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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:40:29 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:40:29 -0700 |
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diff --git a/12652-h/12652-h.htm b/12652-h/12652-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..566d73c --- /dev/null +++ b/12652-h/12652-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,16310 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> +<head> + <meta name="generator" content= + "HTML Tidy for Windows (vers 1st March 2004), see www.w3.org" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= + "text/html; charset=UTF-8" /> + + <title>GEORGE WASHINGTON vol. I</title> +<style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[*/ + + <!-- + body {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + p {text-align: justify;} + blockquote {text-align: justify;} + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5 {text-align: center;} + h6 {text-align: left;} + pre {font-size: 0.7em;} + + hr {text-align: center; width: 50%;} + html>body hr {margin-right: 25%; margin-left: 25%; width: 50%;} + hr.full {width: 100%;} + html>body hr.full {margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 0%; width: 100%;} + hr.short {text-align: center; width: 20%;} + html>body hr.short {margin-right: 40%; margin-left: 40%; width: 20%;} + + .note + {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + + span.pagenum + {position: absolute; left: 1%; right: 91%; font-size: 8pt;} + + .poem + {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; margin-bottom: 1em; text-align: left;} + .poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .poem p {margin: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem p.i2 {margin-left: 1em;} + .poem p.i4 {margin-left: 2em;} + .poem p.i6 {margin-left: 3em;} + .poem p.i8 {margin-left: 4em;} + .poem p.i10 {margin-left: 5em;} + .index { margin-left: 5%; font-size: 10pt; margin-bottom: 1em; text-align: left;} + .index .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .index p {margin: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .index p.i2 {margin-left: 1em;} + .index p.i4 {margin-left: 2em;} + + .figure, .figcenter, .figright, .figleft + {padding: 1em; margin: 0; text-align: center; font-size: 0.8em;} + .figure img, .figcenter img, .figright img, .figleft img + {border: none;} + .figure p, .figcenter p, .figright p, .figleft p + {margin: 0; text-indent: 1em;} + .figcenter {margin: auto;} + .figright {float: right;} + .figleft {float: left;} + + .footnote_ORIGINAL {font-size: 0.9em; margin-right: 10%; margin-left: 10%;} + .footnote {font-size: 0.85em; + margin-right: 3%; + margin-left: 3%;} + + .side { float:right; + font-size: 75%; + width: 25%; + padding-left:10px; + border-left: dashed thin; + margin-left: 10px; + text-align: left; + text-indent: 0; + font-weight: bold; + font-style: italic;} + --> +/*]]>*/ +</style> +</head> + +<body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 12652 ***</div> + + <p> </p> + + <h5>American Statesmen</h5> + <hr /> + + <h1>GEORGE WASHINGTON</h1> + + <h4>In Two Volumes</h4> + + <h3>VOL. I.</h3> + + <h4>By</h4> + + <h3>HENRY CABOT LODGE</h3> + + <h4>1899</h4> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"> + <a href="images/illus0379.jpg"><img width="100%" src= + "images/illus0379.jpg" alt="GEORGE WASHINGTON" /></a><br /> + <i>Frontispiece I</i>.<br /> + GEORGE WASHINGTON + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"> + <a href="images/illus0381.jpg"><img width="100%" src= + "images/illus0381.jpg" alt= + "The Home of the Washington Family" /></a><br /> + <i>Frontispiece II</i>.<br /> + The Home of the Washington Family + </div> + + <p> </p> + <hr /> + + <h2>PREFACE</h2> + + <p>This edition has been carefully revised, and although very + little has been added of late years to our knowledge of the facts + of Washington's life, I have tried to examine all that has + appeared. The researches of Mr. Waters, which were published just + after these volumes in the first edition had passed through the + press, enable me to give the Washington pedigree with certainty, + and have turned conjecture into fact. The recent publication in + full of Lear's memoranda, although they tell nothing new about + Washington's last moments, help toward a completion of all the + details of the scene.</p> + + <p>H.C. LODGE.</p> + + <p>WASHINGTON, February 7, 1898.</p> + + <p> </p> + <hr /> + + <h2>Table of Contents</h2> + + <p><a href="#I">Chapter I</a> — THE OLD + DOMINION</p> + + <p><a href="#II">Chapter II</a> — THE + WASHINGTONS</p> + + <p><a href="#III">Chapter III</a> — ON THE + FRONTIER</p> + + <p><a href="#IV">Chapter IV</a> — LOVE AND + MARRIAGE</p> + + <p><a href="#V">Chapter V</a> — TAKING + COMMAND</p> + + <p><a href="#VI">Chapter VI</a> — SAVING THE + REVOLUTION</p> + + <p><a href="#VII">Chapter VII</a> — MALICE + DOMESTIC, AND FOREIGN LEVY</p> + + <p><a href="#VIII">Chapter VIII</a> — THE + ALLIES</p> + + <p><a href="#IX">Chapter IX</a> — ARNOLD'S + TREASON, AND THE WAR IN THE SOUTH</p> + + <p><a href="#X">Chapter X</a> — YORKTOWN</p> + + <p><a href="#XI">Chapter XI</a> — PEACE</p> + + <p><a href="#INDEX">INDEX</a></p> + <hr /> + + <h2>List of Illustrations</h2> + + <p><a href="images/illus0379.jpg">GEORGE WASHINGTON</a></p> + + <p>From the painting by Gilbert Stuart in the Museum of Fine + Arts, Boston. This painting is owned by the Boston Athenæum + and is known as the Athenæum portrait.</p> + + <p>Autograph is from Washington's signature to a bill of + exchange, from "Talks about Autographs" by George Birkbeck + Hill.</p> + + <p><a href="images/illus0381.jpg">VIGNETTE of the RESIDENCE of + the WASHINGTON FAMILY</a></p> + + <p>From "Homes of American Statesman," published by Alfred W. + Putnam, New York.</p> + + <p><a href="images/illus0383.jpg">LAWRENCE WASHINGTON</a></p> + + <p>From an original painting in the possession of Lawrence + Washington, Esq., Alexandria, Va., a + great-great-great-nephew.</p> + + <p>Autograph from MS. in New York Public Library, Lenox + Building.</p> + + <p><a href="images/illus0385.jpg">MISS MARY CARY</a></p> + + <p>From an original painting owned by Dr. James D. Moncure of + Virginia, one of her descendants.</p> + + <p>No autograph can be found.</p> + + <p><a href="images/illus0387.jpg">MISS MARY PHILIPSE</a></p> + + <p>From Irving's "Washington," published by G.P. Putnam's + Sons.</p> + + <p>Autograph from Appleton's "Cyclopædia of American + Biography."</p> + + <p><a href="images/illus0389.jpg">WASHINGTON CROSSING THE + DELAWARE</a></p> + + <p>From the original painting by Emanuel Leutze in the New York + Metropolitan Museum. The United States flag shown in the picture + is an anachronism. The stars and stripes were first adopted by + Congress in June, 1777; and any flag carried by Washington's army + in December, 1776, would have consisted of the stripes with the + crosses of St. George and St. Andrew in the blue field where the + stars now appear.</p> + + <p> </p> + <hr /> + + <h2>INTRODUCTION</h2> + + <p>February 9 in the year 1800 was a gala day in Paris. Napoleon + had decreed a triumphal procession, and on that day a splendid + military ceremony was performed in the Champ de Mars, and the + trophies of the Egyptian expedition were exultingly displayed. + There were, however, two features in all this pomp and show which + seemed strangely out of keeping with the glittering pageant and + the sounds of victorious rejoicing. The standards and flags of + the army were hung with crape, and after the grand parade the + dignitaries of the land proceeded solemnly to the Temple of Mars, + and heard the eloquent M. de Fontanes deliver an "Eloge + Funèbre."<a id="footnotetag1" name= + "footnotetag1"></a><a href="#footnote1"><sup>1</sup></a></p> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote1" name="footnote1"></a> [<b>Footnote 1:</b> + <a href="#footnotetag1">(return)</a> A report recently + discovered shows that more even was intended than was actually + done. + + <p>The following is a translation of the paper, the original of + which is Nos. 172 and 173 of volume 51 of the manuscript series + known as <i>Etats-Unis</i>, 1799, 1800 (years 7 and 8 of the + French republic):—</p> + + <blockquote> + <p>"<i>Report of Talleyrand, Minister of Foreign Affairs, on + the occasion of the death of George Washington</i>.</p> + + <p>"A nation which some day will he a great nation, and which + today is the wisest and happiest on the face of the earth, + weeps at the bier of a man whose courage and genius + contributed the most to free it from bondage, and elevate it + to the rank of an independent and sovereign power. The + regrets caused by the death of this great man, the memories + aroused by these regrets, and a proper veneration for all + that is held dear and sacred by mankind, impel us to give + expression to our sentiments by taking part in an event which + deprives the world of one of its brightest ornaments, and + removes to the realm of history one of the noblest lives that + ever honored the human race.</p> + + <p>"The name of Washington is inseparably linked with a + memorable epoch. He adorned this epoch by his talents and the + nobility of his character, and with virtues that even envy + dared not assail. History offers few examples of such renown. + Great from the outset of his career, patriotic before his + country had become a nation, brilliant and universal despite + the passions and political resentments that would gladly have + checked his career, his fame is to-day + imperishable,—fortune having consecrated his claim to + greatness, while the prosperity of a people destined for + grand achievements is the best evidence of a fame ever to + increase.</p> + + <p>"His own country now honors his memory with funeral + ceremonies, having lost a citizen whose public actions and + unassuming grandeur in private life were a living example of + courage, wisdom, and unselfishness; and France, which from + the dawn of the American Revolution hailed with hope a + nation, hitherto unknown, that was discarding the vices of + Europe, which foresaw all the glory that this nation would + bestow on humanity, and the enlightenment of governments that + would ensue from the novel character of the social + institutions and the new type of heroism of which Washington + and America were models for the world at large,—France, + I repeat, should depart from established usages and do honor + to one whose fame is beyond comparison with that of + others.</p> + + <p>"The man who, amid the decadence of modern ages, first + dared believe that he could inspire degenerate nations with + courage to rise to the level of republican virtues, lived for + all nations and for all centuries; and this nation, which + first saw in the life and success of that illustrious man a + foreboding of its destiny, and therein recognized a future to + be realized and duties to be performed, has every right to + class him as a fellow-citizen. I therefore submit to the + First Consul the following decree:— "Bonaparte, First + Consul of the republic, decrees as follows:— "Article + 1. A statue is to be erected to General Washington. "Article + 2. This statue is to be placed in one of the squares of + Paris, to be chosen by the minister of the interior, and it + shall be his duty to execute the present decree."]</p> + </blockquote> + </blockquote> + + <p>About the same time, if tradition may be trusted, the flags + upon the conquering Channel fleet of England were lowered to + half-mast in token of grief for the same event which had caused + the armies of France to wear the customary badges of + mourning.</p> + + <p>If some "traveler from an antique land" had observed these + manifestations, he would have wondered much whose memory it was + that had called them forth from these two great nations, then + struggling fiercely with each other for supremacy on land and + sea. His wonder would not have abated had he been told that the + man for whom they mourned had wrested an empire from one, and at + the time of his death was arming his countrymen against the + other.</p> + + <p>These signal honors were paid by England and France to a + simple Virginian gentleman who had never left his own country, + and who when he died held no other office than the titular + command of a provisional army. Yet although these marks of + respect from foreign nations were notable and striking, they were + slight and formal in comparison with the silence and grief which + fell upon the people of the United States when they heard that + Washington was dead. He had died in the fullness of time, + quietly, quickly, and in his own house, and yet his death called + out a display of grief which has rarely been equaled in history. + The trappings and suits of woe were there of course, but what + made this mourning memorable was that the land seemed hushed with + sadness, and that the sorrow dwelt among the people and was + neither forced nor fleeting. Men carried it home with them to + their firesides and to their churches, to their offices and their + workshops. Every preacher took the life which had closed as the + noblest of texts, and every orator made it the theme of his + loftiest eloquence. For more than a year the newspapers teemed + with eulogy and elegy, and both prose and poetry were severely + taxed to pay tribute to the memory of the great one who had gone. + The prose was often stilted and the verse was generally bad, but + yet through it all, from the polished sentences of the funeral + oration to the humble effusions of the obscurest poet's corner, + there ran a strong and genuine feeling, which the highest art + could not refine nor the clumsiest expression degrade.</p> + + <p>From that time to this, the stream of praise has flowed on, + ever deepening and strengthening, both at home and abroad. + Washington alone in history seems to have risen so high in the + estimation of men that criticism has shrunk away abashed, and has + only been heard whispering in corners or growling hoarsely in the + now famous house in Cheyne Row.</p> + + <p>There is a world of meaning in all this, could we but rightly + interpret it. It cannot be brushed aside as mere popular + superstition, formed of fancies and prejudices, to which + intelligent opposition would be useless. Nothing is in fact more + false than the way in which popular opinions are often belittled + and made light of. The opinion of the world, however reached, + becomes in the course of years or centuries the nearest approach + we can make to final judgment on human things. Don Quixote may be + dumb to one man, and the sonnets of Shakespeare may leave another + cold and weary. But the fault is in the reader. There is no doubt + of the greatness of Cervantes or Shakespeare, for they have stood + the test of time, and the voices of generations of men, from + which there is no appeal, have declared them to be great. The + lyrics that all the world loves and repeats, the poetry which is + often called hackneyed, is on the whole the best poetry. The + pictures and statues that have drawn crowds of admiring gazers + for centuries are the best. The things that are "caviare to the + general" often undoubtedly have much merit, but they lack quite + as often the warm, generous, and immortal vitality which appeals + alike to rich and poor, to the ignorant and to the learned.</p> + + <p>So it is with men. When years after his death the world agrees + to call a man great, the verdict must be accepted. The historian + may whiten or blacken, the critic may weigh and dissect, the form + of the judgment may be altered, but the central fact remains, and + with the man, whom the world in its vague way has pronounced + great, history must reckon one way or the other, whether for good + or ill.</p> + + <p>When we come to such a man as Washington, the case is still + stronger. Men seem to have agreed that here was greatness which + no one could question, and character which no one could fail to + respect. Around other leaders of men, even around the greatest of + them, sharp controversies have arisen, and they have their + partisans dead as they had them living. Washington had enemies + who assailed him, and friends whom he loved, but in death as in + life he seems to stand alone, above conflict and superior to + malice. In his own country there is no dispute as to his + greatness or his worth. Englishmen, the most unsparing censors of + everything American, have paid homage to Washington, from the + days of Fox and Byron to those of Tennyson and Gladstone. In + France his name has always been revered, and in distant lands + those who have scarcely heard of the existence of the United + States know the country of Washington. To the mighty cairn which + the nation and the states have raised to his memory, stones have + come from Greece, sending a fragment of the Parthenon; from + Brazil and Switzerland, Turkey and Japan, Siam and India beyond + the Ganges. On that sent by China we read: "In devising plans, + Washington was more decided than Ching Shing or Woo Kwang; in + winning a country he was braver than Tsau Tsau or Ling Pi. + Wielding his four-footed falchion, he extended the frontiers and + refused to accept the Royal Dignity. The sentiments of the Three + Dynasties have reappeared in him. Can any man of ancient or + modern times fail to pronounce Washington peerless?" These + comparisons so strange to our ears tell of a fame which has + reached farther than we can readily conceive.</p> + + <p>Washington stands as a type, and has stamped himself deep upon + the imagination of mankind. Whether the image be true or false is + of no consequence: the fact endures. He rises up from the dust of + history as a Greek statue comes pure and serene from the earth in + which it has lain for centuries. We know his deeds; but what was + it in the man which has given him such a place in the affection, + the respect, and the imagination of his fellow men throughout the + world?</p> + + <p>Perhaps this question has been fully answered already. + Possibly every one who has thought upon the subject has solved + the problem, so that even to state it is superfluous. Yet a + brilliant writer, the latest historian of the American people, + has said: "General Washington is known to us, and President + Washington. But George Washington is an unknown man." These are + pregnant words, and that they should be true seems to make any + attempt to fill the great gap an act of sheer and hopeless + audacity. Yet there can be certainly no reason for adding another + to the almost countless lives of Washington unless it be done + with the object in view which Mr. McMaster indicates. Any such + attempt may fail in execution, but if the purpose be right it has + at least an excuse for its existence.</p> + + <p>To try to add to the existing knowledge of the facts in + Washington's career would have but little result beyond the + multiplication of printed pages. The antiquarian, the historian, + and the critic have exhausted every source, and the most minute + details have been and still are the subject of endless writing + and constant discussion. Every house he ever lived in has been + drawn and painted; every portrait, and statue, and medal has been + catalogued and engraved. His private affairs, his servants, his + horses, his arms, even his clothes, have all passed beneath the + merciless microscope of history. His biography has been written + and rewritten. His letters have been drawn out from every lurking + place, and have been given to the world in masses and in + detachments. His battles have been fought over and over again, + and his state papers have undergone an almost verbal examination. + Yet, despite his vast fame and all the labors of the antiquarian + and biographer, Washington is still not understood,—as a + man he is unfamiliar to the posterity that reverences his memory. + He has been misrepresented more or less covertly by hostile + critics and by candid friends, and has been disguised and hidden + away by the mistaken eulogy and erroneous theories of devout + admirers. All that any one now can do, therefore, is to endeavor + from this mass of material to depict the very man himself in the + various conjunctures of his life, and strive to see what he + really was and what he meant then, and what he is and what he + means to us and to the world to-day.</p> + + <p>In the progress of time Washington has become in the popular + imagination largely mythical; for mythical ideas grow up in this + nineteenth century, notwithstanding its boasted intelligence, + much as they did in the infancy of the race. The old sentiment of + humanity, more ancient and more lasting than any records or + monuments, which led men in the dawn of history to worship their + ancestors and the founders of states, still endures. As the + centuries have gone by, this sentiment has lost its religious + flavor, and has become more and more restricted in its + application, but it has never been wholly extinguished. Let some + man arise great above the ordinary bounds of greatness, and the + feeling which caused our progenitors to bow down at the shrines + of their forefathers and chiefs leads us to invest our modern + hero with a mythical character, and picture him in our + imagination as a being to whom, a few thousand years ago, altars + would have been builded and libations poured out.</p> + + <p>Thus we have to-day in our minds a Washington grand, solemn, + and impressive. In this guise he appears as a man of lofty + intellect, vast moral force, supremely successful and fortunate, + and wholly apart from and above all his fellow-men. This lonely + figure rises up to our imagination with all the imperial splendor + of the Livian Augustus, and with about as much warmth and life as + that unrivaled statue. In this vague but quite serious idea there + is a great deal of truth, but not the whole truth. It is the myth + of genuine love and veneration springing from the inborn + gratitude of man to the founders and chiefs of his race, but it + is not by any means the only one of its family. There is another, + equally diffused, of wholly different parentage. In its inception + this second myth is due to the itinerant parson, bookmaker, and + bookseller, Mason Weems. He wrote a brief biography of + Washington, of trifling historical value, yet with sufficient + literary skill to make it widely popular. It neither appealed to + nor was read by the cultivated and instructed few, but it reached + the homes of the masses of the people. It found its way to the + bench of the mechanic, to the house of the farmer, to the log + cabins of the frontiersman and pioneer. It was carried across the + continent on the first waves of advancing settlement. Its + anecdotes and its simplicity of thought commended it to children + both at home and at school, and, passing through edition after + edition, its statements were widely spread, and it colored + insensibly the ideas of hundreds of persons who never had heard + even the name of the author. To Weems we owe the anecdote of the + cherry-tree, and other tales of a similar nature. He wrote with + Dr. Beattie's life of his son before him as a model, and the + result is that Washington comes out in his pages a faultless + prig. Whether Weems intended it or not, that is the result which + he produced, and that is the Washington who was developed from + the wide sale of his book. When this idea took definite and + permanent shape it caused a reaction. There was a revolt against + it, for the hero thus engendered had qualities which the national + sense of humor could not endure in silence. The consequence is, + that the Washington of Weems has afforded an endless theme for + joke and burlesque. Every professional American humorist almost + has tried his hand at it; and with each recurring 22d of February + the hard-worked jesters of the daily newspapers take it up and + make a little fun out of it, sufficient for the day that is + passing over them. The opportunity is tempting, because of the + ease with which fun can be made when that fundamental source of + humor, a violent contrast, can be employed. But there is no + irreverence in it all, for the jest is not aimed at the real + Washington, but at the Washington portrayed in the Weems + biography. The worthy "rector of Mount Vernon," as he called + himself, meant no harm, and there is a good deal of truth, no + doubt, in his book. But the blameless and priggish boy, and the + equally faultless and uninteresting man, whom he originated, have + become in the process of development a myth. So in its further + development is the Washington of the humorist a myth. Both alike + are utterly and crudely false. They resemble their great original + as much as Greenough's classically nude statue, exposed to the + incongruities of the North American climate, resembles in dress + and appearance the general of our armies and the first President + of the United States.</p> + + <p>Such are the myth-makers. They are widely different from the + critics who have assailed Washington in a sidelong way, and who + can be better dealt with in a later chapter. These last bring + charges which can be met; the myth-maker presents a vague + conception, extremely difficult to handle because it is so + elusive.</p> + + <p>One of our well-known historical scholars and most learned + antiquarians, not long ago, in an essay vindicating the + "traditional Washington," treated with scorn the idea of a "new + Washington" being discovered. In one sense this is quite right, + in another totally wrong. There can be no new Washington + discovered, because there never was but one. But the real man has + been so overlaid with myths and traditions, and so distorted by + misleading criticisms, that, as has already been suggested, he + has been wellnigh lost. We have the religious or statuesque myth, + we have the Weems myth, and the ludicrous myth of the writer of + paragraphs. We have the stately hero of Sparks, and Everett, and + Marshall, and Irving, with all his great deeds as general and + president duly recorded and set down in polished and eloquent + sentences; and we know him to be very great and wise and pure, + and, be it said with bated breath, very dry and cold. We are also + familiar with the common-place man who so wonderfully illustrated + the power of character as set forth by various persons, either + from love of novelty or because the great chief seemed to get in + the way of their own heroes.</p> + + <p>If this is all, then the career of Washington and his towering + fame present a problem of which the world has never seen the + like. But this cannot be all: there must be more behind. Every + one knows the famous Stuart portrait of Washington. The last + effort of the artist's cunning is there employed to paint his + great subject for posterity. How serene and beautiful it is! It + is a noble picture for future ages to look upon. Still it is not + all. There is in the dining-room of Memorial Hall at Cambridge + another portrait, painted by Savage. It is cold and dry, hard + enough to serve for the signboard of an inn, and able, one would + think, to withstand all weathers. Yet this picture has something + which Stuart left out. There is a rugged strength in the face + which gives us pause, there is a massiveness in the jaw, telling + of an iron grip and a relentless will, which has infinite + meaning.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>"Here's John the Smith's rough-hammered head. Great + eye,</p> + + <p>Gross jaw, and griped lips do what granite can</p> + + <p>To give you the crown-grasper. What a man!"</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>In death as in life, there is something about Washington, call + it greatness, dignity, majesty, what you will, which seems to + hold men aloof and keep them from knowing him. In truth he was a + most difficult man to know. Carlyle, crying out through hundreds + of pages and myriads of words for the "silent man," passed by + with a sneer the most absolutely silent great man that history + can show. Washington's letters and speeches and messages fill + many volumes, but they are all on business. They are profoundly + silent as to the writer himself. From this Carlyle concluded + apparently that there was nothing to tell,—a very shallow + conclusion if it was the one he really reached. Such an idea was + certainly far, very far, from the truth.</p> + + <p>Behind the popular myths, behind the statuesque figure of the + orator and the preacher, behind the general and the president of + the historian, there was a strong, vigorous man, in whose veins + ran warm, red blood, in whose heart were stormy passions and deep + sympathy for humanity, in whose brain were far-reaching thoughts, + and who was informed throughout his being with a resistless will. + The veil of his silence is not often lifted, and never + intentionally, but now and then there is a glimpse behind it; and + in stray sentences and in little incidents strenuously gathered + together; above all, in the right interpretation of the words, + and the deeds, and the true history known to all men,—we + can surely find George Washington "the noblest figure that ever + stood in the forefront of a nation's life."</p> + + <p> </p> + <hr /> + + <h2>GEORGE WASHINGTON</h2> + + <h2><a name="I" id="I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2> + + <h2>THE OLD DOMINION</h2> + + <p>To know George Washington, we must first of all understand the + society in which he was born and brought up. As certain lilies + draw their colors from the subtle qualities of the soil hidden + beneath the water upon which they float, so are men profoundly + affected by the obscure and insensible influences which surround + their childhood and youth. The art of the chemist may discover + perhaps the secret agent which tints the white flower with blue + or pink, but very often the elements, which analysis detects, + nature alone can combine. The analogy is not strained or fanciful + when we apply it to a past society. We can separate, and + classify, and label the various elements, but to combine them in + such a way as to form a vivid picture is a work of surpassing + difficulty. This is especially true of such a land as Virginia in + the middle of the last century. Virginian society, as it existed + at that period, is utterly extinct. John Randolph said it had + departed before the year 1800. Since then another century, with + all its manifold changes, has wellnigh come and gone. Most + important of all, the last surviving institution of colonial + Virginia has been swept away in the crash of civil war, which has + opened a gulf between past and present wider and deeper than any + that time alone could make.</p> + + <p>Life and society as they existed in the Virginia of the + eighteenth century seem, moreover, to have been sharply broken + and ended. We cannot trace our steps backward, as is possible in + most cases, over the road by which the world has traveled since + those days. We are compelled to take a long leap mentally in + order to land ourselves securely in the Virginia which honored + the second George, and looked up to Walpole and Pitt as the + arbiters of its fate.</p> + + <p>We live in a period of great cities, rapid communication, vast + and varied business interests, enormous diversity of occupation, + great industries, diffused intelligence, farming by steam, and + with everything and everybody pervaded by an unresting, + high-strung activity. We transport ourselves to the Virginia of + Washington's boyhood, and find a people without cities or towns, + with no means of communication except what was afforded by rivers + and wood roads; having no trades, no industries, no means of + spreading knowledge, only one occupation, clumsily performed; and + living a quiet, monotonous existence, which can now hardly be + realized. It is "a far cry to Loch-Awe," as the Scotch proverb + has it; and this old Virginian society, although we should find + it sorry work living in it, is both pleasant and picturesque in + the pages of history.</p> + + <p>The population of Virginia, advancing toward half a million, + and divided pretty equally between the free whites and the + enslaved blacks, was densest, to use a most inappropriate word, + at the water's edge and near the mouths of the rivers. Thence it + crept backwards, following always the lines of the watercourses, + and growing ever thinner and more scattered until it reached the + Blue Ridge. Behind the mountains was the wilderness, haunted, as + old John Lederer said a century earlier, by monsters, and + inhabited, as the eighteenth-century Virginians very well knew, + by savages and wild beasts, much more real and dangerous than the + hobgoblins of their ancestors.</p> + + <p>The population, in proportion to its numbers, was very widely + distributed. It was not collected in groups, after the fashion + with which we are now familiar, for then there were no cities or + towns in Virginia. The only place which could pretend to either + name was Norfolk, the solitary seaport, which, with its six or + seven thousand inhabitants, formed the most glaring exception + that any rule solicitous of proof could possibly desire. + Williamsburg, the capital, was a straggling village, somewhat + overweighted with the public buildings and those of the college. + It would light up into life and vivacity during the season of + politics and society, and then relapse again into the country + stillness. Outside of Williamsburg and Norfolk there were various + points which passed in the catalogue and on the map for towns, + but which in reality were merely the shadows of a name. The most + populous consisted of a few houses inhabited by storekeepers and + traders, some tobacco warehouses, and a tavern, clustered about + the church or court-house. Many others had only the church, or, + if a county seat, the church and court-house, keeping solitary + state in the woods. There once a week the sound of prayer and + gossip, or at longer intervals the voices of lawyers and + politicians, and the shouts of the wrestlers on the green, broke + through the stillness which with the going down of the sun + resumed its sway in the forests.</p> + + <p>There was little chance here for that friction of mind with + mind, or for that quick interchange of thought and sentiment and + knowledge which are familiar to the dwellers in cities, and which + have driven forward more rapidly than all else what we call + civilization. Rare meetings for special objects with persons as + solitary in their lives and as ill-informed as himself, + constituted to the average Virginian the world of society, and + there was nothing from outside to supply the deficiencies at + home. Once a fortnight a mail crawled down from the North, and + once a month another crept on to the South. George Washington was + four years old when the first newspaper was published in the + colony, and he was twenty when the first actors appeared at + Williamsburg. What was not brought was not sought. The Virginians + did not go down to the sea in ships. They were not a seafaring + race, and as they had neither trade nor commerce they were + totally destitute of the inquiring, enterprising spirit, and of + the knowledge brought by those pursuits which involve travel and + adventure. The English tobacco-ships worked their way up the + rivers, taking the great staple, and leaving their varied goods, + and their tardy news from Europe, wherever they stopped. This was + the sum of the information and intercourse which Virginia got + from across the sea, for travelers were practically unknown. Few + came on business, fewer still from curiosity. Stray peddlers from + the North, or trappers from beyond the mountains with their packs + of furs, chiefly constituted what would now be called the + traveling public. There were in truth no means of traveling + except on foot, on horseback, or by boat on the rivers, which + formed the best and most expeditious highways. Stage-coaches, or + other public conveyances, were unknown. Over some of the roads + the rich man, with his six horses and black outriders, might make + his way in a lumbering carriage, but most of the roads were + little better than woodland paths; and the rivers, innocent of + bridges, offered in the uncertain fords abundance of + inconvenience, not unmixed with peril. The taverns were + execrable, and only the ever-ready hospitality of the people made + it possible to get from place to place. The result was that the + Virginians stayed at home, and sought and welcomed the rare + stranger at their gates as if they were well aware that they were + entertaining angels.</p> + + <p>It is not difficult to sift this home-keeping people, and find + out that portion which was Virginia, for the mass was but an + appendage of the small fraction which ruled, led, and did the + thinking for the whole community. Half the people were slaves, + and in that single wretched word their history is told. They + were, on the whole, well and kindly treated, but they have no + meaning in history except as an institution, and as an influence + in the lives, feelings, and character of the men who made the + state.</p> + + <p>Above the slaves, little better than they in condition, but + separated from them by the wide gulf of race and color, were the + indented white servants, some convicts, some redemptioners. They, + too, have their story told when we have catalogued them. We cross + another gulf and come to the farmers, to the men who grew wheat + as well as tobacco on their own land, sometimes working alone, + sometimes the owners of a few slaves. Some of these men were of + the class well known since as the "poor whites" of the South, the + weaker brothers who could not resist the poison of slavery, but + sank under it into ignorance and poverty. They were contented + because their skins were white, and because they were thereby + part of an aristocracy to whom labor was a badge of serfdom. The + larger portion of this middle class, however, were thrifty and + industrious enough. Including as they did in their ranks the + hunters and pioneers, the traders and merchants, all the freemen + in fact who toiled and worked, they formed the mass of the white + population, and furnished the bone and sinew and some of the + intellectual power of Virginia. The only professional men were + the clergy, for the lawyers were few, and growing to importance + only as the Revolution began; while the physicians were still + fewer, and as a class of no importance at all. The clergy were a + picturesque element in the social landscape, but they were as a + body very poor representatives of learning, religion, and + morality. They ranged from hedge parsons and Fleet chaplains, who + had slunk away from England to find a desirable obscurity in the + new world, to divines of real learning and genuine piety, who + were the supporters of the college, and who would have been a + credit to any society. These last, however, were lamentably few + in number. The mass of the clergy were men who worked their own + lands, sold tobacco, were the boon companions of the planters, + hunted, shot, drank hard, and lived well, performing their sacred + duties in a perfunctory and not always in a decent manner.</p> + + <p>The clergy, however, formed the stepping-stone socially + between the farmers, traders, and small planters, and the highest + and most important class in Virginian society. The great planters + were the men who owned, ruled, and guided Virginia. Their vast + estates were scattered along the rivers from the seacoast to the + mountains. Each plantation was in itself a small village, with + the owner's house in the centre, surrounded by outbuildings and + negro cabins, and the pastures, meadows, and fields of tobacco + stretching away on all sides. The rare traveler, pursuing his + devious way on horseback or in a boat, would catch sight of these + noble estates opening up from the road or the river, and then the + forest would close in around him for several miles, until through + the thinning trees he would see again the white cabins and the + cleared fields of the next plantation.</p> + + <p>In such places dwelt the Virginian planters, surrounded by + their families and slaves, and in a solitude broken only by the + infrequent and eagerly welcomed stranger, by their duties as + vestrymen and magistrates, or by the annual pilgrimage to + Williamsburg in search of society, or to sit in the House of + Burgesses. They were occupied by the care of their plantations, + which involved a good deal of riding in the open air, but which + was at best an easy and indolent pursuit made light by slave + labor and trained overseers. As a result the planters had an + abundance of spare time, which they devoted to cock-fighting, + horse-racing, fishing, shooting, and fox-hunting,—all, save + the first, wholesome and manly sports, but which did not demand + any undue mental strain. There is, indeed, no indication that the + Virginians had any great love for intellectual exertion. When the + amiable attorney-general of Charles II. said to the Virginian + commissioners, pleading the cause of learning and religion, "Damn + your souls! grow tobacco!" he uttered a precept which the mass of + the planters seem to have laid to heart. For fifty years there + were no schools, and down to the Revolution even the apologies + bearing that honored name were few, and the college was small and + struggling. In some of the great families, the eldest sons would + be sent to England and to the great universities: they would make + the grand tour, play a part in the fashionable society of London, + and come back to their plantations fine gentlemen and scholars. + Such was Colonel Byrd, in the early part of the eighteenth + century, a friend of the Earl of Orrery, and the author of + certain amusing memoirs. Such at a later day was Arthur Lee, + doctor and diplomat, student and politician. But most of these + young gentlemen thus sent abroad to improve their minds and + manners led a life not materially different from that of our + charming friend, Harry Warrington, after his arrival in + England.</p> + + <p>The sons who stayed at home sometimes gathered a little + learning from the clergyman of the parish, or received a fair + education at the College of William and Mary, but very many did + not have even so much as this. There was not in truth much use + for learning in managing a plantation or raising horses, and men + get along surprisingly well without that which they do not need, + especially if the acquisition demands labor. The Virginian + planter thought little and read less, and there were no learned + professions to hold out golden prizes and stimulate the love of + knowledge. The women fared even worse, for they could not go to + Europe or to William and Mary's, so that after exhausting the + teaching capacity of the parson they settled down to a round of + household duties and to the cares of a multitude of slaves, + working much harder and more steadily than their lords and + masters ever thought of doing.</p> + + <p>The only general form of intellectual exertion was that of + governing. The planters managed local affairs through the + vestries, and ruled Virginia in the House of Burgesses. To this + work they paid strict attention, and, after the fashion of their + race, did it very well and very efficiently. They were an + extremely competent body whenever they made up their minds to do + anything; but they liked the life and habits of Squire Western, + and saw no reason for adopting any others until it was + necessary.</p> + + <p>There were, of course, vast differences in the condition of + the planters. Some counted their acres by thousands and their + slaves by hundreds, while others scrambled along as best they + might with one plantation and a few score of negroes. Some dwelt + in very handsome houses, picturesque and beautiful, like Gunston + Hall or Stratford, or in vast, tasteless, and extravagant piles + like Rosewell. Others were contented with very modest houses, + consisting of one story with a gabled roof, and flanked by two + massive chimneys. In some houses there was a brave show of + handsome plate and china, fine furniture, and London-made + carriages, rich silks and satins, and brocaded dresses. In others + there were earthenware and pewter, homespun and woolen, and + little use for horses, except in the plough or under the + saddle.</p> + + <p>But there were certain qualities common to all the Virginia + planters. The luxury was imperfect. The splendor was sometimes + barbaric. There were holes in the brocades, and the fresh air of + heaven would often blow through a broken window upon the + glittering silver and the costly china. It was an easy-going + aristocracy, unfinished, and frequently slovenly in its + appointments, after the fashion of the warmer climates and the + regions of slavery.</p> + + <p>Everything was plentiful except ready money. In this rich and + poor were alike. They were all ahead of their income, and it + seems as if, from one cause or another, from extravagance or + improvidence, from horses or the gaming-table, every Virginian + family went through bankruptcy about once in a generation.</p> + + <p>When Harry Warrington arrived in England, all his relations at + Castlewood regarded the handsome young fellow as a prince, with + his acres and his slaves. It was a natural and pleasing delusion, + born of the possession of land and serfs, to which the Virginians + themselves gave ready credence. They forgot that the land was so + plentiful that it was of little value; that slaves were the most + wasteful form of labor; and that a failure of the tobacco crop, + pledged before it was gathered, meant ruin, although they had + been reminded more than once of this last impressive fact. They + knew that they had plenty to eat and drink, and a herd of people + to wait upon them and cultivate their land, as well as obliging + London merchants always ready to furnish every luxury in return + for the mortgage of a crop or an estate. So they gave themselves + little anxiety as to the future and lived in the present, very + much to their own satisfaction.</p> + + <p>To the communities of trade and commerce, to the mercantile + and industrial spirit of to-day, such an existence and such modes + of life appear distressingly lax and unprogressive. The sages of + the bank parlors and the counting-rooms would shake their heads + at such spendthrifts as these, refuse to discount their paper, + and confidently predict that by no possibility could they come to + good. They had their defects, no doubt, these planters and + farmers of Virginia. The life they led was strongly developed on + the animal side, and was perhaps neither stimulating nor + elevating. The living was the reverse of plain, and the thinking + was neither extremely high nor notably laborious. Yet in this + very particular there is something rather restful and pleasant to + the eye wearied by the sight of incessant movement, and to the + ear deafened by the continual shout that nothing is good that + does not change, and that all change must be good. We should + probably find great discomforts and many unpleasant limitations + in the life and habits of a hundred years ago on any part of the + globe, and yet at a time when it seems as if rapidity and + movement were the last words and the ultimate ideals of + civilization, it is rather agreeable to turn to such a community + as the eighteenth-century planters of Virginia. They lived + contentedly on the acres of their fathers, and except at rare and + stated intervals they had no other interests than those furnished + by their ancestral domain. At the court-house, at the vestry, or + in Williamsburg, they met their neighbors and talked very keenly + about the politics of Europe, or the affairs of the colony. They + were little troubled about religion, but they worshiped after the + fashion of their fathers, and had a serious fidelity to church + and king. They wrangled with their governors over appropriations, + but they lived on good terms with those eminent persons, and + attended state balls at what they called the palace, and danced + and made merry with much stateliness and grace. Their every-day + life ran on in the quiet of their plantations as calmly as one of + their own rivers. The English trader would come and go; the + infrequent stranger would be received and welcomed; Christmas + would be kept in hearty English fashion; young men from a + neighboring estate would ride over through the darkening woods to + court, or dance, or play the fiddle, like Patrick Henry or Thomas + Jefferson; and these simple events were all that made a ripple on + the placid stream. Much time was given to sports, rough, hearty, + manly sports, with a spice of danger, and these, with an + occasional adventurous dash into the wilderness, kept them sound + and strong and brave, both in body and mind. There was nothing + languid or effeminate about the Virginian planter. He was a + robust man, quite ready to fight or work when the time came, and + well fitted to deal with affairs when he was needed. He was a + free-handed, hospitable, generous being, not much given to study + or thought, but thoroughly public-spirited and keenly alive to + the interests of Virginia. Above all things he was an aristocrat, + set apart by the dark line of race, color, and hereditary + servitude, as proud as the proudest Austrian with his endless + quarterings, as sturdy and vigorous as an English yeoman, and as + jealous of his rights and privileges as any baron who stood by + John at Runnymede. To this aristocracy, careless and indolent, + given to rough pleasures and indifferent to the finer and higher + sides of life, the call came, as it comes to all men sooner or + later, and in response they gave their country soldiers, + statesmen, and jurists of the highest order, and fit for the + great work they were asked to do. We must go back to Athens to + find another instance of a society so small in numbers, and yet + capable of such an outburst of ability and force. They were of + sound English stock, with a slight admixture of the Huguenots, + the best blood of France; and although for a century and a half + they had seemed to stagnate in the New World, they were strong, + fruitful, and effective beyond the measure of ordinary races when + the hour of peril and trial was at hand.</p> + + <p> </p> + <hr /> + + <h2><a name="II" id="II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2> + + <h2>THE WASHINGTONS</h2> + + <p>Such was the world and such the community which counted as a + small fraction the Washington family. Our immediate concern is + with that family, for before we approach the man we must know his + ancestors. The greatest leader of scientific thought in this + century has come to the aid of the genealogist, and given to the + results of the latter's somewhat discredited labors a vitality + and meaning which it seemed impossible that dry and dusty + pedigrees and barren tables of descent should ever possess. We + have always selected our race-horses according to the doctrines + of evolution, and we now study the character of a great man by + examining first the history of his forefathers.</p> + + <p>Washington made so great an impression upon the world in his + lifetime that genealogists at once undertook for him the + construction of a suitable pedigree. The excellent Sir Isaac + Heard, garter king-at-arms, worked out a genealogy which seemed + reasonable enough, and then wrote to the president in relation to + it. Washington in reply thanked him for his politeness, sent him + the Virginian genealogy of his own branch, and after expressing a + courteous interest said, in his simple and direct fashion, that + he had been a busy man and had paid but little attention to the + subject. His knowledge about his English forefathers was in fact + extremely slight. He had heard merely that the first of the name + in Virginia had come from one of the northern counties of + England, but whether from Lancashire or Yorkshire, or one still + more northerly, he could not tell. Sir Isaac was not thoroughly + satisfied with the correctness of his own work, but presently + Baker took it up in his history of Northamptonshire, and + perfected it to his own satisfaction and that of the world in + general. This genealogy derived Washington's descent from the + owners of the manor of Sulgrave, in Northamptonshire, and thence + carried it back to the Norman knight, Sir William de Hertburn. + According to this pedigree the Virginian settlers, John and + Lawrence, were the sons of Lawrence Washington of Sulgrave Manor, + and this genealogy was adopted by Sparks and Irving, as well as + by the public at large. Twenty years ago, however, Colonel + Chester, by his researches, broke the most essential link in the + chain forged by Heard and Baker, proving clearly that the + Virginian settlers could not have been the sons of Lawrence of + Sulgrave, as identified by the garter king-at-arms. Still more + recently the mythical spirit has taken violent possession of the + Washington ancestry, and an ingenious gentleman has traced the + pedigree of our first president back to Thorfinn and thence to + Odin, which is sufficiently remote, dignified, and lofty to + satisfy the most exacting Welshman that ever lived. Still the + breach made by Colonel Chester was not repaired, although many + writers, including some who should have known better, clung with + undiminished faith to the Heard pedigree. It was known that + Colonel Chester himself believed that he had found the true line, + coming, it is supposed, through a younger branch of the Sulgrave + race, but he died before he had discovered the one bit of + evidence necessary to prove an essential step, and he was too + conscientiously accurate to leave anything to conjecture. Since + then the researches of Mr. Henry E. Waters have established the + pedigree of the Virginian Washingtons, and we are now able to + know something of the men from whom George Washington drew his + descent.</p> + + <p>In that interesting land where everything, according to our + narrow ideas, is upside down, it is customary, when an individual + arrives at distinction, to confer nobility upon his ancestors + instead of upon his children. The Washingtons offer an + interesting example of the application of this Chinese system in + the Western world, for, if they have not been actually ennobled + in recognition of the deeds of their great descendant, they have + at least become the subjects of intense and general interest. + Every one of the name who could be discovered anywhere has been + dragged forth into the light, and has had all that was known + about him duly recorded and set down. By scanning family trees + and pedigrees, and picking up stray bits of information here and + there, we can learn in a rude and general fashion what manner of + men those were who claimed descent from William of Hertburn, and + who bore the name of Washington in the mother-country. As Mr. + Galton passes a hundred faces before the same highly sensitized + plate, and gets a photograph which is a likeness of no one of his + subjects, and yet resembles them all, so we may turn the camera + of history upon these Washingtons, as they flash up for a moment + from the dim past, and hope to obtain what Professor Huxley calls + a "generic" picture of the race, even if the outlines be somewhat + blurred and indistinct.</p> + + <p>In the North of England, in the region conquered first by + Saxons and then by Danes, lies the little village of Washington. + It came into the possession of Sir William de Hertburn, and + belonged to him at the time of the Boldon Book in 1183. Soon + after, he or his descendants took the name of De Wessyngton, and + there they remained for two centuries, knights of the palatinate, + holding their lands by a military tenure, fighting in all the + wars, and taking part in tournaments with becoming splendor. By + the beginning of the fifteenth century the line of feudal knights + of the palatinate was extinct, and the manor passed from the + family by the marriage of Dionisia de Wessyngton. But the main + stock had in the mean time thrown out many offshoots, which had + taken firm root in other parts and in many counties of England. + We hear of several who came in various ways to eminence. There + was the learned and vigorous prior of Durham, John de Wessyngton, + probably one of the original family, and the name appears in + various places after his time in records and on monuments, + indicating a flourishing and increasing race. Lawrence + Washington, the direct ancestor of the first President of the + United States, was, in the sixteenth century, the mayor of + Northampton, and received from King Henry VIII. the manor of + Sulgrave in 1538. In the next century we find traces of Robert + Washington of the Adwick family, a rich merchant of Leeds, and of + his son Joseph Washington, a learned lawyer and author, of Gray's + Inn. About the same time we hear of Richard Washington and Philip + Washington holding high places at University College, Oxford. The + Sulgrave branch, however, was the most numerous and prosperous. + From the mayor of Northampton were descended Sir William + Washington, who married the half-sister of George Villiers, Duke + of Buckingham; Sir Henry Washington, who made a desperate defense + of Worcester against the forces of the Parliament in 1646; + Lieutenant-Colonel James Washington, who fell at the siege of + Pontefract, fighting for King Charles; another James, of a later + time, who was implicated in Monmouth's rebellion, fled to Holland + and became the progenitor of a flourishing and successful family, + which has spread to Germany and there been ennobled; Sir Lawrence + Washington, of Garsdon, whose grand-daughter married Robert + Shirley, Baron Ferrers; and others of less note, but all men of + property and standing. They seem to have been a successful, + thrifty race, owning lands and estates, wise magistrates and good + soldiers, marrying well, and increasing their wealth and strength + from generation to generation. They were of Norman stock, knights + and gentlemen in the full sense of the word before the French + Revolution, and we can detect in them here and there a marked + strain of the old Norse blood, carrying with it across the + centuries the wild Berserker spirit which for centuries made the + adventurous Northmen the terror of Europe. They were a strong + race evidently, these Washingtons, whom we see now only by + glimpses through the mists of time, not brilliant apparently, + never winning the very highest fortune, having their failures and + reverses no doubt, but on the whole prudent, bold men, always + important in their several stations, ready to fight and ready to + work, and as a rule successful in that which they set themselves + to do.