4">succeeds by a personal interview in making + treaty, 91;</p> + + <p class="i4">wisdom of his policy, 92;</p> + + <p class="i4">orders an expedition against Western Indians, + 93;</p> + + <p class="i4">angered at its failure, 94;</p> + + <p class="i4">and at conduct of frontiersmen, 94;</p> + + <p class="i4">prepares St. Clair's expedition, 95;</p> + + <p class="i4">warns against ambush, 95;</p> + + <p class="i4">hopes for decisive results, 97;</p> + + <p class="i4">learns of St. Clair's defeat, 97;</p> + + <p class="i4">his self-control, 97;</p> + + <p class="i4">his outburst of anger against St. Clair, 97, + 98;</p> + + <p class="i4">masters his feelings, 98;</p> + + <p class="i4">treats St. Clair kindly, 99;</p> + + <p class="i4">determines on a second campaign, 100;</p> + + <p class="i4">selects Wayne and other officers, 100;</p> + + <p class="i4">tries to secure peace with tribes, 101;</p> + + <p class="i4">efforts prevented by English influence, 101, + 102;</p> + + <p class="i4">and in South by conduct of Georgia, 103;</p> + + <p class="i4">general results of his Indian policy, 104;</p> + + <p class="i4">popular misunderstandings and criticism, 104, + 105;</p> + + <p class="i4">favors assumption of state debts by the + government, 107, 108;</p> + + <p class="i4">satisfied with bargain between Hamilton and + Jefferson, 108;</p> + + <p class="i4">his respectful attitude toward Constitution, + 109;</p> + + <p class="i4">asks opinions of cabinet on constitutionality + of bank, 110;</p> + + <p class="i4">signs bill creating it, 110;</p> + + <p class="i4">reasons for his decision, 111;</p> + + <p class="i4">supports Hamilton's financial policy, 112;</p> + + <p class="i4">supports Hamilton's views on protection, 115, + 116;</p> + + <p class="i4">appreciates evil economic condition of + Virginia, 116, 117;</p> + + <p class="i4">sees necessity for self-sufficient industries + in war time, 117;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges protection, 118, 119, 120;</p> + + <p class="i4">his purpose to build up national feeling, + 121;</p> + + <p class="i4">approves national excise tax, 122, 123;</p> + + <p class="i4">does not realize unpopularity of method, + 123;</p> + + <p class="i4">ready to modify but insists on obedience, 124, + 125;</p> + + <p class="i4">issues proclamation against rioters, 125;</p> + + <p class="i4">since Pennsylvania frontier continues + rebellious, issues second proclamation threatening to use + force, 127;</p> + + <p class="i4">calls out the militia, 127;</p> + + <p class="i4">his advice to leaders and troops, 128;</p> + + <p class="i4">importance of Washington's firmness, 129;</p> + + <p class="i4">his good judgment and patience, 130;</p> + + <p class="i4">decides success of the central authority, + 130;</p> + + <p class="i4">early advocacy of separation of United States + from European politics, 133;</p> + + <p class="i4">studies situation, 134, 135;</p> + + <p class="i4">sees importance of binding West with Eastern + States, 135;</p> + + <p class="i4">sees necessity of good relations with England, + 137;</p> + + <p class="i4">authorizes Morris to sound England as to + exchange of ministers and a commercial treaty, 137;</p> + + <p class="i4">not disturbed by British bad manners, 138;</p> + + <p class="i4">succeeds in establishing diplomatic relations, + 138;</p> + + <p class="i4">early foresees danger of excess in French + Revolution, 139, 140;</p> + + <p class="i4">states a policy of strict neutrality, 140, 142, + 143;</p> + + <p class="i4">difficulties of his situation, 142;</p> + + <p class="i4">objects to action of National Assembly on + tobacco and oil, 144;</p> + + <p class="i4">denies reported request by United States that + England mediate with Indians, 145;</p> + + <p class="i4">announces neutrality in case of a European war, + 146;</p> + + <p class="i4">instructs cabinet to prepare a neutrality + proclamation, 147;</p> + + <p class="i4">importance of this step not understood at time, + 148, 149;</p> + + <p class="i4">foresees coming difficulties, 149, 150;</p> + + <p class="i4">acts cautiously toward + <i>émigrés</i>, 151;</p> + + <p class="i4">contrast with Genet, 152;</p> + + <p class="i4">greets him coldly, 152;</p> + + <p class="i4">orders steps taken to prevent violations of + neutrality, 153, 154;</p> + + <p class="i4">retires to Mt. Vernon for rest, 154;</p> + + <p class="i4">on returning finds Jefferson has allowed Little + Sarah to escape, 156;</p> + + <p class="i4">writes a sharp note to Jefferson, 156;</p> + + <p class="i4">anger at escape, 157;</p> + + <p class="i4">takes matters out of Jefferson's hands, + 157;</p> + + <p class="i4">determines on asking recall of Genet, 158;</p> + + <p class="i4">revokes exequatur of Duplaine, French consul, + 159;</p> + + <p class="i4">insulted by Genet, 159, 160;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses to deny Jay's card, 160;</p> + + <p class="i4">upheld by popular feeling, 160;</p> + + <p class="i4">his annoyance at the episode, 160;</p> + + <p class="i4">obliged to teach American people self-respect, + 162, 163;</p> + + <p class="i4">deals with troubles incited by Genet in the + West, 162, 163;</p> + + <p class="i4">sympathizes with frontiersmen, 163;</p> + + <p class="i4">comprehends value of Mississippi, 164, 165;</p> + + <p class="i4">sends a commission to Madrid to negotiate about + free navigation, 166;</p> + + <p class="i4">later sends Thomas Pinckney, 166;</p> + + <p class="i4">despairs of success, 166;</p> + + <p class="i4">apparent conflict between French treaties and + neutrality, 169, 170;</p> + + <p class="i4">value of Washington's policy to England, + 171;</p> + + <p class="i4">in spite of England's attitude, intends to keep + peace, 177;</p> + + <p class="i4">wishes to send Hamilton as envoy, 177;</p> + + <p class="i4">after his refusal appoints Jay, 177;</p> + + <p class="i4">fears that England intends war, 178;</p> + + <p class="i4">determines to be prepared, 178;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges upon Jay the absolute necessity of + England's giving up Western posts, 179;</p> + + <p class="i4">dissatisfied with Jay treaty but willing to + sign it, 184;</p> + + <p class="i4">in doubt as to meaning of conditional + ratification, 184;</p> + + <p class="i4">protests against English "provision order" and + refuses signature, 185;</p> + + <p class="i4">meets uproar against treaty alone, 188;</p> + + <p class="i4">determines to sign, 189;</p> + + <p class="i4">answers resolutions of Boston town meeting, + 190;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses to abandon his judgment to popular + outcry, 190;</p> + + <p class="i4">distinguishes temporary from permanent feeling, + 191;</p> + + <p class="i4">fears effect of excitement upon French + government, 192;</p> + + <p class="i4">his view of dangers of situation, 193, 194;</p> + + <p class="i4">recalled to Philadelphia by cabinet, 195;</p> + + <p class="i4">receives intercepted correspondence of Fauchet, + 195, 196;</p> + + <p class="i4">his course of action already determined, 197, + 198;</p> + + <p class="i4">not influenced by the Fauchet letter, 198;</p> + + <p class="i4">evidence of this, 199, 200;</p> + + <p class="i4">reasons for ratifying before showing letter to + Randolph, 199, 200;</p> + + <p class="i4">signs treaty, 201;</p> + + <p class="i4">evidence that he did not sacrifice Randolph, + 201, 202;</p> + + <p class="i4">fairness of his action, 203;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses to reply to Randolph's attack, 204;</p> + + <p class="i4">reasons for signing treaty, 205;</p> + + <p class="i4">justified in course of time, 206;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses on constitutional grounds the call of + representatives for documents, 208;</p> + + <p class="i4">insists on independence of treaty-making by + executive and Senate, 209;</p> + + <p class="i4">overcomes hostile majority in House, 210;</p> + + <p class="i4">wishes Madison to succeed Morris at Paris, + 211;</p> + + <p class="i4">appoints Monroe, 216;</p> + + <p class="i4">his mistake in not appointing a political + supporter, 212;</p> + + <p class="i4">disgusted at Monroe's behavior, 213, 214;</p> + + <p class="i4">recalls Monroe and appoints C.C. Pinckney, + 214;</p> + + <p class="i4">angered at French policy, 214;</p> + + <p class="i4">his contempt for Monroe's self-justification, + 215, 216;</p> + + <p class="i4">review of foreign policy, 216-219;</p> + + <p class="i4">his guiding principle national independence, + 216;</p> + + <p class="i4">and abstention from European politics, 217;</p> + + <p class="i4">desires peace and time for growth, 217, + 218;</p> + + <p class="i4">wishes development of the West, 218, 219;</p> + + <p class="i4">wisdom of his policy, 219;</p> + + <p class="i4">considers parties dangerous, 220;</p> + + <p class="i4">but chooses cabinet from Federalists, 220;</p> + + <p class="i4">prepared to undergo criticism, 221;</p> + + <p class="i4">willingness to bear it, 221;</p> + + <p class="i4">desires to learn public feeling, by travels, + 221, 222;</p> + + <p class="i4">feels that body of people will support national + government, 222;</p> + + <p class="i4">sees and deplores sectional feelings in the + South, 222, 223;</p> + + <p class="i4">objects to utterances of newspapers, 223;</p> + + <p class="i4">attacked by "National Gazette," 227;</p> + + <p class="i4">receives attacks on Hamilton from Jefferson and + his friends, 228, 229;</p> + + <p class="i4">sends charges to Hamilton, 229;</p> + + <p class="i4">made anxious by signs of party division, + 229;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges both Hamilton and Jefferson to cease + quarrel, 230, 231;</p> + + <p class="i4">dreads an open division in cabinet, 232;</p> + + <p class="i4">desirous to rule without party, 233;</p> + + <p class="i4">accomplishes feat of keeping both secretaries + in cabinet, 233;</p> + + <p class="i4">keeps confidence in Hamilton, 234;</p> + + <p class="i4">urged by all parties to accept presidency + again, 235;</p> + + <p class="i4">willing to be reelected, 235;</p> + + <p class="i4">pleased at unanimous vote, 235;</p> + + <p class="i4">his early immunity from attacks, 237;</p> + + <p class="i4">later attacked by Freneau and Bache, 238;</p> + + <p class="i4">regards opposition as dangerous to country, + 239;</p> + + <p class="i4">asserts his intention to disregard them, + 240;</p> + + <p class="i4">his success in Genet affair, 241;</p> + + <p class="i4">disgusted at "democratic" societies, 242;</p> + + <p class="i4">thinks they fomented Whiskey Rebellion, + 242;</p> + + <p class="i4">denounces them to Congress, 243;</p> + + <p class="i4">effect of his remarks, 244;</p> + + <p class="i4">accused of tyranny after Jay treaty, 244;</p> + + <p class="i4">of embezzlement, 245;</p> + + <p class="i4">of aristocracy, 245;</p> + + <p class="i4">realizes that he must compose cabinet of + sympathizers, 246;</p> + + <p class="i4">reconstructs it, 246;</p> + + <p class="i4">states determination to govern by party, + 247;</p> + + <p class="i4">slighted by House, 247;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses a third term, 248;</p> + + <p class="i4">publishes Farewell Address, 248;</p> + + <p class="i4">his justification for so doing, 248;</p> + + <p class="i4">his wise advice, 249;</p> + + <p class="i4">address Attacked by Democrats, 250, 251;</p> + + <p class="i4">assailed in Congress by Giles, 251;</p> + + <p class="i4">resents charge of being a British sympathizer, + 252;</p> + + <p class="i4">his scrupulously fair conduct toward France, + 253;</p> + + <p class="i4">his resentment at English policy, 254;</p> + + <p class="i4">his retirement celebrated by the opposition, + 255;</p> + + <p class="i4">remarks of the "Aurora," 256;</p> + + <p class="i4">forged letters of British circulated, 257;</p> + + <p class="i4">he repudiates them, 257;</p> + + <p class="i4">his view of opposition, 259.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2"><i>In Retirement</i>.</p> + + <p class="i4">Regards Adams's administration as continuation + of his own, 259;</p> + + <p class="i4">understands Jefferson's attitude, 259;</p> + + <p class="i4">wishes generals of provisional army to be + Federalist, 260;</p> + + <p class="i4">doubts fidelity of opposition as soldiers, + 260;</p> + + <p class="i4">dreads their poisoning mind of army, 261;</p> + + <p class="i4">his condemnation of Democrats, 261, 262;</p> + + <p class="i4">snubs Dr. Logan for assuming an unofficial + mission to France, 263-265;</p> + + <p class="i4">alarmed at Virginia and Kentucky resolutions, + 266;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges Henry to oppose Virginia resolutions, + 267;</p> + + <p class="i4">condemns the French party as unpatriotic, + 267;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses request to stand again for presidency, + 269;</p> + + <p class="i4">comments on partisanship of Democrats, 269;</p> + + <p class="i4">believes that he would be no better candidate + than any other Federalist, 270, 271;</p> + + <p class="i4">error of statement that Washington was not a + party man, 271, 272;</p> + + <p class="i4">slow to relinquish non-partisan position, + 272;</p> + + <p class="i4">not the man to shrink from declaring his + position, 273;</p> + + <p class="i4">becomes a member of Federalist party, 273, + 274;</p> + + <p class="i4">eager for end of term of office, 275;</p> + + <p class="i4">his farewell dinner, 275;</p> + + <p class="i4">at Adams's inauguration, 276;</p> + + <p class="i4">popular enthusiasm at Philadelphia, 276;</p> + + <p class="i4">at Baltimore, 277;</p> + + <p class="i4">returns to Mt. Vernon, 279;</p> + + <p class="i4">describes his farm life, 278, 279;</p> + + <p class="i4">burdened by necessities of hospitality, + 280;</p> + + <p class="i4">account of his meeting with Bernard, + 281-283;</p> + + <p class="i4">continued interest in politics, 284;</p> + + <p class="i4">accepts command of provisional army, 285;</p> + + <p class="i4">selects Hamilton, Pinckney, and Knox as + major-generals, 286;</p> + + <p class="i4">surprised at Adams's objection to Hamilton, + 286;</p> + + <p class="i4">rebukes Adams for altering order of rank of + generals, 286, 287;</p> + + <p class="i4">not influenced by intrigue, 287;</p> + + <p class="i4">annoyed by Adams's conduct, 288;</p> + + <p class="i4">tries to soothe Knox's irritation, 289;</p> + + <p class="i4">fails to pacify him, 289;</p> + + <p class="i4">carries out organization of army, 290;</p> + + <p class="i4">does not expect actual war, 291;</p> + + <p class="i4">disapproves of Gerry's conduct, 292;</p> + + <p class="i4">disapproves of Adams's nomination of Vans + Murray, 292;</p> + + <p class="i4">his dread of French Revolution, 295;</p> + + <p class="i4">distrusts Adams's attempts at peace, 296;</p> + + <p class="i4">approves Alien and Sedition laws, 296;</p> + + <p class="i4">his defense of them, 297;</p> + + <p class="i4">distressed by dissensions among Federalists, + 298;</p> + + <p class="i4">predicts their defeat, 298;</p> + + <p class="i4">his sudden illness, 299-302;</p> + + <p class="i4">death, 303.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2"><i>Character</i>.</p> + + <p class="i4">misunderstood, 304;</p> + + <p class="i4">extravagantly praised, 304;</p> + + <p class="i4">disliked on account of being called faultless, + 305;</p> + + <p class="i4">bitterly attacked in lifetime, 306;</p> + + <p class="i4">sneered at by Jefferson, 306;</p> + + <p class="i4">by Pickering, 307;</p> + + <p class="i4">called an Englishman, not an American, 307, + 308;</p> + + <p class="i4">difference of his type from that of Lincoln, + 310;</p> + + <p class="i4">none the less American, 311, 312;</p> + + <p class="i4">compared with Hampden, 312;</p> + + <p class="i4">his manners those of the times elsewhere in + America, 314;</p> + + <p class="i4">aristocratic, but of a non-English type, + 314-316;</p> + + <p class="i4">less affected by Southern limitations than his + neighbors, 316;</p> + + <p class="i4">early dislike of New England changed to + respect, 316, 317;</p> + + <p class="i4">friendly with people of humble origin, 317, + 318;</p> + + <p class="i4">never an enemy of democracy, 318;</p> + + <p class="i4">but opposes French excesses, 318;</p> + + <p class="i4">his self-directed and American training, 319, + 320;</p> + + <p class="i4">early conception of a nation, 321;</p> + + <p class="i4">works toward national government during + Revolution, 321;</p> + + <p class="i4">his interest in Western expansion, 321, + 322;</p> + + <p class="i4">national character of his Indian policy, + 322;</p> + + <p class="i4">of his desire to secure free Mississippi + navigation, 322;</p> + + <p class="i4">of his opposition to war as a danger to Union, + 323;</p> + + <p class="i4">his anger at accusation of foreign + subservience, 323;</p> + + <p class="i4">continually asserts necessity for independent + American policy, 324, 325;</p> + + <p class="i4">opposes foreign educational influences, 325, + 326;</p> + + <p class="i4">favors foundation of a national university, + 326;</p> + + <p class="i4">breadth and strength of his national feeling, + 327;</p> + + <p class="i4">absence of boastfulness about country, 328;</p> + + <p class="i4">faith in it, 328;</p> + + <p class="i4">charge that he was merely a figure-head, + 329;</p> + + <p class="i4">its injustice, 330;</p> + + <p class="i4">charged with commonplaceness of intellect, + 330;</p> + + <p class="i4">incident of the deathbed explained, 330, + 331;</p> + + <p class="i4">falsity of the charge, 331;</p> + + <p class="i4">inability of mere moral qualities to achieve + what he did, 331;</p> + + <p class="i4">charged with dullness and coldness, 332;</p> + + <p class="i4">his seriousness, 333;</p> + + <p class="i4">responsibility from early youth, 333;</p> + + <p class="i4">his habits of keen observation, 333;</p> + + <p class="i4">power of judging men, 334;</p> + + <p class="i4">ability to use them for what they were worth, + 335;</p> + + <p class="i4">anecdote of advice to Hamilton and Meade, + 335;</p> + + <p class="i4">deceived only by Arnold, 336;</p> + + <p class="i4">imperfect education, 337;</p> + + <p class="i4">continual efforts to improve it, 337, 338;</p> + + <p class="i4">modest regarding his literary ability, 339, + 340;</p> + + <p class="i4">interested in education, 339;</p> + + <p class="i4">character of his writing, 340;</p> + + <p class="i4">tastes in reading, 341;</p> + + <p class="i4">modest but effective in conversation, 342;</p> + + <p class="i4">his manner and interest described by Bernard, + 343-347;</p> + + <p class="i4">attractiveness of the picture, 347, 348;</p> + + <p class="i4">his pleasure in society, 348;</p> + + <p class="i4">power of paying compliments, letter to Mrs. + Stockton, 349;</p> + + <p class="i4">to Charles Thompson, 350;</p> + + <p class="i4">to De Chastellux, 351;</p> + + <p class="i4">his warmth of heart, 352;</p> + + <p class="i4">extreme exactness in pecuniary matters, + 352;</p> + + <p class="i4">illustrative anecdotes, 353,354;</p> + + <p class="i4">favorable opinion of teller of anecdotes, + 356;</p> + + <p class="i4">stern towards dishonesty or cowardice, 357;</p> + + <p class="i4">treatment of André and Asgill, 357, + 358;</p> + + <p class="i4">sensitive to human suffering, 357, 358;</p> + + <p class="i4">kind and courteous to poor, 359;</p> + + <p class="i4">conversation with Cleaveland, 359;</p> + + <p class="i4">sense of dignity in public office, 360;</p> + + <p class="i4">hospitality at Mt. Vernon, 360, 361;</p> + + <p class="i4">his intimate friendships, 361,362;</p> + + <p class="i4">relations with Hamilton, Knox, Mason, Henry + Lee, Craik, 362, 363;</p> + + <p class="i4">the officers of the army, 363;</p> + + <p class="i4">Trumbull, Robert and Gouverneur Morris, + 363;</p> + + <p class="i4">regard for and courtesy toward Franklin, + 364;</p> + + <p class="i4">love for Lafayette, 365;</p> + + <p class="i4">care for his family, 366;</p> + + <p class="i4">lasting regard for Fairfaxes, 366, 367;</p> + + <p class="i4">kindness to Taft family, 367, 368;</p> + + <p class="i4">destroys correspondence with his wife, 368;</p> + + <p class="i4">their devoted relationship, 368;</p> + + <p class="i4">care for his step-children and relatives, 369, + 370;</p> + + <p class="i4">charged with lack of humor, 371;</p> + + <p class="i4">but never made himself ridiculous, 372;</p> + + <p class="i4">not joyous in temperament, 372;</p> + + <p class="i4">but had keen pleasure in sport, 373;</p> + + <p class="i4">enjoyed a joke, even during Revolution, + 374;</p> + + <p class="i4">appreciates wit, 375;</p> + + <p class="i4">writes a humorous letter, 376-378;</p> + + <p class="i4">not devoid of worldly wisdom, 378, 379;</p> + + <p class="i4">enjoys cards, dancing, the theatre, 380;</p> + + <p class="i4">loves horses, 380;</p> + + <p class="i4">thorough in small affairs as well as great, + 381;</p> + + <p class="i4">controversy over site of church, 381;</p> + + <p class="i4">his careful domestic economy, 382;</p> + + <p class="i4">love of method, 383;</p> + + <p class="i4">of excellence in dress and furniture, 383, + 384;</p> + + <p class="i4">gives dignity to American cause, 385;</p> + + <p class="i4">his personal appearance, 385;</p> + + <p class="i4">statements of Houdon, 386;</p> + + <p class="i4">of Ackerson, 386, 387;</p> + + <p class="i4">his tremendous muscular strength, 388;</p> + + <p class="i4">great personal impressiveness, 389, 390;</p> + + <p class="i4">lacking in imagination, 391;</p> + + <p class="i4">strong passions, 391;</p> + + <p class="i4">fierce temper, 392;</p> + + <p class="i4">anecdotes of outbreaks, 392;</p> + + <p class="i4">his absence of self-love, 393;</p> + + <p class="i4">confident in judgment of posterity, 393;</p> + + <p class="i4">religious faith, 394;</p> + + <p class="i4">summary and conclusion, 394, 395.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2"><i>Characteristics of</i>.</p> + + <p class="i4">General view, ii. 304-395;</p> + + <p class="i4">general admiration for, i. 1-7;</p> + + <p class="i4">myths about, i. 9-12, ii. 307 ff.;</p> + + <p class="i4">comparisons with Jefferson, ii. 69;</p> + + <p class="i4">with Lincoln, ii. 310-312;</p> + + <p class="i4">with Hampden, ii. 312, 313;</p> + + <p class="i4">absence of self-seeking, i. 341;</p> + + <p class="i4">affectionateness, i. 111, 285,331,345, ii. 332, + 362-371;</p> + + <p class="i4">agreeableness, ii. 344-347, 377;</p> + + <p class="i4">Americanism, ii. 307-328;</p> + + <p class="i4">aristocratic habits, ii. 314, 316;</p> + + <p class="i4">business ability, i. 105, 109, ii. 5, 352, + 382;</p> + + <p class="i4">coldness on occasion, i. 223, 224, 263, ii. + 318;</p> + + <p class="i4">courage, i. 77, 78, 86, 127, 168, 292;</p> + + <p class="i4">dignity, i. 81,161, ii. 52-57, 76;</p> + + <p class="i4">hospitality, ii. 360;</p> + + <p class="i4">impressiveness, i. 56, 83, 130, 138, 319, ii. + 385;</p> + + <p class="i4">indomitableness, i. 177, 181, 227;</p> + + <p class="i4">judgments of men, i. 295, ii. 64, 86, 334, + 335;</p> + + <p class="i4">justice and sternness, i. 287, 330, ii. 203, + 352-358, 389;</p> + + <p class="i4">kindliness, ii. 349-356, 359;</p> + + <p class="i4">lack of education, i. 62, ii. 337;</p> + + <p class="i4">love of reading, i. 62, ii. 341, 342;</p> + + <p class="i4">love of sport, i. 56, 98, 113-116, 118, ii. + 380;</p> + + <p class="i4">manners, ii. 282-283, 314;</p> + + <p class="i4">military ability, i. 154, 166, 174, 183, 197, + 204, 207, 239, 247, 265, 267, 305-320, ii. 331;</p> + + <p class="i4">modesty, i. 102, 134;</p> + + <p class="i4">not a figure-head, ii. 329, 330;</p> + + <p class="i4">not a prig, i. 10-12, 41-47;</p> + + <p class="i4">not cold and inhuman, ii. 332, 342;</p> + + <p class="i4">not dull or commonplace, ii. 330, 332;</p> + + <p class="i4">not superhuman and distant, i. 9, 10, 12, ii. + 304, 305;</p> + + <p class="i4">open-mindedness, ii. 317;</p> + + <p class="i4">passionateness, i. 58, 73, 90;</p> + + <p class="i4">personal appearance, i. 57, 136, 137, ii. 282, + 343, 385-389;</p> + + <p class="i4">religious views, i. 321, ii. 393;</p> + + <p class="i4">romantic traits, i. 95-97;</p> + + <p class="i4">sense of humor, ii. 371-377;</p> + + <p class="i4">silence regarding self, i. 14, 69, 70, 116, + 129, 285; ii. 37, 336;</p> + + <p class="i4">simplicity, i. 59, 69, 348; ii. 50, 340;</p> + + <p class="i4">sobriety, i. 49, 52, 134; ii. 43, 45, 333, + 373;</p> + + <p class="i4">tact, i. 162, 243, 244-246;</p> + + <p class="i4">temper, i. 73, 92, 110, 168, 236, 237, 260; ii. + 98, 392;</p> + + <p class="i4">thoroughness, i. 112, 323, 341, ii. 381.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2"><i>Political Opinions</i>.</p> + + <p class="i4">On Alien and Sedition Acts, ii. 196;</p> + + <p class="i4">American nationality, i. 191, 250, 251, 255, + 262, 279, ii. 7, 61, 133, 145, 324, 325, 327, 328;</p> + + <p class="i4">Articles of Confederation, i. 297, ii. 17, + 24;</p> + + <p class="i4">bank, ii. 110, 111;</p> + + <p class="i4">colonial rights, i. 120, 124-126, 130;</p> + + <p class="i4">Constitution, i. 38-41;</p> + + <p class="i4">democracy, ii. 317-319;</p> + + <p class="i4">Democratic party, ii. 214, 239, 240, 258, 261, + 267, 268;</p> + + <p class="i4">disunion, ii. 22;</p> + + <p class="i4">duties of the executive, ii. 190;</p> + + <p class="i4">education, ii. 81, 326, 330;</p> + + <p class="i4">Federalist party, ii. 71, 246, 247, 259, 260, + 261, 269-274, 298;</p> + + <p class="i4">finance, ii. 107, 108, 112, 122;</p> + + <p class="i4">foreign relations, ii. 25, 134, 142, 145, 147, + 179, 217-219, 323;</p> + + <p class="i4">French Revolution, ii. 139, 140, 295, 318;</p> + + <p class="i4">independence of colonies, i. 131, 159, 160;</p> + + <p class="i4">Indian policy, ii. 82, 87, 88, 91, 92, 104, + 105;</p> + + <p class="i4">Jay treaty, ii. 184-205;</p> + + <p class="i4">judiciary, i. 150;</p> + + <p class="i4">nominations to office, ii. 62;</p> + + <p class="i4">party, ii. 70, 222, 233, 249;</p> + + <p class="i4">protection, ii. 116-122;</p> + + <p class="i4">slavery, i. 106-108;</p> + + <p class="i4">Stamp Act, i. 119;</p> + + <p class="i4">strong government, i. 298, ii. 18, 24, 129, + 130;</p> + + <p class="i4">treaty power, ii. 190, 207-210;</p> + + <p class="i4">Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, ii. 266, + 267;</p> + + <p class="i4">Western expansion, ii. 6, 8-16, 135, 163-165, + 218, 322.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Washington, George Steptoe,</p> + + <p class="i4">his sons educated by Washington, ii. 370.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Washington, John, brother of George,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington, to, i. 132.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Washington, Lawrence, brother of George + Washington,</p> + + <p class="i4">educated in England, i. 54;</p> + + <p class="i4">has military career, 54;</p> + + <p class="i4">returns to Virginia and builds Mt. Vernon, + 54;</p> + + <p class="i4">marries into Fairfax family, 54, 55;</p> + + <p class="i4">goes to West Indies for his health, 62;</p> + + <p class="i4">dies, leaving George guardian of his daughter, + 64;</p> + + <p class="i4">chief manager of Ohio Company, 65;</p> + + <p class="i4">gives George military education, 65.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Washington, Lund,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, i. 152;</p> + + <p class="i4">rebuked by Washington for entertaining British, + ii. 303.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Washington, Martha, widow of Daniel P. + Custis,</p> + + <p class="i4">meets Washington, i. 101;</p> + + <p class="i4">courtship of, and marriage, 101, 102;</p> + + <p class="i4">hunts with her husband, 114;</p> + + <p class="i4">joins him at Boston, 151;</p> + + <p class="i4">holds levees as wife of President, ii. 54;</p> + + <p class="i4">during his last illness, 300;</p> + + <p class="i4">her correspondence destroyed, 368;</p> + + <p class="i4">her relations with her husband, 368, 369.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Washington, Mary,</p> + + <p class="i4">married to Augustine Washington, i. 39;</p> + + <p class="i4">mother of George Washington, 39;</p> + + <p class="i4">limited education but strong character, 40, + 41;</p> + + <p class="i4">wishes George to earn a living, 49;</p> + + <p class="i4">opposes his going to sea, 49;</p> + + <p class="i4">letters to, 88;</p> + + <p class="i4">visited by her son, ii. 5.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Waters, Henry E.,</p> + + <p class="i4">establishes Washington pedigree, i. 32.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Wayne, Anthony,</p> + + <p class="i4">defeated after Brandywine, i. 198;</p> + + <p class="i4">his opinion of Germantown, 199;</p> + + <p class="i4">at Monmouth urges Washington to come, 235;</p> + + <p class="i4">ready to attack Stony Point, 268;</p> + + <p class="i4">his successful exploit, 269;</p> + + <p class="i4">joins Lafayette in Virginia, 307;</p> + + <p class="i4">appointed to command against Indians, ii. + 100;</p> + + <p class="i4">his character, 100;</p> + + <p class="i4">organizes his force, 101;</p> + + <p class="i4">his march, 102;</p> + + <p class="i4">defeats the Indians, 103.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Weems, Mason L.,</p> + + <p class="i4">influence of his life of Washington on popular + opinion, i. 10;</p> + + <p class="i4">originates idea of his priggishness, 11;</p> + + <p class="i4">his character, 41, 43;</p> + + <p class="i4">character of his book, 42;</p> + + <p class="i4">his mythical "rectorate" of Mt. Vernon, 43, + 44;</p> + + <p class="i4">invents anecdotes of Washington's childhood, + 44;</p> + + <p class="i4">folly of cherry-tree and other stories, 46;</p> + + <p class="i4">their evil influence, 47.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">West, the,</p> + + <p class="i4">its importance realized by Washington, ii. + 7-16;</p> + + <p class="i4">his influence counteracted by inertia of + Congress, 8;</p> + + <p class="i4">forwards inland navigation, 9;</p> + + <p class="i4">desires to bind East to West, 9-11, 14;</p> + + <p class="i4">formation of companies, 11-13;</p> + + <p class="i4">on Mississippi navigation, 14-16, 164;</p> + + <p class="i4">projects of Genet in, 162;</p> + + <p class="i4">its attitude understood by Washington, 163, + 164;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington wishes peace in order to develop it, + 218, 219, 321.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">"Whiskey Rebellion,"</p> + + <p class="i4">passage of excise law, ii. 123;</p> + + <p class="i4">outbreaks of violence in Pennsylvania and North + Carolina, 124;</p> + + <p class="i4">proclamation issued warning rioters to desist, + 125;</p> + + <p class="i4">renewed outbreaks in Pennsylvania, 125, + 126;</p> + + <p class="i4">the militia called out, 127;</p> + + <p class="i4">suppression of the insurrection, 128;</p> + + <p class="i4">real danger of movement, 129;</p> + + <p class="i4">its suppression emphasizes national authority, + 129, 130;</p> + + <p class="i4">supposed by Washington to have been stirred up + by Democratic clubs, 242.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">White Plains,</p> + + <p class="i4">battle at, i. 173.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Wilkinson, James,</p> + + <p class="i4">brings Gates's message to Washington at + Trenton, i. 180;</p> + + <p class="i4">brings news of Saratoga to Congress, 220;</p> + + <p class="i4">nettled at Sherman's sarcasm, discloses Conway + cabal, 220;</p> + + <p class="i4">quarrels with Gates, 223;</p> + + <p class="i4">resigns from board of war, 223, 226;</p> + + <p class="i4">leads expedition against Indians, ii. 95.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Willett, Colonel,</p> + + <p class="i4">commissioner to Creeks, his success, ii. + 91.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">William and Mary College,</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington Chancellor of, ii. 339.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Williams,</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's teacher, i. 48, 51.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Willis, Lewis,</p> + + <p class="i4">story of Washington's school days, i. 95.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Wilson, James,</p> + + <p class="i4">appointed to Supreme Court, ii. 72.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Wilson, James, "of England,"</p> + + <p class="i4">hunts with Washington, i. 115.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Wolcott, Oliver,</p> + + <p class="i4">receives Fauchet letter, ii. 195;</p> + + <p class="i4">succeeds Hamilton as Secretary of Treasury, + 246.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Wooster, Mrs.,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 61.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">YORKTOWN,</p> + + <p class="i4">siege of, i. 315-318.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">"Young Man's Companion,"</p> + + <p class="i4">used by George Washington, origin of his rules + of conduct, i. 52.</p> + </div> + </div> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's George Washington, Vol. II, by Henry Cabot Lodge + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GEORGE WASHINGTON, VOL. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: George Washington, Vol. II + +Author: Henry Cabot Lodge + +Release Date: June 19, 2004 [EBook #12653] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GEORGE WASHINGTON, VOL. II *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Tim Koeller and PG Distributed +Proofreaders + + + + + + +[Illustration: MARTHA WASHINGTON] + +American Statesmen + +STANDARD LIBRARY EDITION + + +[Illustration: Mount Vernon] + + + * * * * * + + +GEORGE WASHINGTON + + BY + +HENRY CABOT LODGE + + IN TWO VOLUMES + VOL. II. + + 1899 + + + * * * * * + + +CONTENTS + +CHAPTER. + + I. WORKING FOR UNION + II. STARTING THE GOVERNMENT + III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS + IV. FOREIGN RELATIONS + V. WASHINGTON AS A PARTY MAN + VI. THE LAST YEARS + VII. GEORGE WASHINGTON + + INDEX + + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS + + +MARTHA WASHINGTON + +From the painting by Gilbert Stuart in the Museum of Fine Arts, +Boston. This painting is owned by the Boston Athenaeum and is known as +the Athenaeum portrait. + +Autograph from letter written from Valley Forge, March 7, 1778, now in +the possession of Hon. Winslow Warren. + + +The vignette of Mount Vernon is from a photograph. + + +WASHINGTON RESIGNING HIS COMMISSION AT ANNAPOLIS + +From the original painting by Trumbull in the Art Gallery of Yale +University. + + +LAFAYETTE + +From a contemporary French folio engraving in the Emmet collection, +New York Public Library, Lenox Building. + + +HENRY KNOX + +From the original portrait by Gilbert Stuart in the Museum of Fine +Arts, Boston. + +Autograph from Winsor's "America." + + +NATHANAEL GREENE + +From the original painting by C.W. Peale, by kind permission of its +present owner, Mrs. Wm. Brenton Greene, Jr., Princeton, N.J. + +Autograph from Winsor's "America." + + + * * * * * + + +GEORGE WASHINGTON + + + + +CHAPTER I + +WORKING FOR UNION + + +Having resigned his commission, Washington stood not upon the order of +his going, but went at once to Virginia, and reached Mount Vernon the +next day, in season to enjoy the Christmas-tide at home. It was with +a deep sigh of relief that he sat himself down again by his own +fireside, for all through the war the one longing that never left his +mind was for the banks of the Potomac. He loved home after the fashion +of his race, but with more than common intensity, and the country life +was dear to him in all its phases. He liked its quiet occupations and +wholesome sports, and, like most strong and simple natures, he loved +above all an open-air existence. He felt that he had earned his rest, +with all the temperate pleasures and employments which came with it, +and he fondly believed that he was about to renew the habits which he +had abandoned for eight weary years. Four days after his return he +wrote to Governor Clinton: "The scene is at last closed. I feel myself +eased of a load of public care. I hope to spend the remainder of my +days in cultivating the affections of good men and in the practice of +the domestic virtues." That the hope was sincere we may well suppose, +but that it was more than a hope may be doubted. It was a wish, not a +belief, for Washington must have felt that there was still work which +he would surely be called to do. Still for the present the old life +was there, and he threw himself into it with eager zest, though age +and care put some of the former habits aside. He resumed his hunting, +and Lafayette sent him a pack of splendid French wolf-hounds. But they +proved somewhat fierce and unmanageable, and were given up, and after +that the following of the hounds was never resumed. In other respects +there was little change. The work of the plantation and the affairs of +the estate, much disordered by his absence, once more took shape and +moved on successfully under the owner's eye. There were, as of old, +the long days in the saddle, the open house and generous hospitality, +the quiet evenings, and the thousand and one simple labors and +enjoyments of rural life. But with all this were the newer and deeper +cares, born of the change which had been wrought in the destiny of the +country. The past broke in and could not be pushed aside, the future +knocked at the door and demanded an answer to its questionings. + +He had left home a distinguished Virginian; he returned one of the +most famous men in the world, and such celebrity brought its usual +penalties. Every foreigner of any position who came to the country +made a pilgrimage to Mount Vernon, and many Americans did the same. +Their coming was not allowed to alter the mode of life, but they were +all hospitably received, and they consumed many hours of their host's +precious time. Then there were the artists and sculptors, who came +to paint his portrait or model his bust. "_In for a penny, in for +a pound_ is an old adage," he wrote to Hopkinson in 1785. "I am so +hackneyed to the touches of painters' pencils that I am now altogether +at their beck, and sit 'like patience on a monument,' whilst they are +delineating the lines of my face. It is a proof, among many others, of +what habit and custom can accomplish." Then there were the people who +desired to write his memoirs, and the historians who wished to have +his reminiscences, in their accounts of the Revolution. Some of these +inquiring and admiring souls came in person, while others assailed him +by letter and added to the vast flood of correspondence which poured +in upon him by every post. His correspondence, in fact, in the +needless part of it, was the most formidable waste of his time. He +seems to have formed no correct idea of his own fame and what it +meant, for he did not have a secretary until he found not only that he +could not arrange his immense mass of papers, but that he could not +even keep up with his daily letters. His correspondence came from all +parts of his own country, and of Europe as well. The French officers +who had been his companions in arms wrote him with affectionate +interest, and he was urged by them, one and all, and even by the king +and queen, to visit France. These were letters which he was only too +happy to answer, and he would fain have crossed the water in response +to their kindly invitation; but he professed himself too old, which +was a mere excuse, and objected his ignorance of the language, which +to a man of his temperament was a real obstacle. Besides these letters +of friendship, there were the schemers everywhere who sought his +counsel and assistance. The notorious Lady Huntington, for example, +pursued him with her project of Christianizing the Indians by means of +a missionary colony in our western region, and her persistent ladyship +cost him a good deal of time and thought, and some long and careful +letters. Then there was the inventor Kumsey, with his steamboat, to +which he gave careful attention, as he did to everything that seemed +to have merit. Another class of correspondents were his officers, who +wanted his aid with Congress and in a thousand other ways, and to +these old comrades he never turned a deaf ear. In this connection also +came the affairs of the Society of the Cincinnati. He took an active +part in the formation of the society, became its head, steered it +through its early difficulties, and finally saved it from the wreck +with which it was threatened by unreasoning popular prejudice. All +these things were successfully managed, but at much expense of time +and thought. + +[Illustration: WASHINGTON RESIGNING HIS COMMISSION AT ANNAPOLIS] + +Then again, apart from this mass of labor thrust upon him by +outsiders, there were his own concerns. His personal affairs required +looking after, and he regulated accounts, an elaborate business always +with him, put his farms in order, corresponded with his merchants +in England, and introduced agricultural improvements, which always +interested him deeply. He had large investments in land, of which from +boyhood he had been a bold and sagacious purchaser. These investments +had been neglected and needed his personal inspection; so in +September, 1784, he mounted his horse, and with a companion and a +servant rode away to the western country to look after his property. +He camped out, as in the early days, and heartily enjoyed it, although +reports that the Indians were moving in a restless and menacing manner +shortened his trip, and prevented his penetrating beyond his settled +lands to the wild tracts which he owned to the westward. Still he +managed to ride some six hundred and eighty miles and get a good taste +of that wild life which he never ceased to love, besides gathering a +stock of information on many points of deeper and wider interest than +his own property. + +In the midst of all these employments, too, he attended closely to his +domestic duties. At frequent intervals he journeyed to Fredericksburg +to visit his mother, who still lived, and to whom he was always a +dutiful and affectionate son. He watched over Mrs. Washington's +grandchildren, and two or three nephews of his own, whose education +he had undertaken, with all the solicitude of a father, and at the +expense again of much thought and many wise letters of instruction and +advice. + +Even from this brief list it is possible to gain some idea of the +occupations which filled Washington's time, and the only wonder is +that he dealt with them so easily and effectively. Yet the greatest +and most important work, that which most deeply absorbed his mind, and +which affected the whole country, still remains to be described. With +all his longing for repose and privacy, Washington could not separate +himself from the great problems which he had solved, or from the +solution of the still greater problems which he had done more than any +man to bring into existence. In reality, despite his reiterated wish +for the quiet of home, he never ceased to labor at the new questions +which confronted the country, and the old issues which were the legacy +of the Revolution. + +In the latter class was the peace establishment, on which he advised +Congress, much in vain; for their idea of a peace establishment was +to get rid of the army as rapidly as possible, and retain only a +corporal's guard in the service of the confederation. Another question +was that concerning the western posts. As has been already pointed +out, Washington's keen eye had at once detected that this was the +perilous point in the treaty, and he made a prompt but unavailing +effort to secure these posts in the first flush of good feeling when +peace had just been made. After he had retired he observed with regret +the feebleness of Congress in this matter, and he continued to write +about it. He wrote especially to Knox, who was in charge of the war +department, and advised him to establish posts on our side, since we +could not obtain the withdrawal of the British. This deep anxiety as +to the western posts was due not merely to his profound distrust of +the intention of England, but to his extreme solicitude as to the +unsettled regions of the West. He repeatedly referred to the United +States, even before the close of the war, as an infant empire, and he +saw before any one else the destined growth of the country. + +No man of that time, with the exception of Hamilton, ever grasped and +realized as he did the imperial future which stretched before the +United States. It was a difficult thing for men who had been born +colonists to rise to a sense of national opportunities, but Washington +passed at a single step from being a Virginian to being an American, +and in so doing he stood alone. He was really and thoroughly national +from the beginning of the war, at a time when, except for a few +oratorical phrases, no one had ever thought of such a thing as a +practical and living question. In the same way he had passed rapidly +to an accurate conception of the probable growth and greatness of +the country, and again he stood alone. Hamilton, born outside the +colonies, unhampered by local prejudices and attachments, and living +in Washington's family, as soon as he turned his mind to the subject, +became, like his chief, entirely national and imperial in his views; +but the other American statesmen of that day, with the exception +of Franklin, only followed gradually and sometimes reluctantly in +adopting their opinions. Some of them never adopted them at all, but +remained imbedded in local ideas, and very few got beyond the region +of words and actually grasped the facts with the absolutely clear +perception which Washington had from the outset. Thus it was that when +the war closed, one of the two ruling ideas in Washington's mind was +to assure the future which he saw opening before the country. He +perceived at a glance that the key and the guarantee of that future +were in the wild regions of the West. Hence his constant anxiety as to +the western posts, as to our Indian policy, and as to the maintenance +of a sufficient armed force upon our borders to check the aggressions +of Englishmen or of savages, and to secure free scope for settlement. +In advancing these ideas on a national scale, however, he was rendered +helpless by the utter weakness of Congress, which even his influence +was powerless to overcome. He therefore began, immediately after his +retreat to private life, to formulate and bring into existence such +practical measures as were possible for the development of the West, +believing that if Congress could not act, the people would, if any +opportunity were given to their natural enterprise. + +The scheme which he proposed was to open the western country by means +of inland navigation. The thought had long been in his mind. It had +come to him before the Revolution, and can be traced back to the early +days when he was making surveys, buying wild lands, and meditating +very deeply, but very practically, on the possible commercial +development of the colonies. Now the idea assumed much larger +proportions and a much graver aspect. He perceived in it the first +step toward the empire which he foresaw, and when he had laid down +his sword and awoke in the peaceful morning at Mount Vernon, "with +a strange sense of freedom from official cares," he directed his +attention at once to this plan, in which he really could do something, +despite an inert Congress and a dissolving confederation. His first +letter on the subject was written in March, 1784, and addressed +to Jefferson, who was then in Congress, and who sympathized with +Washington's views without seeing how far they reached. He told +Jefferson how he despaired of government aid, and how he therefore +intended to revive the scheme of a company, which he had started in +1775, and which had been abandoned on account of the war. He showed +the varying interests which it was necessary to conciliate, asked +Jefferson to see the governor of Maryland, so that that State might +be brought into the undertaking, and referred to the danger of being +anticipated and beaten by New York, a chord of local pride which he +continued to touch most adroitly as the business proceeded. Very +characteristically, too, he took pains to call attention to the fact +that by his ownership of land he had a personal interest in the +enterprise. He looked far beyond his own lands, but he was glad to +have his property developed, and with his usual freedom from anything +like pretense, he drew attention to the fact of his personal +interests. + +On his return from his tour in the autumn, he proceeded to bring +the matter to public attention and to the consideration of the +legislature. With this end in view he addressed a long letter to +Governor Harrison, in which he laid out his whole scheme. Detroit was +to be the objective point, and he indicated the different routes by +which inland navigation could thence be obtained, thus opening the +Indian trade, and affording an outlet at the same time for the +settlers who were sure to pour in when once the fear of British +aggression was removed. He dwelt strongly upon the danger of Virginia +losing these advantages by the action of other States, and yet at the +same time he suggested the methods by which Maryland and Pennsylvania +could be brought into the plan. Then he advanced a series of arguments +which were purely national in their scope. He insisted on the +necessity of binding to the old colonies by strong ties the Western +States, which might easily be decoyed away if Spain or England had the +sense to do it. This point he argued with great force, for it was now +no longer a Virginian argument, but an argument for all the States. + +The practical result was that the legislature took the question up, +more in deference to the writer's wishes and in gratitude for his +services, than from any comprehension of what the scheme meant. The +companies were duly organized, and the promoter was given a hundred +and fifty shares, on the ground that the legislature wished to take +every opportunity of testifying their sense of "the unexampled merits +of George Washington towards his country." Washington was much touched +and not a little troubled by this action. He had been willing, as he +said, to give up his cherished privacy and repose in order to forward +the enterprise. He had gone to Maryland even, and worked to engage +that State in the scheme, but he could not bear the idea of taking +money for what he regarded as part of a great public policy. "I would +wish," he said, "that every individual who may hear that it was a +favorite plan of mine may know also that I had no other motive for +promoting it than the advantage of which I conceived it would be +productive to the Union, and to this State in particular, by cementing +the eastern and western territory together, at the same time that it +will give vigor and increase to our commerce, and be a convenience to +our citizens." + +"How would this matter be viewed, then, by the eye of the world, and +what would be the opinion of it, when it comes to be related that +George Washington has received twenty thousand dollars and five +thousand pounds sterling of the public money as an interest therein?" +He thought it would make him look like a "pensioner or dependent" +to accept this gratuity, and he recoiled from the idea. There is +something entirely frank and human in the way in which he says "George +Washington," instead of using the first pronoun singular. He always +saw facts as they were; he understood the fact called "George +Washington" as perfectly as any other, and although he wanted +retirement and privacy, he had no mock modesty in estimating his own +place in the world. At the same time, while he wished to be rid of the +kindly gift, he shrank from putting on what he called the appearance +of "ostentatious disinterestedness" by refusing it. Finally he took +the stock and endowed two charity schools with the dividends. The +scheme turned out successfully, and the work still endures, like the +early surveys and various other things of a very different kind to +which Washington put his hand. In the greater forces which were +presently set in motion for the preservation of the future empire, +the inland navigation, started in Virginia, dropped out of sight, and +became merely one of the rills which fed the mighty river. But it was +the only really practical movement possible at the precise moment when +it was begun, and it was characteristic of its author, who always +found, even in the most discouraging conditions, something that could +be done. It might be only a very little something, but still that was +better than nothing to the strong man ever dealing with facts as they +actually were on this confused earth, and not turning aside because +things were not as they ought to be. Thus many a battle and campaign +had been saved, and so inland navigation played its part now. It +helped, among other things, to bring Maryland and Virginia together, +and their combination was the first step toward the Constitution of +the United States. There is nothing fanciful in all this. No one would +pretend that the Constitution of the United States was descended from +Washington's James River and Potomac River companies. But he worked at +them with that end in view, and so did what was nearest to his hand +and most practical toward union, empire, and the development of +national sentiment. + +Ah, says some critic in critic's fashion, you are carried away by your +subject; you see in a simple business enterprise, intended merely to +open western lands, the far-reaching ideas of a statesman. Perhaps +our critic is right, for as one goes on living with this Virginian +soldier, studying his letters and his thoughts, one comes to believe +many things of him, and to detect much meaning in his sayings and +doings. Let us, however, show our evidence at least. Here is what he +wrote to his friend Humphreys a year after his scheme was afoot: "My +attention is more immediately engaged in a project which I think big +with great political as well as commercial consequences to the +States, especially the middle ones;" and then he went on to argue the +necessity of fastening the Western States to the Atlantic seaboard +and thus thwarting Spain and England. This looks like more than a +money-making scheme; in fact, it justifies all that has been said, +especially if read in connection with certain other letters of this +period. Great political results, as well as lumber and peltry, were +what Washington intended to float along his rivers and canals. + +In this same letter to Humphreys he touched also on another point +in connection with the development of the West, which was of vast +importance to the future of the country, and was even then agitating +men's minds. He said: "I may be singular in my ideas, but they are +these: that, to open a door to, and make easy the way for those +settlers to the westward (who ought to advance regularly and +compactly), before we make any stir about the navigation of the +Mississippi, and before our settlements are far advanced towards that +river, would be our true line of policy." Again he wrote: "However +singular the opinion may be, I cannot divest myself of it, that the +navigation of the Mississippi, _at this time_ [1785], ought to be no +object with us. On the contrary, until we have a little time allowed +to open and make easy the ways between the Atlantic States and the +western territory, the obstructions had better remain." He was right +in describing himself as "singular" in his views on this matter, which +just then was exciting much attention. + +At that time indeed much feeling existed, and there were many sharp +divisions about the Mississippi question. One party, for the sake of a +commercial treaty with Spain, and to get a troublesome business out of +the way, was ready to give up our claims to a free navigation of +the great river; and this was probably the prevalent sentiment in +Congress, for to most of the members the Mississippi seemed a very +remote affair indeed. On the other side was a smaller and more violent +party, which was for obtaining the free navigation immediately and +at all hazards, and was furious at the proposition to make such a +sacrifice as its opponents proposed. Finally, there was Spain herself +intriguing to get possession of the West, holding out free navigation +as a bait to the settlers of Kentucky, and keeping paid agents in that +region to foster her schemes. Washington saw too far and too +clearly to think for one moment of giving up the navigation of the +Mississippi, but he also perceived what no one else seems to have +thought of, that free navigation at that moment would give the western +settlements "the habit of trade" with New Orleans before they had +formed it with the Atlantic seaboard, and would thus detach them from +the United States. He wished, therefore, to have the Mississippi +question left open, and all our claims reserved, so that trade by +the river should be obstructed until we had time to open our inland +navigation and bind 'the western people to us by ties too strong to +be broken. The fear that the river would be lost by waiting did not +disturb him in the least, provided our claims were kept alive. He +wrote to Lee in June, 1786: "Whenever the new States become so +populous, and so extended to the westward, as really to need it, +there will be no power which can deprive them of the use of the +Mississippi." Again, a year later, while the convention was sitting in +Philadelphia, he said: "My sentiments with respect to the navigation +of the Mississippi have been long fixed, and are not dissimilar to +those which are expressed in your letter. I have ever been of opinion +that the true policy of the Atlantic States, instead of contending +prematurely for the free navigation of that river (which eventually, +and perhaps as soon as it will be our true interest to obtain it, must +happen), would be to open and improve the natural communications +with the western country." The event justified his sagacity in all +respects, for the bickerings went on until the United States were able +to compel Spain to give what was wanted to the western communities, +which by that time had been firmly bound to those of the Atlantic +coast. + +Much as Washington thought about holding fast the western country, +there was yet one idea that overruled it as well as all others. There +was one plan which he knew would be a quick solution of the dangers +and difficulties for which inland navigation and trade connections +were at best but palliatives. He had learned by bitter experience, as +no other man had learned, the vital need and value of union. He felt +it as soon as he took command of the army, and it rode like black care +behind him from Cambridge to Yorktown. He had hoped something from the +confederation, but he soon saw that it was as worthless as the utter +lack of system which it replaced, and amounted merely to substituting +one kind of impotence and confusion for another. Others might be +deceived by phrases as to nationality and a general government, but +he had dwelt among hard facts, and he knew that these things did not +exist. He knew that what passed for them, stood in their place and +wore their semblance, were merely temporary creations born of the +common danger, and doomed, when the pressure of war was gone, to fall +to pieces in imbecility and inertness. To the lack of a proper +union, which meant to his mind national and energetic government, he +attributed the failures of the campaigns, the long-drawn miseries, and +in a word the needless prolongation of the Revolution. He saw, too, +that what had been so nearly ruinous in war would be absolutely so in +peace, and before the treaty was actually signed he had begun to call +attention to the great question on the right settlement of which the +future of the country depended. + +To Hamilton he wrote on March 4, 1783: "It is clearly my opinion, +unless Congress have powers competent to all general purposes, that +the distresses we have encountered, the expense we have incurred, and +the blood we have spilt, will avail us nothing." Again he wrote to +Hamilton, a few weeks later: "My wish to see the union of these States +established upon liberal and permanent principles, and inclination +to contribute my mite in pointing out the defects of the present +constitution, are equally great. All my private letters have teemed +with these sentiments, and whenever this topic has been the subject +of conversation, I have endeavored to diffuse and enforce them." His +circular letter to the governors of the States at the close of the +war, which was as eloquent as it was forcible, was devoted to urging +the necessity of a better central government. "With this conviction," +he said, "of the importance of the present crisis, silence in me would +be a crime. I will therefore speak to your Excellency the language of +freedom and of sincerity without disguise.... There are four things +which I humbly conceive are essential to the well-being, I may +even venture to say, to the existence, of the United States, as an +independent power:-- + +"First. An indissoluble union of the States under one federal head. + +"Second. A regard to public justice. + +"Third. The adoption of a proper peace establishment; and, + +"Fourth. The prevalence of that pacific and friendly disposition among +the people of the United States, which will induce them to forget +their local prejudices and policies; to make those mutual concessions +which are requisite to the general prosperity; and in some instances +to sacrifice their individual advantages to the interest of the +community." The same appeal went forth again in his last address to +the army, when he said: "Although the general has so frequently given +it as his opinion, in the most public and explicit manner, that unless +the principles of the federal government were properly supported, and +the powers of the Union increased, the honor, dignity, and justice of +the nation would be lost forever; yet he cannot help repeating on +this occasion so interesting a sentiment, and leaving it as his last +injunction to every soldier, who may view the subject in the same +serious point of light, to add his best endeavors to those of his +worthy fellow-citizens towards effecting those great and valuable +purposes on which our very existence as a nation so materially +depends." + +These two papers were the first strong public appeals for union. The +letter to the governors argued the question elaborately, and was +intended for the general public. The address to the army was simply a +watchword and last general order; for the army needed no arguments to +prove the crying need of better government. Before this, Hamilton had +written his famous letters to Duane and Morris, and Madison was +just beginning to turn his thoughts toward the problem of federal +government; but with these exceptions Washington stood alone. In +sending out these two papers he began the real work that led to the +Constitution. What he said was read and heeded throughout the country, +for at the close of the war his personal influence was enormous, and +with the army his utterances were those of an oracle. By his appeal he +made each officer and soldier a missionary in the cause of the Union, +and by his arguments to the governors he gave ground and motive for +a party devoted to procuring better government. Thus he started the +great movement which, struggling through many obstacles, culminated in +the Constitution and the union of the States. No other man could +have done it, for no one but Washington had a tithe of the influence +necessary to arrest public attention; and, save Hamilton, no other +man then had even begun to understand the situation which Washington +grasped so easily and firmly in all its completeness. + +He sent out these appeals as his last words to his countrymen at the +close of their conflict; but he had no intention of stopping there. +He had written and spoken, as he said, to every one on every occasion +upon this topic, and he continued to do so until the work was done. He +had no sooner laid aside the military harness than he began at once to +push on the cause of union. In the bottom of his heart he must have +known that his work was but half done, and with the same pen with +which he reiterated his intention to live in repose and privacy, and +spend his declining years beneath his own vine and fig-tree, he wrote +urgent appeals and wove strong arguments addressed to leaders in +every State. He had not been at home five days before he wrote to the +younger Trumbull, congratulating him on his father's vigorous message +in behalf of better federal government, which had not been very well +received by the Connecticut legislature. He spoke of "the jealousies +and contracted temper" of the States, but avowed his belief that +public sentiment was improving. "Everything," he concluded, "my dear +Trumbull, will come right at last, as we have often prophesied. +My only fear is that we shall lose a little reputation first." A +fortnight later he wrote to the governor of Virginia: "That the +prospect before us is, as you justly observe, fair, none can deny; but +what use we shall make of it is exceedingly problematical; not but +that I believe all things will come right at last, but like a young +heir come a little prematurely to a large inheritance, we shall wanton +and run riot until we have brought our reputation to the brink of +ruin, and then like him shall have to labor with the current of +opinion, when compelled, perhaps, to do what prudence and common +policy pointed out as plain as any problem in Euclid in the first +instance." The soundness of the view is only equaled by the accuracy +of the prediction. He might five years later have repeated this +sentence, word for word, only altering the tenses, and he would have +rehearsed exactly the course of events. + +While he wrote thus he keenly watched Congress, and marked its sure +and not very gradual decline. He did what he could to bring about +useful measures, and saw them one after the other come to naught. He +urged the impost scheme, and felt that its failure was fatal to the +financial welfare of the country, on which so much depended. He +always was striving to do the best with existing conditions, but the +hopelessness of every effort soon satisfied him that it was a waste of +time and energy. So he turned again in the midst of his canal schemes +to renew his exhortations to leading men in the various States on the +need of union as the only true solution of existing troubles. + +To James McHenry, of Maryland, he wrote in August, 1785: "I confess to +you candidly that I can foresee no evil greater than disunion; than +those unreasonable jealousies which are continually poisoning our +minds and filling them with imaginary evils for the prevention of real +ones." To William Grayson of Virginia, then a member of Congress, +he wrote at the same time: "I have ever been a friend to adequate +congressional powers; consequently I wish to see the ninth article of +the confederation amended and extended. Without these powers we cannot +support a national character, and must appear contemptible in the eyes +of Europe. But to you, my dear Sir, I will candidly confess that in +my opinion it is of little avail to give them to Congress." He was +already clearly of opinion that the existing system was hopeless, and +the following spring he wrote still more sharply as to the state of +public affairs to Henry Lee, in Congress. "My sentiments," he said, +"with respect to the federal government are well known. Publicly and +privately have they been communicated without reserve; but my opinion +is that there is more wickedness than ignorance in the conduct of the +States, or, in other words, in the conduct of those who have too +much influence in the government of them; and until the curtain is +withdrawn, and the private views and selfish principles upon which +these men act are exposed to public notice, I have little hope of +amendment without another convulsion." + +He did not confine himself, however, to letters, important as the work +done in this way was, but used all his influence toward practical +measures outside of Congress, of whose action he quite despaired. The +plan for a commercial agreement between Maryland and Virginia was +concerted at Mount Vernon, and led to a call to all the States to +meet at Annapolis for the same object. This, of course, received +Washington's hearty approval and encouragement, but he evidently +regarded it, although important, as merely a preliminary step to +something wider and better. He wrote to Lafayette describing the +proposed gathering at Annapolis, and added: "A general convention +is talked of by many for the purpose of revising and correcting the +defects of the federal government; but whilst this is the wish of +some, it is the dread of others, from an opinion that matters are +not yet sufficiently ripe for such an event." This expressed his own +feeling, for although he was entirely convinced that only a radical +reform would do, he questioned whether the time had yet arrived, and +whether things had become bad enough, to make such a reform either +possible or lasting. He was chiefly disturbed because he felt that +there was "more wickedness than ignorance mixed in our councils," +and he grew more and more anxious as public affairs declined without +apparently producing a reaction. The growing contempt shown by foreign +nations and the arrogant conduct of Great Britain especially alarmed +him, while the rapid sinking of the national reputation stung him to +the quick. "I do not conceive," he wrote to Jay, in August, 1786, "we +can exist long as a nation without having lodged somewhere a power +which will pervade the whole Union in as energetic a manner as the +authority of the state governments extends over the several States." +Thus with unerring judgment he put his finger on the vital point in +the whole question, which was the need of a national government that +should deal with the individual citizens of the whole country and +not with the States. "To be fearful," he continued, "of investing +Congress, constituted as that body is, with ample authorities for +national purposes, appears to me the very climax of popular absurdity +and madness.... Requisitions are actually little better than a jest +and a byword throughout the land. If you tell the legislatures they +have violated the treaty of peace, and invaded the prerogatives of the +confederacy, they will laugh in your face.... It is much to be feared, +as you observe, that the better kind of people, being disgusted with +the circumstances, will have their minds prepared for any revolution +whatever.... I am told that even respectable characters speak of +a monarchical government without horror. From thinking proceeds +speaking; thence to acting is often but a single step. But how +irrevocable and tremendous! What a triumph for our enemies to verify +their predictions!... It is not my business to embark again upon a sea +of troubles. Nor could it be expected that my sentiments and opinions +would have much weight on the minds of my countrymen. They have been +neglected, though given as a last legacy in the most solemn manner. I +had then perhaps some claims to public attention. I consider myself as +having none at present." + +It is interesting to observe the ease and certainty with which, in +dealing with the central question, he grasped all phases of the +subject and judged of the effect of the existing weakness with regard +to every relation of the country and to the politics of each State. +He pointed out again and again the manner in which we were exposed +to foreign hostility, and analyzed the designs of England, rightly +detecting a settled policy on her part to injure and divide where she +had failed to conquer. Others were blind to the meaning of the +English attitude as to the western posts, commerce, and international +relations. Washington brought it to the attention of our leading men, +educating them on this as on other points, and showing, too, the +stupidity of Great Britain in her attempt to belittle the trade of a +country which, as he wrote Lafayette in prophetic vein, would one day +"have weight in the scale of empires." + +He followed with the same care the course of events in the several +States. In them all he resisted the craze for issuing irredeemable +paper money, writing to his various correspondents, and urging +energetic opposition to this specious and pernicious form of public +dishonesty. It was to Massachusetts, however, that his attention was +most strongly attracted by the social disorders which culminated in +the Shays rebellion. There the miserable condition of public affairs +was bearing bitter fruit, and Washington watched the progress of the +troubles with profound anxiety. He wrote to Lee: "You talk, my +good sir, of employing influence to appease the present tumults in +Massachusetts. I know not where that influence is to be found, or, +if attainable, that it would be a proper remedy for the disorders. +_Influence_ is not _government_. Let us have a government by which our +lives, liberties, and properties will be secured, or let us know the +worst at once." Through "all this mist of intoxication and folly," +however, Washington saw that the Shays insurrection would probably be +the means of frightening the indifferent, and of driving those who +seemed impervious to every appeal to reason into an active support +of some better form of government. He rightly thought that riot and +bloodshed would prove convincing arguments. + +In order to understand the utter demoralization of society, politics, +and public opinion at that time, the offspring of a wasting civil war +and of colonial habits of thought, it is interesting to contrast the +attitude of Washington with that of another distinguished American in +regard to the Shays rebellion. While Washington was looking solemnly +at this manifestation of weakness and disorder, and was urging strong +measures with passionate vehemence, Jefferson was writing from Paris +in the flippant vein of the fashionable French theorists, and uttering +such ineffable nonsense as the famous sentence about "once in twenty +years watering the tree of liberty with the blood of tyrants." There +could be no better illustration of what Washington was than this +contrast between the man of words and the man of action, between the +astute leader of a party, the shrewd manager of men, and the silent +leader of armies, the master builder of states and governments. + +I have followed Washington through the correspondence of this time +with some minuteness, because it is the only way by which his work in +overcoming the obstacles in the path to good government can be seen. +He held no public office; he had no means of reaching the popular ear. +He was neither a professional orator nor a writer of pamphlets, and +the press of that day, if he had controlled it, had no power to mould +or direct public thought. Yet, despite these obstacles, he set himself +to develop public opinion in favor of a better government, and he +worked at this difficult and impalpable task without ceasing, from +the day that he resigned from the army until he was called to the +presidency of the United States. He did it by means of private +letters, a feeble instrument to-day, but much more effective then. +Jefferson never made speeches nor published essays, but he built up a +great party, and carried himself into power as its leader by means +of letters. In the same fashion Washington started the scheme for +internal waterways, in order to bind the East and the West together, +set on foot the policy of commercial agreements between the States, +and argued on the "imperial theme" with leading men everywhere. A +study of these letters reveals a strong, logical, and deliberate +working towards the desired end. There was no scattering fire. Whether +he was writing of canals, or the Mississippi, or the Western posts, +or paper money, or the impost, or the local disorders, he always was +arguing and urging union and an energetic central government. These +letters went to the leaders of thought and opinion, and were quoted +and passed from hand to hand. They brought immediately to the cause +all the soldiers and officers of the army, and they aroused and +convinced the strongest and ablest men in every State. Washington's +personal influence was very great, something we of this generation, +with a vast territory and seventy millions of people, cannot readily +understand. To many persons his word was law; to all that was best in +the community, everything he said had immense weight. This influence +he used with care and without waste. Every blow he struck went home. +It is impossible to estimate just how much he effected, but it is safe +to say that it is to Washington, aided first by Hamilton and then +by Madison, that we owe the development of public opinion and the +formation of the party which devised and carried the Constitution. +Events of course worked with them, but they used events, and did not +suffer the golden opportunities, which without them would have been +lost, to slip by. + +When Washington wrote of the Shays rebellion to Lee, the movement +toward a better union, which he had begun, was on the brink of +success. That ill-starred insurrection became, as he foresaw, a +powerful spur to the policy started at Mount Vernon, and adopted by +Virginia and Maryland. From this had come the Annapolis convention, +and thence the call for another convention at Philadelphia. As soon +as the word went abroad that a general convention was to be held, the +demand for Washington as a delegate was heard on all sides. At first +he shrank from it. Despite the work which he had been doing, and which +he must have known would bring him once more into public service, he +still clung to the vision of home life which he had brought with him +from the army. November 18, 1786, he wrote to Madison, that from a +sense of obligation he should go to the convention, were it not that +he had declined on account of his retirement, age, and rheumatism to +be at a meeting of the Cincinnati at the same time and place. But +no one heeded him, and Virginia elected him unanimously to head +her delegation at Philadelphia. He wrote to Governor Randolph, +acknowledging the honor, but reiterating what he had said to Madison, +and urging the choice of some one else in his place. Still Virginia +held the question open, and on February 3 he wrote to Knox that his +private intention was not to attend. The pressure continued, and, as +usual when the struggle drew near, the love of battle and the sense of +duty began to reassert themselves. March 8 he again wrote to Knox that +he had not meant to come, but that the question had occurred to him, +"Whether my non-attendance in the convention will not be considered +as dereliction of republicanism; nay, more, whether other motives may +not, however injuriously, be ascribed for my not exerting myself +on this occasion in support of it;" and therefore he wished to be +informed as to the public expectation on the matter. On March 28 he +wrote again to Randolph that ill-health might prevent his going, and +therefore it would be well to appoint some one in his place. April 2 +he said that if representation of the States was to be partial, or +powers cramped, he did not want to be a sharer in the business. "If +the delegates assemble," he wrote, "with such powers as will enable +the convention to probe the defects of the constitution to the bottom +and point out radical cures, it would be an honorable employment; +otherwise not." This idea of inefficiency and failure in the +convention had long been present to his mind, and he had already said +that, if their powers were insufficient, the convention should go +boldly over and beyond them and make a government with the means of +coercion, and able to enforce obedience, without which it would be, in +his opinion, quite worthless. Thus he pondered on the difficulties, +and held back his acceptance of the post; but when the hour of action +drew near, the rheumatism and the misgivings alike disappeared before +the inevitable, and Washington arrived in Philadelphia, punctual as +usual, on May 13, the day before the opening of the convention. + +The other members were by no means equally prompt, and a week elapsed +before a bare quorum was obtained and the convention enabled to +organize. In this interval of waiting there appears to have been some +informal discussion among the members present, between those who +favored an entirely new Constitution and those who timidly desired +only half-way measures. On one of these occasions Washington is +reported by Gouverneur Morris, in a eulogy delivered twelve years +later, to have said: "It is too probable that no plan we propose will +be adopted. Perhaps another dreadful conflict is to be sustained. If, +to please the people, we offer what we ourselves disapprove, how can +we afterwards defend our work? Let us raise a standard to which the +wise and honest can repair. The event is in the hand of God." The +language is no doubt that of Morris, speaking from memory and in a +highly rhetorical vein, but we may readily believe that the quotation +accurately embodied Washington's opinion, and that he took this high +ground at the outset, and strove from the beginning to inculcate upon +his fellow-members the absolute need of bold and decisive action. +The words savor of the orator who quoted them, but the noble and +courageous sentiment which they express is thoroughly characteristic +of the man to whom they were attributed.