</p> + + <p>In 1658 the two brothers, John and Lawrence, appeared in + Virginia. As has been proved by Mr. Waters, they were of the + Sulgrave family, the sons of Lawrence Washington, fifth son of + the elder Lawrence of Sulgrave and Brington. The father of the + emigrants was a fellow of Brasenose College, Oxford, and rector + of Purleigh, from which living he was ejected by the Puritans as + both "scandalous" and "malignant." That he was guilty of the + former charge we may well doubt; but that he was, in the language + of the time, "malignant," must be admitted, for all his family, + including his brothers, Sir William Washington of Packington, and + Sir John Washington of Thrapston, his nephew, Sir Henry + Washington, and his nephew-in-law, William Legge, ancestor of the + Earl of Dartmouth, were strongly on the side of the king. In a + marriage which seems to have been regarded as beneath the dignity + of the family, and in the poverty consequent upon the ejectment + from his living, we can find the reason for the sons of the Rev. + Lawrence Washington going forth into Virginia to find their + fortune, and flying from the world of victorious Puritanism which + offered just then so little hope to royalists like themselves. + Yet what was poverty in England was something much more agreeable + in the New World of America. The emigrant brothers at all events + seem to have had resources of a sufficient kind, and to have been + men of substance, for they purchased lands and established + themselves at Bridges Creek, in Westmoreland County. With this + brief statement, Lawrence disappears, leaving us nothing further + than the knowledge that he had numerous descendants. John, with + whom we are more concerned, figures at once in the colonial + records of Maryland. He made complaint to the Maryland + authorities, soon after his arrival, against Edward Prescott, + merchant, and captain of the ship in which he had come over, for + hanging a woman during the voyage for witchcraft. We have a + letter of his, explaining that he could not appear at the first + trial because he was about to baptize his son, and had bidden the + neighbors and gossips to the feast. A little incident this, dug + out of the musty records, but it shows us an active, generous + man, intolerant of oppression, public-spirited and hospitable, + social, and friendly in his new relations. He soon after was + called to mourn the death of his English wife and of two + children, but he speedily consoled himself by taking a second + wife, Anne Pope, by whom he had three children, Lawrence, John, + and Anne. According to the Virginian tradition, John Washington + the elder was a surveyor, and made a location of lands which was + set aside because they had been assigned to the Indians. It is + quite apparent that he was a forehanded person who acquired + property and impressed himself upon his neighbors. In 1667, when + he had been but ten years in the colony, he was chosen to the + House of Burgesses; and eight years later he was made a colonel + and sent with a thousand men to join the Marylanders in + destroying the "Susquehannocks," at the "Piscataway" fort, on + account of some murdering begun by another tribe. As a feat of + arms, the expedition was not a very brilliant affair. The + Virginians and Marylanders killed half a dozen Indian chiefs + during a parley, and then invested the fort. After repulsing + several sorties, they stupidly allowed the Indians to escape in + the night and carry murder and pillage through the outlying + settlements, lighting up first the flames of savage war and then + the fiercer fire of domestic insurrection. In the next year we + hear again of John Washington in the House of Burgesses, when Sir + William Berkeley assailed his troops for the murder of the + Indians during the parley. Popular feeling, however, was clearly + with the colonel, for nothing was done and the matter dropped. At + that point, too, in 1676, John Washington disappears from sight, + and we know only that as his will was proved in 1677, he must + have died soon after the scene with Berkeley. He was buried in + the family vault at Bridges Creek, and left a good estate to be + divided among his children. The colonel was evidently both a + prudent and popular man, and quite disposed to bustle about in + the world in which he found himself. He acquired lands, came to + the front at once as a leader although a new-comer in the + country, was evidently a fighting man as is shown by his + selection to command the Virginian forces, and was honored by his + neighbors, who gave his name to the parish in which he dwelt. + Then he died and his son Lawrence reigned in his stead, and + became by his wife, Mildred Warner, the father of John, + Augustine, and Mildred Washington.</p> + + <p>This second son, Augustine, farmer and planter like his + forefathers, married first Jane Butler, by whom he had three sons + and a daughter, and second, Mary Ball, by whom he had four sons + and two daughters. The eldest child of these second nuptials was + named George, and was born on February 11 (O.S.), 1732, at + Bridges Creek. The house in which this event occurred was a + plain, wooden farmhouse of the primitive Virginian pattern, with + four rooms on the ground floor, an attic story with a long, + sloping roof, and a massive brick chimney. Three years after + George Washington's birth it is said to have been burned, and the + family for this or some other reason removed to another estate in + what is now Stafford County. The second house was like the first, + and stood on rising ground looking across a meadow to the + Rappahannock, and beyond the river to the village of + Fredericksburg, which was nearly opposite. Here, in 1743, + Augustine Washington died somewhat suddenly, at the age of + forty-nine, from an attack of gout brought on by exposure in the + rain, and was buried with his fathers in the old vault at Bridges + Creek. Here, too, the boyhood of Washington was passed, and + therefore it becomes necessary to look about us and see what we + can learn of this important period of his life.</p> + + <p>We know nothing about his father, except that he was kindly + and affectionate, attached to his wife and children, and + apparently absorbed in the care of his estates. On his death the + children came wholly under the maternal influence and direction. + Much has been written about the "mother of Washington," but as a + matter of fact, although she lived to an advanced age, we know + scarcely more about her than we do about her husband. She was of + gentle birth, and possessed a vigorous character and a good deal + of business capacity. The advantages of education were given in + but slight measure to the Virginian ladies of her time, and Mrs. + Washington offered no exception to the general rule. Her reading + was confined to a small number of volumes, chiefly of a + devotional character, her favorite apparently being Hale's "Moral + and Divine Contemplations." She evidently knew no language but + her own, and her spelling was extremely bad even in that age of + uncertain orthography. Certain qualities, however, are clear to + us even now through all the dimness. We can see that Mary + Washington was gifted with strong sense, and had the power of + conducting business matters providently and exactly. She was an + imperious woman, of strong will, ruling her kingdom alone. Above + all she was very dignified, very silent, and very sober-minded. + That she was affectionate and loving cannot be doubted, for she + retained to the last a profound hold upon the reverential + devotion of her son, and yet as he rose steadily to the pinnacle + of human greatness, she could only say that "George had been a + good boy, and she was sure he would do his duty." Not a brilliant + woman evidently, not one suited to shine in courts, conduct + intrigues, or adorn literature, yet able to transmit moral + qualities to her oldest son, which, mingled with those of the + Washingtons, were of infinite value in the foundation of a great + Republic. She found herself a widow at an early age, with a + family of young children to educate and support. Her means were + narrow, for although Augustine Washington was able to leave what + was called a landed estate to each son, it was little more than + idle capital, and the income in ready money was by no means so + evident as the acres.</p> + + <p>Many are the myths, and deplorably few the facts, that have + come down to us in regard to Washington's boyhood. For the former + we are indebted to the illustrious Weems, and to that personage a + few more words must be devoted. Weems has been held up to the + present age in various ways, usually, it must be confessed, of an + unflattering nature, and "mendacious" is the adjective most + commonly applied to him. There has been in reality a good deal of + needless confusion about Weems and his book, for he was not a + complex character, and neither he nor his writings are difficult + to value or understand. By profession a clergyman or preacher, by + nature an adventurer, Weems loved notoriety, money, and a + wandering life. So he wrote books which he correctly believed + would be popular, and sold them not only through the regular + channels, but by peddling them himself as he traveled about the + country. In this way he gratified all his propensities, and no + doubt derived from life a good deal of simple pleasure. Chance + brought him near Washington in the closing days, and his + commercial instinct told him that here was the subject of all + others for his pen and his market. He accordingly produced the + biography which had so much success. Judged solely as literature, + the book is beneath contempt. The style is turgid, overloaded, + and at times silly. The statements are loose, the mode of + narration confused and incoherent, and the moralizing is flat and + common-place to the last degree. Yet there was a certain + sincerity of feeling underneath all the bombast and platitudes, + and this saved the book. The biography did not go, and was not + intended to go, into the hands of the polite society of the great + eastern towns. It was meant for the farmers, the pioneers, and + the backwoodsmen of the country. It went into their homes, and + passed with them beyond the Alleghanies and out to the plains and + valleys of the great West. The very defects of the book helped it + to success among the simple, hard-working, hard-fighting race + engaged in the conquest of the American continent. To them its + heavy and tawdry style, its staring morals, and its real + patriotism all seemed eminently befitting the national hero, and + thus Weems created the Washington of the popular fancy. The idea + grew up with the country, and became so ingrained in the popular + thought that finally everybody was affected by it, and even the + most stately and solemn of the Washington biographers adopted the + unsupported tales of the itinerant parson and book-peddler.</p> + + <p>In regard to the public life of Washington, Weems took the + facts known to every one, and drawn for the most part from the + gazettes. He then dressed them up in his own peculiar fashion and + gave them to the world. All this, forming of course nine tenths + of his book, has passed, despite its success, into oblivion. The + remaining tenth described Washington's boyhood until his + fourteenth or fifteenth year, and this, which is the work of the + author's imagination, has lived. Weems, having set himself up as + absolutely the only authority as to this period, has been + implicitly followed, and has thus come to demand serious + consideration. Until Weems is weighed and disposed of, we cannot + even begin an attempt to get at the real Washington.</p> + + <p>Weems was not a cold-blooded liar, a mere forger of anecdotes. + He was simply a man destitute of historical sense, training, or + morals, ready to take the slenderest fact and work it up for the + purposes of the market until it became almost as impossible to + reduce it to its original dimensions as it was for the fisherman + to get the Afrit back into his jar. In a word, Weems was an + approved myth-maker. No better example can be given than the way + in which he described himself. It is believed that he preached + once, and possibly oftener, to a congregation which numbered + Washington among its members. Thereupon he published himself in + his book as the rector of Mount Vernon parish. There was, to + begin with, no such parish. There was Truro parish, in which was + a church called indifferently Pohick or Mount Vernon church. Of + this church Washington was a vestryman until 1785, when he joined + the church at Alexandria. The Rev. Lee Massey was the clergyman + of the Mount Vernon church, and the church at Alexandria had + nothing to do with Mount Vernon. There never was, moreover, such + a person as the rector of Mount Vernon parish, but it was the + Weems way of treating his appearance before the great man, and of + deceiving the world with the notion of an intimacy which the + title implied.</p> + + <p>Weems, of course, had no difficulty with the public life, but + in describing the boyhood he was thrown on his own resources, and + out of them he evolved the cherry-tree, the refusal to fight or + permit fighting among the boys at school, and the initials in the + garden. This last story is to the effect that Augustine + Washington planted seeds in such a manner that when they sprouted + they formed on the earth the initials of his son's name, and the + boy being much delighted thereby, the father explained to him + that it was the work of the Creator, and thus inculcated a + profound belief in God. This tale is taken bodily from Dr. + Beattie's biographical sketch of his son, published in England in + 1799, and may be dismissed at once. As to the other two more + familiar anecdotes there is not a scintilla of evidence that they + had any foundation, and with them may be included the colt story, + told by Mr. Custis, a simple variation of the cherry-tree theme, + which is Washington's early love of truth. Weems says that his + stories were told him by a lady, and "a good old gentleman," who + remembered the incidents, while Mr. Custis gives no authority for + his minute account of a trivial event over a century old when he + wrote. To a writer who invented the rector of Mount Vernon, the + further invention of a couple of Boswells would be a trifle. I + say Boswells advisedly, for these stories are told with the + utmost minuteness, and the conversations between Washington and + his father are given as if from a stenographic report. How Mr. + Custis, usually so accurate, came to be so far infected with the + Weems myth as to tell the colt story after the Weems manner, + cannot now be determined. There can be no doubt that Washington, + like most healthy boys, got into a good deal of mischief, and it + is not at all impossible that he injured fruit-trees and + confessed that he had done so. It may be accepted as certain that + he rode and mastered many unbroken thoroughbred colts, and it is + possible that one of them burst a blood-vessel in the process and + died, and that the boy promptly told his mother of the accident. + But this is the utmost credit which these two anecdotes can + claim. Even so much as this cannot be said of certain other + improving tales of like nature. That Washington lectured his + playmates on the wickedness of fighting, and in the year 1754 + allowed himself to be knocked down in the presence of his + soldiers, and thereupon begged his assailant's pardon for having + spoken roughly to him, are stories so silly and so foolishly + impossible that they do not deserve an instant's + consideration.</p> + + <p>There is nothing intrinsically impossible in either the + cherry-tree or the colt incident, nor would there be in a hundred + others which might be readily invented. The real point is that + these stories, as told by Weems and Mr. Custis, are on their face + hopelessly and ridiculously false. They are so, not merely + because they have no vestige of evidence to support them, but + because they are in every word and line the offspring of a period + more than fifty years later. No English-speaking people, + certainly no Virginians, ever thought or behaved or talked in + 1740 like the personages in Weems's stories, whatever they may + have done in 1790, or at the beginning of the next century. These + precious anecdotes belong to the age of Miss Edgeworth and Hannah + More and Jane Taylor. They are engaging specimens of the "Harry + and Lucy" and "Purple Jar" morality, and accurately reflect the + pale didacticism which became fashionable in England at the close + of the last century. They are as untrue to nature and to fact at + the period to which they are assigned as would be efforts to + depict Augustine Washington and his wife in the dress of the + French revolution discussing the propriety of worshiping the + Goddess of Reason.</p> + + <p>To enter into any serious historical criticism of these + stories would be to break a butterfly. So much as this even has + been said only because these wretched fables have gone throughout + the world, and it is time that they were swept away into the + dust-heaps of history. They represent Mr. and Mrs. Washington as + affected and priggish people, given to cheap moralizing, and, + what is far worse, they have served to place Washington himself + in a ridiculous light to an age which has outgrown the + educational foibles of seventy-five years ago. Augustine + Washington and his wife were a gentleman and lady of the + eighteenth century, living in Virginia. So far as we know without + guessing or conjecture, they were simple, honest, and + straight-forward, devoted to the care of their family and estate, + and doing their duty sensibly and after the fashion of their + time. Their son, to whom the greatest wrong has been done, not + only never did anything common or mean, but from the beginning to + the end of his life he was never for an instant ridiculous or + affected, and he was as utterly removed from canting or + priggishness as any human being could well be. Let us therefore + consign the Weems stories and their offspring to the limbo of + historical rubbish, and try to learn what the plain facts tell us + of the boy Washington.</p> + + <p>Unfortunately these same facts are at first very few, so few + that they tell us hardly anything. We know when and where + Washington was born; and how, when he was little more than three + years old,<a id="footnotetag1-2" name= + "footnotetag1-2"></a><a href="#footnote1-2"><sup>1</sup></a> he + was taken from Bridges Creek to the banks of the Rappahannock. + There he was placed under the charge of one Hobby, the sexton of + the parish, to learn his alphabet and his pothooks; and when that + worthy man's store of learning was exhausted he was sent back to + Bridges Creek, soon after his father's death, to live with his + half-brother Augustine, and obtain the benefits of a school kept + by a Mr. Williams. There he received what would now be called a + fair common-school education, wholly destitute of any instruction + in languages, ancient or modern, but apparently with some + mathematical training.</p> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote1-2" name="footnote1-2"></a>[<b>Footnote 1:</b> + <a href="#footnotetag1-2">(return)</a> There is a conflict + about the period of this removal (see above, p. 37). Tradition + places it in 1735, but the Rev. Mr. McGuire (<i>Religious + Opinions of Washington</i>) puts it in 1739.] + </blockquote> + + <p>That he studied faithfully cannot be doubted, and we know, + too, that he matured early, and was a tall, active, and muscular + boy. He could outwalk and outrun and outride any of his + companions. As he could no doubt have thrashed any of them too, + he was, in virtue of these qualities, which are respected + everywhere by all wholesome minds, and especially by boys, a + leader among his school-fellows. We know further that he was + honest and true, and a lad of unusual promise, not because of the + goody-goody anecdotes of the myth-makers, but because he was + liked and trusted by such men as his brother Lawrence and Lord + Fairfax.</p> + + <p>There he was, at all events, in his fourteenth year, a big, + strong, hearty boy, offering a serious problem to his mother, who + was struggling along with many acres, little money, and five + children. Mrs. Washington's chief desire naturally was to put + George in the way of earning a living, which no doubt seemed far + more important than getting an education, and, as he was a + sober-minded boy, the same idea was probably profoundly impressed + on his own mind also. This condition of domestic affairs led to + the first attempt to give Washington a start in life, which has + been given to us until very lately in a somewhat decorated form. + The fact is, that in casting about for something to do, it + occurred to some one, very likely to the boy himself, that it + would be a fine idea to go to sea. His masculine friends and + relatives urged the scheme upon Mrs. Washington, who consented + very reluctantly, if at all, not liking the notion of parting + with her oldest son, even in her anxiety to have him earn his + bread. When it came to the point, however, she finally decided + against his going, determined probably by a very sensible letter + from her brother, Joseph Ball, an English lawyer. In all the + ornamented versions we are informed that the boy was to enter the + royal navy, and that a midshipman's warrant was procured for him. + There does not appear to be any valid authority for the royal + navy, the warrant, or the midshipman. The contemporary Virginian + letters speak simply of "going to sea," while Mr. Ball says + distinctly that the plan was to enter the boy on a tobacco-ship, + with an excellent chance of being pressed on a man-of-war, and a + very faint prospect of either getting into the navy, or even + rising to be the captain of one of the petty trading-vessels + familiar to Virginian planters. Some recent writers have put Mr. + Ball aside as not knowing what was intended in regard to his + nephew, but in view of the difficulty at that time of obtaining + commissions in the navy without great political influence, it + seems probable that Mrs. Washington's brother knew very well what + he was talking about, and he certainly wrote a very sensible + letter. A bold, adventurous boy, eager to earn his living and + make his way in the world, would, like many others before him, + look longingly to the sea as the highway to fortune and success. + To Washington the romance of the sea was represented by the + tobacco-ship creeping up the river and bringing all the luxuries + and many of the necessaries of life from vaguely distant + countries. No doubt he wished to go on one of these vessels and + try his luck, and very possibly the royal navy was hoped for as + the ultimate result. The effort was certainly made to send him to + sea, but it failed, and he went back to school to study more + mathematics.</p> + + <p>Apart from the fact that the exact sciences in moderate degree + were about all that Mr. Williams could teach, this branch of + learning had an immediate practical value, inasmuch as surveying + was almost the only immediately gainful pursuit open to a young + Virginia gentleman, who sorely needed a little ready money that + he might buy slaves and work a plantation. So Washington studied + on for two years more, and fitted himself to be a surveyor. There + are still extant some early papers belonging to this period, + chiefly fragments of school exercises, which show that he already + wrote the bold, handsome hand with which the world was to become + familiar, and that he made geometrical figures and notes of + surveys with the neatness and accuracy which clung to him in all + the work of his life, whether great or small. Among those papers, + too, were found many copies of legal forms, and a set of rules, + over a hundred in number, as to etiquette and behavior, carefully + written out. It has always been supposed that these rules were + copied, but it was reserved apparently for the storms of a mighty + civil war to lay bare what may have been, if not the source of + the rules themselves, the origin and suggestion of their + compilation. At that time a little volume was found in Virginia + bearing the name of George Washington in a boyish hand on the + fly-leaf, and the date 1742. The book was entitled, "The Young + Man's Companion." It was an English work, and had passed through + thirteen editions, which was little enough in view of its varied + and extensive information. It was written by W. Mather, in a + plain and easy style, and treated of arithmetic, surveying, forms + for legal documents, the measuring of land and lumber, gardening, + and many other useful topics, and it contained general precepts + which, with the aid of Hale's "Contemplations," may readily have + furnished the hints for the rules found in manuscript among + Washington's papers.<a id="footnotetag1-3" name= + "footnotetag1-3"></a><a href="#footnote1-3"><sup>1</sup></a> + These rules were in the main wise and sensible, and it is evident + they had occupied deeply the boy's mind.<a id="footnotetag2-4" + name="footnotetag2-4"></a><a href="#footnote2-4"><sup>2</sup></a> + They are for the most part concerned with the commonplaces of + etiquette and good manners, but there is something not only apt + but quite prophetic in the last one, "Labor to keep alive in your + breast that little spark of celestial fire called conscience." To + suppose that Washington's character was formed by these + sententious bits of not very profound wisdom would be absurd; but + that a series of rules which most lads would have regarded as + simply dull should have been written out and pondered by this boy + indicates a soberness and thoughtfulness of mind which certainly + are not usual at that age. The chief thought that runs through + all the sayings is to practice self-control, and no man ever + displayed that most difficult of virtues to such a degree as + George Washington. It was no ordinary boy who took such a lesson + as this to heart before he was fifteen, and carried it into his + daily life, never to be forgotten. It may also be said that very + few boys ever needed it more; but those persons who know what + they chiefly need, and pursue it, are by no means common.</p> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote1-3" name="footnote1-3"></a>[<b>Footnote 1:</b> + <a href="#footnotetag1-3">(return)</a> An account of this + volume was given in the <i>New York Tribune</i> in 1866, and + also in the <i>Historical Magazine</i> (x. 47).] + </blockquote> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote2-4" name="footnote2-4"></a>[<b>Footnote 2:</b> + <a href="#footnotetag2-4">(return)</a> The most important are + given in Sparks' <i>Writings of Washington</i>, ii. 412, and + they may be found complete in the little pamphlet concerning + them, excellently edited by Dr. J.M. Toner, of Washington.] + </blockquote> + + <p> </p> + <hr /> + + <h2><a name="III" id="III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2> + + <h2>ON THE FRONTIER</h2> + + <p>While Washington was working his way through the learning + purveyed by Mr. Williams, he was also receiving another + education, of a much broader and better sort, from the men and + women among whom he found himself, and with whom he made friends. + Chief among them was his eldest brother, Lawrence, fourteen years + his senior, who had been educated in England, had fought with + Vernon at Carthagena, and had then returned to Virginia, to be to + him a generous father and a loving friend. As the head of the + family, Lawrence Washington had received the lion's share of the + property, including the estate at Hunting Creek, on the Potomac, + which he christened Mount Vernon, after his admiral, and where he + settled down and built him a goodly house. To this pleasant spot + George Washington journeyed often in vacation time, and there he + came to live and further pursue his studies, after leaving school + in the autumn of 1747.</p> + + <p>Lawrence Washington had married the daughter of William + Fairfax, the proprietor of Belvoir, a neighboring plantation, and + the agent for the vast estates held by his family in Virginia. + George Fairfax, Mrs. Washington's brother, had married a Miss + Gary, and thus two large and agreeable family connections were + thrown open to the young surveyor when he emerged from school. + The chief figure, however, in that pleasant winter of 1747-48, so + far as an influence upon the character of Washington is + concerned, was the head of the family into which Lawrence + Washington had married. Thomas, Lord Fairfax, then sixty years of + age, had come to Virginia to live upon and look after the kingdom + which he had inherited in the wilderness. He came of a noble and + distinguished race. Graduating at Oxford with credit, he served + in the army, dabbled in literature, had his fling in the London + world, and was jilted by a beauty who preferred a duke, and gave + her faithful but less titled lover an apparently incurable wound. + His life having been thus early twisted and set awry, Lord + Fairfax, when well past his prime, had determined finally to come + to Virginia, bury himself in the forests, and look after the + almost limitless possessions beyond the Blue Ridge, which he had + inherited from his maternal grandfather, Lord Culpeper, of + unsavory Restoration memory. It was a piece of great good-fortune + which threw in Washington's path this accomplished gentleman, + familiar with courts and camps, disappointed, but not morose, + disillusioned, but still kindly and generous. From him the boy + could gain that knowledge of men and manners which no school can + give, and which is as important in its way as any that a teacher + can impart.</p> + + <p>Lord Fairfax and Washington became fast friends. They hunted + the fox together, and hunted him hard. They engaged in all the + rough sports and perilous excitements which Virginia winter life + could afford, and the boy's bold and skillful riding, his love of + sports and his fine temper, commended him to the warm and + affectionate interest of the old nobleman. Other qualities, too, + the experienced man of the world saw in his young companion: a + high and persistent courage, robust and calm sense, and, above + all, unusual force of will and character. Washington impressed + profoundly everybody with whom he was brought into personal + contact, a fact which is one of the most marked features of his + character and career, and one which deserves study more than + almost any other. Lord Fairfax was no exception to the rule. He + saw in Washington not simply a promising, brave, open-hearted + boy, diligent in practicing his profession, and whom he was + anxious to help, but something more; something which so impressed + him that he confided to this lad a task which, according to its + performance, would affect both his fortune and his peace. In a + word, he trusted Washington, and told him, as the spring of 1748 + was opening, to go forth and survey the vast Fairfax estates + beyond the Ridge, define their boundaries, and save them from + future litigation. With this commission from Lord Fairfax, + Washington entered on the first period of his career. He passed + it on the frontier, fighting nature, the Indians, and the French. + He went in a schoolboy; he came out the first soldier in the + colonies, and one of the leading men of Virginia. Let us pause a + moment and look at him as he stands on the threshold of this + momentous period, rightly called momentous because it was the + formative period in the life of such a man.</p> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:35%;"> + <a href="images/illus0383.jpg"><img width="100%" src= + "images/illus0383.jpg" alt="LAWRENCE WASHINGTON" /></a>LAWRENCE + WASHINGTON + </div> + + <p>He had just passed his sixteenth birthday. He was tall and + muscular, approaching the stature of more than six feet which he + afterwards attained. He was not yet filled out to manly + proportions, but was rather spare, after the fashion of youth. He + had a well-shaped, active figure, symmetrical except for the + unusual length of the arms, indicating uncommon strength. His + light brown hair was drawn back from a broad forehead, and + grayish-blue eyes looked happily, and perhaps a trifle soberly, + on the pleasant Virginia world about him. The face was open and + manly, with a square, massive jaw, and a general expression of + calmness and strength. "Fair and florid," big and strong, he was, + take him for all in all, as fine a specimen of his race as could + be found in the English colonies.</p> + + <p>Let us look a little closer through the keen eyes of one who + studied many faces to good purpose. The great painter of + portraits, Gilbert Stuart, tells us of Washington that he never + saw in any man such large eye-sockets, or such a breadth of nose + and forehead between the eyes, and that he read there the + evidences of the strongest passions possible to human nature. + John Bernard the actor, a good observer, too, saw in Washington's + face, in 1797, the signs of an habitual conflict and mastery of + passions, witnessed by the compressed mouth and deeply indented + brow. The problem had been solved then; but in 1748, passion and + will alike slumbered, and no man could tell which would prevail, + or whether they would work together to great purpose or go + jarring on to nothingness. He rises up to us out of the past in + that early springtime a fine, handsome, athletic boy, beloved by + those about him, who found him a charming companion and did not + guess that he might be a terribly dangerous foe. He rises up + instinct with life and strength, a being capable, as we know, of + great things whether for good or evil, with hot blood pulsing in + his veins and beating in his heart, with violent passions and + relentless will still undeveloped; and no one in all that jolly, + generous Virginian society even dimly dreamed what that + development would be, or what it would mean to the world.</p> + + <p>It was in March, 1748, that George Fairfax and Washington set + forth on their adventures, and passing through Ashby's Gap in the + Blue Ridge, entered the valley of Virginia. Thence they worked + their way up the valley of the Shenandoah, surveying as they + went, returned and swam the swollen Potomac, surveyed the lands + about its south branch and in the mountainous region of Frederick + County, and finally reached Mount Vernon again on April 12. It + was a rough experience for a beginner, but a wholesome one, and + furnished the usual vicissitudes of frontier life. They were wet, + cold, and hungry, or warm, dry, and well fed, by turns. They + slept in a tent, or the huts of the scattered settlers, and + oftener still beneath the stars. They met a war party of Indians, + and having plied them with liquor, watched one of their mad + dances round the camp-fire. In another place they came on a + straggling settlement of Germans, dull, patient, and illiterate, + strangely unfit for the life of the wilderness. All these things, + as well as the progress of their work and their various + resting-places, Washington noted down briefly but methodically in + a diary, showing in these rough notes the first evidences of that + keen observation of nature and men and of daily incidents which + he developed to such good purpose in after-life. There are no + rhapsodies and no reflections in these hasty jottings, but the + employments and the discomforts are all set down in a simple and + matter-of-fact way, which omitted no essential thing and excluded + all that was worthless. His work, too, was well done, and Lord + Fairfax was so much pleased by the report that he moved across + the Blue Ridge, built a hunting lodge preparatory to something + more splendid which never came to pass, and laid out a noble + manor, to which he gave the name of Greenway Court. He also + procured for Washington an appointment as a public surveyor, + which conferred authority on his surveys and provided him with + regular work. Thus started, Washington toiled at his profession + for three years, living and working as he did on his first + expedition. It was a rough life, but a manly and robust one, and + the men who live it, although often rude and coarse, are never + weak or effeminate. To Washington it was an admirable school. It + strengthened his muscles and hardened him to exposure and + fatigue. It accustomed him to risks and perils of various kinds, + and made him fertile in expedients and confident of himself, + while the nature of his work rendered him careful and + industrious. That his work was well done is shown by the fact + that his surveys were considered of the first authority, and + stand unquestioned to this day, like certain other work which he + was subsequently called to do. It was part of his character, when + he did anything, to do it in a lasting fashion, and it is worth + while to remember that the surveys he made as a boy were the best + that could be made.</p> + + <p>He wrote to a friend at this time: "Since you received my + letter of October last, I have not slept above three or four + nights in a bed, but, after walking a good deal all the day, I + have lain down before the fire upon a little hay, straw, fodder, + or a bearskin, whichever was to be had, with man, wife, and + children, like dogs and cats; and happy is he who gets the berth + nearest the fire. Nothing would make it pass off tolerably but a + good reward. A doubloon is my constant gain every day that the + weather will permit of my going out, and sometimes six pistoles." + He was evidently a thrifty lad, and honestly pleased with honest + earnings. He was no mere adventurous wanderer, but a man working + for results in money, reputation, or some solid value, and while + he worked and earned he kept an observant eye upon the + wilderness, and bought up when he could the best land for himself + and his family, laying the foundations of the great landed estate + of which he died possessed.</p> + + <p>There was also a lighter and pleasanter side to this + hard-working existence, which was quite as useful, and more + attractive, than toiling in the woods and mountains. The young + surveyor passed much of his time at Greenway Court, hunting the + fox and rejoicing in all field sports which held high place in + that kingdom, while at the same time he profited much in graver + fashion by his friendship with such a man as Lord Fairfax. There, + too, he had a chance at a library, and his diaries show that he + read carefully the history of England and the essays of the + "Spectator." Neither in early days nor at any other time was he a + student, for he had few opportunities, and his life from the + beginning was out of doors and among men. But the idea sometimes + put forward that Washington cared nothing for reading or for + books is an idle one. He read at Greenway Court and everywhere + else when he had an opportunity. He read well, too, and to some + purpose, studying men and events in books as he did in the world, + for though he never talked of his reading, preserving silence on + that as on other things concerning himself, no one ever was able + to record an instance in which he showed himself ignorant of + history or of literature. He was never a learned man, but so far + as his own language could carry him he was an educated one. Thus + while he developed the sterner qualities by hard work and a rough + life, he did not bring back the coarse habits of the backwoods + and the camp-fire, but was able to refine his manners and improve + his mind in the excellent society and under the hospitable roof + of Lord Fairfax.</p> + + <p>Three years slipped by, and then a domestic change came which + much affected Washington's whole life. The Carthagena campaign + had undermined the strength of Lawrence Washington and sown the + seeds of consumption, which showed itself in 1749, and became + steadily more alarming. A voyage to England and a summer at the + warm springs were tried without success, and finally, as a last + resort, the invalid sailed for the West Indies, in September, + 1751. Thither his brother George accompanied him, and we have the + fragments of a diary kept during this first and last wandering + outside his native country. He copied the log, noted the weather, + and evidently strove to get some idea of nautical matters while + he was at sea and leading a life strangely unfamiliar to a + woodsman and pioneer. When they arrived at their destination they + were immediately asked to breakfast and dine with Major Clarke, + the military magnate of the place, and our young Virginian + remarked, with characteristic prudence and a certain touch of + grim humor, "We went,—myself with some reluctance, as the + smallpox was in the family." He fell a victim to his good + manners, for two weeks later he was "strongly attacked with the + smallpox," and was then housed for a month, getting safely and + successfully through this dangerous and then almost universal + ordeal. Before the disease declared itself, however, he went + about everywhere, innocently scattering infection, and greatly + enjoying the pleasures of the island. It is to be regretted that + any part of this diary should have been lost, for it is pleasant + reading, and exhibits the writer in an agreeable and + characteristic fashion. He commented on the country and the + scenery, inveighed against the extravagance of the charges for + board and lodging, told of his dinner-parties and his friends, + and noted the marvelous abundance and variety of the tropical + fruits, which contrasted strangely with the British dishes of + beefsteak and tripe. He also mentioned being treated to a ticket + to see the play of "George Barnwell," on which he offered this + cautious criticism: "The character of Barnwell and several others + were said to be well performed. There was music adapted and + regularly conducted."</p> + + <p>Soon after his recovery Washington returned to Virginia, + arriving there in February, 1752. The diary concluded with a + brief but perfectly effective description of Barbadoes, touching + on its resources and scenery, its government and condition, and + the manners and customs of its inhabitants. All through these + notes we find the keenly observant spirit, and the evidence of a + mind constantly alert to learn. We see also a pleasant, happy + temperament, enjoying with hearty zest all the pleasures that + youth and life could furnish. He who wrote these lines was + evidently a vigorous, good-humored young fellow, with a quick eye + for the world opening before him, and for the delights as well as + the instruction which it offered.</p> + + <p>From the sunshine and ease of this tropical winter Washington + passed to a long season of trial and responsibility at home and + abroad. In July, 1752, his much-loved brother Lawrence died, + leaving George guardian of his daughter, and heir to his estates + in the event of that daughter's death. Thus the current of his + home life changed, and responsibility came into it, while outside + the mighty stream of public events changed too, and swept him + along in the swelling torrent of a world-wide war.</p> + + <p>In all the vast wilderness beyond the mountains there was not + room for both French and English. The rival nations had been for + years slowly approaching each other, until in 1749 each people + proceeded at last to take possession of the Ohio country after + its own fashion. The French sent a military expedition which sank + and nailed up leaden plates; the English formed a great land + company to speculate and make money, and both set diligently to + work to form Indian alliances. A man of far less perception than + Lawrence Washington, who had become the chief manager of the Ohio + Company, would have seen that the conditions on the frontier + rendered war inevitable, and he accordingly made ready for the + future by preparing his brother for the career of a soldier, so + far as it could be done. He brought to Mount Vernon two old + companions-in-arms of the Carthagena time, Adjutant Muse, a + Virginian, and Jacob Van Braam, a Dutch soldier of fortune. The + former instructed Washington in the art of war, tactics, and the + manual of arms, the latter in fencing and the sword exercise. At + the same time Lawrence Washington procured for his brother, then + only nineteen years of age, an appointment as one of the + adjutants-general of Virginia, with the rank of major. To all + this the young surveyor took kindly enough so far as we can tell, + but his military avocations were interrupted by his voyage to + Barbadoes, by the illness and death of his brother, and by the + cares and responsibilities thereby thrust upon him.</p> + + <p>Meantime the French aggressions had continued, and French + soldiers and traders were working their way up from the South and + down from the North, bullying and cajoling the Indians by turns, + taking possession of the Ohio country, and selecting places as + they went for that chain of forts which was to hem in and slowly + strangle the English settlements. Governor Dinwiddie had sent a + commissioner to remonstrate against these encroachments, but his + envoy had stopped a hundred and fifty miles short of the French + posts, alarmed by the troublous condition of things, and by the + defeat and slaughter which the Frenchmen had already inflicted + upon the Indians. Some more vigorous person was evidently needed + to go through the form of warning France not to trespass on the + English wilderness, and thereupon Governor Dinwiddie selected for + the task George Washington, recently reappointed adjutant-general + of the northern division, and major in the Virginian forces. He + was a young man for such an undertaking, not yet twenty-two, but + clearly of good reputation. It is plain enough that Lord Fairfax + and others had said to the governor, "Here is the very man for + you; young, daring, and adventurous, but yet sober-minded and + responsible, who only lacks opportunity to show the stuff that is + in him."</p> + + <p>Thus, then, in October, 1753, Washington set forth with Van + Braam, and various servants and horses, accompanied by the + boldest of Virginian frontiersmen, Christopher Gist. He wrote a + report in the form of a journal, which was sent to England and + much read at the time as part of the news of the day, and which + has an equal although different interest now. It is a succinct, + clear, and sober narrative. The little party was formed at Will's + Creek, and thence through woods and over swollen rivers made its + way to Logstown. Here they spent some days among the Indians, + whose leaders Washington got within his grasp after much + speech-making; and here, too, he met some French deserters from + the South, and drew from them all the knowledge they possessed of + New Orleans and the military expeditions from that region. From + Logstown he pushed on, accompanied by his Indian chiefs, to + Venango, on the Ohio, the first French outpost. The French + officers asked him to sup with them. The wine flowed freely, the + tongues of the hosts were loosened, and the young Virginian, + temperate and hard-headed, listened to all the conversation, and + noted down mentally much that was interesting and valuable. The + next morning the Indian chiefs, prudently kept in the background, + appeared, and a struggle ensued between the talkative, clever + Frenchmen and the quiet, persistent Virginian, over the + possession of these important savages. Finally Washington got + off, carrying his chiefs with him, and made his way seventy miles + further to the fort on French Creek. Here he delivered the + governor's letter, and while M. de St. Pierre wrote a vague and + polite answer, he sketched the fort and informed himself in + regard to the military condition of the post. Then came another + struggle over the Indians, and finally Washington got off with + them once more, and worked his way back to Venango. Another + struggle for the savages followed, rum being always the principal + factor in the negotiation, and at last the chiefs determined to + stay behind. Nevertheless, the work had been well done, and the + important Half-King remained true to the English cause.</p> + + <p>Leaving his horses, Washington and Gist then took to the woods + on foot. The French Indians lay in wait for them and tried to + murder them, and Gist, like a true frontiersman, was for shooting + the scoundrel whom they captured. But Washington stayed his hand, + and they gave the savage the slip and pressed on. It was the + middle of December, very cold and stormy. In crossing a river, + Washington fell from the raft into deep water, amid the floating + ice, but fought his way out, and he and his companion passed the + night on an island, with their clothes frozen upon them. So + through peril and privation, and various dangers, stopping in the + midst of it all to win another savage potentate, they reached the + edge of the settlements and thence went on to Williamsburg, where + great praise and glory were awarded to the youthful envoy, the + hero of the hour in the little Virginia capital.</p> + + <p>It is worth while to pause over this expedition a moment and + to consider attentively this journal which recounts it, for there + are very few incidents or documents which tell us more of + Washington. He was not yet twenty-two when he faced this first + grave responsibility, and he did his work absolutely well. Cool + courage, of course, he showed, but also patience and wisdom in + handling the Indians, a clear sense that the crafty and + well-trained Frenchmen could not blind, and a strong faculty for + dealing with men, always a rare and precious gift. As in the + little Barbadoes diary, so also in this journal, we see, and far + more strongly, the penetration and perception that nothing could + escape, and which set down all things essential and let the + "huddling silver, little worth," go by. The clearness, terseness, + and entire sufficiency of the narrative are obvious and lie on + the surface; but we find also another quality of the man which is + one of the most marked features in his character, and one which + we must dwell upon again and again, as we follow the story of his + life. Here it is that we learn directly for the first time that + Washington was a profoundly silent man. The gospel of silence has + been preached in these latter days by Carlyle, with the fervor of + a seer and prophet, and the world owes him a debt for the + historical discredit which he has brought upon the man of mere + words as compared with the man of deeds. Carlyle brushed + Washington aside as "a bloodless Cromwell," a phrase to which we + must revert later on other grounds, and, as has already been + said, failed utterly to see that he was the most supremely silent + of the great men of action that the world can show. Like Cromwell + and Frederic, Washington wrote countless letters, made many + speeches, and was agreeable in conversation. But this was all in + the way of business, and a man may be profoundly silent and yet + talk a great deal. Silence in the fine and true sense is neither + mere holding of the tongue nor an incapacity of expression. The + greatly silent man is he who is not given to words for their own + sake, and who never talks about himself. Both Cromwell, greatest + of Englishmen, and the great Frederic, Carlyle's especial heroes, + were fond of talking of themselves. So in still larger measure + was Napoleon, and many others of less importance. But Washington + differs from them all. He had abundant power of words, and could + use them with much force and point when he was so minded, but he + never used them needlessly or to hide his meaning, and he never + talked about himself. Hence the inestimable difficulty of knowing + him. A brief sentence here and there, a rare gleam of light + across the page of a letter, is all that we can find. The rest is + silence. He did as great work as has fallen to the lot of man, he + wrote volumes of correspondence, he talked with innumerable men + and women, and of himself he said nothing. Here in this youthful + journal we have a narrative of wild adventure, wily diplomacy, + and personal peril, impossible of condensation, and yet not a + word of the writer's thoughts or feelings. All that was done or + said important to the business in hand was set down, and nothing + was overlooked, but that is all. The work was done, and we know + how it was done, but the man is silent as to all else. Here, + indeed, is the man of action and of real silence, a character to + be much admired and wondered at in these or any other days.</p> + + <p>Washington's report looked like war, and its author was + shortly afterwards appointed lieutenant-colonel of a Virginian + regiment, Colonel Fry commanding. Now began that long experience + of human stupidity and inefficiency with which Washington was + destined to struggle through all the years of his military + career, suffering from them, and triumphing in spite of them to a + degree unequaled by any other great commander. Dinwiddie, the + Scotch governor, was eager enough to fight, and full of energy + and good intentions, but he was hasty and not overwise, and was + filled with an excessive idea of his prerogatives. The assembly, + on its side, was sufficiently patriotic, but its members came + from a community which for more than half a century had had no + fighting, and they knew nothing of war or its necessities. + Unaccustomed to the large affairs into which they were suddenly + plunged, they displayed a narrow and provincial spirit. Keenly + alive to their own rights and privileges, they were more occupied + in quarreling with Dinwiddie than in prosecuting the war. In the + weak proprietary governments of Maryland and Pennsylvania there + was the same condition of affairs, with every evil exaggerated + tenfold. The fighting spirit was dominant in Virginia, but in + Quaker-ridden Pennsylvania it seems to have been almost extinct. + These three were not very promising communities to look to for + support in a difficult and costly war.</p> + + <p>With all this inertia and stupidity Washington was called to + cope, and he rebelled against it in vigorous fashion. Leaving + Colonel Fry to follow with the main body of troops, Washington + set out on April 2, 1754, with two companies from Alexandria, + where he had been recruiting amidst most irritating difficulties. + He reached Will's Creek three weeks later; and then his real + troubles began. Captain Trent, the timid and halting envoy, who + had failed to reach the French, had been sent out by the wise + authorities to build a fort at the junction of the Alleghany and + Monongahela, on the admirable site selected by the keen eye of + Washington. There Trent left his men and returned to Will's + Creek, where Washington found him, but without the pack-horses + that he had promised to provide. Presently news came that the + French in overwhelming numbers had swept down upon Trent's little + party, captured their fort, and sent them packing back to + Virginia. Washington took this to be war, and determined at once + to march against the enemy. Having impressed from the + inhabitants, who were not bubbling over with patriotism, some + horses and wagons, he set out on his toilsome march across the + mountains.</p> + + <p>It was a wild and desolate region, and progress was extremely + slow. By May 9 he was at the Little Meadows, twenty miles from + his starting-place; by the 18th at the Youghiogany River, which + he explored and found unnavigable. He was therefore forced to + take up his weary march again for the Monongahela, and by the + 27th he was at the Great Meadows, a few miles further on. The + extreme danger of his position does not seem to have occurred to + him, but he was harassed and angered by the conduct of the + assembly. He wrote to Governor Dinwiddie that he had no idea of + giving up his commission. "But," he continued, "let me serve + voluntarily; then I will, with the greatest pleasure in life, + devote my services to the expedition, without any other reward + than the satisfaction of serving my country; but to be slaving + dangerously for the shadow of pay, through woods, rocks, + mountains,—I would rather prefer the great toil of a daily + laborer, and dig for a maintenance, provided I were reduced to + the necessity, than serve upon such ignoble terms; for I really + do not see why the lives of his Majesty's subjects in Virginia + should be of less value than those in other parts of his American + dominions, especially when it is well known that we must undergo + double their hardship." Here we have a high-spirited, + high-tempered young gentleman, with a contempt for shams that it + is pleasant to see, and evidently endowed also with a fine taste + for fighting and not too much patience.</p> + + <p>Indignant letters written in vigorous language were, however, + of little avail, and Washington prepared to shift for himself as + best he might. His Indian allies brought him news that the French + were on the march and had thrown out scouting parties. Picking + out a place in the Great Meadows for a fort, "a charming field + for an encounter," he in his turn sent out a scouting party, and + then on fresh intelligence from the Indians set forth himself + with forty men to find the enemy. After a toilsome march they + discovered their foes in camp. The French, surprised and + surrounded, sprang to arms, the Virginians fired, there was a + sharp exchange of shots, and all was over. Ten of the French were + killed and twenty-one were taken prisoners, only one of the party + escaping to carry back the news.</p> + + <p>This little skirmish made a prodigious noise in its day, and + was much heralded in France. The French declared that Jumonville, + the leader, who fell at the first fire, was foully assassinated, + and that he and his party were ambassadors and sacred characters. + Paris rang with this fresh instance of British perfidy, and a M. + Thomas celebrated the luckless Jumonville in a solemn epic poem + in four books. French historians, relying on the account of the + Canadian who escaped, adopted the same tone, and at a later day + mourned over this black spot on Washington's character. The + French view was simple nonsense. Jumonville and his party, as the + papers found on Jumonville showed, were out on a spying and + scouting expedition. They were seeking to surprise the English + when the English surprised them, with the usual backwoods result. + The affair has a dramatic interest because it was the first blood + shed in a great struggle, and was the beginning of a series of + world-wide wars and social and political convulsions, which + terminated more than half a century later on the plains of + Waterloo. It gave immortality to an obscure French officer by + linking his name with that of his opponent, and brought + Washington for the moment before the eyes of the world, which + little dreamed that this Virginian colonel was destined to be one + of the principal figures in the great revolutionary drama to + which the war then beginning was but the prologue.</p> + + <p>Washington, for his part, well satisfied with his exploit, + retraced his steps, and having sent his prisoners back to + Virginia, proceeded to consider his situation. It was not a very + cheerful prospect. Contrecoeur, with the main body of the French + and Indians, was moving down from the Monongahela a thousand + strong. This of course was to have been anticipated, and it does + not seem to have in the least damped Washington's spirits. His + blood was up, his fighting temper thoroughly roused, and he + prepared to push on. Colonel Fry had died meanwhile, leaving + Washington in command; but his troops came forward, and also not + long after a useless "independent" company from South Carolina. + Thus reinforced Washington advanced painfully some thirteen + miles, and then receiving sure intelligence of the approach of + the French in great force fell back with difficulty to the Great + Meadows, where he was obliged by the exhausted condition of his + men to stop. He at once resumed work on Fort Necessity, and made + ready for a desperate defense, for the French were on his heels, + and on July 3 appeared at the Meadows. Washington offered battle + outside the fort, and this being declined withdrew to his + trenches, and skirmishing went on all day. When night fell it was + apparent that the end had come. The men were starved and worn + out. Their muskets in many cases were rendered useless by the + rain, and their ammunition was spent. The Indians had deserted, + and the foe outnumbered them four to one. When the French + therefore offered a parley, Washington was forced reluctantly to + accept. The French had no stomach for the fight, apparently, and + allowed the English to go with their arms, exacting nothing but a + pledge that for a year they would not come to the Ohio.</p> + + <p>So ended Washington's first campaign. His friend the + Half-King, the celebrated Seneca chief, Thanacarishon, who + prudently departed on the arrival of the French, has left us a + candid opinion of Washington and his opponents. "The colonel," he + said, "was a good-natured man, but had no experience; he took + upon him to command the Indians as his slaves, and would have + them every day upon the scout and to attack the enemy by + themselves, but would by no means take advice from the Indians. + He lay in one place from one full moon to the other, without + making any fortifications, except that little thing on the + meadow; whereas, had he taken advice, and built such + fortifications as I advised him, he might easily have beat off + the French. But the French in the engagement acted like cowards, + and the English like fools."<a id="footnotetag1-5" name= + "footnotetag1-5"></a><a href="#footnote1-5"><sup>1</sup></a></p> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote1-5" name="footnote1-5"></a>[<b>Footnote 1:</b> + <a href="#footnotetag1-5">(return)</a> <i>Enquiry into the + Causes and Alienations of the Delaware and Shawanee + Indians</i>, etc. London, 1759. By Charles Thomson, afterwards + Secretary of Congress.] + </blockquote> + + <p>There is a deal of truth in this opinion. The whole expedition + was rash in the extreme. When Washington left Will's Creek he was + aware that he was going to meet a force of a thousand men with + only a hundred and fifty raw recruits at his back. In the same + spirit he pushed on; and after the Jumonville affair, although he + knew that the wilderness about him was swarming with enemies, he + still struggled forward. When forced to retreat he made a stand + at the Meadows and offered battle in the open to his more + numerous and more prudent foes, for he was one of those men who + by nature regard courage as a substitute for everything, and who + have a contempt for hostile odds. He was ready to meet any number + of French and Indians with cheerful confidence and with real + pleasure. He wrote, in a letter which soon became famous, that he + loved to hear bullets whistle, a sage observation which he set + down in later years as a folly of youth. Yet this boyish + outburst, foolish as it was, has a meaning to us, for it was + essentially true. Washington had the fierce fighting temper of + the Northmen. He loved battle and danger, and he never ceased to + love them and to give way to their excitement, although he did + not again set down such sentiments in boastful phrase that made + the world laugh. Men of such temper, moreover, are naturally + imperious and have a fine disregard of consequences, with the + result that their allies, Indian or otherwise, often become + impatient and finally useless. The campaign was perfectly wild + from the outset, and if it had not been for the utter + indifference to danger displayed by Washington, and the + consequent timidity of the French, that particular body of + Virginians would have been permanently lost to the British + Empire.</p> + + <p>But we learn from all this many things. It appears that + Washington was not merely a brave man, but one who loved fighting + for its own sake. The whole expedition shows an arbitrary temper + and the most reckless courage, valuable qualities, but here + unrestrained, and mixed with very little prudence. Some important + lessons were learned by Washington from the rough teachings of + inexorable and unconquerable facts. He received in this campaign + the first taste of that severe experience which by its training + developed the self-control and mastery of temper for which he + became so remarkable. He did not spring into life a perfect and + impossible man, as is so often represented. On the contrary, he + was educated by circumstances; but the metal came out of the + furnace of experience finely tempered, because it was by nature + of the best and with but little dross to be purged away. In + addition to all this he acquired for the moment what would now be + called a European reputation. He was known in Paris as an + assassin, and in England, thanks to the bullet letter, as a + "fanfaron" and brave braggart. With these results he wended his + way home much depressed in spirits, but not in the least + discouraged, and fonder of fighting than ever.</p> + + <p>Virginia, however, took a kinder view of the campaign than did + her defeated soldier. She appreciated the gallantry of the offer + to fight in the open and the general conduct of the troops, and + her House of Burgesses passed a vote of thanks to Washington and + his officers, and gave money to his men. In August he rejoined + his regiment, only to renew the vain struggle against + incompetence and extravagance, and as if this were not enough, + his sense of honor was wounded and his temper much irritated by + the governor's playing false to the prisoners taken in the + Jumonville fight. While thus engaged, news came that the French + were off their guard at Fort Duquesne, and Dinwiddie was for + having the regiment of undisciplined troops march again into the + wilderness. Washington, however, had learned something, if not a + great deal, and he demonstrated the folly of such an attempt in a + manner too clear to be confuted.</p> + + <p>Meantime the Burgesses came together, and more money being + voted, Dinwiddie hit on a notable plan for quieting dissensions + between regulars and provincials by dividing all the troops into + independent companies, with no officer higher than a captain. + Washington, the only officer who had seen fighting and led a + regiment, resented quite properly this senseless policy, and + resigning his commission withdrew to Mount Vernon to manage the + estate and attend to his own affairs. He was driven to this + course still more strongly by the original cause of Dinwiddie's + arrangement. The English government had issued an order that + officers holding the king's commission should rank provincial + officers, and that provincial generals and field officers should + have no rank when a general or field officer holding a royal + commission was present. The degradation of being ranked by every + whipper-snapper who might hold a royal commission by virtue, + perhaps, of being the bastard son of some nobleman's cast-off + mistress was more than the temper of George Washington at least + could bear, and when Governor Sharpe, general by the king's + commission, and eager to secure the services of the best fighter + in Virginia, offered him a company and urged his acceptance, he + replied in language that must have somewhat astonished his + excellency. "You make mention in your letter," he wrote to + Colonel Fitzhugh, Governor Sharpe's second in command, "of my + continuing in the service, and retaining my colonel's commission. + This idea has filled me with surprise; for, if you think me + capable of holding a commission that has neither rank nor + emolument annexed to it, you must entertain a very contemptible + opinion of my weakness, and believe me to be more empty than the + commission itself.... In short, every captain bearing the king's + commission, every half-pay officer, or others, appearing with + such a commission, would rank before me.... Yet my inclinations + are strongly bent to arms."</p> + + <p>It was a bitter disappointment to withdraw from military life, + but Washington had an intense sense of personal dignity; not the + small vanity of a petty mind, but the quality of a proud man + conscious of his own strength and purpose. It was of immense + value to the American people at a later day, and there is + something very instructive in this early revolt against the + stupid arrogance which England has always thought it wise to + display toward this country. She has paid dearly for indulging + it, but it has seldom cost her more than when it drove Washington + from her service, and left in his mind a sense of indignity and + injustice.</p> + + <p>Meantime this Virginian campaigning had started a great + movement. England was aroused, and it was determined to assail + France in Nova Scotia, from New York and on the Ohio. In + accordance with this plan General Braddock arrived in Virginia + February 20, 1755, with two picked regiments, and encamped at + Alexandria. Thither Washington used to ride and look longingly at + the pomp and glitter, and wish that he wore engaged in the + service. Presently this desire became known, and Braddock, + hearing of the young Virginian's past experience, offered him a + place on his staff with the rank of colonel where he would be + subject only to the orders of the general, and could serve as a + volunteer. He therefore accepted at once, and threw himself into + his new duties with hearty good-will. Every step now was full of + instruction. At Annapolis he met the governors of the other + colonies, and was interested and attracted by this association + with distinguished public men. In the army to which he was + attached he studied with the deepest attention the best + discipline of Europe, observing everything and forgetting + nothing, thus preparing himself unconsciously to use against his + teachers the knowledge he acquired.</p> + + <p>He also made warm friends with the English officers, and was + treated with consideration by his commander. The universal + practice of all Englishmen at that time was to behave + contemptuously to the colonists, but there was something about + Washington which made this impossible. They all treated him with + the utmost courtesy, vaguely conscious that beneath the pleasant, + quiet manner there was a strength of character and ability such + as is rarely found, and that this was a man whom it was unsafe to + affront. There is no stronger instance of Washington's power of + impressing himself upon others than that he commanded now the + respect and affection of his general, who was the last man to be + easily or favorably affected by a young provincial officer.</p> + + <p>Edward Braddock was a veteran soldier, a skilled + disciplinarian, and a rigid martinet. He was narrow-minded, + brutal, and brave. He had led a fast life in society, indulging + in coarse and violent dissipations, and was proud with the + intense pride of a limited intelligence and a nature incapable of + physical fear. It would be difficult to conceive of a man more + unfit to be entrusted with the task of marching through the + wilderness and sweeping the French from the Ohio. All the + conditions which confronted him were unfamiliar and beyond his + experience. He cordially despised the provincials who were + essential to his success, and lost no opportunity of showing his + contempt for them. The colonists on their side, especially in + Pennsylvania, gave him, unfortunately, only too much ground for + irritation and disgust. They were delighted to see this brilliant + force come from England to fight their battles, but they kept on + wrangling and holding back, refusing money and supplies, and + doing nothing. Braddock chafed and delayed, swore angrily, and + lingered still. Washington strove to help him, but defended his + country fearlessly against wholesale and furious attacks.</p> + + <p>Finally the army began to move, but so slowly and after so + much delay that they did not reach Will's Creek until the middle + of May. Here came another exasperating pause, relieved only by + Franklin, who, by giving his own time, ability, and money, + supplied the necessary wagons. Then they pushed on again, but + with the utmost slowness. With supreme difficulty they made an + elaborate road over the mountains as they marched, and did not + reach the Little Meadows until June 16. Then at last Braddock + turned to his young aide for the counsel which had already been + proffered and rejected many times. Washington advised the + division of the army, so that the main body could hurry forward + in light marching order while a detachment remained behind and + brought up the heavy baggage. This plan was adopted, and the army + started forward, still too heavily burdened, as Washington + thought, but in somewhat better trim for the wilderness than + before. Their progress, quickened as it was, still seemed slow to + Washington, but he was taken ill with a fever, and finally was + compelled by Braddock to stop for rest at the ford of + Youghiogany. He made Braddock promise that he should be brought + up before the army reached Fort Duquesne, and wrote to his friend + Orme that he would not miss the impending battle for five hundred + pounds.</p> + + <p>As soon as his fever abated a little he left Colonel Dunbar, + and, being unable to sit on a horse, was conveyed to the front in + a wagon, coming up with the army on July 8. He was just in time, + for the next day the troops forded the Monongahela and marched to + attack the fort. The splendid appearance of the soldiers as they + crossed the river roused Washington's enthusiasm; but he was not + without misgivings. Franklin had already warned Braddock against + the danger of surprise, and had been told with a sneer that while + these savages might be a formidable enemy to raw American + militia, they could make no impression on disciplined troops. Now + at the last moment Washington warned the general again and was + angrily rebuked.</p> + + <p>The troops marched on in ordered ranks, glittering and + beautiful. Suddenly firing was heard in the front, and presently + the van was flung back on the main body. Yells and war-whoops + resounded on every side, and an unseen enemy poured in a deadly + fire. Washington begged Braddock to throw his men into the woods, + but all in vain. Fight in platoons they must, or not at all. The + result was that they did not fight at all. They became + panic-stricken, and huddled together, overcome with fear, until + at last when Braddock was mortally wounded they broke in wild + rout and fled. Of the regular troops, seven hundred, and of the + officers, who showed the utmost bravery, sixty-two out of + eighty-six, were killed or wounded. Two hundred Frenchmen and six + hundred Indians achieved this signal victory. The only thing that + could be called fighting on the English side was done by the + Virginians, "the raw American militia," who, spread out as + skirmishers, met their foes on their own ground, and were cut off + after a desperate resistance almost to a man.</p> + + <p>Washington at the outset flung himself headlong into the + fight. He rode up and down the field, carrying orders and + striving to rally "the dastards," as he afterwards called the + regular troops. He endeavored to bring up the artillery, but the + men would not serve the guns, although to set an example he aimed + and discharged one himself. All through that dreadful carnage he + rode fiercely about, raging with the excitement of battle, and + utterly exposed from beginning to end. Even now it makes the + heart beat quicker to think of him amid the smoke and slaughter + as he dashed hither and thither, his face glowing and his eyes + shining with the fierce light of battle, leading on his own + Virginians, and trying to stay the tide of disaster. He had two + horses shot under him and four bullets through his coat. The + Indians thought he bore a charmed life, while his death was + reported in the colonies, together with his dying speech, which, + he dryly wrote to his brother, he had not yet composed.</p> + + <p>When the troops broke it was Washington who gathered the + fugitives and brought off the dying general. It was he who rode + on to meet Dunbar, and rallying the fugitives enabled the + wretched remnants to take up their march for the settlements. He + it was who laid Braddock in the grave four days after the defeat, + and read over the dead the solemn words of the English service. + Wise, sensible, and active in the advance, splendidly reckless on + the day of battle, cool and collected on the retreat, Washington + alone emerged from that history of disaster with added glory. + Again he comes before us as, above all things, the fighting man, + hot-blooded and fierce in action, and utterly indifferent to the + danger which excited and delighted him. But the earlier lesson + had not been useless. He now showed a prudence and wisdom in + counsel which were not apparent in the first of his campaigns, + and he no longer thought that mere courage was all-sufficient, or + that any enemy could be despised. He was plainly one of those who + could learn. His first experience had borne good fruit, and now + he had been taught a series of fresh and valuable lessons. Before + his eyes had been displayed the most brilliant European + discipline, both in camp and on the march. He had studied and + absorbed it all, talking with veterans and hearing from them many + things that he could have acquired nowhere else. Once more had he + been taught, in a way not to be forgotten, that it is never well + to underrate one's opponent. He had looked deeper, too, and had + seen what the whole continent soon understood, that English + troops were not invincible, that they could be beaten by Indians, + and that they were after all much like other men. This was the + knowledge, fatal in after days to British supremacy, which + Braddock's defeat brought to Washington and to the colonists, and + which was never forgotten. Could he have looked into the future, + he would have seen also in this ill-fated expedition an epitome + of much future history. The expedition began with stupid contempt + toward America and all things American, and ended in ruin and + defeat. It was a bitter experience, much heeded by the colonists, + but disregarded by England, whose indifference was paid for at a + heavy cost.</p> + + <p>After the hasty retreat, Colonel Dunbar, stricken with panic, + fled onward to Philadelphia, abandoning everything, and Virginia + was left naturally in a state of great alarm. The assembly came + together, and at last, thoroughly frightened, voted abundant + money, and ordered a regiment of a thousand men to be raised. + Washington, who had returned to Mount Vernon ill and worn-out, + was urged to solicit the command, but it was not his way to + solicit, and he declined to do so now. August 14, he wrote to his + mother: "If it is in my power to avoid going to the Ohio again, I + shall; but if the command is pressed upon me by the general voice + of the country, and offered upon such terms as cannot be objected + against, it would reflect dishonor on me to refuse it." The same + day he was offered the command of all the Virginian forces on his + own terms, and accepted. Virginia believed in Washington, and he + was ready to obey her call.</p> + + <p>He at once assumed command and betook himself to Winchester, a + general without an army, but still able to check by his presence + the existing panic, and ready to enter upon the trying, dreary, + and fruitless work that lay before him. In April, 1757, he wrote: + "I have been posted then, for more than twenty months past, upon + our cold and barren frontiers, to perform, I think I may say, + impossibilities; that is, to protect from the cruel incursions of + a crafty, savage enemy a line of inhabitants, of more than three + hundred and fifty miles in extent, with a force inadequate to the + task." This terse statement covers all that can be said of the + next three years. It was a long struggle against a savage foe in + front, and narrowness, jealousy, and stupidity behind; apparently + without any chance of effecting anything, or gaining any glory or + reward. Troops were voted, but were raised with difficulty, and + when raised were neglected and ill-treated by the wrangling + governor and assembly, which caused much ill-suppressed wrath in + the breast of the commander-in-chief, who labored day and night + to bring about better discipline in camp, and who wrote long + letters to Williamsburg recounting existing evils and praying for + a new militia law.</p> + + <p>The troops, in fact, were got out with vast difficulty even + under the most stinging necessity, and were almost worthless when + they came. Of one "noble captain" who refused to come, Washington + wrote: "With coolness and moderation this great captain answered + that his wife, family, and corn were all at stake; so were those + of his soldiers; therefore it was impossible for him to come. + Such is the example of the officers; such the behavior of the + men; and upon such circumstances depends the safety of our + country!" But while the soldiers were neglected, and the assembly + faltered, and the militia disobeyed, the French and Indians kept + at work on the long, exposed frontier. There panic reigned, + farmhouses and villages went up in smoke, and the fields were + reddened with slaughter at each fresh incursion. Gentlemen in + Williamsburg bore these misfortunes with reasonable fortitude, + but Washington raged against the abuses and the inaction, and + vowed that nothing but the imminent danger prevented his + resignation. "The supplicating tears of the women," he wrote, + "and moving petitions of the men melt me into such deadly sorrow + that I solemnly declare, if I know my own mind, I could offer + myself a willing sacrifice to the butchering enemy, provided that + would contribute to the people's ease." This is one of the rare + flashes of personal feeling which disclose the real man, warm of + heart and temper, full of human sympathy, and giving vent to hot + indignation in words which still ring clear and strong across the + century that has come and gone.</p> + + <p>Serious troubles, moreover, were complicated by petty + annoyances. A Maryland captain, at the head of thirty men, + undertook to claim rank over the Virginian commander-in-chief + because he had held a king's commission; and Washington was + obliged to travel to Boston in order to have the miserable thing + set right by Governor Shirley. This affair settled, he returned + to take up again the old disheartening struggle, and his + outspoken condemnation of Dinwiddie's foolish schemes and of the + shortcomings of the government began to raise up backbiters and + malcontents at Williamsburg. "My orders," he said, "are dark, + doubtful, and uncertain; to-day approved, to-morrow condemned. + Left to act and proceed at hazard, accountable for the + consequences, and blamed without the benefit of defense." He + determined nevertheless to bear with his trials until the arrival + of Lord Loudon, the new commander-in-chief, from whom he expected + vigor and improvement. Unfortunately he was destined to have only + fresh disappointment from the new general, for Lord Loudon was + merely one more incompetent man added to the existing confusion. + He paid no heed to the South, matters continued to go badly in + the North, and Virginia was left helpless. So Washington toiled + on with much discouragement, and the disagreeable attacks upon + him increased. That it should have been so is not surprising, for + he wrote to the governor, who now held him in much disfavor, to + the speaker, and indeed to every one, with a most galling + plainness. He was only twenty-five, be it remembered, and his + high temper was by no means under perfect control. He was + anything but diplomatic at that period of his life, and was far + from patient, using language with much sincerity and force, and + indulging in a blunt irony of rather a ferocious kind. When he + was accused finally of getting up reports of imaginary dangers, + his temper gave way entirely. He wrote wrathfully to the governor + for justice, and added in a letter to his friend, Captain + Peachey: "As to Colonel C.'s gross and infamous reflections on my + conduct last spring, it will be needless, I dare say, to observe + further at this time than that the liberty which he has been + pleased to allow himself in sporting with my character is little + else than a comic entertainment, discovering at one view his + passionate fondness for your friend, his inviolable love of + truth, his unfathomable knowledge, and the masterly strokes of + his wisdom in displaying it. You are heartily welcome to make use + of any letter or letters which I may at any time have written to + you; for although I keep no copies of epistles to my friends, nor + can remember the contents of all of them, yet I am sensible that + the narrations are just, and that truth and honesty will appear + in my writings; of which, therefore, I shall not be ashamed, + though criticism may censure my style."</p> + + <p>Perhaps a little more patience would have produced better + results, but it is pleasant to find one man, in that period of + stupidity and incompetency, who was ready to free his mind in + this refreshing way. The only wonder is that he was not driven + from his command. That they insisted on keeping him there shows + beyond everything that he had already impressed himself so + strongly on Virginia that the authorities, although they smarted + under his attacks, did not dare to meddle with him. Dinwiddie and + the rest could foil him in obtaining a commission in the king's + army, but they could not shake his hold upon the people.</p> + + <p>In the winter of 1758 his health broke down completely. He was + so ill that he thought that his constitution was seriously + injured; and therefore withdrew to Mount Vernon, where he slowly + recovered. Meantime a great man came at last to the head of + affairs in England, and inspired by William Pitt, fleets and + armies went forth to conquer. Reviving at the prospect, + Washington offered his services to General Forbes, who had come + to undertake the task which Braddock had failed to accomplish. + Once more English troops appeared, and a large army was gathered. + Then the old story began again, and Washington, whose proffered + aid had been gladly received, chafed and worried all summer at + the fresh spectacle of delay and stupidity which was presented to + him. His advice was disregarded, and all the weary business of + building new roads through the wilderness was once more + undertaken. A detachment, sent forward contrary to his views, met + with the fate of Braddock, and as the summer passed, and autumn + changed to winter, it looked as if nothing would be gained in + return for so much toil and preparation. But Pitt had conquered + the Ohio in Canada, news arrived of the withdrawal of the French, + the army pressed on, and, with Washington in the van, marched + into the smoking ruins of Fort Duquesne, henceforth to be known + to the world as Fort Pitt.</p> + + <p>So closed the first period in Washington's public career. We + have seen him pass through it in all its phases. It shows him as + an adventurous pioneer, as a reckless frontier fighter, and as a + soldier of great promise. He learned many things in this time, + and was taught much in the hard school of adversity. In the + effort to conquer Frenchmen and Indians he studied the art of + war, and at the same time he learned to bear with and to overcome + the dullness and inefficiency of the government he served. Thus + he was forced to practise self-control in order to attain his + ends, and to acquire skill in the management of men. There could + have been no better training for the work he was to do in the + after years, and the future showed how deeply he profited by it. + Let us turn now, for a moment, to the softer and pleasanter side + of life, and having seen what Washington was, and what he did as + a fighting man, let us try to know him in the equally important + and far more attractive domain of private and domestic life.</p> + + <p> </p> + <hr /> + + <h2><a name="IV" id="IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2> + + <h2>LOVE AND MARRIAGE</h2> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:35%;"> + <a href="images/illus0385.jpg"><img width="100%" src= + "images/illus0385.jpg" alt="Mary Cary" /></a>Mary Cary + </div> + + <p>Lewis Willis, of Fredericksburg, who was at school with + Washington, used to speak of him as an unusually studious and + industrious boy, but recalled one occasion when he distinguished + himself and surprised his schoolmates by "romping with one of the + largest girls."<a id="footnotetag1-6" name= + "footnotetag1-6"></a><a href="#footnote1-6"><sup>1</sup></a> Half + a century later, when the days of romping were long over and + gone, a gentleman writing of a Mrs. Hartley, whom Washington much + admired, said that the general always liked a fine woman.<a id= + "footnotetag2-7" name="footnotetag2-7"></a><a href= + "#footnote2-7"><sup>2</sup></a> It is certain that from romping + he passed rapidly to more serious forms of expressing regard, for + by the time he was fourteen he had fallen deeply in love with + Mary Bland of Westmoreland, whom he calls his "Lowland Beauty," + and to whom he wrote various copies of verses, preserved amid the + notes of surveys, in his diary for 1747-48. The old tradition + identified the "Lowland Beauty" with Miss Lucy Grymes, perhaps + correctly, and there are drafts of letters addressed to "Dear + Sally," which suggest that the mistake in identification might + have arisen from the fact that there were several ladies who + answered to that description. In the following sentence from the + draft of a letter to a masculine sympathizer, also preserved in + the tell-tale diary of 1748, there is certainly an indication + that the constancy of the lover was not perfect. "Dear Friend + Robin," he wrote: "My place of residence at present is at his + Lordship's, where I might, were my heart disengaged, pass my time + very pleasantly, as there is a very agreeable young lady in the + same house, Colonel George Fairfax's wife's sister. But that only + adds fuel to the fire, as being often and unavoidably in company + with her revives my former passion for your Lowland Beauty; + whereas were I to live more retired from young women, I might in + some measure alleviate my sorrow by burying that chaste and + troublesome passion in oblivion; I am very well assured that this + will be the only antidote or remedy." Our gloomy young gentleman, + however, did not take to solitude to cure the pangs of despised + love, but preceded to calm his spirits by the society of this + same sister-in-law of George Fairfax, Miss Mary Cary. One + "Lowland Beauty," Lucy Grymes, married Henry Lee, and became the + mother of "Legion Harry," a favorite officer and friend of + Washington in the Revolution, and the grandmother of Robert E. + Lee, the great soldier of the Southern Confederacy. The affair + with Miss Cary went on apparently for some years, fitfully + pursued in the intervals of war and Indian fighting, and + interrupted also by matters of a more tender nature. The first + diversion occurred about 1752, when we find Washington writing to + William Fauntleroy, at Richmond, that he proposed to come to his + house to see his sister, Miss Betsy, and that he hoped for a + revocation of her former cruel sentence.<a id="footnotetag3-8" + name="footnotetag3-8"></a><a href="#footnote3-8"><sup>3</sup></a> + Miss Betsy, however, seems to have been obdurate, and we hear no + more of love affairs until much later, and then in connection + with matters of a graver sort.</p> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote1-6" name="footnote1-6"></a>[<b>Footnote 1:</b> + <a href="#footnotetag1-6">(return)</a> Quoted from the Willis + MS. by Mr. Conway, in <i>Magazine of American History</i>, + March, 1887, p. 196.] + </blockquote> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote2-7" name="footnote2-7"></a>[<b>Footnote 2:</b> + <a href="#footnotetag2-7">(return)</a> <i>Magazine of American + History</i>, i. 324.] + </blockquote> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote3-8" name="footnote3-8"></a>[<b>Footnote 3:</b> + <a href="#footnotetag3-8">(return)</a> <i>Historical + Magazine</i>, 3d series, 1873. Letter communicated by Fitzhugh + Lee.] + </blockquote> + + <p>When Captain Dagworthy, commanding thirty men in the Maryland + service, undertook in virtue of a king's commission to outrank + the commander-in-chief of the Virginian forces, Washington made + up his mind that he would have this question at least finally and + properly settled. So, as has been said, he went to Boston, saw + Governor Shirley, and had the dispute determined in his own + favor. He made the journey on horseback, and had with him two of + his aides and two servants. An old letter, luckily preserved, + tells us how he looked, for it contains orders to his London + agents for various articles, sent for perhaps in anticipation of + this very expedition. In Braddock's campaign the young surveyor + and frontier soldier had been thrown among a party of dashing, + handsomely equipped officers fresh from London, and their + appearance had engaged his careful attention. Washington was a + thoroughly simple man in all ways, but he was also a man of taste + and a lover of military discipline. He had a keen sense of + appropriateness, a valuable faculty which stood him in good stead + in grave as well as trivial matters all through his career, and + which in his youth came out most strongly in the matter of + manners and personal appearance. He was a handsome man, and liked + to be well dressed and to have everything about himself or his + servants of the best. Yet he was not a mere imitator of fashions + or devoted to fine clothes. The American leggins and fringed + hunting-shirt had a strong hold on his affections, and he + introduced them into Forbes's army, and again into the army of + the Revolution, as the best uniform for the backwoods fighters. + But he learned with Braddock that the dress of parade has as real + military value as that of service, and when he traveled northward + to settle about Captain Dagworthy, he felt justly that he now was + going on parade for the first time as the representative of his + troops and his colony. Therefore with excellent sense he dressed + as befitted the occasion, and at the same time gratified his own + taste.</p> + + <p>Thanks to these precautions, the little cavalcade that left + Virginia on February 4, 1756, must have looked brilliant enough + as they rode away through the dark woods. First came the colonel, + mounted of course on the finest of animals, for he loved and + understood horses from the time when he rode bareback in the + pasture to those later days when he acted as judge at a + horse-race and saw his own pet colt "Magnolia" beaten. In this + expedition he wore, of course, his uniform of buff and blue, with + a white and scarlet cloak over his shoulders, and a sword-knot of + red and gold. His "horse furniture" was of the best London make, + trimmed with "livery lace," and the Washington arms were engraved + upon the housings. Close by his side rode his two aides, likewise + in buff and blue, and behind came his servants, dressed in the + Washington colors of white and scarlet and wearing hats laced + with silver. Thus accoutred, they all rode on together to the + North.</p> + + <p>The colonel's fame had gone before him, for the hero of + Braddock's stricken field and the commander of the Virginian + forces was known by reputation throughout the colonies. Every + door flew open to him as he passed, and every one was delighted + to welcome the young soldier. He was dined and wined and + fêted in Philadelphia, and again in New York, where he fell + in love at apparently short notice with the heiress Mary + Philipse, the sister-in-law of his friend Beverly Robinson. + Tearing himself away from these attractions he pushed on to + Boston, then the most important city on the continent, and the + head-quarters of Shirley, the commander-in-chief. The little New + England capital had at that time a society which, rich for those + days, was relieved from its Puritan sombreness by the gayety and + life brought in by the royal officers. Here Washington lingered + ten days, talking war and politics with the governor, visiting in + state the "great and general court," dancing every night at some + ball, dining with and being fêted by the magnates of the + town. His business done, he returned to New York, tarried there + awhile for the sake of the fair dame, but came to no conclusions, + and then, like the soldier in the song, he gave his bridle-rein a + shake and rode away again to the South, and to the harassed and + ravaged frontier of Virginia.</p> + + <p>How much this little interlude, pushed into a corner as it has + been by the dignity of history,—how much it tells of the + real man! How the statuesque myth and the priggish myth and the + dull and solemn myth melt away before it! Wise and strong, a + bearer of heavy responsibility beyond his years, daring in fight + and sober in judgment, we have here the other and the more human + side of Washington. One loves to picture that gallant, generous, + youthful figure, brilliant in color and manly in form, riding + gayly on from one little colonial town to another, feasting, + dancing, courting, and making merry. For him the myrtle and ivy + were entwined with the laurel, and fame was sweetened by youth. + He was righteously ready to draw from life all the good things + which fate and fortune then smiling upon him could offer, and he + took his pleasure frankly, with an honest heart.</p> + + <p>We know that he succeeded in his mission and put the captain + of thirty men in his proper place, but no one now can tell how + deeply he was affected by the charms of Miss Philipse. The only + certain fact is that he was able not long after to console + himself very effectually. Riding away from Mount Vernon once + more, in the spring of 1758, this time to Williamsburg with + dispatches, he stopped at William's Ferry to dine with his friend + Major Chamberlayne, and there he met Martha Dandridge, the widow + of Daniel Parke Custis. She was young, pretty, intelligent, and + an heiress, and her society seemed to attract the young soldier. + The afternoon wore away, the horses came to the door at the + appointed time, and after being walked back and forth for some + hours were returned to the stable. The sun went down, and still + the colonel lingered. The next morning he rode away with his + dispatches, but on his return he paused at the White House, the + home of Mrs. Custis, and then and there plighted his troth with + the charming widow. The wooing was brief and decisive, and the + successful lover departed for the camp, to feel more keenly than + ever the delays of the British officers and the shortcomings of + the colonial government. As soon as Fort Duquesne had fallen he + hurried home, resigned his commission in the last week of + December, and was married on January 6, 1759. It was a brilliant + wedding party which assembled on that winter day in the little + church near the White House. There were gathered Francis + Fauquier, the gay, free-thinking, high-living governor, gorgeous + in scarlet and gold; British officers, redcoated and gold-laced, + and all the neighboring gentry in the handsomest clothes that + London credit could furnish. The bride was attired in silk and + satin, laces and brocade, with pearls on her neck and in her + ears; while the bridegroom appeared in blue and silver trimmed + with scarlet, and with gold buckles at his knees and on his + shoes. After the ceremony the bride was taken home in a coach and + six, her husband riding beside her, mounted on a splendid horse + and followed by all the gentlemen of the party.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:35%;"> + <a href="images/illus0387.jpg"><img width="100%" src= + "images/illus0387.jpg" alt= + "Mary Morris born Mary Philipse" /></a> Mary Morris born Mary + Philipse + </div> + + <p>The sunshine and glitter of the wedding-day must have appeared + to Washington deeply appropriate, for he certainly seemed to have + all that heart of man could desire. Just twenty-seven, in the + first flush of young manhood, keen of sense and yet wise in + experience, life must have looked very fair and smiling. He had + left the army with a well-earned fame, and had come home to take + the wife of his choice and enjoy the good-will and respect of all + men. While away on his last campaign he had been elected a member + of the House of Burgesses, and when he took his seat on removing + to Williamsburg, three months after his marriage, Mr. Robinson, + the speaker, thanked him publicly in eloquent words for his + services to the country. Washington rose to reply, but he was so + utterly unable to talk about himself that he stood before the + House stammering and blushing, until the speaker said, "Sit down, + Mr. Washington; your modesty equals your valor, and that + surpasses the power of any language I possess." It is an old + story, and as graceful as it is old, but it was all very grateful + to Washington, especially as the words of the speaker bodied + forth the feelings of Virginia. Such an atmosphere, filled with + deserved respect and praise, was pleasant to begin with, and then + he had everything else too.</p> + + <p>He not only continued to sit in the House year after year and + help to rule Virginia, but he served on the church vestry, and so + held in his hands the reins of local government. He had married a + charming woman, simple, straightforward, and sympathetic, free + from gossip or pretense, and as capable in practical matters as + he was himself. By right of birth a member of the Virginian + aristocracy, he had widened and strengthened his connections + through his wife. A man of handsome property by the death of + Lawrence Washington's daughter, he had become by his marriage one + of the richest men of the country. Acknowledged to be the first + soldier on the continent, respected and trusted in public, + successful and happy in private life, he had attained before he + was thirty to all that Virginia could give of wealth, prosperity, + and honor, a fact of which he was well aware, for there never + breathed a man more wisely contented than George Washington at + this period.</p> + + <p>He made his home at Mount Vernon, adding many acres to the + estate, and giving to it his best attention. It is needless to + say that he was successful, for that was the ease with everything + he undertook. He loved country life, and he was the best and most + prosperous planter in Virginia, which was really a more difficult + achievement than the mere statement implies. Genuinely profitable + farming in Virginia was not common, for the general system was a + bad one. A single great staple, easily produced by the reckless + exhaustion of land, and varying widely in the annual value of + crops, bred improvidence and speculation. Everything was bought + upon long credits, given by the London merchants, and this, too, + contributed largely to carelessness and waste. The chronic state + of a planter in a business way was one of debt, and the lack of + capital made his conduct of affairs extravagant and loose. With + all his care and method Washington himself was often pinched for + ready money, and it was only by his thoroughness and foresight + that he prospered and made money while so many of his neighbors + struggled with debt and lived on in easy luxury, not knowing what + the morrow might bring forth.</p> + + <p>A far more serious trouble than bad business methods was one + which was little heeded at the moment, but which really lay at + the foundation of the whole system of society and business. This + was the character of the labor by which the plantations were + worked. Slave labor is well known now to be the most expensive + and the worst form of labor that can be employed. In the middle + of the eighteenth century, however, its evils were not + appreciated, either from an economical or a moral point of view. + This is not the place to discuss the subject of African slavery + in America. But it is important to know Washington's opinions in + regard to an institution which was destined to have such a + powerful influence upon the country, and it seems most + appropriate to consider those opinions at the moment when slaves + became a practical factor in his life as a Virginian planter.</p> + + <p>Washington accepted the system as he found it, as most men + accept the social arrangements to which they are born. He grew up + in a world where slavery had always existed, and where its + rightfulness had never been questioned. Being on the frontier, + occupied with surveying and with war, he never had occasion to + really consider the matter at all until he found himself at the + head of large estates, with his own prosperity dependent on the + labor of slaves. The first practical question, therefore, was how + to employ this labor to the best advantage. A man of his clear + perceptions soon discovered the defects of the system, and he + gave great attention to feeding and clothing his slaves, and to + their general management. Parkinson<a id="footnotetag1-9" name= + "footnotetag1-9"></a><a href="#footnote1-9"><sup>1</sup></a> says + in a general way that Washington treated his slaves harshly, + spoke to them sharply, and maintained a military discipline, to + which he attributed the General's rare success as a planter. + There can be no doubt of the success, and the military discipline + is probably true, but the statement as to harshness is + unsupported by any other authority. Indeed, Parkinson even + contradicts it himself, for he says elsewhere that Washington + never bought or sold a slave, a proof of the highest and most + intelligent humanity; and he adds in his final sketch of the + General's character, that he "was incapable of wrong-doing, but + did to all men as he would they should do to him. Therefore it is + not to be supposed that he would injure the negro." This agrees + with what we learn from all other sources. Humane by nature, he + conceived a great interest and pity for these helpless beings, + and treated them with kindness and forethought. In a word, he was + a wise and good master, as well as a successful one, and the + condition of his slaves was as happy, and their labor as + profitable, as was possible to such a system.</p> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote1-9" name="footnote1-9"></a>[<b>Footnote 1:</b> + <a href="#footnotetag1-9">(return)</a> <i>Tour in America</i>, + 1798-1800.] + </blockquote> + + <p>So the years rolled by; the war came and then the making of + the government, and Washington's thoughts were turned more and + more, as was the case with all the men of his time in that era of + change and of new ideas, to the consideration of human slavery in + its moral, political, and social aspects. To trace the course of + his opinions in detail is needless. It is sufficient to summarize + them, for the results of his reflection and observation are more + important than the processes by which they were reached. + Washington became convinced that the whole system was thoroughly + bad, as well as utterly repugnant to the ideas upon which the + Revolution was fought and the government of the United States + founded. With a prescience wonderful for those days and on that + subject, he saw that slavery meant the up-growth in the United + States of two systems so radically hostile, both socially and + economically, that they could lead only to a struggle for + political supremacy, which in its course he feared would imperil + the Union. For this reason he deprecated the introduction of the + slavery question into the debates of the first Congress, because + he realized its character, and he did not believe that the Union + or the government at that early day could bear the strain which + in this way would be produced. At the same time he felt that a + right solution must be found or inconceivable evils would ensue. + The inherent and everlasting wrong of the system made its + continuance, to his mind, impossible. While it existed, he + believed that the laws which surrounded it should be maintained, + because he thought that to violate these only added one wrong to + another. He also doubted, as will be seen in a later chapter, + where his conversation with John Bernard is quoted, whether the + negroes could be immediately emancipated with safety either to + themselves or to the whites, in their actual condition of + ignorance, illiteracy, and helplessness. The plan which he + favored, and which, it would seem, was his hope and reliance, was + first the checking of importation, followed by a gradual + emancipation, with proper compensation to the owners and suitable + preparation and education for the slaves. He told the clergymen + Asbury and Coke, when they visited him for that purpose, that he + was in favor of emancipation, and was ready to write a letter to + the assembly to that effect.<a id="footnotetag1-10" name= + "footnotetag1-10"></a><a href="#footnote1-10"><sup>1</sup></a> He + wished fervently that such a spirit might take possession of the + people of the country, but he wrote to Lafayette that he + despaired of seeing it. When he died he did all that lay within + his power to impress his views upon his countrymen by directing + that all his slaves should be set free on the death of his wife. + His precepts and his example in this grave matter went unheeded + for many years by the generations which came after him. But now + that slavery is dead, to the joy of all men, it is well to + remember that on this terrible question Washington's opinions + were those of a humane man, impatient of wrong, and of a noble + and far-seeing statesman, watchful of the evils that threatened + his country.<a id="footnotetag2-11" name= + "footnotetag2-11"></a><a href= + "#footnote2-11"><sup>2</sup></a></p> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote1-10" name="footnote1-10"></a>[<b>Footnote + 1:</b> <a href="#footnotetag1-10">(return)</a> <i>Magazine of + American History</i>, 1880, p. 158.] + </blockquote> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote2-11" name="footnote2-11"></a>[<b>Footnote + 2:</b> <a href="#footnotetag2-11">(return)</a> For some + expressions of Washington's opinions on slavery, see Sparks, + viii. 414, ix. 159-163, and x. 224.] + </blockquote> + + <p>After this digression let us return to the Virginian farmer, + whose mind was not disturbed as yet by thoughts of the destiny of + the United States, or considerations of the rights of man, but + who was much exercised by the task of making an honest income out + of his estates. To do this he grappled with details as firmly as + he did with the general system under which all plantations in + that day were carried on. He understood every branch of farming; + he was on the alert for every improvement; he rose early, worked + steadily, gave to everything his personal supervision, kept his + own accounts with wonderful exactness, and naturally enough his + brands of flour went unquestioned everywhere, his credit was + high, and he made money—so far as it was possible under + existing conditions. Like Shakespeare, as Bishop Blougram has it, + he</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>"Saved money, spent it, owned the worth of things."</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>He had no fine and senseless disregard for money or the good + things of this world, but on the contrary saw in them not the + value attached to them by vulgar minds, but their true worth. He + was a solid, square, evenly-balanced man in those days, believing + that whatever he did was worth doing well. So he farmed, as he + fought and governed, better than anybody else.</p> + + <p>While thus looking after his own estates at home, he went + further afield in search of investments, keeping a shrewd eye on + the western lands, and buying wisely and judiciously whenever he + had the opportunity. He also constituted himself now, as in a + later time, the champion of the soldiers, for whom he had the + truest sympathy and affection, and a large part of the + correspondence of this period is devoted to their claims for the + lands granted them by the assembly. He distinguished carefully + among them, however, those who were undeserving, and to the major + of the regiment, who had been excluded from the public thanks on + account of cowardice at the Great Meadows, he wrote as follows: + "Your impertinent letter was delivered to me yesterday. As I am + not accustomed to receive such from any man, nor would have taken + the same language from you personally without letting you feel + some marks of my resentment, I would advise you to be cautious in + writing me a second of the same tenor. But for your stupidity and + sottishness you might have known, by attending to the public + gazette, that you had your full quantity of ten thousand acres of + land allowed you. But suppose you had really fallen short, do you + think your superlative merit entitles you to greater indulgence + than others?... All my concern is that I ever engaged in behalf + of so ungrateful a fellow as you are." The writer of this letter, + be it said in passing, was the man whom Mr. Weems and others tell + us was knocked down before his soldiers, and then apologized to + his assailant. It may be suspected that it was well for the + recipient of this letter that he did not have a personal + interview with its author, and it may be doubted if he ever + sought one subsequently. Just, generous, and magnanimous to an + extraordinary degree, Washington had a dangerous temper, held + well under control, but blazing out now and again against + injustice, insolence, or oppression. He was a peaceful man, + leading a peaceful life, but the fighting spirit only slumbered, + and it would break out at wrong of any sort, in a way which was + extremely unpleasant and threatening to those who aroused it.</p> + + <p>Apart from lands and money and the management of affairs, + public and private, there were many other interests of varied + nature which all had their share of Washington's time and + thought. He was a devoted husband, and gave to his stepchildren + the most affectionate care. He watched over and protected them, + and when the daughter died, after a long and wasting illness, in + 1773, he mourned for her as if she had been his own, with all the + tenderness of a deep and reserved affection. The boy, John + Custis, he made his friend and companion from the beginning, and + his letters to the lad and about him are wise and judicious in + the highest degree. He spent much time and thought on the + question of education, and after securing the best instructors + took the boy to New York and entered him at Columbia College in + 1773. Young Custis, however, did not remain there long, for he + had fallen in love, and the following year was married to Eleanor + Calvert, not without some misgivings on the part of Washington, + who had observed his ward's somewhat flighty disposition, and who + gave a great deal of anxious thought to his future. At home as + abroad he was an undemonstrative man, but he had abundance of + that real affection which labors for those to whom it goes out + more unselfishly and far more effectually than that which bubbles + and boils upon the surface like a shallow, noisy brook.</p> + + <p>From the suggestions that he made in regard to young Custis, + it is evident that Washington valued and respected education, and + that he had that regard for learning for its own sake which + always exists in large measure in every thoughtful man. He read + well, even if his active life prevented his reading much, as we + can see by his vigorous English, and by his occasional allusions + to history. From his London orders we see, too, that everything + about his house must have denoted that its possessor had + refinement and taste. His intense sense of propriety and + unfailing instinct for what was appropriate are everywhere + apparent. His dress, his furniture, his harnesses, the things for + the children, all show the same fondness for simplicity, and yet + a constant insistence that everything should be the best of its + kind. We can learn a good deal about any man by the ornaments of + his house, and by the portraits which hang on his walls; for + these dumb things tell us whom among the great men of earth the + owner admires, and indicate the tastes he best loves to gratify. + When Washington first settled with his wife at Mount Vernon, he + ordered from Europe the busts of Alexander the Great, Charles + XII. of Sweden, Julius Cæsar, Frederick of Prussia, + Marlborough, and Prince Eugene, and in addition he asked for + statuettes of "two wild beasts." The combination of soldier and + statesman is the predominant admiration, then comes the reckless + and splendid military adventurer, and lastly wild life and the + chase. There is no mistaking the ideas and fancies of the man who + penned this order which has drifted down to us from the past.