[1] + +[Footnote 1: It is necessary to say a few words in regard to this +quotation of Washington's words made by Morris, because both Mr. +Bancroft (_History of the Constitution_, ii. 8) and Mr. John Fiske +(_The Critical Period of American History_, p. 232) quote them as if +they were absolutely and verbally authentic. It is perfectly certain +that from May 25 to September 17 Washington spoke but once; that +is, he spoke but once in the convention after it became such by +organization. This point is determined by Madison's statement (Notes, +in. 1600), that when Washington took the floor in behalf of Gorham's +amendment, "it was the only occasion on which the president entered _at +all_ into the discussions of the convention." (The italics are mine.) +I have examined the manuscript at the State Department, and these +words are written in Madison's own hand in the body of the text and +inclosed in brackets. Madison was the most accurate of men. His notes +are only abstracts of what was said, but he was never absent from +the convention, and there can be no question that if Washington had +uttered the words attributed to him by Morris, a speech so important +would have been given as fully as possible, and Madison would not have +said distinctly that the Gorham amendment was the only occasion when +the president entered into the discussions of the convention. + +It is, therefore, certain that Washington said nothing in the +convention except on the occasion of the Gorham amendment, and Mr. +Bancroft rightly assigns the Morris quotation to some time during the +week which elapsed between the date fixed for the assembling of the +convention and that on which a quorum of States was obtained. The +words given by Morris, if uttered at all, must have been spoken +informally in the way of conversation before there was any convention, +strictly speaking, and of course before Washington was chosen +president. Mr. Fiske, who devotes a page to these sentences from the +eulogy, describes Washington as rising from his president's chair and +addressing the convention with great solemnity. There is no authority +whatever to show that he rose from the chair to address the other +delegates, and, if he used the words quoted by Morris, he was +certainly not president of the convention when he did so. The latter +blunder, however, is Morris's own, and in making it he contradicts +himself. These are his words: "He is their president. It is a question +previous to their first meeting what course shall be pursued." In +other words, he was their president before they had met and chosen a +president. This is a fair illustration of the loose and rhetorical +character of the passage in which Washington's admonition is quoted. +The entire paragraph, with its mixture of tenses arising from the use +of the historical present which Morris's classical fancies led him to +employ, is, in fact, purely rhetorical, and has only the authority +due to performances of that character. It seems to me impossible, +therefore, to fairly suppose that the words quoted by Morris were +anything more than his own presentation of a sentiment which he, no +doubt, heard Washington urge frequently and forcibly. Even in this +limited acceptation his account is both interesting and valuable, +as indicating Washington's opinion and the tone he took with his +fellow-members; but this, I think, is the utmost weight that can be +attached to it. I have discussed the point thus minutely because two +authorities so distinguished as Mr. Bancroft and Mr. Fiske have laid +so much stress on the words given by Morris, and have seemed to me to +accord to them a greater weight and a higher authenticity than the +facts warrant. Morris's eulogy on Washington was delivered in New +York, and may be found most readily in a little volume entitled +_Washingtoniana_ (p. 110), published at Lancaster in 1802.] + +When a quorum was finally obtained, Washington was unanimously chosen +to preside over the convention; and there he sat during the sessions +of four months, silent, patient, except on a single occasion,[1] +taking no part in debate, but guiding the business, and using all his +powers with steady persistence to compass the great end. The debates +of that remarkable body have been preserved in outline in the full and +careful notes of Madison. Its history has been elaborately written, +and the arguments and opinions of its members have been minutely +examined and unsparingly criticised. We are still ignorant, and shall +always remain ignorant, of just how much was due to Washington for the +final completion of the work. His general views and his line of action +are clearly to be seen in his letters and in the words attributed to +him by Morris. That he labored day and night for success we know, and +that his influence with his fellow-members was vast we also know, but +the rest we can only conjecture. There came a time when everything +was at a standstill, and when it looked as if no agreement could +be reached by the men representing so many conflicting interests. +Hamilton had made his great speech, and, finding the vote of his State +cast against him by his two colleagues on every question, had gone +home in a frame of mind which we may easily believe was neither very +contented nor very sanguine. Even Franklin, most hopeful and buoyant +of men, was nearly ready to despair. Washington himself wrote to +Hamilton, on July 10: "When I refer you to the state of the counsels +which prevailed at the period you left this city, and add that they +are now, if possible, in a worse train than ever, you will find but +little ground on which the hope of a good establishment can be formed. +In a word, I almost despair of seeing a favorable issue to the +proceedings of our convention, and do therefore repent having had any +agency in the business." Matters were certainly in a bad state when +Washington could write in this strain, and when his passion for +success was so cooled that he repented of agency in the business. +There was much virtue, however, in that little word "almost." He did +not quite despair yet, and, after his fashion, he held on with grim +tenacity. We know what the compromises finally were, and how they were +brought about, but we can never do exact justice to the iron will +which held men together when all compromises seemed impossible, and +which even in the darkest hour would not wholly despair. All that can +be said is, that without the influence and the labors of Washington +the convention of 1787, in all probability, would have failed of +success. + +[Footnote 1: Just at the close of the convention, when the +Constitution in its last draft was in the final stage and on the eve +of adoption, Mr. Gorham of Massachusetts moved to amend by reducing +the limit of population in a congressional district from forty to +thirty thousand. Washington took the floor and argued briefly and +modestly in favor of the change. His mere request was sufficient, and +the amendment was unanimously adopted.] + +At all events it did not fail, and after much tribulation the work was +done. On September 17, 1787, a day ever to be memorable, Washington +affixed his bold and handsome signature to the Constitution of the +United States. Tradition has it that as he stood by the table, pen in +hand, he said: "Should the States reject this excellent Constitution, +the probability is that opportunity will never be offered to cancel +another in peace; the next will be drawn in blood." Whether the +tradition is well or ill founded, the sentence has the ring of truth. +A great work had been accomplished. If it were cast aside, Washington +knew that the sword and not the pen would make the next Constitution, +and he regarded that awful alternative with dread. He signed first, +and was followed by all the members present, with three notable +exceptions. Then the delegates dined together at the city tavern, and +took a cordial leave of each other. "After which," the president of +the convention wrote in his diary, "I returned to my lodgings, did +some business with, and received the papers from, the secretary of the +convention, and retired to meditate upon the momentous work which had +been executed." It is a simple sentence, but how much it means! The +world would be glad to-day to know what the thoughts were which +filled Washington's mind as he sat alone in the quiet of that summer +afternoon, with the new Constitution lying before him. But he was then +as ever silent. He did not go alone to his room to exhibit himself on +paper for the admiration of posterity. He went there to meditate for +his own guidance on what had been done for the benefit of his country. +The city bells had rung a joyful chime when he arrived four months +before. Ought they to ring again with a new gladness, or should they +toll for the death of bright hopes, now the task was done? Washington +was intensely human. In that hour of silent thought his heart must +have swelled with a consciousness that he had led his people through +a successful Revolution, and now again from the darkness of political +confusion and dissolution to the threshold of a new existence. But at +the same time he never deceived himself. The new Constitution was but +an experiment and an opportunity. Would the States accept it? And +if they accepted it, would they abide by it? Was this instrument of +government, wrought out so painfully, destined to go to pieces after +a few years of trial, or was it to prove strong enough to become the +charter of a nation and hold the States together indissolubly against +all the shocks of politics and revolution? Washington, with his +foresight and strong national instinct, plainly saw these momentous +questions, somewhat dim then, although clear to all the world to-day. +We can guess how solemnly he thought about them as he meditated alone +in his room on that September afternoon. Whatever his reflections, his +conclusions were simple. He made up his mind that the only chance for +the country lay in the adoption of the new scheme, but he was sober +enough in his opinions as to the Constitution itself. He said of it to +Lafayette the day after the signing: "It is the result of four months' +deliberation. It is now a child of fortune, to be fostered by some and +buffeted by others. What will be the general opinion or the reception +of it is not for me to decide; nor shall I say anything for or against +it. If it be good, I suppose it will work its way; if bad, it will +recoil on the framers." We catch sight here of the old theory that his +public life was at an end, and now, when this exceptional duty had +been performed, that he would retire once more to remote privacy. This +fancy, as well as the extremely philosophical mood about the fate of +the Constitution, apparent in this letter, soon disappeared. Within a +week he wrote to Henry, in whom he probably already suspected the +most formidable opponent of the new plan in Virginia: "I wish the +Constitution, which is offered, had been more perfect; but I sincerely +believe it is the best that could be obtained at this time, and as a +constitutional door is opened for amendments hereafter, the adoption +of it under the present circumstances of the Union is, in my opinion, +desirable." Copies of this letter were sent to Harrison and Nelson, +and the correspondence thus started soon increased rapidly. He wrote +to Hamilton and Madison to counsel with them as to the prospects of +the Constitution, and to Knox to supply him with arguments and +urge him to energetic work. By January of the new year the tone of +indifference and doubt manifested in the letter to Lafayette had quite +gone, and we find him writing to Governor Randolph, in reply to that +gentleman's objections: "There are some things in the new form, I will +readily acknowledge, which never did, and I am persuaded never will, +obtain my cordial approbation, but I did then conceive and do now most +firmly believe that in the aggregate it is the best Constitution that +can be obtained at this epoch, and that this or a dissolution of the +Union awaits our choice, and is the only alternative before us. Thus +believing, I had not, nor have I now, any hesitation in deciding on +which to lean." + +Thus the few letters to a few friends extended to many letters to many +friends, and traveled into every State. They all urged the necessity +of adopting the Constitution as the best that could be obtained. What +Washington's precise objections to the Constitution were is not clear. +In a general way it was not energetic enough to come up to his ideal, +but he never particularized in his criticisms. He may have admitted +the existence of defects in order simply to disarm opposition, and +doubtless he, like most of the framers, was by no means completely +satisfied with his work. But he brushed all faults aside, and drove +steadily forward to the great end in view. He was as far removed as +possible from that highly virtuous and very ineffective class of +persons who will not support anything that is not perfect, and who +generally contrive to do more harm than all the avowed enemies of +sound government. Washington did not stop to worry over and argue +about details, but sought steadily to bring to pass the main object +at which he aimed. As he had labored for the convention, so he now +labored for the Constitution, and his letters to his friends not +only had great weight in forming a Federal party and directing its +movements, but extracts from them were quoted and published, thus +exerting a direct and powerful influence on public opinion. + +He made himself deeply felt in this way everywhere, but of course more +in his own State than anywhere else. His confidence at first in regard +to Virginia changed gradually to an intense and well-grounded anxiety, +and he not only used every means, as the conflict extended, to +strengthen his friends and gain votes, but he received and circulated +personally copies of "The Federalist," in order to educate public +opinion. The contest in the Virginia convention was for a long time +doubtful, but finally the end was reached, and the decision was +favorable. Without Washington's influence, it is safe to say that the +Constitution would have been lost in Virginia, and without Virginia +the great experiment would probably have failed. In the same spirit he +worked on after the new scheme had secured enough States to insure +a trial. The Constitution had been ratified; it must now be made to +work, and Washington wrote earnestly to the leaders in the various +States, urging them to see to it that "Federalists," stanch friends +of the Constitution, were elected to Congress. There was no vagueness +about his notions on this point. A party had carried the Constitution +and secured its ratification, and to that party he wished the +administration and establishment of the new system to be intrusted. +He did not take the view that, because the fight was over, it was +henceforth to be considered that there had been no fight, and that all +men were politically alike. He was quite ready to do all in his power +to conciliate the opponents of union and the Constitution, but he did +not believe that the momentous task of converting the paper system +into a living organism should be confided to any hands other than +those of its tried and trusty friends. + +But while he was looking so carefully after the choice of the right +men to fill the legislature of the new government, the people of the +country turned to him with the universal demand that he should stand +at the head of it, and fill the great office of first President of the +Republic. In response to the first suggestion that came, he recognized +the fact that he was likely to be again called upon for another +great public service, and added simply that at his age it involved a +sacrifice which admitted of no compensation. He maintained this tone +whenever he alluded to the subject, in response to the numerous +letters urging him to accept. But although he declined to announce any +decision, he had made up his mind to the inevitable. He had put his +hand to the plough, and he would not turn back. His only anxiety was +that the people should know that he shrank from the office, and would +only leave his farm to take it from a sense of overmastering duty. +Besides his reluctance to engage in a fresh struggle, and his fear +that his motives might be misunderstood, he had the same diffidence in +his own abilities which weighed upon him when he took command of the +armies. His passion for success, which determined him to accept the +presidency, if it was deemed indispensable that he should do so, made +him dread failure with an almost morbid keenness, although his courage +was too high and his will too strong ever to draw back. Responsibility +weighed upon his spirits, but it could not daunt him. He wrote to +Trumbull in December, 1788, that he saw "nothing but clouds and +darkness before him," but when the hour came he was ready. The +elections were favorable to the Federalists. The electoral colleges +gave Washington their unanimous vote, and on April 16, having been +duly notified by Congress of his election, he left Mount Vernon for +New York, to assume the conduct of the government, and stand at the +head of the new Union in its first battle for life. + +From the early day when he went out to seek Shirley and win redress +against the assumptions of British officers, Washington's journeys +to the North had been memorable in their purposes. He had traveled +northward to sit in the first continental congress, to take command of +the army, and to preside over the constitutional convention. Now +he went, in the fullness of his fame, to enter upon a task less +dangerous, perhaps, than leading armies, but more beset with +difficulties, and more perilous to his reputation and peace of mind, +than any he had yet undertaken. He felt all this keenly, and noted in +his diary: "About ten o'clock I bade adieu to Mount Vernon, to private +life, and to domestic felicity; and with a mind oppressed with more +anxious and painful sensations than I have words to express, set +out for New York, with the best disposition to render service to my +country, in obedience to its call, but with less hope of answering its +expectations." + +The first stage of his journey took him only to Alexandria, a few +miles from his home, where a public dinner was given to him by his +friends and neighbors. He was deeply moved when he rose to reply to +the words of affection addressed to him by the mayor as spokesman of +the people. "All that now remains for me," he said, "is to commit +myself and you to the care of that beneficent Being who, on a former +occasion, happily brought us together after a long and distressing +separation. Perhaps the same gracious Providence will again indulge +me. But words fail me. Unutterable sensations must then be left to +more expressive silence, while from an aching heart I bid all my +affectionate friends and kind neighbors farewell." + +So he left his home, sad at the parting, looking steadily, but not +joyfully, to the future, and silent as was his wont. The simple dinner +with his friends and neighbors at Alexandria was but the beginning of +the chorus of praise and Godspeed which rose higher and stronger as he +advanced. The road, as he traveled, was lined with people, to see him +and cheer him as he passed. In every village the people from the farm +and workshop crowded the streets to watch for his carriage, and the +ringing of bells and firing of guns marked his coming and his going. +At Baltimore a cavalcade of citizens escorted him, and cannon roared a +welcome. At the Pennsylvania line Governor Mifflin, with soldiers and +citizens, gathered to greet him. At Chester he mounted a horse, and +in the midst of a troop of cavalry rode into Philadelphia, beneath +triumphal arches, for a day of public rejoicing and festivity. At +Trenton, instead of snow and darkness, and a sudden onslaught upon +surprised Hessians, there was mellow sunshine, an arch of triumph, +and young girls walking before him, strewing flowers in his path, and +singing songs of praise and gratitude. When he reached Elizabethtown +Point, the committees of Congress met him, and he there went on board +a barge manned by thirteen pilots in white uniform, and was rowed to +the city of New York. A long procession of barges swept after him with +music and song, while the ships in the harbor, covered with flags, +fired salutes in his honor. When he reached the landing he declined +to enter a carriage, but walked to his house, accompanied by Governor +Clinton. He was dressed in the familiar buff and blue, and, as the +people caught sight of the stately figure and the beloved colors, hats +went off and the crowd bowed as he went by, bending like the ripened +grain when the summer wind passes over it, and breaking forth into +loud and repeated cheers. + +From Mount Vernon to New York it had been one long triumphal march. +There was no imperial government to lend its power and military +pageantry. There were no armies, with trophies to dazzle the eyes +of the beholders; nor were there wealth and luxury to give pomp and +splendor to the occasion. It was the simple outpouring of popular +feeling, untaught and true, but full of reverence and gratitude to a +great man. It was the noble instinct of hero-worship, always keen +in humanity when the real hero comes to awaken it to life. Such an +experience, rightly apprehended, would have impressed any man, and it +affected Washington profoundly. He was deeply moved and touched, but +he was neither excited nor elated. He took it all with soberness, +almost with sadness, and when he was alone wrote in his diary:-- + +"The display of boats which attended and joined us on this occasion, +some with vocal and some with instrumental music on board; the +decorations of the ships, the roar of cannon and the loud acclamations +of the people, which rent the skies as I passed along the wharves, +filled my mind with sensations as painful (considering the reverse of +this scene, which may be the case after all my labors to do good) as +they were pleasing." + +In the very moment of the highest personal glory, the only thought is +of the work which he has to do. There is neither elation nor cynicism, +neither indifference nor self-deception, but only deep feeling and a +firm, clear look into the future of work and conflict which lay silent +and unknown beyond the triumphal arches and the loud acclaim of the +people. + +On April 30 he was inaugurated. He went in procession to the hall, was +received in the senate chamber, and thence proceeded to the balcony +to take the oath. He was dressed in dark brown cloth of American +manufacture, with a steel-hilted sword, and with his hair powdered and +drawn back in the fashion of the time. When he appeared, a shout went +up from the great crowd gathered beneath the balcony. Much overcome, +he bowed in silence to the people, and there was an instant hush over +all. Then Chancellor Livingston administered the oath. Washington laid +his hand upon the Bible, bowed, and said solemnly when the oath was +concluded, "I swear, so help me God," and, bending reverently, kissed +the book. Livingston stepped forward, and raising his hand cried, +"Long live George Washington, President of the United States!" Then +the cheers broke forth again, the cannon roared, and the bells rang +out. Washington withdrew to the hall, where he read his inaugural +address to Congress, and the history of the United States of America +under the Constitution was begun. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +STARTING THE GOVERNMENT + + +Washington was deeply gratified by his reception at the hands of the +people from Alexandria to New York. He was profoundly moved by the +ceremonies of his inauguration, and when he turned from the balcony to +the senate chamber he showed in his manner and voice how much he felt +the meaning of all that had occurred. His speech to the assembled +Congress was solemn and impressive, and with simple reverence he +acknowledged the guiding hand of Providence in the fortunes of the +States. He made no recommendations to Congress, but expressed his +confidence in their wisdom and patriotism, adjured them to remember +that the success of republican government would probably be finally +settled by the success of their experiment, reminded them that +amendments to the Constitution were to be considered, and informed +them that he could not receive any pecuniary compensation for his +services, and expected only that his expenses should be paid as in the +Revolution. This was all. The first inaugural of the first President +expressed only one thought, but that thought was pressed home with +force. Washington wished the Congress to understand as he understood +the weight and meaning of the task which had been imposed upon them, +for he felt that if he could do this all would be well. How far he +succeeded it would be impossible to say, but there can be no doubt as +to the wisdom of his position. To have attempted to direct the first +movements of Congress before he had really grasped the reins of the +government would have given rise, very probably, to jealousy and +opposition at the outset. When he had developed a policy, then it +would be time to advise the senators and representatives how to carry +it out. Meanwhile it was better to arouse their patriotism, awaken +their sense of responsibility, and leave them free to begin their work +under the guidance of these impressions. + +As for himself, his feelings remained unchanged. He had accepted the +great post with solemn anxiety, and when the prayers had all been +said, and the last guns fired, when the music had ceased and the +cheers had died away, and the illuminations had flickered and gone +out, he wrote that in taking office he had given up all expectation +of private happiness, but that he was encouraged by the popular +affection, as well as by the belief that his motives were appreciated, +and that, thus supported, he would do his best. In a few words, +written some months later, he tersely stated what his office meant to +him, and what grave difficulties surrounded his path. + +"The establishment of our new government," he said, "seemed to be the +last great experiment for promoting human happiness by a reasonable +compact in civil society. It was to be, in the first instance, in +a considerable degree, a government of accommodation as well as +a government of laws. Much was to be done by prudence, much by +conciliation, much by firmness. Few who are not philosophical +spectators can realize the difficult and delicate part which a man in +my situation had to act. All see, and most admire, the glare which +hovers round the external happiness of elevated office. To me there +is nothing in it beyond the lustre which may be reflected from its +connection with a power of promoting human felicity. In our progress +towards political happiness my station is new, and, if I may use the +expression, I walk on untrodden ground. There is scarcely an action +the motive of which may not be subject to a double interpretation. +There is scarcely any part of my conduct which may not hereafter be +drawn into precedent. If, after all my humble but faithful endeavors +to advance the felicity of my country and mankind, I may indulge a +hope that my labors have not been altogether without success, it will +be the only real compensation I can receive in the closing scenes of +life." + +There is nothing very stimulating to the imagination in this soberness +of mind and calmness of utterance. The military conquerors and the +saviors of society, with epigrammatic sayings, dramatic effects and +rhythmic proclamations, are much more exciting and dazzle the fancy +much better. But it is this seriousness of mind, coupled with +intensity of purpose and grim persistence, which has made the +English-speaking race spread over the world and carry successful +government in its train. The personal empire of Napoleon had crumbled +before he died an exile in St. Helena, but the work of Washington +still endures. Just what that work was, and how it was achieved, is +all that still remains to be considered. + +The policies set on foot and carried through under the first federal +administration were so brilliant and so successful that we are apt +to forget that months elapsed before the first of them was even +announced. When Washington, on May 1, 1789, began his duties, there +was absolutely nothing of the government of the United States in +existence but a President and a Congress. The imperfect and broken +machinery of the confederation still moved feebly, and performed some +of the absolutely necessary functions of government. But the new +organization had nothing to work with except these outworn remnants of +a discarded system. There were no departments, and no arrangements for +the collection of revenue or the management of the postal service. A +few scattered soldiers formed the army, and no navy existed. There +were no funds and no financial resources. There were not even +traditions and forms of government, and, slight as these things may +seem, settled methods of doing public business are essential to its +prompt and proper transaction. These forms had to be devised and +adopted first, and although they seem matters of course now, after +a century of use, they were the subject of much thought and of some +sharp controversy in 1789. The manner in which the President was to be +addressed caused some heated discussion even before the inauguration. +America had but just emerged from the colonial condition, and the +colonial habits were still unbroken. In private letters we find +Washington referred to as "His Highness," and in some newspapers as +"His Highness the President-General," while the Senate committee +reported in favor of addressing him as "His Highness the President of +the United States and Protector of their Liberties." In the House, +however, the democratic spirit was strong, there was a fierce attack +upon the proposed titles, and that body ended by addressing Washington +simply as the "President of the United States," which, as it happened, +settled the question finally. Washington personally cared little for +titles, although, as John Adams wrote to Mrs. Warren, he thought them +appropriate to high office. But in this case he saw that there was a +real danger lurking in the empty name, and so he was pleased by the +decision of the House. Another matter was the relation between the +President and the Senate. Should he communicate with them in writing +or orally, being present during their deliberations as if they formed +an executive council? It was promptly decided that nominations should +be made in writing; but as to treaties, it was at first thought best +that the President should deliver them to the Senate in person, and +it was arranged with minute care where he should sit, beside +the Vice-President, while the matter was under discussion. This +arrangement, however, was abandoned after a single trial, and it was +agreed that treaties, like nominations, should come with written +messages. + +Last and most important of all was the question of the mode of conduct +and the etiquette to be established with regard to the President +himself. In this, as in the matter of titles, Washington saw a real +importance in what many persons might esteem only empty forms, and he +proceeded with his customary thoroughness in dealing with the subject. +What he did would be a precedent for the future as well as a target +for present criticism, and he determined to devise a scheme which +would resist attack, and be worthy to stand as an example for his +successors. He therefore wrote to Madison: "The true medium, I +conceive, must lie in pursuing such a course as will allow him (the +President) time for all the official duties of his station. This +should be the primary object. The next, to avoid as much as may be the +charge of superciliousness, and seclusion from information, by too +much reserve and too great a withdrawal of himself from company on +the one hand, and the inconveniences, as well as a diminution of +respectability, from too free an intercourse and too much familiarity +on the other." This letter, with a set of queries, was also sent to +the Vice-President, to Jay, and to Hamilton. They all agreed in the +general views outlined by Washington. Adams, fresh from Europe, was +inclined to surround the office, of which he justly had a lofty +conception, with a good deal of ceremony, because he felt that these +things were necessary in our relations with foreign nations. In the +main, however, the advice of all who were consulted was in favor +of keeping the nice line between too much reserve and too much +familiarity, and this line, after all the advising, Washington of +course drew for himself. He did it in this way. He decided that he +would return no calls, and that he would receive no general visits +except on specified days, and official visitors at fixed hours. +The third point was in regard to dinner parties. The presidents of +Congress hitherto had asked every one to dine, and had ended by +keeping a sort of public table, to the waste of both time and dignity. +Many persons, disgusted with this system, thought that the President +ought not to ask anybody to dinner. But Washington, never given to +extremes, decided that he would invite to dinner persons of official +rank and strangers of distinction, but no one else, and that he would +accept no invitations for himself. After a time he arranged to have a +reception every Tuesday, from three to four in the afternoon, and Mrs. +Washington held a similar levee on Fridays. These receptions, with a +public dinner every week, were all the social entertainments for which +the President had either time or health. + +By these sensible and apparently unimportant arrangements, Washington +managed to give free access to every one who was entitled to it, and +yet preserved the dignity and reserve due to his office. It was one +of the real although unmarked services which he rendered to the new +government, and which contributed so much to its establishment, for it +would have been very easy to have lowered the presidential office by a +false idea of republican simplicity. It would have been equally easy +to have made it odious by a cold seclusion on the one hand, or by pomp +and ostentation on the other. With his usual good judgment and perfect +taste, Washington steered between the opposing dangers, and yet +notwithstanding the wisdom of his arrangements, and in spite of +their simplicity, he did not escape calumny on account of them. One +criticism was that at his reception every one stood, which was thought +to savor of incipient monarchy. To this Washington replied, with the +directness of which he was always capable, that it was not usual to +sit on such occasions, and, if it were, he had no room large enough +for the number of chairs that would be required, and that, as the +whole thing was perfectly unceremonious, every one could come and go +as he pleased. Fault was also found with the manner in which he bowed, +an accusation to which he answered with an irony not untinged with +bitterness and contempt: "That I have not been able to make bows to +the taste of poor Colonel B. (who, by the by, I believe never saw one +of them) is to be regretted, especially too, as, upon those occasions, +they were indiscriminately bestowed, and the best I was master of. +Would it not have been better to throw the veil of charity over +them, ascribing their stiffness to the effects of age, or to the +unskillfulness of my teacher, rather than to pride and dignity of +office, which God knows has no charms for me?" + +As party hostility developed, these attacks passed from the region of +private conversation to the columns of newspapers and the declamation +of mob orators, and an especial snarl was raised over the circumstance +that at some public ball the President and Mrs. Washington were +escorted to a sofa on a raised platform, and that guests passed before +them and bowed. Much monarchy and aristocracy were perceived in this +little matter, and Jefferson carefully set it down in that collection +of withered slanders which he gave to an admiring posterity, after the +grave had safely covered both him and those whom he feared and hated +in his lifetime. This incident, however, was but an example of +the political capital which was sought for in the conduct of the +presidential office. The celebration of the birthday, the proposition +to put Washington's head upon the coins, and many other similar +trifles, were all twisted to the same purpose. The dynasty of Cleon +has been a long one, so long that even the succession of the Popes +seems temporary beside it, and it flourished in Washington's time as +rankly as it did in Athens, or as it does to-day. The object of the +assault varies, but the motives and the purpose are as old and as +lasting as human nature. Envy and malice will always find a convenient +shelter in pretended devotion to the public weal, and will seek +revenge for their own lack of success by putting on the cloak of the +tribune of the people, and perverting the noblest of offices to the +basest uses. + +But time sets all things even. The demagogues and the critics who +assailed Washington's demeanor and behavior are forgotten, while the +wise and simple customs which he established and framed for the great +office that he honored, still prevail by virtue of their good sense. +We part gladly with all remembrance of those bold defenders of liberty +who saw in these slight forms forerunners of monarchy. We would even +consent to drop into oblivion the precious legacy of Jefferson. But +we will never part with the picture drawn by a loving hand of that +stately figure, clad in black velvet, with the hand on the hilt of the +sword, standing at one of Mrs. Washington's levees, and receiving with +gentle and quiet dignity, full of kindliness but untinged by cheap +familiarity, the crowd that came to pay their respects. It was well +for the republic that at the threshold of its existence it had for +President a man who, by the kindness of his heart, by his good sense, +good manners, and fine breeding, gave to the office which he held and +the government he founded the simple dignity which was part of himself +and of his own high character. + +Thus the forms and shows, important in their way, were dealt with, +while behind them came the sterner realities of government, demanding +regulation and settlement. At the outset Washington knew about the +affairs of the government, especially for the last six years, only +in a general way. He felt it to be his first duty, therefore, to +familiarize himself with all these matters, and, although he was in +the midst of the stir and bustle of a new government, he nevertheless +sent for all the papers of each department of the confederation +since the signature of the treaty of peace, went through them +systematically, and made notes and summaries of their contents. This +habit he continued throughout his presidency in dealing with all +official documents. The natural result followed. He knew more at the +start about the facts in each and every department of the public +business than any other one man, and he continued to know more +throughout his administration. In this method and this capacity for +taking infinite pains is to be found a partial explanation at least +of the easy mastery of affairs which he always showed, whether on the +plantation, in the camp, or in the cabinet. It was in truth a striking +instance of that "long patience" which the great French naturalist +said was genius. + +While he was thus regulating forms of business, and familiarizing +himself with public questions, it became necessary to fix the manner +of dealing with foreign powers. There were not many representatives of +foreign nations present at the birth of the republic, but there was +one who felt, and perhaps not without reason, that he was entitled +to peculiar privileges. The Count de Moustier, minister of France, +desired to have private access to the President, and even to discuss +matters of business with him. Washington's reply to this demand was, +in its way, a model. After saying that the only matter which could +come up would relate to commerce, with which he was unfamiliar, he +continued: "Every one, who has any knowledge of my manner of acting in +public life, will be persuaded that I am not accustomed to impede +the dispatch or frustrate the success of business by a ceremonious +attention to idle forms. Any person of that description will also be +satisfied that I should not readily consent to lose one of the most +important functions of my office for the sake of preserving an +imaginary dignity. But perhaps, if there are rules of proceeding which +have originated from the wisdom of statesmen, and are sanctioned by +the common consent of nations, it would not be prudent for a young +state to dispense with them altogether, at least without some +substantial cause for so doing. I have myself been induced to think, +possibly from habits of experience, that in general the best mode of +conducting negotiations, the detail and progress of which might be +liable to accidental mistakes or unintentional misrepresentations, is +by writing. This mode, if I was obliged by myself to negotiate with +any one, I should still pursue. I have, however, been taught to +believe that there is in most polished nations a system established +with regard to the foreign as well as the other great departments, +which, from the utility, the necessity, and the reason of the thing, +provides that business should be digested and prepared by the heads of +those departments." + +The Count de Moustier hastened to excuse himself on the ground that +he expressed himself badly in English, which was over-modest, for he +expressed himself extremely well. He also explained and defended his +original propositions by trying to show that they were reasonable and +usual; but it was labor lost. Washington's letter was final, and the +French minister knew it. The count was aware that he was dealing with +a good soldier, but in statecraft he probably felt he had to do with a +novice. His intention was to take advantage of the position of France, +secure for her peculiar privileges, and put her in the attitude of +patronizing inoffensively but effectively the new government founded +by the people she had helped to free. He found himself turned aside +quietly, almost deferentially, and yet so firmly and decidedly that +there was no appeal. No nation, he discovered, was to have especial +privileges. France was the good friend and ally of the United States, +but she was an equal, not a superior. It was also fixed by this +correspondence that the President, representing the sovereignty of +the people, was to have the respect to which that sovereignty was +entitled. The pomp and pageant of diplomacy in the old world were +neither desired nor sought in America; yet the President was not to be +approached in person, but through the proper cabinet officer, and all +diplomatic communications after the fashion of civilized governments +were to be in writing. Thus within a month France, and in consequence +other nations, were quietly given to understand that the new republic +was to be treated like other free and independent governments, and +that there was to be nothing colonial or subservient in her attitude +to foreign nations, whether those nations had been friends or foes in +the past. + +It required tact, firmness, and a sure judgment to establish proper +relations with foreign ministers. But once done, it was done for all +time. This was not the case with another and far more important +class of people, whose relation to the new administration had to be +determined at the very first hour of its existence. Indeed, before +Washington left Mount Vernon he had begun to receive letters from +persons who considered themselves peculiarly well fitted to serve the +government in return for a small but certain salary. In a letter to +Mrs. Wooster, for whom as the widow of an old soldier he felt the +tenderest sympathy, he wrote soon after his arrival in New York: "As +a public man acting only with reference to the public good, I must be +allowed to decide upon all points of my duty, without consulting my +private inclinations and wishes. I must be permitted, with the best +lights I can obtain, and upon a general view of characters and +circumstances, to nominate such persons alone to offices as in my +judgment shall be the best qualified to discharge the functions of +the departments to which they shall be appointed." This sentiment in +varying forms has been declared since 1789 by many Presidents and many +parties. Washington, however, lived up exactly to his declarations. +At the same time he did not by any means attempt to act merely as an +examining board. + +Great political organizations, as we have known them since, did not +exist at the beginning of the government, but there were nevertheless +two parties, divided by the issue which had been settled by the +adoption of the Constitution. Washington took, and purposed to take, +his appointees so far as he could from those who had favored the +Constitution and were friends of the new system. It is also clear +that he made every effort to give the preference to the soldiers +and officers of the army, toward whom his affectionate thought ever +turned. Beyond this it can only be said that he was almost nervously +anxious to avoid any appearance of personal feeling in making +appointments, as was shown in the letter refusing to make his nephew +Bushrod a district attorney, and that he resented personal pressure +of any kind. He preferred always to reach his conclusions so far as +possible from a careful study of written testimony. These principles, +rigidly adhered to, his own keen perception of character, and his +knowledge of men, resulted in a series of appointments running through +eight years which were really marvelously successful. The only +rejection, outside the special case of John Rutledge, was that of +Benjamin Fishbourn for naval officer of the port of Savannah, which +was due apparently to the personal hostility of the Georgia senators. +Washington, conscious of his own painstaking, was not a little +provoked by this setting aside of an old soldier. He sent in a sharp +message on the subject, pointing out the trouble he took to make sure +of the fitness of an appointment, and intimated that the same effort +would not come amiss in the Senate when they rejected one of his +nominees. In view of the fact that it was a new government, the +absence of mistakes in the appointments is quite extraordinary, +and the value of such success can be realized by considering the +disastrous consequences which would have come from inefficient +officers or malfeasance in office when the great experiment was just +put on trial, and was surrounded by doubters and critics ready and +eager to pick flaws and find faults. + +The general tone of the government and its reputation at widely +scattered points depended largely on the persons appointed to the +smaller executive offices. Important, however, as these were, the +fate of the republic under the new Constitution was infinitely more +involved in the men whom Washington called about him in his cabinet, +to decide with him as to the policies which were to be begun, and +on which the living vital government was to be founded. Congress, +troubled about many things, and struggling with questions of revenue +and taxation, managed in the course of the summer to establish and +provide for three executive departments and for an attorney-general. +To the selection of the men to fill these high offices Washington +gave, of course, the most careful thought, and succeeded in forming +a cabinet which, in its aggregate ability, never has been equaled in +this country. + +Edmund Randolph was appointed attorney-general. Losing his father at +an early age, and entering the army, he had been watched over and +protected by Washington with an almost paternal care, and at the time +of his appointment he was one of the most conspicuous men in public +life, as well as a leading lawyer at the bar of Virginia. He came from +one of the oldest and strongest of the Virginian families, and had +been governor of his State, and a leader in the constitutional +convention, where he had introduced what was known as the Virginian +plan. He had refused to sign the Constitution, but had come round +finally to its support, largely through Washington's influence. There +was then, and there can be now, no question as to Randolph's really +fine talents, or as to his fitness for his post. His defect was a lack +of force of character and strength of will, which was manifested by a +certain timidity of action, and by an infirmity of purpose, such as +had appeared in his course about the Constitution. He performed the +duties of his office admirably, but in the decision of the momentous +questions which came before the cabinet he showed an uncertainty of +opinion which was felt by all his colleagues.[1] + +[Footnote 1: This passage was written before the recent appearance of +Mr. Conway's _Life of Randolph_. That ample biography, in my opinion, +confirms the view of Randolph here given. If, in the light of this new +material, I have erred at all, it is, I think, on the charitable side. +Mr. Conway, in order to vindicate Randolph, has sacrificed so far as +he could nearly every conspicuous public man of that period. From +Washington, whom he charges with senility, down, there is hardly a +man who ever crossed Randolph's path whom he has not assailed. Yet he +presents no reason, so far as I can see, to alter the present opinion +of Randolph.] + +Henry Knox of Massachusetts was head of the War Department under the +confederacy, and was continued in office by Washington, who appointed +him secretary of war under the new arrangement. It was a natural and +excellent selection. Knox was a distinguished soldier, he had served +well through the Revolution, and Washington was warmly attached to +him. He was not a statesman by training or habit of mind, nor was he +possessed of commanding talents. But he was an able man, sound in his +views and diligent in his office, devoted to his chief and unswerving +in his loyalty to the administration and all its measures. There was +never any doubt as to the attitude of Henry Knox, and Washington found +him as faithful and efficient in the cabinet as he had always been in +the field. + +Second in rank, but first in importance, was the secretaryship of the +treasury. "Finance! Ah, my friend, all that remains of the American +Revolution grounds there." So Gouverneur Morris had written to Jay. So +might he have written again of the American Union, for the fate of the +experiment rested at the outset on the Treasury Department. Yet there +was probably less hesitation as to the proper man for this place than +for any other. Washington no doubt would have been glad to give it to +Robert Morris, whose great services in the Revolution he could never +forget. But this could not be, and acting on his own judgment, +fortified by that of Morris himself, he made Alexander Hamilton +secretary of the treasury. + +It is one of the familiar marks of greatness to know how to choose the +right men to perform the tasks which no man, either in war or peace, +can complete single-handed. Napoleon's marshals were conspicuous +proofs of his genius, and Washington had a similar power of selection. +The generals whom he trusted were the best generals, the statesmen +whom he consulted stand highest in history. He was fallible, as other +mortals are fallible. He, too, had his Varus, and the time was coming +when he could echo the bitter cry of the great emperor for his lost +legions. But the mistakes were the exceptions. He chose with the +sureness of a strong and penetrating mind, and the most signal example +of this capacity was his secretary of the treasury. He knew Hamilton +well. He had known him as his staff officer, active, accomplished, and +efficient. He had seen him leave his side in a tempest of boyish rage, +and he had watched him charging with splendid gallantry the Yorktown +redoubts. He was familiar with Hamilton's extraordinary mastery of +financial and political problems, and he had found him a powerful +leader in the work of forming the Constitution. He understood +Hamilton's strength, and he knew where his dangers lay. Now he called +him to his cabinet, and gave into his hands the department on which +the immediate success of the government hinged. It was a brilliant +choice. The mark in his lifetime for all the assaults of his political +opponents, the leader and the victim of the schism which rent his own +party, Hamilton, after his death, was made the target for attack and +reprobation by his political foes, who for nearly sixty years, with +few intermissions, controlled the government. His work, however, could +not be undone, and as passions have subsided his fame has proved to +be of that highest and rarest kind which broadens and rises with the +lapse of years, until in the light of history it overtops that of any +of our statesmen, except of his own great chief and Abraham Lincoln. +The work to which he was called was that of organizing a national +government, and in the performance of this work he showed that he +belonged to the highest type of constructive statesmen, and was one of +the rare men who build, and whose building stands the test of time. + +Last to be mentioned, but first in rank, was the Department of State. +For this high place Washington chose Thomas Jefferson, who was then +our minister in Paris, and who did not return to take up his official +duties until the following March. Of the four cabinet offices, this +was the only one where Washington proceeded entirely on public +grounds. He took Jefferson on account of his wide reputation, his +unquestioned ability, his standing before the country, and his +experience in our foreign relations. With the other three there was +a strong element of personal friendship and familiarity. With the +secretary of state his intercourse had been, so far as we can judge, +almost wholly of a public character, and, so far as can be inferred +from an expression of some years before, the selection was made by +Washington in deference simply to what he believed to be the public +interest. The only allusion to Jefferson in all the printed volumes of +correspondence prior to 1789 occurs in a letter to Robert Livingston, +of January 8, 1783. He there said: "What office is Mr. Jefferson +appointed to that he has, you say, lately accepted? If it is that of +commissioner of peace, I hope he will arrive too late to have any hand +in it." There is no indication that their personal relations were then +or afterwards other than pleasant. Yet this brief sentence is a +strong expression of distrust, and especially so from the fact that +Washington was not at all given to criticising other people in his +letters. What he distrusted was not Jefferson's ability, for that +no man could doubt, still less his patriotism. But Washington read +character well, and he felt that Jefferson might be lacking in the +qualities of boldness and determination, so needful in a negotiation +like that which resulted in the acknowledgment of our independence. + +The truth was that the two men were radically different, and never +could have been sympathetic. Washington was strong, direct, masculine, +and at times fierce in anger. Jefferson was adroit, subtle, and +feminine in his sensitiveness. Washington was essentially a fighting +man, tamed by a stern self-control from the recklessness of his early +days, but always a fighter. Jefferson was a lover of peace, given to +quiet, hating quarrels and bloodshed, and at times timid in dealing +with public questions. Washington was deliberate and conservative, +after the fashion of his race. Jefferson was quick, impressionable, +and always fascinated by new notions, even if they were somewhat +fantastic. A thoroughly liberal and open-minded man, Washington never +turned a deaf ear to any new suggestion, whether it was a public +policy or a mechanical invention, but to all alike he gave careful +consideration before he adopted them. To Jefferson, on the other hand, +mere novelty had a peculiar charm, and he jumped at any device, either +to govern a state or improve a plough, provided that it had the +flavor of ingenuity. The two men might easily have thought the same +concerning the republic, but they started from opposite poles, and no +full communion of thought and feeling was possible between them. That +Washington chose fitly from purely public and outside considerations +can not be questioned, but he made a mistake when he put next to +himself a man for whom he did not have the personal regard and +sympathy which he felt for his other advisers. The necessary result +finally came, after many troubles in the cabinet, in dislike and +distrust, if not positive alienation. + +Looking at the cabinet, however, as it stood in the beginning, we can +only admire the wisdom of the selection and the high abilities which +were thus brought together for the administration and construction of +a great national government. It has always been the fashion to speak +of this first cabinet as made up without reference to party, but the +idea is a mistaken one from any point of view. Washington himself gave +it color, for he felt very rightly that he was the choice of the whole +people and not of a party. He wished to rise above party, and in fact +to have no party, but a devotion of all to the good of the country. +The time came when he sorrowed for and censured party bitterness and +party strife, but it is to be observed that the party feeling which he +most deplored was that which grew up against his own policies and his +own administration. The fact was that Washington, who rose above party +more than any other statesman in our history, was nevertheless, like +most men of strong will and robust mind, and like all great political +leaders, a party man, as we shall have occasion to see further on. +It is true that his cabinet contained the chiefs and founders of two +great schools of political thought, which have ever since divided +the country; but when these parties were once fairly developed, the +cabinet became a scene of conflict and went to pieces, only to be +reformed on party lines. When it was first made up, the two parties of +our subsequent history, with which we are familiar, did not exist, and +it was in the administration of Washington that they were developed. +Yet the cabinet of 1789 was, so far as there were parties, a partisan +body. The only political struggle that we had had was over the +adoption of the Constitution. The parties of the first Congress were +the Federalists and the anti-Federalists, the friends and the enemies +of the Constitution. Among those who opposed the Constitution were +many able and distinguished men, but Washington did not invite Sam +Adams, or George Mason, or Patrick Henry, or George Clinton to enter +his cabinet. On the contrary, he took only friends and supporters +of the Constitution. Hamilton was its most illustrious advocate. +Randolph, after some vacillation, had done very much to turn the +wavering scale in Virginia in its favor. Knox was its devoted friend; +and Jefferson, although he had carped at it and criticised it in +his letters, was not known to have done so, and was considered, and +rightly considered, to be friendly to the new system. In other words, +the cabinet was made up exclusively of the party of the Constitution, +which was the victorious party of the moment. This was of course +wholly right, and Washington was too great and wise a leader to have +done anything else. The cabinet was formed with regard to existing +divisions, and, when those divisions changed, the cabinet which gave +birth to them changed too. + +Outside the cabinet, the most weighty appointments were those of the +Supreme Court. No one then quite appreciated, probably, the vast +importance which this branch of the government was destined to assume, +or the great part it was to play in the history of the country and the +development of our institutions. At the same time no one could fail to +see that much depended on the composition of the body which was to be +the ultimate interpreter of the Constitution. The safety of the entire +scheme might easily have been imperiled by the selection of men as +judges who were lacking in ability or character. Washington chose with +his wonted sureness. At the head of the court he placed John Jay, one +of the most distinguished of the public men of the day, who gave to +the office at once the impress of his own high character and spotless +reputation. With him were associated Wilson of Pennsylvania, Cushing +of Massachusetts, Blair of Virginia, Iredell of North Carolina, and +Rutledge of South Carolina. They were all able and well-known +men, sound lawyers, and also, be it noted, warm friends of the +Constitution. + +Thus the business of organizing the government in the first great and +essential points was completed. It was the work of the President, and, +anxious and arduous as it was, it is worth remembering, too, that +it was done, and thoroughly done, in the midst of severe physical +suffering. Just after the inauguration, Washington was laid up with an +anthrax or carbuncle in his thigh, which brought him at one time very +near death. For six weeks he could lie only on one side, endured the +most constant and acute pain, and was almost incapable of motion. He +referred to his illness at the time in a casual and perfectly simple +way, and mind and will so prevailed over the bodily suffering that +the great task of organizing the government was never suspended nor +interrupted. + +When the work was done and Congress had adjourned, Washington, feeling +that he had earned a little rest and recreation, proceeded to carry +out a purpose, which he had formed very early in his presidency, of +visiting the Eastern States. This was the first part of a general plan +which he had conceived of visiting while in office all portions of +the Union. The personal appearance of the President, representing +the whole people, would serve to bring home to the public mind the +existence and reality of a central government, which to many if not to +most persons in the outlying States seemed shadowy and distant. But +General Washington was neither shadowy nor distant to any one. Every +man, woman, and child had heard of and loved the leader of the +Revolution. To his countrymen everywhere, his name meant political +freedom and victory in battle; and when he came among them as the +head of a new government, that government took on in some measure the +character of its chief. His journey was a well-calculated appeal, not +for himself but for his cause, to the warm human interest which a man +readily excites, but which only gathers slowly around constitutions +and forms of government. The world owes a good deal to the right kind +of hero-worship, and the United States have been no exception. + +The journey itself was uneventful, and was carried out with +Washington's usual precision. It served its purpose, too, and brought +out a popular enthusiasm which spoke well for the prospects of the +federal government, and which was the first promise of the loyal +support which New England gave to the President, as she had already +given it to the general. In the succession of crowds and processions +and celebrations which marked the public rejoicing, one incident of +this journey stands out as still memorable, and possessed of real +meaning. Mr. John Hancock was governor of Massachusetts. There is +no need to dwell upon him. He was a man of slender abilities, +large wealth, and ready patriotism, with a great sense of his own +importance, and a fine taste for impressive display. Every external +thing about him, from his handsome house and his Copley portrait to +his imposing gout and his immortal signature, was showy and effective. +He was governor of Massachusetts, and very proud of that proud old +commonwealth as well as of her governor. Within her bounds he was the +representative of her sovereignty, and he felt that deference was due +to him from the President of the United States when they both stood on +the soil of Massachusetts. He did not meet Washington on his arrival, +and Washington thereupon did not dine with the governor as he had +agreed to do. It looked a little stormy. Here was evidently a man with +some new views as to the sovereignty of States and the standing of the +union of States. It might have done for Governor Hancock to allow the +President of Congress to pass out of Massachusetts without seeing its +governor, and thereby learn a valuable lesson, but it would never +do to have such a thing happen in the case of George Washington, no +matter what office he might hold. A little after noon on Sunday, +October 26, therefore, the governor wrote a note to the President, +apologizing for not calling before, and asking if he might call +in half an hour, even though it was at the hazard of his health. +Washington answered at once, expressing his pleasure at the prospect +of seeing his excellency, but begging him, with a touch of irony, not +to do anything to endanger his health. So in half an hour Hancock +appeared. Picturesque, even if defeated, he was borne up-stairs on +men's shoulders, swathed in flannels, and then and there made his +call. The old house in Boston where this happened has had since then a +series of successors, but the ground on which it stood has been duly +remembered and commemorated. It is a more important spot than we are +wont to think; for there it was settled, on that autumn Sunday, that +the idea that the States were able to own and to bully the Union they +had formed was dead, and that the President of the new United States +was henceforth to be regarded as the official superior of every +governor in the land. It was a mere question of etiquette, nothing +more. But how the general government would have sunk in popular +estimation if the President had not asserted, with perfect dignity and +yet entire firmness, its position! Men are governed very largely by +impressions, and Washington knew it. Hence his settling at once and +forever the question of precedence between the Union and the States. +Everywhere and at all times, according to his doctrine, the nation was +to be first.[1] + +[Footnote 1: The most lately published contemporary account of +this affair with Hancock can be found in the _Magazine of American +History_, June, 1888, p. 508, entitled "Incidents in the Life of John +Hancock, as related by Dorothy Quincy Hancock Scott (from the Diary of +Gen. W.H. Sumner)."] + +So the President traveled on to the North, and then back by another +road to New York, and that excellent bit of work in familiarizing the +people with their federal government was accomplished. Meantime the +wheels had started, the machine was in motion, and the chief officers +were at their places. The preliminary work had been done, and the next +step was to determine what policies should be adopted, and to find out +if the new system could really perform the task for which it had been +created. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +DOMESTIC AFFAIRS + + +To trace in detail the events of Washington's administration would be +to write the history of the country during that period. It is only +possible here to show, without much regard to chronological sequence, +the part of the President in developing the policy of the government +at home, and his attitude toward each question as it arose. We are +concerned here merely with the influence and effect of Washington in +our history, and not with the history itself. What did he do, and what +light do we get on the man himself from his words and deeds? These are +the only questions that a brief study of a career so far-reaching can +attempt to answer. + +Congress came together for the first time with the government actually +organized on January 4, 1790. On the day when the session opened, +Washington drove down to the hall where the Congress met, alone in his +own coach drawn by four horses. He was preceded by Colonel Humphreys +and Major Jackson, mounted on his two white horses, while immediately +behind came his chariot with his private secretaries, and Mr. Lewis on +horseback. Then followed in their own coaches the chief justice and +the secretaries of war and of the treasury. When the President reached +the hall he was met at the entrance by the doorkeeper of the Congress, +and was escorted to the Senate chamber. There he passed between the +members of each branch, drawn up on either hand, and took his seat by +the Vice-President. When order and silence were obtained, he rose and +spoke to the assembled representatives of the people standing before +him. Having concluded his speech, he bowed and withdrew with his +suite as he had come. Jefferson killed this simple ceremonial, and +substituted for it the written message, sent by a secretary and read +by a clerk in the midst of talk and bustle, which is the form we +have to-day. Jefferson's change was made, of course, in the name of +liberty, and also because he was averse to public speaking. From the +latter point of view, it was reasonable enough, but the ostensible +cause was as hollow and meaningless as any of the French notions to +which it was close akin. It is well for the head of the state to meet +face to face the representatives of the same people who elected him. +For more than a century this has been the practice in Massachusetts, +to take a single instance, and liberty in that commonwealth has not +been imperiled, nor has the State been obliged to ask Federal aid to +secure to her a republican form of government because of her adherence +to this ancient custom. + +The forms adopted by Washington had the grave and simple dignity which +marked all he did, and it was senseless to abandon what his faultless +taste and patriotic feeling approved. Forms are in their way important +things: they may conceal perils to liberty, or they may lend dignity +and call forth respect to all that liberty holds most dear. The net +result of all this business has been very curious. Jefferson's +written message prevails; and yet at the same time we inaugurate +our Presidents with a pomp and parade to which those of the dreaded +Federalists seem poor and quiet, and which would make the hero of the +message-in-writing fancy that the air was darkened by the shadows of +monarchy and despotism. The author of the Declaration of Independence +was a patriotic man and lover of freedom, but he who fought out the +Revolution in the field was quite as safe a guardian of American +liberty; and his clear mind was never confused by the fantasies of +that Parisian liberty which confused facts with names, and ended in +the Terror and the first Empire. The people of the United States +to-day surround the first office of the land with a respect and +dignity which they deem equal to the mighty sovereignty that it +represents, and in this is to be found the genuine American feeling +expressed by Washington in the plain and simple ceremonial which he +adopted for his meetings with the Congress. + +In this first speech, thus delivered, Washington indicated the +subjects to which he wished Congress to direct their attention, and +which in their development formed the policies of his administration. +His first recommendation was to provide for the common defense by a +proper military establishment. His last and most elaborate was in +behalf of education, for which he invoked the aid of Congress and +urged the foundation of a national university, a scheme he had much at +heart, and to which he constantly returned. The history of these +two recommendations is soon told. Provision was made for the army, +inadequate enough, as Washington thought, but still without dispute, +and such additional provision was afterwards made from time to time as +the passing exigency of the moment demanded. For education nothing +was done, and the national university has never advanced beyond the +recommendation of the first President. + +He also advised the adoption of a uniform standard of coinage, +weights, and measures. In two years a mint was duly established after +an able report from Hamilton, and out of his efforts and those of +Jefferson came our decimal system. There was debate over the devices +on the coins in which the ever-vigilant Jeffersonians scented +monarchical dangers, but with this exception the country got its +uniform coinage peacefully enough. The weights and measures did not +fare so well. They obtained a long report from Jefferson, and a still +longer and more learned disquisition from John Quincy Adams thirty +years later. But that was all. We still use the rule of thumb systems +inherited from our English ancestors, and Washington's uniform +standard, except for the two reports, has gone no further than the +national university. + +Another recommendation to the effect that invention ought to be +encouraged and protected bore fruit in this same year in patent and +copyright laws, which became the foundation of our present system. The +same good fortune befell the recommendation for a uniform rule for +naturalization, and the law of 1790 was quietly enacted, no one then +imagining that its alteration less than ten years later was destined +to form part of a policy which, after a fierce struggle, settled +the fate of parties and decided the control of the government. The +post-office was also commended to the care of Congress, and for that, +as for the army, provision was duly made, insufficient at the outset, +but growing steadily from this small beginning, as it was called upon +to meet the spread and increase of population. + +Provision was also made gradually, and with much occasional conflict, +for a diplomatic service such as the President advised. But this was +merely the machinery to carry out our foreign policy on which, in a +few years, our political history largely turned, and which will demand +a chapter by itself. + +A paragraph devoted to Indian affairs informed Congress that measures +were on foot to establish pacific relations with our savage neighbors, +but that it would be well to be prepared to use force. This brief +sentence was the beginning of an important policy, which, in its +consequences and effects, played a large part in the history of the +next eight years. + +These various matters thus disposed of, there remained only the +request to the House to provide for the revenue and the public credit. +From this came Hamilton's financial policy which created parties, +and with it was interwoven in the body of the speech the general +recommendation to make all proper effort for the advancement of +manufactures, commerce, and agriculture. + +The speech as a whole, short though it was, drew the outline of +a vigorous system, which aimed at the establishment of a strong +government with enlarged powers. It cut at a blow all ties between the +new government and the feeble strivings of the dead confederation. It +displayed a broad conception of the duties of the government under +the Constitution, and in every paragraph it breathed the spirit of a +robust nationality, calculated to touch the people directly in every +State of the Union. + +Before taking up the financial question, which became the great issue +in our domestic affairs, it will be well to trace briefly the story of +our relations with the Indians. The policy of the new administration +in this respect was peculiarly Washington's own, and, although it +affected more or less the general course of events at that period, it +did not directly become the subject of party differences. The "Indian +problem" is still with us, but it is now a very mild problem indeed. +Within a few years, it is true, we have had Indian wars, conducted by +the forces of the United States, and ever-recurring outbreaks between +savages and frontiersmen. But it has been a very distant business. To +the great mass of the American people it has been little more than +interesting news, to be leisurely scanned in the newspaper without +any sense of immediate and personal concern. Moreover, the popular +conception of the Indian has for a long time been wildly inaccurate. +We have known him in various capacities, as the innocent victim of +corrupt agents and traders, and as the brutal robber and murderer with +the vices and force of the Western frontiersman, but without any of +the latter's redeeming virtues. Last and most important of all, we +have known him as the rare hero and the conventional villain of +romance, ranging from the admirable stories of Cooper to the last +production of the "penny dreadful." The result has been to create in +the public mind a being who probably never existed anywhere except in +the popular imagination, and who certainly is not the North American +Indian. + +We are always loath to admit that our conceptions are formed by +fiction, but in the case of people remote from our daily observation +it plays in nine instances out of ten a leading part, and it has +certainly done so here. In this way we have been provided with two +types simple and well defined, which represent the abnormally good on +the one hand and the inconceivably bad on the other. The Indian hero +is a person of phenomenal nobility of character, and of an +ability which would do credit to the training of a highly refined +civilization. He is the product of the orator, the novelist, or the +philanthropist, and has but slight and distant relation to facts. The +usual type, however, and the one which has entered most largely into +the popular mind, is the Indian villain. He is portrayed invariably +as cunning, treacherous, cruel, and cowardly, without any relieving +quality. In this there is of course much truth. As a matter of fact, +Indians are cunning, treacherous, and cruel, but they are also bold +fighters. The leading idea of the Indian that has come down from +Cooper's time, and which depicts him as a "cowardly redskin," unable +to stand for a moment against a white man in fair fight, is a complete +delusion designed to flatter the superior race. It has been in a large +measure dissipated by Parkman's masterly histories, but the ideas born +of popular fiction die hard. They are due in part to the theory that +cruelty implies cowardice, just as we say that a bully must be a +coward, another mistaken bit of proverbial wisdom. + +As a matter of fact, the records show that the North American Indian +is one of the most remarkable savage warriors of whom we have any +knowledge; and the number of white men killed for each Indian slain +in war exhibits an astonishing disproportion of loss. Captain James +Smith, for many years a captive, and who figured in most of the +campaigns of the last century, estimated that fifty of our people were +killed to one of theirs. This of course includes women and children; +and yet even in the battle of the Big Kanawha, the Virginia riflemen, +although they defeated the Indians with an inferior force, lost two +to one, and a similar disproportion seems to have continued to the +present day. + +The Indian, moreover, not only fought well and to the death, if +surrounded, but he had a discipline and plan of battle which were +most effective for the wilderness. It seems probable that, if the +experiment had been properly tried, the Indians might have been turned +into better soldiers than the famous Sikhs; and the French, who +used the red men skillfully, if without much discipline, found them +formidable and effective allies. They cut off more than one English +and American army, and the fact that they resorted to ambush and +surprise does not detract from their exploits. It was a legitimate +mode of warfare, and was used by them with terrible effect. They have +fought more than one pitched battle against superior numbers when the +victory hung long in the balance, and they have carried on guerrilla +wars for years against overwhelming forces with extraordinary +persistence and success. There is no savage, except the Zulu or Maori, +who has begun to exhibit the natural fighting quality of the American +Indian; and although the Zulu appears to have displayed greater dash, +the Indian, by his mastery of the tactics of surprise, has shown a +far better head. In a word, the Indian has always been a formidable +savage, treacherous, cruel, and cunning to an extreme degree, no +doubt, but a desperate and dogged fighter, with a natural instinct for +war. It must be remembered, too, that he was far more formidable +in 1790 than he is to-day, with the ever-rising tide of civilized +population flowing upon him and hemming him in. When the Constitution +came into being, the Indians were pretty well out of the Atlantic +States, but beyond the Alleghanies all was theirs, and they had the +unbroken wilderness as their ally and their refuge. There they lay +like a dark line on the near frontier, threatening war and pillage +and severe check to the westward advance of our people. They were +a serious matter to a new government, limited in resources and +representing only three millions of people. + +Fortunately the President was of all men best fitted to deal with +this grave question, for he knew the Indians thoroughly. His earliest +public service had been to negotiate with them, and from that time on +he had been familiar with them in peace and in diplomacy, while he had +fought with them in war over and over again. He was not in the least +confused in his notions about them, but saw them, as he did most +facts, exactly as they were. He had none of the false sentimentality +about the noble and injured red man, which in later days has been at +times highly mischievous, nor on the other hand did he take the purely +brutal view of the fighting scout or backwoodsman. He knew the Indian +as he was, and understood him as a dangerous, treacherous, +fighting savage. Better than any one else he appreciated +the difficulties of Indian warfare when an army had to be +launched into the wilderness and cut off from a base of supplies. +He was well aware, too, that the western tribes were a constant +temptation to England and Spain on either border, and might be used +against us with terrible effect. In taking up the question for +solution, he believed first, as was his nature, in justice, and he +resolved to push every pacific measure, and strive unremittingly by +fair dealing and binding treaties to keep a peace which was of great +moment to the young republic. But he also felt that pacific measures +were an uncertain reliance, and that sharp, decisive blows were often +the only means of maintaining peace and quiet on the frontier, and +of warding off English and Spanish intrigue. This was the policy he +indicated in the brief sentences of his first speech, and it only +remains to see how he carried it out. + +The outlook in regard to the Indians, when Washington assumed the +presidency, was threatening enough. The Continental Congress had shown +in this respect most honorable intention and some vigor, but their +honest purposes had been in large measure thwarted by the action of +the various States, which they were unable to control. In New York +peace reigned, despite some grumbling; for the Six Nations had made a +general treaty, and also two special treaties, not long before, which +were on the whole just and satisfactory. At the same time a general +treaty had been made with the western Indians, which modified some of +the injustices of the treaties of 1785, and which were also fair and +reasonable. In this treaty, however, the tribes of the Wabash were not +included, and they therefore were engaged in war with the Kentucky +people. Those hardy backwoodsmen were quick enough to retaliate, and +they generally proceeded on the simple backwoods principle that tribal +distinctions were futile, and that every Indian was an enemy. This +view, it must be admitted, saved a good deal of thought, but it led +the Kentuckians in their raids to kill many Indians who did not belong +to the Wabash tribes, but to those protected by treaty. The result +of this impartiality was, that, besides the chronic Wabash troubles, +there was every probability that a general war with all the western +and northwestern tribes might break out at any moment. + +South of the Ohio, matters were even worse. The Choctaws, it is +true, owing to their distance from our frontier settlements, were on +excellent terms with our government. But the Cherokees had just +been beaten and driven back by Sevier and his followers from the +short-lived state of Franklin, and had taken refuge with the Creeks. +These last were a formidable people. Not only were they good fighters, +but they were also well armed, thanks to their alliance with the +Spaniards, from whom they obtained not only countenance, but guns, +ammunition, and supplies. They were led also by a chief of remarkable +ability, a Scotch half-breed, educated at Charlestown, and named +Alexander McGillivray. With a tribe so constituted and commanded, it +was not difficult to bring on trouble, as soon proved to be the case. +Georgia had claimed and seized certain lands under treaties which she +alleged had been made, whereupon the Creeks denied the validity of +these treaties and went to war, in which they were highly successful. +The Georgians had already asked assistance from their neighbors, and +they now demanded it from the new general government. Thereupon, under +an act of Congress, Washington appointed as commissioners to arrange +the difficulties General Lincoln, Colonel Humphrey, and David Griffin +of Virginia, all remote from the scene of conflict, and all judicious +selections. The Creeks readily met the new commissioners, but when +they found that no lands were to be given up, they declined to treat +further, and said they would await a new negotiation. + +Washington attributed this failure, and no doubt correctly, to the +intrigues and influence of Spain. On the day the report of the +commissioners went to Congress, he wrote to Governor Pinckney of South +Carolina: "For my own part I am entirely persuaded that the present +general government will endeavor to lay the foundations for its +proceedings in national justice, faith, and honor. But should the +government, after having attempted in vain every reasonable pacific +measure, be obliged to have recourse to arms for the defense of its +citizens, I am also of opinion that sound policy and good economy will +point to a prompt and decisive effort, rather than to defensive and +lingering operations." "Lingering" had been the curse of our Indian +policy, and it was this above all things that Washington was +determined to be rid of. Whether peace or war, there was to be quick +and decisive action. He therefore, in this spirit, at once sent +southward another commissioner, Colonel Willett, who very shrewdly +succeeded in getting McGillivray and his chiefs to agree to accompany +him to New York. Thither they accordingly came in due time, the Scotch +half-breed and twenty-eight of his chiefs. They were entertained and +well treated at the seat of government, and there, with Knox acting +for the United States, they made a treaty which involved concessions +on both sides. The Creeks gave up all claims to lands north and east +of the Oconee, and the United States, under a recent general act +regulating trade and intercourse with the Indians, gave up all lands +south and west of the same river, and agreed to make the tribes an +annual present. Then Washington gave them wampum and tobacco, and +shook hands with them, and the chiefs went home. There was grumbling +on both sides, especially among the Georgians, but nevertheless the +treaty held for a time at least, and there was peace. + +Washington's policy of justice had succeeded, and the Indians got an +idea of the power and fair dealing of the new government, which was of +real value. More valuable still was the lesson to the people of the +United States that this central government meant to deal justly +with the Indians, and would try to prevent any single State from +frustrating by bad faith the policy designed to benefit the whole +country. Trouble soon began again in this direction, and in later days +States inflated with state-right doctrines carried this resistance in +Indian affairs to a much greater extent, and flouted the acts of the +federal government. This, however, does not detract from the wisdom of +the President, who inaugurated the policy of acting justly toward +the Indians, and of overruling the selfish injustice of the State +immediately affected. If the policy of justice and firmness adopted by +Washington had never been abandoned, it would have been better for the +honor and the interest both of the nation and the separate States. + +The same pacific policy which had succeeded in the south was tried in +the west and failed. The English, with their usual thoughtfulness, +incited the Indians to claim the Ohio as their boundary, which meant +war and murderous assaults on all our people traveling on the river. +Retaliation, of course, followed, and in April, 1790, Colonel Harmer +with a body of Kentucky militia invaded the Indian country, burned a +deserted village, and returned without having accomplished anything +substantial. The desultory warfare of murder and pillage went on for a +time, and then Washington felt that the moment had come for the other +branch of his policy. At all events there should be no lingering, and +there should be action. Peaceful measures having failed, there should +be war and a settlement in some fashion. + +Accordingly, in the fall of 1790, soon after his successful Creek +negotiation, he ordered out some three hundred regulars and eleven +hundred militia from Pennsylvania and Kentucky, and sent them under +Harmer into the Miami country. The expedition burned a village on the +Scioto; and then Colonel Hardin, detached with some hundred and +fifty men in pursuit of the Indians, was caught in an ambush and +his regulars cut off, the militia running away apparently quite +successfully. Thereupon Harmer retreated; but, changing his mind in a +day or two, advanced again, and again sent out Hardin with a larger +force than before. Then the advance was again surprised, and the +regulars nearly all killed, while the militia, who stood their ground +better this time, lost about a hundred men. The end was the repulse +of the whites after a pretty savage fight. Then Harmer withdrew +altogether, declaring, with a strange absence of humor, if of no more +important quality, that he had won a victory. After reaching home, +this mismanaged expedition caused much crimination and heart-burning, +followed by courts-martial on Hardin and Harmer, who were both +acquitted, and by the resignation of the latter. + +This defeat of course simply made worse the state of affairs in +general, and the Six Nations, who had hitherto been quiet, became +uneasy and were kept so by the ever-kind incitement of the English. +Various mediations with these powerful tribes failed; but Colonel +Pickering, appointed a special commissioner, managed at last to +appease their discontents. To the southward also the Cherokees began +to move and threaten, but were pacified by the exertions of Governor +Blount of the Southwest Territory. Meantime an act had been passed to +increase the army, and Arthur St. Clair was appointed major-general. +Washington, who had been greatly disturbed by the failure of Harmer, +was both angered and disheartened by the conduct of the States and of +the frontier settlers. "Land-jobbing, the intermeddling of the States, +and the disorderly conduct of the borderers, who were indifferent as +to the killing of an Indian," were in his opinion the great obstacles +in the way of success. Yet these very men who shot Indians at sight +and plundered them of their lands, as well as the States immediately +concerned, were the first to cry out for aid from the general +government when a war, brought about usually by their own violation of +the treaties of the United States, was upon them. On the other hand, +the Indians themselves were warlike and quarrelsome, and they were +spurred on by England and Spain in a way difficult to understand at +the present day. + +In all this perplexity, however, one thing was now clear to +Washington. There could not longer be any doubt that the western +troubles must be put down vigorously and by the armed hand. Even while +he was negotiating in the north and south, therefore, he threw himself +heart and soul into the preparation of St. Clair's expedition, pushing +forward all necessary arrangements, and planning the campaign with a +care and foresight made possible by his military ability and by his +experience as an Indian fighter. While the main army was thus +getting ready, two lesser expeditions, one under Scott and one under +Wilkinson, were sent into the Indian country; but beyond burning some +deserted villages and killing a few stray savages both were fruitless. + +At last all was ready. St. Clair had an interview with Washington, in +which the whole plan of campaign was gone over, and especial warning +given against ambuscades. He then took his departure at once for the +west, and late in September left Cincinnati with some two thousand +men. The plan of campaign was to build a line of forts, and +accordingly one named Fort Hamilton was erected twenty-four miles +north on the Miami, and then Fort Jefferson was built forty-four miles +north of that point. Thence St. Clair pushed slowly on for twenty-nine +miles until he reached the head-waters of the Wabash. He had been +joined on the march by some Kentucky militia, who were disorderly +and undisciplined. Sixty of them promptly deserted, and it became +necessary to send a regiment after them to prevent their plundering +the baggage trains. At the same time some Chickasaw auxiliaries, with +the true rat instinct, deserted and went home. Nevertheless St. Clair +kept on, and finally reached what proved to be his last camp, with +about fourteen hundred men. The militia were on one side of the +stream, the regulars on the other. At sunrise the next day the +Indians surprised the militia, drove them back on the other camp, and +shattered the first line of the regulars. The second line stood their +ground, and a desperate fight ensued; but it was all in vain. The +Indians charged up to the guns, and, though they were repulsed by the +bayonet, St. Clair, who was ill in his tent, was at last forced to +order a retreat. The retreat soon became a rout, and the broken army, +leaving their artillery and throwing away their arms, fled back to +Fort Jefferson, where they left their wounded, and hurried on to their +starting-point at Fort Washington. It was Braddock over again. General +Butler, the second in command, was killed on the field, while the +total loss reached nine hundred men and fifty-nine officers, and of +these six hundred were killed. The Indians do not appear to have +numbered much more than a thousand. No excuse for such a disaster and +such murderous slaughter is possible, for nothing but the grossest +carelessness could have permitted a surprise of that nature upon +an established camp. The troops, too, were not only surprised, but +apparently utterly unprepared to fight, and the battle was merely a +wild struggle for life. + +Washington was above all things a soldier, and his heart was always +with his armies whenever he had one in the field. In this case +particularly he hoped much, for he looked to this powerful expedition +to settle the Indian troubles for a time, and give room for that +great western movement which always was in his thoughts. He therefore +awaited reports from St. Clair with keen anxiety, but in this case +the ill tidings did not attain their proverbial speed. The battle was +fought on November 4, and it was not until the close of a December +day that the officer carrying dispatches from the frontier reached +Philadelphia. He rode at once to the President's house, and Washington +was called out from dinner, where he had company. He remained away +some time, and on returning to the table said nothing as to what +he had heard, talked with every one at Mrs. Washington's reception +afterwards, and gave no sign. Through all the weary evening he was as +calm and courteous as ever. When the last guest had gone he walked up +and down the room for a few minutes and then suddenly broke out: +"It's all over--St. Clair's defeated--routed; the officers nearly all +killed, the men by wholesale; the rout complete--too shocking to think +of--and a surprise into the bargain." He paused and strode up and down +the room; stopped again and burst forth in a torrent of indignant +wrath: "Here on this very spot I took leave of him; I wished him +success and honor; 'You have your instructions,' I said, 'from the +secretary of war; I had a strict eye to them, and will add but one +word--Beware of a surprise! I repeat it--_beware of a surprise_! You +know how the Indians fight us.' He went off with that as my last +solemn warning thrown into his ears. And yet, to suffer that army to +be cut to pieces, hacked, butchered, tomahawked, by a surprise, the +very thing I guarded him against! O God, O God, he's worse than a +murderer! How can he answer it to his country! The blood of the slain +is upon him, the curse of widows and orphans, the curse of Heaven!" + +His secretary was appalled and silent, while Washington again strode +fiercely up and down the room. Then he sat down, collected himself, +and said, "This must not go beyond this room." Then a long silence. +Then, "General St. Clair shall have justice. I looked hastily through +the dispatches, saw the whole disaster, but not all the particulars; +I will receive him without displeasure; I will hear him without +prejudice; he shall have full justice." The description of this scene +by an eye-witness has been in print for many years, and yet we find +people who say that Washington was cold of heart and lacking in human +sympathy. What could be more intensely human than this? What a warm +heart is here, and what a lightning glimpse of a passionate nature +bursting through silence into burning speech! Then comes the iron will +which has mastered all the problems of his life. "He shall have full +justice;" and St. Clair had justice. He had been an unfortunate +choice, but as a Revolutionary soldier and governor of the Northwest +Territory his selection had been natural. He had never been a +successful general, for it was not in him to be so. Something he +lacked, energy, decision, foresight, it matters not what. But at least +he was brave. Broken by sickness, he had displayed the utmost personal +courage on that stricken field; and for this Washington would always +forgive much. He received the unfortunate general kindly. He could not +order a court martial, for there were no officers of sufficient rank +to form one; but he gave St. Clair every opportunity for vindication, +and a committee of Congress investigated the campaign and exculpated +the leader. His personal bravery saved him and his reputation, but +nothing can alter the fact that the surprise was unpardonable and the +disaster awful. + +Immediate results of the St. Clair defeat were not so bad as might +have been expected. Panic, of course, ran rampant along the frontier, +reaching even to Pittsburg; but the Indians failed to follow up +their advantage, and did not come. Still the alarm was there, and +Pennsylvania and Virginia ordered troops to be raised, while Congress +also took action. Another increase of the army was ordered, with +consequent increase of appropriation, so that this Indian victory +entered at this point into the great current of the financial policy, +and thus played its part in the events on which parties were dividing, +and history was being made. + +No matter what happened, however, there was to be neither lingering +nor delay in this business. The President set to work at once to +organize a fresh army, and fight out a settlement of the troubles. His +first thought for a new commander was of Henry Lee of Virginia, but +considerations of rank deterred him. He then selected and appointed +Wayne, who recently had got into politics and been deprived, on a +contested election, of his seat in the House. No little grumbling +ensued over this appointment, especially in Virginia, but it was +unheeded by the President, and its causes now are not very clear. +The event proved the wisdom of the choice, as so often happened with +Washington, and it is easy to see the reason for it. Wayne was one +of the shining figures of our Revolution, appealing strongly to the +imagination of posterity. He was not a great general in the highest +sense, but he was a brilliant corps-commander, capable of daring feats +of arms like the storming of Stony Point. He was capable also of +dashing with heedless courage into desperate places, and incurring +thereby defeat and consequent censure, but escaping entire ruin +through the same quickness of action which had involved him in +trouble. He was well fitted for the bold and rapid movement +required in Indian warfare, and with him Washington put well-chosen +subordinates, selected evidently for their fighting capacity, for he +clearly was determined that this should be at all events a fighting +campaign. + +Wayne, after his appointment, betook himself to Pittsburg, and +proceeded with characteristic energy to raise and organize his army, +a work of no little difficulty because he wished to have picked men. +Washington did all that could be done to help him, and at the same +time pushed negotiations with admirable patience, but with very +varying success. Kirkland brought chiefs of the Six Nations to +Congress with good results, and the Cherokees were pacified by +additional presents. On the other hand, the Creeks were restless, +stirred up always by Spain, and two brave officers, sent to try +for peace with the western tribes, were murdered in cold blood. +Nevertheless, treaties were patched up with some of them, and a great +council was held in the fall of 1792, the Six Nations acting as +mediators, which resulted in a badly kept armistice, but in nothing of +lasting value. The next year Congress passed a general act regulating +trade and intercourse with the Indians, and Washington appointed yet +another commission to visit the northwestern tribes, more to +satisfy public opinion than with any hope of peace. Indeed, these +commissioners never succeeded in even meeting the Indians, who +rejected in advance all proposals which would not concede the Ohio as +the boundary. English influence, it was said, was at the bottom of +this demand, and there seems to be little doubt that such was the +case, for England and France were now at war, and England thereupon +had redoubled her efforts to injure the United States by every sort of +petty outrage both on sea and land. This masterly policy had perhaps +reasons for its existence which pass beyond the average understanding, +but, so far as any one can now discover, it seems to have had no +possible motive except to feed an ancient grudge and drive the country +into the arms of France. Carried on for a long time in secret, +this Indian intrigue came to the surface in a speech made by Lord +Dorchester to the western tribes, in which he prophesied a speedy +rupture with the United States and urged his hearers to continue war. +It is worth remembering that for five years, covertly or openly, +England did her best to keep an Indian war with all that it implied +alive upon our borders,--the borders of a friendly nation with whom +she was at peace. + +But while Washington persistently negotiated, he as persistently +prepared to fight, not trusting overmuch either the savages or the +English. Wayne, with similar views, moved his army forward in the +autumn of 1793 to a point six miles beyond Fort Jefferson, and then +went into winter quarters. Early in the spring of 1794 he was in +motion again and advanced to St. Clair's battlefield, where he built +Fort Recovery, and where he was attacked by the Indians, whom he +repulsed after two days' fighting. He then marched in an unexpected +direction and struck the central villages at the junction of the Au +Glaize and Maumee. The surprised savages fled, and Wayne burned their +village, laid waste their extensive fields, and built Fort Defiance. +To the Indians, who had retreated thirty miles down the Maumee to the +shelter of a British post, he sent word that he was ready to treat. +The reply came back asking for a delay of ten days; but Wayne at once +advanced, and found the Indians prepared for battle near the English +fort. The ground was unfavorable, especially for cavalry, but Wayne +made good arrangements and attacked. The Indians gave way before the +bayonet, and were completely routed, the American loss being only one +hundred and seven men. The army was not averse to storming the English +fort; but Wayne, with unusual caution, contented himself with a sharp +correspondence with the commandant, and then withdrew after a most +successful campaign. The next year, strengthened by his victory and by +the surrender of the British posts under the Jay treaty, Wayne made +a treaty with the western tribes by which vast tracts of disputed +territory were ceded to the United States, and peace was established +in that long troubled region. + +On the southern frontier there were no such fortunate results. While +Washington was negotiating and fighting in the north and west, all +his patient efforts were frustrated in the south by the conduct of +Georgia. The borderers kept assailing the Indians, peaceful tribes +being generally chosen for the purpose; and the State itself broke +through and disregarded all treaties and all arrangements made by the +United States. The result was constant disquiet and chronic war, with +the usual accompaniments of fire, murder, and pillage. + +On the whole, however, when Washington left the presidency, his +Indian policy had been a marked success. In place of uncertainty and +weakness, a definite general system had been adopted. The northern +and western tribes had been beaten and pacified, and the southern +incursions and disorders had been much checked. The British posts, the +most dangerous centres of Indian intrigue, had been abandoned, and the +great regions of the west and northwest had been opened to the tide of +settlement. These results were due to a well-defined plan, and above +all to the persistent vigor which pushed steadily forward to its +object without swinging, as had been done before, between feverish and +often misdirected activity on the one side and complete and +feeble inaction on the other. They were achieved, too, amid many +difficulties, for there was anything but a unanimous support of the +government in its Indian affairs. The opposition grumbled at the +expense, and said that money needlessly raised by taxation was +squandered in Indian wars, while the great body of the people, living +safely along the eastern coast, thought but little about the frontier. +Some persons took the sentimental view and considered the government +barbarous to make causeless war. Others believed that altogether +too much of the public time and money were wasted in looking after +outlying settlements. The borderers themselves, on the other hand, +thought that the general government was in league with the savages, +and broke through treaties, and destroyed so far as they could the +national policy. St. Clair was hissed and jeered as he traveled home, +but a wakeful opposition turned from the unsuccessful general to a +vain attempt to prove that ambushed savages and sleeping sentries were +due to a weak war department and a corrupt and inefficient treasury. +The mass of moderate people, no doubt, desired tranquillity on the +frontier, and sustained the President's labors for that end, but for +the most part they were silent. The voices that Washington heard most +loudly joined in a discordant chorus of disapproval around his Indian +policy. No one understood that here was an important part of a scheme +to build up a nation, to make all the movements of the United States +broad and national, and to open the vast west to the people who were +to make it theirs. Washington heard all the criticism and saw all the +opposition, and still pressed forward to his goal, not attaining all +he wished, but fighting in a very clear and manful spirit, and not +laboring in vain. + +The Indian question in its management touched, as has been seen, at +various points our financial policy and our foreign relations, on +which the history of the country really turned in those years. The +latter had not risen to their later importance when the government +began, but the former was knocking importunately at the door of +Congress when it first assembled. The condition of affairs is soon +told. The Revolution narrowly escaped shipwreck on the financial +reefs, and the shaky government of the confederation had there gone to +pieces. The country, as a political organism, was bankrupt. It owed +sums of money, which were vast in amount for those days, both at +home and abroad, and it could not pay these debts, nor was there any +provision for them. All interest was in arrears, there were no means +provided for meeting it, and the national credit everywhere was +dishonored and gone. The continental currency had disappeared, and the +circulating medium was represented by a confused jumble of foreign +coins and worthless scrip. Many of the States were up to their eyes in +schemes of inflation, paper money, and repudiation. There was no money +in the treasury to pay the ordinary charges of government; there was +no revenue and no policy for raising one, or for funding the debt. +This picture is darkly drawn, but it is not exaggerated. That high +spirit of public honor, which seventy-five years later rose above the +ravages of war and the temptings of dishonesty to pay the debt and the +interest, dollar for dollar in gold, seemed in 1789 to be wellnigh +extinct. But it was not dead. It was confused and overclouded in the +minds of the people, but it was still there, and it was strong, clear, +and determined in Washington and those who followed him. + +Congress grappled with the financial difficulties in the most +courageous and honest way, but it struggled with them rather +helplessly despite its good disposition. It could lay taxes in one way +or another so as to get money, but this was plainly insufficient. It +could not formulate a coherent policy, which was the one essential +thing, nor could it settle the thousand and one perplexing questions +which hedged the subject on every side. The members turned, therefore, +with a sigh of relief to the new Secretary of the Treasury, asked him +the questions which were troubling them, and having directed him to +make various reports, adjourned. + +The result is well known. The great statesman to whom the task was +confided assumed it with the boldness and ease of conscious power, +and when Congress reassembled it listened to the first report on +the public credit. In that great state paper all the confusions +disappeared, and in terse sentences an entire scheme for funding the +debt, disposing of the worthless currency, and raising the necessary +revenue came out clear and distinct, so that all men could comprehend +it. The provision for the foreign debt passed without resistance. That +for the domestic debt excited much debate, and also passed. Last came +the assumption of the state debts, and over that there sprang up +a fierce struggle. It was carried by a narrow majority, and then +defeated by the votes of the North Carolina members, who had just +taken their seats. Washington strongly favored this hotly contested +measure. He defended it in a letter to David Stuart, and again +to Jefferson, at a later time, when that statesman was trying to +undermine Hamilton by wailing about a "corrupt squadron" in Congress. + +To Washington, assumption seemed as obviously just as it does to +posterity. All the debts had been incurred in a common cause, he said, +why should they not be cared for by the common government? He had +no patience with the sectional argument that assumption was unfair, +because some States got more out of it than others. Some States had +suffered more than others, but all shared in the freedom that had been +won.