</p> + + <p>But as Washington's active life was largely out of doors, so + too were his pleasures. He loved the fresh open-air existence of + the woods and fields, and there he found his one great amusement. + He shot and fished, but did not care much for these pursuits, for + his hobby was hunting, which gratified at once his passion for + horses and dogs and his love for the strong excitement of the + chase, when dashed with just enough danger to make it really + fascinating. He showed in his sport the same thoroughness and + love of perfection that he displayed in everything else. His + stables were filled with the best horses that Virginia could + furnish. There were the "blooded coach-horses" for Mrs. + Washington's carriage, "Magnolia," a full-blooded Arabian, used + by his owner for the road, the ponies for the children, and + finally, the high-bred hunters Chinkling and Valiant, Ajax and + Blueskin, and the rest, all duly set down in the register in the + handwriting of the master himself. His first visit in the morning + was to the stables; the next to the kennels to inspect and + criticise the hounds, also methodically registered and described, + so that we can read the names of Vulcan and Ringwood, Singer and + Truelove, Music and Sweetlips, to which the Virginian woods once + echoed nearly a century and a half ago. His hounds were the + subject of much thought, and were so constantly and critically + drafted as to speed, keenness, and bottom, that when in full cry + they ran so closely bunched that tradition says, in classic + phrase, they could have been covered with a blanket. The hounds + met three times a week in the season, usually at Mount Vernon, + sometimes at Belvoir. They would get off at daybreak, Washington + in the midst of his hounds, splendidly mounted, generally on his + favorite Blueskin, a powerful iron-gray horse of great speed and + endurance. He wore a blue coat, scarlet waistcoat, buckskin + breeches, and a velvet cap. Closely followed by his huntsman and + the neighboring gentlemen, with the ladies, headed, very likely, + by Mrs. Washington in a scarlet habit, he would ride to the + appointed covert and throw in. There was no difficulty in + finding, and then away they would go, usually after a gray fox, + sometimes after a big black fox, rarely to be caught. Most of the + country was wild and unfenced, rough in footing, and offering + hard and dangerous going for the horses, but Washington always + made it a rule to stay with his hounds. Cautious or timid riders, + if they were so minded, could gallop along the wood roads with + the ladies, and content themselves with glimpses of the hunt, but + the master rode at the front. The fields, it is to be feared, + were sometimes small, but Washington hunted even if he had only + his stepson or was quite alone.</p> + + <p>His diaries abound with allusions to the sport. "Went + a-hunting with Jacky Custis, and catched a fox after three hours + chase; found it in the creek." "Mr. Bryan Fairfax, Mr. Grayson, + and Phil. Alexander came home by sunrise. Hunted and catched a + fox with these. Lord Fairfax, his brother, and Colonel Fairfax, + all of whom, with Mr. Fairfax and Mr. Wilson of England, dined + here." Again, November 26 and 29, "Hunted again with the same + party." "1768, Jan. 8th. Hunting again with same company. Started + a fox and run him 4 hours. Took the hounds off at night." "Jan. + 15. Shooting." "16. At home all day with cards; it snowing." "23. + Rid to Muddy Hole and directed paths to be cut for foxhunting." + "Feb. 12. Catched 2 foxes." "Feb. 13. Catched 2 more foxes." + "Mar. 2. Catched fox with bob'd tail and cut ears after 7 hours + chase, in which most of the dogs were worsted." "Dec. 5. + Fox-hunting with Lord Fairfax and his brother and Colonel + Fairfax. Started a fox and lost it. Dined at Belvoir and returned + in the evening."<a id="footnotetag1-12" name= + "footnotetag1-12"></a><a href= + "#footnote1-12"><sup>1</sup></a></p> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote1-12" name="footnote1-12"></a>[<b>Footnote + 1:</b> <a href="#footnotetag1-12">(return)</a> MS. Diaries in + State Department.] + </blockquote> + + <p>So the entries run on, for he hunted almost every day in the + season, usually with success, but always with persistence. Like + all true sportsmen Washington had a horror of illicit sport of + any kind, and although he shot comparatively little, he was much + annoyed by a vagabond who lurked in the creeks and inlets on his + estate, and slaughtered his canvas-back ducks. Hearing the report + of a gun one morning, he rode through the bushes and saw his + poaching friend just shoving off in a canoe. The rascal raised + his gun and covered his pursuer, whereupon Washington, the + cold-blooded and patient person so familiar in the myths, dashed + his horse headlong into the water, seized the gun, grasped the + canoe, and dragging it ashore pulled the man out of the boat and + beat him soundly. If the man had yielded at once he would + probably have got off easily enough, but when he put Washington's + life in imminent peril, the wild fighting spirit flared up as + usual.</p> + + <p>The hunting season was of course that of the most lavish + hospitality. There was always a great deal of dining about, but + Mount Vernon was the chief resort, and its doors, ever open, were + flung far back when people came for a meet, or gathered to talk + over the events of a good run. Company was the rule and solitude + the exception. When only the family were at dinner, the fact was + written down in the diary with great care as an unusual event, + for Washington was the soul of hospitality, and although he kept + early hours, he loved society and a houseful of people. + Profoundly reserved and silent as to himself, a lover of solitude + so far as his own thoughts and feelings were concerned, he was + far from being a solitary man in the ordinary acceptation of the + word. He liked life and gayety and conversation, he liked music + and dancing or a game of cards when the weather was bad, and he + enjoyed heartily the presence of young people and of his own + friends. So Mount Vernon was always full of guests, and the + master noted in his diary that although he owned more than a + hundred cows he was obliged, nevertheless, to buy butter, which + suggests an experience not unknown to gentlemen farmers of any + period, and also that company was never lacking in that generous, + open house overlooking the Potomac.</p> + + <p>Beyond the bounds of his own estate he had also many + occupations and pleasures. He was a member of the House of + Burgesses, diligent in his attention to the work of governing the + colony. He was diligent also in church affairs, and very active + in the vestry, which was the seat of local government in + Virginia. We hear of him also as the manager of lotteries, which + were a common form of raising money for local purposes, in + preference to direct taxation. In a word, he was thoroughly + public-spirited, and performed all the small duties which his + position demanded in the same spirit that he afterwards brought + to the command of armies and to the government of the nation. He + had pleasure too, as well as business, away from Mount Vernon. He + liked to go to his neighbors' houses and enjoy their hospitality + as they enjoyed his. We hear of him at the courthouse on court + days, where all the country-side gathered to talk and listen to + the lawyers and hear the news, and when he went to Williamsburg + his diary tells us of a round of dinners, beginning with the + governor, of visits to the club, and of a regular attendance at + the theatre whenever actors came to the little capital. Whether + at home or abroad, he took part in all the serious pursuits, in + all the interests, and in every reasonable pleasure offered by + the colony.</p> + + <p>Take it for all in all, it was a manly, wholesome, many-sided + life. It kept Washington young and strong, both mentally and + physically. When he was forty he flung the iron bar, at some + village sports, to a point which no competitor could approach. + There was no man in all Virginia who could ride a horse with such + a powerful and assured seat. There was no one who could journey + farther on foot, and no man at Williamsburg who showed at the + governor's receptions such a commanding presence, or who walked + with such a strong and elastic step. As with the body so with the + mind. He never rusted. A practical carpenter and smith, he + brought the same quiet intelligence and firm will to the forging + of iron or the felling and sawing of trees that he had displayed + in fighting France. The life of a country gentleman did not dull + or stupefy him, or lead him to gross indulgences. He remained + well-made and athletic, strong and enduring, keen in perception + and in sense, and warm in his feelings and affections. Many men + would have become heavy and useless in these years of quiet + country life, but Washington simply ripened, and, like all slowly + maturing men, grew stronger, abler, and wiser in the happy years + of rest and waiting which intervened between youth and middle + age.</p> + + <p>Meantime, while the current of daily life flowed on thus + gently at Mount Vernon, the great stream of public events poured + by outside. It ran very calmly at first, after the war, and then + with a quickening murmur, which increased to an ominous roar when + the passage of the Stamp Act became known in America. Washington + was always a constant attendant at the assembly, in which by + sheer force of character, and despite his lack of the talking and + debating faculty, he carried more weight than any other member. + He was present on May 29, 1765, when Patrick Henry introduced his + famous resolutions and menaced the king's government in words + which rang through the continent. The resolutions were adopted, + and Washington went home, with many anxious thoughts, to discuss + the political outlook with his friend and neighbor George Mason, + one of the keenest and ablest men in Virginia. The utter folly of + the policy embodied in the Stamp Act struck Washington very + forcibly. With that foresight for which he was so remarkable, he + perceived what scarcely any one else even dreamt of, that + persistence in this course must surely lead to a violent + separation from the mother-country, and it is interesting to note + in this, the first instance when he was called upon to consider a + political question of great magnitude, his clearness of vision + and grasp of mind. In what he wrote there is no trace of the + ambitious schemer, no threatening nor blustering, no undue + despondency nor excited hopes. But there is a calm understanding + of all the conditions, an entire freedom from self-deception, and + the power of seeing facts exactly as they were, which were all + characteristic of his intellectual strength, and to which we + shall need to recur again and again.</p> + + <p>The repeal of the Stamp Act was received by Washington with + sober but sincere pleasure. He had anticipated "direful" results + and "unhappy consequences" from its enforcement, and he freely + said that those who were instrumental in its repeal had his + cordial thanks. He was no agitator, and had not come forward in + this affair, so he now retired again to Mount Vernon, to his + farming and hunting, where he remained, watching very closely the + progress of events. He had marked the dangerous reservation of + the principle in the very act of repeal; he observed at Boston + the gathering strength of what the wise ministers of George III. + called sedition; he noted the arrival of British troops in the + rebellious Puritan town; and he saw plainly enough, looming in + the background, the final appeal to arms. He wrote to Mason + (April 5, 1769), that "at a time when our lordly masters in Great + Britain will be satisfied with nothing less than the deprivation + of American freedom, something should be done to avert the stroke + and maintain the liberty which we have derived from our + ancestors. But the manner of doing it, to answer the purpose + effectually, is the point in question. That no man should scruple + or hesitate a moment to use arms in defense of so valuable a + blessing is clearly my opinion. Yet arms, I would beg leave to + add, should be the last resource, the <i>dernier ressort</i>." He + then urged the adoption of the only middle course, + non-importation, but he had not much hope in this expedient, + although an honest desire is evident that it may prove + effectual.</p> + + <p>When the assembly met in May, they received the new governor, + Lord Botetourt, with much cordiality, and then fell to passing + spirited and sharp-spoken resolutions declaring their own rights + and defending Massachusetts. The result was a dissolution. + Thereupon the burgesses repaired to the Raleigh tavern, where + they adopted a set of non-importation resolutions and formed an + association. The resolutions were offered by Washington, and were + the result of his quiet country talks with Mason. When the moment + for action arrived, Washington came naturally to the front, and + then returned quietly to Mount Vernon, once more to go about his + business and watch the threatening political horizon. Virginia + did not live up to this first non-importation agreement, and + formed another a year later. But Washington was not in the habit + of presenting resolutions merely for effect, and there was + nothing of the actor in his composition. His resolutions meant + business, and he lived up to them rigidly himself. Neither tea + nor any of the proscribed articles were allowed in his house. + Most of the leaders did not realize the seriousness of the + situation, but Washington, looking forward with clear and sober + gaze, was in grim earnest, and was fully conscious that when he + offered his resolutions the colony was trying the last peaceful + remedy, and that the next step would be war.</p> + + <p>Still he went calmly about his many affairs as usual, and + gratified the old passion for the frontier by a journey to + Pittsburgh for the sake of lands and soldiers' claims, and thence + down the Ohio and into the wilderness with his old friends the + trappers and pioneers. He visited the Indian villages as in the + days of the French mission, and noted in the savages an ominous + restlessness, which seemed, like the flight of birds, to express + the dumb instinct of an approaching storm. The clouds broke away + somewhat under the kindly management of Lord Botetourt, and then + gathered again more thickly on the accession of his successor, + Lord Dunmore. With both these gentlemen Washington was on the + most friendly terms. He visited them often, and was consulted by + them, as it behooved them to consult the strongest man within the + limits of their government. Still he waited and watched, and + scanned carefully the news from the North. Before long he heard + that tea-chests were floating in Boston harbor, and then from + across the water came intelligence of the passage of the Port + Bill and other measures destined to crush to earth the little + rebel town.</p> + + <p>When the Virginia assembly met again, they proceeded to + congratulate the governor on the arrival of Lady Dunmore, and + then suddenly, as all was flowing smoothly along, there came a + letter through the corresponding committee which Washington had + helped to establish, telling of the measures against Boston. + Everything else was thrown aside at once, a vigorous protest was + entered on the journal of the House, and June 1, when the Port + Bill was to go into operation, was appointed a day of fasting, + humiliation, and prayer. The first result was prompt dissolution + of the assembly. The next was another meeting in the long room of + the Raleigh tavern, where the Boston bill was denounced, + non-importation renewed, and the committee of correspondence + instructed to take steps for calling a general congress. Events + were beginning to move at last with perilous rapidity. Washington + dined with Lord Dunmore on the evening of that day, rode with + him, and appeared at her ladyship's ball the next night, for it + was not his way to bite his thumb at men from whom he differed + politically, nor to call the motives of his opponents in + question. But when the 1st of June arrived, he noted in his diary + that he fasted all day and attended the appointed services. He + always meant what he said, being of a simple nature, and when he + fasted and prayed there was something ominously earnest about it, + something that his excellency the governor, who liked the society + of this agreeable man and wise counselor, would have done well to + consider and draw conclusions from, and which he probably did not + heed at all. He might well have reflected, as he undoubtedly + failed to do, that when men of the George Washington type fast + and pray on account of political misdoings, it is well for their + opponents to look to it carefully.</p> + + <p>Meantime Boston had sent forth appeals to form a league among + the colonies, and thereupon another meeting was held in the + Raleigh tavern, and a letter was dispatched advising the + burgesses to consider this matter of a general league and take + the sense of their respective counties. Virginia and + Massachusetts had joined hands now, and they were sweeping the + rest of the continent irresistibly forward with them. As for + Washington, he returned to Mount Vernon and at once set about + taking the sense of his county, as he had agreed. Before doing so + he had some correspondence with his old friend Bryan Fairfax. The + Fairfaxes naturally sided with the mother-country, and Bryan was + much distressed by the course of Virginia, and remonstrated + strongly, and at length by letter, against violent measures. + Washington replied to him: "Does it not appear as clear as the + sun in its meridian brightness that there is a regular, + systematic plan formed to fix the right and practice of taxation + on us? Does not the uniform conduct of Parliament for some years + past confirm this? Do not all the debates, especially those just + brought to us in the House of Commons, on the side of government + expressly declare that America must be taxed in aid of the + British funds, and that she has no longer resources within + herself? Is there anything to be expected from petitioning after + this? Is not the attack upon the liberty and property of the + people of Boston, before restitution of the loss to the India + Company was demanded, a plain and self-evident proof of what they + are aiming at? Do not the subsequent bills (now I dare say acts) + for depriving the Massachusetts Bay of its charter, and for + transporting offenders into other colonies, or to Great Britain + for trial, where it is impossible from the nature of the thing + that justice can be obtained, convince us that the administration + is determined to stick at nothing to carry its point? Ought we + not, then, to put our virtue and fortitude to the severest test?" + He was prepared, he continued, for anything except confiscating + British debts, which struck him as dishonorable. These were plain + but pregnant questions, but what we mark in them, and in all his + letters of this time, is the absence of constitutional + discussion, of which America was then full. They are confined to + a direct presentation of the broad political question, which + underlay everything. Washington always went straight to the mark, + and he now saw, through all the dust of legal and constitutional + strife, that the only real issue was whether America was to be + allowed to govern herself in her own way or not. In the acts of + the ministry he perceived a policy which aimed at substantial + power, and he believed that such a policy, if insisted on, could + have but one result.</p> + + <p>The meeting of Fairfax County was held in due course, and + Washington presided. The usual resolutions for self-government + and against the vindictive Massachusetts measures were adopted. + Union and non-importation were urged; and then the congress, + which they advocated, was recommended to address a petition and + remonstrance to the king, and ask him to reflect that "from our + sovereign there can be but one appeal." Everything was to be + tried, everything was to be done, but the ultimate appeal was + never lost sight of where Washington appeared, and the final + sentence of these Fairfax County resolves is very characteristic + of the leader in the meeting. Two days later he wrote to the + worthy and still remonstrating Bryan Fairfax, repeating and + enlarging his former questions, and adding: "Has not General + Gage's conduct since his arrival, in stopping the address of his + council, and publishing a proclamation more becoming a Turkish + bashaw than an English governor, declaring it treason to + associate in any manner by which the commerce of Great Britain is + to be affected,—has not this exhibited an unexampled + testimony of the most despotic system of tyranny that ever was + practiced in a free government?... Shall we after this whine and + cry for relief, when we have already tried it in vain? Or shall + we supinely sit and see one province after another fall a + sacrifice to despotism?" The fighting spirit of the man was + rising. There was no rash rushing forward, no ignorant shouting + for war, no blinking of the real issue, but a foresight that + nothing could dim, and a perception of facts which nothing could + confuse. On August 1 Washington was at Williamsburg, to represent + his county in the meeting of representatives from all Virginia. + The convention passed resolutions like the Fairfax resolves, and + chose delegates to a general congress. The silent man was now + warming into action. He "made the most eloquent speech that ever + was made," and said, "I will raise a thousand men, subsist them + at my own expense, and march them to the relief of Boston." He + was capable, it would seem, of talking to the purpose with some + fire and force, for all he was so quiet and so retiring. When + there was anything to say, he could say it so that it stirred all + who listened, because they felt that there was a mastering + strength behind the words. He faced the terrible issue solemnly + and firmly, but his blood was up, the fighting spirit in him was + aroused, and the convention chose him as one of Virginia's six + delegates to the Continental Congress. He lingered long enough to + make a few preparations at Mount Vernon. He wrote another letter + to Fairfax, interesting to us as showing the keenness with which + he read in the meagre news-reports the character of Gage and of + the opposing people of Massachusetts. Then he started for the + North to take the first step on the long and difficult path that + lay before him.</p> + + <p> </p> + <hr /> + + <h2><a name="V" id="V"></a> CHAPTER V</h2> + + <h2>TAKING COMMAND</h2> + + <p>In the warm days of closing August, a party of three gentlemen + rode away from Mount Vernon one morning, and set out upon their + long journey to Philadelphia. One cannot help wondering whether a + tender and somewhat sad remembrance did not rise in Washington's + mind, as he thought of the last time he had gone northward, + nearly twenty years before. Then, he was a light-hearted young + soldier, and he and his aides, albeit they went on business, rode + gayly through the forests, lighting the road with the bright + colors they wore and with the glitter of lace and arms, while + they anticipated all the pleasures of youth in the new lands they + were to visit. Now, he was in the prime of manhood, looking into + the future with prophetic eyes, and sober as was his wont when + the shadow of coming responsibility lay dark upon his path. With + him went Patrick Henry, four years his junior, and Edmund + Pendleton, now past threescore. They were all quiet and grave + enough, no doubt; but Washington, we may believe, was gravest of + all, because, being the most truthful of men to himself as to + others, he saw more plainly what was coming. So they made their + journey to the North, and on the memorable 5th of September they + met with their brethren from the other colonies in Carpenters' + Hall in Philadelphia.</p> + + <p>The Congress sat fifty-one days, occupied with debates and + discussion. Few abler, more honest, or more memorable bodies of + men have ever assembled to settle the fate of nations. Much + debate, great and earnest in all directions, resulted in a + declaration of colonial rights, in an address to the king, in + another to the people of Canada, and a third to the people of + Great Britain; masterly state papers, seldom surpassed, and + extorting even then the admiration of England. In these debates + and state papers Washington took no part that is now apparent on + the face of the record. He was silent in the Congress, and if he + was consulted, as he unquestionably was by the committees, there + is no record of it now. The simple fact was that his time had not + come. He saw men of the most acute minds, liberal in education, + patriotic in heart, trained in law and in history, doing the work + of the moment in the best possible way. If anything had been done + wrongly, or had been left undone, Washington would have found his + voice quickly enough, and uttered another of the "most eloquent + speeches ever made," as he did shortly before in the Virginia + convention. He could speak in public when need was, but now there + was no need and nothing to arouse him. The work of Congress + followed the line of policy adopted by the Virginia convention, + and that had proceeded along the path marked out in the Fairfax + resolves, so that Washington could not be other than content. He + occupied his own time, as we see by notes in his diary, in + visiting the delegates from the other colonies, and in informing + himself as to their ideas and purposes, and those of the people + whom they represented. He was quietly working for the future, the + present being well taken care of. Yet this silent man, going + hither and thither, and chatting pleasantly with this member or + that, was in some way or other impressing himself deeply on all + the delegates, for Patrick Henry said: "If you speak of solid + information and sound judgment, Colonel Washington is + unquestionably the greatest man on the floor."</p> + + <p>We have a letter, written at just this time, which shows us + how Washington felt, and we see again how his spirit rose as he + saw more and more clearly that the ultimate issue was inevitable. + The letter is addressed to Captain Mackenzie, a British officer + at Boston, and an old friend. "Permit me," he began, "with the + freedom of a friend (for you know I always esteemed you), to + express my sorrow that fortune should place you in a service that + must fix curses to the latest posterity upon the contrivers, and, + if success (which, by the by, is impossible) accompanies it, + execrations upon all those who have been instrumental in the + execution." This was rather uncompromising talk and not over + peaceable, it must be confessed. He continued: "Give me leave to + add, and I think I can announce it as a fact, that it is not the + wish or intent of that government [Massachusetts], or any other + upon this continent, separately or collectively, to set up for + independence; but this you may at the same time rely on, that + none of them will ever submit to the loss of those valuable + rights and privileges which are essential to the happiness of + every free state, and without which life, liberty, and property + are rendered totally insecure.... Again give me leave to add as + my opinion that more blood will be spilled on this occasion, if + the ministry are determined to push matters to extremity, than + history has ever yet furnished instances of in the annals of + North America, and such a vital wound will be given to the peace + of this great country, as time itself cannot cure or eradicate + the remembrance of." Washington was not a political agitator like + Sam Adams, planning with unerring intelligence to bring about + independence. On the contrary, he rightly declared that + independence was not desired. But although he believed in + exhausting every argument and every peaceful remedy, it is + evident that he felt that there now could be but one result, and + that violent separation from the mother country was inevitable. + Here is where he differed from his associates and from the great + mass of the people, and it is to this entire veracity of mind + that his wisdom and foresight were so largely due, as well as his + success when the time came for him to put his hand to the + plough.</p> + + <p>When Congress adjourned, Washington returned to Mount Vernon, + to the pursuits and pleasures that he loved, to his family and + farm, and to his horses and hounds, with whom he had many a good + run, the last that he was to enjoy for years to come. He returned + also to wait and watch as before, and to see war rapidly gather + in the east. When the Virginia convention again assembled, + resolutions were introduced to arm and discipline men, and Henry + declared in their support that an "appeal to arms and to the God + of Hosts" was all that was left. Washington said nothing, but he + served on the committee to draft a plan of defense, and then fell + to reviewing the independent companies which were springing up + everywhere. At the same time he wrote to his brother John, who + had raised a troop, that he would accept the command of it if + desired, as it was his "full intention to devote his life and + fortune in the cause we are engaged in, if needful." At Mount + Vernon his old comrades of the French war began to appear, in + search of courage and sympathy. Thither, too, came Charles Lee, a + typical military adventurer of that period, a man of English + birth and of varied service, brilliant, whimsical, and + unbalanced. There also came Horatio Gates, likewise British, and + disappointed with his prospects at home; less adventurous than + Lee, but also less brilliant, and not much more valuable.</p> + + <p>Thus the winter wore away; spring opened, and toward the end + of April Washington started again for the North, much occupied + with certain tidings from Lexington and Concord which just then + spread over the land. He saw all that it meant plainly enough, + and after noting the fact that the colonists fought and fought + well, he wrote to George Fairfax in England: "Unhappy it is to + reflect that a brother's sword has been sheathed in a brother's + breast, and that the once happy and peaceful plains of America + are either to be drenched in blood or inhabited by slaves. Sad + alternative. But can a virtuous man hesitate in his choice?" + Congress, it would seem, thought there was a good deal of room + for hesitation, both for virtuous men and others, and after the + fashion of their race determined to do a little more debating and + arguing, before taking any decisive step. After much resistance + and discussion, a second "humble and dutiful petition" to the + king was adopted, and with strange contradiction a confederation + was formed at the same time, and Congress proceeded to exercise + the sovereign powers thus vested in them. The most pressing and + troublesome question before them was what to do with the army + surrounding Boston, and with the actual hostilities there + existing.</p> + + <p>Washington, for his part, went quietly about as before, saying + nothing and observing much, working hard as chairman of the + military committees, planning for defense, and arranging for + raising an army. One act of his alone stands out for us with + significance at this critical time. In this second Congress he + appeared habitually on the floor in his blue and buff uniform of + a Virginia colonel. It was his way of saying that the hour for + action had come, and that he at least was ready for the fight + whenever called upon.</p> + + <p>Presently he was summoned. Weary of waiting, John Adams at + last declared that Congress must adopt the army and make + Washington, who at this mention of his name stepped out of the + room, commander-in-chief. On June 15, formal motions were made to + this effect and unanimously adopted, and the next day Washington + appeared before Congress and accepted the trust. His words were + few and simple. He expressed his sense of his own insufficiency + for the task before him, and said that as no pecuniary + consideration could have induced him to undertake the work, he + must decline all pay or emoluments, only looking to Congress to + defray his expenses. In the same spirit he wrote to his soldiers + in Virginia, to his brother, and finally, in terms at once simple + and pathetic, to his wife. There was no pretense about this, but + the sternest reality of self-distrust, for Washington saw and + measured as did no one else the magnitude of the work before him. + He knew that he was about to face the best troops of Europe, and + he had learned by experience that after the first excitement was + over he would be obliged to rely upon a people who were brave and + patriotic, but also undisciplined, untrained, and unprepared for + war, without money, without arms, without allies or credit, and + torn by selfish local interests. Nobody else perceived all this + as he was able to with his mastery of facts, but he faced the + duty unflinchingly. He did not put it aside because he distrusted + himself, for in his truthfulness he could not but confess that no + other American could show one tithe of his capacity, experience, + or military service. He knew what was coming, knew it, no doubt, + when he first put on his uniform, and he accepted instantly.</p> + + <p>John Adams in his autobiography speaks of the necessity of + choosing a Southern general, and also says there were objectors + to the selection of Washington even among the Virginia delegates. + That there were political reasons for taking a Virginian cannot + be doubted. But the dissent, even if it existed, never appeared + on the surface, excepting in the case of John Hancock, who, with + curious vanity, thought that he ought to have this great place. + When Washington's name was proposed there was no murmur of + opposition, for there was no man who could for one moment be + compared with him in fitness. The choice was inevitable, and he + himself felt it to be so. He saw it coming; he would fain have + avoided the great task, but no thought of shrinking crossed his + mind. He saw with his entire freedom from constitutional + subtleties that an absolute parliament sought to extend its power + to the colonies. To this he would not submit, and he knew that + this was a question which could be settled only by one side + giving way, or by the dread appeal to arms. It was a question of + fact, hard, unrelenting fact, now to be determined by battle, and + on him had fallen the burden of sustaining the cause of his + country. In this spirit he accepted his commission, and rode + forth to review the troops. He was greeted with loud acclaim + wherever he appeared. Mankind is impressed by externals, and + those who gazed upon Washington in the streets of Philadelphia + felt their courage rise and their hearts grow strong at the sight + of his virile, muscular figure as he passed before them on + horseback, stately, dignified, and self-contained. The people + looked upon him, and were confident that this was a man worthy + and able to dare and do all things.</p> + + <p>On June 21 he set forth accompanied by Lee and Schuyler, and + with a brilliant escort. He had ridden but twenty miles when he + was met by the news of Bunker Hill. "Did the militia fight?" was + the immediate and characteristic question; and being told that + they did fight, he exclaimed, "Then the liberties of the country + are safe." Given the fighting spirit, Washington felt he could do + anything. Full of this important intelligence he pressed forward + to Newark, where he was received by a committee of the provincial + congress, sent to conduct the commander-in-chief to New York. + There he tarried long enough to appoint Schuyler to the charge of + the military affairs in that colony, having mastered on the + journey its complicated social and political conditions. Pushing + on through Connecticut he reached Watertown, where he was + received by the provincial congress of Massachusetts, on July 2, + with every expression of attachment and confidence. Lingering + less than an hour for this ceremony, he rode on to the + headquarters at Cambridge, and when he came within the lines the + shouts of the soldiers and the booming of cannon announced his + arrival to the English in Boston.</p> + + <p>The next day he rode forth in the presence of a great + multitude, and the troops having been drawn up before him, he + drew his sword beneath the historical elm-tree, and took command + of the first American army. "His excellency," wrote Dr. Thatcher + in his journal, "was on horseback in company with several + military gentlemen. It was not difficult to distinguish him from + all others. He is tall and well proportioned, and his personal + appearance truly noble and majestic." "He is tall and of easy and + agreeable address," the loyalist Curwen had remarked a few weeks + before; while Mrs. John Adams, warm-hearted and clever, wrote to + her husband after the general's arrival: "Dignity, ease, and + complacency, the gentleman and the soldier, look agreeably + blended in him. Modesty marks every line and feature of his face. + Those lines of Dryden instantly occurred to me,—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>'Mark his majestic fabric! He's a temple</p> + + <p>Sacred by birth, and built by hands divine;</p> + + <p>His soul's the deity that lodges there;</p> + + <p>Nor is the pile unworthy of the God.'"</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Lady, lawyer, and surgeon, patriot and tory, all speak alike, + and as they wrote so New England felt. A slave-owner, an + aristocrat, and a churchman, Washington came to Cambridge to pass + over the heads of native generals to the command of a New England + army, among a democratic people, hard-working and simple in their + lives, and dissenters to the backbone, who regarded episcopacy as + something little short of papistry and quite equivalent to + toryism. Yet the shout that went up from soldiers and people on + Cambridge common on that pleasant July morning came from the + heart and had no jarring note. A few of the political chiefs + growled a little in later days at Washington, but the soldiers + and the people, high and low, rich and poor, gave him an + unstinted loyalty. On the fields of battle and throughout eight + years of political strife the men of New England stood by the + great Virginian with a devotion and truth in which was no shadow + of turning. Here again we see exhibited most conspicuously the + powerful personality of the man who was able thus to command + immediately the allegiance of this naturally cold and reserved + people. What was it that they saw which inspired them at once + with so much confidence? They looked upon a tall, handsome man, + dressed in plain uniform, wearing across his breast a broad blue + band of silk, which some may have noticed as the badge and symbol + of a certain solemn league and covenant once very momentous in + the English-speaking world. They saw his calm, high bearing, and + in every line of face and figure they beheld the signs of force + and courage. Yet there must have been something more to call + forth the confidence then so quickly given, and which no one ever + long withheld. All felt dimly, but none the less surely, that + here was a strong, able man, capable of rising to the emergency, + whatever it might be, capable of continued growth and + development, clear of head and warm of heart; and so the New + England people gave to him instinctively their sympathy and their + faith, and never took either back.</p> + + <p>The shouts and cheers died away, and then Washington returned + to his temporary quarters in the Wadsworth house, to master the + task before him. The first great test of his courage and ability + had come, and he faced it quietly as the excitement caused by his + arrival passed by. He saw before him, to use his own words, "a + mixed multitude of people, under very little discipline, order, + or government." In the language of one of his aides:<a id= + "footnotetag1-13" name="footnotetag1-13"></a><a href= + "#footnote1-13"><sup>1</sup></a> "The entire army, if it deserved + the name, was but an assemblage of brave, enthusiastic, + undisciplined, country lads; the officers in general quite as + ignorant of military life as the troops, excepting a few elderly + men, who had seen some irregular service among the provincials + under Lord Amherst." With this force, ill-posted and very + insecurely fortified, Washington was to drive the British from + Boston. His first step was to count his men, and it took eight + days to get the necessary returns, which in an ordinary army + would have been furnished in an hour. When he had them, he found + that instead of twenty thousand, as had been represented, but + fourteen thousand soldiers were actually present for duty. In a + short time, however, Mr. Emerson, the chaplain, noted in his + diary that it was surprising how much had been done, that the + lines had been so extended, and the works so shrewdly built, that + it was morally impossible for the enemy to get out except in one + place purposely left open. A little later the same observer + remarked: "There is a great overturning in the camp as to order + and regularity; new lords, new laws. The Generals Washington and + Lee are upon the lines every day. The strictest government is + taking place, and great distinction is made between officers and + soldiers." Bodies of troops scattered here and there by chance + were replaced by well-distributed forces, posted wisely and + effectively in strong intrenchments. It is little wonder that the + worthy chaplain was impressed, and now, seeing it all from every + side, we too can watch order come out of chaos and mark the + growth of an army under the guidance of a master-mind and the + steady pressure of an unbending will.</p> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote1-13" name="footnote1-13"></a>[<b>Footnote + 1:</b> <a href="#footnotetag1-13">(return)</a> John Trumbull, + <i>Reminiscences</i>, p. 18.] + </blockquote> + + <p>Then too there was no discipline, for the army was composed of + raw militia, who elected their officers and carried on war as + they pleased. In a passage suppressed by Mr. Sparks, Washington + said: "There is no such thing as getting officers of this stamp + to carry orders into execution—to curry favor with the men + (by whom they were chosen, and on whose smile they may possibly + think that they may again rely) seems to be one of the principal + objects of their attention. I have made a pretty good slam + amongst such kind of officers as the Massachusetts government + abounds in, since I came into this camp, having broke one colonel + and two captains for cowardly behavior in the action on Bunker + Hill, two captains for drawing more pay and provisions than they + had men in their company, and one for being absent from his post + when the enemy appeared there and burnt a house just by it. + Besides these I have at this time one colonel, one major, one + captain, and two subalterns under arrest for trial. In short, I + spare none, and yet fear it will not all do, as these people seem + to be too attentive to everything but their own interests." This + may be plain and homely in phrase, but it is not stilted, and the + quick energy of the words shows how the New England farmers and + fishermen were being rapidly brought to discipline. Bringing the + army into order, however, was but a small part of his duties. It + is necessary to run over all his difficulties, great and small, + at this time, and count them up, in order to gain a just idea of + the force and capacity of the man who overcame them.</p> + + <p>Washington, in the first place, was obliged to deal not only + with his army, but with the general congress and the congress of + the province. He had to teach them, utterly ignorant as they were + of the needs and details of war, how to organize and supply their + armies. There was no commissary department, there were no + uniforms, no arrangements for ammunition, no small arms, no + cannon, no resources to draw upon for all these necessaries of + war. Little by little he taught Congress to provide after a + fashion for these things, little by little he developed what he + needed, and by his own ingenuity, and by seizing alertly every + suggestion from others, he supplied for better or worse one + deficiency after another. He had to deal with various governors + and various colonies, each with its prejudices, jealousies, and + shortcomings. He had to arrange for new levies from a people + unused to war, and to settle with infinite anxiety and much wear + and tear of mind and body, the conflict as to rank among officers + to whom he could apply no test but his own insight. He had to + organize and stimulate the arming of privateers, which, by + preying on British commerce, were destined to exercise such a + powerful influence on the fate of the war. It was neither showy + nor attractive, such work as this, but it was very vital, and it + was done.</p> + + <p>By the end of July the army was in a better posture of + defense; and then at the beginning of the next month, as the + prospect was brightening, it was suddenly discovered that there + was no gunpowder. An undrilled army, imperfectly organized, was + facing a disciplined force and had only some nine rounds in the + cartridge-boxes. Yet there is no quivering in the letters from + headquarters. Anxiety and strain of nerve are apparent; but a + resolute determination rises over all, supported by a ready + fertility of resource. Couriers flew over the country asking for + powder in every town and in every village. A vessel was even + dispatched to the Bermudas to seize there a supply of powder, of + which the general, always listening, had heard. Thus the + immediate and grinding pressure was presently relieved, but the + staple of war still remained pitifully and perilously meagre all + through the winter.</p> + + <p>Meantime, while thus overwhelmed with the cares immediately + about him, Washington was watching the rest of the country. He + had a keen eye upon Johnson and his Indians in the valley of the + Mohawk; he followed sharply every movement of Tryon and the + Tories in New York; he refused with stern good sense to detach + troops to Connecticut and Long Island, knowing well when to give + and when to say No, a difficult monosyllable for the new general + of freshly revolted colonies. But if he would not detach in one + place, he was ready enough to do so in another. He sent one + expedition by Lake Champlain, under Montgomery, to Montreal, and + gave Arnold picked troops to march through the wilds of Maine and + strike Quebec. The scheme was bold and brilliant, both in + conception and in execution, and came very near severing Canada + forever from the British crown. A chapter of little accidents, + each one of which proved as fatal as it was unavoidable, a + moment's delay on the Plains of Abraham, and the whole campaign + failed; but there was a grasp of conditions, a clearness of + perception, and a comprehensiveness about the plan, which stamp + it as the work of a great soldier, who saw besides the military + importance, the enormous political value held out by the chance + of such a victory.</p> + + <p>The daring, far-reaching quality of this Canadian expedition + was much more congenial to Washington's temper and character than + the wearing work of the siege. All that man could do before + Boston was done, and still Congress expected the impossible, and + grumbled because without ships he did not secure the harbor. He + himself, while he inwardly resented such criticism, chafed under + the monotonous drudgery of the intrenchments. He was longing, + according to his nature, to fight, and was, it must be confessed, + quite ready to attempt the impossible in his own way. Early in + September he proposed to attack the town in boats and by the neck + of land at Roxbury, but the council of officers unanimously voted + against him. A little more than a month later he planned another + attack, and was again voted down by his officers. Councils of war + never fight, it is said, and perhaps in this case it was well + that such was their habit, for the schemes look rather desperate + now. To us they serve to show the temper of the man, and also his + self-control in this respect at the beginning of the war, for + Washington became ready enough afterwards to override councils + when he was wholly free from doubt himself.</p> + + <p>Thus the planning of campaigns, both distant and near, went + on, and at the same time the current of details, difficult, + vital, absolute in demanding prompt and vigorous solution, went + on too. The existence of war made it necessary to fix our + relations with our enemies, and that these relations should be + rightly settled was of vast moment to our cause, struggling for + recognition. The first question was the matter of prisoners, and + on August 11 Washington wrote to Gage:—</p> + + <blockquote> + <p>"I understand that the officers engaged in the cause of + liberty and their country, who by the fortune of war have fallen + into your hands, have been thrown indiscriminately into a common + gaol appropriated for felons; that no consideration has been had + for those of the most respectable rank, when languishing with + wounds and sickness; and that some have been even amputated in + this unworthy situation.</p> + + <p>"Let your opinion, sir, of the principle which actuates them + be what it may, they suppose that they act from the noblest of + all principles, a love of freedom and their country. But + political principles, I conceive, are foreign to this point. The + obligations arising from the rights of humanity and claims of + rank are universally binding and extensive, except in case of + retaliation. These, I should have hoped, would have dictated a + more tender treatment of those individuals whom chance or war had + put in your power. Nor can I forbear suggesting its fatal + tendency to widen that unhappy breach which you, and those + ministers under whom you act, have repeatedly declared your wish + is to see forever closed.</p> + + <p>"My duty now makes it necessary to apprise you, that for the + future I shall regulate all my conduct towards those gentlemen + who are or may be in our possession, exactly by the rule you + shall observe towards those of ours now in your custody.</p> + + <p>"If severity and hardship mark the line of your conduct, + painful as it may be to me, your prisoners will feel its effects. + But if kindness and humanity are shown to ours, I shall with + pleasure consider those in our hands only as unfortunate, and + they shall receive from me that treatment to which the + unfortunate are ever entitled."</p> + </blockquote> + + <p>This is a letter worthy of a little study. The affair does not + look very important now, but it went then to the roots of things; + for this letter would go out to the world, and America and the + American cause would be judged by their leader. A little bluster + or ferocity, any fine writing, or any absurdity, and the world + would have sneered, condemned, or laughed. But no man could read + this letter and fail to perceive that here was dignity and force, + justice and sense, with just a touch of pathos and eloquence to + recommend it to the heart. Men might differ with the writer, but + they could neither laugh at him nor set him aside.</p> + + <p>Gage replied after his kind. He was an inconsiderable person, + dull and well meaning, intended for the command of a garrison + town, and terribly twisted and torn by the great events in which + he was momentarily caught. His masters were stupid and arrogant, + and he imitated them with perfect success, except that arrogance + with him dwindled to impertinence. He answered Washington's + letter with denials and recriminations, lectured the American + general on the political situation, and talked about "usurped + authority," "rebels," "criminals," and persons destined to the + "cord." Washington, being a man of his word, proceeded to put + some English prisoners into jail, and then wrote a second note, + giving Gage a little lesson in manners, with the vain hope of + making him see that gentlemen did not scold and vituperate + because they fought. He restated his case calmly and coolly, as + before, informed Gage that he had investigated the counter-charge + of cruelty and found it without any foundation, and then + continued: "You advise me to give free operation to truth, and to + punish misrepresentation and falsehood. If experience stamps + value upon counsel, yours must have a weight which few can claim. + You best can tell how far the convulsion, which has brought such + ruin on both countries, and shaken the mighty empire of Britain + to its foundation, may be traced to these malignant causes.</p> + + <p>"You affect, sir, to despise all rank not derived from the + same source with your own. I cannot conceive one more honorable + than that which flows from the uncorrupted choice of a brave and + free people, the purest source and original fountain of all + power. Far from making it a plea for cruelty, a mind of true + magnanimity and enlarged ideas would comprehend and respect + it."</p> + + <p>Washington had grasped instinctively the general truth that + Englishmen are prone to mistake civility for servility, and + become offensive, whereas if they are treated with indifference, + rebuke, or even rudeness, they are apt to be respectful and + polite. He was obliged to go over the same ground with Sir + William Howe, a little later, and still more sharply; and this + matter of prisoners recurred, although at longer and longer + intervals, throughout the war. But as the British generals saw + their officers go to jail, and found that their impudence and + assumption were met by keen reproofs, they gradually comprehended + that Washington was not a man to be trifled with, and that in him + was a pride and dignity out-topping theirs and far stronger, + because grounded on responsibility borne and work done, and on + the deep sense of a great and righteous cause.</p> + + <p>It was probably a pleasure and a relief to give to Gage and + Sir William Howe a little instruction in military behavior and + general good manners, but there was nothing save infinite + vexation in dealing with the difficulties arising on the American + side of the line. As the days shortened and the leaves fell, + Washington saw before him a New England winter, with no clothing + and no money for his troops. Through long letters to Congress, + and strenuous personal efforts, these wants were somehow + supplied. Then the men began to get restless and homesick, and + both privates and officers would disappear to their farms, which + Washington, always impatient of wrongdoing, styled "base and + pernicious conduct," and punished accordingly. By and by the + terms of enlistment ran out and the regiments began to melt away + even before the proper date. Recruiting was carried on slowly and + with difficulty, new levies were tardy in coming in, and Congress + could not be persuaded to stop limited enlistments. Still the + task was done. The old army departed and a new one arose in its + place, the posts were strengthened and ammunition secured.</p> + + <p>Among these reinforcements came some Virginia riflemen, and it + must have warmed Washington's heart to see once more these brave + and hardy fighters in the familiar hunting shirt and leggins. + They certainly made him warm in a very different sense by getting + into a rough-and-tumble fight one winter's day with some + Marblehead fishermen. The quarrel was at its height, when + suddenly into the brawl rode the commander-in-chief. He quickly + dismounted, seized two of the combatants, shook them, berated + them, if tradition may be trusted, for their local jealousies, + and so with strong arm quelled the disturbance. He must have + longed to take more than one colonial governor or magnate by the + throat and shake him soundly, as he did his soldiers from the + woods of Virginia and the rocks of Marblehead, for to his temper + there was nothing so satisfying as rapid and decisive action. But + he could not quell governors and assemblies in this way, and yet + he managed them and got what he wanted with a patience and tact + which it must have been in the last degree trying to him to + practice, gifted as he was with a nature at once masterful and + passionate.</p> + + <p>Another trial was brought about by his securing and sending + out privateers which did good service. They brought in many + valuable prizes which caused infinite trouble, and forced + Washington not only to be a naval secretary, but also made him a + species of admiralty judge. He implored the slow-moving Congress + to relieve him from this burden, and suggested a plan which led + to the formation of special committees and was the origin of the + Federal judiciary of the United States. Besides the local + jealousies and the personal jealousies, and the privateers and + their prizes, he had to meet also the greed and selfishness as + well of the money-making, stock-jobbing spirit which springs up + rankly under the influence of army contracts and large + expenditures among a people accustomed to trade and unused to + war. Washington wrote savagely of these practices, but still, + despite all hindrances and annoyances, he kept moving straight on + to his object.</p> + + <p>In the midst of his labors, harassed and tried in all ways, he + was assailed as usual by complaint and criticism. Some of it came + to him through his friend and aide, Joseph Reed, to whom he wrote + in reply one of the noblest letters ever penned by a great man + struggling with adverse circumstances and wringing victory from + grudging fortune. He said that he was always ready to welcome + criticism, hear advice, and learn the opinion of the world. "For + as I have but one capital object in view, I could wish to make my + conduct coincide with the wishes of mankind, as far as I can + consistently; I mean, without departing from that great line of + duty which, though hid under a cloud for some time, from a + peculiarity of circumstances, may, nevertheless, bear a + scrutiny." Thus he held fast to "the great line of duty," though + bitterly tried the while by the news from Canada, where brilliant + beginnings were coming to dismal endings, and cheered only by the + arrival of his wife, who drove up one day in her coach and four, + with the horses ridden by black postilions in scarlet and white + liveries, much to the amazement, no doubt, of the sober-minded + New England folk.</p> + + <p>Light, however, finally began to break on the work about him. + Henry Knox, sent out for that purpose, returned safely with the + guns captured at Ticonderoga, and thus heavy ordnance and + gunpowder were obtained. By the middle of February the harbor was + frozen over, and Washington arranged to cross the ice and carry + Boston by storm. Again he was held back by his council, but this + time he could not be stopped. If he could not cross the ice he + would go by land. He had been slowly but surely advancing his + works all winter, and now he determined on a decisive stroke. On + the evening of Monday, March 4, under cover of a heavy + bombardment which distracted the enemy's attention, he marched a + large body of troops to Dorchester Heights and began to throw up + redoubts. The work went forward rapidly, and Washington rode + about all night encouraging the men. The New England soldiers had + sorely tried his temper, and there were many severe attacks and + bitter criticisms upon them in his letters, which were suppressed + or smoothed over for the most part by Mr. Sparks, but which have + come to light since, as is sometimes the case with facts. + Gradually, however, the General had come to know his soldiers + better, and six months later he wrote to Lund Washington, + praising his northern troops in the highest terms. Even now he + understood them as never before, and as he watched them on that + raw March night, working with the energy and quick intelligence + of their race, he probably felt that the defects were + superficial, but the virtues, the tenacity, and the courage were + lasting and strong.</p> + + <p>When day dawned, and the British caught sight of the + formidable works which had sprung up in the night, there was a + great excitement and running hither and thither in the town. + Still the men on the heights worked on, and still Washington rode + back and forth among them. He was stirred and greatly rejoiced at + the coming of the fight, which he now believed inevitable, and as + always, when he was deeply moved, the hidden springs of sentiment + and passion were opened, and he reminded his soldiers that it was + the anniversary of the Boston massacre, and appealed to them by + the memories of that day to prepare for battle with the enemy. As + with the Huguenots at Ivry,—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>"Remember St. Bartholomew was passed from man to man."</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>But the fighting never came. The British troops were made + ready, then a gale arose and they could not cross the bay. The + next day it rained in torrents, and the next day it was too late. + The American intrenchments frowned threateningly above the town, + and began to send in certain ominous messengers in the shape of + shot and shell. The place was now so clearly untenable that Howe + determined to evacuate it. An informal request to allow the + troops to depart unmolested was not answered, but Washington + suspended his fire and the British made ready to withdraw. Still + they hesitated and delayed, until Washington again advanced his + works, and on this hint they started in earnest, on March 17, + amid confusion, pillage, and disorder, leaving cannon and much + else behind them, and seeking refuge in their ships.</p> + + <p>All was over, and the town was in the hands of the Americans. + In Washington's own words, "To maintain a post within musket-shot + of the enemy for six months together, without powder, and at the + same time to disband one army and recruit another within that + distance of twenty-odd British regiments, is more, probably, than + ever was attempted." It was, in truth, a gallant feat of arms, + carried through by the resolute will and strong brain of one man. + The troops on both sides were brave, but the British had + advantages far more than compensating for a disparity of numbers, + always slight and often more imaginary than real. They had twelve + thousand men, experienced, disciplined, equipped, and thoroughly + supplied. They had the best arms and cannon and gunpowder. They + commanded the sea with a strong fleet, and they were concentrated + on the inside line, able to strike with suddenness and + overwhelming force at any point of widely extended posts. + Washington caught them with an iron grip and tightened it + steadily until, in disorderly haste, they took to their boats + without even striking a blow. Washington's great abilities, and + the incapacity of the generals opposed to him, were the causes of + this result. If Robert Clive, for instance, had chanced to have + been there the end might possibly have been the same, but there + would have been some bloody fighting before that end was reached. + The explanation of the feeble abandonment of Boston lies in the + stupidity of the English government, which had sown the wind and + then proceeded to handle the customary crop with equal + fatuity.</p> + + <p>There were plenty of great men in England, but they were not + conducting her government or her armies. Lord Sandwich had + declared in the House of Lords that all "Yankees were cowards," a + simple and satisfactory statement, readily accepted by the + governing classes, and flung in the teeth of the British soldiers + as they fell back twice from the bloody slopes of Bunker Hill. + Acting on this pleasant idea, England sent out as commanders of + her American army a parcel of ministerial and court favorites, + thoroughly second-rate men, to whom was confided the task of + beating one of the best soldiers and hardest fighters of the + century. Despite the enormous material odds in favor of Great + Britain, the natural result of matching the Howes and Gages and + Clintons against George Washington ensued, and the first lesson + was taught by the evacuation of Boston.</p> + + <p>Washington did not linger over his victory. Even while the + British fleet still hung about the harbor he began to send troops + to New York to make ready for the next attack. He entered Boston + in order to see that every precaution was taken against the + spread of the smallpox, and then prepared to depart himself. Two + ideas, during his first winter of conflict, had taken possession + of his mind, and undoubtedly influenced profoundly his future + course. One was the conviction that the struggle must be fought + out to the bitter end, and must bring either subjugation or + complete independence. He wrote in February: "With respect to + myself, I have never entertained an idea of an accommodation, + since I heard of the measures which were adopted in consequence + of the Bunker's Hill fight;" and at an earlier date he said: "I + hope my countrymen (of Virginia) will rise superior to any losses + the whole navy of Great Britain can bring on them, and that the + destruction of Norfolk and threatened devastation of other places + will have no other effect than to unite the whole country in one + indissoluble band against a nation which seems to be lost to + every sense of virtue and those feelings which distinguish a + civilized people from the most barbarous savages." With such + thoughts he sought to make Congress appreciate the probable long + duration of the struggle, and he bent every energy to giving + permanency to his army, and decisiveness to each campaign. The + other idea which had grown in his mind during the weary siege was + that the Tories were thoroughly dangerous and deserved scant + mercy. In his second letter to Gage he refers to them, with the + frankness which characterized him when he felt strongly, as + "execrable parricides," and he made ready to treat them with the + utmost severity at New York and elsewhere. When Washington was + aroused there was a stern and relentless side to his character, + in keeping with the force and strength which were his chief + qualities. His attitude on this point seems harsh now when the + old Tories no longer look very dreadful and we can appreciate the + sincerity of conviction which no doubt controlled most of them. + But they were dangerous then, and Washington, with his honest + hatred of all that seemed to him to partake of meanness or + treason, proposed to put them down and render them harmless, + being well convinced, after his clear-sighted fashion, that war + was not peace, and that mildness to domestic foes was sadly + misplaced.</p> + + <p>His errand to New England was now done and well done. His + victory was won, everything was settled at Boston; and so, having + sent his army forward, he started for New York, to meet the + harder trials that still awaited him.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <h2><a name="VI" id="VI"></a> CHAPTER VI</h2> + + <h2>SAVING THE REVOLUTION</h2> + + <p>After leaving Boston, Washington proceeded through Rhode + Island and Connecticut, pushing troops forward as he advanced, + and reached New York on April 13. There he found himself plunged + at once into the same sea of difficulties with which he had been + struggling at Boston, the only difference being that these were + fresh and entirely untouched. The army was inadequate, and the + town, which was the central point of the colonies, as well as the + great river at its side, was wholly unprotected. The troops were + in large measure raw and undrilled, the committee of safety was + hesitating, the Tories were virulent and active, corresponding + constantly with Tryon, who was lurking in a British man-of-war, + while from the north came tidings of retreat and disaster. All + these harassing difficulties crowded upon the commander-in-chief + as soon as he arrived. To appreciate him it is necessary to + understand these conditions and realize their weight and + consequence, albeit the details seem petty. When we comprehend + the difficulties, then we can see plainly the greatness of the + man who quietly and silently took them up and disposed of them. + Some he scotched and some he killed, but he dealt with them all + after a fashion sufficient to enable him to move steadily + forward. In his presence the provincial committee suddenly + stiffened and grew strong. All correspondence with Tryon was cut + off, the Tories were repressed, and on Long Island steps were + taken to root out "these abominable pests of society," as the + commander-in-chief called them in his plain-spoken way. Then + forts were built, soldiers energetically recruited and drilled, + arrangements made for prisoners, and despite all the present + cares anxious thought was given to the Canada campaign, and ideas + and expeditions, orders, suggestions, and encouragement were + freely furnished to the dispirited generals and broken forces of + the north.</p> + + <p>One matter, however, overshadowed all others. Nearly a year + before, Washington had seen that there was no prospect or + possibility of accommodation with Great Britain. It was plain to + his mind that the struggle was final in its character and would + be decisive. Separation from the mother country, therefore, ought + to come at once, so that public opinion might be concentrated, + and above all, permanency ought to be given to the army. These + ideas he had been striving to impress upon Congress, for the most + part less clearsighted than he was as to facts, and as the months + slipped by his letters had grown constantly more earnest and more + vehement. Still Congress hesitated, and at last Washington went + himself to Philadelphia and held conferences with the principal + men. What he said is lost, but the tone of Congress certainly + rose after his visit. The aggressive leaders found their hands so + much strengthened that little more than a month later they + carried through a declaration of independence, which was solemnly + and gratefully proclaimed to the army by the general, much + relieved to have got through the necessary boat-burning, and to + have brought affairs, military and political, on to the hard + ground of actual fact.</p> + + <p>Soon after his return from Philadelphia, he received + convincing proof that his views in regard to the Tories were + extremely sound. A conspiracy devised by Tryon, which aimed + apparently at the assassination of the commander-in-chief, and + which had corrupted his life-guards for that purpose, was + discovered and scattered before it had fairly hardened into + definite form. The mayor of the city and various other persons + were seized and thrown into prison, and one of the life-guards, + Thomas Hickey by name, who was the principal tool in the plot, + was hanged in the presence of a large concourse of people. + Washington wrote a brief and business-like account of the affair + to Congress, from which one would hardly suppose that his own + life had been aimed at. It is a curious instance of his cool + indifference to personal danger. The conspiracy had failed, that + was sufficient for him, and he had other things besides himself + to consider. "We expect a bloody summer in New York and Canada," + he wrote to his brother, and even while the Canadian expedition + was coming to a disastrous close, and was bringing hostile + invasion instead of the hoped-for conquest, British men-of-war + were arriving daily in the harbor, and a large army was + collecting on Staten Island. The rejoicings over the Declaration + of Independence had hardly died away, when the vessels of the + enemy made their way up the Hudson without check from the embryo + forts, or the obstacles placed in the stream.</p> + + <p>July 12 Lord Howe arrived with more troops, and also with + ample powers to pardon and negotiate. Almost immediately he tried + to open a correspondence with Washington, but Colonel Reed, in + behalf of the General, refused to receive the letter addressed to + "Mr. Washington." Then Lord Howe sent an officer to the American + camp with a second letter, addressed to "George Washington, Esq., + etc., etc." The bearer was courteously received, but the letter + was declined. "The etc., etc. implies everything," said the + Englishman. It may also mean "anything," Washington replied, and + added that touching the pardoning power of Lord Howe there could + be no pardon where there was no guilt, and where no forgiveness + was asked. As a result of these interviews, Lord Howe wrote to + England that it would be well to give Mr. Washington his proper + title. A small question, apparently, this of the form of address, + especially to a lover of facts, and yet it was in reality of + genuine importance. To the world Washington represented the young + republic, and he was determined to extort from England the first + acknowledgment of independence by compelling her to recognize the + Americans as belligerents and not rebels. Washington cared as + little for vain shows as any man who ever lived, but he had the + highest sense of personal dignity, and of the dignity of his + cause and country. Neither should be allowed to suffer in his + hands. He appreciated the effect on mankind of forms and titles, + and with unerring judgment he insisted on what he knew to be of + real value. It is one of the earliest examples of the dignity and + good taste which were of such inestimable value to his + country.</p> + + <p>He had abundant occasion also for the employment of these same + qualities, coupled with unwearied patience and tact, in dealing + with his own men. The present army was drawn from a wider range + than that which had taken Boston, and sectional jealousies and + disputes, growing every day more hateful to the + commander-in-chief, sprang up rankly. The men of Maryland thought + those of Connecticut ploughboys; the latter held the former to be + fops and dandies. These and a hundred other disputes buzzed and + whirled about Washington, stirring his strong temper, and + exercising his sternest self-control in the untiring effort to + suppress them and put them to death. "It requires," John Adams + truly said, "more serenity of temper, a deeper understanding, and + more courage than fell to the lot of Marlborough, to ride in this + whirlwind." Fortunately these qualities were all there, and with + them an honesty of purpose and an unbending directness of + character to which Anne's great general was a stranger.</p> + + <p>Meantime, while the internal difficulties were slowly + diminished, the forces of the enemy rapidly increased. First it + became evident that attacks were not feasible. Then the question + changed to a mere choice of defenses. Even as to this there was + great and harassing doubt, for the enemy, having command of the + water, could concentrate and attack at any point they pleased. + Moreover, the British had thirty thousand of the best disciplined + and best equipped troops that Europe could furnish, while + Washington had some twenty thousand men, one fourth of whom were + unfit for duty, and with the remaining three fourths, raw + recruits for the most part, he was obliged to defend an extended + line of posts, without cavalry, and with no means for rapid + concentration. Had he been governed solely by military + considerations he would have removed the inhabitants, burned New + York, and drawing his forces together would have taken up a + secure post of observation. To have destroyed the town, however, + not only would have frightened the timid and the doubters, and + driven them over to the Tories, but would have dispirited the + patriots not yet alive to the exigencies of war, and deeply + injured the American cause. That Washington well understood the + need of such action is clear, both from the current rumors that + the town was to be burned, and from his expressed desire to + remove the women and children from New York. But political + considerations overruled the military necessity, and he spared + the town. It was bad enough to be thus hampered, but he was even + more fettered in other ways, for he could not even concentrate + his forces and withdraw to the Highlands without a battle, as he + was obliged to fight in order to sustain public feeling, and thus + he was driven on to almost sure defeat. With Brooklyn Heights in + the hands of the enemy New York was untenable, and yet it was + obvious that to hold Brooklyn when the enemy controlled the sea + was inviting defeat. Yet Washington under the existing conditions + had no choice except to fight on Long Island and to say that he + hoped to make a good defense.</p> + + <p>Everything, too, as the day of battle drew near, seemed to + make against him. On August 22 the enemy began to land on Long + Island, where Greene had drawn a strong line of redoubts behind + the village of Brooklyn, to defend the heights which commanded + New York, and had made every arrangement to protect the three + roads through the wooded hills, about a mile from the + intrenchments. Most unfortunately, and just at the critical + moment, Greene was taken down with a raging fever, so that when + Washington came over on the 24th he found much confusion in the + camps, which he repressed as best he could, and then prepared for + the attack. Greene's illness, however, had caused some oversights + which were unknown to the commander-in-chief, and which, as it + turned out, proved fatal.</p> + + <p>After indecisive skirmishing for two or three days, the + British started early on the morning of the 26th. They had nine + thousand men and were well informed as to the country. Advancing + through woodpaths and lanes, they came round to the left flank of + the Americans. One of the roads through the hills was unguarded, + the others feebly protected. The result is soon told. The + Americans, out-generaled and out-flanked, were taken by surprise + and surrounded, Sullivan and his division were cut off, and then + Lord Stirling. There was some desperate fighting, and the + Americans showed plenty of courage, but only a few forced their + way out. Most of them were killed or taken prisoners, the total + loss out of some five thousand men reaching as high as two + thousand.</p> + + <p>From the redoubts, whither he had come at the sound of the + firing, Washington watched the slaughter and disaster in grim + silence. He saw the British troops, flushed with victory, press + on to the very edge of his works and then withdraw in obedience + to command. The British generals had their prey so surely, as + they believed, that they mercifully decided not to waste life + unnecessarily by storming the works in the first glow of success. + So they waited during that night and the two following days, + while Washington strengthened his intrenchments, brought over + reinforcements, and prepared for the worst. On the 29th it became + apparent that there was a movement in the fleet, and that + arrangements were being made to take the Americans in the rear + and wholly cut them off. It was an obvious and sensible plan, but + the British overlooked the fact that while they were lingering, + summing up their victory, and counting the future as assured, + there was a silent watchful man on the other side of the redoubts + who for forty-eight hours never left the lines, and who with a + great capacity for stubborn fighting could move, when the stress + came, with the celerity and stealth of a panther.</p> + + <p>Washington swiftly determined to retreat. It was a desperate + undertaking, and a lesser man would have hesitated and been lost. + He had to transport nine thousand men across a strait of strong + tides and currents, and three quarters of a mile in width. It was + necessary to collect the boats from a distance, and do it all + within sight and hearing of the enemy. The boats were obtained, a + thick mist settled down on sea and land, the water was calm, and + as the night wore away, the entire army with all its arms and + baggage was carried over, Washington leaving in the last boat. At + daybreak the British awoke, but it was too late. They had fought + a successful battle, they had had the American army in their + grasp, and now all was over. The victory had melted away, and, as + a grand result, they had a few hundred prisoners, a stray boat + with three camp-followers, and the deserted works in which they + stood. To grasp so surely the happy chance of wind and weather + and make such a retreat as this was a feat of arms as great as + most victories, and in it we see, perhaps as plainly as anywhere, + the nerve and quickness of the man who conducted it. It is true, + it was the only chance of salvation, but the great man is he who + is entirely master of his opportunity, even if he have but + one.</p> + + <p>The outlook, nevertheless, was, as Washington wrote, "truly + distressing." The troops were dispirited, and the militia began + to disappear, as they always did after a defeat. Congress would + not permit the destruction of the city, different interests + pulled in different directions, conflicting opinions distracted + the councils of war, and, with utter inability to predict the + enemy's movements, everything led to halfway measures and to + intense anxiety, while Lord Howe tried to negotiate with + Congress, and the Americans waited for events. Washington, + looking beyond the confusion of the moment, saw that he had + gained much by delay, and had his own plan well defined. He + wrote: "We have not only delayed the operations of the campaign + till it is too late to effect any capital incursion into the + country, but have drawn the enemy's forces to one point.... It + would be presumption to draw out our young troops into open + ground against their superiors both in number and discipline, and + I have never spared the spade and pickaxe." Every one else, + however, saw only past defeat and present peril.</p> + + <p>The British ships gradually made their way up the river, until + it became apparent that they intended to surround and cut off the + American army. Washington made preparations to withdraw, but + uncertainty of information came near rendering his precautions + futile. September 15 the men-of-war opened fire, and troops were + landed near Kip's Bay. The militia in the breastworks at that + point had been at Brooklyn and gave way at once, communicating + their panic to two Connecticut regiments. Washington, galloping + down to the scene of battle, came upon the disordered and flying + troops. He dashed in among them, conjuring them to stop, but even + while he was trying to rally them they broke again on the + appearance of some sixty or seventy of the enemy, and ran in all + directions. In a tempest of anger Washington drew his pistols, + struck the fugitives with his sword, and was only forced from the + field by one of his officers seizing the bridle of his horse and + dragging him away from the British, now within a hundred yards of + the spot.</p> + + <p>Through all his trials and anxieties Washington always showed + the broadest and most generous sympathy. When the militia had + begun to leave him a few days before, although he despised their + action and protested bitterly to Congress against their + employment, yet in his letters he displayed a keen appreciation + of their feelings, and saw plainly every palliation and excuse. + But there was one thing which he could never appreciate nor + realize. It was from first to last impossible for him to + understand how any man could refuse to fight, or could think of + running away. When he beheld rout and cowardly panic before his + very eyes, his temper broke loose and ran uncontrolled. His one + thought then was to fight to the last, and he would have thrown + himself single-handed on the enemy, with all his wisdom and + prudence flung to the winds. The day when the commander held his + place merely by virtue of personal prowess lay far back in the + centuries, and no one knew it better than Washington. But the old + fighting spirit awoke within him when the clash of arms sounded + in his ears, and though we may know the general in the tent and + in the council, we can only know the man when he breaks out from + all rules and customs, and shows the rage of battle, and the + indomitable eagerness for the fray, which lie at the bottom of + the tenacity and courage that carried the war for independence to + a triumphant close.</p> + + <p>The rout and panic over, Washington quickly turned to deal + with the pressing danger. With coolness and quickness he issued + his orders, and succeeded in getting his army off, Putnam's + division escaping most narrowly. He then took post at King's + Bridge, and began to strengthen and fortify his lines. While thus + engaged, the enemy advanced, and on the 16th Washington suddenly + took the offensive and attacked the British light troops. The + result was a sharp skirmish, in which the British were driven + back with serious loss, and great bravery was shown by the + Connecticut and Virginia troops, the two commanding officers + being killed. This affair, which was the first gleam of success, + encouraged the troops, and was turned to the best account by the + general. Still a successful skirmish did not touch the essential + difficulties of the situation, which then as always came from + within, rather than without. To face and check twenty-five + thousand well-equipped and highly disciplined soldiers Washington + had now some twelve thousand men, lacking in everything which + goes to make an army, except mere individual courage and a high + average of intelligence. Even this meagre force was an inconstant + and diminishing quantity, shifting, uncertain, and always + threatening dissolution.</p> + + <p>The task of facing and fighting the enemy was enough for the + ablest of men; but Washington was obliged also to combat and + overcome the inertness and dullness born of ignorance, and to + teach Congress how to govern a nation at war. In the hours + "allotted to sleep," he sat in his headquarters, writing a + letter, with "blots and scratches," which told Congress with the + utmost precision and vigor just what was needed. It was but one + of a long series of similar letters, written with unconquerable + patience and with unwearied iteration, lighted here and there by + flashes of deep and angry feeling, which would finally strike + home under the pressure of defeat, and bring the patriots of the + legislature to sudden action, always incomplete, but still action + of some sort. It must have been inexpressibly dreary work, but + quite as much was due to those letters as to the battles. + Thinking for other people, and teaching them what to do, is at + best an ungrateful duty, but when it is done while an enemy is at + your throat, it shows a grim tenacity of purpose which is well + worth consideration.</p> + + <p>In this instance the letter of September 24, read in the light + of the battles of Long Island and Kip's Bay, had a considerable + effect. The first steps were taken to make the army national and + permanent, to raise the pay of officers, and to lengthen + enlistments. Like most of the war measures of Congress, they were + too late for the immediate necessity, but they helped the future. + Congress, moreover, then felt that all had been done that could + be demanded, and relapsed once more into confidence. "The British + force," said John Adams, chairman of the board of war, "is so + divided, they will do no great matter this fall." But Washington, + facing hard facts, wrote to Congress with his unsparing truth on + October 4: "Give me leave to say, sir, (I say it with due + deference and respect, and my knowledge of the facts, added to + the importance of the cause and the stake I hold in it, must + justify the freedom,) that your affairs are in a more unpromising + way than you seem to apprehend. Your army, as I mentioned in my + last, is on the eve of its political dissolution. True it is, you + have voted a larger one in lieu of it; but the season is late; + and there is a material difference between voting battalions and + raising men."</p> + + <p>The campaign as seen from the board of war and from the Plains + of Harlem differed widely. It is needless to say now which was + correct; every one knows that the General was right and Congress + wrong, but being in the right did not help Washington, nor did he + take petty pleasure in being able to say, "I told you how it + would be." The hard facts remained unchanged. There was the + wholly patriotic but slumberous, and for fighting purposes quite + inefficient Congress still to be waked up and kept awake, and to + be instructed. With painful and plain-spoken repetition this work + was grappled with and done methodically, and like all else as + effectively as was possible.</p> + + <p>Meanwhile the days slipped along, and Washington waited on the + Harlem Plains, planning descents on Long Island, and determining + to make a desperate stand where he was, unless the situation + decidedly changed. Then the situation did change, as neither he + nor any one else apparently had anticipated. The British warships + came up the Hudson past the forts, brushing aside our boasted + obstructions, destroying our little fleet, and getting command of + the river. Then General Howe landed at Frog's Point, where he was + checked for the moment by the good disposition of Heath, under + Washington's direction. These two events made it evident that the + situation of the American army was full of peril, and that + retreat was again necessary. Such certainly was the conclusion of + the council of war, on the 16th, acting this time in agreement + with their chief. Six days Howe lingered on Frog's Point, + bringing up stores or artillery or something; it matters little + now why he tarried. Suffice it that he waited, and gave six days + to his opponent. They were of little value to Howe, but they were + of inestimable worth to Washington, who employed them in getting + everything in readiness, in holding his council of war, and then + on the 17th in moving deliberately off to very strong ground at + White Plains. On his way he fought two or three slight, sharp, + and successful skirmishes with the British. Sir William followed + closely, but with much caution, having now a dull glimmer in his + mind that at the head of the raw troops in front of him was a man + with whom it was not safe to be entirely careless.</p> + + <p>On the 28th, Howe came up to Washington's position, and found + the Americans quite equal in numbers, strongly intrenched, and + awaiting his attack with confidence. He hesitated, doubted, and + finally feeling that he must do something, sent four thousand men + to storm Chatterton Hill, an outlying post, where some fourteen + hundred Americans were stationed. There was a short, sharp + action, and then the Americans retreated in good order to the + main army, having lost less than half as many men as their + opponents. With caution now much enlarged, Howe sent for + reinforcements, and waited two days. The third day it rained, and + on the fourth Howe found that Washington had withdrawn to a + higher and quite impregnable line of hills, where he held all the + passes in the rear and awaited a second attack. Howe contemplated + the situation for two or three days longer, and then broke camp + and withdrew to Dobbs Ferry to secure Fort Washington, which + treachery offered him as an easy and inviting prize. Such were + the great results of the victory of Long Island, two wasted + months, and the American army still untouched.</p> + + <p>Howe was resolved that his campaign should not be utterly + fruitless, and therefore directed his attention to the defenses + of the Hudson, and here he met with better success. Congress, in + its military wisdom, had insisted that these forts must and could + be held. So thought the generals, and so most especially, and + most unluckily, did Greene. Washington, with his usual accurate + and keen perception, saw, from the time the men-of-war came up + the Hudson, and, now that the British army was free, more clearly + than ever, that both forts ought to be abandoned. Sure of his + ground, he overruled Congress, but was so far influenced by + Greene that he gave to that officer discretionary orders as to + withdrawal. This was an act of weakness, as he afterwards + admitted, for which he bitterly reproached himself, never + confusing or glossing over his own errors, but loyal there, as + elsewhere, to facts. An attempt was made to hold both forts, and + both were lost, as he had foreseen. From Fort Lee the garrison + withdrew in safety. Fort Washington, with its plans all in Howe's + hands through the treachery of William Demont, the adjutant of + Colonel Magaw, was carried by storm, after a severe struggle. + Twenty-six hundred men and all the munitions of war fell into the + hands of the enemy. It was a serious and most depressing loss, + and was felt throughout the continent.</p> + + <p>Meantime Washington had crossed info the Jerseys, and, after + the loss of Fort Lee, began to retreat before the British, who, + flushed with victory, now advanced rapidly under Lord Cornwallis. + The crisis of his fate and of the Revolution was upon him. His + army was melting away. The militia had almost all disappeared, + and regiments whose term of enlistment had expired were departing + daily. Lee, who had a division under his command, was ordered to + come up, but paid no attention, although the orders were repeated + almost every day for a month. He lingered, and loitered, and + excused himself, and at last was taken prisoner. This disposed of + him for a time very satisfactorily, but meanwhile he had + succeeded in keeping his troops from Washington, which was a most + serious misfortune.</p> + + <p>On December 2 Washington was at Princeton with three thousand + ragged men, and the British close upon his heels. They had him + now surely in their grip. There could be no mistake this time, + and there was therefore no need of a forced march. But they had + not yet learned that to Washington even hours meant much, and + when, after duly resting, they reached the Delaware, they found + the Americans on the other side, and all the boats destroyed for + a distance of seventy miles.</p> + + <p>It was winter now, the short gray days had come, and with them + piercing cold and storms of sleet and ice. It seemed as if the + elements alone would finally disperse the feeble body of men + still gathered about the commander-in-chief. Congress had sent + him blank commissions and orders to recruit, which were well + meant, but were not practically of much value. As Glendower could + call spirits from the vasty deep, so they, with like success, + sought to call soldiers from the earth in the midst of defeat, + and in the teeth of a North American winter. Washington, baffling + pursuit and flying from town to town, left nothing undone. North + and south went letters and appeals for men, money, and supplies. + Vain, very vain, it all was, for the most part, but still it was + done in a tenacious spirit. Lee would not come, the Jersey + militia would not turn out, thousands began to accept Howe's + amnesty, and signs of wavering were apparent in some of the + Middle States. Philadelphia was threatened, Newport was in the + hands of the enemy, and for ninety miles Washington had + retreated, evading ruin again and again only by the width of a + river. Congress voted not to leave Philadelphia,—a fact + which their General declined to publish,—and then fled.</p> + + <p>No one remained to face the grim realities of the time but + Washington, and he met them unmoved. Not a moment passed that he + did not seek in some way to effect something. Not an hour went by + that he did not turn calmly from fresh and ever renewed + disappointment to work and action.</p> + + <p>By the middle of December Howe felt satisfied that the + American army would soon dissolve, and leaving strong detachments + in various posts he withdrew to New York. His premises were + sound, and his conclusions logical, but he made his usual mistake + of overlooking and underestimating the American general. No + sooner was it known that he was on his way to New York than + Washington, at the head of his dissolving army, resolved to take + the offensive and strike an outlying post. In a letter of + December 14, the day after Howe began to move, we catch the first + glimpse of Trenton. It was a bold spirit which, in the dead of + winter, with a broken army, no prospect of reinforcements, and in + the midst of a terror-stricken people, could thus resolve with + some four thousand men to attack an army thoroughly appointed, + and numbering in all its divisions twenty-five thousand + soldiers.</p> + + <p>It is well to pause a moment and look at that situation, and + at the overwhelming difficulties which hemmed it in, and then try + to realize what manner of man he was who rose superior to it, and + conquered it. Be it remembered, too, that he never deceived + himself, and never for one instant disguised the truth. Two years + later he wrote that at this supreme moment, in what were called + "the dark days of America," he was never despondent; and this was + true enough, for despair was not in his nature. But no delusions + lent him courage. On the 18th he wrote to his brother "that if + every nerve was not strained to recruit this new army the game + was pretty nearly up;" and added, "You can form no idea of the + perplexity of my situation. No man, I believe, ever had a greater + choice of difficulties, and less means to extricate himself from + them. However, under a full persuasion of the justice of our + cause, I cannot entertain an idea that it will finally sink, + though it may remain for some time under a cloud." There is no + complaint, no boasting, no despair in this letter. We can detect + a bitterness in the references to Congress and to Lee, but the + tone of the letter is as calm as a May morning, and it concludes + with sending love and good wishes to the writer's sister and her + family.</p> + + <p>Thus in the dreary winter Washington was planning and devising + and sending hither and thither for men, and never ceased through + it all to write urgent and ever sharper letters and keep a wary + eye upon the future. He not only wrote strongly, but he pledged + his own estate and exceeded his powers in desperate efforts to + raise money and men. On the 20th he wrote to Congress: "It may be + thought that I am going a good deal out of the line of my duty to + adopt these measures, or to advise thus freely. A character to + lose, an estate to forfeit, the inestimable blessings of liberty + at stake, and a life devoted, must be my excuse." Even now across + the century these words come with a grave solemnity to our ears, + and we can feel as he felt when he alone saw that he stood on the + brink of a great crisis. It is an awful thing to know that the + life of a nation is at stake, and this thought throbs in his + words, measured and quiet as usual, but deeply fraught with much + meaning to him and to the world.</p> + + <p>By Christmas all was ready, and when the Christian world was + rejoicing and feasting, and the British officers in New York and + in the New Jersey towns were reveling and laughing, Washington + prepared to strike. His whole force, broken into various + detachments, was less than six thousand men. To each division was + assigned, with provident forethought, its exact part. Nothing was + overlooked, nothing omitted; and then every division commander + failed, for good reason or bad, to do his duty. Gates was to + march from Bristol with two thousand men, Ewing was to cross at + Trenton, Putnam was to come up from Philadelphia, Griffin was to + make a diversion against Donop. When the moment came, Gates, + disapproving the scheme, was on his way to Congress, and + Wilkinson, with his message, found his way to headquarters by + following the bloody tracks of the barefooted soldiers. Griffin + abandoned New Jersey and fled before Donop. Putnam would not even + attempt to leave Philadelphia, and Ewing made no effort to cross + at Trenton. Cadwalader, indeed, came down from Bristol, but after + looking at the river and the floating ice, gave it up as + desperate.</p> + + <p>But there was one man who did not hesitate nor give up, nor + halt on account of floating ice. With twenty-four hundred hardy + veterans, Washington crossed the Delaware. The night was bitter + cold and the passage difficult. When they landed, and began their + march of nine miles to Trenton, a fierce storm of sleet drove in + their faces. Sullivan; marching by the river, sent word that the + arms of his men were wet. "Then tell your general," said + Washington, "to use the bayonet, for the town must be taken." In + broad daylight they came to the town. Washington, at the front + and on the right of the line, swept down the Pennington road, and + as he drove in the pickets he heard the shouts of Sullivan's men, + as, with Stark leading the van, they charged in from the river. A + company of yägers and the light dragoons slipped away, there + was a little confused fighting in the streets, Colonel Rahl fell, + mortally wounded, his Hessians threw down their arms, and all was + over. The battle had been fought and won, and the Revolution was + saved.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"> + <a href="images/illus0389.jpg"><img width="100%" src= + "images/illus0389.jpg" alt= + "WASHINGTON CROSSING THE DELAWARE" /></a> WASHINGTON CROSSING + THE DELAWARE + </div> + + <p>Taking his thousand prisoners with him, Washington recrossed + the Delaware to his old position. Had all done their duty, as he + had planned, the British hold on New Jersey would have been + shattered. As it was, it was only loosened. Congress, aroused at + last, had invested Washington with almost dictatorial powers; but + the time for action was short. The army was again melting away, + and only by urgent appeals were some veterans retained, and + enough new men gathered to make a force of five thousand men. + With this army Washington prepared to finish what he had + begun.</p> + + <p>Trenton struck alarm and dismay into the British, and + Cornwallis, with seven thousand of the best troops, started from + New York to redeem what had been lost. Leaving three regiments at + Princeton, he pushed hotly after Washington, who fell back behind + the Assunpink River, skirmishing heavily and successfully. When + Cornwallis reached the river he found the American army drawn up + on the other side awaiting him. An attack on the bridge was + repulsed, and the prospect looked uninviting. Some officers urged + an immediate assault; but night was falling, and Cornwallis, sure + of the game, decided to wait till the morrow. He, too, forgot + that he was facing an enemy who never overlooked a mistake, and + never waited an hour. With quick decision Washington left his + camp-fires burning on the river bank, and taking roundabout + roads, which he had already reconnoitred, marched on to + Princeton. By sunrise he was in the outskirts of the town. + Mercer, detached with some three hundred men, fell in with + Mawhood's regiment, and a sharp action ensued. Mercer was + mortally wounded, and his men gave way just as the main army came + upon the field. The British charged, and as the raw Pennsylvanian + troops in the van wavered, Washington rode to the front, and + reining his horse within thirty yards of the British, ordered his + men to advance. The volleys of musketry left him unscathed, the + men stood firm, the other divisions came rapidly into action, and + the enemy gave way in all directions. The two other British + regiments were driven through the town and routed. Had there been + cavalry they would have been entirely cut off. As it was, they + were completely broken, and in this short but bloody action they + lost five hundred men in killed, wounded, and prisoners. It was + too late to strike the magazines at Brunswick, as Washington had + intended, and so he withdrew once more with his army to the high + lands to rest and recruit.</p> + + <p>His work was done, however. The country, which had been + supine, and even hostile, rose now, and the British were + attacked, surprised, and cut off in all directions, until at last + they were shut up in the immediate vicinity of New York. The tide + had been turned, and Washington had won the precious + breathing-time which was all he required.</p> + + <p>Frederick the Great is reported to have said that this was the + most brilliant campaign of the century. It certainly showed all + the characteristics of the highest strategy and most consummate + generalship. With a force numerically insignificant as compared + with that opposed to him, Washington won two decisive victories, + striking the enemy suddenly with superior numbers at each point + of attack. The Trenton campaign has all the quality of some of + the last battles fought by Napoleon in France before his + retirement to Elba. Moreover, these battles show not only + generalship of the first order, but great statesmanship. They + display that prescient knowledge which recognizes the supreme + moment when all must be risked to save the state. By Trenton and + Princeton Washington inflicted deadly blows upon the enemy, but + he did far more by reviving the patriotic spirit of the country + fainting under the bitter experience of defeat, and by sending + fresh life and hope and courage throughout the whole people.</p> + + <p>It was the decisive moment of the war. Sooner or later the + American colonies were sure to part from the mother-country, + either peaceably or violently. But there was nothing inevitable + in the Revolution of 1776, nor was its end at all certain. It was + in the last extremities when the British overran New Jersey, and + if it had not been for Washington that particular revolution + would have most surely failed. Its fate lay in the hands of the + general and his army; and to the strong brain growing ever keener + and quicker as the pressure became more intense, to the iron will + gathering a more relentless force as defeat thickened, to the + high, unbending character, and to the passionate and fighting + temper of Washington, we owe the brilliant campaign which in the + darkest hour turned the tide and saved the cause of the + Revolution.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <h2><a name="VII" id="VII"></a> CHAPTER VII</h2> + + <h2>"MALICE DOMESTIC, AND FOREIGN LEVY"</h2> + + <p>After the "two lucky strokes at Trenton and Princeton," as he + himself called them, Washington took up a strong position at + Morristown and waited. His plan was to hold the enemy in check, + and to delay all operations until spring. It is easy enough now + to state his purpose, and it looks very simple, but it was a grim + task to carry it out through the bleak winter days of 1777. The + Jerseys farmers, spurred by the sufferings inflicted upon them by + the British troops, had turned out at last in deference to + Washington's appeals, after the victories of Trenton and + Princeton, had harassed and cut off outlying parties, and had + thus straitened the movements of the enemy. But the main army of + the colonies, on which all depended, was in a pitiable state. It + shifted its character almost from day to day. The curse of short + enlistments, so denounced by Washington, made itself felt now + with frightful effect. With the new year most of the continental + troops departed, while others to replace them came in very + slowly, and recruiting dragged most wearisomely. Washington was + thus obliged, with temporary reinforcements of raw militia, to + keep up appearances; and no commander ever struggled with a more + trying task. At times it looked as if the whole army would + actually disappear, and more than once Washington expected that + the week's or the month's end would find him with not more than + five hundred men. At the beginning of March he had about four + thousand men, a few weeks later only three thousand raw troops, + ill-fed, ill-clad, ill-shod, ill-armed, and almost unpaid. Over + against him was Howe, with eleven thousand men in the field, and + still more in the city of New York, well disciplined and + equipped, well-armed, well-fed, and furnished with every needful + supply. The contrast is absolutely grotesque, and yet the force + of one man's genius and will was such that this excellent British + army was hemmed in and kept in harmless quiet by their ragged + opponents.</p> + + <p>Washington's plan, from the first, was to keep the field at + all hazards, and literally at all hazards did he do so. Right and + left his letters went, day after day, calling with pathetic but + dignified earnestness for men and supplies. In one of these + epistles, to Governor Cooke of Rhode Island, written in January, + to remonstrate against raising troops for the State only, he set + forth his intentions in a few words. "You must be sensible," he + said, "that the season is fast approaching when a new campaign + will open; nay, the former is not yet closed; nor do I intend it + shall be, unless the enemy quits the Jerseys." To keep fighting + all the time, and never let the fire of active resistance flicker + or die out, was Washington's theory of the way to maintain his + own side and beat the enemy. If he could not fight big battles, + he would fight small ones; if he could not fight little battles, + he would raid and skirmish and surprise; but fighting of some + sort he would have, while the enemy attempted to spread over a + State and hold possession of it. We can see the obstacles now, + but we can only wonder how they were sufficiently overcome to + allow anything to be done.</p> + + <p>Moreover, besides the purely physical difficulties in the lack + of men, money, and supplies, there were others of a political and + personal kind, which were even more wearing and trying, but + which, nevertheless, had to be dealt with also, in some fashion. + In order to sustain the courage of the people Washington was + obliged to give out, and to allow it to be supposed, that he had + more men than was really the case, and so Congress and various + wise and well-meaning persons grumbled because he did not do more + and fight more battles. He never deceived Congress, but they + either could not or would not understand the actual situation. In + March he wrote to Robert Morris: "Nor is it in my power to make + Congress fully sensible of the real situation of our affairs, and + that it is with difficulty, if I may use the expression, that I + can by every means in my power keep the life and soul of this + army together. In a word, when they are at a distance, they think + it is but to say, <i>Presto, begone</i>, and everything is done. + They seem not to have any conception of the difficulty and + perplexity attending those who are to execute." It was so easy to + see what they would like to have done, and so simple to pass a + resolve to that effect, that Congress never could appreciate the + reality of the difficulty and the danger until the hand of the + enemy was almost at their throats. They were not even content + with delay and neglect, but interfered actively at times, as in + the matter of the exchange of prisoners, where they made unending + trouble for Washington, and showed themselves unable to learn or + to keep their hands off after any amount of instruction.</p> + + <p>In January Washington issued a proclamation requiring those + inhabitants who had subscribed to Howe's declaration to come in + within thirty days and take the oath of allegiance to the United + States. If they failed to do so they were to be treated as + enemies. The measure was an eminently proper one, and the + proclamation was couched in the most moderate language. It was + impossible to permit a large class of persons to exist on the + theory that they were peaceful American citizens and also + subjects of King George. The results of such conduct were in + every way perilous and intolerable, and Washington was determined + that he would divide the sheep from the goats, and know whom he + was defending and whom attacking. Yet for this wise and necessary + action he was called in question in Congress and accused of + violating civil rights and the resolves of Congress itself. + Nothing was actually done about it, but such an incident shows + from a single point the infinite tact and resolution required in + waging war under a government whose members were unable to + comprehend what was meant, and who could not see that until they + had beaten England it was hardly worth while to worry about civil + rights, which in case of defeat would speedily cease to exist + altogether.</p> + + <p>Another fertile source of trouble arose from questions of + rank. Members of Congress, in making promotions and appointments, + were more apt to consider local claims than military merit, and + they also allowed their own personal prejudices to affect their + action in this respect far too much. Thence arose endless + heart-burnings and jealousies, followed by resignations and the + loss of valuable officers. Congress, having made the + appointments, would go cheerfully about its business, while the + swarm of grievances thus let loose would come buzzing about the + devoted head of the commander-in-chief. He could not adjourn, but + was compelled to quiet rivalries, allay irritated feelings, and + ride the storm as best he might. It was all done, however, in one + way or another: by personal appeals, and by letters full of + dignity, patriotism, and patience, which are very impressive and + full of meaning for students of character, even in this day and + generation.</p> + + <p>Then again, not content with snarling up our native + appointments, Congress complicated matters still more dangerously + by its treatment of foreigners. The members of Congress were + colonists, and the fact that they had shaken off the yoke of the + mother country did not in the least alter their colonial and + perfectly natural habit of regarding with enormous respect + Englishmen and Frenchmen, and indeed anybody who had had the good + fortune to be born in Europe. The result was that they + distributed commissions and gave inordinate rank to the many + volunteers who came over the ocean, actuated by various motives, + but all filled with a profound sense of their own merits. It is + only fair to Congress to say that the American agents abroad were + even more to blame in this respect. Silas Deane especially + scattered promises of commissions with a lavish hand, and + Congress refused to fulfill many of the promises thus made in its + name. Nevertheless, Congress was far too lax, and followed too + closely the example of its agents. Some of these foreigners were + disinterested men and excellent soldiers, who proved of great + value to the American cause. Many others were mere military + adventurers, capable of being turned to good account, perhaps, + but by no means entitled to what they claimed and in most + instances received.</p> + + <p>The ill-considered action of Congress and of our agents abroad + in this respect was a source of constantly recurring troubles of + a very serious nature. Native officers, who had borne the burden + and heat of the day, justly resented being superseded by some + stranger, unable to speak the language, who had landed in the + States but a few days before. As a result, resignations were + threatened which, if carried out, would affect the character of + the army very deeply. Then again, the foreigners themselves, + inflated by the eagerness of our agents and by their reception at + the hands of Congress, would find on joining the army that they + could get no commands, chiefly because there were none to give. + They would then become dissatisfied with their rank and + employment, and bitter complaints and recriminations would ensue. + All these difficulties, of course, fell most heavily upon the + commander-in-chief, who was heartily disgusted with the whole + business. Washington believed from the beginning, and said over + and over again in various and ever stronger terms, that this was + an American war and must be fought by Americans. In no other way, + and by no other persons, did he consider that it could be carried + to any success worth having. He saw of course the importance of a + French alliance, and deeply desired it, for it was a leading + element in the solution of the political and military situation; + but alliance with a foreign power was one thing, and sporadic + military volunteers were another. Washington had no narrow + prejudices against foreigners, for he was a man of broad and + liberal mind, and no one was more universally beloved and + respected by the foreign officers than he; but he was intensely + American in his feelings, and he would not admit for an instant + that the American war for independence could be righteously + fought or honestly won by others than Americans. He was well + aware that foreign volunteers had a value and use of which he + largely and gratefully availed himself; but he was exasperated + and alarmed by the indiscriminate and lavish way in which + Congress and our agents abroad gave rank and office to them. + "Hungry adventurers," he called them in one letter, when driven + beyond endurance by the endless annoyances thus forced upon him; + and so he pushed their pretensions aside, and managed, on the + whole, to keep them in their proper place. The operation was + delicate, difficult, and unpleasant, for it seemed to savor of + ingratitude. But Washington was never shaken for an instant in + his policy, and while he checked the danger, he showed in many + instances, like Lafayette and Steuben, that he could appreciate + and use all that was really valuable in the foreign + contingent.