[1] He saw in it, moreover, as Hamilton had seen, something far +more important than a mere provision for the debts and for the payment +of money to this community or to that. Assumption was essentially a +union measure. The other debts were incurred by the central government +directly, but the state debts were incurred by the States for a common +cause. If the United States assumed them, it showed to the people and +to the world that there were no state lines when the interests of the +whole country were involved. It was therefore a national measure, a +breeder of national sentiment, a new bond to fasten the States to each +other and to the Union. This was enough to assure Washington's hearty +approval; but the measure was saved and carried finally by the famous +arrangement between Hamilton and Jefferson, which took the capital +to the Potomac and made the war debts of the States a part of the +national debt. Washington was more than satisfied with this solution, +for both sides of the agreement pleased him, and there was nothing in +the compromise which meant sacrifice on his part. He rejoiced in +the successful adoption of the great financial policy of his +administration, and he was much pleased to have the capital, in which +he was intensely interested, placed near to his own Mount Vernon, in +the very region he would have selected if he had had the power of +fixing it. + +[Footnote 1: Sparks, _Writings of Washington_, x. 98.] + +The next great step in the development of the financial policy was the +establishment of the national bank, and on this there arose another +bitter contest in Congress and in the newspapers. A sharp opposition +had developed by this time, and the supporters of the Secretary of the +Treasury became on their side correspondingly ardent. In this debate +much stress was laid on the constitutional point that Congress had no +power to charter a bank. Nevertheless, the bill passed and went to the +President, with the constitutional doubts following it and pressed +home in this last resort. As has been seen from his letters written +just after the Philadelphia convention, Washington was not a blind +worshiper of the Constitution which he had helped so largely to make; +but he believed it would work, and every day confirmed his belief. He +felt, moreover, that one great element of its lasting success lay +in creating a genuine reverence for it among the people, and it was +therefore of the utmost importance that this reverence should begin +among those to whom the management of the government had been +intrusted. For this reason he exercised a jealous care in everything +touching the organic law of the Union, and he was peculiarly sensitive +to constitutional objections to any given measure. In the case of the +national bank, the objections were strongly as well as vigorously +urged, and Washington paused, before signing, to the utmost limit of +the time allowed. He turned to Jefferson and Randolph, both opposed +to the bill, and asked them for their objections to its +constitutionality. They gave him in response two able reports. These +he sent to Hamilton, who returned them with that most masterly +argument, in which he not only defended the bank charter, but +vindicated, in a manner never afterwards surpassed, the new doctrine +of the implied powers of the Constitution. With both sides thus before +him, Washington considered the question, and signed the bill. + +Rives, in his "Life of Madison," intimates that Washington had doubts +even after signing, but of this there is no evidence of any weight. He +was not a man who indulged in doubts after he had made up his mind and +rendered a decision, and it was not in his nature to fret over what +had been done and was past, whether in war or peace. The story that he +was worried about his action in this instance arose from his delay in +signing, and from the disappointment of those who had hoped much +from his hesitation. This pause, however, was both natural and +characteristic. Washington had approved Morris's bank policy in the +Revolution, and remembered the service it rendered. He was familiar +with Hamilton's views on the subject, and knew that they were the +result of long study and careful thought. He must also have known that +any financial policy devised by his Secretary of the Treasury would +contain as an integral part a national bank. There can be no doubt +that both the plan for the bank and the report which embodied it were +submitted to him before they went in to Congress, but the violence of +the objections raised there on constitutional grounds awakened +his attention in a new direction. He saw at once the gravity of a +question, which involved not merely the incorporation of a bank, +but which opened up a new field of constitutional powers and +constitutional construction. When such far-reaching results were +involved he paused and reflected, and, as was always the case with him +under such circumstances, listened to and examined all the arguments +on both sides. This done he decided, and with his national feeling +he could not have decided otherwise than he did. The doctrine of the +implied powers of the Constitution was the greatest weapon possible +for those whose leading thought was to develop the union of States +into a great and imperial nation; and we may well believe that it was +this feeling, and not merely faith in the bank as a financial engine, +which led Washington to sign the bill. When he did so he assented to +the charter of a national bank, but he also assented to the doctrine +of the implied powers and gave to that far-reaching construction of +the Constitution the great weight of his name and character. It was, +perhaps, the most important single act of his presidency. + +It is impossible here, even were it necessary, to follow Washington's +action in regard to all the details which went to make up and to +sustain Hamilton's policy, to which, as a whole, Washington gave his +hearty approval and support. The revenue system, the public lands, +the arrangement of loans, the mint, all alike met with his active +concurrence. He was too great a man not to value rightly Hamilton's +work, and the way in which that work brought order, credit, honor, and +prosperity out of a chaos of debt and bankruptcy appealed peculiarly +to his own love for method, organization, and sound business +principles. He met every criticism on Hamilton's policy without +concession, and defended it when it was attacked. To Hamilton's genius +that policy must be credited, but it gained its success and strength +largely from the firm support of Washington. + +There are two matters, however, connected with the Treasury +Department, which cannot be passed over in this general way. One was +a policy reasoned out and published by Hamilton, but never during his +lifetime put into the form of law in the broad and systematic manner +which he desired. The other was a consequence of his financial policy +as adopted, but which reached far beyond the bounds of financial +arrangements. The first was the policy set forth in Hamilton's Report +on Manufactures. The second was the enforcement of the excise and its +results. + +The defense of our commerce against foreign discriminations was a +proximate cause of the movement which resulted in the Constitution of +the United States, and closely allied to it was the anxious wish to +develop our internal resources and our domestic industry. This idea +was not at all new. Sporadic attempts to start and carry on various +industries had been made during the colonial period. They had all +failed, either because the watchful mother-country took pains to +stifle them, or because lack of capital and experience, in addition to +foreign competition, killed them almost at their birth. The idea of +developing American industries was generally diffused for the +first time when the colonists strove to bring England to terms by +non-intercourse acts. The Americans then thought that they could carry +their points by making war upon the British pocket, and excluding +English merchants from their markets. The next step, of course, was +to supply their own markets themselves; and the non-intercourse +agreements, which were economically prohibitory tariff acts, gave a +fitful impulse to various simple industries. In the clash of arms this +idea naturally dropped out of the popular mind, but it began to revive +soon after the return of peace. The government of the confederation +was too feeble to adopt any policy in this or any other matter, but +in the first Congress the desire to develop American industries found +expression. The first tariff was laid primarily to raise the revenue +so sorely needed at that moment. But the effort to do this gave rise +to a debate in which the policy of protection, strongly advocated by +the Pennsylvanian members, was freely discussed. Nobody, however, at +that time, had any comprehensive plan or general system, so that the +efforts for protection were incoherent, and resulted only in certain +special protective features in the tariff bill, and not in a broad +and well-rounded measure. Still the protective idea was there; it was +recognized in the preamble of the act, and the constitutionality of +the policy was affirmed by the framers and contemporaries of the +Constitution. + +Hamilton, of course, watched all these movements intently. His guiding +thought in all things was the creation of a great nation. For this he +strove for national unity and national sentiment, and he saw of course +that one essential condition of national greatness was industrial +independence, in addition to the political independence already won. +One of the greatest thinkers of the time on all matters of public +finance and political economy, he perceived at once that the irregular +attempts of Congress to encourage home industries could have at best +but partial results. He saw that a system broad, just, and continental +in its scope must take the place of the isolated industries which +now and again obtained an uncertain protection under the haphazard +measures of Congress. With these views and purposes he wrote and sent +to Congress his Report on Manufactures. In that great state paper he +made an argument in behalf of protection, as applied to the United +States and to the development of home industries, which has never been +overthrown. The system which he proposed was imperial in its range and +national in its design, like everything that proceeded from Hamilton's +mind. He argued, of course, with reference to existing economic +conditions, and in behalf only of what he then sought,--industrial +independence and the establishment and diversification of industries. +The social side of the question, which to-day overshadows all others, +was not visible a hundred years ago. The Report, however, bore no +immediate fruit, and Hamilton had been in his grave for years before +the country turned from this practice of accidental protection, and +tried to replace it by a broad, coherent system as set forth by the +great Secretary. + +But although it had no result at the moment, the Report on +Manufactures, which laid the foundation of the American protective +system, and which has so powerfully influenced American political +thought, was one of the very greatest events of Washington's +administration. To trace its effects and history through the +succeeding century would be wholly out of place here. All that +concerns us is Washington's relation to this far-reaching policy of +his Secretary. If we had not a word or a line on the subject from his +pen, we should still know that the policy of Hamilton was his policy +too, for Washington was the head of his own administration, and was +responsible and meant to be responsible for all its acts and policies. +With his keen foresight he saw the full import of the Report on +Manufactures, and we may be sure that when it went forth it was with +his full and cordial approval, and after that minute consideration +which he gave to all public questions. But we are not left to +inference. We have Washington's views and feelings on this matter set +forth again and again, and they show that the principle of the Report +on Manufactures was as near and dear to him, and as full of meaning, +as it was to Hamilton. + +Washington was brought up and had lived all his life under a system +which came as near as possible to the ideal of the modern free-trader. +The people of Virginia were devoted almost entirely to a single +interest, tobacco-growing, that being the occupation in which they +could most profitably engage. No legislative artifices had been +employed to enable them to diversify their industries or to establish +manufactures. They bought in the cheapest market every luxury and +most of the necessities of life. British merchants supplied all their +wants, carried their tobacco, and advanced them money. Cheap labor, a +single staple with wide fluctuations of value, a credit system, entire +dependence on foreigners, and absolute free trade according to the +Manchester theories, should have produced an earthly paradise. As a +matter of fact, the Virginia planters had little ready money and were +deeply in debt. Bankruptcy, as has been already said, seems to have +come to them about once in a generation. The land, rapidly exhausted +by tobacco, was prodigally wasted, and the general prosperity +declined. Washington, with his strong sense and perfect business +methods, personally escaped most of these evils, but he saw the +mischief of the system all the more clearly. It was bad enough in +his time, but he did not live to see Virginia with her wasted and +exhausted lands stand still, while her sister States to the north +passed her with giant strides in the race for wealth and population. +He did not live to see her become, as a result of her colonial system, +a mere breeder of slaves for the plantations of the Gulf States. But +he saw enough, and the lesson taught him by the results of industrial +dependence was well learned. + +When the war came and he was carrying the terrible burden of the +Revolution, he learned the same lesson in a new and more bitter way. +Nothing went so near to wreck the American cause as lack of all the +supplies by which war was carried on, for the United States produced +little or nothing of what was then needed. The resources of the +northern colonies were soon exhausted, and the South had none. Powder, +cannon, muskets, clothing, medical stores, all were lacking, and the +fate of the nation hung trembling in the balance on account of the +dependence in which the colonies had been kept by the skillful policy +of England. These were teachings that a lesser man than Washington +would have taken to heart and pondered deeply. In the midst of the +struggle he wrote to James Warren (March 31, 1779): "Let vigorous +measures be adopted, ... to punish speculators, forestallers, and +extortioners, and, above all, to sink the money by heavy taxes, +to promote public and private economy, and _to encourage +manufactures_.[1] Measures of this sort, gone heartily into by the +several States, would strike at once at the root of all our evils, +and give the _coup de grace_ to the British hope of subjugating this +continent either by their arms or their acts." + +[Footnote 1: The italics are mine.] + +To Lafayette he wrote in 1789: "Though I would not force the +introduction of manufactures by extravagant encouragements and to the +prejudice of agriculture, yet I conceive much might be done in +that way by women, children, and others, without taking one really +necessary hand from tilling the earth. Certain it is, great savings +are already made in many articles of apparel, furniture, and +consumption. Equally certain it is, that no diminution in agriculture +has taken place at this time, when greater and more substantial +improvements in manufactures are making than were ever before known in +America." + +In the same year he wrote to Governor Randolph, favoring bounties, the +strongest form of protection; and this encouragement he wished to have +given to that industry which a hundred years later has been held up as +one of the least deserving of all that have received the assistance of +legislation. He said in this letter: "From the original letter, which +I forward herewith, your Excellency will comprehend the nature of a +proposal for introducing and establishing the woolen manufacture +in the State of Virginia. In the present stage of population and +agriculture, I do not pretend to determine how far that plan may be +practicable and advisable; or, in case it should be deemed so, whether +any or what public encouragement ought to be given to facilitate +its execution. _I have, however, no doubt as to the good policy +of increasing the number of sheep in every state_.[1] By a little +legislative encouragement the farmers of Connecticut have, in two +years past, added one hundred thousand to their former stock. If a +greater quantity of wool could be produced, and if the hands which are +often in a manner idle could be employed in manufacturing it, a spirit +of industry might be promoted, a great diminution might be made in +the annual expenses of individual families, and the public would +eventually be exceedingly benefited." The only hesitation is as to the +time of applying the policy. There is no doubt as to the wisdom of the +policy itself, of giving protection and encouragement in every proper +legislative form to domestic industry. + +[Footnote 1: The italics are mine.] + +In his first speech to Congress he recommended measures for the +advancement of manufactures, having already affixed his signature to +the bill which declared their encouragement to be one of its objects. +At the same time he wrote, in reply to an address: "The promotion +of domestic manufactures will, in my conception, be among the first +consequences which may naturally be expected to flow from an energetic +government." In 1791 he consulted Hamilton as to the advisability of +urging Congress to offer bounties for the culture of cotton and hemp, +his only doubts being as to the power of the general government in +this respect, and as to the temper of the time in regard to such an +expenditure of public money. The following year Hamilton's Report +on Manufactures was given to the country, finally establishing the +position of the administration as to our economic policy. + +The general drift of legislation, although it was not systematized, +followed the direction pointed out by the administration. But this did +not satisfy Washington. In his speech to Congress, December 7, 1796, +he said: "Congress has repeatedly, and not without success, directed +their attention to the encouragement of manufactures. _The object is +of too much consequence not to insure a continuance of their efforts +in every way which shall appear eligible._"[1] He then goes on to +argue at some length that, although manufacturing on the public +account is usually inexpedient, it should be established and carried +on to supply all that was needed for the public force in time of war. +This was his last address to Congress, and his last word on this +matter was to approve the course of Congress in following the +recommendation of his first speech. All his utterances and all his +opinions on the subject were uniform. Washington had never been a +student of public finance or political economy like Hamilton, and he +lived before the days of the Manchester school and its new gospel +of procuring heaven on earth by special methods of transacting the +country's business. But Washington was a great man, a state-builder +who fought wars and founded governments. He knew that nations were +raised up and made great and efficient, and that civilization was +advanced, not by _laissez aller_ and _laissez faire_, but by much +patient human striving. He had fought and conquered, and again he had +fought and been defeated, and through all he had come to victory, and +to certain conclusive results both in peace and war. He had not done +this by sitting still and letting each man go his way, but by strong +brain and strong will, and by much organization and compulsion. He had +set his hand to the building of a nation. He had studied his country +and understood it, and with calm, far-seeing eyes he had looked +forward into the future of his people. Neither the study nor the +outlook were vain, and both told him that political independence +was only part of the work, and that national sentiment, independent +thinking, and industrial independence also must be reached. The +first two, time alone could bring. The last, wise laws could help +to produce; and so he favored protection by legislation to American +industry and manufactures, threw all his potent influence into the +scale, and gave his support to the protective policy set forth by his +Secretary. + +[Footnote 1: The italics are mine.] + +Two matters connected with the treasury, I have said, deserved +fuller consideration than a general review could give. The one just +described, the policy of the Report on Manufactures, came, as has been +seen, to no clear and immediate result. The other reached a very +sharp and definite conclusion, not without great effect on the new +government of the United States, both at the moment and in the future. +When Hamilton "struck the rock of the national resources," the stream +of revenue which he sought at the outset was that flowing from duties +on imports, for this, in his theory, was not only the first source, +but the best. He would fain have had it the only one; but the +situation drove him forward. The assumption of the state debts, a +part of the legacy of the Revolution, and the continuing and at first +increasing expenses of unavoidable Indian wars, made additional +revenue absolutely essential. He turned therefore to the excise on +domestic spirits to furnish what was needed. + +Washington approved assumption. It was a measure of honesty, it would +raise the public credit, and above all, it was thoroughly national in +its operation and results. The appropriations for Indian wars he of +course approved, for their energetic prosecution was part of the +vigorous policy toward our wild neighbors upon which he was so +determined. It followed, of course, that he did not shrink from +imposing the taxes thus made necessary; and to raise the money from +domestic spirits seemed to him, under the existing exigency, to be +what it was,--thoroughly proper and reasonable both in form and +subject. + +It would seem, however, that neither Washington nor Hamilton realized +the unpopularity of this mode of getting revenue. The frontier +settlers along the line of the Alleghanies in Pennsylvania, Virginia, +and North Carolina, who distilled whiskey, were not very familiar, +perhaps, with Johnson's dictionary, but they would have cordially +accepted his definition of an excise. To them it was indeed a "hateful +tax," and nothing else. In fact, the word was one disliked throughout +the States, for it brought up evil memories, and excited much jealous +hostility and prejudice. The first excise law, therefore, when it went +into force, was the signal for a general outburst of opposition; and +in the Alleghany region, as might have been expected, the resistance +was immediate and most bitter. State legislatures passed resolutions, +public meetings were held and more resolutions were passed, while +in the wilder parts of the country threats of violence were freely +uttered. All these murmurings and menaces came on the passage of the +first bill in 1791. The administration, however, had no desire to +precipitate an uncalled-for strife, and so the law was softened and +amended in the following year, the tax being lowered and the most +obnoxious features removed. The result was general acquiescence +throughout most of the States, and renewed opposition in the western +counties of Pennsylvania and North Carolina. In the former a meeting +was held denouncing the law, pledging the people to "boycott" the +officers, and hinting at forcible resistance. If the people engaged in +this business had stopped to consider the men with whom they had +to deal, they would have been saved a great deal of suffering and +humiliation. The President and his Secretary of the Treasury were not +men who could be frightened by opposition or violent speeches. But +angry frontiersmen, stirred up by demagogues, are not given to much +reflection, and they meant to have their own way. + +Washington was quite clear in his policy from the beginning. He was +ready to make every proper concession, but when this was done he meant +on his side to have his own way, which was the way of law and order +and good government. He wrote to Hamilton in August, 1792: "If, after +these regulations are in operation, opposition to the due exercise of +the collection is still experienced, and peaceable procedure is no +longer effectual, the public interests and my duty will make it +necessary to enforce the laws respecting this matter; and however +disagreeable this would be to me, it must nevertheless take place." + +Meantime the disorders went on, and the officers were insulted and +thwarted in the execution of their duty. Washington's next letter +(September 7) has a touch of anger. He hated disorder and riot +anywhere, but he was disgusted when they came from the very people for +whose defense the Indian war was pushed and the excise made necessary. +He approved of Hamilton's sending out an officer to examine into the +survey, and said: "If, notwithstanding, opposition is still given to +the due execution of the law, I have no hesitation in declaring, if +the evidence of it is clear and unequivocal, that I shall, however +reluctantly I exercise them, exert all the legal powers with which the +executive is invested to check so daring and unwarrantable a spirit. +It is my duty to see the laws executed. To permit them to be trampled +upon with impunity would be repugnant to it; nor can the government +longer remain a passive spectator of the contempt with which they are +treated. Forbearance, under a hope that the inhabitants of that +survey would recover from the delirium and folly into which they +were plunged, seems to have had no other effect than to increase the +disorder." + +A few weeks later he issued a proclamation, declaring formally and +publicly what he had already said in private. He warned the people +engaged in resistance to the law that the law would be enforced, and +exhorted them to desist. The proclamation was effective in the south, +and the opposition died out in North Carolina. Not so in Pennsylvania. +There the Scotch-Irish borderers who lived in the western counties +were bent on having their way. A brave, self-willed, hotheaded, +turbulent people, they were going to have their fight out. They +had ridden rough-shod over the Quaker and German government in +Pennsylvania before this, and they no doubt thought they could do the +same with this new government of the United States. They merely made a +mistake about the man at the head of the government; nothing more than +that. Such mistakes have been made before. The Paris mob, for example, +made a similar blunder on the 13th Vendemiaire, when Bonaparte settled +matters by the famous whiff of grape-shot. There is some excuse for +the error of our Scotch-Irish borderers in their past experience, more +excuse still in the drift of other events that touched all men just +then with the madness of France, and gave birth to certain democratic +societies which applauded any resistance to law, even if the cause was +no nobler than a whiskey still. + +Perhaps, too, the Pennsylvanians were encouraged by the moderation +and deliberate movement of the government. A lull came after the +proclamation of 1792. Then every effort was made to settle the +troubles by civil processes and by personal negotiation, but all +proved vain. The disturbances went on increasing for two years, until +law was at an end in the insurgent counties. The mails were stopped +and robbed, there were violence, bloodshed, rioting, attacks on the +officers of the United States, and meetings threatening still worse +things. + +Meanwhile Washington had waited and watched, and bided his time. He +felt now that the moment had come when, if ever, public opinion must +be with him, and that the hour had arrived when he must put his +fortune to the touch, and "try if it were current gold indeed." On +August 7 he issued a second proclamation, setting forth the outrages +committed, and announcing his power to call out the militia, and his +intention to do so if unconditional submission did not follow at once. +As he wrote to a friend three days later: "Actual rebellion exists +against the laws of the United States." On the crucial point, however, +he felt safe. He was confident that all the public opinion worth +having was now on his side, and that the people were ready to stand by +the government. The quick and unconditional submission did not come, +and on September 25 he issued a third proclamation, reciting the facts +and calling out the militia of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and +Virginia. + +Washington had judged rightly. The States responded, and the troops +came to the number of fifteen thousand, for he was in the habit of +doing things thoroughly, and meant to have an overwhelming force. +To Governor Lee of Virginia the command of the combined forces was +intrusted. "I am perfectly in sentiment with you, that the +business we are drawn out upon should be effectually executed, +and that the daring and factious spirit which threatens to +overturn the laws and to subvert the Constitution ought to be +subdued." Thus he wrote to Morgan, while the commissioners from the +insurgents were politely received, and told that the march of the +troops could not be countermanded. Washington would fain have gone +himself, in command of the army, but he felt that he could not leave +the seat of government for so long a time with propriety. He went as +far as Bedford with the troops, and then parted from them. When he +took leave, he wrote a letter to Lee, to be read to the army, in which +he said: "No citizen of the United States can ever be engaged in a +service more important to their country. It is nothing less than to +consolidate and to preserve the blessings of that revolution which +at much expense of blood and treasure constituted us a free and +independent nation." Thus admonished, the army marched, Hamilton going +with them in characteristic fashion to the end. They did their work +thoroughly. The insurrection disappeared, and resistance dropped +suddenly out of sight. The Scotch-Irish of the border, with all their +love of fighting, found too late that they were dealing with a power +very different from that of their own State. The ringleaders of the +insurrection were arrested and tried by civil process, the disorders +ceased, law reigned once more, and the "hateful tax" was duly paid and +collected. + +The "Whiskey Rebellion" has never received due weight in the history +of the United States. Its story has been told in the utmost detail, +but its details are unimportant. As a fact, however, it is full of +meaning, and this meaning has been too much overlooked. That this +should be so, is not to be wondered at, for everything has conspired +to make it seem, after a century has gone by, both mean and trivial. +Its very name suggests ridicule and contempt, and it collapsed so +utterly that people laughed at it and despised it. Its leaders, with +the exception of Gallatin, were cheap and talkative persons of +little worth, and the cause itself was neither noble, romantic, nor +inspiriting. Nevertheless, it was a dangerous and formidable business, +for it was the first direct challenge to the new government. It was +the first clear utterance of the stern question asked of every people +striving to live as a nation, Have you a right to live? Have you a +government able to fight and to endure? Have you men ready to take up +the challenge? These questions were put by rough frontier settlers, +and put in the name and for the sake of distilling whiskey unvexed by +law. But they were there, they had to be answered, and on the reply +the existence of the government was at stake. If it failed, all was +over. If the States did not respond to this first demand, that they +should put down disorder and dissension within the borders of one of +their number, the experiment had failed. It came, as it almost always +does come, to one man to make the answer. That man took up the +challenge. He did not move too soon. He waited with unerring judgment, +as Lincoln waited with the Proclamation of Emancipation, until he had +gathered public opinion behind him by his firmness and moderation. +Then he struck, and struck so hard that the whole fabric of +insurrection and riot fell helplessly to pieces, and wiseacres looked +on and laughed, and thought it had been but a slight matter after all. +The action of the government vindicated the right of the United States +to live, because they had proved themselves able to keep order. It +showed to the American people that their government was a reality +of force and power. If it had gone wrong, the history of the United +States would not have differed widely from that of the confederation. +No mistake was made, and people regarded the whole thing as an +insignificant incident, and historians treat it as an episode. There +could be no greater tribute to the strong and silent man who did the +work and bore the stress of waiting for nearly five years. He did his +duty so well and so completely that it seems nothing now, and yet the +crushing of that insurrection in the western counties of Pennsylvania +was one of the turning-points in a nation's life. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +FOREIGN RELATIONS + + +Our present relations with foreign nations fill as a rule but a slight +place in American politics, and excite generally only a languid +interest, not nearly so much as their importance deserves. We have +separated ourselves so completely from the affairs of other people +that it is difficult to realize how commanding and disproportionate a +place they occupied when the government was founded. We were then a +new nation, and our attitude toward the rest of the world was wholly +undefined. There was, therefore, among the American people much +anxiety to discover what that attitude would be, for the unknown is +always full of interest. Moreover, Europe was still our neighbor, for +England, France, and Spain were all upon our borders, and had large +territorial interests in the northern half of the New World. Within +fifteen years we had been colonies, and all our politics, except those +which were purely local and provincial, had been the politics of +Europe; for during the eighteenth century we had been drawn into and +had played a part in every European complication, and every European +war in which England had the slightest share. Thus the American people +came to consider themselves a part of the European system, and looked +to Europe for their politics, which was a habit of thought both +natural and congenial to colonists. We ceased to be colonists when +the Treaty of Paris was signed; but treaties, although they settle +boundaries and divide nations, do not change customs and habits of +thought by a few strokes of the pen. The free and independent people +of the United States, as there has already been occasion to point out, +when they set out to govern themselves under their new Constitution, +were still dominated by colonial ideas and prejudices. They felt, +no doubt, that the new system would put them in a more respectable +attitude toward the other nations of the earth. But this was probably +the only definite popular notion on the subject. What our actual +relations with other nations should be, was something wholly vague, +and very varying ideas were entertained about it by communities and +by individuals, according to their various prejudices, opinions, and +interests. + +The one idea, however, that the American people did not have on this +subject was, that they should hold themselves entirely aloof from the +politics of the Old World, and have with other nations outside the +Americas no relations except those born of commerce. It had not +occurred to them that they should march steadily forward on a course +which would drive out European governments, and sever the connections +of those governments with the North American continent. After a +century's familiarity, this policy looks so simple and obvious that +it is difficult to believe that our forefathers could even have +considered any other seriously; but in 1789 it was so strange that no +one dreamed of it, except perhaps a few thinkers speculating on the +future of the infant nation. It was something so novel that when +it was propounded it struck the people like a sudden shock of +electricity. It was so broad, so national, so thoroughly American, +that men still struggling in the fetters of colonial thought could not +comprehend it. But there was one man to whom it was neither strange +nor speculative. To Washington it was not a vague idea, but a +well-defined system, which he had been long maturing in his mind. + +Before he had been chosen President, he wrote to Sir Edward Newenham: +"I hope the United States of America will be able to keep disengaged +from the labyrinth of European politics and wars; and that before long +they will, by the adoption of a good national government, have become +respectable in the eyes of the world, so that none of the maritime +powers, especially none of those who hold possessions in the New +World or the West Indies, shall presume to treat them with insult or +contempt. It should be the policy of the United States to administer +to their wants without being engaged in their quarrels. And it is +not in the power of the proudest and most polite people on earth to +prevent us from becoming a great, a respectable, and a commercial +nation if we shall continue united and faithful to ourselves." This +plain statement shows his fixed belief that in an absolute breaking +with the political affairs of other peoples lay the most important +part of the work which was to make us a nation in spirit and in truth. +He carried this belief with him when he took up the Presidency, and it +was the chief burden of the last words of counsel which he gave to his +countrymen when he retired to private life. To have begun and carried +on to a firm establishment this policy of a separation from Europe +would have required time, skill, and patience even under the calmest +and most favorable conditions. But it was the fate of the new +government to be born just on the eve of the French Revolution. The +United States were at once caught up and tossed by the waves of that +terrific storm, and it was in the midst of that awful hurly-burly, +when the misdeeds of centuries of wrong-doing were brought to an +account, that Washington opened and developed his foreign policy. It +was a great task, and the manner of its performance deserves much and +serious consideration. + +His first act in foreign affairs, on entering the Presidency, was to +make the minister of France understand that the government of the +United States was to be treated with due formality and respect. +His second was to examine the whole mass of foreign correspondence +collected in the State Department of the confederation, and he did +this, as has been said, pencil in hand, making notes and abstracts as +he went. It was well worth doing, for he learned much, and from this +laborious study and thorough knowledge certain facts became apparent, +for the most part of a hard and unpleasant nature. First, he saw that +England, taking advantage of our failure to fulfill completely our +obligations under the treaty, had openly violated hers, and continued +to hold the fortified posts along the northwestern and western +borders. Here was a dangerous thorn which pricked sharply, for the +posts in British hands offered constant temptations to Indian risings, +and threatened war both with the savages and with Great Britain. +Further west still, Spain held the Mississippi, closed navigation, +and intrigued to separate our western settlers from the Union. No +immediate danger lay here, but still peril and need of close watching, +for the Mississippi was never to slip out of our power. The mighty +river and the great region through which it flows were important +features in that empire which Washington foresaw. His plan was that we +should get them by binding the settlers beyond the Alleghanies to the +old States with roads, canals, and trade, and then trust to those +hardy pioneers to keep the river and its valley for themselves and +their country. All that was needed for this were time, and vigilant +firmness with Spain. + +Beyond the sea were the West India Islands, the home of a commerce +long carried on by the colonies and of much profit to them, especially +to those of New England. This trade was now hampered by England, and +was soon to be still further blocked, and thereby become the cause of +much bickering and ill-will. + +Across the ocean we maintained with the Barbary States the relations +usual between brigands and victims, and we tried to make treaties with +them, and really paid tribute to them, as was the fashion in dealing +with those pirates at that period. With Holland, Sweden, and Prussia +we had commercial treaties, and the Dutch sent a minister to the +United States. With France alone were our relations close. She had +been our ally, and we had formed with her a treaty of alliance and a +treaty of commerce, as well as a consular convention, which we were at +this time engaged in revising. To most of the nations of the world, +however, we were simply an unknown quantity, an unconsidered trifle. +The only people who really knew anything about us were the English, +with whom we had fought, and from whom we had separated; the French, +who had helped us to win our independence; and the Dutch, from whom +we had borrowed money. Even these nations, with so many reasons for +intelligent and profitable interest in the new republic, failed, not +unnaturally, to see the possibilities shut up in the wild American +continent. + +To the young nation just starting thus unnoticed and unheeded, +Washington believed that honorable peace was essential, if a firm +establishment of the new government, and of a respectable and +respected position in the eyes of the world, was ever to be attained; +and it was toward England, therefore, as the source of most probable +trouble, that Washington turned to begin his foreign policy. The +return of John Adams had left us without a minister at London, +and England had sent no representative to the United States. The +President, therefore, authorized Gouverneur Morris, who was going +abroad on private business, to sound the English government informally +as to an exchange of ministers, the complete execution of the treaty +of peace, and the negotiation of a commercial treaty. The mission was +one of inquiry, and was born of good and generous feelings as well as +of broad and wise views of public policy. "It is in my opinion very +important," he wrote to Morris, "that we avoid errors in our system of +policy respecting Great Britain; and this can only be done by forming +a right judgment of their disposition and views." + +What was the response to these fair and sensible suggestions? On the +first point the assent was ready enough; but on the other two, which +looked to the carrying out of the treaty and the making of a treaty of +commerce, there was no satisfaction. Morris, who was as high-spirited +as he was able, was irritated by the indifference and hardly concealed +insolence shown to him and his business. It was the fit beginning of +the conduct by which England for nearly a century has succeeded in +alienating the good-will of the people of the United States. Such a +policy was neither generous nor intelligent, and politically +it was a gross blunder. Washington, however, was too great +a man to be disturbed by the bad temper and narrow ideas +of English ministers. After his fashion he persevered in +what he knew to be right and for his country's interest, and in due +time a diplomatic representation was established, while later still, +in the midst of difficulties of which he little dreamed at the outset, +he carried through a treaty that removed the existing grievances. In a +word, he kept the peace, and it lasted long enough to give the United +States the breathing space they so much needed at the beginning of +their history. + +The greatest perils in our foreign relations came, as it happened, +from another quarter, where peace seemed most secure, and where no man +looked for trouble. The government of the United States and the French +revolution began almost together, and it is one of the strangest facts +of history that the nation which helped so powerfully to give freedom +to America brought the results of that freedom into the gravest peril +by its own struggle for liberty. When the great movement in France +began, it was hailed in this country with general applause, and with a +sympathy as hearty as it was genuine, for every one felt that France +was now to gain all the blessings of free government with which +America was familiar. Our glorious example, it was clear, was destined +to change the world, and monarchies and despotisms were to disappear. +There was to be a new political birth for all the nations, and the +reign of peace and good-will was to come at once upon the earth at +the hands of liberated peoples freely governing themselves. It was a +natural delusion, and a kindly one. History, in the modern sense, was +still unwritten, and men did not then understand that the force and +character of a revolution are determined by the duration and intensity +of the tyranny and misgovernment which have preceded and caused it. +The vast benefit destined to flow from the French revolution was to +come many years after all those who saw it begin were in their graves, +but at the moment it was expected to arrive immediately, and in a form +widely different from that which, in the slow process of time, it +ultimately assumed. Moreover, Americans did not realize that the +well-ordered liberty of the English-speaking race was something +unknown and inconceivable to the French. + +There were a few Americans who were never deceived for a moment, even +by their hopes. Hamilton, who "divined Europe," as Talleyrand said, +and Gouverneur Morris, studying the situation on the spot with keen +and practical observation, soon apprehended the truth, while others +more or less quickly followed in their wake. But Washington, whom no +one ever credited with divination, and who never crossed the Atlantic, +saw the realities of the thing sooner, and looked more deeply into the +future than anybody else. No man lived more loyal than he, or more +true to the duties of gratitude; but he looked upon the world of facts +with vision never dimmed nor dazzled, and watched in silence, while +others slept and dreamed. Let us follow his letters for a moment. In +October, 1789, in the first flush of hope and sympathy, he wrote to +Morris: "The revolution which has been effected in France is of so +wonderful a nature that the mind can hardly realize the fact. If it +ends as our last accounts to the first of August predict, that nation +will be the most powerful and happy in Europe; but I fear though it +has gone triumphantly through the first paroxysm, it is not the last +it has to encounter before matters are finally settled. In a word, +the revolution is of too great magnitude to be effected in so short +a space, and with the loss of so little blood.... To forbear running +from one extreme to another is no easy matter; and should this be the +case, rocks and shelves, not visible at present, may wreck the vessel, +and give a higher-toned despotism than the one which existed before." + +Seven years afterwards, reviewing his opinions in respect to France, +he wrote to Pickering: "My conduct in public and private life, as it +relates to the important struggle in which the latter is engaged, has +been uniform from the commencement of it, and may be summed up in a +few words: that I have always wished well to the French revolution; +that I have always given it as my decided opinion that no nation had a +right to intermeddle in the internal concerns of another; that every +one had a right to form and adopt whatever government they liked best +to live under themselves; and that if this country could, consistently +with its engagements, maintain a strict neutrality and thereby +preserve peace, it was bound to do so by motives of policy, interest, +and every other consideration that ought to actuate a people situated +as we are, already deeply in debt, and in a convalescent state from +the struggle we have been engaged in ourselves." + +Thus prepared, Washington waited and saw his cautious predictions +verified, and the revolution rush headlong from one extreme to +another. He also saw the flames spread beyond the borders of France, +changing and dividing public opinion everywhere; and he knew it was +only a question of time how soon the new nation, at whose head he +stood, would be affected. Histories and biographies which treat of +that period, as a rule convey the idea that the foreign policy of our +first administration dealt with the complications that arose as they +came upon us. Nothing could be further from the truth, for the general +policy was matured at the outset, as has been seen in the letter to +Newenham, and the occasions for its application were sure to come +sooner or later, in one form or another. Washington was not surprised +by the presence of the perils that he feared, and danger only made +him more set on carrying out the policy upon which he had long since +determined. In July, 1791, he wrote to Morris: "I trust we shall never +so far lose sight of our own interest and happiness as to become +unnecessarily a party to these political disputes. Our local situation +enables us to maintain that state with respect to them which otherwise +could not, perhaps, be preserved by human wisdom." He followed this up +with a strong and concise argument as to the advantage and necessity +of this policy, showing a complete grasp of the subject, which came +from long and patient thought. + +All his firmness and knowledge were needed, for the position was most +trying. With every ship that brought news of the extraordinary doings +in Europe, the applause which greeted the early uprisings of Paris +grew less general. The wise, the prudent, the conservative, cooled +gradually at first, and then more quickly in their admiration of the +French; but in the beginning, this deepening and increasing hostility +to the revolution kept silence. It was popular to be the friend of +France, and highly unpopular to be anything else. But when excesses +multiplied and blood flowed, when religion tottered and the +foundations of society were shaken, this silence was broken. +Discussion took the place of harmonious congratulation, and it soon +became apparent that there was to be a sharp and bitter division of +public opinion, growing out of the affairs of France. It was necessary +for the government to maintain a friendly yet cautious attitude toward +our former ally, and not endanger the stability of the Union and the +dignity of the country by giving to the French sympathizers any good +ground for accusing them of ingratitude, or of lukewarmness toward +the cause of human rights. That a time would soon come when decisive +action must be taken, Washington saw plainly enough; and when that +moment arrived, the risk of fierce party divisions on a question of +foreign politics could not be avoided. Meantime domestic bitterness on +these matters was to be repressed and delayed, and yet in so doing +no step was to be taken which would involve the country in any +inconsistency, or compel a change of position when the crisis was +actually reached. The policy of separating the United States from all +foreign politics is usually dated from what is called the neutrality +proclamation; but the theory, as has been pointed out, was clear and +well defined in Washington's mind when he entered upon the presidency. +The outlines were marked out and pursued in practice long before the +outbreak of war between France and England put his system to the +touch. In everything he said or wrote, whether in public or private, +his tone toward France was so friendly that her most zealous supporter +could not take offense, and at the same time it was so absolutely +guarded that the country was committed to nothing which could hamper +it in the future. The course of the administration as a whole, and its +substantive acts as well, were in harmony with the tone of expression +used by the President; for Washington, it may be repeated, was the +head of his own administration, a fact which the biographers of the +very able men who surrounded him are too prone to overlook. In this +case he was not only the leader, but the work was peculiarly his own, +and a few extracts from his letters will show the completeness of his +policy and the firmness with which he followed it whenever occasion +came. + +To Lafayette he wrote in July, 1791, a letter full of sympathy, but +with an undertone of warning none the less significant because it was +veiled. Coming to a point where there was an intimation of trouble +between the two countries, he said: "The decrees of the National +Assembly respecting our tobacco and oil do not appear to be very +pleasing to the people of this country; but I do not presume that any +hasty measures will be adopted in consequence thereof; for we have +never entertained a doubt of the friendly disposition of the French +nation toward us, and are therefore persuaded that, if they have done +anything which seems to bear hard upon us at a time when the Assembly +must have been occupied in very important matters, and which, perhaps, +would not allow time for a due consideration of the subject, they will +in the moment of calm deliberation alter it and do what is right." + +[Illustration: LAFAYETTE] + +The unfriendly act was noted, so that Lafayette would understand that +no tame submission was intended, and yet no resentment was expressed. +The same tone can be noticed in a widely different direction. +Washington foresaw that the troubles in France, sooner or later, would +involve her in war with England. The United States, as the former +allies of the French, were certain to attract the attention of the +mother country, and so he watched on that side also with equal +caution. England, if possible, was to be made to understand that the +American policy was not dictated by anything but the interests and the +dignity of the United States, and their resolve to hold aloof from +European complications. In June, 1792, he wrote to Morris: "One thing, +however, I must not pass over in silence, lest you should infer from +it that Mr. D. had authority for reporting that the United States had +asked the mediation of Great Britain to bring about a peace between +them and the Indians. You may be fully assured, sir, that such +mediation never was asked, that the asking of it never was in +contemplation, and I think I might go further and say that it not only +never will be asked, but would be rejected if offered. The United +States will never have occasion, I hope, to ask for the interposition +of that power, or any other, to establish peace within their own +territory." + +Here is again the same note, always so true and clear, that the United +States are not colonies but an independent nation. So far as it was in +the power of the President, this was something which should be heard +by all men, even at the risk of much reiteration. It was a fact not +understood at home and not recognized abroad, but Washington proposed +to insist upon it so far as in him lay, until it was both understood +and admitted. + +Meantime the flames were ever spreading from Paris, consuming and +threatening to consume the heaped up rubbish of centuries, and also +burning up many other more valuable things, as is the way with great +fires when they get beyond control. Many persons were interested in +the things of worth now threatened with destruction, and many others +in the rubbish and the tyrannous abuses. It was clear that war of a +wide and far-reaching kind could not be long put off. In March, 1793, +Washington wrote: "All our late accounts from Europe hold up the +expectation of a general war in that quarter. For the sake of +humanity, I hope such an event will not take place. But if it should, +I trust that we shall have too just a sense of our own interest to +originate any cause that may involve us in it." + +Even while he wrote, the general war that he anticipated, the war +between France and England, had come. The news reached him at Mount +Vernon, and in the letter to Jefferson announcing his immediate +departure for Philadelphia he said: "War having actually commenced +between France and Great Britain, it behooves the government of this +country to use every means in its power to prevent the citizens +thereof from embroiling us with either of those powers, by endeavoring +to maintain a strict neutrality. I therefore require that you will +give the subject mature consideration, that such measures as shall be +deemed most likely to effect this desirable purpose may be adopted +without delay." These instructions were written on April 12, and on +the 18th Washington was in Philadelphia, and had sent out a series +of questions to be considered by his cabinet and answered on the +following day. After much discussion, it was unanimously agreed +to issue a proclamation of neutrality, to receive the new French +minister, and not to convene Congress in extra session. The remaining +questions were put over for further consideration. + +Hamilton framed the questions, say the historians; Randolph drafted +the proclamation, says his biographer, in a very instructive and fresh +discussion of the relations between the Secretary of State and the +Attorney-General. It is interesting to know what share the President's +advisers took when he consulted them on this momentous question, but +the leading idea was his own. When the moment came, the policy long +meditated and matured was put in force. The world was told that a new +power had come into being, which meant to hold aloof from Europe, +and which took no interest in the balance of power or the fate of +dynasties, but looked only to the welfare of its own people and to the +conquest and mastery of a continent as its allotted tasks. The policy +declared by the proclamation was purely American in its conception, +and severed the colonial tradition at a stroke. In the din then +prevailing among civilized men, it was but little heeded, and even at +home it was almost totally misunderstood; yet nevertheless it did +its work. For twenty-five years afterward the American people slowly +advanced toward the ground then taken, until the ideas of the +neutrality proclamation received their final acceptance and extension +at the hands of the younger Adams, in the promulgation of the Monroe +doctrine. The shaping of this policy which was then launched was +a great work of far-sighted and native statesmanship, and it was +preeminently the work of the President himself. + +Moreover, it did not stop here. A circular to the officers of the +customs provided for securing notice of infractions of the law, and +the task of enforcing the principles laid down in the proclamation +began. As it happened, the theory of neutrality was destined at once +to receive rude tests of its soundness in practice. The new French +minister was landing on our shores, and beginning his brief career in +this country, while the proclamation was going from town to town and +telling the people, in sharp and unaccustomed tones, that they were +Americans and not colonists, and must govern themselves accordingly. + +Everything, in fact, seemed to conspire to make the path of the new +policy rough and thorny. In the excitement of the time a large portion +of the population regarded it as a party measure aimed against our +beloved allies, while, to make the situation worse, France on one +side and England on the other proceeded, as if deliberately, to do +everything in their power to render neutrality impossible, and to +drive us into war with some one. + +The new minister, Genet, could not have been better chosen, if the +special errand for which he had been employed had been to make +trouble. Light-headed and vain, with but little ability and a vast +store of unintelligent zeal, the whirl of the French revolution flung +him on our shores, where he had a glorious chance for mischief. This +opportunity he at once seized. As soon as he landed he proceeded to +arm privateers at Charleston. Thence he took his way north, and the +enthusiastic popular acclaim which everywhere greeted his arrival +almost crazed him, and drew forth a series of high-flown and most +injudicious speeches. By the time he reached Philadelphia, and before +he had presented his credentials, he had induced enough violations of +neutrality, and sown the seeds of enough trouble, to embarrass our +government for months to come. + +Washington had written to Governor Lee on May 6: "I foresaw in the +moment information of that event (the war) came to me, the necessity +for announcing the disposition of this country towards the belligerent +powers, and the propriety of restraining, as far as a proclamation +would do it, our citizens from taking part in that contest.... The +affairs of France would seem to me to be in the highest paroxysm of +disorder; not so much from the presence of foreign enemies, for in +the cause of liberty this ought to be fuel to the fire of a patriot +soldier and to increase his ardor, but because those in whose hands +the government is intrusted are ready to tear each other to pieces, +and will more than probably prove the worst foes the country has." + +He easily foresaw the moment of trial, when he would be forced to +the declaration of his policy, which was so momentous for the United +States, and he also understood the condition of affairs at Paris, and +the probable tendencies and proximate results of the Revolution. It +was evident that the great social convulsion had brought forth men of +genius and force, and had maddened them with the lust of blood and +power. But it was less easy to foresee, what was equally natural, that +the revolution would also throw to the surface men who had neither +genius nor force, but who were as wild and dangerous as their betters. +No one, surely, could have been prepared to meet in the person of the +minister of a great nation such a feather-headed mischief-maker as +Genet. + +In everything relating to France Washington had observed the utmost +caution, and his friendliness had been all the more marked because he +had felt obliged to be guarded. He had exercised this care even in +personal matters, and had refrained, so far as possible, from seeing +the _emigres_ who had begun to come to this country. Such men as the +Vicomte de Noailles had been referred to the State Department, and in +many cases the maintenance of this attitude had tried his feelings +severely, for the exiles were not infrequently men who had fought or +sympathized with us in our day of conflict. Now came the new minister +of the republic, a being apparently devoid of training or manners. +Before he had been received, or had appeared at the seat of +government, before he had even taken possession of his predecessor's +papers, he had behaved in a way which would not have been +inappropriate to a Roman governor of a conquered province. He had +ordered the French consuls to act as admiralty courts, he had armed +cruisers, enlisted and commissioned American citizens, and had seen +the vessels of a power with which the United States were at peace +captured in American waters, and condemned in the States by French +consular courts. Three weeks before Genet's audience Jefferson had a +memorial from the British minister, justly complaining of the injuries +done his country under cover of our flag; and while the government was +considering this pleasant incident, Genet was faring gayly northward, +feted and caressed, cheered and applauded, the subject of ovations +and receptions everywhere. At Philadelphia he was received by a +great concourse of citizens, called together by the guns of the very +privateer that had violated our neutrality, and led by provincial +persons, who thought it fine to name themselves "citizen" Smith and +"citizen" Brown, because that particular folly was the fashion in +France. A day was passed in receiving addresses, and then Genet was +presented to the President. + +A stranger contrast could not easily have been found even in that +strange time, and two men more utterly unlike probably never faced +each other as representatives of two great nations. In the difference +between them the philosopher may find, perhaps, some explanation of +the difference in the character and results of the revolutions which +came so near together in the two countries. Nothing, moreover, could +well be conceived more distasteful to Washington than the Frenchman's +conduct except the Frenchman himself. There was about the man and his +performances everything most calculated to bring one of those gusts of +passionate contempt which now and again had made things unpleasant +for some one who had failed in sense, decency, and duty. This was +impossible to a President, but nevertheless his self-restraint from +the beginning to the end of his intercourse with Genet was very +remarkable in a man of his temperament. At their first interview his +demeanor may have been a little colder than usual, and the dignified +reserve somewhat more marked, but there was no trace of any feeling. +His manner, nevertheless, chilled Genet and came upon him like a +cold bath after the warm atmosphere of popular plaudits and turgid +addresses. He went away grumbling, and complained that he had seen +medallions of the Capets on the walls of the President's room. + +But although Washington was calm and polite, he was also watchful and +prepared, as he had good reason to be, for Genet immediately began, +in addition to his wild public utterances, to pour in notes upon the +State Department. He demanded money; he announced in florid style the +opening of the French ports; he wrote that he was ready to make a +new treaty; and finally he filed an answer to the complaints of the +British minister. His arguments were wretched, but they seemed to +weigh with Jefferson, although not with the President; and meantime +the dragon's teeth which he had plentifully sown began to come up and +bear an abundant harvest. More prizes were made by his cruisers, and +after many remonstrances one was ordered away, and two Americans whom +Genet had enlisted were indicted. Genet declared that this was an act +which his pen almost refused to state; but still it was done, and the +administration pushed on and ordered the seizure of privateers fitting +in American ports. Governor Clinton made a good beginning with one at +New York, and in hot haste Genet wrote another note more furious and +impertinent than any he had yet sent. He was answered civilly, and the +work of stopping the sale of prizes went on. + +Meantime the opposition were not idle. The French sympathizers +bestirred themselves, and attacks began to be made even on the +President himself. The popular noise and clamor were all against the +administration, but the support of it was really growing stronger, +although the President and his secretaries could not see it. +Jefferson, on whom the conduct of foreign affairs rested, was uneasy +and wavering. He wrote able letters, as he was directed, but held, it +is to be feared, quite different language in his conversations with +Genet. Randolph argued and hesitated, while Hamilton, backed by Knox, +was filled with wrath and wished more decisive measures. Still, as we +look at it now across a century, we can observe that the policy went +calmly forward, consistent and unchecked. The French minister was held +back, privateers were stopped, the English minister's complaints were +answered, every effort was made for exact justice, and neutrality was +preserved. It was hard and trying work, especially to a man of strong +temper and fighting propensities. Still it was done, and toward the +end of June Washington went for a little rest to Mount Vernon. + +Then came a sudden explosion. One July morning the rumor ran through +Philadelphia that the Little Sarah, a prize of the French man-of-war, +was fitting out as a privateer. The reaction in favor of the +administration was beginning, and men, indignant at the proceeding, +carried the news to Governor Mifflin, and also to the Secretary +of State. Great disturbance of mind thereupon ensued to these two +gentlemen, who were both much interested in France and the rights of +man. The brig would not sail before the arrival of the President, said +the Secretary of State. Still the arming went on apace, and then came +movements on the part of the governor. Dallas, Secretary of State for +Pennsylvania, went at midnight to expostulate with Genet, who burst +into a passion, and declared that the vessel should sail. This +defiance roused the governor, and a company of militia marched to +the vessel and took possession. Greatly excited, Jefferson went next +morning to Genet, who very honestly declined to promise to detain the +vessel, but said that she would not be ready to sail until Wednesday. +This announcement, which was distinctly not a promise, the Secretary +of State chose to accept as such, and as he was very far from being +a fool, he did so either from timidity, or from a very unworthy +political preference for another nation's interests to the dignity of +his own country. At all events, he had the troops withdrawn, and the +Little Sarah, now rejoicing in the name of the Petit Democrat, +dropped down to Chester. Hamilton and Knox, being neither afraid nor +un-American, were for putting a battery on Mud Island and sinking +the privateer if she attempted to go by. Great saving of trouble and +bloodshed would have been accomplished by the setting up of this +battery and the sinking of this vessel, for it would have informed the +world that though the United States were weak and young, they were +ready nevertheless to fight as a nation, a fact which we subsequently +were obliged to prove by a three years' war. + +Jefferson, however, opposed decisive measures, and while the cabinet +wrangled, Washington, hurrying back from Mount Vernon, reached +Philadelphia. He was full of just anger at what had been done and left +undone. Jefferson, feeling uneasy, had gone to the country, where he +was fond of making a retreat at unpleasant moments, and Washington at +once wrote him a letter, which could not have been very agreeable +to the discoverer of diplomatic promises in a refusal to give any. +"What," said the President, "is to be done in the case of the Little +Sarah, now at Chester? Is the minister of the French Republic to set +the acts of this government at defiance _with impunity_? and then +threaten the executive with an appeal to the people? What must the +world think of such conduct, and of the government of the United +States in submitting to it?" Then came a demand for an immediate +opinion. + +To the tender feelings of the Secretary of State, who had not been +considering the affair from an American standpoint, this must have +seemed a violent and almost a coarse way of treating the "great +republic," and he replied that the French minister had assured him +that the vessel would not sail until the President reached a decision. +Having got the vessel to Chester, however, by telling the truth, Genet +now changed his tack. He lied about detaining her, and she went to +sea. This performance filled the cup of Washington's disgust almost to +overflowing, for he had what Jefferson seems to have totally lost at +this juncture--a keen national feeling, and it was touched to the +quick. The truth was, that in all this business Jefferson was thinking +too much of France and of the cause of human liberty in Paris, while +Washington thought of the United States alone. The result was +the escape of the vessel, owing to Washington's absence, and the +consequent humiliation to the government. To refrain from ordering +Genet out of the country at once required a strong effort of +self-control; but he wished to keep the peace as long as possible, and +he proposed to get rid of him speedily but decorously. He resolved +also that no more such outrages should be committed through his +absence, and the consequent differences among his advisers. He +continued, of course, to consult his cabinet, but he took the +immediate control, more definitely even than before, into his own +hands. On July 25 he wrote to Jefferson, whose vigor at this critical +time he evidently doubted: "As the letter of the minister of the +Republic of France, dated the 22d of June, lies yet unanswered, and +as the official conduct of that gentleman, relative to the affairs of +this government, will have to undergo a very serious consideration, +... in order to decide upon measures proper to be taken thereupon, it +is my desire that all the letters to and from that minister may +be ready to be laid before me, the heads of departments, and the +attorney-general, whom I shall advise with on the occasion." He also +saw to it that better precautions should be taken by the officers of +the customs to prevent similar attempts to break neutrality, and set +the administration and the laws of the country at defiance. + +The cabinet consultations soon bore good fruit, and Genet's recall +was determined on during the first days of August. There was some +discussion over the manner of requesting the recall, but the terms +were made gentle by Jefferson, to the disgust of the Secretary of the +Treasury and the Secretary of War, who desired direct methods and +stronger language. As finally toned up and agreed upon by the +President and cabinet, the document was sufficiently vigorous to annoy +Genet, and led to bitter reproaches addressed to his friend in the +State Department. Then there was question about publishing the +correspondence, and again Jefferson intervened in behalf of mildness. +The substantive fact, however, was settled, and the letter asking +Genet's recall, as desired by Washington, went in due time, and in the +following February came a successor. Genet, however, did not go back +to his native land, for he preferred to remain here and save his head, +valueless as that article would seem to have been. He spent the rest +of his days in America, married, harmless, and quite obscure. His +noise and fireworks were soon over, and one wonders now how he could +ever have made as much flare and explosion as he did. + +But even while his recall was being decided, before he knew of it +himself, and long before his successor came, Genet's folly produced +more trouble than ever, and his insolence rose to a higher pitch. The +arming of privateers had been checked, but the consuls continued to +arrogate powers which no self-respecting nation could permit, and for +some gross offense Washington revoked the _exequatur_ of Duplaine, +consul at Boston. An insolent note from Genet thereupon declared that +the President had overstepped his authority, and that he should appeal +to the sovereign State of Massachusetts. Next there was riot and the +attempted murder of a man from St. Domingo who was accused by the +refugees. Then it began to get abroad that Genet had threatened to +appeal from the President to the people, and frantic denials ensued +from all the opposition press; whereupon a card appeared from John Jay +and Rufus King, which stated that they were authority for the story +and believed it. Apologies now took the place of denial, and were +backed by ferocious attacks on the signers of the card. Unluckily, +intelligent people seemed to put faith in Jay and King rather than in +the opposition newspapers, and the tide, which had turned some time +before, now ran faster every moment against the French. To make it +flow with overwhelming force and rapidity was reserved for Genet +himself, who was furious at the Jay card, and wrote to the President, +demanding a denial of the statement which it contained. A cool note +informed him that the President did not consider it proper or material +to make denials, and pointed out to him that he must address his +communications to the State Department. This correspondence was +published, and the mass of the people were at last aroused, and turned +from Genet in disgust. The leaders tried vainly to separate the +minister from his country, and Genet himself frothed and foamed, +demanded that Randolph should sue Jay and King for libel, and declared +that America was no longer free. This sad statement had little effect. +Washington had triumphed completely, and without haste but with +perfect firmness had brought the people round to his side as that of +the national dignity and honor. + +The victory had been won at no little cost to Washington himself in +the way of self-control. He had been irritated and angered at every +step, so much so that he even referred in a letter to Richard Henry +Lee to the trial of temper to which he had been put, a bit of personal +allusion in which he rarely indulged. "The specimens you have seen," +he wrote, "of Mr. Genet's sentiments and conduct in the gazettes form +a small part only of the aggregate. But you can judge from them to +what test the temper of the executive has been put in its various +transactions with this gentleman. It is probable that the whole will +be exhibited to public view in the course of the next session of +Congress. Delicacy towards his nation has restrained the doing of +it hitherto. The best that can be said of this agent is, that he is +entirely unfit for the mission on which he is employed; unless (which +I hope is not the case), contrary to the express and unequivocal +declaration of his country made through himself, it is meant to +involve ours in all the horrors of a European war." + +But there was another side to the neutrality question even more full +of difficulties and unpopularity, which began to open just as the +worst of the contests with Genet was being brought to a successful +close. Genet had not confined his efforts to the seaboard, nor been +content with civic banquets, privateers, rioting, and insolent notes +to the government. He had fitted out ships, and he intended also to +levy armies. With this end in view he had sent his agents through the +south and west to raise men in order to invade the Floridas on the +one hand and seize New Orleans on the other. To conceive of such a +performance by a foreign minister on the soil of the United States, +requires an effort of the imagination to-day almost equal to that +which would be necessary for an acceptance of the reality of the +Arabian nights. It brings home with startling clearness not merely the +crazy insolence of Genet, but a painful sense of the manner in which +we were regarded by the nations of Europe. Still worse is the fact +that they had good reason for their view. The imbecility of the +confederation had bred contempt, and it was now seen that we were +still so wholly provincial that a large part of the people was not +only ready to condone but even to defend the conduct of the minister +who engaged in such work. Worst of all, the people among whom the +French agents went received their propositions with much pleasure. In +South Carolina, where it was said five thousand men had been enlisted, +there was sufficient self-respect to stop the precious scheme. The +assembly arrested certain persons and ordered an inquiry, which +came to nothing; but the effect of their action was sufficient. In +Kentucky, on the other hand, the authorities would not interfere. The +people there were always quite ready for a march against New Orleans, +and that it did not proceed was due to Genet's inability to get money; +for the governor declined to meddle, and the democratic society of +Lexington demanded war. Matters looked so serious that the cavalry was +sent to Kentucky, and the rest of the army wintered in Ohio. It was +actually necessary to teach the American people by the presence of the +troops of the United States that they must not enroll themselves in +the army of a foreign minister. + +Nothing can show more strikingly than this the almost inconceivable +difficulties with which the President was contending. To develop a +policy of wise and dignified neutrality, and to impress it upon the +world, was a great enough task in itself. But Washington was obliged +to impress it also upon his own people, and to teach them that they +must have a policy of their own toward other nations. He had to carry +this through in the teeth of an opposition so utterly colonial that +it could not grasp the idea of having any policy but that which, from +sympathy or hate, they took from foreigners. Beyond the mountains, he +had to bring this home to men to whom American nationality was such a +dead letter that they were willing to defy their own government, +throw off their allegiance, and enlist for an offensive war under the +banners of a crazy French Girondist. It is neither easy nor pleasant +to carry out a new foreign policy in time of general war, with one's +own people united in its support; but when the foreign divisions are +repeated at home, the task is enhanced in difficulty a thousand-fold. +Nevertheless, there was the work to do, and the President faced it. He +dealt with Genet, he prevailed in public opinion on the seaboard, and +in some fashion he maintained order west of the mountains. + +Washington also saw, as we can see now very plainly, that, wrong and +unpatriotic as the Kentucky attitude was, there was still an excuse +for it. Those bold pioneers, to whom the country owes so much, had +very substantial grievances. They knew nothing of the laws of nations, +and did not yet realize that they had a country and a nationality; but +they had the instincts of all great conquering races. They looked upon +the Mississippi and felt that it was of right theirs, and that it must +belong to the vast empire which they were winning from the wilderness. +They saw the mighty river held and controlled by Spaniards, and they +were harassed and interfered with by Spanish officials, whom they both +hated and despised. To men of their mould and training there was but +one solution conceivable. They must fight the Spaniard, and drive him +from the land forever. Their purposes were quite right, but their +methods were faulty. Washington, born to a life of adventure and +backwoods conquest, had a good deal of real sympathy with these men, +for he knew them to be in the main right, and his ultimate purposes +were the same as theirs. But he had a nation in his charge to whom +peace was precious. To have the backwoodsmen of Kentucky go down the +river and harry the Spaniards out of the country, as their descendants +afterwards harried the Mexicans out of Texas, would have been a +refreshing sight, but it would have interfered sadly with the nation +which was rising on the Atlantic seaboard, and of which Kentucky was a +part. War was to be avoided, and above all a war into which we should +have been dragged as the vassal of France; so Washington intended to +wait, and he managed to make the Kentuckians wait too, a process by no +means agreeable to that enterprising people. + +His own policy about the Mississippi, which has already been +described, never wavered. He meant to have the great river, for his +ideas of the empire of the future were quite as extended as those of +the pioneers, and much more definite, but his way of getting it was +to build up the Atlantic States and bind them, with their established +resources, to the settlers over the mountains. This done, time would +do the rest; and the sequel showed that he was right. A little more +than a year after he came to the presidency he wrote to Lafayette: +"Gradually recovering from the distresses in which the war left us, +patiently advancing in our task of civil government, unentangled in +the crooked politics of Europe, _wanting scarcely anything but the +free navigation of the Mississippi, which we must have, and as +certainly shall have, if we remain a nation_,"[1] etc. + +[Footnote 1: The italics are mine.] + +Time and peace, sufficient for the up-building of the nation, that is +the theme everywhere. Yet he knew that a sacrifice of everything for +peace was the surest road both to war and ruin. Peace must be kept; +yet war was still the last resort, and he was ready to go to war with +the Spaniards, as with the Indians, if all else failed. But he did +not mean to have all else fail, nor did he mean to submit to Spanish +insolence and exactions. The grievances of the pioneers of the West +were to be removed, if possible, by treaty, and if that way was +impossible, then by fighting. + +Carmichael, who had been minister at Madrid under the confederation, +had been continued there by the new government. But while the +intrigues of Spain to detach Kentucky, and the interference and +exactions of Spanish officials, went on, our negotiation for the +settlement of our rights to the navigation of the Mississippi halted. +Tired of this inaction, Washington, late in 1791, united William +Short, our minister to Holland, in a commission with Carmichael, to +open a fresh and special negotiation as to the Mississippi, and at +the same time a confidential agent was sent to Florida to seek some +arrangements with the governor as to fugitive slaves, a matter of +burning interest to the planters on the border. The joint commission +bore no fruit, and the troubles in the West increased. Fostered by +Genet, they came near bringing on war and detaching the western +settlements from the Union, so that it was clearly necessary to take +more vigorous measures. + +Accordingly, in 1794, after Genet had been dismissed, Washington sent +Thomas Pinckney, who for some years had been minister in London, on +a special treaty-making mission to Madrid. The first results were +vexatious and unpromising enough, and Pinckney wrote at the outset +that he had had two interviews with the Duke de Alcudia, but to no +purpose. It was the old game of delay, he said, with inquiries as to +why we had not replied to propositions, which in fact never had been +made. Even what Pinckney wrote, unsatisfactory as it was, could not be +wholly made out, for some passages were in a cipher to which the State +Department had no key. Washington wrote to Pickering, then acting as +Secretary of State: "A kind of fatality seems to have pursued this +negotiation, and, in short, all our concerns with Spain, from the +appointment of Mr. Carmichael, under the new government, as minister +to that country, to the present day.... Enough, however, appears +already to show the temper and policy of the Spanish court, and its +undignified conduct as it respects themselves, and insulting as it +relates to us; and I fear it will prove that the late treaty of peace +with France portends nothing favorable to these United States." +Washington's patience had been sorely tried by the delays and shifty +evasions of Spain, but he was now on the brink of success, just as he +concluded that negotiation was hopeless. + +He had made a good choice in Thomas Pinckney, better even than he +knew. Triumphing over all obstacles, with persistence, boldness, and +good management, Pinckney made a treaty and brought it home with him. +Still more remarkable was the fact that it was an extremely good +treaty, and conceded all we asked. By it the Florida boundary was +settled, and the free navigation of the Mississippi was obtained. We +also gained the right to a place of deposit at New Orleans, a pledge +to leave the Indians alone, a commercial agreement modeled on that +with France, and a board of arbitration to settle American claims. +All this Pinckney obtained, not as the representative of a great and +powerful state, but as the envoy of a new nation, distant, unknown, +disliked, and embroiled in various complications with other powers. +Our history can show very few diplomatic achievements to be compared +with this, for it was brilliant in execution, and complete and +valuable in result. Yet it has passed into history almost unnoticed, +and both the treaty and its maker have been singularly and most +unjustly neglected. Even the accurate and painstaking Hildreth omits +the date and circumstances of Pinckney's appointment, while the last +elaborate history of the United States scarcely alludes to the matter, +and finds no place in its index for the name of its author. It was +in fact one of the best pieces of work done during Washington's +administration, and perfected its policy on a most difficult and +essential point. It is high time that justice were done to the gallant +soldier and accomplished diplomatist who conducted the negotiation and +rendered such a solid service to his country. Thomas Pinckney, who +really did something, who did work worth doing and without many words, +has been forgotten, while many of his contemporaries, who simply made +a noise, are freshly remembered in the pages of history. + +There was, however, another nation out on our western and northern +border more difficult to deal with than Spain; and in this quarter +there was less evasion and delay, but more arrogance and bad temper. +It was to England that Washington turned first when he took up the +presidency, and it was in her control of the western posts and her +influence among the Indian tribes that he saw the greatest dangers +to the continental movement of our people. Morris, as we have seen, +sounded the British government with but little success. Still they +promised to send a minister, and in due time Mr. George Hammond +arrived in that capacity, and opened a long and somewhat fruitless +correspondence with the Secretary of State on the various matters of +difference existing between the two countries. This interchange of +letters went on peaceably and somewhat monotonously for many months, +and then suddenly became very vivid and animated. This was the effect +of the arrival of Genet; and at this point begins the long series of +mistakes made by Great Britain in her dealings with the United States. + +The principle of the declaration of neutrality could be easily upheld +on broad political grounds, but technically its defense was by no +means so simple. By the treaty of commerce with France we were bound +to admit her privateers and prizes to our ports; and here, as any one +could see, and as the sequel amply proved, was a fertile source of +dangerous complications. Then by the treaty of alliance we guaranteed +to France her West Indian possessions, binding ourselves to aid her +in their defense; and a proclamation of neutrality when France was +actually at war with a great naval power was an immediate and obvious +limitation upon this guarantee. Hamilton argued that while France had +an undoubted right to change her government, the treaty applied to a +totally different state of affairs, and was therefore in suspense. He +also argued that we were not bound in case of offensive war, and that +this war was offensive. Jefferson and Randolph held that the treaties +were as binding and as much in force now as they had ever been; but +they both assented to the proclamation of neutrality. There can be +little question that on the general legal principle Jefferson and +Randolph were right. Hamilton's argument was ingenious and very +fine-spun. But when he made the point about the character of the war +as relieving us from the guarantee, he was unanswerable; and this of +itself was a sufficient ground. He went beyond it in order to make his +reasoning fit existing conditions consistently and throughout, and +then it was that his position became untenable. In reality the French +revolution was showing itself so wholly abnormal and was so rapid in +its changes, that as a matter of practical statesmanship it was +worse than idle even to suppose that previous treaties, made with an +established government, were in force with this ever-shifting thing +which the revolution had brought forth. Still the general doctrine as +to the binding force of treaties remained unaltered, and this conflict +between fact and principle was what constituted the great difficulty +in the way of Washington and Hamilton. The latter met it with one +clever and adroit argument which it was difficult to sustain, and +avoided it with a second, which was narrower, but at the same time +sound and all-sufficient, as to the character of the war. Jefferson +and Randolph stood by the general principle, but abandoned it in +practice under pressure of imperious facts, as men generally do, while +France herself soon removed all technical difficulties by abrogating +by her measures the treaty of commerce, an act which relieved us of +any further obligations and justified Hamilton's position. But in +the beginning this was not known, and yet action was none the less +necessary. + +The result was right, and Washington had his way, which it must be +confessed he had fully determined on before his cabinet supplied him +with technical arguments. + +All these points must have been plain enough to Hammond and the +English ministry. They could not see the full scope of the neutrality +policy in its national meaning, and they very naturally failed to +perceive that it marked the rise of a new power wholly disconnected +from Europe, to which their own views were confined. But they were +quite able to understand the immediate aspect of the case. They saw +Washington adopt and carry out a policy of dignified impartiality; +they were well able to value rightly the technical objections which +stood in his path, and they could see also that this policy was at the +outset very unpopular in America. The remembrance of old injuries and +of the war for independence was still fresh, and the hatred of England +was well nigh universal in the United States. On the other hand, a +lively sense of gratitude to France, and a sympathy with the objects +of the revolution, made affection for that country uniform and +general. The easy and popular course was for our government to range +itself more or less directly with the French, and the refusal to do so +was bold and in the highest degree creditable to the administration. +It was, moreover, an important advantage to England that the United +States should not ally themselves with her enemy, for next to herself, +the Americans were the great seafaring people of the world, and were +in a position to ravage her commerce, and, aided by France, to break +up her West Indian possessions. If the United States had followed the +natural prejudices of the time and had espoused the cause of France, +it would have been wise and right for England to attack them and break +them down if possible. But when, from a sense of national dignity and +of fair dealing, the United States stood apart from the conflict +and placed their former foe on the same footing as their friend and +ancient ally, a very small allowance of good sense would have led +the British ministry to encourage them in so doing. By favorable +treatment, and by a friendly and conciliatory policy, they should have +helped Washington in his struggle against popular prejudices, and +endeavored by so doing to keep the United States neutral, and +lead them, if possible, to their side; but with a fatuity almost +incomprehensible they pursued an almost exactly opposite course. By +similar conduct England had brought on the war for independence, which +ended in the division of her empire. In precisely the same way she now +proceeded to make it as arduous as possible for Washington to maintain +neutrality, and thereby played directly into the hands of the party +that supported France. The true policy demanded no sacrifices on the +part of Great Britain. Civility and consideration in her dealings, +and a careful abstention from wanton aggression and insult, were +all-sufficient. But England disliked us, as was quite natural; she did +not wish us to thrive and prosper, and she knew that we were weak and +not in a position to enter upon an offensive war. + +As soon as it became known that Genet's privateers, manned by seamen +enlisted in our ports, were preying on British commerce, and that the +French man-of-war L'Ambuscade had taken an English vessel, The Grange, +within the capes of the Delaware, Hammond filed a memorial in regard +to these incidents. In so doing he was of course quite right, and the +government responded immediately, and proceeded in good faith to make +every effort to repair these breaches of neutrality, and to redress +the wrongs suffered by Great Britain. Hammond, however, instead of +doing all in his power, not merely to gain his own ends, but to +make it easy for our government to satisfy him, assumed at once a +disagreeable tone with a strong flavor of bullying, which was not +calculated to conciliate the statesmen with whom he was dealing. It +was a small matter enough, but unfortunately it was an indication of +what was to come. + +On November 6, 1793, a British order in council was passed, but not +immediately published, directing the seizure of all vessels carrying +the produce of the French islands, or loaded with provisions for the +use of the French colonies. The object of the order was to destroy all +neutral trade, and it was aimed particularly at the commerce of the +United States. The moment selected for its adoption was when the +troubles with Genet had culminated, when we were on the point of +getting rid of that very objectionable person, and when we had proved +that we meant to maintain an honest and a real neutrality. It was as +well calculated as any move could have been to drive us back into the +arms of France, yet the manner of executing the order was far worse +than the order itself. Our merchantmen and traders had been quick to +take advantage of the opening of the French ports, and they had gone +in swarms to the French islands. Now, without a word of warning, their +vessels were seized by the cruisers of a nation with which we were +supposed to be at peace. Every petty governor of an English island sat +as a judge in admiralty. Many of them were corrupt, all were unfit for +the duty, and our vessels were condemned and pillaged. The crews were +made prisoners, and in many cases thrown into loathsome and unhealthy +places of confinement, while the ships were left to rot in the +harbors. The tale of the outrages and miseries thus inflicted on +citizens of the United States without any warning, and by a nation +considered to be at peace with us, fills an American with shame and +anger even to-day. If our people remonstrated, they were told that +England meant to have no neutrals, and that six of their frigates +could blockade our coast. A course of kind treatment would have made +us the friends of Great Britain, but the experiment was not even +tried. The truth was that we were weak, and this was not only a +misfortune but apparently an unpardonable sin. England could not +conquer us, but she could harry our coasts, and let loose her Indians +on our borders; and we had no navy with which to retaliate. She meant +that there should be no neutrals, and so adopted a policy which would +make us the active ally of France. It was no answer to say, what was +perfectly true, that French privateers preyed upon our commerce with +that fine indifference to rights and treaties which characterized +the governments of the Revolution. If both sides maltreated us, the +natural course was to unite with the power to which we at least owed a +debt of gratitude. + +About the same time a speech was reported from Quebec, in which Lord +Dorchester told the Indians that they should soon take the war-path +for England against the United States. Lord Grenville denied in +Parliament, and subsequently to Jay, that the ministry had ever taken +any step to incite the Indians against the United States, and the +authenticity of Lord Dorchester's utterances has been questioned in +later days; but it was not disavowed at the time, even by Hammond in +a sharp correspondence which he held on that and other topics with +Randolph. The speech, as is now known and proved, was probably made, +whether it was authorized or not, and it was universally accepted at +the moment as both true and authoritative. + +This menace of desolating savage war in the West, in addition to the +unquestioned outrages to our seamen, the loss of our ships, and the +destruction of our commerce, with consequent ruin to all our seaboard +towns, led to a general outburst of indignation from men of all +parties, and Congress began to prepare for war. Many of the methods +suggested were feeble and inadequate, but there could be no doubt of +either the spirit or intentions which dictated them. News that an +order of January 8, 1794, modified that of November 6, and confined +the seizure to vessels carrying French property, and reports that +some of our vessels were being restored, moderated the movements of +Congress, but it was nevertheless evident that a resolution cutting +off commercial intercourse with Great Britain would soon pass. In the +existing state of things such a step in all probability meant war, and +Washington was thus brought face to face with the most serious problem +of his administration. It did not take him unawares, nor find him +unprepared, for he had anticipated the situation, and his mind was +made up. He had no intention of letting the country drift into war +without a great effort to prevent it, and the time for that effort had +now come. As in the case of Spain, he was resolved to send a special +envoy to make a treaty. His first choice for this important mission +was Hamilton, which, like most of his selections, would have been +the best choice that could have been made. Hamilton, however, was so +conspicuous as the great leader of the party which supported both the +foreign and domestic policy of the administration, and he was so hated +by the opposition, that a loud outcry was at once raised against his +appointment. At that particular juncture it was very important that +the envoy should depart with as much general good-will and public +confidence as possible, so Hamilton sacrificed himself to this +necessity, and withdrew his name voluntarily. His withdrawal was a +mistake, but it was a wholly natural one under the circumstances. +Washington then made the next best choice, and appointed John Jay, +who was a man of most spotless character, honorable, high-minded, and +skilled in public affairs. He was chief justice of the United States, +and that fact gave additional weight to the mission. The only point in +which he fell behind Hamilton was in aggressiveness of character, and +this negotiation demanded, not merely firmness and tact, which Jay +had in abundance, but a boldness verging on audacity. The immediate +purpose, however, was answered, and Jay set forth on his journey with +much good feeling toward himself, and with a very solemn sense among +the people of the gravity of his undertaking. Washington himself saw +Jay depart with many misgivings, and the act of sending such a mission +at all was very trying to him, for the conduct of England galled him +to the quick. He had long suspected Great Britain, as well as Spain, +of inciting the Indians secretly to assail our settlements, and +knowing as he did the character of savage warfare, and feeling deeply +the bloodshed and expense of our Indian wars, he cherished a profound +dislike for those who could be capable of promoting such misery to the +injury of a friendly and-civilized nation. As England became more and +more hostile, he made up his mind that she was bent on attacking us, +and in March, 1794, he wrote to Governor Clinton that he had no doubts +as to the authenticity of Lord Dorchester's speech, and that he +believed England intended war. He therefore urged the governor to +inquire carefully into the state of feeling in Canada, and as to the +military strength of the country, especially on the border. He put no +trust in the disclaimers of the ministry when he saw the long familiar +signs of hostile intrigue among the Indians, and he was quite +determined that, if war should come, all the suffering should not be +on one side. + +This belief in the coming of war, however, only strengthened him in +his well-matured plans to leave nothing undone to prevent it. It was +in this spirit that he despatched the special mission, although his +first letter to Jay shows that he had no very strong hopes of peace, +and that his uppermost thoughts were of the wrongs which had been +perpetrated, and of the perils which hung over the border. He did not +wish the commissioner to mince matters at all. "There does not remain +a doubt," he wrote, "in the mind of any well-informed person in this +country, not shut against conviction, that all the difficulties we +encounter with the Indians, their hostilities, the murder of helpless +women and innocent children along our frontiers, result from the +conduct of the agents of Great Britain in this country.... Can it +be expected, I ask, so long as these things are known in the United +States, or at least firmly believed, and suffered with impunity by +Great Britain, that there ever will or can be any cordiality between +the two countries? I answer, No. And I will undertake, without the +gift of prophecy, to predict that it will be impossible to keep this +country in a state of amity with Great Britain long, if the posts are +not surrendered. A knowledge of these being my sentiments would have +little weight, I am persuaded, with the British administration, and +perhaps not with the nation, in effecting the measure; but both may +rest satisfied that, if they want to be in peace with this country, +and to enjoy the benefits of its trade, to give up the posts is the +only road to it. Withholding them, and the consequences we feel at +present continuing, war will be inevitable." + +Jay meantime had been well received in England. Lord Grenville +expressed the most friendly feelings, and every desire that the +negotiation might succeed. Jay was also received at court, where he +was said to have kissed the queen's hand, a crime, so the opposition +declared, for which his lips ought to have been blistered to the bone, +a difficult and by no means common form of punishment. Receptions, +dinner parties, and a ready welcome everywhere, did not, however, +make a treaty. When it came to business, the English did not differ +materially from their neighbors whom Canning satirized. + + "The fault of the Dutch + Is giving too little and asking too much." + +So the Americans now found it with Lord Grenville. There were many +subjects of dispute, some dangerous, and all requiring settlement for +the benefit of both countries. Boundaries, negro claims, and British +debts were easily disposed of by reference to boards of arbitration. +Two others, awkward and threatening, but not immediately pressing, +were the impressment of British seamen, real or pretended, from +American ships, and the exclusion of American vessels from the trade +of the British West Indies. The latter circumstance was no doubt +disagreeable to us, and deprived us of profit; but it is difficult to +see what right we had to complain of it, for the ports of the British +West Indies belonged to Great Britain, and if she chose to close +them to us, or anybody else, she was quite within her rights. At all +events, Lord Grenville declined to let us in, except in a very limited +way and under most onerous conditions. The right of search and the +right of impressment were simply the rights of the powerful over the +weak. England wanted to get seamen where she could for her navy; and +so long as she could violate our flag and carry off as recruits any +able-bodied seaman who spoke English, she meant to do it. It was worse +than idle to negotiate about it. When we should be ready and willing +to fight we could settle that question, but not before. In due time we +were ready to fight. England defeated us in various battles, ravaged +our coasts, and burned our capital; while we whipped her frigates +and lake flotillas, and repulsed her Peninsula veterans with heavy +slaughter at New Orleans. Impressment was not mentioned in the treaty +which concluded that war, but it ended at that time. The English are a +brave and combative people, but rather than get into wars with nations +that will fight, and fight hard, they will desist from wanton and +illegal aggressions, in which they do not differ greatly from the rest +of mankind; and so the practical abandonment of impressment came with +the war of 1812. The fact was officially stated by Webster, not many +years later, when he announced that the flag covered and protected all +those who lived or traded under it. + +But in 1794 impressment was a negotiable question, because we were not +ready to go to war about it then and there. So Jay, wisely enough, +allowed this especial from of bullying to drift aside, along with the +exclusion from the West India trade, and addressed himself to the +two points which it was essential to have settled at that particular +moment. These questions were: the retention of the western posts, and +neutral rights at sea. In return for the agreement on our part to pay +the British debts, as determined by arbitration, England agreed +to surrender the posts on June 1, 1796. There was to be mutual +reciprocity in inland trade on the North American continent; but +coastwise, while we opened all our harbors and rivers to the British, +they shut us out from theirs in the colonies and the territory of the +Hudson's Bay Company. In the eighteen articles, limited in duration +to two years after the conclusion of the existing war, a treaty of +commerce was practically formed and neutral rights dealt with. We were +to be admitted to British ports in Europe and the East Indies on terms +of equality with British vessels, but we were refused admission to the +East Indian coasting trade, and to that between East India and Europe. +We gained the right to trade to the West Indies, but only on condition +that we should give up the transportation from America to Europe of +any of the principal products of the colonies. These were enumerated, +and besides sugar, molasses, coffee, and cocoa, included cotton, which +had just become an export from the southern States, and which already +promised to assume the importance that it afterwards reached. The +vexed questions of privateers, prizes, and contraband of war were also +settled and determined. + +The treaty as a whole was not a very brilliant one for the United +States, but its treatment was far worse than its deserts, and it was +received with such a universal outburst of indignation that even to +this day it has never freed itself from the bad name it then acquired. +Nobody, not even its supporters, liked it, and yet it may be doubted +whether anything materially better was possible at the time. The +admirers of Hamilton, from that day to this, have believed that if +he had been sent, his boldness, ability, and force would have wrung +better terms from England. This is not at all improbable; but that +they would have been materially improved, even by Hamilton, does not +seem very likely. The treaty, in reality, was by no means bad; on the +contrary, it had many good points. It disposed satisfactorily and +fairly of all the minor questions which were vexatious and threatening +to the peaceful relation of the two countries. It settled the British +debts, gave us the western posts, which was a matter of the utmost +importance, and arranged the disputed and thorny question of neutral +rights, for the time being at least. It left impressment totally +unsettled, simply because we were still too weak to be ready to fight +England profitably on that theme. It opened to us the West Indian +ports, which was the matter most nearly affecting our interests and +our pockets, but it did so under limitations and concessions which +were excessive and even humiliating. We were obliged to pay a price +far too high for this coveted privilege, and it was on this point that +the controversy finally hinged. + +The treaty reached Philadelphia on March 7. Nothing was said of its +arrival, which does not seem to have been known to any one but the +President and Randolph, who had meantime succeeded Jefferson as +Secretary of State. Three months later, on June 8, the Senate was +called together in special session, and the treaty was laid before +them. Washington did not like it and never changed his feeling in that +respect, but he had made up his mind upon full reflection to accept +it; and the Senate, after most careful consideration, voted by exactly +the necessary two thirds to ratify it, provided that the objectionable +West Indian article could be modified. On no terms could we consent to +forego the exportation of cotton, and it is difficult to see how +the Senate could have taken any other ground upon this point. Their +action, however, opened some delicate questions. Washington wrote to +Randolph: "First, is or is not that resolution intended to be the +final act of the Senate; or do they expect that the new article which +is proposed shall be submitted to them before the treaty takes effect? +Secondly, does or does not the Constitution permit the President to +ratify the treaty, without submitting the new article, after it shall +be agreed to by the British King, to the Senate for their further +advice and consent?" + +These questions were carefully considered, and Washington had made +up his mind to ratify conditionally on the modification of the West +Indian article, when news arrived which caused him to suspend action. +England, having made the treaty, and before any news could have been +received of our attitude in regard to it, took steps to render its +ratification both difficult and offensive, if not impossible. The mode +adopted was to renew the "provision order," as it was called, which +directed the seizure of all vessels carrying food products to France, +and thus give to the Jay treaty the interpretation it was designed to +avoid, that provisions could be declared contraband at the pleasure of +one of the belligerents. It was a stupid thing to do, for if England +desired to have peace with us, as her making the treaty indicated, +she should not have renewed the most irritating of all her past +performances before we had had opportunity even to sign and ratify. +Washington, on hearing of this move, withheld his signature, bade +Randolph prepare a strong memorial against the provision order, and +then betook himself to Mount Vernon on some urgent private business. + +Before he started, however, the storm of popular rage had begun to +break. Bache had the substance of the treaty in the "Aurora" on June +29, and Mr. Stevens Thomson Mason, senator from Virginia, was so +pained by some slight inaccuracies in this version that he wrote Mr. +Bache a note, and sent him a copy of the treaty despite the injunction +of secrecy by which he as a senator was bound. Mr. Mason gained great +present glory by this frank breach of promise, and curiously enough +this single discreditable act is the only thing that keeps his name +and memory alive in history. All that he achieved at the moment was to +hurry the inevitable disclosure of the contents of a treaty which no +one desired to conceal, except in deference to official form. Mason's +note and copy of the treaty, made up into a pamphlet, were issued +from Bache's press on July 2, and hundreds of copies were soon being +carried by eager riders north and south throughout the Union. + +Everywhere, as the treaty traveled, the popular wrath was kindled. The +first explosion came in Boston, Federalist Boston, devoted beyond any +other town in the country to Washington and his administration. There +was a town meeting in Faneuil Hall, violent speeches were made, and a +committee was appointed to draw up a memorial to the President against +ratification. This remonstrance was despatched at once by special +messenger, who seemed to carry the torch of Malise instead of a set of +dry resolutions. Everywhere the anger and indignation flamed forth. +The ground had been carefully prepared, for, ever since Jay sailed, +the partisans of the French had been denouncing him and his mission, +predicting failure, and, in one case at least, burning him in effigy +before it was known whether he had done anything at all. As soon as +the news spread that the treaty had actually arrived, the attacks +were multiplied in number and grew ever more bitter as the Senate +consulted. The popular mind was so worked up that in Boston a British +vessel had been burned on suspicion that she was a privateer, while in +New York there had been street fights and rioting because of an insult +to a French flag. In such a state of feeling, artificially stimulated +and ingeniously misled, the most brilliant diplomatic triumph would +have had but slight chance of approval. Jay's moderate achievement +was better than his enemies expected, but it was sufficient for their +purpose, and the popular fury blazed up and ran through the country, +like a whirlwind of fire over the parched prairie. Everywhere the +example of Boston was followed, meetings were held, committees +appointed, and memorials against the treaty sent to the President. In +New York Hamilton was stoned when he attempted to speak in favor of +ratification; and less illustrious persons, who ventured to differ +from the crowd, were ducked and otherwise maltreated. Jay was hanged +and burned in effigy in every way that imagination could devise, +and copies of his treaty suffered the same fate at the hands of the +hangman. Feeling ran highest in the larger towns where there was a +mob, but even some of the smaller places and those most Federal in +their politics were carried away. The excitement seems also to have +been confined for the most part to the seaboard, but after all that +was where the bulk of the population lived. The crowd, moreover, +was not led by obscure agitators or by violent and irresponsible +partisans. The Livingstons in New York, Rodney in Delaware, Gadsden +and the Rutledges in South Carolina, were some of the men who guided +the meetings and denounced the treaty. On the other hand, the friends +and supporters of the administration appeared stunned, and for weeks +no opposition to the popular movement except that attempted by +Hamilton was apparent. Even the administration was divided, for +Randolph was as hostile to the treaty as it was possible for a man of +his temperament to be. + +The crisis was indeed a serious one. There have been worse in our +history, but this was one of the gravest; and never did a President +stand, so far as any one could see, so utterly alone. With his own +party silenced and even divided, with the opposition rampant, and with +popular excitement at fever heat, Washington was left to take his +course alone and unsupported. It was the severest trial of his +political life, but he met it, as he met the reverses of 1776, +calmly and without flinching. He was always glad to have advice and +suggestions. No man ever sought them or benefited from them more +than he; yet no man ever lived so little dependent on others and so +perfectly capable of standing alone as Washington. After the Senate +had acted, he made up his mind to conditional ratification. He +withheld his signature on hearing of the provision order, and was +ready to sign as soon as that order was withdrawn. Whether he would +make its withdrawal another condition of his signature he had not +determined when he left Philadelphia for Mount Vernon, and on his +arrival he wrote to Randolph: "The conditional ratification (if the +late order, which we have heard of, respecting provision vessels +is not in operation) may, on all fit occasions, be spoken of as my +determination. Unless, from anything you have heard or met with since +I left you, it should be thought more advisable to communicate further +with me on the subject, my opinion respecting the treaty is the same +now that it was, namely, not favorable to it; but that it is better +to ratify it in the manner the Senate have advised, and with the +reservation already mentioned, than to suffer matters to remain as +they are, unsettled." He had already received the Boston resolutions, +and had sent them to his cabinet for their consideration. He did not +for a moment underrate their importance, and he saw that they were +the harbingers of others of like character, although he could not yet +estimate the full violence of the storm of popular disapprobation. On +July 28 he sent his answer to the selectmen of Boston, and it is such +an important paper that it must be given in full. It was as follows:-- + + UNITED STATES, _28th of July_, 1795. + + GENTLEMEN: In every act of my administration I have sought the + happiness of my fellow-citizens. My system for the attainment of + this object has uniformly been to overlook all personal, local, + and partial considerations; to contemplate the United States + as one great whole; to confide that sudden impressions, and + erroneous, would yield to candid reflections; and to consult only + the substantial and permanent interests of our country. + + Nor have I departed from this line of conduct on the occasion + which has produced the resolutions contained in your letter of the + 13th inst. + + Without a predilection for my own judgment, I have weighed with + attention every argument which has at any time been brought into + view. But the Constitution is the guide which I never can abandon. + It has assigned to the President the power of making treaties with + the advice and consent of the Senate. It was doubtless supposed + that these two branches of government would combine, without + passion and with the best means of information, those facts and + principles upon which the success of our foreign relations will + always depend; that they ought not to substitute for their own + convictions the opinions of others, or to seek truth through any + channel but that of a temperate and well-informed investigation. + + Under this persuasion, I have resolved on the manner of executing + the duty before me. To the high responsibility attached to it, I + fully submit; and you, gentlemen, are at liberty to make these + sentiments known as the grounds of my procedure. While I feel the + most lively gratitude for the many instances of approbation from + my country, I can no otherwise deserve it than by obeying the + dictates of my conscience. With due respect, I am, etc. + +It will be noticed that this letter is dated "The United States, 28th +of July," which is, I think, the only instance of the sort to be found +in his letters. In all his vast correspondence there possibly may be +other cases in which he used this method of dating, but one cannot +help feeling that on this occasion at least it had a particular +significance. It was not George Washington writing from Mount Vernon, +but the President, who represented the whole country, pointing out +to the people of Boston that the day of small things and of local +considerations had gone by. This letter served also as a model for +many others. The Boston address had a multitude of successors, and +they were all answered in the same strain. Washington was not a man to +underrate popular feeling, for he knew that the strongest bulwark of +the government was in sound public opinion. On the other hand, he +was one of the rare men who could distinguish between a temporary +excitement, no matter how universal, and an abiding sentiment. In this +case he quietly resisted the noisy popular demand, believing that the +sober second thought of the people would surely be with him; but at +the same time the outcry against the treaty, while it could not make +him waver in his determination to do what he believed to be right, +caused him deep anxiety. The day after he sent his answer to Boston he +wrote to Randolph:-- + + "I view the opposition which the treaty is receiving from the + meetings in different parts of the Union in a very serious light; + not because there is more weight in any of the objections which + are made to it than was foreseen at first, for there is none in + some of them, and gross misrepresentations in others; nor as it + respects myself personally, for this shall have no influence on + my conduct, plainly perceiving, and I am accordingly preparing my + mind for it, the obloquy which disappointment and malice are + collecting to heap upon me. But I am alarmed at the effect it may + have on and the advantage the French government may be disposed to + make of, the spirit which is at work to cherish a belief in them + that the treaty is calculated to favor Great Britain at their + expense.... To sum the whole up in a few words I have never, + since I have been in the administration of the government, + a crisis, which, in my judgment, has been so pregnant with + interesting events, nor one from which more is to be apprehended, + whether viewed on one side or the other." + +He already felt that it might be necessary for him to return to +Philadelphia at any moment; and, writing to Randolph to this effect +two days later, he said:-- + + "To be wise and temperate, as well as firm, the present crisis + most eminently calls for. There is too much reason to believe, + from the pains which have been taken before, at, and since the + advice of the Senate respecting the treaty, that the prejudices + against it are more extensive than is generally imagined. This I + have lately understood to be the case in this quarter from men who + are of no party, but well-disposed to the present administration. + Nor should it be otherwise, when no stone has been left unturned + that could impress on the minds of the people the most arrant + misrepresentation of facts; that their rights have not only been + _neglected_, but absolutely _sold_; that there are no reciprocal + advantages in the treaty; that the benefits are all on the side of + Great Britain; and, what seems to have had more weight with them + than all the rest, and to have been most pressed, that the treaty + is made with the design to oppress the French, in open violation + of our treaty with that nation, and contrary, too, to every + principle of gratitude and sound policy. In time, when passion + shall have yielded to sober reason, the current may possibly turn; + but, in the mean while, this government, in relation to France and + England, may be compared to a ship between the rocks of Scylla and + Charybdis. If the treaty is ratified, partisans of the French, or + rather of war and confusion, will excite them to hostile measures, + or at least to unfriendly sentiments; if it is not, there is no + foreseeing all the consequences which may follow, as it respects + Great Britain. + + "It is not to be inferred from hence that I am disposed to quit + the ground I have taken, unless circumstances more imperious than + have yet come to my knowledge should compel it; for there is but + one straight course, and that is to seek truth, and pursue it + steadily. But these things are mentioned to show that a close + investigation of the subject is more than ever necessary, and + that there are strong evidences of the necessity of the most + circumspect conduct in carrying the determination of government + into effect, with prudence, as it respects our own people, and + with every exertion to produce a change for the better from Great + Britain. + + "The memorial seems well designed to answer the end proposed, + and by the time it is revised and new-dressed, you will probably + (either in the resolutions which are or will be handed to me, or + in the newspaper publications, which you promise to be attentive + to) have seen all the objections against the treaty which have + any real force in them, and which may be fit subjects for + representation in a memorial, or in the instructions, or both. But + how much longer the presentation of the memorial can be delayed + without exciting unpleasant sensations here, or involving serious + evils elsewhere, you, who are at the scene of information and + action, can decide better than I. In a matter, however, so + interesting and pregnant with consequences as this treaty, there + ought to be no precipitation; but on the contrary, every step + should be explored before it is taken, and every word weighed + before it is uttered or delivered in writing. + + "The form of the ratification requires more diplomatic experience + and legal knowledge than I possess, or have the means of acquiring + at this place, and therefore I shall say nothing about it." + +Three days later, on August 3, he wrote again to Randolph to say that +the mails had been delayed, and that he had not received the Baltimore +resolutions. He then continued:-- + + "The like may be expected from Richmond, a meeting having been + had there also, at which Mr. Wythe, it is said, was seated as + moderator; by chance more than design, it is added. A queer chance + this for the chancellor of the state. + + "All these things do not shake my determination with respect to + the proposed ratifications, nor will they, unless something more + imperious and unknown to me should, in the judgment of yourself + and the gentlemen with you, make it advisable for me to pause." + +A few days later Washington was recalled by a letter from Randolph, +and also by a private note from Pickering, which said, mysteriously, +that there was a "special reason" for his immediate return. He had +been expecting to be recalled at any moment, and he now hastened to +Philadelphia, reaching there on August 11. He little dreamed, however, +of what had led his two secretaries, one ignorantly and the other +wittingly, to hasten his return. On the very day when he dated his +letter to the selectmen of Boston as from the United States, the +British minister placed in the hands of Mr. Wolcott, the Secretary of +the Treasury, an intercepted letter from Fauchet, the French minister, +to his own government. This dispatch, bearing the number 10, had come +into the possession of Mr. Hammond by a series of accidents; but the +British government and its representatives were quick to perceive that +the chances of the sea had thrown into their hands a prize of much +more value than many French merchantmen. The dispatch thus rescued +from the water, where its bearer had cast it, was filled with a long +and somewhat imaginative dissertation on political parties in the +United States, and with an account of the whiskey rebellion. It also +gave the substance of some conversations held by the writer with the +Secretary of State. This is not the place, nor would space serve, to +examine the details of this famous dispatch, with reference to the +American statesman whom it incriminated. On its face it showed that +Randolph had held conversations with the French minister which no +American Secretary of State ought to have held with any representative +of a foreign government, and it appeared further that the most obvious +interpretation of certain sentences, in view of the readiness of man +to think ill of his neighbor, was that Randolph had suggested corrupt +practices. Such was the document, implicating in a most serious way +the character of his chief cabinet officer, which Pickering and +Wolcott placed in Washington's hands on his arrival in Philadelphia. + +Mr. Conway, in his biography of Randolph, devotes many pages to +explaining what now followed. His explanations show, certainly, a most +refined ingenuity, and form the most elaborate discussion of this +incident that has ever appeared. All this effort and ingenuity are +needless, however, unless the object be to prove that Randolph was +wholly without fault, which is an impossible task. There was +nothing complicated about the affair, and nothing strange about the +President's course, if we confine ourselves to the plain facts and the +order of their occurrence. + +Before the treaty went to the Senate, Washington made up his mind to +sign it, and when the Senate ratified conditionally, he still adhered +to his former opinion. Then came the news of the provision order, +and thereupon he paused and withheld his signature, at the same time +ordering a memorial against the order to be prepared. But there is no +evidence whatever that he changed his mind, or that he had determined +to make his signature conditional upon the revocation of the order. +To argue that he had is, in fact, misrepresentation. In the letter +of July 22, on which so much stress was laid afterwards by Randolph, +Washington said that his intention to ratify conditionally was to be +announced, if the provision order was not in operation. Put in the +converse form, his intention was not to be announced if the order +was in operation; but this is very different from saying that his +intention had altered, and that he would not sign unless the order was +revoked. This last idea was Randolph's, but not Washington's. Indeed, +in the very next lines of the same letter he said expressly that his +opinion had not changed, that he did not like the treaty, but that +it was best to ratify. It is a fair inference, no doubt, that he +was considering whether he should change his intention and make his +signature conditional; but if this was the case, it is sure beyond a +peradventure that his original opinion was only confirmed as the days +went by. + +He examined with the utmost care all the remonstrances and addresses +that were poured in upon him, and found few solid objections, and none +that he had not already weighed and disposed of. On July 31 he wrote +to Randolph that it was not to be inferred that he was disposed to +quit his ground unless more imperious circumstances than had yet come +to his knowledge should compel him to do so. The provision order was +of course within his knowledge, and therefore had not led him to +change his mind. On August 3 he wrote even more strongly that nothing +had come to his knowledge to shake his determination. In his letter to +Randolph of October 21, giving him full liberty to have and publish +everything he desired for his vindication, Washington said: "You +know that it was my determination to ratify before submission to the +Senate; that the doubts which arose proceeded from the provision +order." Doubts are mentioned here, and not changes of intention. If +he had changed his mind at any time he would have said so, for he was +neither timid nor dishonest, but as a matter of fact he never had +changed his mind. He came to Philadelphia with his mind made up to +ratify, and that being the case, it was clear that further delay would +be wrong and impolitic. The surest way to check the popular excitement +and rally the friends of the administration was to act. Suspense +fostered opposition more than ratification, for most people accept the +inevitable when the deed is done. + +The Fauchet letter, therefore, although its revelations astounded and +grieved him, had no effect upon his action, which would have been the +same in any event; for he had said over and over again that he had not +changed his first opinion. In the letter to Randolph, just quoted, +he also said: "And finally you know the grounds on which my ultimate +decision was taken, as the same were expressed to you, the other +secretaries of departments, and the late attorney-general, after a +thorough investigation of the subject in all the aspects in which it +could be placed." As the Fauchet letter was not disclosed to Randolph +until after the treaty had been signed, it was impossible that it +should have been one of the grounds of the President's decision, for +Washington said to him, "You knew the grounds." If we are to suppose +that the Fauchet letter had anything to do with the ratification so +far as the President himself was concerned, we must, in the face of +this letter, set Washington down as a deliberate liar, which is so +wholly impossible that it disposes at once of the theory that he was +driven into signing by a clever British intrigue. + +Here as elsewhere the simple and obvious explanation is the true one, +although the whole matter is sufficiently plain on the mere narration +of facts. The treaty was a great public question, to be decided on its +merits, and the only new point raised by the Fauchet dispatch was how +to deal with Randolph himself at this particular juncture. To have +shown the letter to him at once would have been to break the cabinet, +with the treaty unsigned. It would have resulted in much delay, +extending to weeks, unless the President was ready to have an acting +secretary sign both treaty and memorial; and it would have added +during the continued suspense a fresh subject of excitement to the +popular mind. Washington's duty plainly was to carry out his policy +and bring the matter to an immediate conclusion, and, as was his +custom, he did his duty. If, as Mr. Conway thinks, the Fauchet letter +was what compelled the ratification, Washington would have given it +to the world at once, and then, having by this means discredited the +opposition and roused a feeling against the French, would have signed +the treaty. England, of course, had taken advantage of this letter, +and equally of course her minister and his influence were against +Randolph, who was thought to be unfriendly. Hammond intrigued with our +public men just as all the French ministers did. It is humiliating +that such should have been the case, but it was due to our recent +escape from a colonial condition, and to the way in which we allowed +our politics to turn on foreign affairs. Having made up his mind to +ratify and end the question, Washington very properly kept silence +as to the Fauchet letter until the work was done. To do this, it was +necessary of course that he should make no change in his personal +attitude toward Randolph, nor was he obliged to do so, for he was too +just a man to assume Randolph's guilt until his defense had been made. +The ratification was brought before the cabinet at once. There was a +sharp discussion, in which it appeared that Randolph had advanced a +good deal in his hostility to the treaty, a fact not tending to make +the Fauchet business look better; and then ratification was voted, and +a memorial against the provision order was adopted. On August 18 the +treaty was signed, and on the 19th, Washington, in the presence of his +cabinet, placed the Fauchet letter in Randolph's hands. Randolph read +it, made some comments, and asked time to offer suitable explanations. +He then withdrew, and in a few hours sent in his resignation. + +There would be no need, so far as Washington is concerned, to say more +on this unfortunate affair of the Secretary of State, were it not for +the recent statements made by Randolph's biographer. In order to clear +his hero, Mr. Conway represents that Washington, knowing Randolph to +be innocent, sacrificed him in great anguish of heart to an imperious +political necessity, while the fact was, that nobody sacrificed +Randolph except himself. He was represented in a dispatch written by +the French minister in a light which, as Washington said, gave rise to +strong suspicions; a moderate statement in which every candid man +who knew anything about the matter has agreed from that day to this. +According to Fauchet, Randolph not only had held conversations wholly +unbecoming his position, but on the same authority he was represented +to have asked for money. That the Secretary of State was corrupt, no +one who knew him, as Jefferson said, for one moment believed. Whether +he disposed of this charge or not, it was plain to his friends, as +it is to posterity, that Randolph was a perfectly honorable man. But +neither his own vindication nor that of his biographer have in the +least palliated or even touched the real error which he committed. + +As Secretary of State, the head of the cabinet, and in charge of our +foreign relations, he had, according to Fauchet's dispatch and to his +own admissions, entered into relations with a foreign minister which +ought to have been as impossible as they were discreditable to an +American statesman. That Fauchet believed that Randolph deceived him +did not affect the merits of the case, nor, if true, did it excuse +Randolph, especially as everybody with whom he was brought into +close contact seems at some time or other to have had doubts of his +sincerity. As a matter of fact, Randolph could find no defense except +to attack Washington and discuss our foreign relations, and his +biographer has followed the same line. What was it then that +Washington had actually done which called for assault? He had been put +in possession of an official document which on its face implicated +his Secretary of State in the intrigues of a foreign minister, and +suggested that he was open to corruption. These were the views which +the public, having no personal knowledge of Randolph, would be sure to +take, and as a matter of fact actually took, when the affair became +known. There was a great international question to be settled, and +settled without delay. This was done in a week, during which time +Washington kept silent, as his public duty required. The moment the +treaty was signed he handed Fauchet's dispatch to Randolph and asked +for an explanation. None knew of the dispatch except the cabinet +officers, through whom it had necessarily come. Washington did not +prejudge the case; he did not dismiss Randolph with any mark of his +pleasure, as he would have been quite justified in doing. He simply +asked for explanation, and threw open his own correspondence and +the archives of the department, so that Randolph might have every +opportunity for defense. It is difficult to see how Washington could +have done less in dealing with Randolph, or in what way he could have +shown greater consideration. + +Randolph resigned of his own motion, and then cried out against +Washington because he had been obliged to pay the penalty of his own +errors. When it is considered that Washington did absolutely nothing +to Randolph except to hand him Fauchet's dispatch and accept his +consequent resignation, the talk about Randolph's forgiving him +becomes simply ludicrous. Randolph saw his own error, was angry with +himself, and, like the rest of humanity, proceeded to vent his anger +on somebody else, but unfortunately he had the bad taste to turn at +the outset to the newspapers. Like Mr. Snodgrass, he took off his coat +in public and announced in a loud voice that he was going to begin. +The President's only response was to open the archives and bid him +publish everything he desired. Randolph then wrote the President a +private letter, which was angry and impertinent; "full of innuendoes," +said the recipient. Washington drafted a sharp reply, and then out +of pure kindness withheld it, and let the private letter drop into +silence, whither the bulky "Vindication," which vindicated nobody, +soon followed it. The fact was, that Washington treated Randolph with +great kindness and forbearance. He had known him long; he was fond +of him on his own account as well as his father's; he appreciated +Randolph's talents; but he knew on reading that dispatch, if he had +never guessed it before, that Randolph, although honest and clever, +and certainly not bad, was a dangerously weak man. Others among +our public men had put themselves into relations with foreign +representatives which it is now intolerable to contemplate, but +Randolph, besides being found out at the moment, had, after the +fashion of weak natures, gone further and shown more feebleness than +any one else had. Washington's conduct was so perfectly simple, and +the facts of the case were so plain, that it would seem impossible to +complicate them. The contemporary verdict was harsh, crushing, and +unjust in many respects to Randolph. The verdict of posterity, which +is both gentler and fairer to the secretary, will certainly at the +same time sustain Washington's course at every point as sensible, +direct, and proper. + +Only one question remains which demands a word before tracing briefly +the subsequent fate of the Jay treaty, and that is, to know exactly +why the President signed it. The answer is fortunately not difficult. +There was a choice of evils. When Washington determined to send a +special envoy, he said: "My objects are, to prevent a war, if justice +can be obtained by fair and strong representations (to be made by a +special envoy) of the injuries which this country has sustained from +Great Britain in various ways; to put it into a complete state +of military defense; and to provide eventually such measures for +execution as seem to be now pending in Congress, if negotiation in +a reasonable time proves unsuccessful." From these views he never +varied. The treaty was not a perfect one, but it had good features and +was probably, as has been said, the best that could then be obtained. +It settled some vexed questions, and it gave us time. If the United +States could only have time without making undue sacrifice, they could +pass beyond the stage when a foreign war with its consequent suffering +and debt would endanger our national existence. If they could only +have time to grow into a nation, there would be no difficulty in +settling all their disputes with other people satisfactorily, either +by war or negotiation. But if the national bonds were loosened, then +all was lost. It was in this spirit that Washington signed the Jay +treaty; and although there was much in it that he did not like, +and although men were bitterly divided about the ratification, a +dispassionate posterity has come to believe that he was right at the +most difficult if not the most perilous crisis in his career. + +The signature of the treaty, however, did not put an end to the +attacks upon it, or upon the action of the Senate and the Executive. +Nevertheless, it turned the tide, and, as Washington foresaw, brought +out a strong movement in its favor. Hamilton began the work by the +publication of the letters of "Camillus." The opposition newspapers +sneered, but after Jefferson had read a few numbers he begged Madison +in alarm to answer them. His fears were well grounded, for the letters +were reprinted in newspapers throughout the country, and their +powerful and temperate arguments made converts and strengthened the +friends of the administration everywhere. The approaching surrender of +the posts gratified the western people when they at last stopped to +think about it. The obnoxious provision order was revoked, and the +traders and merchants found that security and commerce even under +unpleasant restrictions were a great deal better than the uncertainty +and the vexatious hostilities to which they had before been exposed. +Those who had been silent, although friendly to the policy of the +government, now began to meet in their turn and send addresses to +Congress; for in the House of Representatives the last battle was to +be fought. + +That body came together under the impression of the agitation and +excitement which had been going on all through the summer. There was a +little wrangling at the opening over the terms to be employed in the +answer to the President's message, and then the House relapsed into +quiet, awaiting the formal announcement of the treaty. At last the +treaty arrived with the addition of the suspending article, and the +President proclaimed it to be the law of the land, and sent a copy to +the House. Livingston, of New York, at once moved a resolution, asking +the President to send in all the papers relating to the negotiation, +and boldly placed the motion on the ground that the House was vested +with a discretionary power as to carrying the treaty into execution. +On this principle the debate went on for three weeks, and then the +resolution passed by 62 to 37. A great constitutional question was +thus raised, for there was no pretense that the papers were really +needed, inasmuch as committees had seen them all, and they contained +practically nothing which was not already known. + +Washington took the request into consideration, and asked his cabinet +whether the House had the right, as set forth in the resolutions, to +call for the papers, and if not, whether it was expedient to furnish +them. Both questions were unanimously answered in the negative. The +inquiry was largely formal, and Washington had no real doubts on the +point involved. He wrote to Hamilton: "I had from the first moment, +and from the fullest conviction in my own mind, resolved _to resist +the principle_, which was evidently intended to be established by the +call of the House of Representatives; and only deliberated on the +manner in which this could be done with the least bad consequences." +His only question was as to the method of resistance, and he finally +decided to refuse absolutely, and did so in a message setting forth +his reasons. He said that the intention of the constitutional +convention was known to him, and that they had intended to vest the +treaty-making power exclusively in the Executive and Senate. On +that principle he had acted, and in that belief foreign nations had +negotiated, and the House had hitherto acquiesced. He declared further +that the assent of the House was not necessary to the validity of +treaties; that they had all necessary information; and "as it is +essential to the due administration of the government that the +boundaries fixed by the Constitution should be preserved, a just +regard to the Constitution and to the duty of my office, under all the +circumstances of this case, forbid a compliance with your request." +The question was a difficult one, but there could be no doubt as to +Washington's opinion, and the weight of authority has sustained his +view. From the practical and political side there can be little +question that his position was extremely sound. In a letter to +Carrington he gave the reasons for his action, and no better statement +of the argument in a general way has ever been made. He wrote:-- + + "No candid man in the least degree acquainted with the progress + of this business will believe for a moment that the _ostensible_ + dispute was about papers, or whether the British treaty was a good + one or a bad one, but whether there should be a treaty at all + without the concurrence of the House of Representatives. This + was striking at once, and that boldly, too, at the fundamental + principles of the Constitution; and, if it were established, would + render the treaty-making power not only a nullity, but such an + absolute absurdity as to reflect disgrace on the framers of it. + For will any one suppose that they who framed, or those who + adopted, that instrument ever intended to give the power to the + President and Senate to make treaties, and, declaring that when + made and ratified they should be the supreme law of the land, + would in the same breath place it in the power of the House of + Representatives to fix their vote on them, unless apparent marks + of fraud or corruption (which in equity would set aside any + contract) accompanied the measure, or such striking evidence of + national injury attended their adoption as to make a war or any + other evil preferable? Every unbiased mind will answer in the + negative. + + "What the source and what the object of all this struggle is, I + submit to my fellow-citizens. Charity would lead me to hope that + the motives to it would be pure. Suspicions, however, speak + a different language, and my tongue for the present shall be + silent." + +No man who has ever held high office in this country had a more real +deference for the popular will than Washington. But he also had always +a keen sensitiveness to the dignity and the prerogatives of the office +which he happened to hold, whether it was that of president or general +of the armies. This arose from no personal feeling, for he was too +great a man ever to worry about his own dignity; but he esteemed the +great offices to which he was called to be trusts, which were to +suffer no injury while in his hands. He regarded the attempt of the +House of Representatives to demand the papers as a matter of right +as an encroachment on the rights of the Executive Department, and he +therefore resisted it at once, and after his usual fashion left no one +in any doubt as to his views. So far as the President was concerned, +the struggle ended here; but it was continued for some time longer in +the House, where the debate went on for a fortnight, with the hostile +majority surely and steadily declining. The current out-doors ran more +and more strongly every day in favor of the administration, until +at last the contest ended with Ames's great speech, and then the +resolution to carry out the treaty prevailed. Washington's policy had +triumphed, and was accepted by the country. + +The Jay treaty and its ratification had, however, other results +than mere domestic conflicts. Spain, acting under French influence, +threatened to rescind the Pinckney treaty which had just been made +so advantageously to the United States; but, like most Spanish +performances at that time, these threats evaporated in words, and the +Mississippi remained open. With France, however, the case was very +different. Our demand for the recall of Genet had been met by a +counter-demand for the recall of Morris, to which, of course, we were +obliged to accede, and the question as to the latter's successor was +a difficult and important one. Washington himself had been perfectly +satisfied with the conduct of Morris, but he was also aware that the +known dislike of that brilliant diplomatist to the revolutionary +methods then dominant in Paris had seriously complicated our relations +with France. He wished by all fair means to keep France in good humor, +and he therefore determined that Morris's successor should be a man +whose friendship toward the French republic was well known. His first +choice was Madison, which would have answered admirably, for Madison +was preeminently a safe man. Very unluckily, however, Madison either +could not or would not go, and the President's final choice was by no +means equally good. + +It was, of course, most desirable that the new minister should be +_persona grata_ to the republic, but it was vastly more important that +he should be in cordial sympathy with the administration at home, +for no administration ought ever to select for a foreign mission, +especially at a critical moment, any one outside the ranks of its own +supporters. This was the mistake which Washington, from the best of +motives, now committed by appointing James Monroe to be minister to +France. It is one of the puzzles of our history to reconcile the +respectable and common-place gentleman, who for two terms as President +of the United States had less opposition than ever fell to the lot +of any other man in that office, with the violent, unscrupulous, and +extremely light-headed politician who figured as senator from Virginia +and minister to France at the close of the last century. Monroe at +the time of his appointment had distinguished himself chiefly by his +extreme opposition to the administration, and by his intrigues against +Hamilton, which were so dishonestly conducted that they ultimately +compelled the publication of the "Reynolds Pamphlet," a sore trial to +its author, and a lasting blot on the fame of the enemy who made the +publication necessary. From such a man loyalty to the President who +appointed him was hardly to be expected. But there was no reason +to suppose that he would lose his head, and forget that he was an +American, and not a French citizen. + +Monroe reached Paris in the summer of 1794. He was publicly received +by the Convention, made an undignified and florid speech, received +the national embrace from the president of the Convention, and then +effected an exchange of flags with more embracings and addresses. +But when he came to ask redress for the wrongs committed against our +merchants, he got no satisfaction. So far as he was concerned, this +appears to have been a matter of indifference, for he at once occupied +himself with the French proposition that we should lend France five +millions of dollars, and France in return was to see to it that we +obtained control of the Spanish possessions in North America. Monroe +fell in with this precious scheme to make the United States a +dependency of France, and received as a reward vast promises as to +what the great republic would do for us. Meantime he regarded with +suspicion Jay's movements in England, and endeavored to obtain +information, if not control, of that negotiation. In this he +completely failed; but he led the French government to believe, first, +that the English treaty would not be made, then that it would not be +ratified, and finally that the House would not make the appropriations +necessary to carry it into effect; and all the time he was +compromising his own government by his absurd efforts to involve it in +an offensive alliance with France. The upshot of it all was that he +was disowned at home, discredited in France, and brought our relations +with that nation into a state of dangerous complication, without +obtaining any redress for our injuries. + +Washington at first, little as he liked the theatrical performances +with which Monroe opened his mission, wrote about him with great +moderation to Jay, who was naturally much annoyed by the manner in +which Monroe had tried to interfere with his negotiations. Six months +later, however, Washington saw only too plainly that he had been +mistaken in his minister to France. He wrote to Randolph on July 24, +1795: "The conduct of Mr. Monroe is of a piece with that of the other; +and one can scarcely forbear thinking that these acts are part of a +premeditated system to embarrass the executive government." When it +became clear that Monroe had omitted to explain properly our reasons +for treating with England, that he had held out hopes to the French +government which were totally unauthorized, that he had brought on a +renewal of the hostilities of that government, and that he had placed +us in all ways in the most unenviable light, Washington recalled him, +and appointed Charles Cotesworth Pinckney in his place. By this time +too he was thoroughly disgusted with Monroe's performances, and in his +letter to Pinckney, on July 8, 1796, offering him the appointment to +Paris, he said: "It is a fact too notorious to be denied that the +greatest embarrassments under which the administration of this +government labors proceed from the counter-action of people among +ourselves, who are more disposed to promote the views of another +nation than to establish a national character of their own; and that, +unless the virtuous and independent men of this country will come +forward, it is not difficult to predict the consequences. Such is my +decided opinion." He felt, as he wrote to Hamilton at the close of his +administration, that "the conduct of France towards this country is, +according to my ideas of it, outrageous beyond conception; not to +be warranted by her treaty with us, by the law of nations, by any +principle of justice, or even by a regard to decent appearances." This +was after we had begun to reap the humiliations which Monroe's folly +had prepared for us, and it is easy to understand that Washington +regarded their author with anything but satisfaction or approval. + +The culprit himself took a very different view, came home presently +in great wrath, and proceeded to pose as a martyr and compile +a vindication, which he entitled "A View of the Conduct of the +Executive," and which surpassed in bulk any of the vindications in +which that period of our history was prolific. It was published after +Washington had retired to private life, and did not much disturb his +serenity. In a letter to Nicholas, on March 8, 1798, he said: "If the +executive is chargeable with 'premeditating the destruction of Mr. +Monroe in his appointment, because he was the _centre_ around which +the Republican party rallied in the Senate' (a circumstance quite new +to me), it is to be hoped he will give it credit for its lenity toward +that gentleman in having designated several others, not of the Senate, +as victims to this office _before_ the sacrifice of Mr. Monroe was +even had in contemplation. As this must be some consolation to him and +his friends, I hope they will embrace it." + +Washington apparently did not think Monroe was worthy of anything more +serious than a little sarcasm, and he was quite content, as he said, +to leave the book to the tribunal to which the author himself had +appealed. He read the book, however, with care, and in his methodical +way he appended a number of notes, which are worth consideration +by all persons interested in the character of Washington. They are +especially to be commended to those who think that he was merely good +and wise and solemn, for it would be difficult to find a better piece +of destructive criticism, or a more ready and thorough knowledge of +complicated foreign relations, than are contained in these brief +notes. His own opinion of Monroe is concisely stated in one of them. +Referring to one of that gentleman's statements he said: "For this +there is no better proof than his own opinion; whilst there is +abundant evidence of his being a mere tool in the hands of the French +government, cajoled and led away always by unmeaning assurances of +friendship." With this brief comment we may leave the Monroe incident. +His appointment was a mistake, and increased existing complications, +which were not finally settled until the next administration. + +Monroe's recall was the last act, however, in the long contest of the +Jay treaty, and it was also, as it happened, the last important act in +Washington's foreign policy. That policy has been traced here in its +various branches, but it is worth while to look at it as a whole +before leaving it, in order to see just what the President aimed at +and just what he effected. The guiding principle, which had been with +him from the day when he took command of the army at Cambridge, was to +make the United States independent. The war had achieved this so far +as our connection with England was concerned, but it still remained to +prove to the world that we were an independent nation in fact as well +as in name. For this the neutrality policy was adopted and carried +out. We were not only to cease from dependence on the nations of +Europe, but we were to go on our own way with a policy of our own +wholly apart from them. It was also necessary to lift up our own +politics, to detach our minds from those of other nations, and to make +us truly Americans. All this Washington's policy did so far as it was +possible to do it in the time given to him. A new generation had to +come upon the stage before our politics were finally taken out of +colonialism and made national and American, but the idea was that +of the first President. It was the foresight and the courage of +Washington which at the outset placed the United States in their +relations with foreign nations on the ground of a firm, independent, +and American policy. + +His foreign policy had, however, some immediate practical results +which were of vast importance. In December, 1795, he wrote to Morris: +"It is well known that peace has been (to borrow a modern phrase) +the order of the day with me since the disturbances in Europe first +commenced. My policy has been, and will continue to be while I have +the honor to remain in the administration, to maintain friendly terms +with, but to be independent of, all the nations of the earth; to share +in the broils of none; to fulfill our own engagements; to supply the +wants and be carriers for them all; being thoroughly convinced that it +is our policy and interest to do so. Nothing short of self-respect +and that justice which is essential to a national character ought to +involve us in war; for sure I am, if this country is preserved in +tranquillity twenty years longer, it may bid defiance in a just cause +to any power whatever; such in that time would be its population, +wealth, and resources." + +He wanted time, but he wanted space also for his country; and if we +look for a moment at the results of his foreign policy we see clearly +how he got both. The time gained by peace without any humiliating +concessions is plain enough. If we look a little further and a little +deeper, we can see how he compassed his other object. The true and the +first mission of the American people was, in Washington's theory, the +conquest of the continent which stretched away wild and silent behind +them, for in that direction lay the sure road to national greatness. +The first step was to bind by interest, trade, and habit of +communication the Atlantic States with the settlements beyond the +mountains, and for this he had planned canals and highways in the days +of the confederation. The next step was to remove every obstacle which +fettered the march of American settlement; and for this he rolled +back the Indian tribes, patiently negotiated with Spain until the +Mississippi was opened, and at great personal sacrifice and trial +signed the Jay treaty, and obtained the surrender of the British +posts. When Washington went out of office, the way was open to the +western movement; the dangers of disintegration by reason of foreign +intrigues on the frontier were removed; peace had been maintained; and +the national sentiment had had opportunity for rapid growth. France +had discovered that, although she had been our ally, we were not her +dependants; other nations had been brought to perceive that the United +States meant to have a foreign policy all its own; and the American +people were taught that their first duty was to be Americans and +nothing else. There is no need to comment on or to praise the +greatness of a policy with such objects and results as these. The mere +summary is enough, and it speaks for itself and for its author in a +way which makes words needless. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +WASHINGTON AS A PARTY MAN + + +Washington was not chosen to office by a political party; he +considered parties to be perilous things, and he entered the +presidency determined to have nothing to do with them. Yet, as has +already been pointed out, he took the members of his cabinet entirely +from one of the two parties which then existed, and which had been +produced by the divisions over the Constitution and its adoption. To +this charge he would no doubt have replied that the parties caused +by the constitutional differences had ceased to exist when that +instrument went into operation, and that it was to be supposed that +all men were then united in support of the government. Accepting this +view of it, it only remains to see how he fared when new and purely +political parties, as was inevitable, sprang into active life. + +Whatever his own opinions may have been as to parties and +party-strife, Washington was under no delusions in regard either to +human nature or to himself, and he had no expectation that everything +he said or did would meet with universal approbation. He well knew +that there would be dissatisfaction, and no man ever took high office +with a mind more ready to bear criticism and to profit by it. Three +months after his inauguration he wrote to his friend David Stuart: +"I should like to be informed of the public opinion of both men and +measures, and of none more than myself; not so much of what may be +thought commendable parts, if any, of my conduct, as of those which +are conceived to be of a different complexion. The man who means to +commit no wrong will never be guilty of enormities; consequently he +can never be unwilling to learn what are ascribed to him as foibles. +If they are really such, the knowledge of them in a well-disposed mind +will go half-way towards a reform. If they are not errors, he can +explain and justify the motives of his actions." This readiness +to hear criticism and this watching of public opinion were +characteristic, for his one desire was to know the truth and never +deceive himself. His journey through New England in the autumn of that +year, his visit to Rhode Island a year later, and his trip through the +southern States in the spring of 1791, had a double motive. He wished +to bring home to the people the existence and the character of the new +government by his appearance among them as its representative; and he +desired also to learn from his own observation, and from inquiries +made on the spot, what the people thought of the administration and +its policies, and of the doings of Congress. He was a keen observer +and a good gatherer of information; for he was patient and persistent, +and had that best of all gifts for getting at public opinion, an +absolute and cheerful readiness to listen to advice from any one. His +travels all had the same result. In the South as in New England he +found that the people were pleased with the new government, and +contented with the prosperity which began at once to flow from the +adoption of a stable national system. + +More credit, if anything, was given to it than it really deserved; +for, as he had written to Lafayette before the Constitution went into +effect, "Many blessings will be attributed to our new government which +are now taking their rise from that industry and frugality into which +the people have been forced from necessity." Whether this were true or +not, the new government was entitled to the benefit of all accidents, +and Washington's correct conclusion was that the great body of the +people were heartily with him and his administration. But he was +also quite aware that all the criticism was not friendly, and as +the measures of the government one by one passed Congress, he saw +divisions of sentiment appear, slight at first, but deepening and +hardening with each successive contest. Indeed, he had not been in +office a year when he wrote a long letter to Stuart deploring the +sectionalism which had begun to show itself. The South was complaining +that everything was done in the interest of the northern and eastern +States, and against this idea Washington argued with great force. He +was especially severe on the unreasonable and childish character of +such grievances, and he attributed the feeling in certain States +largely to the outcries of persons who had come home disappointed +in some personal matter from the seat of government. "It is to be +lamented," he said, "that the editors of the different gazettes in the +Union do not more generally and more correctly (instead of stuffing +their papers with scurrility and nonsensical declamation, which few +would read if they were apprised of the contents) publish the debates +in Congress on all great national questions. And this, with no +uncommon pains, every one of them might do." Washington evidently +believed that there was no serious danger of the people going wrong +if they were only fully informed. But the able editors of that day no +doubt felt that they and their correspondents were better fitted to +enlighten the public than any one else could be, and there is no +evidence that any of them ever followed the President's suggestion. + +The jealousies and the divisions in Congress, which Washington watched +with hearty dislike on account of their sectional character, began, as +is well known, with the financial measures of the Treasury. As time +went on they became steadily more marked and better defined, and at +last they spread to the cabinet. Jefferson had returned to take his +place as Secretary of State after an absence of many years, and +during that time he had necessarily dropped out of the course of +home politics. He came back with a very moderate liking for the +Constitution, and an intention undoubtedly to do his best as a member +of the cabinet. His first and most natural impulse, of course, was +to fall in with the administration of which he was a part; and so +completely did he do this that it was at his table that the famous +bargain was made which assumed the state debts and took the capital to +the banks of the Potomac. + +Exactly what led to the first breach between Jefferson and Hamilton, +whose financial policy was then in the full tide of success, is not +now very easy to determine. Jefferson's action was probably due to a +mixture of motives and a variety of causes, as is generally the case +with men, even when they are founders of the democratic party. In the +first place, Jefferson very soon discovered that Hamilton was +looked upon as the leader in the cabinet and in the policies of the +administration, and this fact excited a very natural jealousy on his +part, because he was the official head of the President's advisers. +In the second place, it was inevitable that Jefferson should dislike +Hamilton, for there never were two men more unlike in character and in +their ways of looking at things. Hamilton was bold, direct, imperious, +and masculine; he went straight to his mark, and if he encountered +opposition he either rode over it or broke it down. When Jefferson +met with opposition he went round it or undermined it; he was adroit, +flexible, and extremely averse to open fighting. There was also good +ground for a genuine difference of opinion between the two secretaries +in regard to the policy of the government. Jefferson was a thorough +representative of the great democratic movement of the time. At bottom +his democracy was of the sensible, practical American type, but he +had come home badly bitten by many of the wild notions which at that +moment pervaded Paris. A man of much less insight than Jefferson would +have had no difficulty in perceiving that Hamilton and his +friends were not in sympathy with these ideas. They hoped for the +establishment of a republic, but they desired for it a highly +energetic and centralized government not devoid of aristocratic +tendencies. This fundamental difference of opinion, increased as it +was by personal jealousies, soon put Jefferson, therefore, into an +attitude of hostility to the men who were then guiding the policy of +the government. The new administration had been so successful that +there was at first practically no party of opposition, and the task +before Jefferson involved the creation of a party, the formulation of +principles, and the definition of issues, with appropriate shibboleths +for popular consumption. Jefferson knew that Hamilton and all who +fought with him were as sincerely in favor of a republic as he himself +was; but his unerring genius in political management told him that he +could never raise a party or make a party-cry out of the statement +that, while he favored a democratic republic, the men to whom he was +opposed preferred one of a more aristocratic caste. It was necessary +to have something much more highly seasoned than this. So he took the +ground that his opponents were monarchists, bent on establishing a +monarchy in this country, and were backed by a "corrupt squadron" +in Congress in the pay of the Treasury. This was of course utter +nonsense, but it served its purpose admirably. Jefferson, indeed, +shouted these cries so much that he almost came to believe in them +himself, and sympathetic writers to this day repeat them as if they +had reality instead of having been mere noise to frighten the unwary. +The prime object of it all was to make the great leaders odious by +connecting them in the popular mind with the royal government that had +been overthrown. + +Jefferson's first move was a covert one. In the spring of 1791 he +received Thomas Paine's "Rights of Man," and straightway sent the +pamphlet to the printer with a note of approbation reflecting upon +John Adams. The pamphlet promptly appeared in a reprint with the +note prefixed. It made much stir, and the published approval of the +Secretary of State excited a great deal of criticism, much of which +was very hostile. Jefferson thereupon expressed extreme surprise that +his note had been printed, and on the plea of explaining the matter +wrote to Washington a letter, in which he declared that his friend +Mr. Adams, for whom he had a most cordial esteem, was an apostate to +hereditary monarchy and nobility. He further described his old friend +as a political heretic and as the bellwether Davila, upon whom and +whose writings Mr. Adams had recently been publishing some discourses. +It is but fair to say that no more ingenious attack on the +Vice-President could have been made, but the purpose of it was simply +to arrest the public attention for the real struggle which was to +follow. + +The true object of all these movements was to rally a party and break +down Jefferson's great colleague in the cabinet. The "Rights of Man" +served to start the discussion; and the next step was to bring on from +New York Philip Freneau, a verse-writer and journalist, and make him +translating clerk in the State Department, and editor of an opposition +newspaper known as the "National Gazette." The new journal proceeded +to do its work after the fashion of the time. It teemed with abuse +not only of Hamilton and Adams and all the supporters of the treasury +measures, denouncing them as "monarchists," "aristocrats," and "a +corrupt squadron," but it even began a series of coarse assaults +upon the President himself. Jefferson, of course, denied that he had +anything to do with the writing in the newspaper, and Freneau made +oath at the time that the Secretary wrote nothing; but in his old age +he declared that Jefferson wrote or dictated all the most abusive +articles, and he showed a file of the "Gazette" with these articles +marked. Strict veracity was not the strongest characteristic of either +Freneau or Jefferson, and it is really of but little consequence +whether Freneau was lying in his old age or in the prime of life. The +undoubted facts of the case are enough to fix the responsibility upon +Jefferson, where it belongs. The editor of a newspaper devoted +to abusing the administration was brought to Philadelphia by the +Secretary of State, was given a place in his department, and was his +confidential friend. Jefferson himself took advantage of his +position to gather material for attacks upon his chief, and upon his +colleagues, to whom he was bound to be loyal by every rule which +dictates the conduct of honorable men. He did not, moreover, content +himself with this outside work. It has been too much overlooked that +Jefferson, in addition to forming a party and organizing attacks upon +the Secretary of the Treasury and his friends, sought in the first +instance to break down Hamilton in the cabinet, to deprive him of the +confidence of Washington, and by driving him from the administration +to get control himself. At no time did Jefferson ever understand +Washington, but he knew him well enough to be quite aware that he +would never give up a friend like Hamilton on account of any newspaper +attacks. He therefore took a more insidious method. + +Knowing that Washington was in the habit of consulting with old +friends at home of all shades of opinion in regard to public affairs, +he contrived through their agency to have his own charges against +Hamilton laid before the President. He also, to make perfectly sure, +wrote himself to Washington, candidly setting forth outside criticism, +and his letter took the form of a well-arranged indictment of the +Treasury measures. This method had the advantage of assailing Hamilton +without incurring any responsibility, and the charges were skilfully +formulated and ingeniously constructed to raise in the mind of the +reader every possible suspicion. At this point Washington comes for +the first time into the famous controversy from which our two great +political parties were born. He did exactly what Jefferson would not +have done, sent the charges all duly formulated to Hamilton, and asked +him his opinion about them. As the accusations thus made against the +policies of the government and the Secretary of the Treasury were all +mere wind of the "monarchist" and "corrupt squadron" order, Hamilton +disposed of them with very little difficulty. The whole proceeding, +if Jefferson was aware of it at the time, must have been a great +disappointment to him. But his mistake was the natural error of an +ingenious man wasting his efforts on one of great directness and +perfect simplicity of character. Hamilton's answer was what Washington +undoubtedly expected. He knew the hollowness of the attack, but none +the less he was made anxious by it as an indication of the serious +party divisions rising about him. This, however, was but the +beginning, and he was soon to have much more direct evidence of the +grave nature of a political conflict, which he then could not bring +himself to believe was irrepressible. + +Hamilton, on his side, was not the most patient of men, and although +he bore the attacks of Frenean for some time in silence he finally +retaliated. He did not get any one to do his fighting for him, but +under a thin disguise proceeded to answer in Fenno's newspaper the +abuse of the "National Gazette." He was the best political writer in +the country, and when he struck, his blows told. Jefferson winced and +cried out under the punishment, but it would have been more dignified +in Hamilton to have kept out of the newspapers. Still there was the +fight. It had gone from the cabinet to the press, and the public knew +that the two principal secretaries were at swords' points and were +marshaling behind them strong political forces. The point had been +reached where the President was compelled to interfere unless he +wished his administration to be thoroughly discredited by the bitter +and open conflicts of its members. + +He wrote to both secretaries in a grave and almost pathetic tone of +remonstrance, urging them to abandon their quarrel, and, sinking minor +differences, to work with him for the success of the Constitution to +which they were both devoted. Each man replied after his fashion. +Hamilton's letter was short and straight-forward. He could not profess +to have changed his opinion as to the conduct or purpose of his +colleague, but he regretted the strife which had arisen, and promised +to do all that was in his power to allay it by ceasing from further +attacks. Jefferson wrote at great length, controverting Hamilton's +published letters in a way which showed that he was still smarting +from the well-aimed shafts. He also contrived to make his own defense +the vehicle for a renewal of all his accusations against the Treasury, +and he wound up by saying that he looked forward to retirement with +the longing of "a wave-worn mariner," and that he should reserve any +further fighting that he had to do until he was out of office. Soon +after he followed this letter with another, containing a collection +of extracts from his own correspondence while in Paris, to show his +devotion to the Constitution. One is irresistibly reminded by all +this of the Player Queen--"The lady protests too much, methinks." +Washington had not accused Jefferson of lack of loyalty to the +Constitution, indeed he had made no accusations against him of any +kind; but Jefferson knew that his own position was a false one, and +he could not refrain from taking a defensive tone. Washington, in his +reply, said that he needed no proofs of Jefferson's fidelity to the +Constitution, and reiterated his earnest desire for an accommodation +of all differences. "I will frankly and solemnly declare," he said, +"that I believe the views of both of you to be pure and well-meant, +and that experience only will decide with respect to the salutariness +of the measures which are the subjects of dispute.... I could, and +indeed was about to, add more on this interesting subject, but will +forbear, at least for the present, after expressing a wish that the +cup which has been presented to us may not be snatched from our +lips by a discordance of action, when I am persuaded there is no +discordance in your views." + +The difficulty was that there was not only discordance in the views of +the two secretaries, but a fundamental political difference, extending +throughout the people, which they typified. The accommodation of views +and the support of the Constitution could only mean a support of +Washington's administration and its measures. Those measures not +only had the President's approval, but they were in many respects +peculiarly his own, and in them he rightly saw the success and +maintenance of the Constitution. But, unfortunately for the interests +of harmony, these measures were either devised or ardently sustained +by the Secretary of the Treasury. They were not the measures of the +Secretary of State, and received from him either lukewarm support +or active, if furtive, hostility. The only peace possible was in +Jefferson's giving in his entire adherence to the policies of +Washington and Hamilton, which were radically opposed to his own. In +one word, a real, profound, and inevitable party division had come, +and it had found the opposing chiefs side by side in the cabinet. + +Against this conclusion Washington struggled hard. He had come in as +the representative and by the votes of the whole people, and he shrank +from any step which would seem to make him lean on a party for support +in his administration. He had made up his cabinet with what he very +justly considered the strongest material. He believed that a breaking +up of the cabinet or a change in its membership would be an injury to +the cause of good government, and he was so entirely single-minded +in his own views and wishes, that, with all his knowledge of human +nature, he found it difficult to understand how any one could differ +from him materially. Moreover, having started with the firm intention +of governing without party, he determined, with his usual persistence, +to carry it through, if it were possible. When party feeling had +once developed, and division had sprung up between the two principal +officers of his cabinet, no greater risk could have been run than +that which Washington took in refusing to make the changes which were +necessary to render the administration harmonious. With any lesser +man, such a perilous experiment would have failed and brought with it +disastrous consequences. There is no greater proof of the force of his +will and the weight and strength of his character than the fact that +he held in his cabinet Jefferson and Hamilton, despite their hatred +for each other and each other's principles, and that he not only +prevented any harm, but actually drew great results from the +talents of each of them. Yet, with all his strength of grasp, this +ill-assorted combination could not last, although Washington resisted +the inevitable in a surprising way, and he even begged Jefferson to +remain when the impossibility of doing so had become quite clear to +that gentleman. + +The remonstrance in regard to the Freneau matter had but a temporary +effect. Hamilton stopped his attacks, it is true; but Jefferson did +not discontinue his, and he set on foot a movement which was designed +to destroy his rival's public and private reputation. Hamilton met +this attack in Congress, where he refuted it signally; and although +the ostensible movers were members of the House, the defeat recoiled +on the Secretary of State. Having failed in Congress and before the +public to ruin his opponent, and having failed equally to shake +Washington's confidence in Hamilton or the latter's influence in the +administration, Jefferson made up his mind that the cabinet was no +longer the place for him. He became more than ever satisfied that +he was a "wave-worn mariner," and after some hesitation he finally +resigned and transferred his political operations to another field. A +year later Hamilton, from very different reasons of a purely private +character, followed him. + +Meantime many events had occurred which all tended to show the growing +intensity of party divisions, and which were not without their effect +upon the mind of the President. In 1792 it became necessary to +consider the question of the approaching election, and all elements +united in urging upon Washington the absolute necessity of accepting +the presidency a second time. Hamilton and the Federalists, of course, +desired Washington's reelection, because they regarded him as their +leader, as the friend and supporter of their measures, and as the +great bulwark of the government. Jefferson, who was equally urgent, +felt that in the unformed condition of his own party the withdrawal of +Washington, in addition to its injury to the general welfare, +would leave his incoherent forces at the mercy of an avowed and +thorough-going Federalist administration. + +So it came about that Washington received another unanimous election. +He had no great longing for public office, but at this time he seems +to have been not without a desire to continue President, in order that +he might carry his measures to completion. In the unanimity of the +choice he took a perfectly natural pleasure, for besides the personal +satisfaction, he could not but feel that it greatly strengthened his +hands in doing the work which he had at heart. On January 20, 1793, +he wrote to Henry Lee: "A mind must be insensible, indeed, not to be +gratefully impressed by so distinguished and honorable a testimony of +public approbation and confidence; and as I suffered my name to be +contemplated on this occasion, it is more than probable that I should, +for a moment, have experienced chagrin if my reelection had not been +by a pretty respectable vote. But to say I feel pleasure from the +prospect of commencing another tour of duty would be a departure from +the truth." Some time was still to pass before Washington, either by +word or deed, would acknowledge himself to be the chief or even a +member of a party; but before he entered the presidency a second time, +he had no manner of doubt that a party existed which was opposed to +him and to all his measures. + +The establishment of the government and the treasury measures had +very quickly rallied a strong party, which kept the name that it had +adopted while fighting the battles of the Constitution. They were +known in their own day, and have been known ever since to history, as +the Federalists. The opposition, composed chiefly of those who had +resisted the adoption of the Constitution, were discredited at the +very start by the success of the union and the new government. When +Jefferson took hold of them they were disorganized and even nameless, +having no better appellation than that of "Anti-Federalists." In +the process of time their great chief gave them a name, a set of +principles, a war-cry, an organization, and at last an overwhelming +victory. They began to take on something like form and coherence in +resisting Hamilton's financial measures; but the success of his policy +was so dazzling that they were rather cowed by it, and were left by +their defeat little better off in the way of discipline than before. +The French Revolution and its consequences, including a war with +England, gave them a much better opportunity. It is melancholy to +think that American parties should have entered upon their first +struggle purely on questions of foreign politics. The only explanation +is to repeat that we were still colonists in all but name and +allegiance, and it was Washington's task not only to establish a +dignified and independent policy of his own abroad, but to beat down +colonial politics at home. + +In the first burst of rejoicing over the uprising of the French +people, no divisions were apparent; but the arrival of Genet was the +signal for their beginning. The extraordinary spectacle was then +presented of an American party arrayed against the administration +under the lead of the French minister, and with the strong, although +covert sympathy of the Secretary of State. The popular feeling in fact +was so strongly with France that the new party seemed on the +surface to have almost universal support. The firm attitude of the +administration and Washington's unyielding adherence to his policy of +neutrality gave them their first serious check, but also embittered +their attacks. In the first three years of the government almost every +one refrained from attacking Washington personally. The unlimited love +and respect in which he was held were the principal causes of this +moderation, but even those opponents who were not influenced by +feelings of respect were restrained by a wholesome prudence from +bringing upon themselves the odium of being enemies of the President. + +The fiction that the king could do no wrong was carried to the last +extreme by the Long Parliament when they made war on Charles in order +to remove him from evil counselors. It was, no doubt, the exercise of +a wise conservatism in that instance; but in the United States, and +in the ordinary condition of politics, such a position was of course +untenable. The President was responsible for his cabinet and for the +measures of his administration, and it was impossible to separate them +long, even when the chief magistrate was so great and so well-beloved +as Washington. Freneau, editing his newspaper from the office of the +Secretary of State, seems to have been the first to break the line. He +passed speedily from attacks on measures to attacks on men, and among +the latter he soon included the President. Washington had had too much +experience of slander and abuse during the revolutionary war to be +worried by them. But Freneau took pains to send him copies of his +newspapers, a piece of impertinence which apparently led to a little +vigorous denunciation, the account of which seems probable, although +our only authority is in Jefferson's "Ana." As the attacks went on and +were extended, and when Bache joined in with the "Aurora," Washington +was not long in coming to the unpleasant conclusion that all this +opposition proceeded from a well-formed plan, and was the work of +a party which designed to break down his measures and ruin his +administration. All statesmen intrusted in a representative system +with the work of government are naturally prone to think that their +opponents are also the enemies of the public welfare, and Washington +was no exception to the rule. Such an opinion is indeed unavoidable, +for a public man must have faith that his own measures are the best +for the country, and if he did not, he would be but a faint-hearted +representative, unfit to govern and unable to lead. History has agreed +with Washington in his view of the work of his administration, and has +set it down as essential to the right and successful foundation of the +government. It is not to be wondered at that at the moment Washington +should regard a party swayed by the French minister and seeking to +involve us in war as unpatriotic and dangerous. He even thought that +one probable solution of Genet's conduct was that he was the tool and +not the leader of the party which sustained him. In fact, his general +view of the opposition was marked by that perfect clearness which was +characteristic of all his opinions when he had fully formed them. In +July, 1793, he wrote to Henry Lee:-- + +"That there are in this as well as in all other countries, +discontented characters, I well know; as also that these characters +are actuated by very different views: some good, from an opinion that +the general measures of the government are impure; some bad, and, if I +might be allowed to use so harsh an expression, diabolical, inasmuch +as they are not only meant to impede the measures of that government +generally, but more especially, as a great means toward the +accomplishment of it, to destroy the confidence which it is necessary +for the people to place, until they have unequivocal proof of demerit, +in their public servants. In this light I consider myself whilst I +am an occupant of office; and if they were to go further and call me +their slave during this period, I would not dispute the point. + +"But in what will this abuse terminate? For the result, as it respects +myself, I care not; for I have a consolation within that no earthly +efforts can deprive me of, and that is, that neither ambition +nor interested motives have influenced my conduct. The arrows of +malevolence, therefore, however barbed and well pointed, never can +reach the most vulnerable part of me; though, whilst I am up as a +_mark_, they will be continually aimed. The publications in Freneau's +and Bache's papers are outrages on common decency, and they progress +in that style in proportion as their pieces are treated with contempt, +and are passed by in silence by those at whom they are aimed. The +tendency of them, however, is too obvious to be mistaken by men of +cool and dispassionate minds, and, in my opinion, ought to alarm them, +because it is difficult to prescribe bounds to the effect." + +He was not much given, however, to talking about his assailants. If he +said anything, it was usually only in the way of contemptuous sarcasm, +as when he wrote to Morris: "The affairs of this country _cannot go +amiss_. There are _so many watchful guardians of them_, and such +_infallible guides_, that one is at no loss for a director at every +turn. But of these matters I shall say little." If these attacks had +any effect on him, it was only to make him more determined in carrying +out his purposes. In the first skirmish, which ended in the recall +of Genet, he not only prevailed, but the French minister's audacity +especially in venturing to appeal to the people against their +President, demoralized the opposition and brought public opinion round +to the side of the administration with an overwhelming force. + +Genet's mischief, however, did not end with him. He had sown the seeds +of many troubles, and among others the idea of societies on the model +of the famous Jacobin Club of Paris. That American citizens should +have so little self-respect as to borrow the political jargon and ape +the political manners of Paris was sad enough. To put on red caps, +drink confusion to tyrants, sing _Ca ira_, and call each other +"citizen," was foolish to the verge of idiocy, but it was at least +harmless. When, however, they began to form "democratic societies" +on the model of the Jacobins, for the defense of liberty against a +government which the people themselves had made, they ceased to be +fatuous and became mischievous. These societies, senseless imitations +of French examples, and having no real cause to defend liberty, became +simply party organizations, with a strong tendency to foster license +and disorder. Washington regarded them with unmixed disgust, for he +attributed to them the agitation and discontent of the settlers beyond +the mountains, which threatened to embroil us with Spain, and he +believed also that the much more serious matter of the whiskey +rebellion was their doing. After having exhausted every reasonable +means of concession and compromise, and having concentrated the best +public opinion of the country behind him, he resolved to put down this +"rebellion" with a strong hand, and he wrote to Henry Lee, just as +he was preparing to take the last step: "It is with equal pride and +satisfaction I add that, as far as my information extends, this +insurrection is viewed with universal indignation and abhorrence, +except by those who have never missed an opportunity, by side-blows +or otherwise, to attack the general government; and even among these +there is not a spirit hardy enough yet openly to justify the daring +infractions of law and order; but by palliatives they are attempting +to suspend all proceedings against the insurgents, until Congress +shall have decided on the case, thereby intending to gain time, and, +if possible, to make the evil more extensive, more formidable, and, of +course, more difficult to counteract and subdue. + +"I consider this insurrection as the first formidable fruit of the +democratic societies, brought forth, I believe, too prematurely for +their own views, which may contribute to the annihilation of them." + +The insurrection vanished on the advance of the forces of the United +States. It had been formidable enough to alarm all conservative +people, and its inglorious end left the opposition, which had given it +a certain encouragement, much discredited. This matter being settled, +Washington determined to strike next at what he considered the chief +sources of the evil, the clubs, which, to use his own words, "were +instituted for the express purpose of poisoning the minds of the +people of this country, and making them discontented with the +government." Accordingly, in his speech to the next Congress he +denounced the democratic societies. After tracing the course of the +whiskey rebellion, he said:-- + +"And when in the calm moments of reflection they [the citizens of +the United States] shall have traced the origin and progress of the +insurrection, let them determine whether it has not been fomented by +combinations of men, who, careless of consequences, and disregarding +the unerring truth, that those who rouse cannot always appease a civil +convulsion, have disseminated, from an ignorance or perversion +of facts, suspicions, jealousies, and accusations of the whole +government." + +The opposition both in Congress and in the newspapers shrieked loudly +over this plain speaking; but when Washington struck a blow, it was +usually well timed, and the present instance was no exception. Coming +immediately after the failure of the insurrection, and the triumph of +the government, this strong expression of the President's disapproval +had a fatal effect upon the democratic societies. They withered away +with the rapidity of weeds when their roots have been skillfully cut. + +After this, even if Washington still refused to consider himself the +head of a party, the opposition no longer had any doubts on that +point. They not only regarded him as the chief of the Federalists, but +also, and with perfect justice, as their own most dangerous enemy, +and the man who had dealt them and their cause the most deadly blows. +Whatever restraint they may have hitherto placed upon themselves in +dealing with him personally, they now abandoned, and the opportunity +for open war soon came to them in the vexed question of the British +treaty, where they occupied much better ground than in the Genet +affair, and commanded much more popular sympathy. Their orators did +not hesitate to say that the conduct of the President in this affair +had been improper and monarchical, and that he ought to be impeached. +After the treaty was signed, the "Aurora" declared that the President +had violated the Constitution, and made a treaty with a nation +abhorred by our people; that he answered the respectful remonstrances +of Boston and New York as if he were the omnipotent director of a +seraglio, and had thundered contempt upon the people with as much +confidence as if he sat upon the throne of "Industan." + +All these remarks and many more of like tenor have been gathered +together and very picturesquely arranged by Mr. McMaster, in whose +volumes they may be studied with advantage by any one who has doubts +as to Washington's political position. It is not probable that the +writer of the brilliant diatribe just quoted had any very distinct +idea about either seraglios or "Industan," but he, and others of like +mind, probably took pleasure in the words, as did the old woman who +always loved to hear Mesopotamia mentioned. Other persons, however, +were more definite in their statements. John Beckley, who had once +been clerk of the House, writing under the very opposite signature of +"A Calm Observer," declared that Washington had been overdrawing his +salary in defiance of law, and had actually stolen in this way $4,750. +Such being the case, the "Calm Observer" very naturally inquired: +"What will posterity say of the man who has done this thing? Will it +not say that the mask of political hypocrisy has been worn by Caesar, +by Cromwell, and by Washington?" Another patriot, also of the +Democratic party, declared that the President had been false to +a republican government. He said that Washington maintained the +seclusion of a monk and the supercilious distance of a tyrant; and +that the concealing carriage drawn by supernumerary horses expressed +the will of the President, and defined the loyal duty of the people. + +The support of Genet, the democratic societies, and now this concerted +and bitter opposition to the Jay treaty, convinced Washington, if +conviction were needed, that he could carry on his administration only +by the help of those who were thoroughly in sympathy with his policy +and purposes. When Jefferson left the State Department, the President +promoted Randolph, and put Bradford, a Federalist, in the place of +Attorney-General. When Hamilton left the Treasury, Oliver Wolcott, +Hamilton's right-hand man, and the staunchest of party men, was +given the position thus left vacant. If Randolph had remained in the +cabinet, he would have become a Federalist. Like all men disposed to +turn, when he was compelled to jump he sprang far, as was shown by +his signing the treaty and memorial, both of which he strongly +disapproved. He was quite ready to fall in with the rest of the +cabinet, but on account of the Fauchet dispatch he resigned. Then +Washington, after offering the portfolio to several persons known to +be in hearty sympathy with him, took the risk of giving it to Timothy +Pickering, who was by no means a safe leader, rather than take any +chance of getting another adviser who was not entirely of his own way +of thinking. At the same time he gave the secretaryship of war to +James McHenry, a most devoted personal friend and follower. He still +held back from calling himself a party chief, but he had discovered, +as William of Orange discovered, that he could not, even with his iron +will and lofty intent, overcome the impossible, alter human nature, +or carry on a successful government under a representative system, +without the assistance of a party. He stated his conclusion with his +wonted plainness in a letter to Pickering written in September, 1795, +in the midst of the struggle over the treaty. "I shall not," he said, +"whilst I have the honor to administer the government, bring a man +into any office of consequence knowingly, whose political tenets are +adverse to the measures which the general government are pursuing; for +this, in my opinion, would be a sort of political suicide. That it +would embarrass its movements is most certain." A terser statement of +the doctrine of party government it would be difficult to find, and +in the conduct of Monroe and the course of the opposition journals +Washington had ample proofs of the soundness of his theory. + +If he had needed to be strengthened in his determination, his +opponents furnished the requisite aid. In February, 1796, the House +refused to adjourn on his birthday for half an hour, in order to go +and pay him their respects, as had been the pleasant custom up to that +time. The Democrats of that day were in no confusion of mind as to the +party to which Washington belonged, and they did not hesitate to put +this deliberate slight upon him in order to mark their dislike. This +was not the utterance of a newspaper editor, but the well-considered +act of the representatives of a party in Congress. Party feeling, +indeed, could hardly have gone further; and this single incident is +sufficient to dispel the pleasing delusion that party strife and +bitterness are the product of modern days, and of more advanced forms +of political organization. + +Yet despite all these attacks there can be no doubt that Washington's +hold upon the masses of the people was substantially unshaken. They +would have gladly seen him assume the presidency for the third time, +and if the test had been made, thousands of men who gave their votes +to the opposition would have still supported him for the greatest +office in their gift. But this time Washington would not yield to the +wishes of his friends or of the country. He felt that he had done his +work and earned the rest and the privacy for which he longed above all +earthly things. In September, 1796, he published his farewell address, +and no man ever left a nobler political testament. Through much +tribulation he had done his great part in establishing the government +of the Union, which might easily have come to naught without his +commanding influence. He had imparted to it the dignity of his own +great character. He had sustained the splendid financial policy of +Hamilton. He had struck a fatal blow at the colonial spirit in our +politics, and had lifted up our foreign policy to a plane worthy of an +independent nation. He had stricken off the fetters which impeded the +march of western settlement, and without loss of honor had gained time +to enable our institutions to harden and become strong. He had made +peace with our most dangerous enemies, and, except in the case of +France, where there were perilous complications to be solved by his +successor, he left the United States in far better and more honorable +relations with the rest of the world than even the most sanguine would +have dared to hope when the Constitution was formed. Now from the +heights of great achievement he turned to say farewell to the people +whom he so much loved, and whom he had so greatly served. Every word +was instinct with the purest and wisest patriotism. "Be united," he +said; "be Americans. The name which belongs to you, in your national +capacity, must exalt the just pride of patriotism more than any +appellation derived from local discriminations. Let there be no +sectionalism, no North, South, East or West; you are all dependent one +on another, and should be one in union. Beware of attacks, open or +covert, upon the Constitution. Beware of the baneful effects of +party spirit and of the ruin to which its extremes must lead. Do not +encourage party spirit, but use every effort to mitigate and assuage +it. Keep the departments of government separate, promote education, +cherish the public credit, avoid debt. Observe justice and good faith +toward all nations; have neither passionate hatreds nor passionate +attachments to any; and be independent politically of all. In one +word, be a nation, be Americans, and be true to yourselves." + +His admonitions were received by the people at large with profound +respect, and sank deep into the public mind. As the generations have +come and gone, the farewell address has grown dearer to the hearts of +the people, and the children and the children's children of those to +whom it was addressed have turned to it in all times and known that +there was no room for error in following its counsel. + +Yet at the moment, notwithstanding the general sadness at Washington's +retirement and the deep regard for his last words of advice, the +opposition was so thoroughly hostile that they seized on the address +itself as a theme for renewed attack upon its author. "His character," +said one Democrat, "can only be respectable while it is not known; he +is arbitrary, avaricious, ostentatious; without skill as a soldier, he +has crept into fame by the places he has held. His financial measures +burdened the many to enrich the few. History will tear the pages +devoted to his praise. France and his country gave him fame, and they +will take that fame away." "His glory has dissolved in mist," said +another writer, "and he has sunk from the high level of Solon or +Lycurgus to the mean rank of a Dutch Stadtholder or a Venetian +Doge. Posterity will look in vain for any marks of wisdom in his +administration." + +To thoughtful persons these observations are not without a curious +interest, as showing that even the wisest of men may be in error. The +distinguished Democrat who uttered these remarks has been forgotten, +and the page of history on which Washington's name was inscribed is +still untorn. The passage of the address, however, which gave the most +offense, as Mr. McMaster points out, was, as might have been expected +from the colonial condition of our politics, that which declared it +to be our true policy "to steer clear of permanent alliances with any +portion of the foreign world." This, it was held, simply meant that, +having made a treaty with England, we were to be stopped from making +one with France. Another distinguished editor declared that the +farewell address came from the meanest of motives; that the President +knew he could not be reelected because the Republicans would have +united to supersede him with Adams, who had the simplicity of a +Republican, while Washington had the ostentation of an Eastern Pasha, +and it was in order to save himself from this humiliation that he had +cunningly resigned. + +When Washington met his last Congress, William Giles of Virginia took +the opportunity afforded by the usual answer to the President's speech +to assail him personally. It would be of course a gross injustice to +suppose that a coarse political ruffian like Giles really represented +the Democratic party. But he represented the extreme wing, and after +he had declared in his place that Washington was neither wise nor +patriotic, and that his retirement was anything but a calamity, he got +twelve of his party friends to sustain his sentiments by voting +with him. The press was even more unbridled, and it was said in the +"Aurora" at this time that Washington had debauched and deceived +the nation, and that his administration had shown that the mask of +patriotism may be worn to conceal the foulest dangers to the liberties +of the people. Over and over again it was said by these writers that +he had betrayed France and was the slave of England. + +This charge of being a British sympathizer was the only one of all the +abuse heaped upon him by the opposition that Washington seems really +to have resented. In August, 1794, when this slander first started +from the prolific source of all attacks against the government, he +wrote to Henry Lee: "With respect to the words said to have been +uttered by Mr. Jefferson, they would be enigmatical to those who are +acquainted with the characters about me, unless supposed to be spoken +ironically; and in that case they are too injurious to me, and have +too little foundation in truth, to be ascribed to him. There could not +be the trace of doubt in his mind of predilection in mine toward Great +Britain or her politics, unless, which I do not believe, he has set me +down as one of the most deceitful and uncandid men living; because, +not only in private conversations between ourselves on this subject, +but in my meetings with the confidential servants of the public, he +has heard me often, when occasions presented themselves, express very +different sentiments, with an energy that could not be mistaken by any +one present. + +"Having determined, as far as lay within the power of the executive, +to keep this country in a state of neutrality, I have made my public +conduct accord with the system; and whilst so acting as a public +character, consistency and propriety as a private man forbid those +intemperate expressions in favor of one nation, or to the prejudice of +another, which may have wedged themselves in, and, I will venture to +add, to the embarrassment of government, without producing any good to +the country." + +He had shown by his acts as well as by his words his real friendship +for France, such as a proper sense of gratitude required. As has been +already pointed out, rather than run the risk of seeming to reflect in +the slightest degree upon the government of the French republic, he +had refused even to receive distinguished _emigres_ like Noailles, +Liancourt, and Talleyrand.[1] He was so scrupulous in this respect +that he actually did violence to his own strong desires in not taking +into his house at once the son of Lafayette; and when it became +necessary to choose a successor to Morris, his anxiety was so great +to select some one agreeable to France that he took such an avowed +opponent of his administration as Monroe. + +[Footnote 1: See the Letter to the Due de Liancourt explaining the +reasons for his not being received by the President. (Sparks, xi. +161.)] + +On the other hand, he had never lost the strong feeling of hostility +toward England which he, above all men, had felt during the +Revolution. The conduct of England, when he was seeking an honorable +peace with her, tried his patience severely. He wrote to Morris in +1795: "I give you these details (and if you should again converse with +Lord Grenville on the subject, you are at liberty, unofficially, +to mention them, or any of them, according to circumstances), as +evidences of the unpolitic conduct (for so it strikes me) of the +British government towards these United States; that it may be +seen how difficult it has been for the executive, under such an +accumulation of irritating circumstances, to maintain the ground of +neutrality which had been taken; and at a time when the remembrance +of the aid we had received from France in the Revolution was fresh in +every mind, and while the partisans of that country were continually +contrasting the affections of _that_ people with the unfriendly +disposition of the _British government_. And that, too, as I have +observed before, while _their own_ sufferings during the war with the +latter had not been forgotten." The one man in the country who above +all others had the highest conception of American nationality, who +was the first to seek to lift up our politics from the low level of +colonialism, who was the author of the neutrality policy, had reason +to resent the bitter irony of an attack which represented him as a +British sympathizer. The truth is, that the only foreign party at that +time was that which identified itself with France, and which was +the party of Jefferson and the opposition. The Federalists and +the administration under the lead of Washington and Hamilton were +determined that the government should be American and not French, and +this in the eyes of their opponents was equivalent to being in the +control of England. In after years, when the Federalists fell from +power and declined into the position of a factious minority, they +became British sympathizers, and as thoroughly colonial in their +politics as the party of Jefferson had been. If they had had the +wisdom of their better days they would then have made themselves the +champions of the American idea, and would have led the country in the +determined effort to free itself once for all from colonial politics, +even if they were obliged to fight somebody to accomplish it. They +proved unequal to the task, and it fell to a younger generation led by +Henry Clay and his contemporaries to sweep Federalist and Jeffersonian +republican alike, with their French and British politics, out of +existence. In so doing the younger generation did but complete the +work of Washington, for he it was who first trod the path and marked +the way for a true American policy in the midst of men who could not +understand his purposes. + +Bitter and violent as had been the attacks upon Washington while he +held office, they were as nothing compared to the shout of fierce +exultation which went up from the opposition journals when he finally +retired from the presidency. One extract will serve as an example of +the general tone of the opposition journals throughout the country. It +is to be found in the "Aurora" of March 6, 1797:-- + + "'Lord, now lettest Thou Thy servant depart in peace,' was the + pious ejaculation of a pious man who beheld a flood of happiness + rushing in upon mankind. If ever there was a time that would + license the reiteration of the ejaculation, that time has now + arrived, for the man who is the source of all the misfortunes + of our country is this day reduced to a level with his + fellow-citizens, and is no longer possessed of power to multiply + evils upon the United States. If ever there was a period for + rejoicing, this is the moment. Every heart in unison with the + freedom and happiness of the people ought to beat high with + exultation that the name of Washington ceases from this day to + give currency to political insults, and to legalize corruption. A + new era is now opening upon us, an era which promises much to the + people, for public measures must now stand upon their own merits, + and nefarious projects can no longer be supported by a name. When + a retrospect has been taken of the Washingtonian administration + for eight years, it is a subject of the greatest astonishment + that a single individual should have cankered the principles of + republicanism in an enlightened people just emerged from the gulf + of despotism, and should have carried his designs against the + public liberty so far as to have put in jeopardy its very + existence. Such, however, are the facts, and with these staring us + in the face, the day ought to be a JUBILEE in the United States." + +This was not the outburst of a single malevolent spirit. The article +was copied and imitated in New York and Boston, and wherever the +party that called Jefferson leader had a representative among the +newspapers. It is not probable that stuff of this sort gave Washington +himself a moment's anxiety, for he knew too well what he had done, and +he was too sure of his own hold upon the hearts of the people, to be +in the least disturbed by the attacks of hostile editors. But the +extracts are of interest as showing that the opposition party of that +time, the party organized and led by Jefferson, regarded Washington as +their worst enemy, and assailed him and slandered him to the utmost. +They even went so far as to borrow materials from the enemies of the +country with whom we had lately been at war, by publishing the forged +letters attributed to Washington, and circulated by the British in +1777, in order to discredit the American general. One of Washington's +last acts, on March 3, 1797, was to file in the State Department a +solemn declaration that these letters, then republished by an American +political party, were base forgeries, of English origin in a time of +war. His own view of this performance is given in a letter to Benjamin +Walker, in which he said: "Amongst other attempts, ... spurious +letters, known at the time of their first publication (I believe in +the year 1777) to be forgeries, are (or extracts from them) brought +forward with the highest emblazoning of which they are susceptible, +with a view to attach principles to me which every action of my life +has given the lie to. But that is no stumbling-block with the editors +of these papers and their supporters." + +Two or three extracts from private letters will show how Washington +regarded the course of the opposition, and the interpretation he put +upon their attacks. After sketching in a letter to David Stuart the +general course of the hostilities toward his administration, he said: +"This not working so well as was expected, from a supposition that +there was too much confidence in, and perhaps personal regard for, the +present chief magistrate and his politics, the batteries have lately +been leveled against him particularly and personally. Although he is +soon to become a private citizen, his opinions are knocked down, and +his character reduced as low as they are capable of sinking it, even +by resorting to absolute falsehoods." Again he said, just before +leaving office: "To misrepresent my motives, to reprobate my +politics, and to weaken the confidence which has been reposed in my +administration, are objects which cannot be relinquished by those who +will be satisfied with nothing short of a change in our political +system." He at least labored under no misapprehension after eight +years of trial as to the position or purposes of the party which had +fought him and his administration, and which had savagely denounced +his measures at every step, and with ever-increasing violence. + +Having defined the attitude of the opposition, we can now consider +that of Washington himself after he had retired from office, and no +longer felt restrained by the circumstances of his election to the +presidency from openly declaring his views, or publicly identifying +himself with a political party. He rightly regarded the administration +of Mr. Adams as a continuation of his own, and he gave to it a cordial +support. He was equally clear and determined in his distrust and +dislike of the opposition. Not long before leaving office he had +written a letter to Jefferson, which, while it exonerated that +gentleman from being the author of certain peculiarly malicious +attacks, showed very plainly that the writer completely understood the +position occupied by his former secretary. It was a letter which +must have been most unpleasant reading for the person to whom it +was addressed. A year later he wrote to John Nicholas in regard +to Jefferson: "Nothing short of the evidence you have adduced, +corroborative of intimations which I had received long before through +another channel, could have shaken my belief in the sincerity of a +friendship which I had conceived was possessed for me by the person to +whom you allude." There was no doubt in his mind now as to Jefferson's +conduct, and he knew at last that he had been his foe even when a +member of his political household. + +When the time came to fill the offices in the provisional army made +necessary by the menace of war with France, Washington wrote to the +President that he ought to have generals who were men of activity, +energy, health, and "sound politics," carrying apparently his +suspicion of the opposition even to disbelieving in them as soldiers. +He repeated the same idea in a letter to McHenry, in which he said: +"I do not conceive that a desirable set could be formed from the old +generals, some having never displayed any talent for enterprise, +and others having shown a general opposition to the government, or +predilection to French measures, be their present conduct what it +may." + +When the question arose in regard to the relative rank of the +major-generals, Washington said to Knox: "No doubt remained in my mind +that Colonel Hamilton was designated second in command (and first, if +I should decline an acceptance) by the Federal characters of Congress; +whence alone anything like a public sentiment relative thereto could +be deduced." He was quite clear that there was no use in looking +beyond the confines of the Federal party for any public sentiment +worth considering. He had serious doubts also as to the advisability +of having the opponents of the government in the army, and wrote to +McHenry on September 30, 1798, that brawlers against the government in +certain parts of Virginia had suddenly become silent and were seeking +commissions in the army. "The motives ascribed to them are that in +such a situation they would endeavor to divide and contaminate the +army by artful and seditious discourses, and perhaps at a critical +moment bring on confusion. What weight to give to these conjectures +you can judge as well as I. But as there will be characters enough +of an opposite description who are ready to receive appointments, +circumspection is necessary. Finding the resentment of the people +at the conduct of France too strong to be resisted, they have in +appearance adopted their sentiments, and pretend that, notwithstanding +the misconduct of the government has brought it upon us, yet if an +invasion should take place, it will be found that _they_ will be among +the first to defend it. This is their story at all elections and +election meetings, and told in many instances with effect." He wrote +again in the same strain to McHenry, on October 21: "Possibly no +injustice would be done, if I were to proceed a step further, and give +it as an opinion that most of the candidates [for the army] brought +forward by the opposition members possess sentiments similar to their +own, and might poison the army by disseminating them, if they were +appointed." In this period of danger, when the country was on the +verge of war, the attitude of the opposition gave Washington much food +for thought because it appeared to him so false and unpatriotic. In +a letter to Lafayette, written on Christmas day, 1798, he gave the +following brief sketch of the opposition: "A party exists in the +United States, formed by a combination of causes, which opposed the +government in all its measures, and are determined, as all their +conduct evinces, by clogging its wheels indirectly to change the +nature of it, and to subvert the Constitution. The friends of +government, who are anxious to maintain its neutrality and to preserve +the country in peace, and adopt measures to secure these objects, are +charged by them as being monarchists, aristocrats, and infractors of +the Constitution, which according to their interpretation of it would +be a mere cipher. They arrogated to themselves ... the sole merit of +being the friends of France, when in fact they had no more regard for +that nation than for the Grand Turk, further than their own views +were promoted by it; denouncing those who differed in opinion (those +principles are purely American and whose sole view was to observe +a strict neutrality) as acting under British influence, and being +directed by her counsels, or as being her pensioners." + +Shortly before this sharp definition was written, an incident had +occurred which had given Washington an opportunity of impressing his +views directly and personally upon a distinguished leader of the +opposite party. Dr. Logan of Philadelphia, under the promptings of +Jefferson, as was commonly supposed, had gone on a volunteer mission +to Paris for the purpose of bringing about peace between the two +republics. He had apparently a fixed idea that there was something +very monstrous in our having any differences with France, and being +somewhat of a busybody, although a most worthy man, he felt called +upon to settle the international complications which were then +puzzling the brains and trying the patience of the ablest men in +America. It is needless to say that his mission was not a success, and +he was eventually so unmercifully ridiculed by the Federalist editors +that he published a long pamphlet in his own defense. Upon his return, +however, he seems to have been not a little pleased with himself, and +he took occasion to call upon Washington, who was then in Philadelphia +on business. It would be difficult to conceive anything more +distasteful to Washington than such a mission as Logan's, or that he +could have a more hearty contempt for any one than for a meddler of +this description, who by his interference might help to bring his +country into contempt. He was sufficiently impressed, however, by Dr. +Logan's call to draw up a memorandum, which gave a very realistic and +amusing account of it. It may be surmised that when Washington wished +to be cold in his manner, he was capable of being very freezing, and +he was not very apt at concealing his emotions when he found himself +in the presence of any one whom he disliked and disapproved. The +memorandum is as follows:-- + +"_Tuesday, November_ 13, 1798.--Mr. Lear, my secretary, being from our +lodgings on business, one of my servants came into the room where +I was writing and informed me that a gentleman in the parlor below +desired to see me; no name was sent up. In a few minutes I went down, +and found the Rev. Dr. Blackwell and Dr. Logan there. I advanced +towards and gave my hand to the former; the latter did the same +towards me. I was backward in giving mine. He, possibly supposing from +hence that I did not recollect him, said his name was Logan. Finally, +in a very cold manner, and with an air of marked indifference, I gave +him my hand and asked _Dr. Blackwell to be seated_; the other _took_ +a seat at the same time. I addressed _all_ my conversation to Dr. +Blackwell; the other all his to me, to which I only gave negative or +affirmative answers as laconically as I could, except asking him how +Mrs. Logan did. He seemed disposed to be very polite, and while Dr. +Blackwell and myself were conversing on the late calamitous fever, +offered me an asylum at his house, if it should return or I thought +myself in any danger in the city, and two or three rooms, by way of +accommodation. I thanked him slightly, observing there would be no +call for it." + +"About this time Dr. Blackwell took his leave. We all rose from our +seats, and I moved a few paces toward the door of the room, expecting +the other would follow and take his leave also." + +The worthy Quaker, however, was not to be got rid of so easily. He +literally stood his ground, and went on talking of a number of things, +chiefly about Lafayette and his family, and an interview with Mr. +Murray, our minister in Holland. Washington, meanwhile, stood facing +him, and to use his own words, "showed the utmost inattention," while +his visitor described his journey to Paris. Finally Logan said that +his purpose in going to France was to ameliorate the condition of +our relations with that country. "This," said Washington, "drew my +attention more pointedly to what he was saying and induced me to +remark that there was something very singular in this; that _he_, +who could only be viewed as a private character, unarmed with proper +powers, and presumptively unknown in France, should suppose he could +effect what three gentlemen of the first respectability in our +country, especially charged under the authority of the government, +were unable to do." One is not surprised to be then told that Dr. +Logan seemed a little confounded at this observation; but he recovered +himself, and went on to say that only five persons knew of his going, +and that his letters from Mr. Jefferson and Mr. McKean obtained for +him an interview with M. Merlin, president of the Directory, who had +been most friendly in his expressions. To this Washington replied +with some very severe strictures on the conduct of France; and the +conversation, which must by this time have become a little strained, +soon after came to an end. One cannot help feeling a good deal of +sympathy for the excellent doctor, although he was certainly a +busybody and, one would naturally infer, a bore as well. It would have +been, however, a pity to have lost this memorandum, and there is every +reason to regret that Washington did not oftener exercise his evident +powers for realistic reporting. Nothing, moreover, could bring out +better his thorough contempt for the opposition and their attitude +toward France than this interview with the volunteer commissioner. + +There were, however, much more serious movements made by the +Democratic party than well-meant and meddling attempts to make +peace with France. This was the year of the Kentucky and Virginia +resolutions, the first note of that disunion sentiment which was +destined one day to involve the country in civil war and be fought out +on a hundred battlefields. Washington, with his love for the Union and +for nationality ever uppermost in his heart, was quick to take alarm, +and it cut him especially to think that a movement which he esteemed +at once desperate and wicked should emanate from his own State, and as +we now know, and as he perhaps suspected, from a great Virginian +whom he had once trusted. He straightway set himself to oppose this +movement with all his might, and he summoned to his aid that other +great Virginian who in his early days had been the first to rouse the +people against oppression, and who now in his old age, in response to +Washington's appeal, came again into the forefront in behalf of the +Constitution and the union of the States. The letter which Washington +wrote to Patrick Henry on this occasion is one of the most important +that he ever penned, but there is room to quote only a single passage +here. + +"At such a crisis as this," he said, "when everything dear and +valuable to us is assailed, when this party hangs upon the wheels of +government as a dead weight, opposing every measure that is calculated +for defense and self-preservation, abetting the nefarious views of +another nation upon our rights, preferring, as long as they dare +contend openly against the spirit and resentment of the people, the +interest of France to the welfare of their own country, justifying +the former at the expense of the latter; when every act of their own +government is tortured, by constructions they will not bear, into +attempts to infringe and trample upon the Constitution with a view to +introduce monarchy; when the most unceasing and the purest exertions +which were making to maintain a neutrality ... are charged with being +measures calculated to favor Great Britain at the expense of France, +and all those who had any agency in it are accused of being under +the influence of the former and her pensioners; when measures are +systematically and pertinaciously pursued, which must eventually +dissolve the Union or produce coercion; I say, when these things have +become so obvious, ought characters who are best able to rescue their +country from the pending evil to remain at home?... + +"Vain will it be to look for peace and happiness, or for the security +of liberty or property, if civil discord should ensue. And what else +can result from the policy of those among us, who, by all the measures +in their power, are driving matters to extremity, if they cannot be +counteracted effectually? The views of men can only be known, or +guessed at, by their words or actions. Can those of the _leaders_ of +opposition be mistaken, then, if judged by this rule? That they are +followed by numbers, who are unacquainted with their designs and +suspect as little the tendency of their principles, I am fully +persuaded. But if their conduct is viewed with indifference, if there +are activity and misrepresentations on one side and supineness on +the other, their numbers accumulated by intriguing and discontented +foreigners under proscription, who were at war with their own +government, and the greater part of them with _all_ governments, they +will increase, and nothing short of omniscience can foretell the +consequences." + +It would have been difficult to draw a severer indictment of the +opposition party than that given in this letter, but there is one +other letter even more striking in its contents, without which no +account of the relation of Washington to the two great parties which +sprang up under his administration would be complete. It was addressed +to Governor Trumbull of Connecticut, was written on July 21, 1799, +less than six months before his death, and although printed, has +been hidden away in the appendix to the "Life of Benjamin Silliman." +Governor Trumbull, who bore the name and filled the office of +Washington's old revolutionary friend, had written to the general, as +many other Federalists were writing at that time, urging him to come +forward and stand once more for the presidency, that he might heal the +dissensions in his own party and save the country from the impending +disaster of Jefferson's election. That Washington refused all these +requests is of course well known, but his reasons as stated to +Trumbull are of great interest. "I come now," he said, "my dear sir, +to pay particular attention to that part of your letter which respects +myself. + +"I remember well the conversation which you allude to. I have not +forgot the answer I gave you. In my judgment it applies with as much +force _now_ as _then_; nay, more, because at that time the line +between the parties was not so clearly drawn, and the views of the +opposition so clearly developed as they are at present. Of course +allowing your observation (as it respects myself) to be well founded, +personal influence would be of no avail. + +"Let that party set up a broomstick, and call it a true son of +liberty,--a democrat,--or give it any other epithet that will suit +their purpose, and it will command their votes _in toto_![1] Will not +the Federalists meet, or rather defend, their cause on the opposite +ground? Surely they must, or they will discover a want of policy, +indicative of weakness and pregnant of mischief, which cannot be +admitted. Wherein, then, would lie the difference between the present +gentleman in office and myself? + +[Footnote 1: "As an analysis of this position, look to the pending +election of governor in Pennsylvania."] + +"It would be matter of grave regret to me if I could believe that a +serious thought was turned toward me as his successor, not only as +it respects my ardent wishes to pass through the vale of life in +retirement, undisturbed in the remnant of the days I have to sojourn +here, unless called upon to defend my country (which every citizen is +bound to do); but on public grounds also; for although I have abundant +cause to be thankful for the good health with which I am blessed, yet +I am not insensible to my declination in other respects. It would +be criminal, therefore, in me, although it should be the wish of my +countrymen and I could be elected, to accept an office under this +conviction which another would discharge with more ability; and this, +too, at a time when I am thoroughly convinced I should not draw a +_single_ vote from the anti-Federal side, and of course should stand +upon no other ground _than any other Federal character_[1] well +supported; and when I should become a mark for the shafts of envenomed +malice and the basest calumny to fire at,--when I should be charged +not only with irresolution but with concealed ambition, which waits +only an occasion to blaze out, and, in short, with dotage and +imbecility. + +[Footnote 1: These italics are mine.] + +"All this, I grant, ought to be like dust in the balance, when put in +competition with a _great_ public good, when the accomplishment of it +is apparent. But, as no problem is better defined in my mind than that +principle, not men, is now, and will be, the object of contention; and +that I could not obtain a _solitary_ vote from that party; _that any +other respectable Federal character could receive the same suffrages +that I should_;[1] that at my time of life (verging towards threescore +and ten) I should expose myself without rendering any essential +service to my country, or answering the end contemplated; prudence on +my part must avert any attempt of the well-meant but mistaken views of +my friends to introduce me again into the chair of government." + +[Footnote 1: These italics are mine.] + +It does not fall within the scope of this biography to attempt to +portray the history or weigh the merits of the two parties which came +into existence at the close of the last century, and which, under +varying names, have divided the people of the United States ever +since. But it is essential here to define the relation of Washington +toward them because one hears it constantly said and sees it as +constantly written down, that Washington belonged to no party, which +is perhaps a natural, but is certainly a complete misconception. +Washington came to the presidency by a unanimous vote. He had in his +mind very strongly the idea of the framers of the Constitution that +the President, by the method of his election and by his independence +of the other departments of government, was to be above and beyond +party, and the representative of the whole people. In addition to this +he was so absorbed by the great conception which he had of the future +of the country, and was so confident of the purity and rectitude of +his own purposes, that he was loath to think that party divisions +could arise while he held the chief magistracy. It was not long +before he was undeceived on this point, and he soon found that party +divisions sprang up from the measures of his own administration. +Nevertheless, he clung to his determination to govern without the +assistance of a party as such. When this, too, became impossible, he +still felt that the unanimity of his election required that he should +not declare himself to be the head of a party; but he had become +thoroughly convinced that under the representative system of the +Constitution party government could not be avoided. In his farewell +address he warned the people against the excesses of that party +spirit which he deplored; but he did not suggest that it could be +extinguished. Being a wise and far-seeing man, he saw that if party +government was an evil, it also was under a free representative +system, and in the present condition of human nature a necessary evil, +furnishing the only machinery by which public affairs could be carried +on. + +In a time of deep political excitement and strong party feeling, +Washington was the last man in the world not to be decidedly on one +side or the other. He was possessed of too much sense, force, and +virility to be content to hold himself aloof and croak over the +wickedness of people, who were trying to do something, even if +they did not always try in the most perfect way. He was himself +preeminently a doer of deeds, and not a critic or a phrase-maker, and +we can read very distinctly in the extracts which have been brought +together in this chapter what he thought on party and public +questions. He was opposed to the party which had resisted all the +great measures of his administration from the foundation of the +government of the United States. They had assailed and maligned him +and his ministers, and he regarded them as political enemies. He +believed in the principles of that party which had supported the +financial policy of Hamilton and his own policy of neutrality toward +foreign nations. He was opposed to the party which introduced the +interests of France as the leading issue of American politics, and +which embodied the doctrines of nullification and separatism in the +resolutions of Kentucky and Virginia. In one word, Washington, in +policies and politics, was an American and a Nationalist; and the +National and American party, from 1789 to 1801, was the Federalist +party. It may be added that it was the only party which, at that +precise time, could claim those qualities. While he remained in the +presidency he would not declare himself to be of any party; but as +soon as this fetter was removed, he declared himself freely after his +fashion, expressing in words what he had formerly only expressed in +action. His feelings warmed and strengthened as the controversy with +France deepened, and as the attitude of the opposition became more +un-American and leaned more and more to separatism. They culminated +at last in the eloquent letter to Patrick Henry, and in the carefully +weighed words with which he tells Trumbull that he can hope for no +more votes than "any other Federal character." + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +THE LAST YEARS + + +Washington had entered upon the presidency with the utmost reluctance, +and at the sacrifice of all he considered pleasantest and best in +life. He took it and held it for eight years from a sense of duty, +and with no desire to retain it beyond that which every man feels +who wishes to finish a great work that he has undertaken. He looked +forward to the approaching end of his second term with a feeling of +intense relief, and compared himself to the wearied traveler who sees +the resting-place where he is at length to have repose. On March 3 he +gave a farewell dinner to the President and Vice-President elect, the +foreign ministers and their wives, and other distinguished persons, +from one of whom we learn that it was a very pleasant and lively +gathering. When the cloth was removed Washington filled his glass and +said: "Ladies and gentlemen, this is the last time I shall drink +your health as a public man. I do it with sincerity, wishing you all +possible happiness." The company did not take the same cheerful view +as their host of this leave-taking. There was a pause in the gayety, +some of the ladies shed tears, and the little incident only served to +show the warm affection felt for Washington by every one who came in +close contact with him. + +The next day the last official ceremonies were performed. After +Jefferson had taken the oath as Vice-President and had proceeded with +the Senate to the House of Representatives, which was densely crowded, +Washington entered and was received with cheers and shouts, the waving +of handkerchiefs, and an enthusiasm which seemed to know no bounds. +Mr. Adams followed him almost immediately and delivered his inaugural +address, in which he paid a stately compliment to the great virtues of +his predecessor. It was the setting and not the rising sun, however, +that drew the attention of the multitude, and as Washington left the +hall there was a wild rush from the galleries to the corridors and +then into the streets to see him pass. He took off his hat and bowed +to the people, but they followed him even to his own door, where +he turned once more and, unable to speak, waved to them a silent +farewell. + +In the evening of the same day a great banquet was given to him by +the merchants of Philadelphia, and when he entered the band played +"Washington's March," and a series of emblematic paintings were +disclosed, the chief of which represented the ex-President at Mount +Vernon surrounded by the allegorical figures then so fashionable. +After the festivities Washington lingered for a few days in +Philadelphia to settle various private matters and then started for +home. Whether he was going or coming, whether he was about to take the +great office of President or retire to the privacy of Mount Vernon, +the same popular enthusiasm greeted him. When he was really brought in +contact with the people, the clamors of the opposition press and the +attacks of the Jeffersonian editors all faded away and were forgotten. +On March 12 he reached Baltimore, and the local newspaper of the next +day said:-- + +"Last evening arrived in this city, on his way to Mount Vernon, the +illustrious object of veneration and gratitude, GEORGE WASHINGTON. His +excellency was accompanied by his lady and Miss Custis, and by the son +of the unfortunate Lafayette and his preceptor. At a distance from +the city, he was met by a crowd of citizens, on horse and foot, who +thronged the road to greet him, and by a detachment from Captain +Hollingsworth's troop, who escorted him in through as great a +concourse of people as Baltimore ever witnessed. On alighting at the +Fountain Inn, the general was saluted with reiterated and thundering +huzzas from the spectators. His excellency, with the companions of his +journey, leaves town, we understand, this morning." + +Thus with the cheers and the acclamations still ringing in his ears +he came home again to Mount Vernon, where he found at once plenty +of occupation, which in some form was always a necessity to him. An +absence of eight years had not improved the property. On April 3 he +wrote to McHenry: "I find myself in the situation nearly of a new +beginner; for, although I have not houses to build (except one, which +I must erect for the accommodation and security of my military, civil, +and private papers, which are voluminous and may be interesting), +yet I have scarcely anything else about me that does not require +considerable repairs. In a word, I am already surrounded by joiners, +masons, and painters; and such is my anxiety to get out of their +hands, that I have scarcely a room to put a friend into or to sit +in myself without the music of hammers or the odoriferous scent of +paint." He easily dropped back into the round of country duties and +pleasures, and the care of farms and plantations, which had always +had for him so much attraction. "To make and sell a little flour +annually," he wrote to Wolcott, "to repair houses going fast to ruin, +to build one for the security of my papers of a public nature, will +constitute employment for the few years I have to remain on this +terrestrial globe." Again he said to McHenry: "You are at the source +of information, and can find many things to relate, while I have +nothing to say that would either inform or amuse a secretary of war at +Philadelphia. I might tell him that I begin my diurnal course with the +sun; that if my hirelings are not in their places by that time I send +them messages of sorrow for their indisposition; that having put these +wheels in motion I examine the state of things further; that the more +they are probed the deeper I find the wounds which my buildings have +sustained by an absence and neglect of eight years; that by the time +I have accomplished these matters breakfast (a little after seven +o'clock, about the time I presume that you are taking leave of Mrs. +McHenry) is ready; that this being over I mount my horse and ride +round my farms, which employs me until it is time to dress for dinner, +at which I rarely miss seeing strange faces, come, as they say, out of +respect for me. Pray, would not the word curiosity answer as well? +And how different this from having a few social friends at a cheerful +board. The usual time of sitting at table, a walk, and tea bring me +within the dawn of candle-light; previous to which, if not prevented +by company, I resolve that as soon as the glimmering taper supplies +the place of the great luminary I will retire to my writing-table and +acknowledge the letters I have received; that when the lights +are brought I feel tired and disinclined to engage in this work, +conceiving that the next night will do as well. The next night comes +and with it the same causes for postponement, and so on. Having given +you the history of a day, it will serve for a year, and I am persuaded +you will not require a second edition of it. But it may strike you +that in this detail no mention is made of any portion of time allotted +for reading. The remark would be just, for I have not looked into a +book since I came home; nor shall I be able to do it until I have +discharged my workmen; probably not before the nights grow longer, +when possibly I may be looking in Doomsday book." + +There is not much that can be added to his own concise description of +the simple life he led at home. The rest and quiet were very pleasant, +but still there was a touch of sadness in his words. The long interval +of absence made the changes which time had wrought stand out more +vividly than if they had come one by one in the course of daily life +at home. Washington looked on the ruins of Belvoir, and sighed to +think of the many happy hours he had passed with the Fairfaxes, now +gone from the land forever. Other old friends had been taken away +by death, and the gaps were not filled by the new faces of which he +speaks to McHenry. Indeed, the crowd of visitors coming to Mount +Vernon from all parts of his own country and of the world, whether +they came from respect or curiosity, brought a good deal of weariness +to a man tired with the cares of state and longing for absolute +repose. Yet he would not close his doors to any one, for the Virginian +sense of hospitality, always peculiarly strong in him, forbade such +action. To relieve himself, therefore, in this respect, he sent +for his nephew Lawrence Lewis, who took the social burden from +his shoulders. But although the visitors tired him when he felt +responsible for their pleasure, he did not shut himself up now any +more than at any other time in self-contemplation. He was constantly +thinking of others; and the education of his nephews, the care of +young Lafayette until he should return to France, as well as the +happy love-match of Nellie Custis and his nephew, supplied the human +interest without which he was never happy. + +Before we trace his connection with public affairs in these +closing years, let us take one look at him, through the eyes of a +disinterested but keen observer. John Bernard, an English actor, +who had come to this country in the year when Washington left the +presidency, was playing an engagement with his company at Annapolis, +in 1798. One day he mounted his horse and rode down below Alexandria, +to pay a visit to an acquaintance who lived on the banks of the +Potomac. When he was returning, a chaise in front of him, containing a +man and a young woman, was overturned, and the occupants were thrown +out. As Bernard rode to the scene of the accident, another horseman +galloped up from the opposite direction. The two riders dismounted, +found that the driver was not hurt, and succeeded in restoring the +young woman to consciousness; an event which was marked, Bernard tells +us, by a volley of invectives addressed to her unfortunate husband. +"The horse," continues Bernard, "was now on his legs, but the vehicle +still prostrate, heavy in its frame, and laden with at least half a +ton of luggage. My fellow-helper set me an example of activity in +relieving it of the internal weight; and when all was clear, we +grasped the wheel between us, and to the peril of our spinal columns +righted the conveyance. The horse was then put in, and we lent a +hand to help up the luggage. All this helping, hauling, and lifting +occupied at least half an hour, under a meridian sun, in the middle of +July, which fairly boiled the perspiration out of our foreheads." The +possessor of the chaise beguiled the labor by a full personal history +of himself and his wife, and when the work was done invited the two +Samaritans to go with him to Alexandria, and take a drop of "something +sociable." This being declined, the couple mounted into the chaise and +drove on. "Then," says Bernard, "my companion, after an exclamation at +the heat, offered very courteously to dust my coat, a favor the return +of which enabled me to take deliberate survey of his person. He was +a tall, erect, well-made man, evidently advanced in years, but who +appeared to have retained all the vigor and elasticity resulting from +a life of temperance and exercise. His dress was a blue coat buttoned +to his chin, and buckskin breeches. Though the instant he took off his +hat I could not avoid the recognition of familiar lineaments, which +indeed I was in the habit of seeing on every sign-post and over every +fireplace, still I failed to identify him, and to my surprise I found +that I was an object of equal speculation in his eyes." The actor +evidently did not have the royal gift of remembering faces, but the +stranger possessed that quality, for after a moment's pause he said, +"Mr. Bernard, I believe," and mentioned the occasion on which he had +seen him play in Philadelphia. He then asked Bernard to go home with +him for a couple of hours' rest, and pointed out the house in the +distance. At last Bernard knew to whom he was speaking. "'Mount +Vernon!' I exclaimed; and then drawing back with a stare of wonder, +'Have I the honor of addressing General Washington?' With a smile +whose expression of benevolence I have rarely seen equaled, he offered +his hand and replied: 'An odd sort of introduction, Mr. Bernard; but +I am pleased to find you can play so active a part in private, and +without a prompter.'" So they rode on together to the house and had a +chat, to which we must recur further on. + +There is no contemporary narrative of which I am aware that shows +Washington to us more clearly than this little adventure with Bernard, +for it is in the common affairs of daily life that men come nearest +to each other, and the same rule holds good in history. We know +Washington much better from these few lines of description left by +a chance acquaintance on the road than we do from volumes of state +papers. It is such a pleasant story, too. There is the great man, +retired from the world, still handsome and imposing in his old age, +with the strong and ready hand to succor those who had fallen by the +wayside; there are the genuine hospitality, the perfect manners, and +the well-turned little sentence with which he complimented the actor, +put him at his ease, and asked him to his house. Nothing can well be +added to the picture of Washington as we see him here, not long before +the end of all things came. We must break off, however, from the quiet +charm of home life, and turn again briefly to the affairs of state. +Let us, therefore, leave these two riding along the road together in +the warm Virginia sunshine to the house which has since become one of +the Meccas of humanity, in memory of the man who once dwelt in it. + +The highly prized retirement to Mount Vernon did not now, more than +at any previous time, separate Washington from the affairs of the +country. He continued to take a keen interest in all that went on, +to correspond with his friends, and to use his influence for what he +thought wisest and best for the general welfare. These were stirring +times, too, and the progress of events brought him to take a more +active part than he had ever expected to play again; for France, +having failed, thanks to his policy, to draw us either by fair words +or trickery from our independent and neutral position, determined, +apparently, to try the effect of force and ill usage. Pinckney, sent +out as minister, had been rebuffed; and then Adams, with the cordial +support of the country, had made another effort for peace by sending +Pinckney, Marshall, and Gerry as a special commission. The history of +that commission is one of the best known episodes in our history. Our +envoys were insulted, asked for bribes, and browbeaten, until the two +who retained a proper sense of their own and their country's dignity +took their passports and departed. The publication of the famous X, Y, +Z letters, which displayed the conduct of France, roused a storm of +righteous indignation from one end of the United States to the other. +The party of France and of the opposition bent before the storm, and +the