</p> + + <p>The service rendered by Washington in this matter has never + been justly understood or appreciated. If he had not taken this + position, and held it with an absolute firmness which bordered on + harshness, we should have found ourselves in a short time with an + army of American soldiers officered by foreigners, many of them + mere mercenaries, "hungry adventurers," from France, Poland or + Hungary, from Germany, Ireland or England. The result of such a + combination would have been disorganization and defeat. That + members of Congress and some of our representatives in Europe did + not see the danger, and that they were impressed by the foreign + officers who came among them, was perfectly natural. Men are the + creatures of the time in which they live, and take their color + from the conditions which surround them, as the chameleon does + from the grass or leaves in which it hides. The rulers and + lawmakers of 1776 could not cast off their provincial awe of the + natives of England and Europe as they cast off their political + allegiance to the British king. The only wonder is that there + should have been even one man so great in mind and character that + he could rise at a single bound from the level of a provincial + planter to the heights of a great national leader. He proved + himself such in all ways, but in none more surely than in his + ability to consider all men simply as men, and, with a judgment + that nothing could confuse, to ward off from his cause and + country the dangers inherent in colonial habits of thought and + action, so menacing to a people struggling for independence. We + can see this strong, high spirit of nationality running through + Washington's whole career, but it never did better service than + when it stood between the American army and undue favor to + foreign volunteers.</p> + + <p>Among other disagreeable and necessary truths, Washington had + told Congress that Philadelphia was in danger, that Howe probably + meant to occupy it, and that it would be nearly impossible to + prevent his doing so. This warning being given and unheeded, he + continued to watch his antagonist, doing so with increased + vigilance, as signs of activity began to appear in New York. + Toward the end of May he broke up his cantonments, having now + about seven thousand men, and took a strong position within ten + miles of Brunswick. Here he waited, keeping an anxious eye on the + Hudson in case he should be mistaken in his expectations, and + should find that the enemy really intended to go north to meet + Burgoyne instead of south to capture Philadelphia.</p> + + <p>Washington's doubts were soon to be resolved and his + expectations fulfilled. May 31, a fleet of a hundred sail left + New York, and couriers were at once sent southward to warn the + States of the possibility of a speedy invasion. About the same + time transports arrived with more German mercenaries, and Howe, + thus reinforced, entered the Jerseys. Washington determined to + decline battle, and if the enemy pushed on and crossed the + Delaware, to hang heavily on their rear, while the militia from + the south were drawn up to Philadelphia. He adopted this course + because he felt confident that Howe would never cross the + Delaware and leave the main army of the Americans behind him. His + theory proved correct. The British advanced and retreated, burned + houses and villages and made feints, but all in vain. Washington + baffled them at every point, and finally Sir William evacuated + the Jerseys entirely and withdrew to New York and Staten Island, + where active preparations for some expedition were at once begun. + Again came anxious watching, with the old fear that Howe meant to + go northward and join the now advancing Burgoyne. The fear was + groundless. On July 23 the British fleet set sail from New York, + carrying between fifteen and eighteen thousand men. Not deceived + by the efforts to make him think that they aimed at Boston, but + still fearing that the sailing might be only a ruse and the + Hudson the real object after all, Washington moved cautiously to + the Delaware, holding himself ready to strike in either + direction. On the 31st he heard that the enemy were at the Capes. + This seemed decisive; so he sent in all directions for + reinforcements, moved the main army rapidly to Germantown, and + prepared to defend Philadelphia. The next news was that the fleet + had put to sea again, and again messengers went north to warn + Putnam to prepare for the defense of the Hudson. Washington + himself was about to re-cross the Delaware, when tidings arrived + that the fleet had once more appeared at the Capes, and after a + few more days of doubt the ships came up the Chesapeake and + anchored.</p> + + <p>Washington thought the "route a strange one," but he knew now + that he was right in his belief that Howe aimed at Philadelphia. + He therefore gathered his forces and marched south to meet the + enemy, passing through the city in order to impress the + disaffected and the timid with the show of force. It was a motley + array that followed him. There was nothing uniform about the + troops except their burnished arms and the sprigs of evergreen in + their hats. Nevertheless Lafayette, who had just come among them, + thought that they looked like good soldiers, and the Tories woke + up sharply to the fact that there was a large body of men known + as the American army, and that they had a certain obvious + fighting capacity visible in their appearance. Neither friends + nor enemies knew, however, as they stood on the Philadelphia + sidewalks and watched the troops go past, that the mere fact of + that army's existence was the greatest victory of skill and + endurance which the war could show, and that the question of + success lay in its continuance.</p> + + <p>Leaving Philadelphia, Washington pushed on to the junction of + the Brandywine and Christiana Creek, and posted his men along the + heights. August 25, Howe landed at the Head of Elk, and + Washington threw out light parties to drive in cattle, carry off + supplies, and annoy the enemy. This was done, on the whole, + satisfactorily, and after some successful skirmishing on the part + of the Americans, the two armies on the 5th of September found + themselves within eight or ten miles of each other. Washington + now determined to risk a battle in the field, despite his + inferiority in every way. He accordingly issued a stirring + proclamation to the soldiers, and then fell back behind the + Brandywine, to a strong position, and prepared to contest the + passage of the river.</p> + + <p>Early on September 11, the British advanced to Chad's Ford, + where Washington was posted with the main body, and after some + skirmishing began to cannonade at long range. Meantime + Cornwallis, with the main body, made a long détour of + seventeen miles, and came upon the right flank and rear of the + Americans. Sullivan, who was on the right, had failed to guard + the fords above, and through lack of information was practically + surprised. Washington, on rumors that the enemy were marching + toward his right, with the instinct of a great soldier was about + to cross the river in his front and crush the enemy there, but he + also was misled and kept back by false reports. When the truth + was known, it was too late. The right wing had been beaten and + flung back, the enemy were nearly in the rear, and were now + advancing in earnest in front. All that man could do was done. + Troops were pushed forward and a gallant stand was made at + various points; but the critical moment had come and gone, and + there was nothing for it but a hasty retreat, which came near + degenerating into a rout.</p> + + <p>The causes of this complete defeat, for such it was, are + easily seen. Washington had planned his battle and chosen his + position well. If he had not been deceived by the first reports, + he even then would have fallen upon and overwhelmed the British + centre before they could have reached his right wing. But the + Americans, to begin with, were outnumbered. They had only eleven + thousand effective men, while the British brought fifteen of + their eighteen thousand into action. Then the Americans suffered, + as they constantly did, from misinformation, and from an absence + of system in learning the enemy's movements. Washington's attack + was fatally checked in this way, and Sullivan was surprised from + the same causes, as well as from his own culpable ignorance of + the country beyond him, which was the reason of his failure to + guard the upper fords. The Americans lost, also, by the + unsteadiness of new troops when the unexpected happens, and when + the panic-bearing notion that they are surprised and likely to be + surrounded comes upon them with a sudden shock.</p> + + <p>This defeat was complete and severe, and it was followed in a + few days by that of Wayne, who narrowly escaped utter ruin. Yet + through all this disaster we can see the advance which had been + made since the equally unfortunate and very similar battle on + Long Island. Then, the troops seemed to lose heart and courage, + the army was held together with difficulty, and could do nothing + but retreat. Now, in the few days which Howe, as usual, gave his + opponent with such fatal effect to himself, Washington rallied + his army, and finding them in excellent spirits marched down the + Lancaster road to fight again. On the eve of battle a heavy storm + came on, which so injured the arms and munitions that with bitter + disappointment he was obliged to withdraw; but nevertheless it is + plain how much this forward movement meant. At the moment, + however, it looked badly enough, especially after the defeat of + Wayne, for Howe pressed forward, took possession of Philadelphia, + and encamped the main body of his army at Germantown.</p> + + <p>Meantime Washington, who had not in the least given up his + idea of fighting again, recruited his army, and having a little + more than eight thousand men, determined to try another stroke at + the British, while they were weakened by detachments. On the + night of October 3 he started, and reached Germantown at daybreak + on the 4th. At first the Americans swept everything before them, + and flung the British back in rout and confusion. Then matters + began to go wrong, as is always likely to happen when, as in this + case, widely separated and yet accurately concerted action is + essential to success. Some of the British threw themselves into a + stone house, and instead of leaving them there under guard, the + whole army stopped to besiege, and a precious half hour was lost. + Then Greene and Stephen were late in coming up, having made a + circuit, and although when they arrived all seemed to go well, + the Americans were seized with an inexplicable panic, and fell + back, as Wayne truly said, in the very moment of victory. One of + those unlucky accidents, utterly unavoidable, but always + dangerous to extensive combinations, had a principal effect on + the result. The morning was very misty, and the fog, soon + thickened by the smoke, caused confusion, random firing, and, + worst of all, that uncertainty of feeling and action which + something or nothing converted into a panic. Nevertheless, the + Americans rallied quickly this time, and a good retreat was made, + under the lead of Greene, until safety was reached. The action, + while it lasted, had been very sharp, and the losses on both + sides were severe, the Americans suffering most.</p> + + <p>Washington, as usual when matters went ill, exposed himself + recklessly, to the great alarm of his generals, but all in vain. + He was deeply disappointed, and expressed himself so at first, + for he saw that the men had unaccountably given way when they + were on the edge of victory. The underlying cause was of course, + as at Long Island and Brandywine, the unsteadiness of raw troops, + and Washington felt rightly, after the first sting had passed, + that he had really achieved a great deal. Congress applauded the + attempt, and when the smoke of the battle had cleared away, men + generally perceived that its having been fought at all was in + reality the important fact. It made also a profound impression + upon the French cabinet. Eagerly watching the course of events, + they saw the significance of the fact that an army raised within + a year could fight a battle in the open field, endure a severe + defeat, and then take the offensive and make a bold and + well-planned attack, which narrowly missed being overwhelmingly + successful. To the observant and trained eyes of Europe, the + defeat at Germantown made it evident that there was fighting + material among these untrained colonists, capable of becoming + formidable; and that there was besides a powerful will and + directing mind, capable on its part of bringing this same + material into the required shape and condition. To dispassionate + onlookers, England's grasp on her colonies appeared to be + slipping away very rapidly. Washington himself saw the meaning of + it all plainly enough, for it was but the development of his + theory of carrying on the war.</p> + + <p>There is no indication, however, that England detected, in all + that had gone on since her army landed at the Head of Elk, + anything more than a couple of natural defeats for the rebels. + General Howe was sufficiently impressed to draw in his troops, + and keep very closely shut up in Philadelphia, but his country + was not moved at all. The fact that it had taken forty-seven days + to get their army from the Elk River to Philadelphia, and that in + that time they had fought two successful battles and yet had left + the American army still active and menacing, had no effect upon + the British mind. The English were thoroughly satisfied that the + colonists were cowards and were sure to be defeated, no matter + what the actual facts might be. They regarded Washington as an + upstart militia colonel, and they utterly failed to comprehend + that they had to do with a great soldier, who was able to + organize and lead an army, overcome incredible difficulties, beat + and outgeneral them, bear defeat, and then fight again. They were + unable to realize that the mere fact that such a man could be + produced and such an army maintained meant the inevitable loss of + colonies three thousand miles away. Men there were in England, + undoubtedly, like Burke and Fox, who felt and understood the + significance of these things, but the mass of the people, as well + as the aristocracy, the king, and the cabinet, would have none of + them. Rude contempt for other people is a warming and satisfying + feeling, no doubt, and the English have had unquestionably great + satisfaction from its free indulgence. No one should grudge it to + them, least of all Americans. It is a comfort for which they have + paid, so far as this country is concerned, by the loss of their + North American colonies, and by a few other settlements with the + United States at other and later times.</p> + + <p>But although Washington and his army failed to impress + England, events had happened in the north, during this same + summer, which were so sharp-pointed that they not only impressed + the English people keenly and unpleasantly, but they actually + penetrated the dull comprehension of George III. and his cabinet. + "Why," asked an English lady of an American naval officer, in the + year of grace 1887—"why is your ship named the Saratoga?" + "Because," was the reply, "at Saratoga an English general and an + English army of more than five thousand men surrendered to an + American army and laid down their arms." Although apparently + neglected now in the general scheme of British education, + Saratoga was a memorable event in the summer of 1777, and the + part taken by Washington in bringing about the great result has + never, it would seem, been properly set forth. There is no need + to trace here the history of that campaign, but it is necessary + to show how much was done by the commander-in-chief, five hundred + miles away, to win the final victory.</p> + + <p>In the winter of 1776-77 reports came that a general and an + army were to be sent to Canada to invade the colonies from the + north by way of Lake Champlain. The news does not seem to have + made a very deep impression generally, nor to have been regarded + as anything beyond the ordinary course of military events. But + there was one man, fortunately, who in an instant perceived the + full significance of this movement. Washington saw that the + English had at last found an idea, or, at least, a general + possessed of one. So long as the British confined themselves to + fighting one or two battles, and then, taking possession of a + single town, were content to sit down and pass their winter in + good quarters, leaving the colonists in undisturbed control of + all the rest of the country, there was nothing to be feared. The + result of such campaigning as this could not be doubtful for a + moment to any clear-sighted man. But when a plan was on foot, + which, if successful, meant the control of the lakes and the + Hudson, and of a line of communication from the north to the + great colonial seaport, the case was very different. Such a + campaign as this would cause the complete severance of New + England, the chief source for men and supplies, from the rest of + the colonies. It promised the mastery, not of a town, but of half + a dozen States, and this to the American cause probably would be + ruin.</p> + + <p>So strongly and clearly did Washington feel all this that his + counter-plan was at once ready, and before people had fairly + grasped the idea that there was to be a northern invasion, he was + sending, early in March, urgent letters to New England to rouse + up the militia and have them in readiness to march at a moment's + notice. To Schuyler, in command of the northern department, he + began now to write constantly, and to unfold the methods which + must be pursued in order to compass the defeat of the invaders. + His object was to delay the army of Burgoyne by every possible + device, while steadily avoiding a pitched battle. Then the + militia and hardy farmers of New England and New York were to be + rallied, and were to fall upon the flank and rear of the British, + harass them constantly, cut off their outlying parties, and + finally hem them in and destroy them. If the army and people of + the North could only be left undisturbed, it is evident from his + letters that Washington felt no doubt as to the result in that + quarter.</p> + + <p>But the North included only half the conditions essential to + success. The grave danger feared by Washington was that Howe + would understand the situation, and seeing his opportunity, would + throw everything else aside, and marching northward with twenty + thousand men, would make himself master of the Hudson, effect a + junction with Burgoyne at Albany, and so cut the colonies in + twain. From all he could learn, and from his knowledge of his + opponents' character, Washington felt satisfied that Howe + intended to capture Philadelphia, advancing, probably, through + the Jerseys. Yet, despite his well-reasoned judgment on this + point, it seemed so incredible that any soldier could fail to see + that decisive victory lay in the north, and in a junction with + Burgoyne, that Washington could not really and fully believe in + such fatuity until he knew that Howe was actually landing at the + Head of Elk. This is the reason for the anxiety displayed in the + correspondence of that summer, for the changing and shifting + movements, and for the obvious hesitation of opinion, so unusual + with Washington at any time. Be it remembered, moreover, that it + was an awful doubt which went to bed and got up and walked with + him through all those long nights and days. If Howe, the dull and + lethargic, should awake from his dream of conquering America by + taking now and again an isolated town, and should break for the + north with twenty thousand men, the fortunes of the young + republic would come to their severest test.</p> + + <p>In that event, Washington knew well enough what he meant to + do. He would march his main army to the Hudson, unite with the + strong body of troops which he kept there constantly, contest + every inch of the country and the river with Howe, and keep him + at all hazards from getting to Albany. But he also knew well that + if this were done the odds would be fearfully against him, for + Howe would then not only outnumber him very greatly, but there + would be ample time for the British to act, and but a short + distance to be covered. We can imagine, therefore, his profound + sense of relief when he found that Howe and his army were really + south of Philadelphia, after a waste of many precious weeks. He + could now devote himself single-hearted to the defense of the + city, for distance and time were at last on his side, and all + that remained was to fight Howe so hard and steadily that neither + in victory nor defeat would he remember Burgoyne. Pitt said that + he would conquer Canada on the plains of Germany, and Burgoyne + was compelled to surrender in large measure by the campaign of + Washington in New Jersey and Pennsylvania.</p> + + <p>If we study carefully Washington's correspondence during that + eventful summer, grouping together that relating to the northern + campaign, and comparing it with that which dealt with the affairs + of his own army, all that has just been said comes out with + entire clearness, and it is astonishing to see how exactly events + justified his foresight. If he could only hold Howe in the south, + he was quite willing to trust Burgoyne to the rising of the + people and to the northern wilderness. Every effort he made was + in this direction, beginning, as has been said, by his appeals to + the New England governors in March. Schuyler, on his part, was + thoroughly imbued with Washington's other leading idea, that the + one way to victory was by retarding the enemy. At the outset + everything went utterly and disastrously wrong. Washington + counted on an obstinate struggle, and a long delay at + Ticonderoga, for he had not been on the ground, and could not + imagine that our officers would fortify everything but the one + commanding point.</p> + + <p>The loss of the forts appalled the country and disappointed + Washington, but did not shake his nerve for an instant. He wrote + to Schuyler: "This stroke is severe indeed, and has distressed us + much. But notwithstanding things at present have a dark and + gloomy aspect, I hope a spirited opposition will check the + progress of General Burgoyne's army, and that the confidence + derived from his success will hurry him into measures that will, + in their consequences, be favorable to us. We should never + despair; our situation has before been unpromising, and has + changed for the better; so I trust it will again. If new + difficulties arise we must only put forth new exertions, and + proportion our efforts to the exigency of the times." Even after + this seemingly crushing defeat he still felt sure of Burgoyne, so + long as he was unsupported. Suiting the action to the word, he + again bent every nerve to rouse New England and get out her + militia. When he was satisfied that Howe was landing below + Philadelphia, the first thing he did was to send forth the same + cry in the same quarter, to bring out more men against Burgoyne. + He showed, too, the utmost generosity toward the northern army, + sending thither all the troops he could possibly spare, and even + parting with his favorite corps of Morgan's riflemen. Despite his + liberality, the commanders in the north were unreasonable in + their demands, and when they asked too much, Washington flatly + declined to send more men, for he would not weaken himself + unduly, and he knew what they did not see, that the fate of the + northern invasion turned largely on his own ability to cope with + Howe.</p> + + <p>The blame for the loss of the forts fell of course upon + Schuyler, who was none too popular in Congress, and who with St. + Clair was accordingly made a scape-goat. Congress voted that + Washington should appoint a new commander, and the New England + delegates visited him to urge the selection of Gates. This task + Washington refused to perform, alleging as a reason that the + northern department had always been considered a separate + command, and that he had never done more than advise. These + reasons do not look very weighty or very strong, and it is not + quite clear what the underlying motive was. Washington never + shrank from responsibility, and he knew very well that he could + pick out the best man more unerringly than Congress. But he also + saw that Congress favored Gates, whom he would not have chosen, + and he therefore probably felt that it was more important to have + some one whom New England believed in and approved than a better + soldier who would have been unwelcome to her representatives. It + is certain that he would not have acted thus, had he thought that + generalship was an important element in the problem; but he + relied on a popular uprising, and not on the commander, to defeat + Burgoyne. He may have thought, too, that it was a mistake to + relieve Schuyler, who was working in the directions which he had + pointed out, and who, if not a great soldier, was a brave, + high-minded, and sensible man, devoted to his chief and to the + country. It was Schuyler indeed who, by his persistent labor in + breaking down bridges, tearing up roads, and felling trees, while + he gathered men industriously in all directions, did more than + any one else at that moment to prepare the way for an ultimate + victory.</p> + + <p>Whatever his feelings may have been in regard to the command + of the northern department, Washington made no change in his own + course after Gates had been appointed. He knew that Gates was at + least harmless, and not likely to block the natural course of + events. He therefore felt free to press his own policy without + cessation, and without apprehension. He took care that Lincoln + and Arnold should be there to look after the New England militia, + and he wrote to Governor Clinton, in whose energy and courage he + had great confidence, to rouse up the men of New York. He + suggested the points of attack, and at every moment advised and + counseled and watched, holding all the while a firm grip on Howe. + Slowly and surely the net, thus painfully set, tightened round + Burgoyne. The New Englanders whipped one division at Bennington, + and the New Yorkers shattered another at Oriskany and Fort + Schuyler. The country people turned out in defense of their + invaded homes and poured into the American camp. Burgoyne + struggled and advanced, fought and retreated. Gates, stupid, + lethargic, and good-natured, did nothing, but there was no need + of generalship; and Arnold was there, turbulent and quarrelsome, + but full of daring; and Morgan, too, equally ready; and they and + others did all the necessary fighting.</p> + + <p>Poor Burgoyne, a brave gentleman, if not a great general, had + the misfortune to be a clever man in the service of a stupid + administration, and he met the fate usually meted out under such + circumstances to men of ideas. Howe went off to the conquest of + Philadelphia, Clinton made a brief burning and plundering raid up + the river, and the northern invasion, which really had meaning, + was left to its fate. It was a hard fate, but there was no + escape. Outnumbered, beaten, and caught, Burgoyne surrendered. If + there had been a fighting-man at the head of the American army, + the British would have surrendered as prisoners of war, and not + on conditions. Schuyler, we may be sure, whatever his failings, + would never have let them off so easily. But it was sufficient as + it was. The wilderness, and the militia of New York and New + England swarming to the defense of their homes, had done the + work. It all fell out just as Washington had foreseen and + planned, and England, despising her enemy and their commander, + saw one of her armies surrender, and might have known, if she had + had the wit, that the colonies were now lost forever. The + Revolution had been saved at Trenton; it was established at + Saratoga. In the one case it was the direct, in the other the + indirect, work of Washington.</p> + + <p>Poor Gates, with his dull brain turning under the impression + that this crowning mercy had been his own doing, lost his head, + forgot that there was a commander-in-chief, and sending his news + to Congress, left Washington to find out from chance rumors, and + a tardy letter from Putnam, that Burgoyne had actually + surrendered. This gross slight, however, had deeper roots than + the mere exultation of victory acting on a heavy and common mind. + It represented a hostile feeling which had been slowly increasing + for some time, which had been carefully nurtured by those + interested in its growth, and which blossomed rapidly in the + heated air of military triumph. From the outset it had been + Washington's business to fight the enemy, manage the army, deal + with Congress, and consider in all its bearings the political + situation at home and abroad; but he was now called upon to meet + a trouble outside the line of duty, and to face attacks from + within, which, ideally speaking, ought never to have existed, but + which, in view of our very fallible humanity, were certain to + come sooner or later. Much domestic malice Washington was + destined to encounter in the later years of political strife, but + this was the only instance in his military career where enmity + came to overt action and open speech. The first and the last of + its kind, this assault upon him has much interest, for a strong + light is thrown upon his character by studying him, thus beset, + and by seeing just how he passed through this most trying and + disagreeable of ordeals.</p> + + <p>The germ of the difficulties was to be found where we should + expect it, in the differences between the men of speech and the + man of action, between the lawmakers and the soldier. Washington + had been obliged to tell Congress a great many plain and + unpleasant truths. It was part of his duty, and he did it + accordingly. He was always dignified, calm, and courteous, but he + had an alarmingly direct way with him, especially when he was + annoyed. He was simple almost to bluntness, but now and then + would use a grave irony which must have made listening ears + tingle. Congress was patriotic and well-intentioned, and on the + whole stood bravely by its general, but it was unversed in war, + very impatient, and at times wildly impracticable. Here is a + letter which depicts the situation, and the relation between the + general and his rulers, with great clearness. March 14, 1777, + Washington wrote to the President: "Could I accomplish the + important objects so eagerly wished by Congress,—'confining + the enemy within their present quarters, preventing their getting + supplies from the country, and totally subduing them before they + are reinforced,'—I should be happy indeed. But what + prospect or hope can there be of my effecting so desirable a work + at this time?"</p> + + <p>We can imagine how exasperating such requests and suggestions + must have been. It was very much as if Congress had said: "Good + General, bring in the Atlantic tides and drown the enemy; or + pluck the moon from the sky and give it to us, as a mark of your + loyalty." Such requests are not soothing to any man struggling + his best with great anxieties, and with a host of petty cares. + Washington, nevertheless, kept his temper, and replied only by + setting down a few hard facts which answered the demands of + Congress in a final manner, and with all the sting of truth. Thus + a little irritation had been generated in Congress against the + general, and there were some members who developed a good deal of + pronounced hostility. Sam Adams, a born agitator and a trained + politician, unequaled almost in our history as an organizer and + manager of men, able, narrow, coldly fierce, the man of the town + meeting and the caucus, had no possibility of intellectual + sympathy with the silent, patient, hard-gripping soldier, hemmed + with difficulties, but ever moving straight forward to his + object, with occasional wild gusts of reckless fighting passion. + John Adams, too, brilliant of speech and pen, ardent, patriotic, + and high-minded, was, in his way, out of touch with Washington. + Although he moved Washington's appointment, he began almost + immediately to find fault with him, an exercise to which he was + extremely prone. Inasmuch as he could see how things ought to be + done, he could not understand why they were not done in that way + at once, for he had a fine forgetfulness of other people's + difficulties, as is the case with most of us. The New England + representatives generally took their cue from these two, + especially James Lovell, who carried his ideas into action, and + obtained a little niche in the temple of fame by making himself + disagreeably conspicuous in the intrigue against the + commander-in-chief, when it finally developed.</p> + + <p>There were others, too, outside New England who were + discontented, and among them Richard Henry Lee, from the + General's own State. He was evidently critical and somewhat + unfriendly at this time, although the reasons for his being so + are not now very distinct. Then there was Mr. Clark of New + Jersey, an excellent man, who thought the General was invading + popular rights; and to him others might be added who vaguely felt + that things ought to be better than they were. This party, + adverse to Washington, obtained the appointment of Gates to the + northern department, under whom the army won a great victory, and + they were correspondingly happy. John Adams wrote his wife that + one cause of thanksgiving was that the tide had not been turned + by the commander-in-chief and southern troops, for the adulation + would have been intolerable; and that a man may be wise and + virtuous and not a deity.</p> + + <p>Here, so far as the leading and influential men were + concerned, the matter would have dropped, probably; but there + were lesser men like Lovell who were much encouraged by the + surrender of Burgoyne, and who thought that they now might + supplant Washington with Gates. Before long, too, they found in + the army itself some active and not over-scrupulous allies. The + most conspicuous figure among the military malcontents was Gates + himself, who, although sluggish in all things, still had a keen + eye for his own advancement. He showed plainly how much his head + had been turned by the victory at Saratoga when he failed to + inform Washington of the fact, and when he afterward delayed + sending back troops until he was driven to it by the determined + energy of Hamilton, who was sent to bring him to reason. Next in + importance to Gates was Thomas Mifflin, an ardent patriot, but a + rather light-headed person, who espoused the opposition to + Washington for causes now somewhat misty, but among which + personal vanity played no inconsiderable part. About these two + leaders gathered a certain number of inferior officers of no + great moment then or since.</p> + + <p>The active and moving spirit in the party, however, was one + Conway, an Irish adventurer, who made himself so prominent that + the whole affair passed into history bearing his name, and the + "Conway cabal" has obtained an enduring notoriety which its hero + never acquired by any public services. Conway was one of the + foreign officers who had gained the favor of Congress and held + the rank of brigadier-general, but this by no means filled the + measure of his pretensions, and when De Kalb was made a + major-general Conway immediately started forward with claims to + the same rank. He received strong support from the factious + opposition, and there was so much stir that Washington sharply + interfered, for to his general objection to these lavish gifts of + excessive rank was added an especial distrust in this particular + case. In his calm way he had evidently observed Conway, and with + his unerring judgment of men had found him wanting. "I may add," + he wrote to Lee, "and I think with truth, that it will give a + fatal blow to the existence of the army. Upon so interesting a + subject I must speak plainly. General Conway's merit then as an + officer, and his importance in this army, exist more in his own + imagination than in reality." This plain talk soon reached + Conway, drove him at once into furious opposition, and caused him + to impart to the faction a cohesion and vigor which they had + before lacked. Circumstances favored them. The victory at + Saratoga gave them something tangible to go upon, and the first + move was made when Gates failed to inform Washington of the + surrender, and then held back the troops sent for so urgently by + the commander-in-chief, who had sacrificed so much from his own + army to secure that of the north.</p> + + <p>At this very moment, indeed, when Washington was calling for + troops, he was struggling with the utmost tenacity to hold + control of the Delaware. He made every arrangement possible to + maintain the forts, and the first assaults upon them were + repulsed with great slaughter, the British in the attack on Fort + Mercer losing Count Donop, the leader, and four hundred men. Then + came a breathing space, and then the attacks were renewed, + supported by vessels, and both forts were abandoned after the + works had been leveled to the ground by the enemy's fire. + Meanwhile Hamilton, sent to the north, had done his work; Gates + had been stirred, and Putnam, well-meaning but stubborn, had been + sharply brought to his bearings. Reinforcements had come, and + Washington meditated an attack on Philadelphia. There was a good + deal of clamor for something brilliant and decisive, for both the + army and the public were a little dizzy from the effects of + Saratoga, and with sublime blindness to different conditions, + could not see why the same performance should not be repeated to + order everywhere else. To oppose this wish was trying, doubly + trying to a man eager to fight, and with his full share of the + very human desire to be as successful as his neighbor. It + required great nerve to say No; but Washington did not lack that + quality, and as general and statesman he reconnoitred the enemy's + works, weighed the chances, said No decisively, and took up an + almost impregnable position at White Marsh. Thereupon Howe + announced that he would drive Washington beyond the mountains, + and on December 4 he approached the American lines with this + highly proper purpose. There was some skirmishing along the foot + of the hills of an unimportant character, and on the third day + Washington, in high spirits, thought an attack would be made, and + rode among the soldiers directing and encouraging them. Nothing + came of it, however, but more skirmishing, and the next day Howe + marched back to Philadelphia. He had offered battle in all ways, + he had invited action; but again, with the same pressure both + from his own spirit and from public opinion, Washington had said + No. On his own ground he was more than ready to fight Howe, but + despite the terrible temptation he would fight on no other. Not + the least brilliant exploit of Wellington was the retreat to the + shrewdly prepared lines of Torres Vedras, and one of the most + difficult successes of Washington was his double refusal to fight + as the year 1777 drew to a close.</p> + + <p>Like most right and wise things, Washington's action looks + now, a century later, so plainly sensible that it is hard to + imagine how any one could have questioned it; and one cannot, + without a great effort, realize the awful strain upon will and + temper involved in thus refusing battle. If the proposed attack + on Philadelphia had failed, or if our army had come down from the + hills and been beaten in the fields below, no American army would + have remained. The army of the north, of which men were talking + so proudly, had done its work and dispersed. The fate of the + Revolution rested where it had been from the beginning, with + Washington and his soldiers. Drive them beyond the mountains and + there was no other army to fall back upon. On their existence + everything hinged, and when Howe got back to Philadelphia, there + they were still existent, still coherent, hovering on his flank, + cooping him up in his lines, and leaving him master of little + more than the ground his men encamped upon, and the streets his + sentinels patrolled. When Franklin was told in Paris that Howe + had taken Philadelphia, his reply was, "Philadelphia has taken + Howe."</p> + + <p>But, with the exception of Franklin, contemporary opinion in + the month of December, 1777, was very different from that of + to-day, and the cabal had been at work ever since the + commander-in-chief had stepped between Conway and the exorbitant + rank he coveted. Washington, indeed, was perfectly aware of what + was going on. He was quiet and dignified, impassive and silent, + but he knew when men, whether great or small, were plotting + against him, and he watched them with the same keenness as he did + Howe and the British.</p> + + <p>In the midst of his struggle to hold the Delaware forts, and + of his efforts to get back his troops from the north, a story + came to him that arrested his attention. Wilkinson, of Gates's + staff, had come to Congress with the news of the surrender. He + had been fifteen days on the road and three days getting his + papers in order, and when it was proposed to give him a sword, + Roger Sherman suggested that they had better "give the lad a pair + of spurs." This thrust and some delay seem to have nettled + Wilkinson, who was swelling with importance, and although he was + finally made a brigadier-general, he rode off to the north much + ruffled. In later years Wilkinson was secretive enough; but in + his hot youth he could not hold his tongue, and on his way back + to Gates he talked. What he said was marked and carried to + headquarters, and on November 9 Washington wrote to + Conway:—</p> + + <blockquote> + <p>"A letter which I received last night contained the + following paragraph,—'In a letter from General Conway to + General Gates he says, "<i>Heaven has determined to save your + country, or a weak general and bad counsellors would have + ruined it</i>" I am, sir, your humble servant,'" etc.</p> + </blockquote> + + <p>This curt note fell upon Conway with stunning effect. It is + said that he tried to apologize, and he certainly resigned. As + for Gates, he fell to writing letters filled with expressions of + wonder as to who had betrayed him, and writhed most pitiably + under the exposure. Washington's replies are models of cold + dignity, and the calm indifference with which he treated the + whole matter, while holding Gates to the point with relentless + grasp, is very interesting. The cabal was seriously shaken by + this sudden blow. It must have dawned upon them dimly that they + might have mistaken their man, and that the silent soldier was + perhaps not so easy to dispose of by an intrigue as they had + fancied. Nevertheless, they rallied, and taking advantage of the + feeling in Congress created by Burgoyne's surrender, they set to + work to get control of military matters. The board of war was + enlarged to five, with Gates at its head and Mifflin a member, + and, thus constituted, it proceeded to make Conway + inspector-general, with the rank of major-general. This, after + Conway's conduct, was a direct insult to Washington, and marks + the highest point attained by his opponents.</p> + + <p>In Congress, too, they became more active, and John Jay said + that there was in that body a party bitterly hostile to + Washington. We know little of the members of that faction now, + for they never took the trouble to refer to the matter in after + years, and did everything that silence could do to have it all + forgotten. But the party existed none the less, and significant + letters have come down to us, one of them written by Lovell, and + two anonymous, addressed respectively to Patrick Henry and to + Laurens, then president, which show a bitter and vindictive + spirit, and breathe but one purpose. The same thought is + constantly reiterated, that with a good general the northern army + had won a great victory, and that the main army, if commanded in + the same way, would do likewise. The plan was simple and + coherent. The cabal wished to drive Washington out of power and + replace him with Gates. With this purpose they wrote to Henry and + Laurens; with this purpose they made Conway + inspector-general.</p> + + <p>When they turned from intrigue to action, however, they began + to fail. One of their pet schemes was the conquest of Canada, and + with this object Lafayette was sent to the lakes, only to find + that no preparations had been made, because the originators of + the idea were ignorant and inefficient. The expedition promptly + collapsed and was abandoned, with much instruction in consequence + to Congress and people. Under their control the commissariat also + went hopelessly to pieces, and a committee of Congress proceeded + to Valley Forge and found that in this direction, too, the new + managers had grievously failed. Then the original Conway letter, + uncovered so unceremoniously by Washington, kept returning to + plague its author. Gates's correspondence went on all through the + winter, and with every letter Gates floundered more and more, and + Washington's replies grew more and more freezing and severe. + Gates undertook to throw the blame on Wilkinson, who became + loftily indignant and challenged him. The two made up their + quarrel very soon in a ludicrous manner, but Wilkinson in the + interval had an interview with Washington, which revealed an + amount of duplicity and perfidy on the part of the cabal, so + shocking to the former's sensitive nature, that he resigned his + secretaryship of the board of war on account, as he frankly said, + of the treachery and falsehood of Gates. Such a quarrel of course + hurt the cabal, but it was still more weakened by Gates himself, + whose only idea seemed to be to supersede Washington by slighting + him, refusing troops, and declining to propose his health at + dinner,—methods as unusual as they were feeble.</p> + + <p>The cabal, in fact, was so weak in ability and character that + the moment any responsibility fell upon its members it was + certain to break down, but the absolutely fatal obstacle to its + schemes was the man it aimed to overthrow. The idea evidently was + that Washington could be driven to resign. They knew that they + could not get either Congress or public opinion to support them + in removing him, but they believed that a few well-placed slights + and insults would make him remove himself. It was just here that + they made their mistake. Washington, as they were aware, was + sensitive and high-spirited to the last degree, and he had no + love for office, but he was not one of those weaklings who leave + power and place in a pet because they are criticised and + assailed. He was not ambitious in the ordinary personal sense, + but he had a passion for success. Whether it was breaking a + horse, or reclaiming land, or fighting Indians, or saving a + state, whatever he set his hand to, that he carried through to + the end. With him there never was any shadow of turning back. + When, without any self-seeking, he was placed at the head of the + Revolution, he made up his mind that he would carry it through + everything to victory, if victory were possible. Death or a + prison could stop him, but neither defeat nor neglect, and still + less the forces of intrigue and cabal.</p> + + <p>When he wrote to his brother announcing Burgoyne's surrender, + he had nothing to say of the slight Gates put upon him, but + merely added in a postscript, "I most devoutly congratulate my + country and every well-wisher to the cause on this signal stroke + of Providence." This was his tone to every one, both in private + and public. His complaint of not being properly notified he made + to Gates alone, and put it in the form of a rebuke. He knew of + the movement against him from the beginning, but apparently the + first person he confided in was Conway, when he sent him the + brief note of November 9. Even after the cabal was fully + developed, he wrote about it only once or twice, when compelled + to do so, and there is no evidence that he ever talked about it + except, perhaps, to a few most intimate friends. In a letter to + Patrick Henry he said that he was obliged to allow a false + impression as to his strength to go abroad, and that he suffered + in consequence; and he added, with a little touch of feeling, + that while the yeomanry of New York and New England poured into + the camp of Gates, outnumbering the enemy two to one, he could + get no aid of that sort from Pennsylvania, and still marvels were + demanded of him.</p> + + <p>Thus he went on his way through the winter, silent except when + obliged to answer some friend, and always ready to meet his + enemies. When Conway complained to Congress of his reception at + camp, Washington wrote the president that he was not given to + dissimulation, and that he certainly had been cold in his manner. + He wrote to Lafayette that slander had been busy, and that he had + urged his officers to be cool and dispassionate as to Conway, + adding, "I have no doubt that everything happens for the best, + that we shall triumph over all our misfortunes, and in the end be + happy; when, my dear Marquis, if you will give me your company in + Virginia, we will laugh at our past difficulties and the folly of + others." But though he wrote thus lightly to his friends, he + followed Gates sternly enough, and kept that gentleman occupied + as he drove him from point to point. Among other things he + touched upon Conway's character with sharp irony, saying, "It is, + however, greatly to be lamented that this adept in military + science did not employ his abilities in the progress of the + campaign, in pointing out those wise measures which were + calculated to give us 'that degree of success we could reasonably + expect.'"</p> + + <p>Poor Gates did not find these letters pleasant reading, and + one more curt note, on February 24, finished the controversy. By + that time the cabal was falling to pieces, and in a little while + was dispersed. Wilkinson's resignation was accepted, Mifflin was + put under Washington's orders, and Gates was sent to his command + in the north. Conway resigned one day in a pet, and found his + resignation accepted and his power gone with unpleasant + suddenness. He then got into a quarrel with General Cadwalader on + account of his attacks on the commander-in-chief. The quarrel + ended in a duel. Conway was badly wounded, and thinking himself + dying, wrote a contrite note of apology to Washington, then + recovered, left the country, and disappeared from the ken of + history. Thus domestic malice and the "bitter party" in Congress + failed and perished. They had dashed themselves in vain against + the strong man who held firmly both soldiers and people. "While + the public are satisfied with my endeavors, I mean not to shrink + from the cause." So Washington wrote to Gordon as the cabal was + coming to an end, and in that spirit he crushed silently and + thoroughly the faction that sought to thwart his purpose, and + drive him from office by sneers, slights, and intrigues.</p> + + <p>These attacks upon him came at the darkest moment of his + military career. Defeated at Brandywine and Germantown, he had + been forced from the forts after a desperate struggle, had seen + Philadelphia and the river fall completely into the hands of the + enemy, and, bitterest of all, he had been obliged to hold back + from another assault on the British lines, and to content himself + with baffling Howe when that gentleman came out and offered + battle. Then the enemy withdrew to their comfortable quarters, + and he was left to face again the harsh winter and the problem of + existence. It was the same ever recurring effort to keep the + American army, and thereby the American Revolution, alive. There + was nothing in this task to stir the blood and rouse the heart. + It was merely a question of grim tenacity of purpose and of the + ability to comprehend its overwhelming importance. It was not a + work that appealed to or inspirited any one, and to carry it + through to a successful issue rested with the commander-in-chief + alone.</p> + + <p>In the frost and snow he withdrew to Valley Forge, within easy + striking distance of Philadelphia. He had literally nothing to + rely upon but his own stern will and strong head. His soldiers, + steadily dwindling in numbers, marked their road to Valley Forge + by the blood from their naked feet. They were destitute and in + rags. When they reached their destination they had no shelter, + and it was only by the energy and ingenuity of the General that + they were led to build huts, and thus secure a measure of + protection against the weather. There were literally no supplies, + and the Board of War failed completely to remedy the evil. The + army was in such straits that it was obliged to seize by force + the commonest necessaries. This was a desperate expedient and + shocked public opinion, which Washington, as a statesman, watched + and cultivated as an essential element of success in his + difficult business. He disliked to take extreme measures, but + there was nothing else to be done when his men were starving, + when nearly three thousand of them were unfit for duty because + "barefoot and otherwise naked," and when a large part of the army + were obliged to sit up all night by the fires for warmth's sake, + having no blankets with which to cover themselves if they lay + down. With nothing to eat, nothing to burn, nothing wherewith to + clothe themselves, wasting away from exposure and disease, we can + only wonder at the forbearance which stayed the hand of violent + seizure so long. Yet, as Washington had foreseen, there was even + then an outcry against him. Nevertheless, his action ultimately + did more good than harm in the very matter of public opinion, for + it opened men's eyes, and led to some tardy improvements and some + increased effort.</p> + + <p>Worse even than this criticism was the remonstrance of the + legislature of Pennsylvania against the going into + winter-quarters. They expected Washington to keep the open field, + and even to attack the British, with his starving, ragged army, + in all the severity of a northern winter. They had failed him at + every point and in every promise, in men, clothing, and supplies. + They were not content that he covered their State and kept the + Revolution alive among the huts of Valley Forge. They wished the + impossible. They asked for the moon, and then cried out because + it was not given to them. It was a stupid, unkind thing to do, + and Washington answered their complaints in a letter to the + president of Congress. After setting forth the shortcomings of + the Pennsylvanians in the very plainest of plain English, he + said: "But what makes this matter still more extraordinary in my + eye is that these very gentlemen should think a winter's + campaign, and the covering of these States from the invasion of + an enemy, so easy and practicable a business. I can answer those + gentlemen, that it is a much easier and less distressing thing to + draw remonstrances in a comfortable room, by a good fireside, + than to occupy a cold, bleak hill, and sleep under frost and + snow, without clothes or blankets. However, although they seem to + have little feeling for the naked and distressed soldiers, I feel + superabundantly for them, and from my soul I pity those miseries + which it is neither in my power to relieve or prevent."</p> + + <p>This was not a safe man for the gentlemen of Pennsylvania to + cross too far, nor could they swerve him, with all his sense of + public opinion, one jot from what he meant to do. In the stern + rebuke, and in the deep pathos of these sentences, we catch a + glimpse of the silent and self-controlled man breaking out for a + moment as he thinks of his faithful and suffering men. Whatever + happened, he would hold them together, for in this black time we + detect the fear which haunted him, that the people at large might + give way. He was determined on independence. He felt a keen + hatred against England for her whole conduct toward America, and + this hatred was sharpened by the efforts of the English to injure + him personally by forged letters and other despicable + contrivances. He was resolved that England should never prevail, + and his language in regard to her has a fierceness of tone which + is full of meaning. He was bent, also, on success, and if under + the long strain the people should weaken or waver, he was + determined to maintain the army at all hazards.</p> + + <p>So, while he struggled against cold and hunger and + destitution, while he contended with faction at home and + lukewarmness in the administration of the war, even then, in the + midst of these trials, he was devising a new system for the + organization and permanence of his forces. Congress meddled with + the matter of prisoners and with the promotion of officers, and + he argued with and checked them, and still pressed on in his + plans. He insisted that officers must have better provision, for + they had begun to resign. "You must appeal to their interest as + well as to their patriotism," he wrote, "and you must give them + half-pay and full pay in proper measure." "You must follow the + same policy with the men," he said; "you must have done with + short enlistments. In a word, gentlemen, you must give me an + army, a lasting, enduring, continental army, for therein lies + independence."<a id="footnotetag1-14" name= + "footnotetag1-14"></a><a href="#footnote1-14"><sup>1</sup></a> It + all comes out now, through the dust of details and annoyances, + through the misery and suffering of that wretched winter, through + the shrill cries of ignorance and hostility,—the great, + clear, strong policy which meant to substitute an army for + militia, and thereby secure victory and independence. It is the + burden of all his letters to the governors of States, and to his + officers everywhere. "I will hold the army together," he said, + "but you on all sides must help me build it up."<a id= + "footnotetag1-14dup" name="footnotetag1-14dup"></a><a href= + "#footnote1-14"><sup>1</sup></a></p> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote1-14" name="footnote1-14"></a>[<b>Footnote + 1:</b> <a href="#footnotetag1-14">(return)</a> These two + quotations are not literal, of course, but give the substance + of many letters.] + </blockquote> + + <p>Thus with much strenuous labor and many fervent appeals he + held his army together in some way, and slowly improved it. His + system began to be put in force, his reiterated lessons were + coming home to Congress, and his reforms and suggestions were in + some measure adopted. Under the sound and trained guidance of + Baron Steuben a drill and discipline were introduced, which soon + showed marked results. Greene succeeded Mifflin as + quartermaster-general, and brought order out of chaos. The Conway + cabal went to pieces, and as spring opened Washington began to + see light once more. To have held on through that winter was a + great feat, but to have built up and improved the army at such a + time was much more wonderful. It shows a greatness of character + and a force of will rarer than military genius, and enables us to + understand better, perhaps, than almost any of his victories, why + it was that the success of the Revolution lay in such large + measure in the hands of one man.</p> + + <p>After Howe's withdrawal from the Jerseys in the previous year, + a contemporary wrote that Washington was left with the remnants + of an army "to scuffle for liberty." The winter had passed, and + he was prepared to scuffle again. On May 11 Sir Henry Clinton + relieved Sir William Howe at Philadelphia, and the latter took + his departure in a blaze of mock glory and resplendent millinery, + known as the Mischianza, a fit close to a career of failure, + which he was too dull to appreciate. The new commander was more + active than his predecessor, but no cleverer, and no better + fitted to cope with Washington. It was another characteristic + choice on the part of the British ministry, who could never + muster enough intellect to understand that the Americans would + fight, and that they were led by a really great soldier. The + coming of Clinton did not alter existing conditions.</p> + + <p>Expecting a movement by the enemy, Washington sent Lafayette + forward to watch Philadelphia. Clinton and Howe, eager for a + victory before departure, determined to cut him off, and by a + rapid movement nearly succeeded in so doing. Timely information, + presence of mind, and quickness alone enabled the young Frenchman + to escape, narrowly but completely. Meantime, a cause for delay, + that curse of the British throughout the war, supervened. A peace + commission, consisting of the Earl of Carlisle, William Eden, and + Governor Johnstone, arrived. They were excellent men, but they + came too late. Their propositions three years before would have + been well enough, but as it was they were worse than nothing. + Coolly received, they held a fruitless interview with a committee + of Congress, tried to bribe and intrigue, found that their own + army had been already ordered to evacuate Philadelphia without + their knowledge, and finally gave up their task in angry despair, + and returned to England to join in the chorus of fault-finding + which was beginning to sound very loud in ministerial ears.</p> + + <p>Meanwhile, Washington waited and watched, puzzled by the + delay, and hoping only to harass Sir Henry with militia on the + march to New York. But as the days slipped by, the Americans grew + stronger, while the British had been weakened by wholesale + desertions. When he finally started, he had with him probably + sixteen to seventeen thousand men, while the Americans had + apparently at least thirteen thousand, nearly all continental + troops.<a id="footnotetag1-15" name= + "footnotetag1-15"></a><a href="#footnote1-15"><sup>1</sup></a> + Under these circumstances, Washington determined to bring on a + battle. He was thwarted at the outset by his officers, as was + wont to be the case. Lee had returned more whimsical than ever, + and at the moment was strongly adverse to an attack, and was full + of wise saws about building a bridge of gold for the flying + enemy. The ascendancy which, as an English officer, he still + retained enabled him to get a certain following, and the councils + of war which were held compared unfavorably, as Hamilton put it, + with the deliberations of midwives. Washington was harassed of + course by all this, but he did not stay his purpose, and as soon + as he knew that Clinton actually had marched, he broke camp at + Valley Forge and started in pursuit. There were more councils of + an old-womanish character, but finally Washington took the matter + into his own hands, and ordered forth a strong detachment to + attack the British rear-guard. They set out on the 25th, and as + Lee, to whom the command belonged, did not care to go, Lafayette + was put in charge. As soon as Lafayette had departed, however, + Lee changed his mind, and insisted that all the detachments in + front, amounting to five thousand men, formed a division so large + that it was unjust not to give him the command. Washington, + therefore, sent him forward next day with two additional + brigades, and then Lee by seniority took command on the 27th of + the entire advance.</p> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote1-15" name="footnote1-15"></a>[<b>Footnote + 1:</b> <a href="#footnotetag1-15">(return)</a> The authorities + are hopelessly conflicting as to the numbers on both sides. The + British returns on March 26 showed over 19,000 men. They had + since that date been weakened by desertions, but to what extent + we can only conjecture. The detachments to Florida and the West + Indies ordered from England do not appear to have taken place. + The estimate of 16,000 to 17,000 seems the most reasonable. + Washington returned his rank and file as just over 10,000, + which would indicate a total force of 13,000 to 14,000, + possibly more. Washington clearly underestimated the enemy, and + the best conclusion seems to be that they were nearly matched + in numbers, with a slight inferiority on the American side.] + </blockquote> + + <p>In the evening of that day, Washington came up, reconnoitred + the enemy, and saw that, although their position was a strong + one, another day's unmolested march would make it still stronger. + He therefore resolved to attack the next morning, and gave Lee + then and there explicit orders to that effect. In the early dawn + he dispatched similar orders, but Lee apparently did nothing + except move feebly forward, saying to Lafayette, "You don't know + the British soldiers; we cannot stand against them." He made a + weak attempt to cut off a covering party, marched and + countermarched, ordered and countermanded, until Lafayette and + Wayne, eager to fight, knew not what to do, and sent hot messages + to Washington to come to them.</p> + + <p>Thus hesitating and confused, Lee permitted Clinton to get his + baggage and train to the front, and to mass all his best troops + in the rear under Cornwallis, who then advanced against the + American lines. Now there were no orders at all, and the troops + did not know what to do, or where to go. They stood still, then + began to fall back, and then to retreat. A very little more and + there would have been a rout. As it was, Washington alone + prevented disaster. His early reports from the front from + Dickinson's outlying party, and from Lee himself, were all + favorable. Then he heard the firing, and putting the main army in + motion, he rode rapidly forward. First he encountered a + straggler, who talked of defeat. He could not believe it, and the + fellow was pushed aside and silenced. Then came another and + another, all with songs of death. Finally, officers and regiments + began to come. No one knew why they fled, or what had happened. + As the ill tidings grew thicker, Washington spurred sharper and + rode faster through the deep sand, and under the blazing + midsummer sun. At last he met Lee and the main body all in full + retreat. He rode straight at Lee, savage with anger, not pleasant + to look at, one may guess, and asked fiercely and with a deep + oath, tradition says, what it all meant. Lee was no coward, and + did not usually lack for words. He was, too, a hardened man of + the world, and, in the phrase of that day, impudent to boot. But + then and there he stammered and hesitated. The fierce question + was repeated. Lee gathered himself and tried to excuse and + palliate what had happened, but although the brief words that + followed are variously reported to us across the century, we know + that Washington rebuked him in such a way, and with such passion, + that all was over between them. Lee had committed the one + unpardonable sin in the eyes of his commander. He had failed to + fight when the enemy was upon him. He had disobeyed orders and + retreated. It was the end of him. He went to the rear, thence to + a court-martial, thence to dismissal and to a solitary life with + a well-founded suspicion of treason hanging about him. He was an + intelligent, quick-witted, unstable man, much overrated because + he was an English officer among a colonial people. He was ever + treated magnanimously by Washington after the day of battle at + Monmouth, but he then disappeared from the latter's life.</p> + + <p>When Lee bowed before the storm and stepped aside, Washington + was left to deal with the danger and confusion around him. Thus + did he tell the story afterwards to his brother: "A retreat, + however, was the fact, be the causes what they may; and the + disorder arising from it would have proved fatal to the army, had + not that bountiful Providence, which has never failed us in the + hour of distress, enabled me to form a regiment or two (of those + that were retreating) in the face of the enemy, and under their + fire; by which means a stand was made long enough (the place + through which the enemy were pressing being narrow) to form the + troops, that were advancing, upon an advantageous piece of ground + in the rear." We cannot add much to these simple and modest + words, for they tell the whole story. Having put Lee aside, + Washington rallied the broken troops, brought them into position, + turned them back, and held the enemy in check. It was not an easy + feat, but it was done, and when Lee's division again fell back in + good order the main army was in position, and the action became + general. The British were repulsed, and then Washington, taking + the offensive, drove them back until he occupied the battlefield + of the morning. Night came upon him still advancing. He halted + his army, lay down under a tree, his soldiers lying on their arms + about him, and planned a fresh attack, to be made at daylight. + But when the dawn came it was seen that the British had crept + off, and were far on their road. The heat prevented a rapid + pursuit, and Clinton got into New York. Between there and + Philadelphia he had lost at least two thousand men by desertions + in addition to nearly five hundred who fell at Monmouth.</p> + + <p>It is worth while to pause a moment and compare this battle + with the rout of Long Island, the surprise at the Brandywine, and + the fatal unsteadiness at Germantown. Here, too, a check was + received at the outset, owing to blundering which no one could + have foreseen. The troops, confused and without orders, began to + retreat, but without panic or disorder. The moment Washington + appeared they rallied, returned to the field, showed perfect + steadiness, and the victory was won. Monmouth has never been one + of the famous battles of the Revolution, and yet there is no + other which can compare with it as an illustration of + Washington's ability as a soldier. It was not so much the way in + which it was fought, although that was fine enough, that its + importance lies as in the evidence which it gives of the way in + which Washington, after a series of defeats, during a winter of + terrible suffering and privation, had yet developed his ragged + volunteers into a well-disciplined and effective army. The battle + was a victory, but the existence and the quality of the army that + won it were a far greater triumph.</p> + + <p>The dreary winter at Valley Forge had indeed borne fruit. With + a slight numerical superiority Washington had fought the British + in the open field, and fairly defeated them. "Clinton gained no + advantage," said the great Frederic, "except to reach New York + with the wreck of his army; America is probably lost for + England." Another year had passed, and England had lost an army, + and still held what she had before, the city of New York. + Washington was in the field with a better army than ever, and an + army flushed with a victory which had been achieved after + difficulties and trials such as no one now can rightly picture or + describe. The American Revolution was advancing, held firm by the + master-hand of its leader. Into it, during these days of struggle + and of battle, a new element had come, and the next step is to + see how Washington dealt with the fresh conditions upon which the + great conflict had entered.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <h2><a name="VIII" id="VIII"></a> CHAPTER VIII</h2> + + <h2>THE ALLIES</h2> + + <p>On May 4, 1778, Congress ratified the treaties of commerce and + alliance with France. On the 6th, Washington, waiting at Valley + Forge for the British to start from Philadelphia, caused his + army, drawn out on parade, to celebrate the great event with + cheers and with salvos of artillery and musketry. The alliance + deserved cheers and celebration, for it marked a long step onward + in the Revolution. It showed that America had demonstrated to + Europe that she could win independence, and it had been proved to + the traditional enemy of England that the time had come when it + would be profitable to help the revolted colonies. But the + alliance brought troubles as well as blessings in its train. It + induced a relaxation in popular energy, and carried with it new + and difficult problems for the commander-in-chief. The successful + management of allies, and of allied forces, had been one of the + severest tests of the statesmanship of William III., and had + constituted one of the principal glories of Marlborough. A + similar problem now confronted the American general.</p> + + <p>Washington was free from the diplomatic and political portion + of the business, but the military and popular part fell wholly + into his hands, and demanded the exercise of talents entirely + different from those of either a general or an administrator. It + has been not infrequently written more or less plainly, and it is + constantly said, that Washington was great in character, but that + in brains he was not far above the common-place. It is even + hinted sometimes that the father of his country was a dull man, a + notion which we shall have occasion to examine more fully further + on. At this point let the criticism be remembered merely in + connection with the fact that to coöperate with allies in + military matters demands tact, quick perception, firmness, and + patience. In a word, it is a task which calls for the finest and + most highly trained intellectual powers, and of which the + difficulty is enhanced a thousandfold when the allies are on the + one side, an old, aristocratic, punctilious people, and on the + other, colonists utterly devoid of tradition, etiquette, or fixed + habits, and very much accustomed to go their own way and speak + their own minds with careless freedom. With this problem + Washington was obliged suddenly to deal, both in ill success and + good success, as well as in many attempts which came to nothing. + Let us see how he solved it at the very outset, when everything + went most perversely wrong.</p> + + <p>On July 14 he heard that D'Estaing's fleet was off the coast, + and at once, without a trace of elation or excitement, he began + to consider the possibility of intercepting the British fleet + expected to arrive shortly from Cork. As soon as D'Estaing was + within reach he sent two of his aides on board the flagship, and + at once opened a correspondence with his ally. These letters of + welcome, and those of suggestion which followed, are models, in + their way, of what such letters ought always to be. They were + perfectly adapted to satisfy the etiquette and the love of good + manners of the French, and yet there was not a trace of anything + like servility, or of an effusive gratitude which outran the + favors granted. They combined stately courtesy with simple + dignity, and are phrased with a sober grace which shows the + thoroughly strong man, as capable to turn a sentence, if need be, + as to rally retreating soldiers in the face of the enemy.</p> + + <p>In this first meeting of the allies nothing happened + fortunately. D'Estaing had had a long passage, and was too late + to cut off Lord Howe at the Delaware. Then he turned to New York, + and was too late there, and found further that he could not get + his ships over the bar. Hence more delays, so that he was late + again in getting to Newport, where he was to unite with Sullivan + in driving the British from Rhode Island, as Washington had + planned, in case of failure at New York, while the French were + still hovering on the coast. When D'Estaing finally reached + Newport, there was still another delay of ten days, and then, + just as he and Sullivan were preparing to attack, Lord Howe, with + his squadron reinforced, appeared off the harbor. Promising to + return, D'Estaing sailed out to give the enemy battle, and after + much manoeuvring both fleets were driven off by a severe storm, + and D'Estaing came back only to tell Sullivan that he must go to + Boston at once to refit. Then came the protest addressed to the + Count and signed by all the American officers; then the departure + of D'Estaing, and an indiscreet proclamation to the troops by + Sullivan, reflecting on the conduct of the allies.</p> + + <p>When D'Estaing had actually gone, and the Americans were + obliged to retreat, there was much grumbling in all directions, + and it looked as if the first result of the alliance was to be a + very pretty quarrel. It was a bad and awkward business. Congress + had the good sense to suppress the protest of the officers, and + Washington, disappointed, but perhaps not wholly surprised, set + himself to work to put matters right. It was no easy task to + soothe the French, on the one hand, who were naturally aggrieved + at the utterances of the American officers and at the popular + feeling, and on the other to calm his own people, who were, not + without reason, both disappointed and provoked. To Sullivan, + fuming with wrath, he wrote: "Should the expedition fail through + the abandonment of the French fleet, the officers concerned will + be apt to complain loudly. But prudence dictates that we should + put the best face upon the matter, and to the world attribute the + removal to Boston to necessity. The reasons are too obvious to + need explaining." And again, a few days later: "First + impressions, you know, are generally longest remembered, and will + serve to fix in a great degree our national character among the + French. In our conduct towards them we should remember that they + are a people old in war, very strict in military etiquette, and + apt to take fire when others scarcely seem warmed. Permit me to + recommend, in the most particular manner, the cultivation of + harmony and good agreement, and your endeavor to destroy that + ill-humor which may have got into officers." To Lafayette he + wrote: "Everybody, sir, who reasons, will acknowledge the + advantages which we have derived from the French fleet, and the + zeal of the commander of it; but in a free and republican + government you cannot restrain the voice of the multitude. Every + man will speak as he thinks, or, more properly, without thinking, + and consequently will judge of effects without attending to the + causes. The censures which have been leveled at the French fleet + would more than probably have fallen in a much higher degree upon + a fleet of our own, if we had had one in the same situation. It + is the nature of man to be displeased with everything that + disappoints a favorite hope or flattering project; and it is the + folly of too many of them to condemn without investigating + circumstances." Finally he wrote to D'Estaing, deploring the + difference which had arisen, mentioning his own efforts and + wishes to restore harmony, and said: "It is in the trying + circumstances to which your Excellency has been exposed that the + virtues of a great mind are displayed in their brightest lustre, + and that a general's character is better known than in the moment + of victory. It was yours by every title that can give it; and the + adverse elements that robbed you of your prize can never deprive + you of the glory due you. Though your success has not been equal + to your expectations, yet you have the satisfaction of reflecting + that you have rendered essential services to the common cause." + This is not the letter of a dull man. Indeed, there is a nicety + about it that partakes of cleverness, a much commoner thing than + greatness, but something which all great men by no means possess. + Thus by tact and comprehension of human nature, by judicious + suppression and equally judicious letters, Washington, through + the prudent exercise of all his commanding influence, quieted his + own people and soothed his allies. In this way a serious disaster + was averted, and an abortive expedition was all that was left to + be regretted, instead of an ugly quarrel, which might readily + have neutralized the vast advantages flowing from the French + alliance. Having refitted, D'Estaing bore away for the West + Indies, and so closed the first chapter in the history of the + alliance with France. Nothing more was heard of the allies until + the spring was well advanced, when M. Gerard, the minister, + wrote, intimating that D'Estaing was about to return, and asking + what we would do. Washington replied at length, professing his + willingness to coöperate in any way, and offering, if the + French would send ships, to abandon everything, run all risks, + and make an attack on New York. Nothing further came of it, and + Washington heard that the fleet had gone to the Southern States, + which he learned without regret, as he was apprehensive as to the + condition of affairs in that region. Again, in the autumn, it was + reported that the fleet was once more upon the northern coast. + Washington at once sent officers to be on the lookout at the most + likely points, and he wrote elaborately to D'Estaing, setting + forth with wonderful perspicuity the incidents of the past, the + condition of the present, and the probabilities of the future. He + was willing to do anything, or plan anything, provided his allies + would join with him. The jealousy so habitual in humanity, which + is afraid that some one else may get the glory of a common + success, was unknown to Washington, and if he could but drive the + British from America, and establish American independence, he was + perfectly willing that the glory should take care of itself. But + all his wisdom in dealing with the allies was, for the moment, + vain. While he was planning for a great stroke, and calling out + the militia of New England, D'Estaing was making ready to relieve + Georgia, and a few days after Washington wrote his second letter, + the French and Americans assaulted the British works at Savannah, + and were repulsed with heavy losses. Then D'Estaing sailed away + again, and the second effort of France to aid England's revolted + colonies came to an end. Their presence had had a good moral + effect, and the dread of D'Estaing's return had caused Clinton to + withdraw from Newport and concentrate in New York. This was all + that was actually accomplished, and there was nothing for it but + to await still another trial and a more convenient season.</p> + + <p>With all his courtesy and consideration, with all his + readiness to fall in with the wishes and schemes of the French, + it must not be supposed that Washington ever went an inch too far + in this direction. He valued the French alliance, and proposed to + use it to great purpose, but he was not in the least dazzled or + blinded by it. Even in the earliest glow of excitement and hope + produced by D'Estaing's arrival, Washington took occasion to draw + once more the distinction between a valuable alliance and + volunteer adventurers, and to remonstrate again with Congress + about their reckless profusion in dealing with foreign officers. + To Gouverneur Morris he wrote on July 24, 1778: "The lavish + manner in which rank has hitherto been bestowed on these + gentlemen will certainly be productive of one or the other of + these two evils: either to make it despicable in the eyes of + Europe, or become the means of pouring them in upon us like a + torrent and adding to our present burden. But it is neither the + expense nor the trouble of them that I most dread. There is an + evil more extensive in its nature, and fatal in its consequences, + to be apprehended, and that is the driving of all our own + officers out of the service, and throwing not only our army, but + our military councils, entirely into the hands of foreigners.... + Baron Steuben, I now find, is also wanting to quit his + inspectorship for a command in the line. This will be productive + of much discontent to the brigadiers. In a word, although I think + the baron an excellent officer, I do most devoutly wish that we + had not a single foreigner among us except the Marquis de + Lafayette, who acts upon very different principles from those + which govern the rest." A few days later he said, on the same + theme, to the president of Congress: "I trust you think me so + much a citizen of the world as to believe I am not easily warped + or led away by attachments merely local and American; yet I + confess I am not entirely without them, nor does it appear to me + that they are unwarrantable, if confined within proper limits. + Fewer promotions in the foreign line would have been productive + of more harmony, and made our warfare more agreeable to all + parties." Again, he said of Steuben: "I regret that there should + be a necessity that his services should be lost to the army; at + the same time I think it my duty explicitly to observe to + Congress that his desire of having an actual and permanent + command in the line cannot be complied with without wounding the + feelings of a number of officers, whose rank and merits give them + every claim to attention; and that the doing of it would be + productive of much dissatisfaction and extensive ill + consequences."</p> + + <p>Washington's resistance to the colonial deference for + foreigners has already been pointed out, but this second burst of + opposition, coming at this especial time, deserves renewed + attention. The splendid fleet and well-equipped troops of our + ally were actually at our gates, and everybody was in a paroxysm + of perfectly natural gratitude. To the colonial mind, steeped in + colonial habits of thought, the foreigner at this particular + juncture appeared more than ever to be a splendid and superior + being. But he did not in the least confuse or sway the cool + judgment that guided the destinies of the Revolution. Let us + consider well the pregnant sentences just quoted, and the letters + from which they are taken. They deserve it, for they throw a + strong light on a side of Washington's mind and character too + little appreciated. One hears it said not infrequently, it has + been argued even in print with some solemnity, that Washington + was, no doubt, a great man and rightly a national hero, but that + he was not an American. It will be necessary to recur to this + charge again and consider it at some length. It is sufficient at + this point to see how it tallies with his conduct in a single + matter, which was a very perfect test of the national and + American quality of the man. We can get at the truth by + contrasting him with his own contemporaries, the only fair + comparison, for he was a man and an American of his own time and + not of the present day, which is a point his critics + overlook.</p> + + <p>Where he differed from the men of his own time was in the fact + that he rose to a breadth and height of Americanism and of + national feeling which no other man of that day touched at all. + Nothing is more intense than the conservatism of mental habits, + and although it requires now an effort to realize it, it should + not be forgotten that in every habit of thought the inhabitants + of the thirteen colonies were wholly colonial. If this is + properly appreciated we can understand the mental breadth and + vigor which enabled Washington to shake off at once all past + habits and become an independent leader of an independent people. + He felt to the very core of his being the need of national + self-respect and national dignity. To him, as the chief of the + armies and the head of the Revolution, all men, no matter what + tongue they spake or what country they came from, were to be + dealt with on a footing of simple equality, and treated according + to their merits. There was to him no glamour in the fact that + this man was a Frenchman and that an Englishman. His own personal + pride extended to his people, and he bowed to no national + superiority anywhere. Hamilton was national throughout, but he + was born outside the thirteen colonies, and knew his + fellow-citizens only as Americans. Franklin was national by the + force of his own commanding genius. John Adams grew to the same + conception, so far as our relations to other nations were + concerned. But beyond these three we may look far and closely + before we find another among all the really great men of the time + who freed himself wholly from the superstition of the colonist + about the nations of Europe.</p> + + <p>When Washington drew his sword beneath the Cambridge elm he + stood forth as the first American, the best type of man that the + New World could produce, with no provincial taint upon him, and + no shadow of the colonial past clouding his path. It was this + great quality that gave the struggle which he led a character it + would never have attained without a leader so constituted. Had he + been merely a colonial Englishman, had he not risen at once to + the conception of an American nation, the world would have looked + at us with very different eyes. It was the personal dignity of + the man, quite as much as his fighting capacity, which impressed + Europe. Kings and ministers, looking on dispassionately, soon + realized that here was no ordinary agitator or revolutionist, but + a great man on a great stage with great conceptions. England, + indeed, talked about a militia colonel, but this chatter + disappeared in the smoke of Trenton, and even England came to + look upon him as the all-powerful spirit of the Revolution. Dull + men and colonial squires do not grasp a great idea and carry it + into action on the world's stage in a few months. To stand + forward at the head of raw armies and of a colonial people as a + national leader, calm, dignified, and far-seeing, requires not + only character, but intellect of the highest and strongest kind. + Now that we have come as a people, after more than a century's + struggle, to the national feeling which Washington compassed in a + moment, it is well to consider that single achievement and to + meditate on its meaning, whether in estimating him, or in gauging + what he was to the American people when they came into + existence.</p> + + <p>Let us take another instance of the same quality, shown also + in the winter of 1778. Congress had from the beginning a longing + to conquer Canada, which was a wholly natural and entirely + laudable desire, for conquest is always more interesting than + defense. Washington, on the other hand, after the first complete + failure, which was so nearly a success in the then undefended and + unsuspicious country, gave up pretty thoroughly all ideas of + attacking Canada again, and opposed the various plans of Congress + in that direction. When he had a life-and-death struggle to get + together and subsist enough men to protect their own firesides, + he had ample reason to know that invasions of Canada were + hopeless. Indeed, not much active opposition from the + commander-in-chief was needed to dispose of the Canadian schemes, + for facts settled them as fast as they arose. When the cabal got + up its Canadian expedition, it consisted of Lafayette, and + penetrated no farther than Albany. So Washington merely kept his + eye watchfully on Canada, and argued against expeditions thither, + until this winter of 1778, when something quite new in that + direction came up.</p> + + <p>Lafayette's imagination had been fired by the notion of + conquering Canada. His idea was to get succors from France for + this especial purpose, and with them and American aid to achieve + the conquest. Congress was impressed and pleased by the scheme, + and sent a report upon it to Franklin, to communicate to the + French court, but Washington, when he heard of the plan, took a + very different view. He sent at once a long dispatch to Congress, + urging every possible objection to the proposed campaign, on the + ground of its utter impracticability, and with this official + letter, which was necessarily confined to the military side of + the question, went another addressed to President Laurens + personally, which contained the deeper reasons of his opposition. + He said that there was an objection not touched upon in his + public letter, which was absolutely insurmountable. This was the + introduction of French troops into Canada to take possession of + the capital, in the midst of a people of their own race and + religion, and but recently severed from them.</p> + + <p>He pointed out the enormous advantages which would accrue to + France from the possession of Canada, such as independent posts, + control of the Indians, and the Newfoundland trade. "France, ... + possessed of New Orleans on our right, Canada on our left, and + seconded by the numerous tribes of Indians in our rear, ... + would, it is much to be apprehended, have it in her power to give + law to these States." He went on to show that France might easily + find an excuse for such conduct, in seeking a surety for her + advances of money, and that she had but little to fear from the + contingency of our being driven to reunite with England. He + continued: "Men are very apt to run into extremes. Hatred to + England may carry some into an excess of confidence in France, + especially when motives of gratitude are thrown into the scale. + Men of this description would be unwilling to suppose France + capable of acting so ungenerous a part. I am heartily disposed to + entertain the most favorable sentiments of our new ally, and to + cherish them in others to a reasonable degree. But it is a maxim, + founded on the universal experience of mankind, that no nation is + to be trusted farther than it is bound by its own interest; and + no prudent statesman or politician will venture to depart from + it. In our circumstances we ought to be particularly cautious; + for we have not yet attained sufficient vigor and maturity to + recover from the shock of any false steps into which we may + unwarily fall."</p> + + <p>We shall have occasion to recall these utterances at a later + day, but at this time they serve to show yet again how broadly + and clearly Washington judged nations and policies. Uppermost in + his mind was the destiny of his own nation, just coming into + being, and from that firm point he watched and reasoned. His + words had no effect on Congress, but as it turned out, the plan + failed through adverse influences in the quarter where Washington + least expected them. He believed that this Canadian plan had been + put into Lafayette's mind by the cabinet of Louis XVI., and he + could not imagine that a policy of such obvious wisdom could be + overlooked by French statesmen. In this he was completely + mistaken, for France failed to see what seemed so simple to the + American general, that the opportunity had come to revive her old + American policy and reestablish her colonies under the most + favorable conditions. The ministers of Louis XVI., moreover, did + not wish the colonies to conquer Canada, and the plan of + Lafayette and the Congress received no aid in Paris and came to + nothing. But the fruitless incident exhibits in the strongest + light the attitude of Washington as a purely American statesman, + and the comprehensiveness of his mind in dealing with large + affairs.</p> + + <p>The French alliance and the coming of the French fleet were of + incalculable advantage to the colonies, but they had one evil + effect, as has already been suggested. To a people weary with + unequal conflict, it was a debilitating influence, and America + needed at that moment more than ever energy and vigor, both in + the council and the field. Yet the general outlook was distinctly + better and more encouraging. Soon after Washington had defeated + Clinton at Monmouth, and had taken a position whence he could + watch and check him, he wrote to his friend General Nelson in + Virginia:—</p> + + <blockquote> + "It is not a little pleasing, nor less wonderful to + contemplate, that, after two years' manoeuvring and undergoing + the strangest vicissitudes that perhaps ever attended any one + contest since the creation, both armies are brought back to the + very point they set out from, and that the offending party at + the beginning is now reduced to the spade and pickaxe for + defense. The hand of Providence has been so conspicuous in all + this that he must be worse than an infidel that lacks faith, + and more than wicked that has not gratitude enough to + acknowledge his obligations. But it will be time enough for me + to turn preacher when my present appointment ceases." + </blockquote> + + <p>He had reason to congratulate himself on the result of his two + years' campaigning, but as the summer wore away and winter came + on he found causes for fresh and deep alarm, despite the good + outlook in the field. The demoralizing effects of civil war were + beginning to show themselves in various directions. The character + of Congress, in point of ability, had declined alarmingly, for + the ablest men of the first Congress, with few exceptions, had + departed. Some had gone to the army, some to the diplomatic + service, and many had remained at home, preferring the honors and + offices of the States to those of the Confederation. Their + successors, patriotic and well-meaning though they were, lacked + the energy and force of those who had started the Revolution, + and, as a consequence, Congress had become feeble and + ineffective, easily swayed by influential schemers, and unable to + cope with the difficulties which surrounded them.</p> + + <p>Outside the government the popular tone had deteriorated + sadly. The lavish issues of irredeemable paper by the + Confederation and the States had brought their finances to the + verge of absolute ruin. The continental currency had fallen to + something like forty to one in gold, and the decline was hastened + by the forged notes put out by the enemy. The fluctuations of + this paper soon bred a spirit of gambling, and hence came a class + of men, both inside and outside of politics, who sought, more or + less corruptly, to make fortunes by army contracts, and by + forestalling the markets. These developments filled Washington + with anxiety, for in the financial troubles he saw ruin to the + army. The unpaid troops bore the injustice done them with + wonderful patience, but it was something that could not last, and + Washington knew the danger. In vain did he remonstrate. It seemed + to be impossible to get anything done, and at last, in the + following spring, the outbreak began. Two New Jersey regiments + refused to march until the assembly made provision for their pay. + Washington took high ground with them, but they stood + respectfully firm, and finally had their way. Not long after came + another outbreak in the Connecticut line, with similar results. + These object lessons had some result, and by foreign loans and + the ability of Robert Morris the country was enabled to stumble + along; but it was a frightful and wearing anxiety to the + commander-in-chief.</p> + + <p>Washington saw at once that the root of the evil lay in the + feebleness of Congress, and although he could not deal with the + finances, he was able to strive for an improvement in the + governing body. Not content with letters, he left the army and + went to Philadelphia, in the winter of 1779, and there appealed + to Congress in person, setting forth the perils which beset them, + and urging action. He wrote also to his friends everywhere, + pointing out the deficiencies of Congress, and begging them to + send better and stronger men. To Benjamin Harrison he wrote: "It + appears to me as clear as ever the sun did in its meridian + brightness, that America never stood in more eminent need of the + wise, patriotic, and spirited exertions of her sons than at this + period; ... the States separately are too much engaged in their + local concerns, and have too many of their ablest men withdrawn + from the general council, for the good of the common weal." He + took the same high tone in all his letters, and there can be seen + through it all the desperate endeavor to make the States and the + people understand the dangers which he realized, but which they + either could not or would not appreciate.</p> + + <p>On the other hand, while his anxiety was sharpened to the + highest point by the character of Congress, his sternest wrath + was kindled by the gambling and money-making which had become + rampant. To Reed he wrote in December, 1778:</p> + + <blockquote> + "It gives me sincere pleasure to find that there is likely to + be a coalition of the Whigs in your State, a few only excepted, + and that the assembly is so well disposed to second your + endeavors in bringing those murderers of our cause, the + monopolizers, forestallers, and engrossers, to condign + punishment. It is much to be lamented that each State, long ere + this, has not hunted them down as pests to society and the + greatest enemies we have to the happiness of America. I would + to God that some one of the most atrocious in each State was + hung in gibbets upon a gallows five times as high as the one + prepared by Haman. No punishment, in my opinion, is too great + for the man who can build his greatness upon his country's + ruin." + </blockquote> + + <p>He would have hanged them too had he had the power, for he was + always as good as his word.</p> + + <p>It is refreshing to read these righteously angry words, still + ringing as sharply as when they were written. They clear away all + the myths—the priggish, the cold, the statuesque, the dull + myths—as the strong gusts of the northwest wind in autumn + sweep off the heavy mists of lingering August. They are the hot + words of a warm-blooded man, a good hater, who loathed meanness + and treachery, and who would have hanged those who battened upon + the country's distress. When he went to Philadelphia, a few weeks + later, and saw the state of things with nearer view, he felt the + wretchedness and outrage of such doings more than ever. He wrote + to Harrison:</p> + + <blockquote> + "If I were to be called upon to draw a picture of the times and + of men, from what I have seen, heard, and in part know, I + should in one word say, that idleness, dissipation, and + extravagance seem to have laid fast hold of most of them; that + speculation, peculation, and an insatiable thirst for riches + seem to have got the better of every other consideration, and + almost of every order of men; that party disputes and personal + quarrels are the great business of the day; whilst the + momentous concerns of an empire, a great and accumulating debt, + ruined finances, depreciated money, and want of credit, which, + in its consequences, is the want of everything, are but + secondary considerations, and postponed from day to day, from + week to week, as if our affairs wore the most promising + aspect." + </blockquote> + + <p>Other men talked about empire, but he alone grasped the great + conception, and felt it in his soul. To see not only immediate + success imperiled, but the future paltered with by small, mean, + and dishonest men, cut him to the quick. He set himself doggedly + to fight it, as he always fought every enemy, using both speech + and pen in all quarters. Much, no doubt, he ultimately effected, + but he was contending with the usual results of civil war, which + are demoralizing always, and especially so among a young people + in a new country. At first, therefore, all seemed vain. The + selfishness, "peculation, and speculation" seemed to get worse, + and the tone of Congress and the people lower, as he struggled + against them. In March, 1779, he wrote to James Warren of + Massachusetts:</p> + + <blockquote> + <p>"Nothing, I am convinced, but the depreciation of our + currency, aided by stock-jobbing and party dissensions, has fed + the hopes of the enemy, and kept the British arms in America to + this day. They do not scruple to declare this themselves, and + add that we shall be our own conquerors. Can not our common + country, America, possess virtue enough to disappoint them? Is + the paltry consideration of a little pelf to individuals to be + placed in competition with the essential rights and liberties + of the present generation, and of millions yet unborn? Shall a + few designing men, for their own aggrandizement, and to gratify + their own avarice, overset the goodly fabric we have been + rearing, at the expense of so much time, blood, and treasure? + And shall we at last become the victims of our own lust of + gain? Forbid it, Heaven! Forbid it, all and every State in the + Union, by enacting and enforcing efficacious laws for checking + the growth of these monstrous evils, and restoring matters, in + some degree, to the state they were in at the commencement of + the war."</p> + + <p>"Our cause is noble. It is the cause of mankind, and the + danger to it is to be apprehended from ourselves. Shall we + slumber and sleep, then, while we should be punishing those + miscreants who have brought these troubles upon us, and who are + aiming to continue us in them; while we should be striving to + fill our battalions, and devising ways and means to raise the + value of the currency, on the credit of which everything + depends?"</p> + </blockquote> + + <p>Again we see the prevailing idea of the future, which haunted + him continually. Evidently, he had some imagination, and also a + power of terse and eloquent expression which we have heard of + before, and shall note again.</p> + + <p>Still the appeals seemed to sound in deaf ears. He wrote to + George Mason: "I have seen, without despondency, even for a + moment, the hours which America has styled her gloomy ones; but I + have beheld no day since the commencement of hostilities that I + have thought her liberties in such imminent danger as at + present.... Indeed, we are verging so fast to destruction that I + am filled with sensations to which I have been a stranger till + within these three months." To Gouverneur Morris he said: "If the + enemy have it in their power to press us hard this campaign, I + know not what may be the consequence." He had faced the enemy, + the bleak winters, raw soldiers, and all the difficulties of + impecunious government, with a cheerful courage that never + failed. But the spectacle of widespread popular demoralization, + of selfish scrambles for plunder, and of feeble administration at + the centre of government weighed upon him heavily. It was not the + general's business to build up Congress and grapple with finance, + but Washington addressed himself to the new task with his usual + persistent courage. It was slow and painful work. He seemed to + make no progress, and then it was that his spirits sank at the + prospect of ruin and defeat, not coming on the field of battle, + but from our own vices and our own lack of energy and wisdom. Yet + his work told in the end, as it always did. His vast and steadily + growing influence made itself felt even through the dense + troubles of the uneasy times. Congress turned with energy to + Europe for fresh loans. Lafayette worked away to get an army sent + over. The two Morrises, stimulated by Washington, flung + themselves into the financial difficulties, and feeble but + distinct efforts toward a more concentrated and better organized + administration of public affairs were made both in the States and + the confederation.</p> + + <p>But, although Washington's spirits fell, and his anxieties + became wellnigh intolerable in this period of reaction which + followed the French alliance, he made no public show of it, but + carried on his own work with the army and in the field as usual, + contending with all the difficulties, new and old, as calmly and + efficiently as ever. After Clinton slipped away from Monmouth and + sought refuge in New York, Washington took post at convenient + points and watched the movements of the enemy. In this way the + summer passed. As always, Washington's first object was to guard + the Hudson, and while he held this vital point firmly, he waited, + ready to strike elsewhere if necessary. It looked for a time as + if the British intended to descend on Boston, seize the town, and + destroy the French fleet, which had gone there to refit. Such was + the opinion of Gates, then commanding in that department, and as + Washington inclined to the same belief, the fear of this event + gave him many anxious moments. He even moved his troops so as to + be in readiness to march eastward at short notice; but he + gradually became convinced that the enemy had no such plan. Much + of his thought, now and always, was given to efforts to divine + the intentions of the British generals. They had so few settled + ideas, and were so tardy and lingering when they had plans, that + it is small wonder that their opponents were sorely puzzled in + trying to find out what their purposes were, when they really had + none. The fact was that Washington saw their military + opportunities with the eye of a great soldier, and so much better + than they, that he suffered a good deal of needless anxiety in + devising methods to meet attacks which they had not the wit to + undertake. He had a profound contempt for their policy of holding + towns, and believing that they must see the utter futility of it, + after several years of trial, he constantly expected from them a + well-planned and extensive campaign, which in reality they were + incapable of devising.</p> + + <p>The main army, therefore, remained quiet, and when the autumn + had passed went into winter-quarters in well-posted detachments + about New York. In December Clinton made an ineffectual raid, and + then all was peaceful again, and Washington was able to go to + Philadelphia and struggle with Congress, leaving his army more + comfortable and secure than they had been in any previous + winter.</p> + + <p>In January he informed Congress as to the next campaign. He + showed them the impossibility of undertaking anything on a large + scale, and announced his intention of remaining on the defensive. + It was a trying policy to a man of his temper, but he could do no + better, and he knew, now as always, what others could not yet + see, that by simply holding on and keeping his army in the field + he was slowly but surely winning independence. He tried to get + Congress to do something with the navy, and he planned an + expedition, under the command of Sullivan, to overrun the Indian + country and check the barbarous raids of the Tories and savages + on the frontier; and with this he was fain to be content. In + fact, he perceived very clearly the direction in which the war + was tending. He kept up his struggle with Congress for a + permanent army, and with the old persistency pleaded that + something should be done for the officers, and at the same time + he tried to keep the States in good humor when they were + grumbling about the amount of protection afforded them.</p> + + <p>But all this wear and tear of heart and brain and temper, + while given chiefly to hold the army together, was not endured + with any notion that he and Clinton were eventually to fight it + out in the neighborhood of New York. Washington felt that that + part of the conflict was over. He now hoped and believed that the + moment would come, when, by uniting his army with the French, he + should be able to strike the decisive blow. Until that time came, + however, he knew that he could do nothing on a great scale, and + he felt that meanwhile the British, abandoning practically the + eastern and middle States, would make one last desperate struggle + for victory, and would make it in the south. Long before any one + else, he appreciated this fact, and saw a peril looming large in + that region, where everybody was considering the British invasion + as little more than an exaggerated raid. He foresaw, too, that we + should suffer more there than we had in the extreme north, + because the south was full of Tories and less well organized.</p> + + <p>All this, however, did not change his own plans one jot. He + believed that the south must work out its own salvation, as New + York and New England had done with Burgoyne, and he felt sure + that in the end it would be successful. But he would not go + south, nor take his army there. The instinct of a great commander + for the vital point in a war or a battle, is as keen as that of + the tiger is said to be for the jugular vein of its victim. The + British might overrun the north or invade the south, but he would + stay where he was, with his grip upon New York and the Hudson + River. The tide of invasion might ebb and flow in this region or + that, but the British were doomed if they could not divide the + eastern colonies from the others. When the appointed hour came, + he was ready to abandon everything and strike the final and fatal + blow; but until then he waited and stood fast with his army, + holding the great river in his grasp. He felt much more anxiety + about the south than he had felt about the north, and expected + Congress to consult him as to a commander, having made up his + mind that Greene was the man to send. But Congress still believed + in Gates, who had been making trouble for Washington all winter; + and so Gates was sent, and Congress in due time got their lesson, + and found once more that Washington understood men better than + they did.</p> + + <p>In the north the winter was comparatively uneventful. The + spring passed, and in June Clinton came out and took possession + of Stony Point and Verplanck's Point, and began to fortify them. + It looked a little as if Clinton might intend to get control of + the Hudson by slow approaches, fortifying, and then advancing + until he reached West Point. With this in mind, Washington at + once determined to check the British by striking sharply at one + of their new posts. Having made up his mind, he sent for Wayne + and asked him if he would storm Stony Point. Tradition says that + Wayne replied, "I will storm hell, if you will plan it." A true + tradition, probably, in keeping with Wayne's character, and + pleasant to us to-day as showing with a vivid gleam of rough + human speech the utter confidence of the army in their leader, + that confidence which only a great soldier can inspire. So + Washington planned, and Wayne stormed, and Stony Point fell. It + was a gallant and brilliant feat of arms, one of the most + brilliant of the war. Over five hundred prisoners were taken, the + guns were carried off, and the works destroyed, leaving the + British to begin afresh with a good deal of increased caution and + respect. Not long after, Harry Lee stormed Paulus Hook with equal + success, and the British were checked and arrested, if they + intended any extensive movement. On the frontier, Sullivan, after + some delays, did his work effectively, ravaging the Indian towns + and reducing them to quiet, thus taking away another annoyance + and danger.</p> + + <p>In these various ways Clinton's circle of activity was + steadily narrowed, but it may be doubted whether he had any + coherent plan. The principal occupation of the British was to + send out marauding expeditions and cut off outlying parties. + Tryon burned and pillaged in Connecticut, Matthews in Virginia, + and others on a smaller scale elsewhere in New Jersey and New + York. The blundering stupidity of this system of warfare was only + equaled by its utter brutality. Houses were burned, peaceful + villages went up in smoke, women and children were outraged, and + soldiers were bayoneted after they had surrendered. These details + of the Revolution are wellnigh forgotten now, but when the ear is + wearied with talk about English generosity and love of fair play, + it is well to turn back and study the exploits of Tryon, and it + is not amiss in the same connection to recall that English + budgets contained a special appropriation for scalping-knives, a + delicate attention to the Tories and Indians who were burning and + butchering on the frontier.</p> + + <p>Such methods of warfare Washington despised intellectually, + and hated morally. He saw that every raid only hardened the + people against England, and made her cause more hopeless. The + misery caused by these raids angered him, but he would not + retaliate in kind, and Wayne bayoneted no English soldiers after + they laid down their arms at Stony Point. It was enough for + Washington to hold fast to the great objects he had in view, to + check Clinton and circumscribe his movements. Steadfastly he did + this through the summer and winter of 1779, which proved one of + the worst that he had yet endured. Supplies did not come, the + army dwindled, and the miseries of Valley Forge were renewed. + Again was repeated the old and pitiful story of appeals to + Congress and the States, and again the undaunted spirit and + strenuous exertions of Washington saved the army and the + Revolution from the internal ruin which was his worst enemy. When + the new year began, he saw that he was again condemned to a + defensive campaign, but this made little difference now, for what + he had foreseen in the spring of 1779 became certainty in the + autumn. The active war was transferred to the south, where the + chapter of disasters was beginning, and Clinton had practically + given up everything except New York. The war had taken on the new + phase expected by Washington. Weak as he was, he began to detach + troops, and prepared to deal with the last desperate effort of + England to conquer her revolted colonies from the south.