Federalists were at last all-powerful. A cry for war went up from +every corner, and Congress provided rapidly for the formation of an +army and the beginning of a navy. + +Then the whole country turned, as a matter of course, to one man to +stand at the head of the national forces of the United States, +and Adams wrote to Washington, urging him to take command of the +provisional army. To any other appeal to come forward Washington would +have been deaf, but he could never refuse a call to arms. He wrote to +Adams on July 4, 1798: "In case of _actual invasion_ by a formidable +force, I certainly should not intrench myself under the cover of age +or retirement, if my services should be required by my country to +assist in repelling it." He agreed, therefore, to take command of the +army, provided that he should not be called into active service +except in the case of actual hostilities, and that he should have the +appointment of the general's staff. To these terms Adams of course +acceded. But out of the apparently simple condition relating to the +appointment of officers there grew a very serious trouble. There were +to be three major-generals, the first of them to have also the rank of +inspector-general, and to be the virtual commander-in-chief until the +army was actually called into the field. For these places, Washington +after much reflection selected Hamilton, Pinckney, and Knox, in the +order named, and in doing so he very wisely went on the general +principle that the army was to be organized _de novo_, without +reference to prior service. Apart from personal and political +jealousies, nothing could have been more proper and more sound than +this arrangement; but at this point the President's dislike of +Hamilton got beyond control, and he made up his mind to reverse the +order, and send in Knox's name first. The Federalist leaders were of +course utterly disgusted by this attempt to set Hamilton aside, which +was certainly ill-judged, and which proved to be the beginning of the +dissensions that ended in the ruin of the Federalist party. After +every effort, therefore, to move Adams had failed, Pickering and +others, including Hamilton himself, appealed to Washington. At a +distance from the scene of action, and unfamiliar with the growth of +differences within the party, Washington was not only surprised, but +annoyed by the President's conduct. In addition to the evils which he +believed would result in a military way from this change, he felt that +the conditions which he had made had been violated, and that he had +not been treated fairly. He therefore wrote to the President with +his wonted plainness, on September 25, and pointed out that his +stipulations had not been complied with, that the change of order +among the major-generals was thoroughly wrong, and that the +President's meddling with the inferior appointments had been hurtful +and injudicious. His views were expressed in the most courteous +way, although with an undertone of severe disapproval. There was no +mistaking the meaning of the letter, however, and Adams, bold man and +President as he was, gave way at once. Mr. Adams thought at the time +that there had been about this matter of the major-generals too much +intrigue, by which Washington had been deceived and he himself made a +victim; but there seems no good reason to take this view of it, for +there is no indication whatever that Washington did not know and +understand the facts; and it was on the facts that he made his +decision, and not on the methods by which they were conveyed to him. +The propriety of the decision will hardly now be questioned, although +it did not tend to make the relations between the ex-President and +his successor very cordial. They had always a great respect for +each other, but not much sympathy, for they differed too widely in +temperament. Even if Washington would have permitted it, it would have +been impossible for the President to have quarreled with him, but at +the same time he felt not a little awkwardness in dealing with his +successor, and was inclined to think that that gentleman did not show +him all the respect that was due. He wrote to McHenry on October 1: +"As no mode is yet adopted by the President by which the battalion +officers are to be appointed, and as I think I stand on very +precarious ground in my relation to him, I am not over-zealous +in taking _unauthorized_ steps when those that I thought _were +authorized_ are not likely to meet with much respect." + +[Illustration: HENRY KNOX] + +There was, however, another consequence of this affair which gave +Washington much more pain than any differences with the President. His +old friend and companion in arms, General Knox, was profoundly hurt at +the decision which placed Hamilton at the head of the army. One cannot +be surprised at Knox's feelings, for he had been a distinguished +officer, and had outranked both Hamilton and Pinckney. He felt that he +ought to command the army, and that he was quite capable of doing so; +and he did not relish being told in this official manner that he had +grown old, and that the time had come for younger and abler men to +pass beyond him. The archbishop in "Gil Blas" is one of the most +universal types of human nature that we have. Nobody feels kindly to +the monitor who points out the failings which time has brought, and we +are all inclined to dismiss him with every wish that he may fare well +and have a little more taste. Poor Knox could not dismiss his Gil +Blas, and he felt the unpleasant admonition all the more bitterly from +the fact that the blow was dealt by the two men whom he most loved and +admired. Hamilton wrote him the best and most graceful of letters, but +failed to soothe him; and Washington was no more fortunate. He tried +with the utmost kindliness, and in his most courteous manner, to +soften the disappointment, and to show Knox how convincing were the +reasons for his action. But the case was not one where argument could +be of avail, and when Knox persisted in his refusal to take the place +assigned him, Washington, with all his sympathy, was perfectly frank +in expressing his views. + +In a second letter, complaining of the injustice with which he had +been treated, Knox intimated that he would be willing to serve on the +personal staff of the commander-in-chief. This was all very well; but +much as Washington grieved for his old friend's disappointment, there +was to be no misunderstanding in the matter. He wrote Knox on October +21: "After having expressed these sentiments with the frankness of +undisguised friendship, it is hardly necessary to add that, if you +should finally decline the appointment of major-general, there is none +to whom I would give a more decided preference as an aide-de-camp, the +offer of which is highly flattering, honorable, and grateful to my +feelings, and for which I entertain a high sense. But, my dear General +Knox, and here again I speak to you in a language of candor and +friendship, examine well your mind upon this subject. Do not unite +yourself to the suite of a man whom you may consider as the primary +cause of what you call a degradation, with unpleasant sensations. +This, while it was gnawing upon you, would, if I should come to the +knowledge of it, make me unhappy; as my first wish would be that my +military family and the whole army should consider themselves a band +of brothers, willing and ready to die for each other." + +Knox would not serve; and his ill temper, irritated still further +by the apparent preference of the President and by the talk of his +immediate circle, prevailed. On the other hand, Pinckney, one of the +most generous and patriotic of men, accepted service at once without a +syllable of complaint on the score that he had ranked Hamilton in the +former war. It was with these two, therefore, that Washington +carried on the work of organizing the provisional army. Despite his +determination to remain in retirement until called to the field, his +desire for perfection in any work that he undertook brought him out, +and he gave much time and attention not only to the general questions +which were raised, but to the details of the business, and on November +10 he addressed a series of inquiries, both general and particular, +to Hamilton and Pinckney. These inquiries covered the whole scope of +possible events, probable military operations, and the formation of +the army. They were written in Philadelphia, whither he had gone, and +where he passed a month with the two major-generals in the discussion +of plans and measures. The result of their conferences was an +elaborate and masterly report on army organization drawn up by +Hamilton, upon whom, throughout this period of impending war, the +brunt of the work fell. + +Careful and painstaking, however, as Washington was in the matter of +appointments and organization, dealing with them as if he was about to +take the field at the head of the army, there was never a moment when +he felt that there was danger of actual war. He had studied foreign +affairs and the conditions of Europe too well to be much deceived +about them, and least of all in regard to France. He felt from the +beginning that the moment we displayed a proper spirit, began to arm, +and fought one or two French ships successfully, that France would +leave off bullying and abusing us, and make a satisfactory peace. The +declared adherent of the maxim that to prepare for war was the most +effectual means of preserving peace, he felt that never was it more +important to carry out this doctrine than now; and it was for this +reason that he labored so hard and gave so much thought to army +organization at a time when he felt more than ever the need of repose, +and shrank from the least semblance of a return to public life. In +all his long career there was never a better instance of his devoted +patriotism than his coming forward in this way at the sacrifice of +every personal wish after his retirement from the presidency. + +Yet, although he closely watched the course of politics, and gave, as +has been said, a cordial support to the administration, his sympathies +were rather with the opponents of the President within the ranks +of their common party. The conduct of Gerry, who had been Adams's +personal selection for a commissioner, was very distasteful to +Washington, and was very far from exciting in his mind the approval +which it drew from Mr. Adams. He wrote to Pickering on October 18: +"With respect to Mr. Gerry, his own character and public satisfaction +require better evidence than his letter to the minister of foreign +relations to prove the propriety of his conduct during his envoyship." +He did not believe that we were to have war with France, but he was +very confident that a bold and somewhat uncompromising attitude was +the best one for the country, and that above all we should not palter +with France after the affronts to which we had been subjected. When +President Adams, therefore, made his sudden change of policy by +nominating Murray as a special envoy, Washington, despite his desire +for peace, was by no means enthusiastic in his approval of the methods +by which it was sought. The President wrote him announcing the +appointment of Murray, and Washington acknowledged the letter and +the information without any comment. He saw, of course, that as the +President had seen fit to take the step he must be sustained, and he +wrote to Murray to impress upon him the gravity of the mission with +which he was intrusted; but he had serious doubts as to the success of +such a mission under such conditions, and when delays occurred he was +not without hopes of a final abandonment. The day after his letter to +Murray he wrote to Hamilton: "I was surprised at the _measure_, +how much more so at the manner of it! This business seems to have +commenced in an evil hour, and under unfavorable auspices. I wish +mischief may not tread in all its steps, and be the final result of +the measure. A wide door was open, through which a retreat might have +been made from the first _faux pas_, the shutting of which, to those +who are not behind the curtain and are as little acquainted with +the secrets of the cabinet as I am, is, from the present aspect of +European affairs, quite incomprehensible." He hoped but little good +from the mission, although it had his fervent wishes for its success, +expressed repeatedly in letters to members of the cabinet; and while +he was full of apprehension, he had a firm faith that all would end +well. + +For this anxiety, indeed, there was abundant reason. A violent change +of policy toward France, the disorders occasioned by political +dissensions at home, and the sudden appearance of the deadly doctrine +of nullification, all combined to excite alarm in the mind of a man +who looked as far into the future and as deep beneath the surface of +things as did Washington. It was then that he urged Patrick Henry to +reenter public life, and exerted his own influence wherever he could +to check the separatist movement set on foot by Jefferson. He was +deeply disturbed, too, by the tendencies of the times in other +directions. The delirium of the French Revolution was not confined +to France. Her soldiers bore with them the new doctrines, while far +beyond the utmost reach of her armies flew the ideas engendered in +the fevered air of Paris. Wherever they alighted they touched men and +stung them to madness, and the madness that they bred was not confined +to those who believed the new gospel, but was shared equally by those +who resisted and loathed it. Burke, in his way, was as much crazed as +Camille Desmoulins, and it seemed impossible for people living in the +midst of that terrific convulsion of society to retain their judgment. +Nowhere ought men to have been better able to withstand the contagion +of the revolution than in America, and yet even here it produced the +same results as in countries nearly affected by it. The party +of opposition to the government became first ludicrous and then +dangerous, in their wild admiration and senseless imitation of ideas +and practices as utterly alien to the people of the United States as +cannibalism or fire-worship. Then the Federalists, on their side, fell +beneath the spell. The overthrow of religion, society, property, and +morals, which they beheld in Paris, seemed to them to be threatening +their own country, and they became as extreme as their opponents in +the exactly opposite direction. Federalist divines came to look +upon Jefferson, the most timid and prudent of men, as a Marat or +Robespierre, ready to reproduce the excesses of his prototypes; while +Pickering, Wolcott, and all their friends in public life regarded +themselves as engaged in a struggle for the preservation of order and +society and of all that they held most dear. They were in the habit of +comparing French principles to a pestilence, and the French republic +to a raging tiger. Even Hamilton was so moved as to believe that the +United States were on the verge of anarchy, and he laid down his life +at last in a senseless duel because he thought that his refusal to +fight would disable him for leading the forces of order when the final +crash came. + +Washington, with his strong, calm judgment and his penetrating vision, +was less affected than any of those who had followed and sustained +him; but he was by no means untouched, and if we try to put ourselves +in his place, his views seem far from unreasonable. He had at the +outset wished well to the great movement in France, although even then +he doubted its final success. Very soon, however, doubts changed +to suspicions, and suspicions to conviction. As he saw the French +revolution move on in its inevitable path, he came to hate and dread +its deeds, its policies, and its doctrines. To a man of his temper it +could not have been otherwise, for license and disorder were above all +things detestable to him. They were the immediate fruits of the French +revolution, and when he saw a party devoted to France preaching the +same ideas in the United States, he could not but feel that there was +a real and practical danger confronting the country. This was why he +felt that we needed an energetic policy, and it was on this account +that he distrusted the President's renewed effort for peace. The +course of the opposition, as he saw it, threatened not merely the +existence of the Union, but wittingly or unwittingly struck at the +very foundations of society. His anxiety did not make him violent, as +was the case with lesser men, but it convinced him of the necessity of +strong measures, and he was not a man to shrink from vigorous action. +He was quite prepared to do all that could be done to maintain the +authority of the government, which he considered equivalent to the +protection of society, and for this reason he approved of the Alien +and Sedition acts. + +In the process of time these two famous laws have come to be +universally condemned, and those who have not questioned their +constitutionality have declared them wrong, inexpedient and impolitic, +and the immediate cause of the overthrow of the party responsible for +them. Everybody has made haste to disown them, and there has been a +general effort on the part of Federalist sympathizers to throw the +blame for them on persons unknown. Biographers, especially, have tried +zealously to clear the skirts of their heroes from any connection with +these obnoxious acts; but the truth is, that, whether right or wrong, +wise or unwise, these laws had the entire support of the ruling party +from the President down. Hamilton, who objected to the first draft +because it was needlessly violent, approved the purpose and principle +of the legislation; and Washington was no exception to the general +rule. He was calm about it, but his approbation was none the less +distinct, and he took pains to circulate a sound argument, when he +met with one, in justification of the Alien and Sedition acts.[1] In +November, 1798, Alexander Spotswood wrote to him, asking his judgment +on those laws. As the writer announced himself to be thoroughly +convinced of their unconstitutionally, Washington, with a little +sarcasm, declined to enter into argument with him. "But," he +continued, "I will take the liberty of advising such as are not +'thoroughly convinced,' and whose minds are yet open to conviction, +to read the pieces and hear the arguments which have been adduced +in favor of, as well as those against, the constitutionality and +expediency of those laws, before they decide and consider to what +lengths a certain description of men in our country have already +driven, and seem resolved further to drive matters, and then ask +themselves if it is not time and expedient to resort to protecting +laws against aliens (for citizens, you certainly know, are not +affected by that law), who acknowledge no allegiance to this country, +and in many instances are sent among us, as there is the best +circumstantial evidence to prove, for the express purpose of poisoning +the minds of our people and sowing dissensions among them, in order to +alienate their affections from the government of their choice, thereby +endeavoring to dissolve the Union, and of course the fair and happy +prospects which are unfolding to our view from the Revolution." + +[Footnote 1: See letter to Bushrod Washington, Sparks, vi. p. 387.] + +With these strong and decided feelings as to the proper policy to +be adopted, and with such grave apprehensions as to the outcome +of existing difficulties, Washington was deeply distressed by the +divisions which he saw springing up among the Federalists. From his +point of view it was bad enough to have the people of the country +divided into two great parties; but that one of those parties, that +which was devoted to the maintenance of order and the preservation +of the Union, should be torn by internal dissensions, seemed to him +almost inconceivable. He regarded the conduct of the party and of its +leaders with quite as much indignation as sorrow, for it seemed to him +that they were unpatriotic and false to their trust in permitting for +a moment these personal factions which could have but one result. He +wrote to Trumbull on August 30, 1799:-- + +"It is too interesting not to be again repeated, that if principles +instead of men are not the steady pursuit of the Federalists, their +cause will soon be at an end; if these are pursued they will not +_divide_ at the next election of President; if they do divide on +so _important_ a point, it would be dangerous to trust them on any +other,--and none except those who might be solicitous to fill the +chair of government would do it."[1] + +[Footnote 1: _Life of Silliman_, vol. ii. p. 385.] + +He was a true prophet, but he did not live to see the verification +of his predictions, which would have been to him a source of so much +grief. In the midst of his anxieties about public affairs, and of +the quiet, homely interests which made the days at Mount Vernon so +pleasant, the end suddenly came. There was no more forewarning than if +he had been struck down by accident or violence. He had always been a +man of great physical vigor, and although he had had one or two acute +and dangerous illnesses arising from mental strain and much overwork, +there is no indication that he had any organic disease, and since his +retirement from the presidency he had been better than for many years. +There was not only no sign of breaking up, but he appeared full of +health and activity, and led his usual wholesome outdoor life with +keen enjoyment. + +The morning of December 12 was overcast. He wrote to Hamilton warmly +approving the scheme for a military academy; and having finished this, +which was probably the last letter he ever wrote, he mounted his horse +and rode off for his usual round of duties. He noted in his diary, +where he always described the weather with methodical exactness, that +it began to snow about one o'clock, soon after to hail, and then +turned to a settled cold rain. He stayed out notwithstanding for about +two hours, and then came back to the house and franked his letters. +Mr. Lear noticed that his hair was damp with snow, and expressed a +fear that he had got wet; but the General said no, that his coat had +kept him dry, and sat down to dinner without changing his clothes. The +next morning snow was still falling so that he did not ride, and he +complained of a slight sore throat, but nevertheless went out in the +afternoon to mark some trees that were to be cut down. His hoarseness +increased toward night, yet still he made light of it, and read the +newspapers and chatted with Mrs. Washington during the evening. + +When he went to bed Mr. Lear urged him to take something for his cold. +"No," he replied, "you know I never take anything for a cold. Let +it go as it came." In the night he had a severe chill, followed by +difficulty in breathing; and between two and three in the morning he +awoke Mrs. Washington, but would not allow her to get up and call a +servant lest she should take cold. At daybreak Mr. Lear was summoned, +and found Washington breathing with difficulty and hardly able to +speak. Dr. Craik, the friend and companion of many years, was sent +for at once, and meantime the General was bled slightly by one of the +overseers. A futile effort was also made to gargle his throat, and +external applications were tried without affording relief. Dr. Craik +arrived between eight and nine o'clock with two other physicians, when +other remedies were tried and the patient was bled again, all without +avail. About half-past four he called Mrs. Washington to his bedside +and asked her to get two wills from his desk. She did so, and after +looking them over he ordered one to be destroyed and gave her the +other to keep. He then said to Lear, speaking with the utmost +difficulty, but saying what he had to say with characteristic +determination and clearness: "I find I am going; my breath cannot last +long. I believed from the first that the disorder would prove fatal. +Do you arrange and record all my late military letters and papers. +Arrange my accounts and settle my books, as you know more about them +than any one else; and let Mr. Rawlins finish recording my other +letters, which he has begun." He then asked if Lear recollected +anything which it was essential for him to do, as he had but a very +short time to continue with them. Lear replied that he could recollect +nothing, but that he hoped the end was not so near. Washington smiled, +and said that he certainly was dying, and that as it was the +debt which we must all pay, he looked to the event with perfect +resignation. + +The disease which was killing him was acute oedematous laryngitis,[1] +which is as simple as it is rare and fatal,[2] and he was being +slowly strangled to death by the closing of the throat. He bore +the suffering, which must have been intense, with his usual calm +self-control, but as the afternoon wore on the keen distress and the +difficulty of breathing made him restless. From time to time Mr. Lear +tried to raise him and make his position easier. The General said, +"I fear I fatigue you too much;" and again, on being assured to the +contrary, "Well, it is a debt we must pay to each other, and I hope +when you want aid of this kind you will find it." He was courteous and +thoughtful of others to the last, and told his servant, who had been +standing all day in attendance upon him, to sit down. To Dr. Craik he +said: "I die hard, but I am not afraid to go. I believed from my first +attack that I should not survive it. My breath cannot last long." When +a little later the other physicians came in and assisted him to sit +up, he said: "I feel I am going. I thank you for your attentions, but +I pray you will take no more trouble about me. Let me go off quietly. +I cannot last long." He lay there for some hours longer, restless and +suffering, but utterly uncomplaining, taking such remedies as the +physicians ordered in silence. About ten o'clock he spoke again to +Lear, although it required a most desperate effort to do so. "I am +just going," he said. "Have me decently buried, and do not let my body +be put into the vault in less than three days after I am dead." Lear +bowed, and Washington said, "Do you understand me?" Lear answered, +"Yes." "'Tis well," he said, and with these last words again fell +silent. A little later he felt his own pulse, and, as he was counting +the strokes, Lear saw his countenance change. His hand dropped back +from the wrist he had been holding, and all was over. The end had +come. Washington was dead. He died as he had lived, simply and +bravely, without parade and without affectation. The last duties +were done, the last words said, the last trials borne with the quiet +fitness, the gracious dignity, that even the gathering mists of the +supreme hour could neither dim nor tarnish. He had faced life with a +calm, high, victorious spirit. So did he face death and the unknown +when Fate knocked at the door. + +[Footnote 1: It was called at the time a quinsy.] + +[Footnote 2: See Memoir on _The Last Sickness of Washington_, by James +Jackson, M.D. In response to an inquiry as to the modern treatment of +this disease, the late Dr. F.H. Hooper of Boston, well known as +an authority on diseases of the throat, wrote me: "Washington's +physicians are not to be criticised for their treatment, for they +acted according to their best light and knowledge. To treat such +a case in such a manner in the year 1889 would be little short +of criminal. At the present time the physicians would use the +laryngoscope and _look_ and _see_ what the trouble was. (The +laryngoscope has only been used since 1857.) In this disease the +function most interfered with is breathing. The one thing which saves +a patient in this disease is a _timely tracheotomy_. (I doubt if +tracheotomy had ever been performed in Virginia in Washington's time.) +Washington ought to have been tracheotomized, or rather that is the +way cases are saved to-day. No one would think of antimony, calomel, +or bleeding now. The point is to let in the air, and not to let out +the blood. After tracheotomy has been performed, the oedema and +swelling of the larynx subside in three to six days. The tracheotomy +tube is then removed, and respiration goes on again through the +natural channels."] + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +GEORGE WASHINGTON + + +This last chapter cannot begin more fitly than by quoting again the +words of Mr. McMaster: "George Washington is an unknown man." Mr. +McMaster might have added that to no man in our history has greater +injustice of a certain kind been done, or more misunderstanding been +meted out, than to Washington, and although this sounds like the +merest paradox, it is nevertheless true. From the hour when the door +of the tomb at Mount Vernon closed behind his coffin to the present +instant, the chorus of praise and eulogy has never ceased, but has +swelled deeper and louder with each succeeding year. He has been set +apart high above all other men, and reverenced with the unquestioning +veneration accorded only to the leaders of mankind and the founders +of nations; and in this very devotion lies one secret at least of the +fact that, while all men have praised Washington, comparatively +few have understood him. He has been lifted high up into a lonely +greatness, and unconsciously put outside the range of human sympathy. +He has been accepted as a being as nearly perfect as it is given to +man to be, but our warm personal interest has been reserved for other +and lesser men who seemed to be nearer to us in their virtues and +their errors alike. Such isolation, lofty though it be, is perilous +and leads to grievous misunderstandings. From it has come the +widespread idea that Washington was cold, and as devoid of human +sympathies as he was free from the common failings of humanity. + +Of this there will be something to say presently, but meantime there +is another more prolific source of error in regard to Washington to +be considered. Men who are loudly proclaimed to be faultless always +excite a certain kind of resentment. It is a dangerous eminence +for any one to occupy. The temples of Greece are in ruins, and her +marvelous literature is little more than a collection of fragments, +but the feelings of the citizens who exiled Aristides because they +were weary of hearing him called "just," exist still, unchanged and +unchangeable. Washington has not only been called "just," but he +has had every other good quality attributed to him by countless +biographers and eulogists with an almost painful iteration, and the +natural result has followed. Many persons have felt the sense of +fatigue which the Athenians expressed practically by their oyster +shells, and have been led to cast doubts on Washington's perfection +as the only consolation for their own sense of injury. Then, again, +Washington's fame has been so overshadowing, and his greatness so +immutable, that he has been very inconvenient to the admirers and the +biographers of other distinguished men. From these two sources, from +the general jealousy of the classic Greek variety, and the particular +jealousy born of the necessities of some other hero, much adverse and +misleading criticism has come. It has never been a safe or popular +amusement to assail Washington directly, and this course usually has +been shunned; but although the attacks have been veiled they have none +the less existed, and they have been all the more dangerous because +they were insidious. + +In his lifetime Washington had his enemies and detractors in +abundance. During the Revolution he was abused and intrigued against, +thwarted and belittled, to a point which posterity in general scarcely +realizes. Final and conclusive victory brought an end to this, and +he passed to the presidency amid a general acclaim. Then the attacks +began again. Their character has been shown in a previous chapter, but +they were of no real moment except as illustrations of the existence +and meaning of party divisions. The ravings of Bache and Freneau, +and the coarse insults of Giles, were all totally unimportant in +themselves. They merely define the purposes and character of the party +which opposed Washington, and but for him would be forgotten. Among +his eminent contemporaries, Jefferson and Pickering, bitterly opposed +in all things else, have left memoranda and letters reflecting upon +the abilities of their former chief. Jefferson disliked him because he +blocked his path, but with habitual caution he never proceeded beyond +a covert sneer implying that Washington's mental powers, at no time +very great, were impaired by age during his presidency, and that he +was easily deceived by practised intriguers. Pickering, with more +boldness, set Washington down as commonplace, not original in his +thought, and vastly inferior to Hamilton, apparently because he was +not violent, and did not make up his mind before he knew the facts. + +Adverse contemporary criticism, however, is slight in amount and vague +in character; it can be readily dismissed, and it has in no case +weight enough to demand much consideration. Modern criticism of the +same kind has been even less direct, but is much more serious and +cannot be lightly passed over. It invariably proceeds by negations +setting out with an apparently complete acceptance of Washington's +greatness, and then assailing him by telling us what he was not. Few +persons who have not given this matter a careful study realize how far +criticism of this sort has gone, and there is indeed no better way +of learning what Washington really was than by examining the various +negations which tell us what he was not. + +Let us take the gravest first. It has been confidently asserted that +Washington was not an American in anything but the technical sense. +This idea is more diffused than, perhaps, would be generally supposed, +and it has also been formally set down in print, in which we are more +fortunate than in many other instances where the accusation has not +got beyond the elusive condition of loose talk. + +In that most noble poem, the "Commemoration Ode," Mr. Lowell speaks of +Lincoln as "the first American." The poet's winged words fly far, and +find a resting-place in many minds. This idea has become widespread, +and has recently found fuller expression in Mr. Clarence King's +prefatory note to the great life of Lincoln by Hay and Nicolay.[1] Mr. +King says: "Abraham Lincoln was the first American to reach the lonely +height of immortal fame. Before him, within the narrow compass of our +history, were but two preeminent names,--Columbus the discoverer, and +Washington the founder; the one an Italian seer, the other an English +country gentleman. In a narrow sense, of course, Washington was an +American.... For all that he was English in his nature, habits, moral +standards, and social theories; in short, in all points which, +aside from mere geographical position, make up a man, he was as +thorough-going a British colonial gentleman as one could find anywhere +beneath the Union Jack. The genuine American of Lincoln's type came +later.... George Washington, an English commoner, vanquished George, +an English king." + +[Footnote 1: Mr. Matthew Arnold, and more recently Professor Goldwin +Smith, have both spoken of Washington as an Englishman. I do not +mention this to discredit the statements of Mr. Lowell or Mr. King, +but merely to indicate how far this mistaken idea has traveled.] + +In order to point his sentence and prove his first postulate, Mr. +King is obliged not only to dispose of Washington, but to introduce +Columbus, who never was imagined in the wildest fantasy to be an +American, and to omit Franklin. The omission of itself is fatal to Mr. +King's case. Franklin has certainly a "preeminent name." He has, too, +"immortal fame," although of course of a widely different character +from that of either Washington or Lincoln, but he was a great man +in the broad sense of a world-wide reputation. Yet no one has ever +ventured to call Benjamin Franklin an Englishman. He was a colonial +American, of course, but he was as intensely an American as any man +who has lived on this continent before or since. A man of the people, +he was American by the character of his genius, by his versatility, +the vivacity of his intellect, and his mental dexterity. In his +abilities, his virtues, and his defects he was an American, and so +plainly one as to be beyond the reach of doubt or question. There were +others of that period, too, who were as genuine Americans as Franklin +or Lincoln. Such were Jonathan Edwards, the peculiar product of New +England Calvinism; Patrick Henry, who first broke down colonial lines +to declare himself an American; Samuel Adams, the great forerunner +of the race of American politicians; Thomas Jefferson, the idol of +American democracy. These and many others Mr. King might exclude on +the ground that they did not reach the lonely height of immortal fame. +But Franklin is enough. Unless one is prepared to set Franklin down +as an Englishman, which would be as reasonable as to say that Daniel +Webster was a fine example of the Slavic race, it must be admitted +that it was possible for the thirteen colonies to produce in the +eighteenth century a genuine American who won immortal fame. If they +could produce one of one type, they could produce a second of another +type, and there was, therefore, nothing inherently impossible in +existing conditions to prevent Washington from being an American. + +Lincoln was undoubtedly the first great American of his type, but that +is not the only type of American. It is one which, as bodied forth in +Abraham Lincoln, commands the love and veneration of the people of the +United States, and the admiration of the world wherever his name is +known. To the noble and towering greatness of his mind and character +it does not add one hair's breadth to say that he was the first +American, or that he was of a common or uncommon type. Greatness like +Lincoln's is far beyond such qualifications, and least of all is it +necessary to his fame to push Washington from his birthright. To say +that George Washington, an English commoner, vanquished George, an +English king, is clever and picturesque, but like many other pleasing +antitheses it is painfully inaccurate. Allegiance does not make race +or nationality. The Hindoos are subjects of Victoria, but they are not +Englishmen. + +Franklin shows that it was possible to produce a most genuine American +of unquestioned greatness in the eighteenth century, and with all +possible deference to Mr. Lowell and Mr. King, I venture the assertion +that George Washington was as genuine an American as Lincoln or +Franklin. He was an American of the eighteenth and not of the +nineteenth century, but he was none the less an American. I will go +further. Washington was not only an American of a pure and noble type, +but he was the first thorough American in the broad, national sense, +as distinct from the colonial American of his time. + +After all, what is it to be an American? Surely it does not consist in +the number of generations merely which separate the individual from +his forefathers who first settled here. Washington was fourth in +descent from the first American of his name, while Lincoln was in +the sixth generation. This difference certainly constitutes no real +distinction. There are people to-day, not many luckily, whose families +have been here for two hundred and fifty years, and who are as utterly +un-American as it is possible to be, while there are others, whose +fathers were immigrants, who are as intensely American as any one can +desire or imagine. In a new country, peopled in two hundred and fifty +years by immigrants from the Old World and their descendants, the +process of Americanization is not limited by any hard and fast rules +as to time and generations, but is altogether a matter of individual +and race temperament. The production of the well-defined American +types and of the fixed national characteristics which now exist has +been going on during all that period, but in any special instance the +type to which a given man belongs must be settled by special study and +examination. + +Washington belonged to the English-speaking race. So did Lincoln. Both +sprang from the splendid stock which was formed during centuries from +a mixture of the Celtic, Teutonic, Scandinavian, and Norman peoples, +and which is known to the world as English. Both, so far as we can +tell, had nothing but English blood, as it would be commonly called, +in their veins, and both were of that part of the English race which +emigrated to America, where it has been the principal factor in the +development of the new people called Americans. They were men of +English race, modified and changed in the fourth and sixth generations +by the new country, the new conditions, and the new life, and by the +contact and admixture of other races. Lincoln, a very great man, one +who has reached "immortal fame," was clearly an American of a type +that the Old World cannot show, or at least has not produced. The idea +of many persons in regard to Washington seems to be, that he was a +great man of a type which the Old World, or, to be more exact, which +England, had produced. One hears it often said that Washington was +simply an American Hampden. Such a comparison is an easy method of +description, nothing more. Hampden is memorable among men, not for +his abilities, which there is no reason to suppose were very +extraordinary, but for his devoted and unselfish patriotism, his +courage, his honor, and his pure and lofty spirit. He embodied what +his countrymen believe to be the moral qualities of their race in +their finest flower, and no nation, be it said, could have a nobler +ideal. Washington was conspicuous for the same qualities, exhibited +in like fashion. Is there a single one of the essential attributes of +Hampden that Lincoln also did not possess? Was he not an unselfish +and devoted patriot, pure in heart, gentle of spirit, high of honor, +brave, merciful, and temperate? Did he not lay down his life for +his country in the box at Ford's Theatre as ungrudgingly as Hampden +offered his in the smoke of battle upon Chalgrove field? Surely we +must answer Yes. In other words, these three men all had the great +moral attributes which are the characteristics of the English race in +its highest and purest development on either side of the Atlantic. +Yet no one has ever called Lincoln an American Hampden simply because +Hampden and Washington were men of ancient family, members of an +aristocracy by birth, and Lincoln was not. This is the distinction +between them; and how vain it is, in the light of their lives and +deeds, which make all pedigrees and social ranks look so poor and +worthless! The differences among them are trivial, the resemblances +deep and lasting. + +I have followed out this comparison because it illustrates perfectly +the entirely superficial character of the reasons which have led men +to speak of Washington as an English country gentleman. It has been +said that he was English in his habits, moral standards, and social +theories, which has an important sound, but which for the most part +comes down to a question of dress and manners. He wore black velvet +and powdered hair, knee-breeches and diamond buckles, which are +certainly not American fashions to-day. But they were American +fashions in the last century, and every man wore them who could afford +to, no matter what his origin. Let it be remembered, however, that +Washington also wore the hunting-shirt and fringed leggins of the +backwoodsman, and that it was he who introduced this purely American +dress into the army as a uniform. + +His manners likewise were those of the century in which he lived, +formal and stately, and of course colored by his own temperament. His +moral standards were those of a high-minded, honorable man. Are we +ready to say that they were not American? Did they differ in any vital +point from those of Lincoln? His social theories were simple in the +extreme. He neither overvalued nor underrated social conventions, for +he knew that they were a part of the fabric of civilized society, not +vitally important and yet not wholly trivial. He was a member of an +aristocracy, it is true, both by birth and situation. There was a +recognized social aristocracy in every colony before the Revolution, +for the drum-beat of the great democratic march had not then sounded. +In the northern colonies it was never strong, and in New England +it was especially weak, for the governments and people there were +essentially democratic, although they hardly recognized it themselves. +In Virginia and the southern colonies, on the other hand, there was a +vigorous aristocracy resting on the permanent foundation of slavery. +Where slaves are there must be masters, and where there are masters +there are aristocrats; but it was an American and not an English +aristocracy. Lineage and family had weight in the south as in the +north, but that which put a man undeniably in the ruling class was the +ownership of black slaves and the possession of a white skin. This +aristocracy lasted with its faults and its virtues until it perished +in the shock of civil war, when its foundation of human slavery was +torn from under it. From the slave-holding aristocracy of Virginia +came, with the exception of Patrick Henry, all the great men of that +State who did so much for American freedom, and who rendered such +imperishable service to the republic in law, in politics, and in war. +From this aristocracy came Marshall, and Mason, and Madison, the Lees, +the Randolphs, the Harrisons, and the rest. From it came also Thomas +Jefferson, the hero of American democracy; and to it was added Patrick +Henry, not by lineage or slave-holding, but by virtue of his brilliant +abilities, and because he, too, was an aristocrat by the immutable +division of race. It was this aristocracy into which Washington was +born, and amid which he was brought up. To say that it colored his +feelings and habits is simply to say that he was human; but to urge +that it made him un-American is to exclude at once from the ranks +of Americans all the great men given to the country by the South. +Washington, in fact, was less affected by his surroundings, and rose +above them more quickly, than any other man of his day, because he was +the greatest man of his time, with a splendid breadth of vision. + +When he first went among the New England troops at the siege of +Boston, the rough, democratic ways of the people jarred upon him, and +offended especially his military instincts, for he was not only a +Virginian but he was a great soldier, and military discipline is +essentially aristocratic. These volunteer soldiers, called together +from the plough and the fishing-smack, were free and independent men, +unaccustomed to any rule but their own, and they had still to learn +the first rudiments of military service. To Washington, soldiers who +elected and deposed their officers, and who went home when they felt +that they had a right to do so, seemed well-nigh useless and quite +incomprehensible. They angered him and tried his patience almost +beyond endurance, and he spoke of them at the outset in harsh terms by +no means wholly unwarranted. But they were part of his problem, and he +studied them. He was a soldier, but not an aristocrat wrapped up in +immutable prejudices, and he learned to know these men, and they came +to love, obey, and follow him with an intelligent devotion far better +than anything born of mere discipline. Before the year was out, he +wrote to Lund Washington praising the New England troops in the +highest terms, and at the close of the war he said that practically +the whole army then was composed of New England soldiers. They stayed +by him to the end, and as they were steadfast in war so they remained +in peace. He trusted and confided in New England, and her sturdy +democracy gave him a loyal and unflinching support to the day of his +death. + +This openness of mind and superiority to prejudice were American in +the truest and best sense; but Washington showed the same qualities in +private life and toward individuals which he displayed in regard to +communities. He was free, of course, from the cheap claptrap which +abuses the name of democracy by saying that birth, breeding, and +education are undemocratic, and therefore to be reckoned against a +man. He valued these qualities rightly, but he looked to see what a +man was and not who he was, which is true democracy. The two men who +were perhaps nearest to his affections were Knox and Hamilton. One +was a Boston bookseller, who rose to distinction by bravery and good +service, and the other was a young adventurer from the West Indies, +without either family or money at his back. It was the same with much +humbler persons. He never failed, on his way to Philadelphia, to stop +at Wilmington and have a chat with one Captain O'Flinn, who kept a +tavern and had been a Revolutionary soldier; and this was but a single +instance among many of like character. Any soldier of the Revolution +was always sure of a welcome at the hands of his old commander. +Eminent statesmen, especially of the opposition, often found his +manner cold, but no old soldier ever complained of it, no servant ever +left him, and the country people about Mount Vernon loved him as a +neighbor and friend, and not as the distant great man of the army and +the presidency. + +He believed thoroughly in popular government. One does not find in his +letters the bitter references to democracy and to the populace which +can be discovered in the writings of so many of his party friends, +legacies of pre-revolutionary ideas inflamed by hatred of Parisian +mobs. He always spoke of the people at large with a simple respect, +because he knew that the future of the United States was in their +hands and not in that of any class, and because he believed that they +would fulfill their mission. The French Revolution never carried him +away, and when it bred anarchy and bloodshed he became hostile to +French influence, because license and disorder were above all +things hateful to him. Yet he did not lose his balance in the other +direction, as was the case with so many of his friends. He resisted +and opposed French ideas and French democracy, so admired and so +loudly preached by Jefferson and his followers, because he esteemed +them perilous to the country. But there is not a word to indicate that +he did not think that such dangers would be finally overcome, even +if at the cost of much suffering, by the sane sense and ingrained +conservatism of the American people. Other men talked more noisily +about the people, but no one trusted them in the best sense more than +Washington, and his only fear was that evils might come from their +being misled by false lights. + +Once more, what is it to be an American? Putting aside all the outer +shows of dress and manners, social customs and physical peculiarities, +is it not to believe in America and in the American people? Is it not +to have an abiding and moving faith in the future and in the destiny +of America?--something above and beyond the patriotism and love which +every man whose soul is not dead within him feels for the land of his +birth? Is it not to be national and not sectional, independent and not +colonial? Is it not to have a high conception of what this great new +country should be, and to follow out that ideal with loyalty and +truth? + +Has any man in our history fulfilled these conditions more perfectly +and completely than George Washington? Has any man ever lived who +served the American people more faithfully, or with a higher and truer +conception of the destiny and possibilities of the country? Born of an +old and distinguished family, he found himself, when a boy just out of +school, dependent on his mother, and with an inheritance that promised +him more acres than shillings. He did not seek to live along upon what +he could get from the estate, and still less did he feel that it was +only possible for him to enter one of the learned professions. Had +he been an Englishman in fact or in feeling, he would have felt very +naturally the force of the limitations imposed by his social position. +But being an American, his one idea was to earn his living honestly, +because it was the creed of his country that earning an honest living +is the most creditable thing a man can do. Boy as he was, he went out +manfully into the world to win with his own hands the money which +would make him self-supporting and independent. His business as a +surveyor took him into the wilderness, and there he learned that the +first great work before the American people was to be the conquest of +the continent. He dropped the surveyor's rod and chain to negotiate +with the savages, and then took up the sword to fight them and the +French, so that the New World might be secured to the English-speaking +race. A more purely American training cannot be imagined. It was not +the education of universities or of courts, but that of hard-earned +personal independence, won in the backwoods and by frontier fighting. +Thus trained, he gave the prime of his manhood to leading the +Revolution which made his country free, and his riper years to +building up that independent nationality without which freedom would +have been utterly vain. + +He was the first to rise above all colonial or state lines, and grasp +firmly the conception of a nation to be formed from the thirteen +jarring colonies. The necessity of national action in the army was of +course at once apparent to him, although not to others; but he carried +the same broad views into widely different fields, where at the time +they wholly escaped notice. It was Washington, oppressed by a thousand +cares, who in the early days of the Revolution saw the need of Federal +courts for admiralty cases and for other purposes. It was he who +suggested this scheme, years before any one even dreamed of the +Constitution; and from the special committees of Congress, formed for +this object in accordance with this advice, came, in the process of +time, the Federal judiciary of the United States.[1] Even in that +early dawn of the Revolution, Washington had clear in his own mind the +need of a continental system for war, diplomacy, finance, and law, and +he worked steadily to bring this policy to fulfilment. + +[Footnote 1: See the very interesting memoir on this subject by the +Hon. J.C. Bancroft Davis.] + +When the war was over, the thought that engaged his mind most was +of the best means to give room for expansion, and to open up the +unconquered continent to the forerunners of a mighty army of settlers. +For this purpose all his projects for roads, canals, and surveys were +formed and forced into public notice. He looked beyond the limits of +the Atlantic colonies. His vision went far over the barriers of the +Alleghanies; and where others saw thirteen infant States backed by the +wilderness, he beheld the germs of a great empire. While striving thus +to lay the West open to the march of the settler, he threw himself +into the great struggle, where Hamilton and Madison, and all who +"thought continentally," were laboring for that union without which +all else was worse than futile. + +From the presidency of the convention that formed the Constitution, he +went to the presidency of the government which that convention brought +into being; and in all that followed, the one guiding thought was to +clear the way for the advance of the people, and to make that people +and their government independent in thought, in policy, and in +character, as the Revolution had made them independent politically. +The same spirit which led him to write during the war that our battles +must be fought and our victories won by Americans, if victory and +independence were to be won at all, or to have any real and solid +worth, pervaded his whole administration. We see it in his Indian +policy, which was directed not only to pacifying the tribes, but +to putting it out of their power to arrest or even delay western +settlement. We see it in his attitude toward foreign ministers, and in +his watchful persistence in regard to the Mississippi, which ended in +our securing the navigation of the great river. We see it again in his +anxious desire to keep peace until we had passed the point where war +might bring a dissolution; and how real that danger was, and how clear +and just his perception of it, is shown by the Kentucky and Virginia +Resolutions and by the separatist movement in New England during the +later war of 1812. Even in 1812 the national existence was menaced, +but the danger would have proved fatal if it had come twenty years +earlier, with parties divided by their sympathies with contending +foreign nations. It was for the sake of the Union that Washington was +so patient with France, and faced so quietly the storm of indignation +aroused by the Jay treaty. + +In his whole foreign policy, which was so peculiarly his own, the +American spirit was his pole star; and of all the attacks made upon +him, the only one which really tried his soul was the accusation that +he was influenced by foreign predilections. The blind injustice, which +would not comprehend that his one purpose was to be American and to +make the people and the government American, touched him more deeply +than anything else. As party strife grew keener over the issues raised +by the war between France and England, and as French politics and +French ideas became more popular, his feelings found more frequent +utterance, and it is interesting to see how this man, who, we are now +told, was an English country gentleman, wrote and felt on this matter +in very trying times. Let us remember, as we listen to him now in his +own defense, that he was an extremely honest man, silent for the most +part in doing his work, but when he spoke meaning every word he said, +and saying exactly what he meant. This was the way in which he +wrote to Patrick Henry in October, 1795, when he offered him the +secretaryship of State:-- + +"My ardent desire is, and my aim has been as far as depended upon the +executive department, to comply strictly with all our engagements, +foreign and domestic; but to keep the United States free from +political connection with every other country, to see them independent +of all and under the influence of none. In a word, I want an +_American_ character, that the powers of Europe may be convinced that +we act for _ourselves_, and not for others. This, in my judgment, is +the only way to be respected abroad and happy at home; and not, by +becoming partisans of Great Britain or France, create dissensions, +disturb the public tranquillity, and destroy, perhaps forever, the +cement which binds the Union." + +Not quite a year later, when the Jay treaty was still agitating the +public mind in regard to our relations with France, he wrote to +Pickering:-- + +"The Executive has a plain road to pursue, namely, to fulfill all the +engagements which duty requires; be influenced beyond this by none of +the contending parties; maintain a strict neutrality unless obliged +by imperious circumstances to depart from it; do justice to all, and +never forget that we are Americans, the remembrance of which will +convince us that we ought not to be French or English." + +After leaving the presidency, when our difficulties with France seemed +to be thickening, and the sky looked very dark, he wrote to a friend +saying that he firmly believed that all would come out well, and then +added: "To me this is so demonstrable, that not a particle of doubt +could dwell on my mind relative thereto, if our citizens would +advocate their own cause, instead of that of any other nation under +the sun; that is, if, instead of being Frenchmen or Englishmen in +politics they would be Americans, indignant at every attempt of either +or any other powers to establish an influence in our councils or +presume to sow the seeds of discord or disunion among us." + +A few days later he wrote to Thomas Pinckney: + +"It remains to be seen whether our country will stand upon independent +ground, or be directed in its political concerns by any other nation. +A little time will show who are its true friends, or, what is +synonymous, who are true Americans." + +But this eager desire for a true Americanism did not stop at our +foreign policy, or our domestic politics. He wished it to enter into +every part of the life and thought of the people, and when it was +proposed to bring over the entire staff of a Genevan university to +take charge of a national university here, he threw his influence +against it, expressing grave doubts as to the advantage of importing +an entire "seminary of foreigners," for the purpose of American +education. The letter on this subject, which was addressed to John +Adams, then continued:-- + +"My opinion with respect to emigration is that except of useful +mechanics, and some particular descriptions of men or professions, +there is no need of encouragement; while the policy or advantage of +its taking place in a body (I mean the settling of them in a body) may +be much questioned; for by so doing they retain the language, habits, +and principles, good or bad, which they bring with them. Whereas by +an intermixture with our people, they or their descendants get +assimilated to our customs, measures, and laws; in a word, soon become +one people." + +He had this thought so constantly in his mind that it found expression +in his will, in the clause bequeathing certain property for the +foundation of a university in the District of Columbia. "I proceed," +he said, "after this recital for the more correct understanding of the +case, to declare that it has always been a source of serious regret +with me to see the youth of these United States sent to foreign +countries for the purposes of education, often before their minds were +formed, or they had imbibed any adequate ideas of the happiness of +their own; contracting too frequently not only habits of dissipation +and extravagance, but _principles unfriendly to republican government +and to the true and genuine liberties of mankind_, which thereafter +are rarely overcome; for these reasons it has been my ardent wish to +see a plan devised on a liberal scale, which would have a tendency +to spread systematic ideas through all parts of this rising empire, +thereby to do away with local attachments and state prejudices, as +far as the nature of things would or indeed ought to admit, from our +national councils." + +Were these the words of an English country gentleman, who chanced to +be born in one of England's colonies? Persons of the English country +gentleman pattern at that time were for the most part loyalists; +excellent people, very likely, but not of the Washington type. Their +hopes and ideals, their policies and their beliefs were in the mother +country, not here. The faith, the hope, the thought, of Washington +were all in the United States. His one purpose was to make America +independent in thought and action, and he strove day and night to +build up a nation. He labored unceasingly to lay the foundations of +the great empire which, with almost prophetic vision, he saw beyond +the mountains, by opening the way for the western movement. His +foreign policy was a declaration to the world of a new national +existence, and he strained every nerve to lift our politics from the +colonial condition of foreign issues. He wished all immigration to +be absorbed and moulded here, so that we might be one people, one in +speech and in political faith. His last words, given to the world +after the grave had closed over him, were a solemn plea for a home +training for the youth of the Republic, so that all men might think +as Americans, untainted by foreign ideas, and rise above all local +prejudices. He did not believe that mere material development was the +only or the highest goal; for he knew that the true greatness of a +nation was moral and intellectual, and his last thoughts were for the +up-building of character and intelligence. He was never a braggart, +and mere boasting about his country as about himself was utterly +repugnant to him. He never hesitated to censure what he believed to be +wrong, but he addressed his criticisms to his countrymen in order to +lead them to better things, and did not indulge in them in order +to express his own discontent, or to amuse or curry favor with +foreigners. In a word, he loved his country, and had an abiding faith +in its future and in its people, upon whom his most earnest thoughts +and loftiest aspirations were centred. No higher, purer, or more +thorough Americanism than his could be imagined. It was a conception +far in advance of the time, possible only to a powerful mind, capable +of lifting itself out of existing conditions and alien influences, so +that it might look with undazzled gaze upon the distant future. The +first American in the broad national sense, there has never been a man +more thoroughly and truly American than Washington. It will be a sorry +day when we consent to take that noble figure from "the forefront of +the nation's life," and rank George Washington as anything but an +American of Americans, instinct with the ideas, as he was devoted to +the fortunes of the New World which gave him birth. + +There is another class of critics who have attacked Washington from +another side. These are the gentlemen who find him in the way of their +own heroes. Washington was a man of decided opinions about men as well +as measures, and he was extremely positive. He had his enemies as +well as his friends, his likes and his dislikes, strong and clear, +according to his nature. The respect which he commanded in his life +has lasted unimpaired since his death, and it is an awkward thing for +the biographers of some of his contemporaries to know that Washington +opposed, distrusted, or disliked their heroes. Therefore, in one way +or another they have gone round a stumbling-block which they could +not remove. The commonest method is to eliminate Washington by +representing him vaguely as the great man with whom every one agreed, +who belonged to no party, and favored all; then he is pushed quietly +aside. Evils and wrong-doing existed under his administration from the +opposition point of view, but they were the work of his ministers and +of wicked advisers. The king could do no wrong, and this pleasant +theory, which is untrue in fact, amounts to saying that Washington had +no opinions, but was simply a grand and imposing figure-head. The only +ground for it which is even suggested is that he sought advice, that +he used other men's ideas, and that he made up his mind slowly. All +this is true, and these very qualities help to show his greatness, +for only small minds mistake their relations with the universe, and +confuse their finite powers with omniscience. The great man, who +sees facts and reads the future, uses other men, knows the bounds of +possibility in action, can decide instantly if need be, but leaves +rash conclusions to those who are incapable of reaching any others. +In reality there never was a man who had more definite and vigorous +opinions than Washington, and the responsibility which he bore he +never shifted to other shoulders. The work of the Revolution and the +presidency, whether good or bad, was his own, and he was ready to +stand or fall by it. + +There is a still further extension of the idea that Washington +represented all parties and all views, and had neither party nor +opinions of his own. This theory is to the effect that he was great by +character alone, but that in other respects he did not rise above the +level of dignified common-place. Such, for instance, is apparently the +view of Mr. Parton, who in a clever essay discusses in philosophical +fashion the possible advantages arising from the success attained by +mere character, as in the case of Washington. Mr. Parton points his +theory by that last incident of counting the pulse as death drew nigh. +How characteristic, he exclaims, of the methodical, common-place +man, is such an act. It was not common, be it said, even were it +common-place. It was certainly a very simple action, but rare enough +so far as we know on the every-day deathbed, or in the supreme hour of +dying greatness, and it was wholly free from that affectation which +Dr. Johnson thought almost inseparable from the last solemn moment. +Irregularity is not proof of genius any more than method, and of the +two, the latter is the surer companion of greatness. The last hour of +Washington showed that calm, collected courage which had never failed +in war or peace; and so far it was proof of character. But was it not +something more? The common-place action of counting the pulse was in +reality profoundly characteristic, for it was the last exhibition of +the determined purpose to know the truth, and grasp the fact. Death +was upon him; he would know the fact. He had looked facts in the face +all his life, and when the mists gathered, he would face them still. + +High and splendid character, great moral qualities for after-ages to +admire, he had beyond any man of modern times. But to suppose that in +other respects he belonged to the ranks of mediocrity is not only a +contradiction in terms, but utterly false. It was not character that +fought the Trenton campaign and carried the revolution to victory. +It was military genius. It was not character that read the future of +America and created our foreign policy. It was statesmanship of the +highest order. Without the great moral qualities which he possessed, +his career would not have been possible; but it would have been quite +as impossible if the intellect had not equaled the character. There is +no need to argue the truism that Washington was a great man, for that +is universally admitted. But it is very needful that his greatness +should be rightly understood, and the right understanding of it is by +no means universal. His character has been exalted at the expense of +his intellect, and his goodness has been so much insisted upon both by +admirers and critics that we are in danger of forgetting that he had a +great mind as well as high moral worth. + +This false attitude both of praise and criticism has been so persisted +in that if we accept the premises we are forced to the conclusion that +Washington was actually dull, while with much more openness it is +asserted that he was cold and at times even harsh. "In the mean time," +says Mr. McMaster, "Washington was deprived of the services of the +only two men his cold heart ever really loved." "A Cromwell with the +juice squeezed out," says Carlyle somewhere, in his rough and summary +fashion. Are these judgments correct? Was Washington really, with +all his greatness, dull and cold? He was a great general and a great +President, first in war and first in peace and all that, says our +caviler, but his relaxation was in farm accounts, and his business war +and politics. He could plan a campaign, preserve a dignified manner, +and conduct an administration, but he could write nothing more +entertaining than a state paper or a military report. He gave himself +up to great affairs, he was hardly human, and he shunned the graces, +the wit, and all the salt of life, and passed them by on the other +side. + +That Washington was serious and earnest cannot be doubted, for no man +could have done what he did and been otherwise. He had little time +for the lighter sides of life, and he never exerted himself to say +brilliant and striking things. He was not a maker of phrases and +proclamations, and the quality of the charlatan, so often found in men +of the highest genius, was utterly lacking in him. He never talked or +acted with an eye to dramatic effect, and this is one reason for the +notion that he was dull and dry; for the world dearly loves a little +charlatanism, and is never happier than in being brilliantly duped. +But was he therefore really dull and juiceless, unlovable and +unloving? Responsibility came upon him when a boy, and he was hardly +of age when he was carrying in his hands the defense of his colony and +the heavy burden of other human lives. Experience like this makes a +man who is good for anything sober; but sobriety is not dullness, and +if we look a little below the surface we find the ready refutation of +such an idea. In his letters and even in the silent diaries we detect +the keenest observation. He looked at the country, as he traveled, +with the eye of the soldier and the farmer, and mastered its features +and read its meaning with rapid and certain glance. It was not to him +a mere panorama of fields and woods, of rivers and mountains. He +saw the beauties of nature and the opportunities of the farmer, the +trader, or the manufacturer wherever his gaze rested. He gathered +in the same way the statistics of the people and of their various +industries. In the West Indies, on the Virginian frontier, in his +journeys when he was President, he read the story of all he saw as he +would have read a book, and brought it home with him for use. + +[Illustration: NATHANAEL GREENE] + +In the same way he read and understood men, and had that power of +choosing among them which is essential in its highest form to the +great soldier or statesman. His selection never erred unless in a rare +instance like that of Monroe, forced on him by political exigencies, +or when the man of his choice would not serve. Congress chose Gates +for the southern campaign, but Washington selected Greene, in whom he +saw great military ability before any one else realized it. He took +Hamilton, young and unknown, from the captaincy of an artillery +company, and placed him on his personal staff. He bore with Hamilton's +outbreak of temper, kept him ever in his confidence, and finally gave +him the opportunity to prove himself the most brilliant of American +statesmen. In the crowd of foreign volunteers, the men whom he +especially selected and trusted were Lafayette and Steuben, each in +his way of real value to the service. Even more remarkable than the +ability to recognize great talent was his capacity to weigh and value +with a nice exactness the worth of men who did not rise to the level +of greatness. There is a recently published letter, too long for +quotation here, in which he gives his opinions of all the leading +officers of the Revolution,[1] and each one shows the most remarkable +insight, as well as a sharp definiteness of outline that indicates +complete mastery. These compact judgments were so sound that even the +lapse of a century and all the study of historians and biographers +find nothing in their keen analysis to alter and little to add. He did +not expect to discover genius everywhere, or to find a marshal's +baton in every knapsack, but he used men according to their value and +possibilities, which is quite as essential as the preliminary work +of selection. His military staff illustrated this faculty admirably. +Every man, after a few trials and changes, fitted his place and did +his particular task better than any one else could have done it. +Colonel Meade, loyal and gallant, a good soldier and planter, said +that Hamilton did the headwork of Washington's staff and he the +riding. When the war was drawing to a close, Washington said one day +to Hamilton, "You must go to the Bar, which you can reach in six +months." Then turning to Meade, "Friend Dick, you must go to your +plantation; you will make a good farmer, and an honest foreman of the +grand jury."[2] The prediction was exactly fulfilled, with all that it +implied, in both cases. But let it not be supposed that there was any +touch of contempt in the advice to Meade. On the contrary, there was +a little warmer affection, if anything, for he honored success in any +honest pursuit, especially in farming, which he himself loved. But he +distinguished the two men perfectly, and he knew what each was and +what each meant. It seems little to say, but if we stop to think of +it, this power to read men aright and see the truth in them and about +them is a power more precious than any other bestowed by the kindest +of fairy godmothers. The lame devil of Le Sage looked into the secrets +of life through the roofs of houses, and much did he find of the +secret story of humanity. But the great man looking with truth and +kindliness into men's natures, and reading their characters and +abilities in their words and acts, has a higher and better power than +that attributed to the wandering sprite, for such a man holds in his +hand the surest key to success. Washington, quiet and always on the +watch, after the fashion of silent greatness, studied untiringly the +ever recurring human problems, and his just conclusions were powerful +factors in the great result. He was slow, when he had plenty of time, +in adopting a policy or plan, or in settling a public question, but +he read men very quickly. He was never under any delusion as to Lee, +Gates, Conway, or any of the rest who engaged against him because they +were restless from the first under the suspicion that he knew them +thoroughly. Arnold deceived him because his treason was utterly +inconceivable to Washington, and because his remarkable gallantry +excused his many faults. But with this exception it may be safely +said that Washington was never misled as to men, either as general or +President. His instruments were not invariably the best and sometimes +failed him, but they were always the best he could get, and he knew +their defects and ran the inevitable risks with his eyes open. Such +sure and rapid judgments of men and their capabilities were possible +only to a man of keen perception and accurate observation, neither of +which is characteristic of a slow or common-place mind. + +[Footnote 1: _Magazine of American History_, vol. iii., 1879, p. 81.] + +[Footnote 2: _Memoir of Rt. Rev. William Meade_, by Philip Slaughter, +D.D., p. 7.] + +These qualities were, of course, gifts of nature, improved and +developed by the training of a life of action on a great scale. He had +received, indeed, little teaching except that of experience, and the +world of war and politics had been to him both school and college. His +education had been limited in the extreme, scarcely going beyond the +most rudimentary branches except in mathematics, and this is very +apparent in his early letters. He seems always to have written a +handsome hand and to have been good at figures, but his spelling at +the outset was far from perfect, and his style, although vigorous, was +abrupt and rough. He felt this himself, took great pains to correct +his faults in this respect, and succeeded, as he did in most things. +Mr. Sparks has produced a false impression in this matter by smoothing +and amending in very extensive fashion all the earlier letters, so as +to give an appearance of uniformity throughout the correspondence; a +process which not only destroyed much of the vigor and force of the +early writings, but made them somewhat unnatural. The surveyor and +frontier soldier wrote very differently from the general of the army +and the President of the United States, and the improvements of Mr. +Sparks only served to hide the real man.[1] + +[Footnote 1: These facts in regard to Washington's early letters, +and to his correspondence generally, were first brought to public +attention by the Reed letters, and by the controversy between Mr. +Sparks and Lord Mahon. They have, of course, been long familiar to +students of the original manuscripts. The full extent, however, of the +changes made by Mr. Sparks, and of the mischief he wrought, and of the +injustice thus done both to his hero and to posterity, has but lately +been made known generally by the new edition of Washington's papers +which have been published, under the supervision of Mr. W.C. Ford. +Washington himself, when he undertook to arrange his military and +state papers after his retirement from the presidency, began to +correct the style of some of his earlier letters. This was natural +enough, and he had a right to do what he pleased with his own, even +if he thereby injured the material of the future historian and +biographer. But he did not proceed far in his work, and the fact +that he corrected a few of his own letters gave Mr. Sparks no right +whatever to enter upon a wholesale revision.] + +If Washington had been of coarse fibre and heavy mind, this lack of +education would have troubled him but little. His great success in +that case would have served only to convince him of the uselessness of +education except for inferior persons, who could not get along in the +world without artificial aids. As it was, he never ceased to regret +his deficiency in this respect, and when Humphreys urged him to +prepare a history or memoirs of the war, he replied: "In a former +letter I informed you, my dear Humphreys, that if I had talent for +it, I have not leisure to turn my thoughts to commentaries. A +consciousness of a defective education and a certainty of a want of +time unfit me for such an undertaking." He was misled by his own +modesty as to his capacity, but his strong feeling as to his lack of +schooling haunted and troubled him always, although it did not make +him either indifferent or bitter. He only admired more that which he +himself had missed. He regarded education, and especially the higher +forms, with an almost pathetic reverence, and its advancement was +never absent from his thoughts. When he was made chancellor of the +college of William and Mary, he was more deeply pleased than by any +honor ever conferred upon him, and he accepted the position with a +diffidence and a seriousness which were touching in such a man. In the +same spirit he gave money to the Alexandria Academy, and every scheme +to promote public education in Virginia had his eager support. His +interest was not confined by state lines, for there was nothing so +near his heart as the foundation of a national university. He urged +its establishment upon Congress over and over again, and, as has been +seen, left money in his will for its endowment. + +All his sympathies and tastes were those of a man of refined mind, and +of a lover of scholarship and sound learning. Naturally a very modest +man, and utterly devoid of any pretense, he underrated, as a matter of +fact, his own accomplishments. He distrusted himself so much that he +always turned to Hamilton, both during the Revolution and afterwards, +as well as in the preparation of the farewell address, to aid him in +clothing his thoughts in a proper dress, which he felt himself unable +to give them. His tendency was to be too diffuse and too involved, +but as a rule his style was sufficiently clear, and he could express +himself with nervous force when the occasion demanded, and with a +genuine and stately eloquence when he was deeply moved, as in the +farewell to Congress at the close of the war. It is not a little +remarkable that in his letters after the first years there is nothing +to betray any lack of early training. They are the letters, not of a +scholar or a literary man, but of an educated gentleman; and although +he seldom indulged in similes or allusions, when he did so they were +apt and correct. This was due to his perfect sanity of mind, and to +his aversion to all display or to any attempt to shine in borrowed +plumage. He never undertook to speak or write on any subject, or to +make any reference, which he did not understand. He was a lover of +books, collected a library, and read always as much as his crowded +life would permit. When he was at Newburgh, at the close of the war, +he wrote to Colonel Smith in New York to send him the following +books:-- + + "Charles the XIIth of Sweden. + Lewis the XVth, 2 vols. + History of the Life and Reign of the Czar Peter the Great. + Campaigns of Marshal Turenne. + Locke on the Human Understanding. + Robertson's History of America, 2 vols. + Robertson's History of Charles V. + Voltaire's Letters. + Life of Gustavus Adolphus. + Sully's Memoirs. + Goldsmith's Natural History. + Mildman on Trees. + Vertot's Revolution of Rome, 3 vols. + Vertot's Revolution of Portugal, 3 vols. + {The Vertot's if they are in estimation.} + + If there is a good Bookseller's shop in the City, I would thank + you for sending me a catalogue of the Books and their prices that + I may choose such as I want." + +His tastes ran to history and to works treating of war or agriculture, +as is indicated both by this list and some earlier ones. It is not +probable that he gave so much attention to lighter literature, +although he wrote verses in his youth, and by an occasional allusion +in his letters he seems to have been familiar with some of the great +works of the imagination, like "Don Quixote."[1] + +[Footnote 1: At his death the appraisers of the estate found 863 +volumes in his library, besides a great number of pamphlets, +magazines, and maps. This was a large collection of books for those +days, and showed that the possessor, although purely a man of affairs, +loved reading and had literary tastes.] + +He never freed himself from the self-distrust caused by his profound +sense of his own deficiencies in education, on the one hand, and +his deep reverence for learning, on the other. He had fought the +Revolution, which opened the way for a new nation, and was at the +height of his fame when he wrote to the French officers, who begged +him to visit France, that he was "too old to learn French or to talk +with ladies;" and it was this feeling in a large measure which kept +him from ever being a maker of phrases or a sayer of brilliant things. +In other words, the fact that he was modest and sensitive has been the +chief cause of his being thought dull and cold. This idea, moreover, +is wholly that of posterity, for there is not the slightest indication +on the part of any contemporary that Washington could not talk well +and did not appear to great advantage in society. It is posterity, +looking with natural weariness at endless volumes of official letters +with all the angles smoothed off by the editorial plane, that has +come to suspect him of being dull in mind and heavy in wit. His +contemporaries knew him to be dignified and often found him stern, but +they never for a moment considered him stupid, or thought him a man at +whom the shafts of wit could be shot with impunity. They were fully +conscious that he was as able to hold his own in conversation as he +was in the cabinet or in the field; and we can easily see the justice +of contemporary opinion if we take the trouble to break through the +official bark and get at the real man who wrote the letters. In many +cases we find that he could employ irony and sarcasm with real force, +and his powers of description, even if stilted at times, were vigorous +and effective. All these qualities come out strongly in his letters, +if carefully read, and his private correspondence in particular shows +a keenness and point which the formalities of public intercourse +veiled generally from view. We are fortunate in having the account of +a disinterested and acute observer of the manner in which Washington +impressed a casual acquaintance in conversation. The actor Bernard, +whom we have already quoted, and whom we left with Washington at the +gates of Mount Vernon, gives us the following vivid picture of what +ensued:-- + +"In conversation his face had not much variety of expression. A look +of thoughtfulness was given by the compression of the mouth and the +indentations of the brow (suggesting an habitual conflict with, and +mastery over, passion), which did not seem so much to disdain a +sympathy with trivialities as to be incapable of denoting them. Nor +had his voice, so far as I could discover in our quiet talk, +much change or richness of intonation, but he always spoke with +earnestness, and his eyes (glorious conductors of the light within) +burned with a steady fire which no one could mistake for mere +affability; they were one grand expression of the well-known line: 'I +am a man, and interested in all that concerns humanity.' In one hour +and a half's conversation he touched on every topic that I brought +before him with an even current of good sense, if he embellished it +with little wit or verbal elegance. He spoke like a man who had felt +as much as he had reflected, and reflected more than he had spoken; +like one who had looked upon society rather in the mass than in +detail, and who regarded the happiness of America but as the first +link in a series of universal victories; for his full faith in the +power of those results of civil liberty which he saw all around him +led him to foresee that it would, erelong, prevail in other countries, +and that the social millennium of Europe would usher in the political. +When I mentioned to him the difference I perceived between the +inhabitants of New England and of the Southern States, he remarked: 'I +esteem those people greatly; they are the stamina of the Union and its +greatest benefactors. They are continually spreading themselves too, +to settle and enlighten less favored quarters. Dr. Franklin is a New +Englander.' When I remarked that his observations were flattering to +my country, he replied, with great good-humor, 'Yes, yes, Mr. Bernard, +but I consider your country the cradle of free principles, not their +armchair. Liberty in England is a sort of idol; people are bred up in +the belief and love of it, but see little of its doings. They walk +about freely, but then it is between high walls; and the error of its +government was in supposing that after a portion of their subjects had +crossed the sea to live upon a common, they would permit their friends +at home to build up those walls about them.' A black coming in at this +moment with a jug of spring water, I could not repress a smile, which +the general at once interpreted. 'This may seem a contradiction,' he +continued, 'but I think you must perceive that it is neither a crime +nor an absurdity. When we profess, as our fundamental principle, that +liberty is the inalienable right of every man, we do not include +madmen or idiots; liberty in their hands would become a scourge. Till +the mind of the slave has been educated to perceive what are the +obligations of a state of freedom, and not confound a man's with a +brute's, the gift would insure its abuse. We might as well be asked +to pull down our old warehouses before trade has increased to demand +enlarged new ones. Both houses and slaves were bequeathed to us by +Europeans, and time alone can change them; an event, sir, which, you +may believe me, no man desires more heartily than I do. Not only do I +pray for it, on the score of human dignity, but I can already foresee +that nothing but the rooting out of slavery can perpetuate the +existence of our Union, by consolidating it in a common bond of +principle.' + +"I now referred to the pleasant hours I had passed in Philadelphia, +and my agreeable surprise at finding there so many men of talent, at +which his face lit up vividly. 'I am glad to hear you, sir, who are an +Englishman, say so, because you must now perceive how ungenerous are +the assertions people are always making on your side of the water. +One gentleman, of high literary standing,--I allude to the Abbe +Raynal,--has demanded whether America has yet produced one great +poet, statesman, or philosopher. The question shows anything but +observation, because it is easy to perceive the causes which have +combined to render the genius of this country scientific rather than +imaginative. And, in this respect, America has surely furnished her +quota. Franklin, Rittenhouse, and Rush are no mean names, to which, +without shame, I may append those of Jefferson and Adams, as +politicians; while I am told that the works of President Edwards of +Rhode Island are a text-book in polemics in many European colleges.' + +"Of the replies which I made to his inquiries respecting England, he +listened to none with so much interest as to those which described the +character of my royal patron, the Prince of Wales. 'He holds out every +promise,' remarked the general, 'of a brilliant career. He has been +well educated by _events_, and I doubt not that, in his time, England +will receive the benefit of her child's emancipation. She is at +present bent double, and has to walk with crutches; but her offspring +may teach her the secret of regaining strength, erectness, and +independence.' In reference to my own pursuits he repeated the +sentiments of Franklin. He feared the country was too poor to be a +patron of the drama, and that only arts of a practical nature +would for some time be esteemed. The stage he considered to be an +indispensable resource for settled society, and a chief refiner; not +merely interesting as a comment on the history of social happiness +by its exhibition of manners, but an agent of good as a school for +poetry, in holding up to honor the noblest principles. 'I am too old +and too far removed,' he added, 'to seek for or require this pleasure +myself, but the cause is not to droop on my account. There's my friend +Mr. Jefferson has time and taste; he goes always to the play, and I'll +introduce you to him,' a promise which he kept, and which proved to me +the source of the greatest benefit and pleasure." + +This is by far the best account of Washington in the ordinary converse +of daily life that has come down to us. The narrator belonged to the +race who live by amusing their fellow-beings, and are in consequence +quick to notice peculiarities and highly susceptible to being bored. +Bernard, after the first interest of seeing a very eminent man had +worn off, would never have lingered for an hour and a half of chat and +then gone away reluctantly if his host had been either dull of speech +or cold and forbidding of manner. It is evident that Washington talked +well, easily, and simply, ranging widely over varied topics with a +sure touch, and that he drew from the ample resources of a well-stored +and reflective mind. The scraps of conversation which Bernard +preserves are interesting and above the average of ordinary talk, +without manifesting any attempt to be either brilliant or striking, +and it is also apparent that Washington had the art of putting his +guest entirely at his ease by his own pleasant and friendly manner. He +had picked up the English actor on the road, liked his readiness to +be helpful (always an attraction to him in any one), found him +well-mannered and intelligent, and brought him home to rest and chat +in the pleasant summer afternoon. To Bernard he was simply the plain +Virginia gentleman, with a liberal and cultivated interest in men and +things, and not a trace of oppressive and conscious greatness about +him. It is to be suspected that he was by no means equally genial to +the herd of sight-seers who pursued him in his retirement, but in this +meeting he appeared as he must always have appeared to his family and +friends. + +We get the same idea from the scattered allusions that we have to +Washington in private life. Although silent and reserved as to +himself, he was by no means averse to society, and in his own house +all his guests, both great and small, felt at their ease with him, +although with no temptation to be familiar. We know from more than +one account that the dinners at the presidential house, as well as at +Mount Vernon, were always agreeable. It was his wont to sit at table +after the cloth was removed sipping a glass of wine and eating nuts, +of which he was very fond, while he listened to the conversation and +caused it to flow easily, not so much by what he said as by the kindly +smile and ready sympathy which made all feel at home. We can gather +an idea also of the charm which he had in the informal intercourse of +daily life from some of his letters on trifling matters. Here is a +little note written to Mrs. Stockton in acknowledgment of a pastoral +poem which she had sent him:-- + + "MOUNT VERNON, February 18, 1784. + + "Dear Madam: The intemperate weather and very great care which the + post riders take of themselves prevented your letter of the 4th of + last month from reaching my hands till the 10th of this. I was then in + the very act of setting off on a visit to my aged mother, from whence + I am just returned. These reasons I beg leave to offer as an apology + for my silence until now. + + "It would be a pity indeed, my dear madam, if the muses should be + restrained in you; it is only to be regretted that the hero of your + poetical talents is not more deserving their lays. I cannot, however, + from motives of pure delicacy (because I happen to be the principal + character in your Pastoral) withhold my encomiums on the performance; + for I think the easy, simple, and beautiful strain with which the + dialogue is supported does great justice to your genius; and will not + only secure Lucinda and Amista from wits and critics, but draw from + them, however unwillingly, their highest plaudits; if they can + relish the praises that are given, as they must admire the manner of + bestowing them. + + "Mrs. Washington, equally sensible with myself of the honor you have + done her, joins me in most affectionate compliments to yourself, and + the young ladies and gentlemen of your family. + + "With sentiments of esteem, regard and respect, + I have the honor to be + ---- ----" + +This is not a matter of "great pith or moment," but it shows how +pleasantly he could acknowledge a civility. The turn of the sentences +smacks of the formality of the time. They sound a little labored, +perhaps, to modern ears, but they were graceful according to the +standard of his day, and they have a gentle courtesy which can never +be out of fashion. + +He had the power also of paying a compliment in an impressive and +really splendid manner whenever he felt it to be deserved. When +Charles Thomson, who for fifteen years had been the honored secretary +of the Continental Congress, wrote to announce his retirement, +Washington replied: "The present age does so much justice to the +unsullied reputation with which you have always conducted yourself in +the execution of the duties of your office, and posterity will find +your name so honorably connected with the verification of such a +multitude of astonishing facts, that my single suffrage would add +little to the illustration of your merits. Yet I cannot withhold any +just testimonial in favor of so old, so faithful, and so able a +public officer, which might tend to soothe his mind in the shades of +retirement. Accept, then, this serious declaration, that your services +have been important, as your patriotism was distinguished; and enjoy +that best of all rewards, the consciousness of having done your duty +well." + +Dull men do not write in this fashion. It is one thing to pay a +handsome compliment, although even that is not by itself easy, but to +give it in addition the note of sincerity which alone makes it of real +value demands both art and good feeling. Let us take one more example +of this sort before we drop the subject. When the French officers were +leaving America Washington wrote to De Chastellux to bid him farewell. +"Our good friend, the Marquis of Lafayette," he said, "prepared me, +long before I had the honor to see you, for those impressions of +esteem which opportunities and your own benevolent mind have since +improved into a deep and lasting friendship; a friendship which +neither time nor distance can eradicate. I can truly say that never in +my life have I parted with a man to whom my soul clave more sincerely +than it did to you. My warmest wishes will attend you in your voyage +across the Atlantic to the rewards of a generous prince, the arms of +affectionate friends; and be assured that it will be one of my highest +gratifications to keep up a regular intercourse with you by letter." + +These letters exhibit not only the grace and point born of +intelligence, but also the best of manners; by which I mean private +manners, not those of the public man, of which there will be something +to say hereafter. The attraction of Washington's society as a private +gentleman lay in his good sense, breadth of knowledge, and good +manners. Now the essence of good manners of the highest and most +genuine kind is good feeling, which is thoughtful of others, and which +is impossible to a cold, hard, or insensible nature. Such manners as +we see in Washington's private letters and private life would have +been strange offspring from the cold heart attributed to him by Mr. +McMaster. In justice to Mr. McMaster, however, be it said, the charge +is not a new one. It has been hinted at and spoken of elsewhere, and +many persons have suspected that such was the case from the well-meant +efforts of what may be called the cherry-tree school to elevate +Washington's character by depicting him as a soulless, bloodless prig. +The blundering efforts of the latter need not be noticed, but the +reflections of serious critics cannot be passed by. The theory of the +cold heart and the unfeeling nature seems to proceed in this wise. +Washington was silent and reserved, he did not wear his heart upon his +sleeve for daws to peck at, therefore he was cold; just as if mere +noise and chatter had any relation to warm affections. He would take +no salary from Congress, says Mr. McMaster, in fine antithesis, but +he exacted his due from the family of the poor mason. This has an +unpleasant sound, and suggests the man who is generous in public, and +hard and grasping in private. Mr. McMaster in this sentence, however, +whether intentionally or not, is not quite accurate in his facts, and +conveys by his mode of statement an entirely false impression. The +story to which he refers is given by Parkinson, who wrote a book about +his experiences in America in 1798-1800. Parkinson had the story from +one General Stone, and it was to this effect:[1] A room was plastered +at Mount Vernon on one occasion, and was paid for during the owner's +absence. When Washington returned he examined the work and had it +measured, as was his habit. It then appeared that an error had been +made, and that fifteen shillings too much had been paid. Meantime the +plasterer had died. His widow married again, and her second husband +advertised in the newspapers that he was prepared to pay the debts of +his predecessor and collect all moneys due him. Thereupon Washington +put in his claim, which was paid as a matter of course. He did not +extort the debt from the family of the poor mason, but collected it +from the second husband of the widow, in response to a voluntary +advertisement. It was very careful and even close dealing, but it was +neither harsh nor unjust, and the writer who has preserved the story +would be not a little surprised at the interpretation that has +been put upon it, for he cited it, as he expressly says, merely +to illustrate the extraordinary regularity and method to which he +attributed much of Washington's success. + +[Footnote 1: Parkinson's _Tour in America_, 1798-1800, 437 and ff.] + +Parkinson, in this same connection, tells several other stories, +vague in origin, and sounding like mere gossip, but still worthy of +consideration. According to one of them, Washington maintained a +public ferry, which was customary among the planters, and the public +paid regular tolls for its use. On one occasion General Stone, the +authority for the previous anecdote, crossed the ferry and offered +a moidore in payment. The ferryman objected to receiving it, on the +ground that it was short weight, but Stone insisted, and it was +finally accepted. On being given to Washington it was weighed, and +being found three half-pence short, the ferryman was ordered to +collect the balance due. On another occasion a tenant could not make +the exact change in paying his rent, and Washington would not accept +the money until the tenant went to Alexandria and brought back +the precise sum. There is, however, still another anecdote, which +completes this series, and which shows a different application of the +same rule. Washington, in traveling, was in the habit of paying at +inns the same for his servants as for himself. An innkeeper once +charged him three shillings and ninepence for himself, and three +shillings for his servant. Thereupon Washington sent for his host, +said that his servant ate as much as he, and insisted on paying the +additional ninepence. + +This extreme exactness in money matters, down even to the most +trifling sums, was no doubt a foible, but it is well to observe that +it was not a foible which sought only a selfish advantage, for the +rule which he applied to others he applied also to himself. He meant +to have his due, no matter how trivial, and he meant also that +others should have theirs. In trifles, as in greater things, he was +scrupulously just, and although he was always generous and ready to +give, he insisted rigidly on what was justly his. A gift was one +thing, a business transaction was another. The man himself who told +these very stories was a good example of the kindliness which went +hand in hand with this exactness in business affairs. Parkinson was +an Englishman, of great narrowness of mind, who came out here to be a +farmer, failed, and went home to write a book in denunciation of the +country. America never had a more hostile critic. According to +this profound observer, there was no good land in America, and no +possibility of successful agriculture. The horses were bad, the cattle +were bad, and sheep-raising was impossible. There was no game, the +fish and oysters were poor and watery, and no one could ever hope in +this wretchedly barren land for either wealth or comfort. It was a +country fit only for the reception of convicts, and the cast-off +mistress of an Englishman made a good wife for an American. A person +who held such views as these was not likely to be biased in favor of +anything American, and his evidence as to Washington may be safely +trusted as not likely to be unduly favorable. He tells us that on his +arrival at Mount Vernon, with letters of introduction, he was kindly +received; that this hospitality was never relaxed; and that the +general lent him money. He was at least grateful, and these are his +last words as to Washington:-- + +"To me he appeared a mild, friendly man, in company rather reserved, +in private speaking with candor. His behavior to me was such that I +shall ever revere his name. + +"General Washington lived a great man, and died the same. + +"I am of opinion that the general never knowingly did anything wrong, +but did to all men as he would they should do to him." + +Evidently he appeared to Mr. Parkinson kindly and generous, as well +as exactly just. It is well to have the truth about Washington, and +nothing but the truth. Yet in escaping from the falsehoods of the +eulogist and the myth-maker, let us beware of those which spring from +the reaction against the current and accepted views. I have quoted +the Parkinson stories at length, because they enforce this point +admirably. No _a priori_ theory is safe, and to assume that Washington +must have committed grave errors and been guilty of mean actions +because they are common to humanity, and have not been admitted in his +case, is just as misleading as to assume, as is usually done, that he +was absolutely perfect and without fault. + +Let it be admitted that Washington, ever ready to pay his own dues, +was strict, and sometimes severe, in demanding them of others; but +let it be also remembered, this is the worst that can be said. He was +always ready to overlook faults of omission or commission; he would +pardon easily mismanagement or extravagance on his estate or in +his household; but he had no mercy for anything that savored of +ingratitude, treachery, or dishonesty, and he carried this same +feeling into public as well as private affairs. No officer who had +bravely done his best had anything to fear in defeat from Washington's +anger. He was never unjust, and he was always kind to misfortune or +mistake, but to the coward or the traitor he was entirely unforgiving. +This it was which made Arnold's treason so bitter to him. Not only had +he been deceived, but the country as well as himself had been most +basely betrayed; and for this reason he was relentless to Andre, whom +it is said he never saw, living or dead. The young Englishman had +taken part in a wretched piece of treachery, and for the sake of the +country, and as a warning to traitors, Washington would not spare him. +He would never have ordered a political prisoner to be taken out and +shot in a ditch, after the fashion of Napoleon; nor would he have +dealt with any people as the Duke of Cumberland dealt with the +clansmen after Culloden. Such performances would have seemed to him +wanton as well as cruel, and he was too wise and too humane a man +to be either. Indian atrocities, for instance, with which he was +familiar, never led him to retaliate in kind. But he was perfectly +prepared to exact the extremest penalty by just and recognized +methods; and had it not been for the urgent entreaties of his friends, +he would have sent Asgill to the scaffold, repugnant as it was to his +feelings, because he felt that the murder of Huddy was a crime for +which the English army was responsible, and which demanded a just and +striking vengeance. He was, it may be freely confessed, of anything +but a tame nature. There was a good deal of Berserker in his make-up, +and he was fierce in his anger when he believed that a great wrong had +been done. But because he was stern and unrelenting when he felt that +justice and his duty required him to be so, no more proves that he had +a cold heart than does the fact that he was silent, dignified, and +reserved. Cold-blooded men are not fierce in seeking to redress the +wrongs of others, nor are the fluent of speech the only kind and +generous members of the human family. + +Washington's whole life, indeed, contradicts the charge that he was +cold of heart and sluggish of feeling. The man who wrote as he did in +his extreme youth, when Indians were harrying the frontier where he +commanded, was not lacking in humanity or sympathy; and such as he +then was he remained to the end of his life. A soldier by instinct and +experience, he never grew indifferent to the miseries of war. Human +suffering always appealed to him and moved him deeply, and when it was +wantonly inflicted stirred him to anger and to the desire for the wild +justice of revenge. + +The goodness and kindness of man's heart, however, are much more truly +shown in the little details of life than in the great matters which +affect classes or communities. Washington was considerate and helpful +to all men, and if he was ever cold and distant in his manner, it was +to the great, and not to the poor or humble. As has been indicated by +his recognition of the actor Bernard, he had in high degree the royal +gift of remembering names and faces. When he was at Senator Dalton's +house in Newburyport, on his New England tour of 1789, he met an +old servant whom he had not seen since the French war, thirty years +before. He knew the man at once, spoke to him, and welcomed him. So it +was with the old soldiers of the Revolution, who were always sure of a +welcome, and, if he had ever seen them, of a recognition. No man ever +turned from his presence wounded by a cold forgetfulness. When he was +at Ipswich, on this same journey, Mr. Cleaveland, the minister of the +town, was presented to him. As he approached, hat in hand, Washington +said, "Put on your hat, parson, and I will shake hands with you." "I +cannot wear my hat in your presence, general," was the reply, "when I +think of what you have done for this country." "You did as much as I." +"No, no," protested the parson. "Yes," said Washington, "you did what +you could, and I've done no more." What a gracious, kindly courtesy is +this, and not without the salt of wit! Does it not show the perfection +of good manners which deals with all men for what they are, and is +full of a warm sympathy born of a good heart? He was criticised +for coldness and accused of monarchical leanings, because, at Mrs. +Washington's receptions and his own public levees, he stood, dressed +in black velvet, with one hand on the hilt of his sword and the other +behind his back, and shook hands with no one, although he talked with +all. He did this because he thought it became the President of the +United States upon state occasions, and his sense of the dignity of +his office was always paramount. But away from forms and ceremonies, +with the old servant or the old soldier, or the country parson, his +hand was never behind his back, and his manners were those of a great +but simple gentleman, and came straight from a kind heart, full of +sympathy and good feeling. + +He was, too, the most hospitable of men in the best sense, and his +house was always open to all who came. When he was away during the war +or the presidency, his instructions to his agents were to keep up the +hospitality of Mount Vernon, just as if he had been there himself; and +he was especially careful in directing that, if there were general +distress, poor persons of the neighborhood should have help from his +kitchen or his granaries. + +His own more immediate hospitality was of the same kind. He always +entertained in the most liberal manner, both as general and President, +and in a style which he thought befitted the station he occupied. But +apart from all this, his table, whether at home or abroad, was never +without its guest. "Dine with us," he wrote to Lear on July 31, 1797, +"or we shall do what we have not done for twenty years, dine alone." +The real hospitality which opens the door and spreads the board for +the friend or stranger, admitting them to the family without form or +ceremony, was his also. "My manner of living is plain," he wrote to +a friend after the Revolution; "I do not mean to be put out of it. A +glass of wine and a bit of mutton are always ready; and such as will +be content to partake of them are always welcome. Those who expect +more will be disappointed, but no change will be effected by +it." Genuine hospitality as unstinted as it was sincere was not +characteristic of a cold man, or of one who sought to avoid his +fellows. It is one of the lighter graces of life, perhaps, but when it +comes freely and simply, and not as a vehicle for the display or the +aggrandizement of its dispenser, it is not without a meaning to the +student of character. + +Washington was not much given to professions of friendship, nor was he +one of the great men who keep a circle of intimates and sometimes of +flatterers about them. He was extremely independent of the world and +perfectly self-sufficing, but it is a mistake to suppose that because +he unbosomed himself to scarcely any one, and had the loneliness of +greatness and of high responsibilities, he was therefore without +friends. He had as many friends as usually fall to the lot of any man; +and although he laid bare his inmost heart to none, some were very +close and all were very dear to him. In war and politics, as has +already been said, the two men who came nearest to him were Hamilton +and Knox, and his diary shows that when he was President he consulted +with them nearly every day wholly apart from the regular cabinet +meetings. They were the two advisers who were friends as well as +secretaries, and who followed and sustained him as a matter of +affection as much as politics. At home his neighbor, George Mason, +although they came to differ, was a strong friend whom he liked and +respected, and whose opinion, whether favorable or adverse, he always +sought. His feeling to Patrick Henry was much deeper than mere +political or official acquaintance, and the lovable qualities of the +brilliant orator, clear even now across the gulf of a century, were +evidently strongly felt by Washington. They differed about the +Constitution, but Washington was eager at a later day to have Henry by +his side in the cabinet, and in the last years they stood shoulder to +shoulder in defense of the Union with a personal sympathy deeper than +any born of a mere similarity of opinion. Henry Lee, the son of his +old sweetheart, he loved with a tender and peculiar affection. He +watched over him and helped him, rejoiced in the dashing gallantry +which made him famous as Light-horse Harry, and, when he had won civil +as well as military distinction, trusted him and counseled with him. +Dr. Craik, the companion of his youth and his life-long physician, was +always a dear and close friend, and the regard between the two is very +pleasant to look at, as we see it glancing out here and there in the +midst of state papers and official cases. For the officers of the army +he had a peculiarly warm feeling, and he had among them many close +friends, like Carrington of Virginia, and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney +of South Carolina. His immediate staff he regarded with especial +affection, and it is worthy of notice that they all not only admired +their great chief, but followed him with a personal devotion which is +not a little curious if Washington was cold of heart and distant of +manner in the intimate association of a military family. + +This feeling for his soldiers and his officers extended also to those +civilians who had stood by him and the army, and who had labored +for victory in all those trying years. Such a one was old Governor +Trumbull, "Brother Jonathan," who never failed to respond when a call +was made for men and money, and upon whose friendship and advice +Washington always leaned. Such, too, were Robert and Gouverneur +Morris. The sacrifices and energy of the one and the zeal and +brilliant abilities of the other endeared both to him, and his +friendship for them never wavered when misfortune overtook the elder, +and when the younger was driven by malice, both foreign and domestic, +from the place he had filled so well. Another, again, of this kind was +Franklin. In the dark days of the old French war, Washington had seen +displayed for the first time the force and tact of Franklin, which +alone obtained the necessary wagons and enabled Braddock's army +to move. The early impression thus obtained was never lost, and +Franklin's patriotism, his sympathy for the general and the army in +the Revolution, as well as the stanch support he gave them, aroused in +Washington a sense of obligation and friendship of the sincerest kind. +In proportion as he loathed ingratitude was he grateful himself. He +loved Franklin for his friendship and support, he admired him for +his successful diplomacy, and he reverenced him for his scientific +attainments. The only American whose fame could for a moment come +in competition with his own, he regarded the old philosopher with +affectionate veneration, and when, after his own fashion, and not at +all after the fashion of the time, he arrived in Philadelphia on the +exact day set for the Constitutional Convention, his first act was to +call upon Dr. Franklin and pay his respects to him. The courtesy and +kindliness of this little act on the part of a man who had come to the +town in the midst of shouting crowds, with joy bells ringing above his +head, speak well for the simple, honest heart that dictated it. + +After all, it may be said that a passing civility of this sort +involved but little trouble, and was more a matter of good-breeding +than anything else. Let us look, then, at another and widely different +case. Of all the men whom the fortunes of war brought across +Washington's path there was none who became dearer to him than +Lafayette, for the generous, high-spirited young Frenchman, full of +fresh enthusiasm and brave as a lion, appealed at once to Washington's +heart. He quickly admitted him to his confidence, and the excellent +service of Lafayette in the field, together with his invaluable +help in securing the French alliance, deepened and strengthened the +sympathy and affection which were entirely reciprocal. After Lafayette +departed, a constant correspondence was maintained; and when the +Bastille fell, it was to Washington that Lafayette sent its key, which +still hangs on the wall of Mt. Vernon. As Lafayette rose rapidly to +the dangerous heights of revolutionary leadership, he had at every +step Washington's advice and sympathy. Then the tide turned; he fell +headlong from power, and brought up in an Austrian prison. From that +moment Washington spared no pains to help his unhappy friend, although +his own position was one of extreme difficulty. Lafayette was not only +the proscribed exile of one country, but also the political prisoner +of another, and the President could not compromise the United States +at that critical moment by showing too much interest in the fate of +his unhappy friend. He nevertheless went to the very edge of prudence +in trying to save him, and the ministers of the United States were +instructed to use every private effort to secure Lafayette's release, +or at least the mitigation of his confinement. All these attempts +failed, but Washington was more successful in other directions. He +sent money to Madame de Lafayette, who was absolutely beggared at the +moment, and represented to her that it was in settlement of an account +which he owed the marquis. When Lafayette's son and his own namesake +came to this country for an asylum, he had him cared for in Boston and +New York by his personal friends; George Cabot in the one case, and +Hamilton in the other. As soon as public affairs made it proper for +him to do it, he took the lad into his own household, treated him like +a son, and kept him near him until events permitted the boy to return +to Europe and rejoin his father. The sufferings and dangers of +Lafayette and his family were indeed a source of great unhappiness +to Washington, and we have the authority of Bradford, his +attorney-general, that when the President attempted to talk about +Lafayette he was so much affected that he shed tears,--a very rare +exhibition of emotion in a man so intensely reserved. + +Absence had as little effect upon his memory of old friends as +misfortune. The latter stimulated recollection, and the former could +not dim it. He found time, in the very heat and fire of war and +revolution, to write to Bryan Fairfax lamenting the death of "the good +old lord" whose house had been open to him, and whose hand had ever +helped him when he was a young and unknown man just beginning his +career. When he returned to Mount Vernon after the presidency, full of +years and honors, one of his first acts was to write to Mrs. Fairfax +in England to assure her of his lasting remembrance, and to breathe +a sigh over the changes time had brought, and over the by-gone years +when they had been young together. + +The loyalty of nature which made his remembrance of old friends so +real and lasting found expression also in the thoughtfulness which he +showed toward casual acquaintances, and this was especially the case +when he had received attention or service at any one's hands, or when +he felt that he was able to give pleasure by a slight effort on his +own part. A little incident which occurred during the first year of +his presidency illustrates this trait in his character very well. +Uxbridge was one among the many places where he stopped on his New +England tour, and when he got to Hartford he wrote to Mr. Taft, who +had been his host in the former town, and who evidently cherished for +him a very keen admiration, the following note:-- + + "November 8, 1789. + + "Sir: Being informed that you have given my name to one of your + sons, and called another after Mrs. Washington's family, and being + moreover very much pleased with the modest and innocent looks of + your two daughters, Patty and Polly, I do for these reasons send + each of these girls a piece of chintz; and to Patty, who bears the + name of Mrs. Washington, and who waited more upon us than Polly + did, I send five guineas, with which she may buy herself any + little ornament she may want, or she may dispose of them in any + other manner more agreeable to herself. As I do not give these + things with a view to having it talked of, or even to its being + known, the less there is said about the matter the better you will + please me; but, that I may be sure the chintz and money have got + safe to hand, let Patty, who I dare say is equal to it, write me + a line informing me thereof, directed to 'The President of the + United States at New York.' I wish you and your family well, and + am," etc. + +Let us turn now from friendship to nearer and closer relations. +Washington was not only too reserved, but he had too much true +sentiment, to leave his correspondence with Mrs. Washington behind +him; for he knew that his vast collection of papers would become the +material of history, and he had no mind that strangers should look +into the sacred recesses of his private life. Only one letter to +Mrs. Washington apparently has survived. It is simple and full of +affection, as one would expect, and tells, as well as many volumes +could, of the happy relations between husband and wife. Washington had +many love affairs in his youth, but he proved in the end a constant +lover. His wife was a high-bred, intelligent woman, simple and +dignified in her manners, efficient in all ways to be the helpmate of +her husband in the high places to which he was called. No shadow ever +rested on their married life, and when the end came Mrs. Washington +only said, "All is over now. I shall soon follow him." She could not +conceive of life without the presence of the unchanging love and noble +character which had been by her side so long. + +Children were denied to Washington, but although this was a +disappointment it did not chill him nor narrow his sympathies, as is +so often the case. He took to his heart his wife's children as if +they were his own. He watched over them and cared for them, and their +deaths caused him the deepest sorrow. He afterwards adopted his wife's +two grandchildren, and watched over them, too, in the same way. In the +midst of all the cares of the presidency, Washington found time always +to write to George Custis, a boy at school or at college; while Nellie +Custis was as dear to him as his own daughter, and her marriage a +source of the most affectionate interest. Indeed, it is evident from +various little anecdotes that he was much less strict with these +children than was Mrs. Washington, and much more disposed to condone +faults. Certain it is that they loved him tenderly, and in a way that +only long years of loving-kindness could have made possible. + +He showed the same feeling to all his own kindred. His mother was ever +the object of the most loyal affection, and even at the head of the +armies he would turn aside to visit her with the same respect and +devotion as when he was a mere boy. He was ever mindful of his +brothers and sisters, and their fortunes. None of them were ever +forgotten, and he was especially kind to the children of those who +had been least fortunate and most needed his help. He educated and +counseled his favorite nephew Bushrod, and did the same for the sons +of George Steptoe Washington. Nothing is pleasanter than to read in +the midst of official papers the long letters in which he gave these +boys great store of wise and kindly advice, guided their education, +strove to form their characters, and traced for them the honorable +careers which he wished them to pursue. Very few men who had risen to +the heights reached by Washington would have found time, in the midst +of engrossing cares, to write such letters as he wrote to friends and +kinsmen. A kind heart prompted them, but they were much more than +merely kind, for when Washington undertook to do anything he did it +thoroughly. Whether it was a treaty with England, the education of a +boy, or the service of a friend, he gave it his best thought and his +utmost care. Where those he loved were concerned, he was never too +busy to think of them, and he spared no pains to help them; censuring +faults where they existed, and giving praise in generous manner where +praise was due. + +To any one who carefully studies his life, it is evident that +Washington was as warm-hearted and affectionate as he was great in +character and ability, and that he was so without noise or pretense. +This really only amounts to saying that he was a well-balanced man, +and yet even this cannot be said without admitting still another +quality. The sanest of all senses is the sense of humor, and the +nature in which it is wholly lacking cannot be thoroughly rounded and +complete. Humor is not the most lofty of qualities, but it is one of +the most essential, and it is generally assumed that Washington +was very deficient in humor. This idea has arisen from a hasty +consideration of the subject, and from a superficial conception of +humor itself. To utter jests, or to say or write witty, brilliant, or +amusing things, no doubt implies the possession of humor, but they are +not the whole of it, for a man may have a fine sense of humor, and yet +never make a joke nor utter a sarcasm. The distinction between humor +and the want of it lies much deeper than word of mouth. The man +without a sense of humor is sure to make a certain number of solemn +blunders. They may be in matters of importance or in the merest +trifles, but they are blunders none the less, and come from +insensibility to the incongruous, the ludicrous, or the impossible. It +may be said that common sense suffices to avoid these pitfalls, but +this is really begging the question, inasmuch as common sense of a +high order amounting almost to genius cannot exist without humor, for +humor is the root and foundation of common sense. Let us apply this +test to Washington and we shall find that there never was a man who +made fewer mistakes than he, down even to matters of the smallest +detail. Search his career from beginning to end, and there is not a +solemn blunder to be found in it. He was attacked and assailed both as +general and President, but he was never laughed at. In other words, +he had a sense of humor which made it impossible for him to blunder +solemnly, or to do or say anything which ridicule could touch. + +It is not, however, necessary to leave his possession of a sense of +humor to inference from his career and his freedom from blunders. That +he had humor strong, sane, and abundant is susceptible of much more +direct proof; and the idea that he was lacking in this respect arose +undoubtedly from the gravity of demeanor which was characteristic of +the man. He had assumed the heavy responsibilities of an important +military command in the French war at an age when most men are just +leaving college and beginning to study a profession. This of itself +sobered him, and added to his natural quiet and reserve, so that in +estimating him in after-life this early and severe discipline at a +most impressionable age ought never to be overlooked, for it had a +very marked effect upon his character. + +He was not perhaps exactly joyous or gay of nature, but he had a +contented and happy disposition, and, like all robust, well-balanced +men, he possessed strong animal spirits and a keen sense of enjoyment. +He loved a wild, open-air life, and was devoted to rough out-door +sports. He liked to wrestle and run, to shoot, ride or dance, and +to engage in all trials of skill and strength, for which his great +muscular development suited him admirably. With such tastes, it +followed almost as a matter of course that he loved laughter and fun. +Good, hearty, country fun, a ludicrous mishap, a practical joke, all +merriment of a simple, honest kind, were highly congenial to him, +especially in his youth and early manhood. Here is the way, for +example, in which he described in his diary a ball he attended in +1760: "In a convenient room, detached for the purpose, abounded great +plenty of bread and butter, some biscuits, with tea and coffee which +the drinkers of could not distinguish from hot water sweetened. Be +it remembered that pocket handkerchiefs served the purposes of +tablecloths, and that no apologies were made for them. I shall +therefore distinguish this ball by the style and title of the +bread-and-butter ball." The wit is not brilliant, but there was a good +hearty laugh in the young man who jots down this little memorandum in +his diary. + +The years after the French war were happy years, free from care and +full of simple pleasures. Then came the Revolution, bringing with it a +burden such as has seldom been laid upon any man, and the seriousness +bred by earlier experiences, came back with tenfold force. The popular +saying was that Washington never smiled during the war, and, roughly +speaking, this was quite true. In all those years of danger and trial, +inasmuch as he was a man big of heart and brain, he had the gravity +and the sadness born of responsibility, and the suffering sure to come +to an unselfish mind. It was at this time that he began to be most +closely observed of men, and hence came the idea that he never +laughed, and therefore was a being devoid of humor, the most +sympathetic of gifts. But as a matter of fact, the old sense of fun +never left him. It would come to his aid at the most serious moments, +just as an endless flow of stories brought relief to Lincoln and +carried him round many jagged corners. With Washington it was hearty, +laughing mirth at some ludicrous incident. Putnam riding into +Cambridge with an old woman clinging behind him; Greene searching for +his wig while it was on his head; a young braggart flung over the head +of an unbroken colt; or a good, rollicking story from Colonel Seammel +or Major Fairlie,--all these would delight Washington, and send him +off into peals of inextinguishable laughter. It was ever the old, +hearty love of fun born of animal spirits, which never left him, and +which would always break out on sufficient provocation. Mr. Parton +would have us believe that this was all, and that the common-place +hero whom he describes never rose above the level of the humor +conveyed by grinning through a horse-collar. Even admitting the truth +of this, a real love of honest fun and of a hearty laugh is a kindly +quality that all men like. + +But was this all? Is it quite true that Washington had only a love of +boisterous fun, and nothing else? It is worth looking a little deeper +than the current stories of the camp to find out, and yet one of these +very camp-stories raises at once a strong suspicion that Mr. Parton's +conclusion in this regard, like so many conclusions about Washington, +is unfounded. When General Lee took the oath of allegiance to the +United States, he remarked, in making abjuration of his former +allegiance, that he was perfectly ready to abjure the king, but could +not bring himself to abjure the Prince of Wales, at which bit of irony +Washington was greatly amused. The wit of the remark is a little cold +to-day, but at the moment, accompanying as it did a solemn act of +abjuration, it was keen enough. Washington himself, moreover, was +perfectly capable of good-natured banter. Colonel Humphreys challenged +him one day to jump over a hedge. Washington, always ready to accept +a challenge where riding was concerned, told the colonel to go on. +Humphreys put his horse at the hedge, cleared it, and landed in +a quagmire on the other side up to his horse's girths; whereupon +Washington rode up, stopped, and looking blandly at his struggling +friend, remarked, "Ah, colonel, you are too deep for me." "Take care," +he wrote to young Custis, when he sent him money for his college gown, +"not to buy without advice; otherwise you may be more distinguished by +your folly than your dress." + +We find in his letters here and there a good-natured raillery, and +jesting, which show a sense of humor that goes beyond the limits of +mere fun and horse-play. Here is a letter he wrote toward the close of +the war, asking some ladies to dine with him in his quarters at West +Point:-- + + "WEST POINT, August 16, 1779. + + "Dear Doctor: I have asked Mrs. Cochran and Mrs. Livingston to + dine with me to-morrow; but ought I not to apprise you of their + fare? As I hate deception, even where imagination is concerned, I + will. + + "It is needless to premise that my table is large enough to hold + the ladies: of this they had ocular demonstration yesterday. To + say how it is usually covered is rather more essential, and this + shall be the purport of my letter. + + "Since my arrival at this happy spot, we have had a ham, sometimes + a shoulder of bacon, to grace the head of the table. A piece + of roast beef adorns the foot, and a small dish of green + beans--almost imperceptible--decorates the centre. When the cook + has a mind to cut a figure,--and this I presume he will attempt + to-morrow,--we have two beefsteak pies, or dishes of crabs, in + addition, one on each side of the centre dish, dividing the space, + and reducing the distance between dish and dish to about six feet, + which without them would be nearly twelve feet apart. Of late he + has had the surprising luck to discover that apples will make + pies; and it is a question if, amidst the violence of his efforts, + we do not get one of apples instead of having both of beef. + + "If the ladies can put up with such entertainment, and submit to + partake of it on plates once tin, but now iron, not become so by + the labor of hard scouring, I shall be happy to see them." + +We may be sure that the ladies found their dinner a pleasant one, and +that the writer of the note was neither a stiff nor unsocial host. A +much more charming letter is one to Nellie Custis, on the occasion of +her first ball. It is too long for quotation, but it is a model of +affectionate wisdom tinged with a gentle humor, and designed to guide +a young girl just beginning the world of society. + +Here, however, is another extract from a letter to Madame de +Lafayette, of rather more serious purport, but in the same strain, and +full of a simple and, as we should call it, an old-fashioned grace. He +was replying to an invitation to visit France, which he felt obliged +to decline. After giving his reasons, he said: "This, my dear +Marchioness (indulge the freedom), is not the case with you. You have +youth (and, if you should incline to leave your children, you can +leave them with all the advantages of education), and must have a +curiosity to see the country, young, rude, and uncultivated as it is, +for the liberties of which your husband has fought, bled, and acquired +much glory, where everybody admires, everybody loves him. Come, then, +let me entreat you, and call my cottage your home; for your own doors +do not open to you with more readiness than mine would. You will see +the plain manner in which we live, and meet with rustic civility; and +you shall taste the simplicity of rural life. It will diversify the +scene, and may give you a higher relish for the gayeties of the court +when you return to Versailles." + +There is also apparent in many of his letters a vein of worldly +wisdom, shrewd but kindly, too gentle to be called cynical, and yet +touched with the humor which reads and appreciates the foibles of +humanity. Of an officer who grumbled at disappointments during the war +he wrote: "General McIntosh is only experiencing upon a small scale +what I have had an ample share of upon a large one; and must, as I +have been obliged to do in a variety of instances, yield to necessity; +that is, to use a vulgar phrase, 'shape his coat according to his +cloth,' or in other words, if he cannot do as he wishes, he must do +what he can." The philosophy is homely and common enough, but the +manner in which the reproof was administered shows kindly tact, one +of the most difficult of arts. Here is another passage, touching on +something outside the range of war and politics. He was writing to +Lund Washington in regard to Mrs. Washington's daughter-in-law, Mrs. +Custis, who was contemplating a second marriage. "For my own part," he +said, "I never did, nor do I believe I ever shall, give advice to a +woman who is setting out on a matrimonial voyage: first, because I +never could advise one to marry without her own consent; and secondly, +because I know it is to no purpose to advise her to refrain when she +has obtained it. A woman very rarely asks an opinion or requires +advice on such an occasion till her resolution is formed; and then it +is with the hope and expectation of obtaining a sanction, not that she +means to be governed by your disapprobation, that she applies. In a +word, the plain English of the application may be summed up in these +words: 'I wish you to think as I do; but if unhappily you differ from +me in opinion, my heart, I must confess, is fixed, and I have gone too +far _now_ to retract.'" + +In the same spirit, but this time with a lurking smile at himself, +did he write to the secretary of Congress for his commission: "If my +commission is not necessary for the files of Congress, I should be +glad to have it deposited among my own papers. It may serve _my +grandchildren_, some fifty or a hundred years hence, for a theme to +ruminate upon, if _they_ should be contemplatively disposed." + +He knew human nature well, and had a smile for its little weaknesses +when they came to his mind. It was this same human sympathy which made +him also love amusements of all sorts; but he was as little their +slave as their enemy. No man ever carried great burdens with a higher +or more serious spirit, but his cares never made him forbidding, nor +rendered him impatient of the pleasure of others. He liked to amuse +himself, and knew the value of a change of thought and scene, and he +was always ready, when duty permitted, for a chat. He liked to take a +comfortable seat and have his talk out, and he had the talent so rare +in great men of being a good and appreciative listener. We hear of him +playing cards at Tappan during the war, and he was always fond of a +game in the evening, realizing the force of Talleyrand's remark to the +despiser of cards: "Quelle triste vieillesse vous vous preparez." In +1779 it is recorded that at a party he danced for three hours with +Mrs. Greene without sitting down or resting, which speaks well for +the health and spirits both of the lady and the gentleman. Even after +Yorktown, he was ready to walk a minuet at a ball, and to the end +he liked to see young people dance, as he had danced himself in his +youth. As has been seen from his treatment of Bernard, he liked the +theatre and the actors, and when he was in Philadelphia he was a +constant attendant at the play, as he had been ever since he went to +see "George Barnwell" in the Barbadoes. His love of horses stayed with +him to the last. He not only rode and drove and trained horses,[1] but +he enjoyed the sport of the race-course. He was probably aware, like +the Shah of Persia who declined to go to the Derby, that one horse +could run faster than another, but nevertheless he liked to see them +run, and we hear of him, after he had reached the presidency, acting +as judge at a race, and seeing his own colt Magnolia beaten, which he +no doubt considered the next best thing to winning. + +[Footnote 1: The Marquis de Chastelleux speaks of the perfect training +of Washington's saddle horses, and says the general broke them +himself. He adds "He (the general) is an excellent and bold horseman, +leaping the highest fences and going extremely quick, without standing +upon his stirrups, bearing on the bridle or letting his horse run +wild; circumstances which our young men look upon as so essential a part +of English horsemanship, that they would rather break a leg or an arm +than renounce them."] + +He had, indeed, in all ways a thoroughly well-balanced mind and +temper. In great affairs he knew how to spare himself the details to +which others could attend as well as he, and yet he was in no wise +a despiser of small things. Before the Revolution, there was a warm +discussion in the Truro parish as to the proper site for the Pohick +Church. Washington and George Mason led respectively the opposing +forces, and each confidently asserted that the site he preferred was +the most convenient for the largest number of parishioners. Finally, +after much debate and no conclusion, Washington appeared at a vestry +meeting with a collection of statistics. He had measured the distance +from each proposed site to the house of each parishioner, and found, +as he declared, that his site was nearer to more people than the +other. It is needless to add that he carried his point, and that the +spot he desired for the church was the one chosen. + +The fact was that, if he confided a task of any sort to another, he +let it go on without meddling; but if he undertook anything himself, +he did it with the utmost thoroughness, and there is much success +in this capacity to take pains even in small things. He managed his +plantations entirely himself when he was at home, and did it well. He +knew the qualities of each field, and the rotation of its crops. No +improvement in agriculture and no ingenious invention escaped his +attention, although he was not to be carried away by mere novelty, +which had such a fascination for his ex-secretary at Monticello. Every +resource of his estate was turned to good use, and his flour and +tobacco commanded absolute confidence with his brand upon them. He +followed in the same painstaking way all his business affairs, and his +accounts, all in his own hand, are wonderfully minute and accurate. He +was very exact in all business as well as very shrewd at a bargain, +and the tradition is that his neighbors considered the general a +formidable man in a horse-trade, that most difficult of transactions. +Parkinson mentions that everything purchased or brought to the house +was weighed, measured, or counted, generally in the presence of the +master himself. Some of his letters to Lear, his private secretary, +show that he looked after his china and servants, the packing and +removal of his furniture with great minuteness. To some persons this +appears evidence of a petty mind in a great man, but to those who +reflect a little more deeply it will occur that this accuracy and +care in trifles were the same qualities which kept the American army +together, and enabled their owner to arrive on time and in full +preparation at Yorktown and Trenton. The worst that can be said is +that from his love of perfection and completeness he may in this +respect have wasted time and strength, but his untiring industry and +his capacity for work were so great that he accomplished so far as we +can see all this drudgery without ever neglecting in the least more +important duties. It was a satisfaction to him to do it; for he was +methodical and exact to the last degree, and he was never happy unless +he held everything in which he was concerned easily within his grasp. + +He had the same attention to details in external things, and he wished +everything about him to be of the best, if not "express'd in fancy." +He had the handsomest carriages and the finest horses always in his +stables. It was necessary that the furniture of his house should be as +good as could be procured, and he was most particular in regard to it. +When he was preparing as President to move to Philadelphia, he made +the most searching inquiries as to horses, stables, servants, schools +for young Custis, and everything affecting the household. He sent at +the same time most minute directions to his agents as to the furniture +of his house, touching upon everything, down to the color of the +curtains and the form of his wine-coolers. He had a like feeling in +regard to dress. His fancy for handsome and appropriate dress in his +youth has already been alluded to, but he never ceased to take an +interest in it; and in a letter to McHenry, written in the last year +of his life, he discusses with great care the details of the uniform +to be prescribed for himself as commander-in-chief of the new army. It +would be a mistake, of course, to infer that he was a dandy, or that +he gave to dress and furniture the importance set upon them by shallow +minds. He simply valued them rightly, and enjoyed the good things of +this world. He had the best possible taste and the keenest sense of +what was appropriate, and it was this good taste and sense of fitness +which saved him from blundering in trifles, as much as his ability and +his sense of humor preserved him from error in the conduct of great +affairs. + +The value of all this to the country he served cannot be too often +reiterated, for ridicule was a real danger to the Revolutionary cause +when it started. The raw levies, headed by volunteer officers from the +shop, the plough, the work-bench, or the trading vessel, despite their +patriotism and the nobility of their cause, could easily have been +made subjects of derision, a perilous enemy to all new undertakings. +Men prefer to be shot at, if they are taken seriously, rather than to +be laughed at and made objects of contempt. The same principle holds +true of a revolution seeking the sympathy of a hostile world. When +Washington drew his sword beneath the Cambridge elm and put himself at +the head of the American army, effective ridicule became impossible, +for the dignity of the cause was seen in that of its leader. The +British generals soon found that they not only had a dangerous enemy +to encounter, but that they were dealing with a man whose pride in his +country and whose own sense of self-respect reduced any assumption of +personal superiority on their part to speedy contempt. In the same way +he brought dignity to the new government of the Constitution when +he was placed at its head. The confederation had excited the just +contempt of the world, and Washington as President, by the force of +his own character and reputation, gave the United States at once the +respect not only of the American people, but of those of Europe as +well. Men felt instinctively that no government over which he presided +could ever fall into feebleness or disrepute. + +In addition to the effect on the popular mind of his character and +services was that of his personal presence. If contemporary testimony +can be believed, few men have ever lived who had the power to impress +those who looked upon them so profoundly as Washington. He was richly +endowed by nature in all physical attributes. Well over six feet +high,[1] large, powerfully built, and of uncommon muscular strength, +he had the force that always comes from great physical power. He had +a fine head, a strong face, with blue eyes set wide apart in deep +orbits, and beneath, a square jaw and firm-set mouth which told of a +relentless will. Houdon the sculptor, no bad judge, said he had no +conception of the majesty and grandeur of Washington's form and +features until he studied him as a subject for a statue. Pages might +be filled with extracts from the descriptions of Washington given by +French officers, by all sorts of strangers, and by his own countrymen, +but they all repeat the same story. Every one who met him told of the +commanding presence, and noble person, the ineffable dignity, and +the calm, simple, and stately manners. No man ever left Washington's +presence without a feeling of reverence and respect amounting almost +to awe. + +[Footnote 1: Lear in his memoranda published recently in full in +McClure's Magazine for February, 1898, states that Washington measured +after death six feet three and one half inches in height, a foot +and nine inches across the shoulders, two feet across the elbows; +evidently a spare man with muscular arms, which we know to have been +also of unusual length.] + +I will quote only a single one of the numerous descriptions of +Washington, and I select it because, although it is the least +favorable of the many I have seen, and is written in homely phrase, it +displays the most evident and entire sincerity. The extract is from +a letter written by David Ackerson of Alexandria, Va., in 1811, in +answer to an inquiry by his son. Mr. Ackerson commanded a company in +the Revolutionary war. + +"Washington was not," he wrote, "what ladies would call a pretty man, +but in military costume a heroic figure, such as would impress the +memory ever afterward." + +The writer had a good view of Washington three days before the +crossing of the Delaware. + +"Washington," he says, "had a large thick nose, and it was very red +that day, giving me the impression that he was not so moderate in the +use of liquors as he was supposed to be. I found afterward that this +was a peculiarity. His nose was apt to turn scarlet in a cold wind. +He was standing near a small camp-fire, evidently lost in thought +and making no effort to keep warm. He seemed six feet and a half in +height, was as erect as an Indian, and did not for a moment relax from +a military attitude. Washington's exact height was six feet two inches +in his boots. He was then a little lame from striking his knee against +a tree. His eye was so gray that it looked almost white, and he had +a troubled look on his colorless face. He had a piece of woolen tied +around his throat and was quite hoarse. Perhaps the throat trouble +from which he finally died had its origin about then. Washington's +boots were enormous. They were number 13. His ordinary walking-shoes +were number 11. His hands were large in proportion, and he could not +buy a glove to fit him and had to have his gloves made to order. +His mouth was his strong feature, the lips being always tightly +compressed. That day they were compressed so tightly as to be painful +to look at. At that time he weighed two hundred pounds, and there was +no surplus flesh about him. He was tremendously muscled, and the fame +of his great strength was everywhere. His large tent when wrapped up +with the poles was so heavy that it required two men to place it in +the camp-wagon. Washington would lift it with one hand and throw it in +the wagon as easily as if it were a pair of saddle-bags. He could hold +a musket with one hand and shoot with precision as easily as other men +did with a horse-pistol. His lungs were his weak point, and his voice +was never strong. He was at that time in the prime of life. His hair +was a chestnut brown, his cheeks were prominent, and his head was not +large in contrast to every other part of his body, which seemed large +and bony at all points. His finger-joints and wrists were so large as +to be genuine curiosities. As to his habits at that period I found +out much that might be interesting. He was an enormous eater, but was +content with bread and meat, if he had plenty of it. But hunger seemed +to put him in a rage. It was his custom to take a drink of rum or +whiskey on awakening in the morning. Of course all this was changed +when he grew old. I saw him at Alexandria a year before he died. His +hair was very gray, and his form was slightly bent. His chest was very +thin. He had false teeth, which did not fit and pushed his under lip +outward."[1] + +[Footnote 1: This letter, recently printed, is in the collection of +Dr. Toner, at Washington. It contains some obvious errors, as +in regard to the color of the eyes, but it is nevertheless very +interesting and valuable.] + +This description is certainly not a flattering one, and all other +accounts as well as the best portraits prove that Washington was a +much handsomer man than this letter would indicate. Yet the writer, +despite his freedom from all illusions and his readiness to state +frankly all defects, was profoundly impressed by Washington's +appearance as he watched him meditating by the camp-fire at the crisis +of the country's fate, and herein lies the principal interest of his +description. + +This personal impressiveness, however, affected every one upon all +occasions. + +Mr. Rush, for instance, saw Washington go on one occasion to open +Congress. He drove to the hall in a handsome carriage of his own, +with his servants dressed in white liveries. When he had alighted +he stopped on the step, and pausing faced round to wait for his +secretary. The vast crowd looked at him in dead silence, and then, +when he turned away, broke into wild cheering. At his second +inauguration he was dressed in deep mourning for the death of his +nephew. He took the oath of office in the Senate Chamber, and Major +Forman, who was present, wrote in his diary: "Every eye was on him. +When he said, 'I, George Washington,' my blood seemed to run cold and +every one seemed to start." At the inauguration of Adams, another +eye-witness wrote that Washington, dressed in black velvet, with a +military hat and black cockade, was the central figure in the scene, +and when he left the chamber the crowds followed him, cheering and +shouting to the door of his own house. + +There must have been something very impressive about a man who, with +no pretensions to the art of the orator and with no touch of the +charlatan, could so move and affect vast bodies of men by his presence +alone. But the people, with the keen eye of affection, looked beyond +the mere outward nobility of form. They saw the soldier who had given +them victory, the great statesman who had led them out of confusion +and faction to order and good government. Party newspapers might rave, +but the instinct of the people was never at fault. They loved, trusted +and well-nigh worshiped Washington living, and they have honored and +reverenced him with an unchanging fidelity since his death, nearly a +century ago. + +But little more remains to be said. Washington had his faults, for +he was human; but they are not easy to point out, so perfect was his +mastery of himself. He was intensely reserved and very silent, and +these are the qualities which gave him the reputation in history +of being distant and unsympathetic. In truth, he had not only warm +affections and a generous heart, but there was a strong vein of +sentiment in his composition. At the same time he was in no wise +romantic, and the ruling element in his make-up was prose, good solid +prose, and not poetry. He did not have the poetical and imaginative +quality so strongly developed in Lincoln. Yet he was not devoid of +imagination, although it was here that he was lacking, if anywhere. He +saw facts, knew them, mastered and used them, and never gave much play +to fancy; but as his business in life was with men and facts, this +deficiency, if it was one, was of little moment. He was also a man of +the strongest passions in every way, but he dominated them; they never +ruled him. Vigorous animal passions were inevitable, of course, in a +man of such a physical make-up as his. How far he gave way to them in +his youth no one knows, but the scandals which many persons now desire +to have printed, ostensibly for the sake of truth, are, so far as +I have been able to learn, with one or two dubious exceptions, of +entirely modern parentage. I have run many of them to earth; nearly +all are destitute of contemporary authority, and they may be relegated +to the dust-heaps.[1] If he gave way to these propensities in his +youth, the only conclusion that I have been able to come to is that he +mastered them when he reached man's estate. + +[Footnote 1: The charge in the pamphlet purporting to give an account +of the trial of the New York conspirators in 1776 is of such doubtful +origin and character that it hardly merits consideration, and the only +other allusion is in the well-known intercepted letter of Harrison, +which is of doubtful authenticity in certain passages, open to +suspicion from having been intercepted and published by the enemy and +quite likely to have been at best merely a coarse jest of a character +very common at that period and entirely in keeping with the notorious +habits of life and speech peculiar to the writer. (See Life of John +Adams, iii. 35.)] + +He had, too, a fierce temper, and although he gradually subdued it, he +would sometimes lose control of himself and burst out into a tempest +of rage. When he did so he would use strong and even violent language, +as he did at Kip's Landing and at Monmouth. Well-intentioned persons +in their desire to make him a faultless being have argued at great +length that Washington never swore, and but for their argument the +matter would never have attracted much attention. He was anything but +a profane man, but the evidence is beyond question that if deeply +angered he would use a hearty English oath; and not seldom the action +accompanied the word, as when he rode among the fleeing soldiers at +Kip's Landing, striking them with his sword, and almost beside himself +at their cowardice. Judge Marshall used to tell also of an occasion +when Washington sent out an officer to cross a river and bring back +some information about the enemy, on which the action of the morrow +would depend. The officer was gone some time, came back, and found +the general impatiently pacing his tent. On being asked what he had +learned, he replied that the night was dark and stormy, the river full +of ice, and that he had not been able to cross. Washington glared at +him a moment, seized a large leaden inkstand from the table, hurled it +at the offender's head, and said with a fierce oath, "Be off, and send +me a _man_!" The officer went, crossed the river, and brought back the +information. + +But although he would now and then give way to these tremendous bursts +of anger, Washington was never unjust. As he said to one officer, "I +never judge the propriety of actions by after events;" and in that +sound philosophy is found the secret not only of much of his own +success, but of the devotion of his officers and men. He might be +angry with them, but he was never unfair. In truth, he was too +generous to be unjust or even over-severe to any one, and there is not +a line in all his writings which even suggests that he ever envied any +man. So long as the work in hand was done, he cared not who had the +glory, and he was perfectly magnanimous and perfectly at ease about +his own reputation. He never showed the slightest anxiety to write his +own memoirs, and he was not in the least alarmed when it was proposed +to publish the memoirs of other people, like General Charles Lee, +which would probably reflect upon him. + +He had the same confidence in the judgment of posterity that he had in +the future beyond the grave. He regarded death with entire calmness +and even indifference not only when it came to him, but when in +previous years it had threatened him. He loved life and tasted of it +deeply, but the courage which never forsook him made him ready to face +the inevitable at any moment with an unruffled spirit. In this he was +helped by his religious faith, which was as simple as it was profound. +He had been brought up in the Protestant Episcopal Church, and to that +church he always adhered; for its splendid liturgy and stately forms +appealed to him and satisfied him. He loved it too as the church of +his home and his childhood. Yet he was as far as possible from being +sectarian, and there is not a word of his which shows anything but +the most entire liberality and toleration. He made no parade of his +religion, for in this as in other things he was perfectly simple and +sincere. He was tortured by no doubts or questionings, but believed +always in an overruling Providence and in a merciful God, to whom he +knelt and prayed in the day of darkness or in the hour of triumph with +a supreme and childlike confidence. + + * * * * * + +As I bring these volumes to a close I am conscious that they speak, so +far as they speak at all, in a tone of almost unbroken praise of the +great man they attempt to portray. If this be so, it is because I +could come to no other conclusions. For many years I have studied +minutely the career of Washington, and with every step the greatness +of the man has grown upon me, for analysis has failed to discover +the act of his life which, under the conditions of the time, I could +unhesitatingly pronounce to have been an error. Such has been my +experience, and although my deductions may be wrong, they at least +have been carefully and slowly made. I see in Washington a great +soldier who fought a trying war to a successful end impossible without +him; a great statesman who did more than all other men to lay the +foundations of a republic which has endured in prosperity for more +than a century. I find in him a marvelous judgment which was never at +fault, a penetrating vision which beheld the future of America when it +was dim to other eyes, a great intellectual force, a will of iron, +an unyielding grasp of facts, and an unequaled strength of patriotic +purpose. I see in him too a pure and high-minded gentleman of +dauntless courage and stainless honor, simple and stately of manner, +kind and generous of heart. Such he was in truth. The historian and +the biographer may fail to do him justice, but the instinct of mankind +will not fail. The real hero needs not books to give him worshipers. +George Washington will always hold the love and reverence of men +because they see embodied in him the noblest possibilities of +humanity. + + + + +INDEX for Volumes I & II + + + ACKERSON, DAVID, + describes Washington's personal appearance, ii. 386-388. + + Adams, Abigail, + on Washington's appearance in 1775, i. 137. + + Adams, John, + moves appointment of Washington as commander-in-chief, i. 134; + on political necessity for his appointment, 135; + and objections to it, 135; + statement as to Washington's difficulties, 163; + over-sanguine as to American prospects, 171; + finds fault with Washington, 214, 215; + one of few national statesmen, 252; + on Washington's opinion of titles, ii. 52; + advocates ceremony, 54; + returns to United States, 137; + attacked by Jefferson as a monarchist, 226; + praised by Democrats as superior to Washington, 251; + his administration upheld by Washington, 259; + advised by Washington, 260; + his inauguration, 276; + sends special mission to France, 284; + urges Washington to take command of provisional army, 285; + wishes to make Knox senior to Hamilton, 286; + censured by Washington, gives way, 287; + lack of sympathy with Washington, 287; + his nomination of Murray disapproved by Washington, 292, 293; + letter of Washington to, on immigration, 326. + + Adams, J.Q., + on weights and measures, ii. 81. + + Adams, Samuel, + not sympathized with by Washington in working for independence, i. 131; + his inability to sympathize with Washington, 204; + an enemy of Constitution, ii. 71; + a genuine American, 309. + + Alcudia, Duke de, + interviews with Pinckney, ii. 166. + + Alexander, Philip, + hunts with Washington, i. 115. + + Alien and Sedition Laws, + approved by Washington and Federalists, ii. 290, 297. + + Ames, Fisher, + speech on behalf of administration in Jay treaty affair, ii. 210. + + Andre, Major, + meets Arnold, i. 282; + announces capture to Arnold, 284; + confesses, 284; + condemned and executed, 287; + justice of the sentence, 287, 288; + Washington's opinion of, 288, ii. 357. + + Armstrong, John, Major, + writes Newburg address, i. 335. + + Army of the Revolution, + at Boston, adopted by Congress, i. 134; + its organization and character, 136-143; + sectional jealousies in, at New York, 162; + goes to pieces after defeat, 167, 175, 176; + condition in winter of 1777, 186; + difficulties between officers, 189; + with foreign officers, 190-192; + improvement as shown by condition after Brandywine and Germantown, + 200, 201; + hard winter at Valley Forge, 228; + maintained alive only by Washington, 227, 228, 232; + improved morale at Monmouth, 239; + mutinies for lack of pay, 258; + suffers during 1779, 270; + bad condition in 1780, 279; + again mutinies for pay, 291, 292, 295; + conduct of troops, 292, 293; + jealousy of people towards, 332; + badly treated by States and by Congress, 333; + grows mutinous, 334; + adopts Newburg addresses, 335, 336; + ready for a military dictatorship, 338, 340; + farewell of Washington to, 345. + + Arnold, Benedict, + sent by Washington to attack Quebec, i. 144; + sent against Burgoyne, 210; + plans treason, 281; + shows loyalist letter to Washington, 282; + meets Andre, 282; + receives news of Andre's capture, 284; + escapes, 284, 285; + previous benefits from Washington, 286; + Washington's opinion of, 288; + ravages Virginia, 303; + sent back to New York, 303; + one of the few men who deceived Washington, ii. 336. + + Arnold, Mrs., + entertains Washington at time of her husband's treachery, i. 284, 285. + + Articles of Confederation, + their inadequacy early seen by Washington, i. 297, 298; ii. 17. + + Asgill, Capt., + selected for retaliation for murder of Huddy, i. 328; + efforts for his release, 329; + release ordered by Congress, 330. + + + BACHE, B.F., + publishes Jay treaty in "Aurora," ii. 185; + joins in attack on Washington, 238, 244; + rejoices over his retirement, 256. + + Baker,----, + works out a pedigree for Washington, i. 31. + + Ball, Joseph, + advises against sending Washington to sea, i. 49, 50. + + Barbadoes, + Washington's description of, i. 64. + + Beckley, John, + accuses Washington of embezzling, ii. 245. + + Bernard, John, + his conversation with Washington referred to, i. 58, 107; + describes encounter with Washington, ii. 281-283; + his description of Washington's conversation, 343-348. + + Blackwell, Rev. Dr., + calls on Washington with Dr. Logan, ii. 264. + + Blair, John, + appointed to Supreme Court, ii. 73. + + Bland, Mary, + "Lowland Beauty," admired by Washington, i. 95, 96. + + Blount, Governor, + pacifies Cherokees, ii. 94. + + Boston, + visit of Washington to, i. 97, 99; + political troubles in, 120; + British measures against condemned by Virginia, 122, 123; + appeals to colonies, 124; + protests against Jay treaty, ii. 186; + answered by Washington, 190. + + Botetourt, Lord, Governor of Virginia, + quarrels with Assembly, i. 121; + manages to calm dissension, 122; + on friendly terms with Washington, 122. + + Braddock, General Edward, + arrives in Virginia, i. 82; + invites Washington to serve on his staff, 82; + respects him, 83; + his character and unfitness for his position, 83; + despises provincials, 83; + accepts Washington's advice as to dividing force, 84; + rebukes Washington for warning against ambush, 85; + insists on fighting by rule, 85; + defeated and mortally wounded, 85; + death and burial, 87. + + Bradford, William, + succeeds Randolph, ii. 246. + + Brandywine, + battle of, i. 196-198. + + Bunker Hill, + question of Washington regarding battle of, i. 136. + + Burgoyne, General John, + junction of Howe with, feared by Washington, i. 194, 195, 205, 206; + significance of his defeat, 202; + danger of his invasion foreseen by Washington, 203-206; + captures Ticonderoga, 207; + outnumbered and defeated, 210; + surrenders, 211. + + Burke, Edmund, + understands significance of Washington's leadership, i. 202; + unsettled by French Revolution, ii. 294. + + + CABOT, GEORGE, + entertains Lafayette's son, ii. 366. + + Cadwalader, General, + fails to cross Delaware to help Washington, i. 180; + duel with Conway, 226. + + Calvert, Eleanor, + misgivings of Washington over her marriage to John Custis, i. 111. + + Camden, battle of, i. 281. + + Canada, + captured by Wolfe, i. 94; + expedition of Montgomery against, 143, 144; + project of Conway cabal against, 222; 253; + project of Lafayette to attack, 254; + plan considered dangerous by Washington, 254, 255; + not undertaken by France, 256. + + Carleton, Sir Guy, + informs Washington of address of Commons for peace, i. 324; + suspected by Washington, 325; + remonstrates against retaliation by Washington for murder of + Huddy, 328; + disavows Lippencott, 328; + fears plunder of New York city, 345; + urges Indians to attack the United States, ii. 102, 175. + + Carlisle, Earl of, + peace commissioner, i. 233. + + Carlyle, Thomas, + sneers at Washington, i. 4, 14; + calls him "a bloodless Cromwell," i. 69, ii. 332; + fails to understand his reticence, i. 70; + despises him for not seizing power, 341. + + Carmichael, William, + minister at Madrid, ii. 165; + on commission regarding the Mississippi, 166. + + Carrington, Paul, + letter of Washington to, ii. 208; + Washington's friendship for, 363. + + Cary, Mary, + early love affair of Washington with, i. 96. + + Chamberlayne, Major, + entertains Washington at Williams' Ferry, i. 101. + + Charleston, + siege and capture of, i. 273, 274, 276. + + Chastellux, Marquis de, + Washington's friendship for and letter to, ii. 351; + on Washington's training of horses, 380. + + Cherokees, + beaten by Sevier, ii. 89; + pacified by Blount, 94,101. + + Chester, Colonel, + researches on Washington pedigree, i. 31. + + Chickasaws, + desert from St. Clair, ii. 96. + + China, + honors Washington, i. 6. + + Choctaws, + peaceable in 1788, ii. 89. + + Cincinnati, Society of the, + Washington's connection with, ii. 4. + + Clarke, Governor, + thinks Washington is invading popular rights, i. 215. + + Cleaveland, Rev.----, + complimented by Washington, ii. 359. + + Clinton, George, + appealed to by Washington to attack Burgoyne, i. 210; + journey with Washington to Ticonderoga, 343; + enters New York city, 345; + letter of Washington to, ii. 1; + meets Washington on journey to inauguration, 45; + opponent of the Constitution, 71; + orders seizure of French privateers, 153. + + Clinton, Sir Henry, + fails to help Burgoyne, i. 210; + replaces Howe at Philadelphia, his character, 232; + tries to cut off Lafayette, 233; + leaves Philadelphia, 234; + defeats Lee at Monmouth, 236; + retreats to New York, 238; + withdraws from Newport, 248; + makes a raid, 265; + fortifies Stony Point, 268; + his aimless warfare, 269, 270; + after capturing Charleston returns to New York, 276; + tries to save Andre, 287; + alarmed at attacks on New York, 306; + jealous of Cornwallis, refuses to send reinforcements, 308; + deceived by Washington, 311; + sends Graves to relieve Cornwallis, 312. + + Congress, Continental, + Washington's journey to, i. 128; + its character and ability, 129; + its state papers, 129; + adjourns, 132; + in second session, resolves to petition the king, 133; + adopts Massachusetts army and makes Washington commander, 134; + reasons for his choice, 135; + adheres to short-term enlistments, 149; + influenced to declare independence by Washington, 160; + hampers Washington in campaign of New York, 167; + letters of Washington to, 170, 179, 212, 225, 229, 266, 278, 295, + 321, 323, 333; + takes steps to make army permanent, 171; + its over-confidence, 171; + insists on holding Forts Washington and Lee, 174; + dissatisfied with Washington's inactivity, 187; + criticises his proclamation requiring oath of allegiance, 189; + makes unwise appointments of officers, 189; + especially of foreigners, 190-192; 248, 249; + applauds Washington's efforts at Germantown, 200; + deposes Schuyler and St. Clair, 208; + appoints Gates, 210; + irritation against Washington, 212-215; + falls under guidance of Conway cabal, 221, 222; + discovers incompetence of cabal, 223; + meddles with prisoners and officers, 231; + rejects English peace offers, 233; + makes alliance with France, 241; + suppresses protests of officers against D'Estaing, 244; + decline in its character, 257; + becomes feeble, 258; + improvement urged by Washington, 259, 266; + appoints Gates to command in South, 268; + loses interest in war, 278; + asks Washington to name general for the South, 295; + considers reduction of army, 313; + elated by Yorktown, 323; + its unfair treatment of army, 333, 335; + driven from Philadelphia by Pennsylvania troops, 340; + passes half-pay act, 342; + receives commission of Washington, 347-349; + disbands army, ii. 6; + indifferent to Western expansion, 15; + continues to decline, 22; + merit of its Indian policy, 88. + + Congress, Federal, + establishes departments, ii. 64; + opened by Washington, 78, 79; + ceremonial abolished by Jefferson, 79; + recommendations made to by Washington, 81-83; + acts upon them, 81-83; + creates commission to treat with Creeks, 90; + increases army, 94, 99; + fails to solve financial problems, 106; + debates Hamilton's report on credit, 107, 108; + establishes national bank, 109; + establishes protective revenue duties, 113; + imposes an excise tax, 123; + prepares for retaliation on Great Britain, 176; + Senate ratifies Jay treaty conditionally, 184; + House demands papers, 207; + debates over its right to concur in treaty, 208-210; + refuses to adjourn on Washington's birthday, 247; + prepares for war with France, 285; + passes Alien and Sedition Laws, 296. + + Constitution, Federal, + necessity of, foreseen by Washington, ii. 17-18, 23, 24; + the Annapolis Convention, 23-29; + the Federal Convention, 30-36; + Washington's attitude in, 31,34; + his influence, 36; + campaign for ratification, 38-41. + + Contrecoeur, Captain, + leader of French and Indians in Virginia, i. 75. + + "Conway cabal," + elements of in Congress, i. 214, 215; + in the army, 215; + organized by Conway, 217; + discovered by Washington, 220; + gets control of Board of War, 221; + tries to make Washington resign, 222, 224; + fails to invade Canada or provide supplies, 222, 223; + harassed by Washington's letters, 223,226; + breaks down, 226. + + Conway, Moncure D., + his life of Randolph, ii. 65, note, 196; + his defense of Randolph in Fauchet letter affair, 196; + on Washington's motives, 200; + on his unfair treatment of Randolph, 201, 202. + + Conway, Thomas, + demand for higher rank refused by Washington, i. 216; + plots against him, 217; + his letter discovered by Washington, 221; + made inspector-general, 221, 222; + complains to Congress of his reception at camp, 225; + resigns, has duel with Cadwalader, 226; + apologizes to Washington and leaves country, 226. + + Cooke, Governor, + remonstrated with by Washington for raising state troops, i. 186. + + Cornwallis, Lord, + pursues Washington in New Jersey, i. 175; + repulsed at Assunpink, 181; + outgeneraled by Washington, 182; + surprises Sullivan at Brandywine, 197; + defeats Lee at Monmouth, 236; + pursues Greene in vain, 302; + wins battle of Guilford Court House, 302; + retreats into Virginia, 302; + joins British troops in Virginia, 303; + his dangerous position, 304; + urged by Clinton to return troops to New York, 306; + plunders Virginia, 307; + defeats Lafayette and Wayne, 307; + wishes to retreat South, 307; + ordered by ministry to stay on the Chesapeake, 307; + abandoned by Clinton, 308; + establishes himself at Yorktown, 308; + withdraws into town, 315; + besieged, 316, 317; + surrenders, 317; + outgeneraled by Washington, 319, 320. + + Cowpens, + battle of, i. 301. + + Craik, Dr., + attends Washington in last illness, ii. 300-302; + Washington's friendship with, 363. + + Creeks, + their relations with Spaniards, ii. 89, 90; + quarrel with Georgia, 90; + agree to treaty with United States, 91; + stirred up by Spain, 101. + + Curwen, Samuel, + on Washington's appearance, i. 137. + + Cushing, Caleb, + appointed to Supreme Court, ii. 72. + + Custis, Daniel Parke, + first husband of Martha Washington, i. 101. + + Custis, G.W.P., + tells mythical story of Washington and the colt, i. 45; + Washington's care for, ii. 369. + + Custis, John, + Washington's tenderness toward, i. 111; + care for his education and marriage, 111; + hunts with Washington, 141; + death of, 322. + + Custis, Nellie, + marriage with Washington's nephew, ii. 281, 369; + letter of Washington to, 377. + + + DAGWORTHY, CAPTAIN, + claims to outrank Washington in Virginia army, i. 91, 97. + + Dallas, Alexander, + protests to Genet against sailing of Little Sarah, ii. 155. + + Dalton, Senator, + entertains Washington at Newburyport, ii. 359. + + Deane, Silas, + promises commissions to foreign military adventurers, i. 190. + + De Barras, + jealous of De Grasse, decides not to aid him, i. 310; + persuaded to do so by Washington and Rochambeau, 311; + reaches Chesapeake, 312. + + De Grasse, Comte, + announces intention of coming to Washington, i. 305; + warned by Washington not to come to New York, 305; + sails to Chesapeake, 306; + asked to meet Washington there, 308; + reaches Chesapeake, 312; + repulses British fleet, 312; + wishes to return to West Indies, 315; + persuaded to remain by Washington, 315; + refuses to join Washington in attack on Charleston, 322; + returns to West Indies, 322. + + De Guichen,----, + commander of French fleet in West Indies, i. 280; + appealed to for aid by Washington, 281; + returns home, 282. + + Delancey, Oliver, + escapes American attack, i. 306. + + Democratic party, + its formation as a French party, ii. 225; + furnished with catch-words by Jefferson, 226; + with a newspaper organ, 227; + not ready to oppose Washington for president in 1792, 235; + organized against treasury measure, 236; + stimulated by French Revolution, 238; + supports Genet, 237; + begins to attack Washington, 238; + his opinion of it, 239, 240, 258, 261, 267, 268; + forms clubs on French model, 241; + Washington's opinion of, 242, 243; + continues to abuse him, 244, 245, 250, 252; + exults at his retirement, 256; + prints slanders, 257. + + Demont, William, + betrays plans of Fort Washington to Howe, i. 175. + + D'Estaing, Admiral, + reaches America, i. 242; + welcomed by Washington, 243; + fails to cut off Howe and goes to Newport, 243; + after battle with Howe goes to Boston, 244; + letter of Washington to, 246; + sails to West Indies, 246; + second letter of Washington to, 247; + attacks Savannah, 248; + withdraws, 248. + + De Rochambeau, Comte, + arrives at Newport, i. 277; + ordered to await second division of army, 278; + refuses to attack New York, 280; + wishes a conference with Washington, 282; + meets him at Hartford, 282; + disapproves attacking Florida, 301; + joins Washington before New York, 306; + persuades De Barras to join De Grasse, 311; + accompanies Washington to Yorktown, 314. + + Dickinson, John, + commands scouts at Monmouth, i. 326. + + Digby, Admiral, + bitter comments of Washington on, i. 325. + + Dinwiddie, Governor, + remonstrates against French encroachments, i. 66; + sends Washington on mission to French, 66; + quarrels with the Virginia Assembly, 71; + letter of Washington to, 73; + wishes Washington to attack French, 79; + tries to quiet discussions between regular and provincial troops, 80; + military schemes condemned by Washington, 91; + prevents his getting a royal commission, 93. + + Diplomatic History: + refusal by Washington of special privileges to French minister, + ii. 59-61; + slow growth of idea of non-intervention, 132, 133; + difficulties owing to French Revolution, 134; + to English retention of frontier posts, 135; + attitude of Spain, 135; + relations with Barbary States, 136; + mission of Gouverneur Morris to sound English feeling, 137; + assertion by Washington of non-intervention policy toward Europe, + 145, 146; + issue of neutrality proclamation, 147, 148; + its importance, 148; + mission of Genet, 148-162; + guarded attitude of Washington toward emigres, 151; + excesses of Genet, 151; + neutrality enforced, 153, 154; + the Little Sarah episode, 154-157; + recall of Genet demanded, 158; + futile missions of Carmichael and Short to Spain, 165, 166; + successful treaty of Thomas Pinckney, 166-168; + question as to binding nature of French treaty of commerce, 169-171; + irritating relations with England, 173-176; + Jay's mission, 177-184; + the questions at issue, 180, 181; + terms of the treaty agreed upon, 182; + good and bad points, 183; + ratified by Senate, 184; + signing delayed by renewal of provision order, 185; + war with England prevented by signing, 205; + difficulties with France over Morris and Monroe, 211-214; + doings of Monroe, 212, 213; + United States compromised by him, 213, 214; + Monroe replaced by Pinckney, 214; + review of Washington's foreign policy, 216-219; + mission of Pinckney, Marshall, and Gerry to France, 284; + the X.Y.Z. affair, 285. + + Donop, Count, + drives Griffin out of New Jersey, i. 180; + killed at Fort Mercer, 217. + + Dorchester, Lord. + See Carleton. + + Duane, James, + letters of Washington to, i. 294, 329. + + Dumas, Comte, + describes enthusiasm of people for Washington, i. 288. + + Dunbar, Colonel, + connection with Braddock's expedition, i. 84, 87. + + Dunmore, Lord, + arrives in Virginia as governor, i. 122; + on friendly terms with Washington, 122, 123; + dissolves assembly, 123. + + Duplaine, French consul, + exequatur of revoked, ii. 159. + + + EDEN, WILLIAM, + peace commissioner, i. 233. + + Edwards, Jonathan, + a typical New England American, ii. 309. + + Emerson, Rev. Dr., + describes Washington's reforms in army before Boston, i. 140. + + Emigres, + Washington's treatment of, ii. 151, 253. + + England, + honors Washington, i. 20; + arrogant behavior toward colonists, 80, 81, 82, 148; + its policy towards Boston condemned by Virginia, 119, 121, 123, 126; + by Washington, 124, 125,126; + sends incompetent officers to America, 155, 201, 202, 233; + stupidity of its operations, 203, 205, 206, 265; + sincerity of its desire for peace doubted by Washington, 324, 325; + arrogant conduct of toward the United States after peace, ii. 24, 25; + stirs up the Six Nations and Northwestern Indians, 92, 94, 101; + folly of her policy, 102; + sends Hammond as minister, 169; + its opportunity to win United States as ally against France, 171, 172; + adopts contrary policy of opposition, 172, 173; + adopts "provision order," 174; + incites Indians against United States, 175; + indignation of America against, 176; + receives Jay well, but refuses to yield points at issue, 180; + insists on monopoly of West India trade, 180; + and on impressment, 181; + later history of, 181; + renews provision order, 185; + danger of war with, 193; + avoided by Jay treaty, 205; + Washington said to sympathize with England, 252; + his real hostility toward, 254; + Washington's opinion of liberty in, 344. + + Ewing, General James, + fails to help Washington at Trenton, i. 180. + + + FAIRFAX, BRYAN, + hunts with Washington, i. 115; + remonstrates with Washington against violence of patriots, 124; + Washington's replies to, 124, 126, 127; + letter of Washington to in Revolution, ii. 366. + + Fairfax, George, + married to Miss Cary, i. 55; + accompanies Washington on surveying expedition, 58; + letter of Washington to, 133. + + Fairfax, Mrs.----, + letter of Washington to, ii. 367. + + Fairfax, Thomas, Lord, + his career in England, i. 55; + comes to his Virginia estates, 55; + his character, 55; + his friendship for Washington, 56; + sends him to survey estates, 56; + plans a manor across the Blue Ridge, 59; + secures for Washington position as public surveyor, 60; + probably influential in securing his appointment as envoy to + French, 66; + hunts with Washington, 115; + his death remembered by Washington, ii. 366. + + Fairlie, Major, + amuses Washington, ii. 374. + + Farewell Address, ii. 248, 249. + + Fauchet, M.,----, + letter of, incriminating Randolph, ii. 195,196, 202. + + Fauntleroy, Betsy, + love affair of Washington with, i. 97. + + Fauquier, Francis, Governor, + at Washington's wedding, i. 101. + + Federal courts, + suggested by Washington, i. 150. + + "Federalist," + circulated by Washington, ii. 40. + + Federalist party, + begun by Hamilton's controversy with Jefferson, ii. 230; + supports Washington for reelection, 235; + organized in support of financial measures, 236; + Washington looked upon by Democrats as its head, 244, 247; + only its members trusted by Washington, 246, 247, 259, 260, 261; + becomes a British party, 255; + Washington considers himself a member of, 269-274; + the only American party until 1800, 273; + strengthened by X, Y, Z affair, 285; + dissensions in, over army appointments, 286-290; + its horror at French Revolution, 294, 295; + attempts of Washington to heal divisions in, 298. + + Fenno's newspaper, + used by Hamilton against the "National Gazette," ii. 230. + + Finances of the Revolution, + effect of paper money on war, i. 258, 262; + difficulties in paying troops, 258; + labors of Robert Morris, 259, 264, 312; + connection of Washington with, 263; + continued collapse, 280, 290, 312. + + Financial History, + bad condition in 1789, ii. 105; + decay of credit, paper, and revenue, 106; + futile propositions, 106; + Hamilton's report on credit, 107; + debate over assumption of state debt, 107; + bargain between Hamilton and Jefferson, 108; + establishment of bank, 109; + other measures adopted, 112; + protection in the first Congress, 112-115; + the excise tax imposed, 123; + opposition to, 123-127; + "Whiskey Rebellion," 127-128. + + Fishbourn, Benjamin, + nomination rejected by Senate, ii. 63. + + Fontanes, M. de, + delivers funeral oration on Washington, i. 1. + + Forbes, General, + renews attack on French in Ohio, i. 93. + + Forman, Major, + describes impressiveness of Washington, ii. 389. + + Fox, Charles James, + understands significance of Washington's leadership, i. 202. + + France, + pays honors to Washington, i. I, 6; + war with England, see French and Indian war; + takes possession of Ohio, 65; + considers Jumonville assassinated by Washington, 74; + importance of alliance with foreseen by Washington, 191; + impressed by battle of Germantown, 200; + makes treaty of alliance with United States, 241; + sends D'Estaing, 243; + declines to attack Canada, 256; + sends army and fleet, 274, 277; + relations of French to Washington, 318, 319; + absolute necessity of their naval aid, 318, 319; + Revolution in, applauded by America, ii. 138, 139, 142; + real character understood by Washington and others, 139-142, 295; + debate over in America, 142; + question of relations with United States, 143, 144; + warned by Washington, 144, 145; + neutrality toward declared, 147; + tries to drive United States into alliance, 149; + terms of the treaty with, 169; + latter held to be no longer binding, 169-171; + abrogates it, 171; + demands recall of Morris, 211; + mission of Monroe to, 211-214; + makes vague promises, 212, 213; + Washington's fairness toward, 253; + tries to bully or corrupt American ministers, 284; + the X, Y, Z affair, 285; + war with not expected by Washington, 291; + danger of concession to, 292, 293; + progress of Revolution in, 294. + + Franklin, Benjamin, + gets wagons for Braddock's expedition, i. 84; + remark on Howe in Philadelphia, 219; + national, like Washington, 252, ii. 8; + despairs of success of Constitutional Convention, 35; + his unquestioned Americanism, 309; + respect of Washington for, 344, 346, 364. + + Frederick II., the Great, + his opinion of Trenton campaign, i. 183; + of Monmouth campaign, 239. + + French and Indian war, i. 64-94; + inevitable conflict, 65; + efforts to negotiate, 66, 67; + hostilities begun, 72; + the Jumonville affair, 74; + defeat of Washington, 76; + Braddock's campaign, 82-88; + ravages in Virginia, 90; + carried to a favorable conclusion by Pitt, 93, 94. + + Freneau, Philip, + brought to Philadelphia and given clerkship by Jefferson, ii. 227; + attacks Adams, Hamilton, and Washington in "National Gazette," 227; + makes conflicting statements as to Jefferson's share in the paper, + 227, 228; + the first to attack Washington, 238. + + Fry, Colonel, + commands a Virginia regiment against French and Indians, i. 71; + dies, leaving Washington in command, 75. + + + GAGE, GENERAL THOMAS, + conduct at Boston condemned by Washington, i. 126; + his treatment of prisoners protested against by Washington, 145; + sends an arrogant reply, 147; + second letter of Washington to, 147, 156. + + Gallatin, Albert, + connection with Whiskey Rebellion, ii. 129. + + Gates, Horatio, + visits Mt. Vernon, his character, i. 132; + refuses to cooperate with Washington at Trenton, 180; + his appointment as commander against Burgoyne urged, 208; + chosen by Congress, 209; + his part in defeating Burgoyne, 210; + neglects to inform Washington, 211; + loses his head and wishes to supplant Washington, 215; + forced to send troops South, 216, 217; + his attitude discovered by Washington, 221; + makes feeble efforts at opposition, 221, 223; + correspondence with Washington, 221, 223, 226; + becomes head of board of war, 221; + quarrels with Wilkinson, 223; + sent to his command, 226; + fears attack of British on Boston, 265; + sent by Congress to command in South, 268; + defeated at Camden, 281, 294; + loses support of Congress, 294. + + Genet, Edmond Charles, + arrives as French minister, ii. 148; + his character, 149; + violates neutrality, 151; + his journey to Philadelphia, 151; + reception by Washington, 152; + complains of it, 153; + makes demands upon State Department, 153; + protests at seizure of privateers, 153; + insists on sailing of Little Sarah, 155; + succeeds in getting vessel away, 157; + his recall demanded, 158; + reproaches Jefferson, 158; + remains in America, 158; + threatens to appeal from Washington to Massachusetts, 159; + demands denial from Washington of Jay's statements, 159; + loses popular support, 160; + tries to raise a force to invade Southwest, 161; + prevented by state and federal authorities, 162; + his arrival the signal for divisions of parties, 237; + hurts Democratic party by his excesses, 241; + suggests clubs, 241. + + George IV., + Washington's opinion of, ii. 346. + + Georgia, + quarrels with Creeks, asks aid of United States, ii. 90; + becomes dissatisfied with treaty, 91; + disregards treaties of the United States, 103. + + Gerard, M., + notifies Washington of return of D'Estaing, i. 246. + + Germantown, + battle of, i. 199. + + Gerry, Elbridge, + on special mission to France, ii. 284; + disliked by Washington, 292. + + Giles, W.B., + attacks Washington in Congress, ii. 251, 252. + + Gist, Christopher, + accompanies Washington on his mission to French, i. 66; + wishes to shoot French Indians, 68. + + Gordon,----, + letter of Washington to, i. 227. + + Graves, Admiral, + sent to relieve Cornwallis, i. 312; defeated by De Grasse, 312. + + Grayson, William, + hunts with Washington, i. 115; letter to, ii. 22. + + Green Springs, + battle of, i. 307. + + Greene, General Nathanael, + commands at Long Island, ill with fever, i. 164; + wishes forts on Hudson held, 174; + late in attacking at Germantown, 199; + conducts retreat, 200; + succeeds Mifflin as quartermaster-general, 232; + selected by Washington to command in South, 268; + commands army at New York in absence of Washington, 282; + appointed to command Southern army, 295; + retreats from Cornwallis, 302; + fights battle of Guilford Court House, 302; + clears Southern States of enemy, 302; + strong position, 304; + reinforced by Washington, 322; + letter to, 325; + his military capacity early recognized by Washington, ii. 334; + amuses Washington, 374. + + Greene, Mrs.----, + dances three hours with Washington, ii. 380. + + Grenville, Lord, + denies that ministry has incited Indians against United States, + ii. 175; + receives Jay, 180; + declines to grant United States trade with West Indies, 181. + + Griffin, David, + commissioner to treat with Creeks, ii. 90. + + Griffin,----, + fails to help Washington at Trenton, i. 180. + + Grymes, Lucy, + the "Lowland Beauty," love affair of Washington with, i. 95; + marries Henry Lee, 96. + + + HALDIMAND, SIR FREDERICK, + leads Indians against colonists, i. 325. + + Hale, Nathan, compared with Andre, i. 288. + + Half-King, + kept to English alliance by Washington, i. 68; + his criticism of Washington's first campaign, 76. + + Hamilton, Alexander, + forces Gates to send back troops to Washington, i. 216, 217; + remark on councils of war before Monmouth, 234; + informs Washington of Arnold's treason, 284; + sent to intercept Arnold, 285; + writes letters on government and finance, 298; + leads attack at Yorktown, i. 316; + requests release of Asgill, 329; + aids Washington in Congress, 333; + only man beside Washington and Franklin to realize American future, + ii. 7; + letters of Washington to on necessity of a strong government, 17, 18; + writes letters to Duane and Morris, 19; + speech in Federal Convention and departure, 35; + counseled by Washington, 39; + consulted by Washington as to etiquette, 54; + made secretary of treasury, 66; + his character, 67; + his report on the mint, 81; + on the public credit, 107; + upheld by Washington, 107, 108; + his arrangement with Jefferson, 108; + argument on the bank, 110; + his success largely due to Washington, 112; + his report on manufactures, 112, 114, 116; + advocates an excise, 122; + fails to realize its unpopularity, 123; + accompanies expedition to suppress Whiskey Rebellion, 128; + comprehends French Revolution, 139; + frames questions to cabinet on neutrality, 147; + urges decisive measures against Genet, 154; + argues against United States being bound by French treaty, 169; + selected for English mission, but withdraws, 177; + not likely to have done better than Jay, 183; + mobbed in defending Jay treaty, 187; + writes Camillus letters in favor of Jay treaty, 206; + intrigued against by Monroe, 212; + causes for his breach with Jefferson, 224; + his aristocratic tendencies, 225; + attacked by Jefferson and his friends, 228, 229; + disposes of the charges, 229; + retorts in newspapers with effect, 230; + ceases at Washington's request, 230, 234; + resigns from the cabinet, 234; + desires Washington's reelection, 235; + selected by Washing, ton as senior general, 286; + appeals to Washington against Adams's reversal of rank, 286; + fails to soothe Knox's anger, 288; + report on army organization, 290; + letter of Washington to, condemning Adams's French mission, 293; + fears anarchy from Democratic success, 295; + approves Alien and Sedition Acts, 296; + his scheme of a military academy approved by Washington, 299; + Washington's affection for, 317, 362; + his ability early recognized by Washington, 334, 335; + aids Washington in literary points, 340; + takes care of Lafayette's son, 366. + + Hammond, George, + protests against violations of neutrality, ii. 151; + his arrival as British minister, 169; + his offensive tone, 173; + does not disavow Lord Dorchester's speech to Indians, 176; + gives Fauchet letters to Wolcott, 195; + intrigues with American public men, 200. + + Hampden, John, + compared with Washington, ii. 312, 313. + + Hancock, John, + disappointed at Washington's receiving command of army, i. 135; + his character, ii. 74; + refuses to call first on Washington as President, 75; + apologizes and calls, 75, 76. + + Hardin, Colonel, + twice surprised and defeated by Indians, ii. 93. + + Harmar, Colonel, + invades Indian country, ii. 92; + attacks the Miamis, 93; + sends out unsuccessful expeditions and retreats, 93; + court-martialed and resigns, 93. + + Harrison, Benjamin, + letters of Washington to, i. 259, 261; ii. 10. + + Hartley, Mrs.----, + admired by Washington, i. 95. + + Heard, Sir Isaac, + Garter King at Arms, makes out a pedigree for Washington, i. 30, 31. + + Heath, General, + checks Howe at Frog's Point, i. 173; + left in command at New York, 311. + + Henry, Patrick, + his resolutions supported by Washington, i. 119; + accompanies him to Philadelphia, 128; + his tribute to Washington's influence, 130; + ready for war, 132; + letters of Conway cabal to against Washington, 222; + letter of Washington to, 225; + appealed to by Washington on behalf of Constitution, ii. 38; + an opponent of the Constitution, 71; + urged by Washington to oppose Virginia resolutions, 266-268, 293; + a genuine American, 309; + offered secretaryship of state, 324; + friendship of Washington for, 362. + + Hertburn, Sir William de, + ancestor of Washington family, i. 31, 33. + + Hessians, + in Revolution, i. 194. + + Hickey, Thomas, + hanged for plotting to murder Washington, i. 160. + + Hobby,----, a sexton, + Washington's earliest teacher, i. 48. + + Hopkinson, Francis, + letter of Washington to, ii. 3. + + Houdon, J.A., sculptor, + on Washington's appearance, ii. 386. + + Howe, Lord, + arrives at New York with power to negotiate and pardon, i. 161; + refuses to give Washington his title, 161; + tries to negotiate with Congress, 167; + escapes D'Estaing at Delaware, 244; + attacks D'Estaing off Newport, 244. + + Howe, Sir William, + has controversy with Washington over treatment of prisoners, i. 148; + checked at Frog's Point, 173; + attacks cautiously at Chatterton Hill, 173; + retreats and attacks forts on Hudson, 174; + takes Fort Washington, 175; + goes into winter quarters in New York, 177, 186; + suspected of purpose to meet Burgoyne, 194, 195; + baffled in advance across New Jersey by Washington, 194; + goes by sea, 195; + arrives at Head of Elk, 196; + defeats Washington at Brandywine, 197; + camps at Germantown, 199; + withdraws after Germantown into Philadelphia, 201; + folly of his failure to meet Burgoyne, 205, 206; + offers battle in vain to Washington, 218; + replaced by Clinton, 232; + tries to cut off Lafayette, 233. + + Huddy, Captain, + captured by English, hanged by Tories, i. 327. + + Humphreys, Colonel, + letters of Washington to, ii. 13, 339; + at opening of Congress, 78; + commissioner to treat with Creeks, 90; + anecdote of, 375. + + Huntington, Lady, + asks Washington's aid in Christianizing Indians, ii. 4. + + + IMPRESSMENT, + right of, maintained by England, ii. 181. + + Independence, + not wished, but foreseen, by Washington, i. 131, 156; + declared by Congress, possibly through Washington's influence, 160. + + Indians, + wars with in Virginia, i. 37, 38; + in French and Indian war, 67,68; + desert English, 76; + in Braddock's defeat, 85, 86, 88; + restless before Revolution, 122; + in War of Revolution, 266, 270; + punished by Sullivan, 269; + policy toward, early suggested by Washington, 344; + recommendations relative to in Washington's address to Congress, + ii. 82; + the "Indian problem" under Washington's administration, 83-105; + erroneous popular ideas of, 84, 85; + real character and military ability, 85-87; + understood by Washington, 87, 88; + a real danger in 1788, 88; + situation in the Northwest, 89; + difficulties with Cherokees and Creeks, 89, 90; + influence of Spanish intrigue, 90; + successful treaty with Creeks, 90, 91; + wisdom of this policy, 92; + warfare in the Northwest, 92; + defeats of Harmar and Hardin, 93; + causes for the failure, 93, 94; + intrigues of England, 92, 94, 175, 178; + expedition and defeat of St. Clair, 95-97; + results, 99; + expedition of Wayne, 100, 102; + his victory, 103; + success of Washington's policy toward, 104, 105. + + Iredell, James, + appointed to Supreme Court, ii. 73. + + + JACKSON, MAJOR, + accompanies Washington to opening of Congress, ii. 78. + + Jameson, Colonel, + forwards Andrews letter to Arnold, i. 284; + receives orders from Washington, 285. + + Jay, John, + on opposition in Congress, to Washington, i. 222; + consulted by Washington as to etiquette, ii. 54; + appointed chief justice, 72; + publishes card against Genet, 159; + appointed on special mission to England, 177; + his character, 177; + instructions from Washington, 179; + his reception in England, 180; + difficulties in negotiating, 181; + concludes treaty, 182; + burnt in effigy while absent, 186; + execrated after news of treaty, 187; + hampered by Monroe in France, 213. + + Jay treaty, ii. 180-184; + opposition to and debate over signing, 184-201; + reasons of Washington for signing, 205. + + Jefferson, Thomas, + his flight from Cornwallis, i. 307; + discusses with Washington needs of government, ii. 9; + adopts French democratic phraseology, 27; + contrast with Washington, 27, 28, 69; + criticises Washington's manners, 56; + made secretary of state, 68; + his previous relations with Washington, 68; + his character, 69; + supposed to be a friend of the Constitution, 72; + his objections to President's opening Congress, 79; + on weights and measures, 81; + letter of Washington to on assumption of state debts, 107; + makes bargain with Hamilton, 108; + opposes a bank, 110; + asked to prepare neutrality instructions, 146; + upholds Genet, 153; + argues against him publicly, supports him privately, 154; + notified of French privateer Little Sarah, 155; + allows it to sail, 155; + retires to country and is censured by Washington, 156; + assures Washington that vessel will wait his decision, 156; + his un-American attitude, 157; + wishes to make terms of note demanding Genet's recall mild, 158; + argues that United States is bound by French treaty, 170, 171; + begs Madison to answer Hamilton's "Camillus" letters, 206; + his attitude upon first entering cabinet, 223; + causes for his breach with Hamilton, 224; + jealousy, incompatibility of temper, 224; + his democratic opinions, 225; + skill in creating party catch-words, 225; + prints "Rights of Man" with note against Adams, 226; + attacks him further in letter to Washington, 226; + brings Freneau to Philadelphia and gives him an office, 227; + denies any connection with Freneau's newspaper, 227; + his real responsibility, 228; + his purpose to undermine Hamilton, 228; + causes his friends to attack him, 229; + writes a letter to Washington attacking Hamilton's treasury measures, + 229; + fails to produce any effect, 230; + winces under Hamilton's counter attacks, 230; + reiterates charges and asserts devotion to Constitution, 231; + continues attacks and resigns, 234; + wishes reelection of Washington, 235; + his charge of British sympathies resented by Washington, 252; + plain letter of Washington to, 259; + Washington's opinion of, 259; + suggests Logan's mission to France, 262, 265; + takes oath as vice-president, 276; + regarded as a Jacobin by Federalists, 294; + jealous of Washington, 306; + accuses him of senility, 307; + a genuine American, 309. + + Johnson, William, + Tory leader in New York, i. 143. + + Johnstone, Governor, + peace commissioner, i. 233. + + Jumonville, De, French leader, + declared to have been assassinated by Washington, i. 74,79; + really a scout and spy, 75. + + + KENTUCKY RESOLUTIONS, + condemned by Washington, ii. 266-268. + + King, Clarence, + his opinion that Washington was not American, ii. 308. + + King, Rufus, + publishes card exposing Genet, ii. 159. + + King's Bridge, + fight at, i. 170. + + Kip's Landing, + fight at, i. 168. + + Kirkland, Rev. Samuel, + negotiates with Six Nations, ii. 101. + + Knox, Henry, + brings artillery to Boston from Ticonderoga, i. 152; + accompanies Washington to meet De Rochambeau, 283; + at West Point, 285; + sent by Washington to confer with governors of States, 295; + urged by Washington to establish Western posts, ii. 7; + letters of Washington to, 30, 39; + made secretary of war, 65; + his character, 65; + a Federalist, 71; + deals with Creeks, 91; + urges decisive measure against Genet, 154, 155; + letters of Washington to, 260; + selected by Washington as third major-general, 286; + given first place by Adams, 286; + angry at Hamilton's higher rank, 288; + refuses the office, 289; + his offer to serve on Washington's staff refused, 289; + Washington's affection for, 317, 362. + + + LAFAYETTE, Madame de, + aided by Washington, ii. 366; + letter of Washington to, 377. + + Lafayette, Marquis de, + Washington's regard for, i. 192; + his opinion of Continental troops, 196; + sent on fruitless journey to the lakes by cabal, 222, 253; + encouraged by Washington, 225; + narrowly escapes being cut off by Clinton, 233; + appointed to attack British rear, 235; + superseded by Lee, 235; + urges Washington to come, 235; + letter of Washington to, regarding quarrel between D'Estaing and + Sullivan, 245; + regard of Washington for, 249; + desires to conquer Canada, 254; + his plan not supported in France, 256; + works to get a French army sent, 264; + brings news of French army and fleet, 274; + tries to get De Rochambeau to attack New York, 280; + accompanies Washington to meet De Rochambeau, 283; + told by Washington of Arnold's treachery, 285; + on court to try Andre, 287; + opinion of Continental soldiers, 293; + harasses Cornwallis, 307; + defeated at Green Springs, 307; + watches Cornwallis at Yorktown, 308; + reinforced by De Grasse, 312; + persuades him to remain, 315; + sends Washington French wolf-hounds, ii. 2; + letters of Washington to, 23, 26, 118, 144, 165, 222, 261; + his son not received by Washington, 253; + later taken care of, 277, 281, 366; + his worth, early seen by Washington, 334; + Washington's affection for, 365; + sends key of Bastile to Mt. Vernon, 365; + helped by Washington, 365,366. + + Laurens, Henry, + letter of Conway cabal to, making attack on Washington, i. 222; + letters of Washington to, 254, 288; + sent to Paris to get loans, 299. + + Lauzun, Duc de, + repulses Tarleton at Yorktown, i. 317. + + + Lear, Tobias, + Washington's secretary, ii. 263; + his account of Washington's last illness, 299-303, 385; + letters to, 361, 382. + + Lee, Arthur, + example of Virginia gentleman educated abroad, i. 23. + + Lee, Charles, + visits Mt. Vernon, his character, i. 132; + accompanies Washington to Boston, 136; + aids Washington in organizing army, 140; + disobeys orders and is captured, 175; + objects to attacking Clinton, 234; + first refuses, then claims command of van, 235; + disobeys orders and retreats, 236; + rebuked by Washington, 236, 237; + court martial of and dismissal from army, 237; + his witty remark on taking oath of allegiance, ii. 375. + + Lee, Henry, marries Lucy Grymes, + Washington's "Lowland Beauty," i. 96. + + Lee, Henry, + son of Lucy Grymes, Washington's "Lowland Beauty," i. 96; ii. 362; + captures Paulus Hook, i. 269; + letters of Washington to, ii. 23, 26, 149, 235, 239, 242, 252; + considered for command against Indians, 100; + commands troops to suppress Whiskey Rebellion, 127; + Washington's affection for, 362. + + Lee, Richard Henry, + unfriendly to Washington, i. 214; + letter of Washington to, ii. 160. + + Lewis, Lawrence, + at opening of Congress, ii. 78; + takes social duties at Mt. Vernon, 280. + + Liancourt, Duc de, + refused reception by Washington, ii. 253. + + Lincoln, Abraham, + compared with Washington, i. 349; ii. 308-313. + + Lincoln, Benjamin, + sent by Washington against Burgoyne, i. 210; + fails to understand Washington's policy and tries to hold Charleston, + 273, 274; + captured, 276; + commissioner to treat with Creeks, ii. 90. + + Lippencott, Captain, + orders hanging of Huddy, i. 327; + acquitted by English court martial, 328. + + Little Sarah, + the affair of, 155-157. + + Livingston, Chancellor, + administers oath at Washington's inauguration, ii. 46. + + Livingston, Edward, + moves call for papers relating to Jay treaty, ii. 207. + + Logan, Dr. George, + goes on volunteer mission to France, ii. 262; + ridiculed by Federalists, publishes defense, 263; + calls upon Washington, 263; + mercilessly snubbed, 263-265. + + Long Island, + battle of, i. 164,165. + + London, Lord, + disappoints Washington by his inefficiency, i. 91. + + Lovell, James, + follows the Adamses in opposing Washington, i. 214; + wishes to supplant him by Gates, 215; + writes hostile letters, 222. + + + MACKENZIE, CAPTAIN, + letter of Washington to, i. 130. + + Madison, James, + begins to desire a stronger government, ii. 19, 29; + letters of Washington to, 30, 39, 53; + chosen for French mission, but does not go, 211. + + Magaw, Colonel, + betrayed at Fort Washington, i. 175. + + "Magnolia," + Washington's pet colt, beaten in a race, i. 99, 113; ii. 381. + + Marshall, John, + Chief Justice, on special commission to France, ii. 284; + tells anecdote of Washington's anger at cowardice, 392. + + Maryland, the Washington family in, i.36. + + Mason, George, + discusses political outlook with Washington, i. 119; + letter of Washington to, 263; + an opponent of the Constitution, ii. 71; + friendship of Washington for, 362; + debates with Washington the site of Pohick Church, 381. + + Mason, S.T., + communicates Jay treaty to Bache, ii. 185. + + Massey, Rev. Lee, + rector of Pohick Church, i. 44. + + Mathews, George, + letter of Washington to, i. 294. + + Matthews, Edward, + makes raids in Virginia, i. 269. + + Mawhood, General, + defeated at Princeton, i. 182. + + McGillivray, Alexander, + chief of the Creeks, ii. 90; + his journey to New York and interview with Washington, 91. + + McHenry, James, + at West Point, i. 284; + letters to, 325, ii. 22, 278, 287, 384; + becomes secretary of war, 246; + advised by Washington not to appoint Democrats, 260, 261. + + McKean, Thomas, given letters to Dr. Logan, ii. 265. + + McMaster, John B., + calls Washington "an unknown man," i. 7, ii. 304; + calls him cold, 332, 352; + and avaricious in small ways, 352. + + Meade, Colonel Richard, + Washington's opinion of, ii. 335. + + Mercer, Hugh, + killed at Princeton, i. 182. + + Merlin,----, + president of Directory, interview with Dr. Logan, ii. 265. + + Mifflin, Thomas, + wishes to supplant Washington by Gates, i. 216; + member of board of war, 221; + put under Washington's orders, 226; + replies to Washington's surrender of commission, 349; + meets Washington on journey to inauguration, ii. 44; + notified of the Little Sarah, French privateer, 154; + orders its seizure, 155. + + Militia, + abandon Continental army, i. 167; + cowardice of, 168; + despised by Washington, 169; + leave army again, 175; + assist in defeat of Burgoyne, 211. + + Mischianza, i. 232. + + Monmouth, + battle of, i. 235-239. + + Monroe, James, + appointed minister to France, ii. 211; + his character, 212; + intrigues against Hamilton, 212; + effusively received in Paris, 212; + acts foolishly, 213; + tries to interfere with Jay, 213; + upheld, then condemned and recalled by Washington, 213, 214; + writes a vindication, 215; + Washington's opinion of him, 215, 216; + his selection one of Washington's few mistakes, 334. + + Montgomery, General Richard, + sent by Washington to invade Canada, i. 143. + + Morgan, Daniel, + sent against Burgoyne by Washington, i. 208; + at Saratoga, 210; + wins battle of Cowpens, joins Greene, 301. + + Morris, Gouverneur, + letters of Washington to, i. 248, 263; + efforts towards financial reform, 264; + quotes speech of Washington at Federal convention in his eulogy, + ii. 31; + discussion as to his value as an authority, 32, note; + goes to England on unofficial mission, 137; + balked by English insolence, 137; + comprehends French Revolution, 139; + letters of Washington to, on the Revolution, 140,142,145; + recall demanded by France, 211; + letter of Washington to, 217,240, 254; + Washington's friendship for, 363. + + Morris, Robert, + letter of Washington to, i. 187; + helps Washington to pay troops, 259; + efforts towards financial reform, 264; + difficulty in helping Washington in 1781, 309, 312; + considered for secretary of treasury, ii. 66; + his bank policy approved by Washington, 110; + Washington's friendship for, 363. + + Moustier, + demands private access to Washington, ii. 59; + refused, 59, 60. + + Murray, Vans, minister in Holland, + interview with Dr. Logan, ii. 264; + nominated for French mission by Adams, 292; + written to by Washington, 292. + + Muse, Adjutant, + trains Washington in tactics and art of war, i. 65. + + + NAPOLEON, + orders public mourning for Washington's death, i. 1. + + Nelson, General, + letter of Washington to, i. 257. + + Newburgh, + addresses, ii. 335. + + New England, + character of people, i. 138; + attitude toward Washington, 138, 139; + troops disliked by Washington, 152; + later praised by him, 152, 317, 344; + threatened by Burgoyne's invasion, 204; + its delegates in Congress demand appointment of Gates, 208; + and oppose Washington, 214; + welcomes Washington on tour as President, ii. 74; + more democratic than other colonies before Revolution, 315; + disliked by Washington for this reason, 316. + + Newenham, Sir Edward, + letter of Washington to on American foreign policy, ii. 133. + + New York, + Washington's first visit to, i. 99, 100; + defense of, in Revolution, 159-169; + abandoned by Washington, 169; + Howe establishes himself in, 177; + reoccupied by Clinton, 264; + Washington's journey to, ii. 44; + inauguration in, 46; + rioting in, against Jay treaty, 187. + + Nicholas, John, + letter of Washington to, ii. 259. + + Nicola, Col., + urges Washington to establish a despotism, i. 337. + + Noailles, Vicomte de, French emigre, + referred to State Department, ii. 151, 253. + + + O'FLINN, CAPTAIN, + Washington's friendship with, ii. 318. + + Organization of the national government, + absence of materials to work with, ii. 51; + debate over title of President, 52; + over his communications with Senate, 53; + over presidential etiquette, 53-56; + appointment of officials to cabinet offices established by Congress, + 64-71; + appointment of supreme court judges, 72. + + Orme,----, + letter of Washington to, i. 84. + + + PAINE, THOMAS, + his "Rights of Man" reprinted by Jefferson, ii. 226. + + Parkinson, Richard, + says Washington was harsh to slaves, i. 105; + contradicts statement elsewhere, 106; + tells stories of Washington's pecuniary exactness, ii. 353, 354, 382; + his character, 355; + his high opinion of Washington, 356. + + Parton, James, + considers Washington as good but commonplace, ii. 330, 374. + + Peachey, Captain, + letter of Washington to, i. 92. + + Pendleton, Edmund, + Virginia delegate to Continental Congress, i. 128. + + Pennsylvania, + refuses to fight the French, i. 72,83; + fails to help Washington, 225; + remonstrates against his going into winter quarters, 229; + condemned by Washington, 229; + compromises with mutineers, 292. + + Philipse, Mary, + brief love-affair of Washington with, i. 99, 100. + + Phillips, General, + commands British troops in Virginia, i. 303; + death of, 303. + + Pickering, Colonel, quiets Six Nations, ii. 94. + + Pickering, Timothy, + letter of Washington to, on French Revolution, ii. 140; + on failure of Spanish negotiations, 166; + recalls Washington to Philadelphia to receive Fauchet letter, 195; + succeeds Randolph, 246; + letters of Washington to, on party government, 247; + appeals to Washington against Adams's reversal of Hamilton's rank, + 286; + letters of Washington to, 292, 324; + criticises Washington as a commonplace person, 307. + + Pinckney, Charles C., + letter of Washington to, ii. 90; + appointed to succeed Monroe as minister to France, 214; + refused reception, 284; + sent on special commission, 284; + named by Washington as general, 286; + accepts without complaint of Hamilton's higher rank, 290; + Washington's friendship with, 363. + + Pinckney, Thomas, + sent on special mission to Spain, ii. 166; + unsuccessful at first, 166; + succeeds in making a good treaty, 167; + credit of his exploit, 168; + letter of Washington to, 325. + + Pitt, William, + his conduct of French war, i. 93, 94. + + Princeton, + battle of, i. 181-3. + + Privateers, + sent out by Washington, i. 150. + + "Protection" + favored in the first Congress, ii. 113-115; + arguments of Hamilton for, 114, 115; + of Washington, 116-122. + + Provincialism, + of Americans, i. 193; + with regard to foreign officers, 193, 234, 250-252; + with regard to foreign politics, ii. 131, 132, 163, 237, 255. + + Putnam, Israel, + escapes with difficulty from New York, i. 169; + fails to help Washington at Trenton, 180; + warned to defend the Hudson, 195; + tells Washington of Burgoyne's surrender, 211; + rebuked by Washington, 217; + amuses Washington, ii. 374. + + + RAHL, COLONEL, + defeated and killed at Trenton, i. 181. + + Randolph, Edmund, + letter of Washington to, ii. 30, 39; + relations with Washington, 64; + appointed attorney-general, 64; + his character, 64, 65; + a friend of the Constitution, 71; + opposes a bank, 110; + letter of Washington to, on protective bounties, 118; + drafts neutrality proclamation, 147; + vacillates with regard to Genet, 154; + argues that United States is bound by French alliance, 170; + succeeds Jefferson as secretary of state, 184; + directed to prepare a remonstrance against English "provision order," + 185; + opposed to Jay treaty, 188; + letter of Washington to, on conditional ratification, 189, 191, 192, + 194; + guilty, apparently, from Fauchet letter, of corrupt practices, 196; + his position not a cause for Washington's signing treaty, 196-200; + receives Fauchet letter, resigns, 201; + his personal honesty, 201; + his discreditable carelessness, 202; + fairly treated by Washington, 203, 204; + his complaints against Washington, 203; + letter of Washington to, concerning Monroe, 213; + at first a Federalist, 246. + + Randolph, John, + on early disappearance of Virginia colonial society, i. 15. + + Rawdon, Lord, + commands British forces in South, too distant to help Cornwallis, + i. 304. + + Reed, Joseph, + letters of Washington to, i. 151, 260. + + Revolution, War of, + foreseen by Washington, i. 120, 122; + Lexington and Concord, 133; + Bunker Hill, 136; + siege of Boston, 137-154; + organization of army, 139-142; + operations in New York, 143; + invasion of Canada, 143, 144; + question as to treatment of prisoners, 145-148; + causes of British defeat, 154, 155; + campaign near New York, 161-177; + causes for attempted defense of Brooklyn, 163, 164; + battle of Long Island, 164-165; + escape of Americans, 166; + affair at Kip's Bay, 168; + at King's Bridge, 170; + at Frog's Point, 173; + battle of White Plains, 173; + at Chatterton Hill, 174; + capture of Forts Washington and Lee, 174, 175; + pursuit of Washington into New Jersey, 175-177; + retirement of Howe to New York, 177; + battle of Trenton, 180, 181; + campaign of Princeton, 181-183; + its brilliancy, 183; + Philadelphia campaign, 194-202; + British march across New Jersey prevented by Washington, 194; + sea voyage to Delaware, 195; + battle of the Brandywine, 196-198; + causes for defeat, 198; + defeat of Wayne, 198; + Philadelphia taken by Howe, 199; + battle of Germantown, 199; + its significance, 200, 201; + Burgoyne's invasion, 203-211; + Washington's preparations for, 204-206; + Howe's error in neglecting to cooperate, 205; + capture of Ticonderoga, 207; + battles of Bennington, Oriskany, Fort Schuyler, 210; + battle of Saratoga, 211; + British repulse at Fort Mercer, 217; + destruction of the forts, 217; + fruitless skirmishing before Philadelphia, 218; + Valley Forge, 228-232; + evacuation of Philadelphia, 234; + battle of Monmouth, 235-239; + its effect, 239; + cruise and failure of D'Estaing at Newport, 243, 244; + failure of D'Estaing at Savannah, 247, 248; + storming of Stony Point, 268, 269; + Tory raids near New York, 269; + standstill in 1780, 272; + siege and capture of Charleston, 273, 274, 276; + operations of French and Americans near Newport, 277, 278; + battle of Camden, 281; + treason of Arnold, 281-289; + battle of Cowpens, 301; + retreat of Greene before Cornwallis, 302; + battle of Guilford Court House, 302; + successful operations of Greene, 302, 303; + Southern campaign planned by Washington, 304-311; + feints against Clinton, 306; + operations of Cornwallis and Lafayette in Virginia, 307; + naval supremacy secured by Washington, 310, 311; + battle of De Grasse and Graves off Chesapeake, 312; + transport of American army to Virginia, 311-313; + siege and capture of Yorktown, 315-318; + masterly character of campaign, 318-320; + petty operations before New York, 326; + treaty of peace, 342. + + Rives, + on Washington's doubts of constitutionality of Bank, ii. 110. + + Robinson, Beverly, + speaker of Virginia House of Burgesses, his compliment to Washington, + i. 102. + + Robinson, Colonel, + loyalist, i. 282. + + Rumsey, James, + the inventor, asks Washington's consideration of his steamboat, ii. 4. + + Rush, Benjamin, + describes Washington's impressiveness, ii. 389. + + Rutledge, John, + letter of Washington to, i. 281; + nomination rejected by Senate, ii. 63; + nominated to Supreme Court, 73. + + + ST. CLAIR, Arthur, + removed after loss of Ticonderoga, i. 208; + appointed to command against Indians, ii. 94; + receives instructions and begins expedition, 95; + defeated, 96; + his character, 99; + fair treatment by Washington, 99; + popular execration of, 105. + + St. Pierre, M. de, + French governor in Ohio, i. 67. + + St. Simon, Count, + reinforces Lafayette, i. 312. + + Sandwich, Lord, + calls all Yankees cowards, i. 155. + + Saratoga, + anecdote concerning, i. 202. + + Savage, Edward, + characteristics of his portrait of Washington, i. 13. + + Savannah, + siege of, i. 247. + + Scammel, Colonel, + amuses Washington, ii. 374. + + Schuyler, Philip, + accompanies Washington to Boston, i. 136; + appointed military head in New York, 136; + directed by Washington how to meet Burgoyne, 204; + fails to carry out directions, 207; + removed, 208; + value of his preparations, 209. + + Scott, Charles, commands expedition against Indians, ii. 95. + + Sea-power, + its necessity seen by Washington, i. 283, 303, 304, 306, 310, 318, 319. + + Sectional feeling, + deplored by Washington, ii. 222. + + Sharpe, Governor, + offers Washington a company, i. 80; + Washington's reply to, 81. + + Shays's Rebellion, + comments of Washington and Jefferson upon, ii. 26, 27. + + Sherman, Roger, + makes sarcastic remark about Wilkinson, i. 220. + + Shirley, Governor William, + adjusts matter of Washington's rank, i. 91, 97. + + Short, William, minister to Holland, + on commission regarding opening of Mississippi, ii. 166. + + Six Nations, + make satisfactory treaties, ii. 88; + stirred up by English, 94; + but pacified, 94, 101. + + Slavery, + in Virginia, i. 20; + its evil effects, 104; + Washington's attitude toward slaves, 105; + his condemnation of the system, 106, 107; + gradual emancipation favored, 107, 108. + + Smith, Colonel, + letter of Washington to, ii. 340. + + Spain, + instigates Indians to hostilities, ii. 89, 94, 101; + blocks Mississippi, 135; + makes treaty with Pinckney opening Mississippi, 167, 168; + angered at Jay treaty, 210. + + Sparks, Jared, + his alterations of Washington's letters, ii. 337, 338. + + Spotswood, Alexander, + asks Washington's opinion of Alien and Sedition Acts, ii. 297. + + Stamp Act, + Washington's opinion of, i. 119, 120. + + Stark, General, + leads attack at Trenton, i. 181. + + States, in the Revolutionary war, + appeals of Washington to, i. 142, 186, 204, 259, 277, 295, 306, 323, + 324, 326, 344; + issue paper money, 258; + grow tired of the war, 290; + alarmed by mutinies, 294; + try to appease soldiers, 295, 296; + their selfishness condemned by Washington, 333; ii. 21, 23; + thwart Indian policy of Congress, 88. + + Stephen, Adam, + late in attacking at Germantown, i. 199. + + Steuben, Baron, + Washington's appreciation of, i. 192, 249; + drills the army at Valley Forge, 232; + annoys Washington by wishing higher command, 249; + sent on mission to demand surrender of Western posts, 343; + his worth recognized by Washington, ii. 334. + + Stirling, Lord, + defeated and captured at Long Island, i. 165. + + Stockton, Mrs., + letter of Washington to, ii. 349. + + Stone, General, + tells stories of Washington's closeness, ii. 353, 354. + + Stuart, David, + letters of Washington to, ii. 107, 221, 222, 258. + + Stuart, Gilbert, + his portrait of Washington contrasted with Savage's, i. 13. + + Sullivan, John, General, + surprised at Long Island, i. 165; + attacks at Trenton, 180; + surprised and crushed at Brandywine, 197, 198; + unites with D'Estaing to attack Newport, 243; + angry at D'Estaing's desertion, 244; + soothed by Washington, 244; + sent against Indians, 266, 269. + + Supreme Court, + appointed by Washington, ii. 72. + + + TAFT,----, + kindness of Washington toward, ii. 367. + + Talleyrand, + eulogistic report to Napoleon on death of Washington, i. 1, note; + remark on Hamilton, ii. 139; + refused reception by Washington, 253. + + Tarleton, Sir Banastre, + tries to escape at Yorktown, i. 317. + + Thatcher, Dr., + on Washington's appearance when taking command of army, i. 137. + + Thomson, Charles, + complimented by Washington on retiring from secretary-ship of + Continental Congress, ii. 350. + + Tories, + hated by Washington, i. 156; + his reasons, 157; + active in New York, 158; + suppressed by Washington, 159; + in Philadelphia, impressed by Continental army, 196; + make raids on frontier, 266; + strong in Southern States, 267; + raids under Tryon, 269. + + Trent, Captain, + his incompetence in dealing with Indians and French, i. 72. + + Trenton, campaign of, i. 180-183. + + Trumbull, Governor, + letter of Washington to, refusing to stand for a third term, + ii. 269-271; + other letters, 298. + + Trumbull, John, + on New England army before Boston, i. 139. + + Trumbull, Jonathan, + his message on better government praised by Washington, ii. 21; + letters to, 42; + Washington's friendship for, 363. + + Tryon, Governor, + Tory leader in New York, i. 143; + his intrigues stopped by Washington, 158, 159; + conspires to murder Washington, 160; + makes raids in Connecticut, 269. + + + VALLEY FORGE, + Continental Army at, i. 228-232. + + Van Braam, Jacob, + friend of Lawrence Washington, trains George in fencing, i. 65; + accompanies him on mission to French, 66. + + Vergennes, + requests release of Asgill, i. 329, 330; + letter of Washington to, 330; + proposes to submit disposition of a subsidy to Washington, 332. + + Virginia, society in, + before the Revolution, i. 15-29; + its entire change since then, 15, 16; + population, distribution, and numbers, 17, 18; + absence of towns, 18; + and town life, 19; + trade and travel in, 19; + social classes, 20-24; + slaves and poor whites, 20; + clergy, 21; + planters and their estates, 22; + their life, 22; + education, 23; + habits of governing, 24; + luxury and extravagance, 25; + apparent wealth, 26; + agreeableness of life, 27; + aristocratic ideals, 28; + vigor of stock, 29; + unwilling to fight French, 71; + quarrels with Dinwiddie, 71; + thanks Washington after his French campaign, 79; + terrified at Braddock's defeat, 88; + gives Washington command, 89; + fails to support him, 89, 90, 93; + bad economic conditions in, 104,105; + local government in, 117; + condemns Stamp Act, 119; + adopts non-importation, 121; + condemns Boston Port Bill, 123; + asks opinion of counties, 124; + chooses delegates to a congress, 127; + prepares for war, 132; + British campaign in, 307, 315-318; + ratifies Constitution, ii. 40; + evil effect of free trade upon, 116, 117; + nullification resolutions, 266; + strength of its aristocracy, 315. + + + WADE, COLONEL, + in command at West Point after Arnold's flight, i. 285. + + Walker, Benjamin, + letter of Washington to, ii. 257. + + Warren, James, + letters of Washington to, i. 262, ii. 118. + + Washington, + ancestry, i. 30-40; + early genealogical researches concerning, 30-32; + pedigree finally established, 32; + origin of family, 33; + various members during middle ages, 34; + on royalist side in English civil war, 34, 36; + character of family, 35; + emigration to Virginia, 35, 36; + career of Washingtons in Maryland, 37; + in Virginia history, 38; + their estates, 39. + + Washington, Augustine, father of George Washington, + birth, i. 35; + death, 39; + character, 39; + his estate, 41; + ridiculous part played by in Weems's anecdotes, 44, 47. + + Washington, Augustine, half brother of George Washington, + keeps him after his father's death, i. 48. + + Washington, Bushrod, + refused appointment as attorney by Washington, ii. 62; + educated by him, 370. + + Washington, George, + honors to his memory in France, i. 1; + in England, 2; + grief in America, 3, 4; + general admission of his greatness, 4; + its significance, 5, 6; + tributes from England, 6; + from other countries, 6, 7; + yet an "unknown" man, 7; + minuteness of knowledge concerning, 8; + has become subject of myths, 9; + development of the Weems myth about, 10, 11; + necessity of a new treatment of, 12; + significant difference of real and ideal portraits of, 13; + his silence regarding himself, 14; + underlying traits, 14. + + _Early Life_. + Ancestry, 30-41; + birth, 39; + origin of Weems's anecdotes about, 41-44; + their absurdity and evil results, 45-48; + early schooling, 48; + plan to send him to sea, 49, 50; + studies to be a surveyor, 51; + his rules of behavior, 52; + his family connections with Fairfaxes, 54, 55; + his friendship with Lord Fairfax, 56; + surveys Fairfax's estate, 57, 58, 59; + made public surveyor, 60; + his life at the time, 60, 61; + influenced by Fairfax's cultivation, 62; + goes to West Indies with his brother, 62; + has the small-pox, 63; + observations on the voyage, 63, 64; + returns to Virginia, 64; + becomes guardian of his brother's daughter, 64. + + _Service against the French and Indians_. + Receives military training, 65; + a military appointment, 66; + goes on expedition to treat with French, 66; + meets Indians, 67; + deals with French, 67; + dangers of journey, 68; + his impersonal account, 69, 70; + appointed to command force against French, 71, 72; + his anger at neglect of Virginia Assembly, 73; + attacks and defeats force of Jumonville, 74; + called murderer by the French, 74; + surrounded by French at Great Meadows, 76; + surrenders, 76; + recklessness of his expedition, 77, 78; + effect of experience upon, 79; + gains a European notoriety, 79; + thanked by Virginia, 79; + protests against Dinwiddie's organization of soldiers, 80; + refuses to serve when ranked by British officers, 81; + accepts position on Braddock's staff, 82; + his treatment there, 82; + advises Braddock, 84; + rebuked for warning against surprise, 85; + his bravery in the battle, 86; + conducts retreat, 86, 87; + effect of experience on him, 87; + declines to solicit command of Virginia troops, 88; + accepts it when offered, 88; + his difficulties with Assembly, 89; + and with troops, 90; + settles question of rank, 91; + writes freely in criticism of government, 91, 92; + retires for rest to Mt. Vernon, 93; + offers services to General Forbes, 93; + irritated at slowness of English, 93, 94; + his love affairs, 95, 96; + journey to Boston, 97-101; + at festivities in New York and Philadelphia, 99; + meets Martha Custis, 101; + his wedding, 101, 102; + elected to House of Burgesses, 102; + confused at being thanked by Assembly, 102; + his local position, 103; + tries to farm his estate, 104; + his management of slaves, 105, 106, 108, 109; + cares for interests of old soldiers, 109; + rebukes a coward, 110; + cares for education of stepson, 111; + his furnishing of house, 112; + hunting habits, 113-115; + punishes a poacher, 116; + participates in colonial and local government, 117; + enters into society, 117, 118. + + _Congressional delegate from Virginia_. + His influence in Assembly, 119; + discusses Stamp Act with Mason, 119; + foresees result to be independence, 119; + rejoices at its repeal, but notes Declaratory Act, 120; + ready to use force to defend colonial rights, 120; + presents non-importation resolutions to Burgesses, 121; + abstains from English products, 121; + notes ominous movements among Indians, 122; + on good terms with royal governors, 122, 123; + observes fast on account of Boston Port Bill, 123; + has controversy with Bryan Fairfax over Parliamentary policy, + 124, 125, 126; + presides at Fairfax County meeting, 126; + declares himself ready for action, 126; + at convention of counties, offers to march to relief of Boston, 127; + elected to Continental Congress, 127; + his journey, 128; + silent in Congress, 129; + writes to a British officer that independence is not + desired, but war is certain, 130, 131; + returns to Virginia, 132; + aids in military preparations, 132; + his opinion after Concord, 133; + at second Continental Congress, wears uniform, 134; + made commander-in-chief, 134; + his modesty and courage in accepting position, 134, 135; + political motives for his choice, 135; + his popularity, 136; + his journey to Boston, 136, 137; + receives news of Bunker Hill, 136; + is received by Massachusetts Provincial Assembly, 137. + + _Commander of the Army_. + Takes command at Cambridge, 137; + his impression upon people, 137, 138, 139; + begins reorganization of army, 139; + secures number of troops, 140; + enforces discipline, his difficulties, 140, 141; + forced to lead Congress, 142; + to arrange rank of officers, 142; + organizes privateers, 142; + discovers lack of powder, 143; + plans campaigns in Canada and elsewhere, 143, 144; + his plans of attack on Boston overruled by council of war, 144; + writes to Gage urging that captives be treated as prisoners of war, + 145; + skill of his letter, 146; + retorts to Gage's reply, 147; + continues dispute with Howe, 148; + annoyed by insufficiency of provisions, 149; + and by desertions, 149; + stops quarrel between Virginia and Marblehead soldiers, 149; + suggests admiralty committees, 150; + annoyed by army contractors, 150; + and criticism, 151; + letter to Joseph Reed, 151; + occupies Dorchester Heights, 152; + begins to like New England men better, 152; + rejoices at prospect of a fight, 153; + departure of British due to his leadership, 154; + sends troops immediately to New York, 155; + enters Boston, 156; + expects a hard war, 156; + urges upon Congress the necessity of preparing for a long struggle, + 156; + his growing hatred of Tories, 156, 157; + goes to New York, 157, 158; + difficulties of the situation, 158; + suppresses Tories, 159; + urges Congress to declare independence, 159, 160; + discovers and punishes a conspiracy to assassinate, 160; + insists on his title in correspondence with Howe, 161; + justice of his position, 162; + quiets sectional jealousies in army, 162; + his military inferiority to British, 163; + obliged by political considerations to attempt defense of New York, + 163, 164; + assumes command on Long Island, 164; + sees defeat of his troops, 165; + sees plan of British fleet to cut off retreat, 166; + secures retreat of army, 167; + explains his policy of avoiding a pitched battle, 167; + anger at flight of militia at Kip's Bay, 168; + again secures safe retreat, 169; + secures slight advantage in a skirmish, 170; + continues to urge Congress to action, 170, 171; + success of his letters in securing a permanent army, 171; + surprised by advance of British fleet, 172; + moves to White Plains, 173; + blocks British advance, 174; + advises abandonment of American forts, 174; + blames himself for their capture, 175; + leads diminishing army through New Jersey, 175; + makes vain appeals for aid, 176; + resolves to take the offensive, 177; + desperateness of his situation, 178; + pledges his estate and private fortune to raise men, 179; + orders disregarded by officers, 180; + crosses Delaware and captures Hessians, 180, 181; + has difficulty in retaining soldiers, 181; + repulses Cornwallis at Assunpink, 181; + outwits Cornwallis and wins battle at Princeton, 182; + excellence of his strategy, 183; + effect of this campaign in saving Revolution, 183, 184; + withdraws to Morristown, 185; + fluctuations in size of army, 186; + his determination to keep the field, 186, 187; + criticised by Congress for not fighting, 187; + hampered by Congressional interference, 188; + issues proclamation requiring oath of allegiance, 188; + attacked in Congress for so doing, 189; + annoyed by Congressional alterations of rank, 189; + and by foreign military adventurers, 191; + value of his services in suppressing them, 192; + his American feelings, 191, 193; + warns Congress in vain that Howe means to attack Philadelphia, 193; + baffles Howe's advance across New Jersey, 195; + learning of his sailing, marches to defend Philadelphia, 195; + offers battle at Brandywine, 196, 197; + out-generaled and beaten, 197; + rallies army and prepares to fight again, 198; + prevented by storm, 199; + attacks British at Germantown, 199; + defeated, 200; + exposes himself in battle, 200; + real success of his action, 201; + despised by English, 202; + foresees danger of Burgoyne's invasion, 203; + sends instructions to Schuyler, 204; + urges use of New England and New York militia, 304; + dreads northern advance of Howe, 205; + determines to hold him at all hazards, 206, 207; + not cast down by loss of Ticonderoga, 207; + urges New England to rise, 208; + sends all possible troops, 208; + refuses to appoint a commander for Northern army, 208; + his probable reasons, 209; + continues to send suggestions, 210; + slighted by Gates after Burgoyne's surrender, 211; + rise of opposition in Congress, 212; + arouses ill-feeling by his frankness, 212, 213; + distrusted by Samuel and John Adams, 214; + by others, 214, 215; + formation of a plan to supplant him by Gates, 215; + opposed by Gates, Mifflin, and Conway, 215, 216; + angers Conway by preventing his increase in rank, 216; + is refused troops by Gates, 217; + defends and loses Delaware forts, 217; + refuses to attack Howe, 218; + propriety of his action, 219; + becomes aware of cabal, 220; + alarms them by showing extent of his knowledge, 221; + attacked bitterly in Congress, 222; + insulted by Gates, 223; + refuses to resign, 224; + refuses to notice cabal publicly, 224; + complains privately of slight support from Pennsylvania, 225; + continues to push Gates for explanations, 226; + regains complete control after collapse of cabal, 226, 227; + withdraws to Valley Forge, 227; + desperation of his situation, 228; + criticised by Pennsylvania legislature for going into winter quarters, + 229; + his bitter reply, 229; + his unbending resolution, 230; + continues to urge improvements in army organization, 231; + manages to hold army together, 232; + sends Lafayette to watch Philadelphia, 233; + determines to fight, 234; + checked by Lee, 234; + pursues Clinton, 235; + orders Lee to attack British rearguard, 235; + discovers his force retreating, 236; + rebukes Lee and punishes him, 236, 237; + takes command and stops retreat, 237; + repulses British and assumes offensive, 238; + success due to his work at Valley Forge, 239; + celebrates French alliance, 241; + has to confront difficulty of managing allies, 241, 242; + welcomes D'Estaing, 243; + obliged to quiet recrimination after Newport failure, 244; + his letter to Sullivan, 244; + to Lafayette, 245; + to D'Estaing, 246; + tact and good effect of his letters, 246; + offers to cooperate in an attack on New York, 247; + furnishes admirable suggestions to D'Estaing, 247; + not dazzled by French, 248; + objects to giving rank to foreign officers, 248, 249; + opposes transfer of Steuben from inspectorship to the line, 249; + his thoroughly American position, 250; + absence of provinciality, 251, 252; + a national leader, 252; + opposes invasion of Canada, 253; + foresees danger of its recapture by France, 254, 255; + his clear understanding of French motives, 255, 256; + rejoices in condition of patriot cause, 257; + foresees ruin to army in financial troubles, 258; + has to appease mutinies among unpaid troops, 258; + appeals to Congress, 259; + urges election of better delegates to Congress, 259; + angry with speculators, 260, 261; + futility of his efforts, 261, 262; + his increasing alarm at social demoralization, 263; + effect of his exertions, 264; + conceals his doubts of the French, 264; + watches New York, 264; + keeps dreading an English campaign, 265; + labors with Congress to form a navy, 266; + plans expedition to chastise Indians, 266; + realizes that things are at a standstill in the North, 267; + sees danger to lie in the South, but determines to remain himself near + New York, 267; + not consulted by Congress in naming general for Southern army, 268; + plans attack on Stony Point, 268; + hatred of ravaging methods of British warfare, 270; + again has great difficulties in winter quarters, 270; + unable to act on offensive in the spring, 270, 272; + unable to help South, 272; + advises abandonment of Charleston, 273; + learns of arrival of French army, 274; + plans a number of enterprises with it, 275, 276; + refuses, even after loss of Charleston, to abandon Hudson, 276; + welcomes Rochambeau, 277; + writes to Congress against too optimistic feelings, 278, 279; + has extreme difficulty in holding army together, 280; + urges French to attack New York, 280; + sends Maryland troops South after Camden, 281; + arranges meeting with Rochambeau at Hartford, 282; + popular enthusiasm over him, 283; + goes to West Point, 284; + surprised at Arnold's absence, 284; + learns of his treachery, 284, 285; + his cool behavior, 285; + his real feelings, 286; + his conduct toward Andre, 287; + its justice, 287, 288; + his opinion of Arnold, 288, 289; + his responsibility in the general breakdown of the Congress and army, + 290; + obliged to quell food mutinies in army, 291, 292; + difficulty of situation, 292; + his influence the salvation of army, 293; + his greatness best shown in this way, 293; + rebukes Congress, 294; + appoints Greene to command Southern army, 295; + sends Knox to confer with state governors, 296; + secures temporary relief for army, 296; + sees the real defect is in weak government, 296; + urges adoption of Articles of Confederation, 297; + works for improvements in executive, 298,299; + still keeps a Southern movement in mind, 301; + unable to do anything through lack of naval power, 303; + rebukes Lund Washington for entertaining British at Mt. Vernon, 303; + still unable to fight, 304; + tries to frighten Clinton into remaining in New York, 305; + succeeds with aid of Rochambeau, 306; + explains his plan to French and to Congress, 306; + learns of De Grasse's approach, prepares to move South, 306; + writes to De Grasse to meet him in Chesapeake, 308; + fears a premature peace, 308; + pecuniary difficulties, 309; + absolute need of command of sea, 310; + persuades De Barras to join De Grasse, 311; + starts on march for Chesapeake, 311; + hampered by lack of supplies, 312; + and by threat of Congress to reduce army, 313; + passes through Mt. Vernon, 314; + succeeds in persuading De Grasse not to abandon him, 315; + besieges Cornwallis, 315; + sees capture of redoubts, 316; + receives surrender of Cornwallis, 317; + admirable strategy and management of campaign, 318; + his personal influence the cause of success, 318; + especially his use of the fleet, 319; + his management of Cornwallis through Lafayette, 319; + his boldness in transferring army away from New York, 320; + does not lose his head over victory, 321; + urges De Grasse to repeat success against Charleston, 322; + returns north, 322; + saddened by death of Custis, 322; + continues to urge Congress to action, 323; + writes letters to the States, 323; + does not expect English surrender, 324; + urges renewed vigor, 324; + points out that war actually continues, 325; + urges not to give up army until peace is actually secured, 325; + failure of his appeals, 326; + reduced to inactivity, 326; + angered at murder of Huddy, 327; + threatens Carleton with retaliation, 328; + releases Asgill at request of Vergennes and order of Congress, + 329, 330; + disclaims credit, 330; + justification of his behavior, 330; + his tenderness toward the soldiers, 331; + jealousy of Congress toward him, 332; + warns Congress of danger of further neglect of army, 333, 334; + takes control of mutinous movement, 335; + his address to the soldiers, 336; + its effect, 336; + movement among soldiers to make him dictator, 337; + replies to revolutionary proposals, 337; + reality of the danger, 339; + causes for his behaviour, 340, 341; + a friend of strong government, but devoid of personal ambition, 342; + chafes under delay to disband army, 343; + tries to secure Western posts, 343; + makes a journey through New York, 343; + gives Congress excellent but futile advice, 344; + issues circular letter to governors, 344; + and farewell address to army, 345; + enters New York after departure of British, 345; + his farewell to his officers, 345; + adjusts his accounts, 346; + appears before Congress, 347; + French account of his action, 347; + makes speech resigning commission, 348, 349. + + _In Retirement_. + Returns to Mt. Vernon, ii. I; + tries to resume old life, 2; + gives up hunting, 2; + pursued by lion-hunters and artists, 3; + overwhelmed with correspondence, 3; + receives letters from Europe, 4; + from cranks, 4; + from officers, 4; + his share in Society of Cincinnati, 4; + manages his estate, 5; + visits Western lands, 5; + family cares, 5, 6; + continues to have interest in public affairs, 6; + advises Congress regarding peace establishment, 6; + urges acquisition of Western posts, 7; + his broad national views, 7; + alone in realizing future greatness of country, 7, 8; + appreciates importance of the West, 8; + urges development of inland navigation, 9; + asks Jefferson's aid, 9, 10; + lays canal scheme before Virginia legislature, 10; + his arguments, 10; + troubled by offer of stock, 11; + uses it to endow two schools, 12; + significance of his scheme, 12, 13; + his political purposes in binding West to East, 13; + willing to leave Mississippi closed for this purpose, 14, 15, 16; + feels need of firmer union during Revolution, 17; + his arguments, 18, 19; + his influence starts movement for reform, 20; + continues to urge it during retirement, 21; + foresees disasters of confederation, 21; + urges impost scheme, 22; + condemns action of States, 22, 23, 25; + favours commercial agreement between Maryland and Virginia, 23; + stung by contempt of foreign powers, 24; + his arguments for a national government, 24; + points out designs of England, 25; + works against paper money craze in States, 26; + his opinion of Shays's rebellion, 26; + his position contrasted with Jefferson's, 27; + influence of his letters, 28, 29; + shrinks from participating in Federal convention, 29; + elected unanimously, 30; + refuses to go to a feeble convention, 30, 31; + finally makes up his mind, 31. + + _In the Federal Convention_. + Speech attributed to Washington by Morris on duties of delegates, + 31, 32; + chosen to preside, 33; + takes no part in debate, 34; + his influence in convention, 34, 35; + despairs of success, 35; + signs the Constitution, 36; + words attributed to him, 36; + silent as to his thoughts, 36, 37; + sees clearly danger of failure to ratify, 37; + tries at first to act indifferently, 38; + begins to work for ratification, 38; + writes letters to various people, 38, 39; + circulates copies of "Federalist," 40; + saves ratification in Virginia, 40; + urges election of Federalists to Congress, 41; + receives general request to accept presidency, 41; + his objections, 41, 42; + dreads failure and responsibility, 42; + elected, 42; + his journey to New York, 42-46; + speech at Alexandria, 43; + popular reception at all points, 44, 45; + his feelings, 46; + his inauguration, 46. + + _President_. + His speech to Congress, 48; + urges no specific policy, 48, 49; + his solemn feelings, 49; + his sober view of necessities of situation, 50; + question of his title, 52; + arranges to communicate with Senate by writing, 52, 53; + discusses social etiquette, 53; + takes middle ground, 54; + wisdom of his action, 55; + criticisms by Democrats, 55, 56; + accused of monarchical leanings, 56, 57; + familiarizes himself with work already accomplished under + Confederation, 58; + his business habits, 58; + refuses special privileges to French minister, 59, 60; + skill of his reply, 60, 61; + solicited for office, 61; + his views on appointment, 62; + favors friends of Constitution and old soldiers, 62; + success of his appointments, 63; + selects a cabinet, 64; + his regard for Knox 65; + for Morris, 66; + his skill in choosing, 66; + his appreciation of Hamilton, 67; + his grounds for choosing Jefferson, 68; + his contrast with Jefferson, 69; + his choice a mistake in policy, 70; + his partisan characteristics, 70, 71; + excludes anti-Federalists, 71; + nominates justices of Supreme Court, 72; + their party character, 73; + illness, 73; + visits the Eastern States, 73; + his reasons, 74; + stirs popular enthusiasm, 74; + snubbed by Hancock in Massachusetts, 75; + accepts Hancock's apology, 75; + importance of his action, 76; + success of journey, 76; + opens Congress, 78, 79; + his speech and its recommendations, 81; + how far carried out, 81-83; + national character of the speech, 83; + his fitness to deal with Indians, 87; + his policy, 88; + appoints commission to treat with Creeks, 90; + ascribes its failure to Spanish intrigue, 90; + succeeds by a personal interview in making treaty, 91; + wisdom of his policy, 92; + orders an expedition against Western Indians, 93; + angered at its failure, 94; + and at conduct of frontiersmen, 94; + prepares St. Clair's expedition, 95; + warns against ambush, 95; + hopes for decisive results, 97; + learns of St. Clair's defeat, 97; + his self-control, 97; + his outburst of anger against St. Clair, 97, 98; + masters his feelings, 98; + treats St. Clair kindly, 99; + determines on a second campaign, 100; + selects Wayne and other officers, 100; + tries to secure peace with tribes, 101; + efforts prevented by English influence, 101, 102; + and in South by conduct of Georgia, 103; + general results of his Indian policy, 104; + popular misunderstandings and criticism, 104, 105; + favors assumption of state debts by the government, 107, 108; + satisfied with bargain between Hamilton and Jefferson, 108; + his respectful attitude toward Constitution, 109; + asks opinions of cabinet on constitutionality of bank, 110; + signs bill creating it, 110; + reasons for his decision, 111; + supports Hamilton's financial policy, 112; + supports Hamilton's views on protection, 115, 116; + appreciates evil economic condition of Virginia, 116, 117; + sees necessity for self-sufficient industries in war time, 117; + urges protection, 118, 119, 120; + his purpose to build up national feeling, 121; + approves national excise tax, 122, 123; + does not realize unpopularity of method, 123; + ready to modify but insists on obedience, 124, 125; + issues proclamation against rioters, 125; + since Pennsylvania frontier continues rebellious, issues second + proclamation threatening to use force, 127; + calls out the militia, 127; + his advice to leaders and troops, 128; + importance of Washington's firmness, 129; + his good judgment and patience, 130; + decides success of the central authority, 130; + early advocacy of separation of United States from European politics, + 133; + studies situation, 134, 135; + sees importance of binding West with Eastern States, 135; + sees necessity of good relations with England, 137; + authorizes Morris to sound England as to exchange of ministers and a + commercial treaty, 137; + not disturbed by British bad manners, 138; + succeeds in establishing diplomatic relations, 138; + early foresees danger of excess in French Revolution, 139, 140; + states a policy of strict neutrality, 140, 142, 143; + difficulties of his situation, 142; + objects to action of National Assembly on tobacco and oil, 144; + denies reported request by United States that England mediate with + Indians, 145; + announces neutrality in case of a European war, 146; + instructs cabinet to prepare a neutrality proclamation, 147; + importance of this step not understood at time, 148, 149; + foresees coming difficulties, 149, 150; + acts cautiously toward _emigres_, 151; + contrast with Genet, 152; + greets him coldly, 152; + orders steps taken to prevent violations of neutrality, 153, 154; + retires to Mt. Vernon for rest, 154; + on returning finds Jefferson has allowed Little Sarah to escape, 156; + writes a sharp note to Jefferson, 156; + anger at escape, 157; + takes matters out of Jefferson's hands, 157; + determines on asking recall of Genet, 158; + revokes exequatur of Duplaine, French consul, 159; + insulted by Genet, 159, 160; + refuses to deny Jay's card, 160; + upheld by popular feeling, 160; + his annoyance at the episode, 160; + obliged to teach American people self-respect, 162, 163; + deals with troubles incited by Genet in the West, 162, 163; + sympathizes with frontiersmen, 163; + comprehends value of Mississippi, 164, 165; + sends a commission to Madrid to negotiate about free navigation, 166; + later sends Thomas Pinckney, 166; + despairs of success, 166; + apparent conflict between French treaties and neutrality, 169, 170; + value of Washington's policy to England, 171; + in spite of England's attitude, intends to keep peace, 177; + wishes to send Hamilton as envoy, 177; + after his refusal appoints Jay, 177; + fears that England intends war, 178; + determines to be prepared, 178; + urges upon Jay the absolute necessity of England's giving up Western + posts, 179; + dissatisfied with Jay treaty but willing to sign it, 184; + in doubt as to meaning of conditional ratification, 184; + protests against English "provision order" and refuses signature, 185; + meets uproar against treaty alone, 188; + determines to sign, 189; + answers resolutions of Boston town meeting, 190; + refuses to abandon his judgment to popular outcry, 190; + distinguishes temporary from permanent feeling, 191; + fears effect of excitement upon French government, 192; + his view of dangers of situation, 193, 194; + recalled to Philadelphia by cabinet, 195; + receives intercepted correspondence of Fauchet, 195, 196; + his course of action already determined, 197, 198; + not influenced by the Fauchet letter, 198; + evidence of this, 199, 200; + reasons for ratifying before showing letter to Randolph, 199, 200; + signs treaty, 201; + evidence that he did not sacrifice Randolph, 201, 202; + fairness of his action, 203; + refuses to reply to Randolph's attack, 204; + reasons for signing treaty, 205; + justified in course of time, 206; + refuses on constitutional grounds the call of representatives for + documents, 208; + insists on independence of treaty-making by executive and Senate, 209; + overcomes hostile majority in House, 210; + wishes Madison to succeed Morris at Paris, 211; + appoints Monroe, 216; + his mistake in not appointing a political supporter, 212; + disgusted at Monroe's behavior, 213, 214; + recalls Monroe and appoints C.C. Pinckney, 214; + angered at French policy, 214; + his contempt for Monroe's self-justification, 215, 216; + review of foreign policy, 216-219; + his guiding principle national independence, 216; + and abstention from European politics, 217; + desires peace and time for growth, 217, 218; + wishes development of the West, 218, 219; + wisdom of his policy, 219; + considers parties dangerous, 220; + but chooses cabinet from Federalists, 220; + prepared to undergo criticism, 221; + willingness to bear it, 221; + desires to learn public feeling, by travels, 221, 222; + feels that body of people will support national government, 222; + sees and deplores sectional feelings in the South, 222, 223; + objects to utterances of newspapers, 223; + attacked by "National Gazette," 227; + receives attacks on Hamilton from Jefferson and his friends, 228, 229; + sends charges to Hamilton, 229; + made anxious by signs of party division, 229; + urges both Hamilton and Jefferson to cease quarrel, 230, 231; + dreads an open division in cabinet, 232; + desirous to rule without party, 233; + accomplishes feat of keeping both secretaries in cabinet, 233; + keeps confidence in Hamilton, 234; + urged by all parties to accept presidency again, 235; + willing to be reelected, 235; + pleased at unanimous vote, 235; + his early immunity from attacks, 237; + later attacked by Freneau and Bache, 238; + regards opposition as dangerous to country, 239; + asserts his intention to disregard them, 240; + his success in Genet affair, 241; + disgusted at "democratic" societies, 242; + thinks they fomented Whiskey Rebellion, 242; + denounces them to Congress, 243; + effect of his remarks, 244; + accused of tyranny after Jay treaty, 244; + of embezzlement, 245; + of aristocracy, 245; + realizes that he must compose cabinet of sympathizers, 246; + reconstructs it, 246; + states determination to govern by party, 247; + slighted by House, 247; + refuses a third term, 248; + publishes Farewell Address, 248; + his justification for so doing, 248; + his wise advice, 249; + address Attacked by Democrats, 250, 251; + assailed in Congress by Giles, 251; + resents charge of being a British sympathizer, 252; + his scrupulously fair conduct toward France, 253; + his resentment at English policy, 254; + his retirement celebrated by the opposition, 255; + remarks of the "Aurora," 256; + forged letters of British circulated, 257; + he repudiates them, 257; + his view of opposition, 259. + + _In Retirement_. + Regards Adams's administration as continuation of his own, 259; + understands Jefferson's attitude, 259; + wishes generals of provisional army to be Federalist, 260; + doubts fidelity of opposition as soldiers, 260; + dreads their poisoning mind of army, 261; + his condemnation of Democrats, 261, 262; + snubs Dr. Logan for assuming an unofficial mission to France, 263-265; + alarmed at Virginia and Kentucky resolutions, 266; + urges Henry to oppose Virginia resolutions, 267; + condemns the French party as unpatriotic, 267; + refuses request to stand again for presidency, 269; + comments on partisanship of Democrats, 269; + believes that he would be no better candidate than any other + Federalist, 270, 271; + error of statement that Washington was not a party man, 271, 272; + slow to relinquish non-partisan position, 272; + not the man to shrink from declaring his position, 273; + becomes a member of Federalist party, 273, 274; + eager for end of term of office, 275; + his farewell dinner, 275; + at Adams's inauguration, 276; + popular enthusiasm at Philadelphia, 276; + at Baltimore, 277; + returns to Mt. Vernon, 279; + describes his farm life, 278, 279; + burdened by necessities of hospitality, 280; + account of his meeting with Bernard, 281-283; + continued interest in politics, 284; + accepts command of provisional army, 285; + selects Hamilton, Pinckney, and Knox as major-generals, 286; + surprised at Adams's objection to Hamilton, 286; + rebukes Adams for altering order of rank of generals, 286, 287; + not influenced by intrigue, 287; + annoyed by Adams's conduct, 288; + tries to soothe Knox's irritation, 289; + fails to pacify him, 289; + carries out organization of army, 290; + does not expect actual war, 291; + disapproves of Gerry's conduct, 292; + disapproves of Adams's nomination of Vans Murray, 292; + his dread of French Revolution, 295; + distrusts Adams's attempts at peace, 296; + approves Alien and Sedition laws, 296; + his defense of them, 297; + distressed by dissensions among Federalists, 298; + predicts their defeat, 298; + his sudden illness, 299-302; + death, 303. + + _Character_, + misunderstood, 304; + extravagantly praised, 304; + disliked on account of being called faultless, 305; + bitterly attacked in lifetime, 306; + sneered at by Jefferson, 306; + by Pickering, 307; + called an Englishman, not an American, 307, 308; + difference of his type from that of Lincoln, 310; + none the less American, 311, 312; + compared with Hampden, 312; + his manners those of the times elsewhere in America, 314; + aristocratic, but of a non-English type, 314-316; + less affected by Southern limitations than his neighbors, 316; + early dislike of New England changed to respect, 316, 317; + friendly with people of humble origin, 317, 318; + never an enemy of democracy, 318; + but opposes French excesses, 318; + his self-directed and American training, 319, 320; + early conception of a nation, 321; + works toward national government during Revolution, 321; + his interest in Western expansion, 321, 322; + national character of his Indian policy, 322; + of his desire to secure free Mississippi navigation, 322; + of his opposition to war as a danger to Union, 323; + his anger at accusation of foreign subservience, 323; + continually asserts necessity for independent American policy, + 324, 325; + opposes foreign educational influences, 325, 326; + favors foundation of a national university, 326; + breadth and strength of his national feeling, 327; + absence of boastfulness about country, 328; + faith in it, 328; + charge that he was merely a figure-head, 329; + its injustice, 330; + charged with commonplaceness of intellect, 330; + incident of the deathbed explained, 330, 331; + falsity of the charge, 331; + inability of mere moral qualities to achieve what he did, 331; + charged with dullness and coldness, 332; + his seriousness, 333; + responsibility from early youth, 333; + his habits of keen observation, 333; + power of judging men, 334; + ability to use them for what they were worth, 335; + anecdote of advice to Hamilton and Meade, 335; + deceived only by Arnold, 336; + imperfect education, 337; + continual efforts to improve it, 337, 338; + modest regarding his literary ability, 339, 340; + interested in education, 339; + character of his writing, 340; + tastes in reading, 341; + modest but effective in conversation, 342; + his manner and interest described by Bernard, 343-347; + attractiveness of the picture, 347, 348; + his pleasure in society, 348; + power of paying compliments, letter to Mrs. Stockton, 349; + to Charles Thompson, 350; + to De Chastellux, 351; + his warmth of heart, 352; + extreme exactness in pecuniary matters, 352; + illustrative anecdotes, 353,354; + favorable opinion of teller of anecdotes, 356; + stern towards dishonesty or cowardice, 357; + treatment of Andre and Asgill, 357, 358; + sensitive to human suffering, 357, 358; + kind and courteous to poor, 359; + conversation with Cleaveland, 359; + sense of dignity in public office, 360; + hospitality at Mt. Vernon, 360, 361; + his intimate friendships, 361,362; + relations with Hamilton, Knox, Mason, Henry Lee, Craik, 362, 363; + the officers of the army, 363; + Trumbull, Robert and Gouverneur Morris, 363; + regard for and courtesy toward Franklin, 364; + love for Lafayette, 365; + care for his family, 366; + lasting regard for Fairfaxes, 366, 367; + kindness to Taft family, 367, 368; + destroys correspondence with his wife, 368; + their devoted relationship, 368; + care for his step-children and relatives, 369, 370; + charged with lack of humor, 371; + but never made himself ridiculous, 372; + not joyous in temperament, 372; + but had keen pleasure in sport, 373; + enjoyed a joke, even during Revolution, 374; + appreciates wit, 375; + writes a humorous letter, 376-378; + not devoid of worldly wisdom, 378, 379; + enjoys cards, dancing, the theatre, 380; + loves horses, 380; + thorough in small affairs as well as great, 381; + controversy over site of church, 381; + his careful domestic economy, 382; + love of method, 383; + of excellence in dress and furniture, 383, 384; + gives dignity to American cause, 385; + his personal appearance, 385; + statements of Houdon, 386; + of Ackerson, 386, 387; + his tremendous muscular strength, 388; + great personal impressiveness, 389, 390; + lacking in imagination, 391; + strong passions, 391; + fierce temper, 392; + anecdotes of outbreaks, 392; + his absence of self-love, 393; + confident in judgment of posterity, 393; + religious faith, 394; + summary and conclusion, 394, 395. + + _Characteristics of_. + General view, ii. 304-395; + general admiration for, i. 1-7; + myths about, i. 9-12, ii. 307 ff.; + comparisons with Jefferson, ii. 69; + with Lincoln, ii. 310-312; + with Hampden, ii. 312, 313; + absence of self-seeking, i. 341; + affectionateness, i. 111, 285,331,345, ii. 332, 362-371; + agreeableness, ii. 344-347, 377; + Americanism, ii. 307-328; + aristocratic habits, ii. 314, 316; + business ability, i. 105, 109, ii. 5, 352, 382; + coldness on occasion, i. 223, 224, 263, ii. 318; + courage, i. 77, 78, 86, 127, 168, 292; + dignity, i. 81,161, ii. 52-57, 76; + hospitality, ii. 360; + impressiveness, i. 56, 83, 130, 138, 319, ii. 385; + indomitableness, i. 177, 181, 227; + judgments of men, i. 295, ii. 64, 86, 334, 335; + justice and sternness, i. 287, 330, ii. 203, 352-358, 389; + kindliness, ii. 349-356, 359; + lack of education, i. 62, ii. 337; + love of reading, i. 62, ii. 341, 342; + love of sport, i. 56, 98, 113-116, 118, ii. 380; + manners, ii. 282-283, 314; + military ability, i. 154, 166, 174, 183, 197, 204, 207, 239, 247, + 265, 267, 305-320, ii. 331; + modesty, i. 102, 134; + not a figure-head, ii. 329, 330; + not a prig, i. 10-12, 41-47; + not cold and inhuman, ii. 332, 342; + not dull or commonplace, ii. 330, 332; + not superhuman and distant, i. 9, 10, 12, ii. 304, 305; + open-mindedness, ii. 317; + passionateness, i. 58, 73, 90; + personal appearance, i. 57, 136, 137, ii. 282, 343, 385-389; + religious views, i. 321, ii. 393; + romantic traits, i. 95-97; + sense of humor, ii. 371-377; + silence regarding self, i. 14, 69, 70, 116, 129, 285; ii. 37, 336; + simplicity, i. 59, 69, 348; ii. 50, 340; + sobriety, i. 49, 52, 134; ii. 43, 45, 333, 373; + tact, i. 162, 243, 244-246; + temper, i. 73, 92, 110, 168, 236, 237, 260; ii. 98, 392; + thoroughness, i. 112, 323, 341, ii. 381. + + _Political Opinions_. + On Alien and Sedition Acts, ii. 196; + American nationality, i. 191, 250, 251, 255, 262, 279, ii. 7, 61, + 133, 145, 324, 325, 327, 328; + Articles of Confederation, i. 297, ii. 17, 24; + bank, ii. 110, 111; + colonial rights, i. 120, 124-126, 130; + Constitution, i. 38-41; + democracy, ii. 317-319; + Democratic party, ii. 214, 239, 240, 258, 261, 267, 268; + disunion, ii. 22; + duties of the executive, ii. 190; + education, ii. 81, 326, 330; + Federalist party, ii. 71, 246, 247, 259, 260, 261, 269-274, 298; + finance, ii. 107, 108, 112, 122; + foreign relations, ii. 25, 134, 142, 145, 147, 179, 217-219, 323; + French Revolution, ii. 139, 140, 295, 318; + independence of colonies, i. 131, 159, 160; + Indian policy, ii. 82, 87, 88, 91, 92, 104, 105; + Jay treaty, ii. 184-205; + judiciary, i. 150; + nominations to office, ii. 62; + party, ii. 70, 222, 233, 249; + protection, ii. 116-122; + slavery, i. 106-108; + Stamp Act, i. 119; + strong government, i. 298, ii. 18, 24, 129, 130; + treaty power, ii. 190, 207-210; + Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, ii. 266, 267; + Western expansion, ii. 6, 8-16, 135, 163-165, 218, 322. + + Washington, George Steptoe, + his sons educated by Washington, ii. 370. + + Washington, John, brother of George, + letter of Washington, to, i. 132. + + Washington, Lawrence, brother of George Washington, + educated in England, i. 54; + has military career, 54; + returns to Virginia and builds Mt. Vernon, 54; + marries into Fairfax family, 54, 55; + goes to West Indies for his health, 62; + dies, leaving George guardian of his daughter, 64; + chief manager of Ohio Company, 65; + gives George military education, 65. + + Washington, Lund, + letter of Washington to, i. 152; + rebuked by Washington for entertaining British, ii. 303. + + Washington, Martha, widow of Daniel P. Custis, + meets Washington, i. 101; + courtship of, and marriage, 101, 102; + hunts with her husband, 114; + joins him at Boston, 151; + holds levees as wife of President, ii. 54; + during his last illness, 300; + her correspondence destroyed, 368; + her relations with her husband, 368, 369. + + Washington, Mary, + married to Augustine Washington, i. 39; + mother of George Washington, 39; + limited education but strong character, 40, 41; + wishes George to earn a living, 49; + opposes his going to sea, 49; + letters to, 88; + visited by her son, ii. 5. + + Waters, Henry E., + establishes Washington pedigree, i. 32. + + Wayne, Anthony, + defeated after Brandywine, i. 198; + his opinion of Germantown, 199; + at Monmouth urges Washington to come, 235; + ready to attack Stony Point, 268; + his successful exploit, 269; + joins Lafayette in Virginia, 307; + appointed to command against Indians, ii. 100; + his character, 100; + organizes his force, 101; + his march, 102; + defeats the Indians, 103. + + Weems, Mason L., + influence of his life of Washington on popular opinion, i. 10; + originates idea of his priggishness, 11; + his character, 41, 43; + character of his book, 42; + his mythical "rectorate" of Mt. Vernon, 43, 44; + invents anecdotes of Washington's childhood, 44; + folly of cherry-tree and other stories, 46; + their evil influence, 47. + + West, the, + its importance realized by Washington, ii. 7-16; + his influence counteracted by inertia of Congress, 8; + forwards inland navigation, 9; + desires to bind East to West, 9-11, 14; + formation of companies, 11-13; + on Mississippi navigation, 14-16, 164; + projects of Genet in, 162; + its attitude understood by Washington, 163, 164; + Washington wishes peace in order to develop it, 218, 219, 321. + + "Whiskey Rebellion," + passage of excise law, ii. 123; + outbreaks of violence in Pennsylvania and North Carolina, 124; + proclamation issued warning rioters to desist, 125; + renewed outbreaks in Pennsylvania, 125, 126; + the militia called out, 127; + suppression of the insurrection, 128; + real danger of movement, 129; + its suppression emphasizes national authority, 129, 130; + supposed by Washington to have been stirred up by Democratic clubs, + 242. + + White Plains, + battle at, i. 173. + + Wilkinson, James, + brings Gates's message to Washington at Trenton, i. 180; + brings news of Saratoga to Congress, 220; + nettled at Sherman's sarcasm, discloses Conway cabal, 220; + quarrels with Gates, 223; + resigns from board of war, 223, 226; + leads expedition against Indians, ii. 95. + + Willett, Colonel, + commissioner to Creeks, his success, ii. 91. + + William and Mary College, + Washington Chancellor of, ii. 339. + + Williams, + Washington's teacher, i. 48, 51. + + Willis, Lewis, + story of Washington's school days, i. 95. + + Wilson, James, + appointed to Supreme Court, ii. 72. + + Wilson, James, "of England," + hunts with Washington, i. 115. + + Wolcott, Oliver, + receives Fauchet letter, ii. 195; + succeeds Hamilton as Secretary of Treasury, 246. + + Wooster, Mrs., + letter of Washington to, ii. 61. + + + YORKTOWN, + siege of, i. 315-318. + + "Young Man's Companion," + used by George Washington, origin of his rules of conduct, i. 52. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's George Washington, Vol. II, by Henry Cabot Lodge + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GEORGE WASHINGTON, VOL. 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