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <h2><a name="IX" id="IX"></a> CHAPTER IX</h2> + + <h2>ARNOLD'S TREASON, AND THE WAR IN THE SOUTH</h2> + + <p>The spring of 1780 was the beginning of a period of inactivity + and disappointment, of diligent effort and frustrated plans. + During the months which ensued before the march to the south, + Washington passed through a stress of harassing anxiety, which + was far worse than anything he had to undergo at any other time. + Plans were formed, only to fail. Opportunities arose, only to + pass by unfulfilled. The network of hostile conditions bound him + hand and foot, and it seemed at times as if he could never break + the bonds that held him, or prevent or hold back the moral, + social, and political dissolution going on about him. With the + aid of France, he meant to strike one decisive blow, and end the + struggle. Every moment was of importance, and yet the days and + weeks and months slipped by, and he could get nothing done. He + could neither gain control of the sea, nor gather sufficient + forces of his own, although delay now meant ruin. He saw the + British overrun the south, and he could not leave the Hudson. He + was obliged to sacrifice the southern States, and yet he could + get neither ships nor men to attack New York. The army was + starving and mutinous, and he sought relief in vain. The finances + were ruined, Congress was helpless, the States seemed stupefied. + Treason of the most desperate kind suddenly reared its head, and + threatened the very citadel of the Revolution. These were the + days of the war least familiar to posterity. They are unmarked in + the main by action or fighting, and on this dreary monotony + nothing stands out except the black stain of Arnold's treason. + Yet it was the time of all others when Washington had most to + bear. It was the time of all others when his dogged persistence + and unwavering courage alone seemed to sustain the flickering + fortunes of the war.</p> + + <p>In April Washington was pondering ruefully on the condition of + affairs at the south. He saw that the only hope of saving + Charleston was in the defense of the bar; and when that became + indefensible, he saw that the town ought to be abandoned to the + enemy, and the army withdrawn to the country. His military genius + showed itself again and again in his perfectly accurate judgment + on distant campaigns. He seemed to apprehend all the conditions + at a glance, and although his wisdom made him refuse to issue + orders when he was not on the ground, those generals who followed + his suggestions, even when a thousand miles away, were + successful, and those who disregarded them were not. Lincoln, + commanding at Charleston, was a brave and loyal man, but he had + neither the foresight nor the courage to withdraw to the country, + and then, hovering on the lines of the enemy, to confine them to + the town. He yielded to the entreaties of the citizens and + remained, only to surrender. Washington had retreated from New + York, and after five years of fighting the British still held it, + and had gone no further. He had refused to risk an assault to + redeem Philadelphia, at the expense of much grumbling and + cursing, and had then beaten the enemy when they hastily + retreated thence in the following spring. His cardinal doctrine + was that the Revolution depended upon the existence of the army, + and not on the possession of any particular spot of ground, and + his masterly adherence to this theory brought victory, slowly but + surely. Lincoln's very natural inability to grasp it, and to + withstand popular pressure, cost us for a time the southern + States and a great deal of bloody fighting.</p> + + <p>In the midst of this anxiety about the south, and when he + foresaw the coming disasters, Washington was cheered and + encouraged by the arrival of Lafayette, whom he loved, and who + brought good tidings of his zealous work for the United States in + Paris. An army and a fleet were on their way to America, with a + promise of more to follow. This was great news indeed. It is + interesting to note how Washington took it, for we see here with + unusual clearness the readiness of grasp and quickness of thought + which have been noted before, but which are not commonly + attributed to him. It has been the fashion to treat Washington as + wise and prudent, but as distinctly slow, and when he was obliged + to concentrate public opinion, either military or civil, or when + doubt overhung his course, he moved with great deliberation. When + he required no concentration of opinion, and had made up his + mind, he could strike with a terribly swift decision, as at + Trenton or Monmouth. So when a new situation presented itself he + seized with wonderful rapidity every phase and possibility opened + by changed conditions.</p> + + <p>The moment he learned from Lafayette that the French succors + were actually on the way, he began to lay out plans in a manner + which showed how he had taken in at the first glance every chance + and every contingency. He wrote that the decisive moment was at + hand, and that the French succors would be fatal if not used + successfully now. Congress must improve their methods of + administration, and for this purpose must appoint a small + committee to coöperate with him. This step he demanded, and + it was taken at once. Fresh from his interview with Lafayette, he + sent out orders to have inquiries made as to Halifax and its + defenses. Possibly a sudden and telling blow might be struck + there, and nothing should be overlooked. He also wrote to + Lafayette to urge upon the French commander an immediate assault + on New York the moment he landed. Yet despite his thought for New + York, he even then began to see the opportunities which were + destined to develop into Yorktown. He had longed to go to the + south before, and had held back only because he felt that the + main army and New York were still the key of the position, and + could not be safely abandoned. Now, while planning the capture of + New York, he asked in a letter whether the enemy was not more + exposed at the southward and therefore a better subject for a + combined attack there. Clearness and precision of plan as to the + central point, joined to a perfect readiness to change suddenly + and strike hard and decisively in a totally different quarter, + are sure marks of the great commander. We can find them all + through the correspondence, but here in May, 1780, they come out + with peculiar vividness. They are qualities arising from a wide + foresight, and from a sure and quick perception. They are not the + qualities of a slow or heavy mind.</p> + + <p>On June 1 came the news of the surrender of Charleston and the + loss of the army, which was followed by the return of Clinton to + New York. The southern States lay open now to the enemy, and it + was a severe trial to Washington to be unable to go to their + rescue; but with the same dogged adherence to his ruling idea, he + concentrated his attention on the Hudson with renewed vigilance + on account of Clinton's return. Adversity and prosperity alike + were unable to divert him from the control of the great river and + the mastery of the middle States until he saw conclusive victory + elsewhere fairly within his grasp. In the same unswerving way he + pushed on the preparations for what he felt to be the coming of + the decisive campaign and the supreme moment of the war. To all + the governors went urgent letters, calling on the States to fill + their lines in the continental army, and to have their militia in + readiness.</p> + + <p>In the midst of these anxieties and preparations, the French + arrived at Newport, bringing a well-equipped army of some five + thousand men, and a small fleet. They brought, too, something + quite as important, in the way of genuine good-will and full + intention to do all in their power for their allies. After a + moment's hesitation, born of unlucky memories, the people of + Rhode Island gave De Rochambeau a hearty welcome, and Washington + sent him the most cordial greeting. With the greeting went the + polite but earnest request for immediate action, together with + plans for attacking New York; and, at the same time, another + urgent call went out to the States for men, money, and supplies. + The long-looked-for hour had arrived, a fine French army was in + Newport, a French fleet rode in the harbor, and instead of + action, immediate and effective, the great event marked only the + beginning of a period of delays and disappointment, wearing heart + and nerve almost beyond endurance.</p> + + <p>First it appeared that the French ships could not get into New + York harbor. Then there was sickness in the French army. Then the + British menaced Newport, and rapid preparations had to be made to + meet that danger. Then it came out that De Rochambeau was ordered + to await the arrival of the second division of the army, with + more ships; and after due waiting, it was discovered that the + aforesaid second division, with their ships, were securely + blockaded by the English fleet at Brest. On our side it was no + better; indeed, it was rather worse. There was lack of arms and + powder. The drafts were made with difficulty, and the new levies + came in slowly. Supplies failed altogether, and on every hand + there was nothing but delay, and ever fresh delay, and in the + midst of it all Washington, wrestling with sloth and incoherence + and inefficiency, trampled down one failure and disappointment + only to encounter another, equally important, equally petty, and + equally harassing.</p> + + <p>On August 20 he wrote to Congress a long and most able letter, + which set forth forcibly the evil and perilous condition of + affairs. After reading that letter no man could say that there + was not need of the utmost exertion, and for the expenditure of + the last ounce of energy. In it Washington struck especially at + the two delusions with which the people and their representatives + were lulling themselves into security, and by which they were led + to relax their efforts. One was the belief that England was + breaking down; the other, that the arrival of the French was + synonymous with the victorious close of the war. Washington + demonstrated that England still commanded the sea, and that as + long as she did so there was a great advantage on her side. She + was stronger, on the whole, this year than the year before, and + her financial resources were still ample. There was no use in + looking for victory in the weakness of the enemy, and on the + other hand, to rely wholly on France was contemptible as well as + foolish. After stating plainly that the army was on the verge of + dissolution, he said: "To me it will appear miraculous if our + affairs can maintain themselves much longer in their present + train. If either the temper or the resources of the country will + not admit of an alteration, we may expect soon to be reduced to + the humiliating condition of seeing the cause of America, in + America, upheld by foreign arms. The generosity of our allies has + a claim to all our confidence and all our gratitude, but it is + neither for the honor of America, nor for the interest of the + common cause, to leave the work entirely to them."</p> + + <p>It must have been bitter to Washington above all men, with his + high dignity and keen sense of national honor, to write such + words as these, or make such an argument to any of his + countrymen. But it was a work which the time demanded, and he did + it without flinching. Having thus laid bare the weak places, he + proceeded to rehearse once more, with a weariness we can easily + fancy, the old, old lesson as to organization, a permanent army, + and a better system of administration. This letter neither + scolded, nor bewailed, nor desponded, but it told the truth with + great force and vigor. Of course it had but slight results, + comparatively speaking; still it did something, and the final + success of the Revolution is due to the series of strong + truth-telling letters, of which this is an example, as much as to + any one thing done by Washington. There was need of some one, not + only to fight battles and lead armies, but to drive Congress into + some sort of harmony, spur the careless and indifferent to + action, arouse the States, and kill various fatal delusions, and + in Washington the robust teller of unwelcome truths was + found.</p> + + <p>Still, even the results actually obtained by such letters came + but slowly, and Washington felt that he must strike at all + hazards. Through Lafayette he tried to get De Rochambeau to agree + to an immediate attack on New York. His army was on the very eve + of dissolution, and he began with reason to doubt his own power + of holding it together longer. The finances of the country were + going ever faster to irremediable ruin, and it seemed impossible + that anything could postpone open and avowed bankruptcy. So, with + his army crumbling, mutinous, and half starved, he turned to his + one unfailing resource of fighting, and tried to persuade De + Rochambeau to join him. Under the circumstances, Washington was + right to wish to risk a battle, and De Rochambeau, from his point + of view, was equally so in refusing to take the offensive, unless + the second division arrived or De Guichen came with his fleet, or + the English force at New York was reduced.</p> + + <p>In these debates and delays, mingled with an appeal to De + Guichen in the West Indies, the summer was fast wearing away, + and, by way of addition, early in September came tidings of the + battle of Camden, and the utter rout of Gates's army. Despite his + own needs and trials, Washington's first idea was to stem the + current of disaster at the south, and he ordered the fresh + Maryland troops to turn back at once and march to the Carolinas, + but Gates fled so fast and far that it was some time before + anything was heard of him. As more news came of Camden and its + beaten general, Washington wrote to Rutledge that he should + ultimately come southward. Meantime, he could only struggle with + his own difficulties, and rack his brains for men and means to + rescue the south. It must have seemed to Washington, in those + lovely September days, as if fate could not have any worse trials + in store, and that if he could only breast the troubles now + surging about him, he might count on sure and speedy success. Yet + the bitterest trial of all was even then hanging over his head, + and with a sort of savage sarcasm it came upon him in one of + those rare moments when he had an hour of rest and sunshine.</p> + + <p>The story of Arnold's treason is easily told. Its romantic + side has made it familiar to all Americans, and given it a + factitious importance. Had it succeeded it would have opened + opportunities of disaster to the American arms, although it would + not have affected the final outcome of the Revolution. As it was + it failed, and had no result whatever. It has passed into history + simply as a picturesque episode, charged with possibilities which + attract the imagination, but having, in itself, neither meaning + nor consequences beyond the two conspirators. To us it is of + interest, because it shows Washington in one of the sharpest and + bitterest experiences of his life. Let us see how he met it and + dealt with it.</p> + + <p>From the day when the French landed, both De Rochambeau and + Washington had been most anxious to meet. The French general had + been particularly urgent, but it was difficult for Washington to + get away. As he wrote on August 21: "We are about ten miles from + the enemy. Our popular government imposes a necessity of great + circumspection. If any misfortune should happen in my absence, it + would be attended with every inconvenience. I will, however, + endeavor if possible, and as soon as possible, to meet you at + some convenient rendezvous." In accordance with this promise, a + few weeks later, he left Greene in command of the army, and, not + without misgivings, started on September 18 to meet De + Rochambeau. On his way he had an interview with Arnold, who came + to him to show a letter from the loyalist Colonel Robinson, and + thus disarm suspicion as to his doings. On the 20th, the day when + André and Arnold met to arrange the terms of the sale, + Washington was with De Rochambeau at Hartford. News had arrived, + meantime, that De Guichen had sailed for Europe; the command of + the sea was therefore lost, and the opportunity for action had + gone by. There was no need for further conference, and Washington + accordingly set out on his return at once, two or three days + earlier than he had intended.</p> + + <p>He was accompanied by his own staff, and by Knox and Lafayette + with their officers. With him, too, went the young Count Dumas, + who has left a description of their journey, and of the popular + enthusiasm displayed in the towns through which they passed. In + one village, which they reached after nightfall, all the people + turned out, the children bearing torches, and men and women + hailed Washington as father, and pressed about him to touch the + hem of his garments. Turning to Dumas he said, "We may be beaten + by the English; it is the chance of war; but there is the army + they will never conquer." Political leaders grumbled, and + military officers caballed, but the popular feeling went out to + Washington with a sure and utter confidence. The people in that + little village recognized the great and unselfish leader as they + recognized Lincoln a century later, and from the masses of the + people no one ever heard the cry that Washington was cold or + unsympathetic. They loved him, and believed in him, and such a + manifestation of their devotion touched him deeply. His spirits + rose under the spell of appreciation and affection, always so + strong upon human nature, and he rode away from Fishkill the next + morning at daybreak with a light heart.</p> + + <p>The company was pleasant and lively, the morning was fair, and + as they approached Arnold's headquarters at the Robinson house, + Washington turned off to the redoubts by the river, telling the + young men that they were all in love with Mrs. Arnold and would + do well to go straight on and breakfast with her. Hamilton and + McHenry followed his advice, and while they were at breakfast a + note was brought to Arnold. It was the letter of warning from + André announcing his capture, which Colonel Jameson, who + ought to have been cashiered for doing it, had forwarded. Arnold + at once left the table, and saying that he was going to West + Point, jumped into his boat and was rowed rapidly down the river + to the British man-of-war. Washington on his arrival was told + that Arnold had gone to the fort, and so after a hasty breakfast + he went over there himself. On reaching West Point no salute + broke the stillness, and no guard turned out to receive him. He + was astonished to learn that his arrival was unexpected, and that + Arnold had not been there for two days. Still unsuspecting he + inspected the works, and then returned.</p> + + <p>Meantime, the messenger sent to Hartford with the papers taken + on André reached the Robinson house and delivered them to + Hamilton, together with a letter of confession from André + himself. Hamilton read them, and hurrying out met Washington just + coming up from the river. He took his chief aside, said a few + words to him in a low voice, and they went into the house + together. When they came out, Washington looked as calm as ever, + and calling to Lafayette and Knox gave them the papers, saying + simply, "Whom can we trust now?" He dispatched Hamilton at once + to try to intercept Arnold at Verplanck's Point, but it was too + late; the boat had passed, and Arnold was safe on board the + Vulture. This done, Washington bade his staff sit down with him + at dinner, as the general was absent, and Mrs. Arnold was ill in + her room. Dinner over, he immediately set about guarding the + post, which had been so near betrayal. To Colonel Wade at West + Point he wrote: "Arnold has gone to the enemy; you are in + command, be vigilant." To Jameson he sent word to guard + André closely. To the colonels and commanders of various + outlying regiments he sent orders to bring up their troops. + Everything was done that should have been done, quickly, quietly, + and without comment. The most sudden and appalling treachery had + failed to shake his nerve, or confuse his mind.</p> + + <p>Yet the strong and silent man was wrung to the quick, and when + everything possible had been done, and he had retired to his + room, the guard outside the door heard him marching back and + forth through all the weary night. The one thing he least + expected, because he least understood it, had come to pass. He + had been a good and true friend to the villain who had fled, for + Arnold's reckless bravery and dare-devil fighting had appealed to + the strongest passion of his nature, and he had stood by him + always. He had grieved over the refusal of Congress to promote + him in due order and had interceded with ultimate success in his + behalf. He had sympathized with him in his recent troubles in + Philadelphia, and had administered the reprimand awarded by the + court-martial so that rebuke seemed turned to praise. He had + sought to give him every opportunity that a soldier could desire, + and had finally conferred upon him the command of West Point. He + had admired his courage and palliated his misconduct, and now the + scoundrel had turned on him and fled. Mingled with the bitterness + of these memories of betrayed confidence was the torturing + ignorance of how far this base treachery had extended. For all he + knew there might be a brood of traitors about him in the very + citadel of America. We can never know Washington's thoughts at + that time, for he was ever silent, but as we listen in + imagination to the sound of the even footfalls which the guard + heard all through that September night, we can dimly guess the + feelings of the strong and passionate nature, wounded and + distressed almost beyond endurance.</p> + + <p>There is but little more to tell. The conspiracy stopped with + Arnold. He had no accomplices, and meant to deliver the post and + pocket the booty alone. The British tried to spread the idea that + other officers had been corrupted, but the attempt failed, and + Washington's prompt measures of defense checked any movement + against the forts. Every effort was made by Clinton to save + André, but in vain. He was tried by a court composed of + the highest officers in the American service, among whom was + Lafayette. On his own statement, but one decision was possible. + He was condemned as a spy, and as a spy he was sentenced to be + hanged. He made a manly appeal against the manner of his death, + and begged to be shot. Washington declined to interfere, and + André went to the gallows.</p> + + <p>The British, at the time, and some of their writers + afterwards, attacked Washington for insisting on this mode of + execution, but there never was an instance in his career when he + was more entirely right. André was a spy and briber, who + sought to ruin the American cause by means of the treachery of an + American general. It was a dark and dangerous game, and he knew + that he staked his life on the result. He failed, and paid the + penalty. Washington could not permit, he would have been grossly + and feebly culpable if he had permitted, such an attempt to pass + without extreme punishment. He was generous and magnanimous, but + he was not a sentimentalist, and he punished this miserable + treason, so far as he could reach it, as it deserved. It is true + that André was a man of talent, well-bred and courageous, + and of engaging manners. He deserved all the sympathy and sorrow + which he excited at the time, but nothing more. He was not only + technically a spy, but he had sought his ends by bribery, he had + prostituted a flag of truce, and he was to be richly paid for his + work. It was all hire and salary. No doubt André was + patriotic and loyal. Many spies have been the same, and have + engaged in their dangerous exploits from the highest motives. + Nathan Hale, whom the British hanged without compunction, was as + well-born and well-bred as André, and as patriotic as man + could be, and moreover he was a spy and nothing more. + André was a trafficker in bribes and treachery, and + however we may pity his fate, his name has no proper place in the + great temple at Westminster, where all English-speaking people + bow with reverence, and only a most perverted sentimentality + could conceive that it was fitting to erect a monument to his + memory in this country.</p> + + <p>Washington sent André to the gallows because it was his + duty to do so, but he pitied him none the less, and whatever he + may have thought of the means André employed to effect his + end, he made no comment upon him, except to say that "he met his + fate with that fortitude which was to be expected from an + accomplished man and gallant officer." As to Arnold, he was + almost equally silent. When obliged to refer to him he did so in + the plainest and simplest way, and only in a familiar letter to + Laurens do we get a glimpse of his feelings. He wrote: "I am + mistaken if at this time Arnold is undergoing the torment of a + mental hell. He wants feeling. From some traits of his character + which have lately come to my knowledge, he seems to have been so + hackneyed in villainy, and so lost to all sense of honor and + shame, that, while his faculties will enable him to continue his + sordid pursuits, there will be no time for remorse." With this + single expression of measureless contempt, Washington let Arnold + drop from his life. The first shock had touched him to the quick, + although it could not shake his steady mind. Reflection revealed + to him the extraordinary baseness of Arnold's real character, and + he cast the thought of him out forever, content to leave the + traitor to the tender mercies of history. The calmness and + dignity, the firmness and deep feeling which Washington + exhibited, are of far more interest than the abortive treason, + and have as real a value now as they had then, when suspicion for + a moment ran riot, and men wondered "whom they could trust."</p> + + <p>The treason of Arnold swept like a black cloud across the sky, + broke, and left everything as before. That such a base peril + should have existed was alarming and hateful. That it should have + been exploded harmlessly made all men give a deep sigh of relief. + But neither the treason nor its discovery altered the current of + events one jot. The summer had come and gone. The French had + arrived, and no blow had been struck. There was nothing to show + for the campaign but inaction, disappointment, and the loss of + the Carolinas. With the commander-in-chief, through it all, were + ever present two great questions, getting more portentous and + more difficult of solution with each succeeding day. How he was + to keep his army in existence was one, and how he was to hold the + government together was the other. He had thirteen tired States, + a general government almost impotent, a bankrupt treasury, and a + broken credit. The American Revolution had come down to the + question of whether the brain, will, and nerve of one man could + keep the machine going long enough to find fit opportunity for a + final and decisive stroke. Washington had confidence in the + people of the country and in himself, but the difficulties in the + way were huge, and the means of surmounting them slight. There is + here and there a passionate undertone in the letters of this + period, which shows us the moments when the waves of trouble and + disaster seemed to sweep over him. But the feeling passed, or was + trampled under foot, for there was no break in the steady fight + against untoward circumstances, or in the grim refusal to accept + defeat.</p> + + <p>It is almost impossible now to conceive the actual condition + at that time of every matter of detail which makes military and + political existence possible. No general phrases can do justice + to the situation of the army; and the petty miseries and + privations, which made life unendurable, went on from day to day + in ever varying forms. While Washington was hearing the first ill + news from the south and struggling with the problem on that side, + and at the same time was planning with Lafayette how to take + advantage of the French succors, the means of subsisting his army + were wholly giving out. The men actually had no food. For days, + as Washington wrote, there was no meat at all in camp. Goaded by + hunger, a Connecticut regiment mutinied. They were brought back + to duty, but held out steadily for their pay, which they had not + received for five months. Indeed, the whole army was more or less + mutinous, and it was only by the utmost tact that Washington kept + them from wholesale desertion. After the summer had passed and + the chance for a decisive campaign had gone with it, the + excitement of expected action ceased to sustain the men, and the + unclothed, unpaid, unfed soldiers began again to get restive. We + can imagine what the condition of the rank and file must have + been when we find that Washington himself could not procure an + express from the quartermaster-general, and was obliged to send a + letter to the Minister of France by the unsafe and slow medium of + the post. He was expected to carry on a war against a rich and + powerful enemy, and he could not even pay a courier to carry his + dispatches.</p> + + <p>With the commander-in-chief thus straitened, the sufferings of + the men grew to be intolerable, and the spirit of revolt which + had been checked through the summer began again to appear. At + last, in January, 1781, it burst all the bounds. The Pennsylvania + line mutinied and threatened Congress. Attempts on the part of + the English to seduce them failed, but they remained in a state + of open rebellion. The officers were powerless, and it looked as + if the disaffection would spread, and the whole army go to pieces + in the very face of the enemy. Washington held firm, and intended + in his unshaken way to bring them back to their duty without + yielding in a dangerous fashion. But the government of + Pennsylvania, at last thoroughly frightened, rushed into the + field, and patched up a compromise which contained most perilous + concessions. The natural consequence was a fresh mutiny in the + New Jersey line, and this time Washington determined that he + would not be forestalled. He sent forward at once some regiments + of loyal troops, suppressed the mutiny suddenly and with a strong + hand, and hanged two of the ringleaders. The difficulty was + conquered, and discipline restored.</p> + + <p>To take this course required great boldness, for these + mutinies were of no ordinary character. In the first place, it + was impossible to tell whether any troops would do their duty + against their fellows, and failure would have been fatal. In the + second place, the grievances of the soldiers were very great, and + their complaints were entirely righteous. Washington felt the + profoundest sympathy with his men, and it was no easy matter to + maintain order with soldiers tried almost beyond endurance, + against their comrades whose claims were just. Two things saved + the army. One was Washington's great influence with the men and + their utter belief in him. The other was the quality of the men + themselves. Lafayette said they were the most patient and + patriotic soldiers the world had seen, and it is easy to believe + him. The wonder is, not that they mutinied when they did, but + that the whole army had not mutinied and abandoned the struggle + years before. The misfortunes and mistakes of the Revolution, to + whomever due, were in no respect to be charged to the army, and + the conduct of the troops through all the dreary months of + starvation and cold and poverty is a proof of the intelligent + patriotism and patient courage of the American soldier which can + never be gainsaid. To fight successful battles is the test of a + good general, but to hold together a suffering army through years + of unexampled privations, to meet endless failure of details with + unending expedients, and then to fight battles and plan + campaigns, shows a leader who was far more than a good general. + Such multiplied trials and difficulties are overcome only by a + great soldier who with small means achieves large results, and by + a great man who by force of will and character can establish with + all who follow him a power which no miseries can conquer, and no + suffering diminish.</p> + + <p>The height reached by the troubles in the army and their + menacing character had, however, a good as well as a bad side. + They penetrated the indifference and carelessness of both + Congress and the States. Gentlemen in the confederate and local + administrations and legislatures woke up to a realizing sense + that the dissolution of the army meant a general wreck, in which + their own necks would be in very considerable danger; and they + also had an uneasy feeling that starving and mutinous soldiers + were very uncertain in taking revenge. The condition of the army + gave a sudden and piercing reality to Washington's indignant + words to Mathews on October 4: "At a time when public harmony is + so essential, when we should aid and assist each other with all + our abilities, when our hearts should be open to information and + our hands ready to administer relief, to find distrusts and + jealousies taking possession of the mind and a party spirit + prevailing affords a most melancholy reflection, and forebodes no + good." The hoarse murmur of impending mutiny emphasized strongly + the words written on the same day to Duane: "The history of the + war is a history of false hopes and temporary expedients. Would + to God they were to end here."</p> + + <p>The events in the south, too, had a sobering effect. The + congressional general Gates had not proved a success. His defeat + at Camden had been terribly complete, and his flight had been too + rapid to inspire confidence in his capacity for recuperation. The + members of Congress were thus led to believe that as managers of + military matters they left much to be desired; and when + Washington, on October 11, addressed to them one of his long and + admirable letters on reorganization, it was received in a very + chastened spirit. They had listened to many such letters before, + and had benefited by them always a little, but danger and defeat + gave this one peculiar point. They therefore accepted the + situation, and adopted all the suggestions of the + commander-in-chief. They also in the same reasonable frame of + mind determined that Washington should select the next general + for the southern army. A good deal could have been saved had this + decision been reached before; but even now it was not too late. + October 14, Washington appointed Greene to this post of + difficulty and danger, and Greene's assumption of the command + marks the turning-point in the tide of disaster, and the + beginning of the ultimate expulsion of the British from the only + portion of the colonies where they had made a tolerable + campaign.</p> + + <p>The uses of adversity, moreover, did not stop here. They + extended to the States, which began to grow more vigorous in + action, and to show signs of appreciating the gravity of the + situation and the duties which rested upon them. This change and + improvement both in Congress and the States came none too soon. + Indeed, as it was, the results of their renewed efforts were too + slow to be felt at once by the army, and mutinies broke out even + after the new spirit had shown itself. Washington also sent Knox + to travel from State to State, to see the various governors, and + lay the situation of affairs before them; yet even with such a + text it was a difficult struggle to get the States to make quick + and strong exertions sufficient to prevent a partial mutiny from + becoming a general revolt. The lesson, however, had had its + effect. For the moment, at least, the cause was saved. The worst + defects were temporarily remedied, and something was done toward + supplies and subsistence. The army would be able to exist through + another winter, and face another summer. Then the next campaign + might bring the decisive moment; but still, who could tell? + Years, instead of months, might yet elapse before the end was + reached, and then no man could say what the result would be.</p> + + <p>Washington saw plainly enough that the relief and improvement + were only temporary, and that carelessness and indifference were + likely to return, and be more case-hardened than ever. He was too + strong and sane a man to waste time in fighting shadows or in + nourishing himself with hopes. He dealt with the present as he + found it, and fought down difficulties as they sprang up in his + path. But he was also a man of extraordinary prescience, with a + foresight as penetrating as it was judicious. It was, perhaps, + his most remarkable gift, and while he controlled the present he + studied the future. Outside of the operations of armies, and the + plans of campaign, he saw, as the war progressed, that the really + fatal perils were involved in the political system. At the + beginning of the Revolution there was no organization outside the + local state governments. Congress voted and resolved in favor of + anything that seemed proper, and the States responded to their + appeal. In the first flush of revolution, and the first + excitement of freedom, this was all very well. But as the early + passion cooled, and a long and stubborn struggle, replete with + sufferings and defeat, developed itself, the want of system began + to appear.</p> + + <p>One of the earliest tasks of Congress was the formation of + articles for a general government, but state jealousies, and the + delays incident to the movements of thirteen sovereignties, + prevented their adoption until the war was nearly over. + Washington, suffering from all the complicated troubles of + jarring States and general incoherence, longed for and urged the + adoption of the act of confederation. He saw sooner than any one + else, and with more painful intensity, the need of better union + and more energetic government. As the days and months of + difficulties and trials went by, the suggestions on this question + in his letters grew more frequent and more urgent, and they + showed the insight of the statesman and practical man of affairs. + How much he hoped from the final acceptance of the act of + confederation it is not easy to say, but he hoped for some + improvement certainly. When at last it went into force, he saw + almost at once that it would not do, and in the spring of 1780 he + knew it to be a miserable failure. The system which had been + established was really no better than that which had preceded it. + With alarm and disgust Washington found himself flung back on + what he called "the pernicious state system," and with worse + prospects than ever.</p> + + <p>Up to the time of the Revolution he had never given attention + to the philosophy or science of government, but when it fell to + his lot to fight the war for independence he perceived almost + immediately the need of a strong central government, and his + suggestions, scattered broadcast among his correspondents, + manifested a knowledge of the conditions of the political problem + possessed by no one else at that period. When he was satisfied of + the failure of the confederation, his efforts to improve the + existing administration multiplied, and he soon had the + assistance of his aide-de-camp, Alexander Hamilton, who then + wrote, although little more than a boy, his remarkable letters on + government and finance, which were the first full expositions of + the political necessities from which sprang the Constitution of + the United States. Washington was vigorous in action and + methodical in business, while the system of thirteen + sovereignties was discordant, disorderly, and feeble in + execution. He knew that the vices inherent in the confederation + were ineradicable and fatal, and he also knew that it was useless + to expect any comprehensive reforms until the war was over. The + problem before him was whether the existing machine could be made + to work until the British were finally driven from the country. + The winter of 1780-81 was marked, therefore, on his part, by an + urgent striving for union, and by unceasing efforts to mend and + improve the rickety system of the confederation. It was with this + view that he secured the dispatch of Laurens, whom he carefully + instructed, to get money in Paris; for he was satisfied that it + was only possible to tide over the financial difficulties by + foreign loans from those interested in our success. In the same + spirit he worked to bring about the establishment of executive + departments, which was finally accomplished, after delays that + sorely tried his patience. These two cases were but the most + important among many of similar character, for he was always at + work on these perplexing questions.</p> + + <p>It is an astonishing proof of the strength and power of his + mind that he was able to solve the daily questions of army + existence, to deal with the allies, to plan attacks on New York, + to watch and scheme for the southern department, to cope with + Arnold's treason, with mutiny, and with administrative + imbecility, and at the very same time consider the gravest + governmental problems, and send forth wise suggestions, which met + the exigencies of the moment, and laid the foundation of much + that afterwards appeared in the Constitution of the United + States. He was not a speculator on government, and after his + fashion he was engaged in dealing with the questions of the day + and hour. Yet the ideas that he put forth in this time of + confusion and conflict and expedients were so vitally sound and + wise that they deserve the most careful study in relation to + after events. The political trials and difficulties of this + period were the stern teachers from whom Washington acquired the + knowledge and experience which made him the principal agent in + bringing about the formation and adoption of the Constitution of + the United States. We shall have occasion to examine these + opinions and views more closely when they were afterwards brought + into actual play. At this point it is only necessary to trace the + history of the methods by which he solved the problem of the + Revolution before the political system of the confederation + became absolutely useless.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <h2><a name="X" id="X"></a> CHAPTER X</h2> + + <h2>YORKTOWN</h2> + + <p>The failure to accomplish anything in the north caused + Washington, as the year drew to a close, to turn his thoughts + once more toward a combined movement at the south. In pursuance + of this idea, he devised a scheme of uniting with the Spaniards + in the seizure of Florida, and of advancing thence through + Georgia to assail the English in the rear. De Rochambeau did not + approve the plan, and it was abandoned; but the idea of a + southern movement was still kept steadily in sight. The governing + thought now was, not to protect this place or that, but to cast + aside everything else in order to strike one great blow which + would finish the war. Where he could do this, time alone would + show, but if one follows the correspondence closely, it is + apparent that Washington's military instinct turned more and more + toward the south.</p> + + <p>In that department affairs changed their aspect rapidly. + January 17, Morgan won his brilliant victory at the Cowpens, + withdrew in good order with his prisoners, and united his army + with that of Greene. Cornwallis was terribly disappointed by this + unexpected reverse, but he determined to push on, defeat the + combined American army, and then join the British forces on the + Chesapeake. Greene was too weak to risk a battle, and made a + masterly retreat of two hundred miles before Cornwallis, escaping + across the Dan only twelve hours ahead of the enemy. The moment + the British moved away, Greene recrossed the river and hung upon + their rear. For a month he kept in their neighborhood, checking + the rising of the Tories, and declining battle. At last he + received reinforcements, felt strong enough to stand his ground, + and on March 15 the battle of Guilford Court House was fought. It + was a sharp and bloody fight; the British had the advantage, and + Greene abandoned the field, bringing off his army in good order. + Cornwallis, on his part, had suffered so heavily, however, that + his victory turned to ashes. On the 18th he was in full retreat, + with Greene in hot chase, and it was not until the 28th that he + succeeded in getting over the Deep River and escaping to + Wilmington. Thence he determined to push on and transfer the seat + of war to the Chesapeake. Greene, with the boldness and quickness + which showed him to be a soldier of a high order, now dropped the + pursuit and turned back to fight the British in detachments and + free the southern States. There is no need to follow him in the + brilliant operations which ensued, and by which he achieved this + result. It is sufficient to say here that he had altered the + whole aspect of the war, forced Cornwallis into Virginia within + reach of Washington, and begun the work of redeeming the + Carolinas.</p> + + <p>The troops which Cornwallis intended to join had been sent in + detachments to Virginia during the winter and spring. The first + body had arrived early in January under the command of Arnold, + and a general marauding and ravaging took place. A little later + General Phillips arrived with reinforcements and took command. On + May 13, General Phillips died, and a week later Cornwallis + appeared at Petersburg, assumed control, and sent Arnold back to + New York.</p> + + <p>Meantime Washington, though relieved by Morgan's and Greene's + admirable work, had a most trying and unhappy winter and spring. + He sent every man he could spare, and more than he ought to have + spared, to Greene, and he stripped himself still further when the + invasion of Virginia began. But for the most part he was obliged, + from lack of any naval strength, to stand helplessly by and see + more and more British troops sent to the south, and witness the + ravaging of his native State, without any ability to prevent it. + To these grave trials was added a small one, which stung him to + the quick. The British came up the Potomac, and Lund Washington, + in order to preserve Mount Vernon, gave them refreshments, and + treated them in a conciliatory manner. He meant well but acted + ill, and Washington wrote:—</p> + + <p>"It would have been a less painful circumstance to me to have + heard that, in consequence of your non-compliance with their + request, they had burnt my house and laid the plantation in + ruins. You ought to have considered yourself as my + representative, and should have reflected on the bad example of + communicating with the enemy, and making a voluntary offer of + refreshments to them, with a view to prevent a + conflagration."</p> + + <p>What a clear glimpse this little episode gives of the + earnestness of the man who wrote these lines. He could not bear + the thought that any favor should be shown him on any pretense. + He was ready to take his share of the marauding and pillaging + with the rest, but he was deeply indignant at the idea that any + one representing him should even appear to ask a favor of the + British.</p> + + <p>Altogether, the spring of 1781 was very trying, for there was + nothing so galling to Washington as to be unable to fight. He + wanted to get to the south, but he was bound hand and foot by + lack of force. Yet the obstacles did not daunt or depress him. He + wrote in June that he felt sure of bringing the war to a happy + conclusion, and in the division of the British forces he saw his + opportunity taking shape. Greene had the southern forces well in + hand. Cornwallis was equally removed from Clinton on the north + and Rawdon on the south, and had come within reach; so that if he + could but have naval strength he could fall upon Cornwallis with + superior force and crush him. In naval matters fortune thus far + had dealt hardly with him, yet he could not but feel that a + French fleet of sufficient force must soon come. He grasped the + situation with a master-hand, and began to prepare the way. Still + he kept his counsel strictly to himself, and set to work to + threaten, and if possible to attack, New York, not with much hope + of succeeding in any such attempt, but with a view of frightening + Clinton and of inducing him either to withdraw troops from + Virginia, or at least to withhold reinforcements. As he began his + Virginian campaign in this distant and remote fashion at the + mouth of the Hudson, he was cheered by news that De Grasse, the + French admiral, had sent recruits to Newport, and intended to + come himself to the American coast. He at once wrote De Grasse + not to determine absolutely to come to New York, hinting that it + might prove more advisable to operate to the southward. It + required great tact to keep the French fleet where he needed it, + and yet not reveal his intentions, and nothing showed + Washington's foresight more plainly than the manner in which he + made the moves in this campaign, when miles of space and weeks of + time separated him from the final object of his plans. To trace + this mastery of details, and the skill with which every point was + remembered and covered, would require a long and minute + narrative. They can only be indicated here sufficiently to show + how exactly each movement fitted in its place, and how all + together brought the great result.</p> + + <p>Fortified by the good news from De Grasse, Washington had an + interview with De Rochambeau, and effected a junction with the + French army. Thus strengthened, he opened his campaign against + Cornwallis by beginning a movement against Clinton. The troops + were massed above the city, and an effort was made to surprise + the upper posts and destroy Delancey's partisan corps. The + attempt, although well planned, failed of its immediate purpose, + giving Washington opportunity only for an effective + reconnoissance of the enemy's positions. But the move was + perfectly successful in its real and indirect object. Clinton was + alarmed. He began to write to Cornwallis that troops should be + returned to New York, and he gave up absolutely the idea of + sending more men to Virginia. Having thus convinced Clinton that + New York was menaced, Washington then set to work to familiarize + skillfully the minds of his allies and of Congress with the idea + of a southern campaign. With this end in view, he wrote on August + 2 that, if more troops arrived from Virginia, New York would be + impracticable, and that the next point was the south. The only + contingency, as he set forth, was the all-important one of + obtaining naval superiority. August 15 this essential condition + gave promise of fulfillment, for on that day definite news + arrived that De Grasse with his fleet was on his way to the + Chesapeake. Without a moment's hesitation, Washington began to + move, and at the same time he sent an urgent letter to the New + England governors, demanding troops with an earnestness which he + had never surpassed.</p> + + <p>In Virginia, meanwhile, during these long midsummer days, + while Washington was waiting and planning, Cornwallis had been + going up and down, harrying, burning, and plundering. His cavalry + had scattered the legislature, and driven Governor Jefferson in + headlong flight over the hills, while property to the value of + more than three millions had been destroyed. Lafayette, sent by + Washington to maintain the American cause, had been too weak to + act decisively, but he had been true to his general's teaching, + and, refusing battle, had hung upon the flanks of the British and + harassed and checked them. Joined by Wayne, he had fought an + unsuccessful engagement at Green Springs, but brought off his + army, and with steady pertinacity followed the enemy to the + coast, gathering strength as he moved. Now, when all was at last + ready, Washington began to draw his net about Cornwallis, whom he + had been keenly watching during the victorious marauding of the + summer. On the news of the coming of the French fleet, he wrote + to Lafayette to be prepared to join him when he reached Virginia, + to retain Wayne, who intended to join Greene, and to stop + Cornwallis at all hazards, if he attempted to go southward.</p> + + <p>Cornwallis, however, had no intention of moving. He had seen + the peril of his position, and had wished to withdraw to + Charleston; but the ministry, highly pleased with his + performances, wished him to remain on the Chesapeake, and + decisive orders came to him to take a permanent post in that + region. Clinton, moreover, was jealous of Cornwallis, and, + impressed and deceived by Washington's movements, he not only + sent no reinforcements, but detained three thousand Hessians, who + had lately arrived. Cornwallis, therefore, had no choice, and + with much writing for aid, and some protesting, he obeyed his + orders, planted himself at Yorktown and Gloucester, and proceeded + to fortify, while Lafayette kept close watch upon him. Cornwallis + was a good soldier and a clever man, suffering, as Burgoyne did, + from a stupid ministry and a dull and jealous commander-in-chief. + Thus hampered and burdened, he was ready to fall a victim to the + operations of a really great general, whom his official superiors + in England undervalued and despised.</p> + + <p>August 17, as soon as he had set his own machinery in motion, + Washington wrote to De Grasse to meet him in the Chesapeake. He + was working now more anxiously and earnestly than at any time in + the Revolution, not merely because he felt that success depended + on the blow, but because he descried a new and alarming danger. + He had perceived it in June, and the idea pursued him until all + was over, and kept recurring in his letters during this strained + and eager summer. To Washington's eyes, watching campaigns and + government at home and the politics of Europe abroad, the signs + of exhaustion, of mediation, and of coming peace across the + Atlantic were plainly visible. If peace should come as things + then were, America would get independence, and be shorn of many + of her most valuable possessions. The sprawling British campaign + of maraud and plunder, so bad in a military point of view, and + about to prove fatal to Cornwallis, would, in case of sudden + cessation of hostilities, be capable of the worst construction. + Time, therefore, had become of the last importance. The decisive + blow must be given at once, and before the slow political + movements could come to a head. On July 14, Washington had his + plan mapped out. He wrote in his diary:—</p> + + <p>"Matters having now come to a crisis, and a decided plan to be + determined on, I was obliged—from the shortness of Count De + Grasse's promised stay on this coast, the apparent disinclination + of their naval officers to force the harbor of New York, and the + feeble compliance of the States with my requisitions for men + hitherto, and the little prospect of greater exertions in + future—to give up all ideas of attacking New York, and + instead thereof to remove the French troops and a detachment from + the American army to the Head of Elk, to be transported to + Virginia for the purpose of coöperating with the force from + the West Indies against the troops in that State."</p> + + <p>Like most of Washington's plans, this one was clear-cut and + direct, and looks now simple enough, but at the moment it was + hedged with almost inconceivable difficulties at every step. The + ever-present and ever-growing obstacles at home were there as + usual. Appeals to Morris for money were met by the most + discouraging responses, and the States seemed more lethargic than + ever. Neither men nor supplies could be obtained; neither + transportation nor provision for the march could be promised. + Then, too, in addition to all this, came a wholly new set of + stumbling-blocks arising among the allies. Everything hinged on + the naval force. Washington needed it for a short time only; but + for that crucial moment he must have not only superiority but + supremacy at sea. Every French ship that could be reached must be + in the Chesapeake, and Washington had had too many French fleets + slip away from him at the last moment and bring everything to + naught to take any chances in this direction. To bring about his + naval supremacy required the utmost tact and good management, and + that he succeeded is one of the chief triumphs of the campaign. + In fact, at the very outset he was threatened in this quarter + with a serious defection. De Barras, with the squadron of the + American station, was at Boston, and it was essential that he + should be united with De Grasse at Yorktown. But De Barras was + nettled by the favoritism which had made De Grasse, his junior in + service, his superior in command. He determined therefore to take + advantage of his orders and sail away to the north to Nova Scotia + and Newfoundland, and leave De Grasse to fight it out alone. It + is a hard thing to beat an opposing army, but it is equally hard + to bring human jealousies and ambitions into the narrow path of + self-sacrifice and subordination. Alarmed beyond measure at the + suggested departure of the Boston squadron, Washington wrote a + letter, which De Rochambeau signed with him, urging De Barras to + turn his fleet toward the Chesapeake. It was a skillfully drawn + missive, an adroit mingling of appeals to honor and sympathy and + of vigorous demands to perform an obvious duty. The letter did + its work, the diplomacy of Washington was successful, and De + Barras suppressed his feelings of disappointment, and agreed to + go to the Chesapeake and serve under De Grasse.</p> + + <p>This point made, Washington pushed on his preparations, or + rather pushed on despite his lack of preparations, and on August + 17, as has been said, wrote to De Grasse to meet him in the + Chesapeake. He left the larger part of his own troops with Heath, + to whom in carefully drawn instructions he intrusted the grave + duty of guarding the Hudson and watching the British in New York. + This done, he gathered his forces together, and on August 21 the + army started on its march to the south. On the 23d and 24th it + crossed the Hudson, without annoyance from the British of any + kind. Washington had threatened New York so effectively, and + manoeuvred so successfully, that Clinton could not be shaken in + his belief that the real object of the Americans was his own + army; and it was not until September 6 that he fully realized + that his enemy was going to the south, and that Cornwallis was in + danger. He even then hesitated and delayed, but finally + dispatched Admiral Graves with the fleet to the Chesapeake. The + Admiral came upon the French early on September 5, the very day + that Washington was rejoicing in the news that De Grasse had + arrived in the Chesapeake and had landed St. Simon and three + thousand men to support Lafayette. As soon as the English fleet + appeared, the French, although many of their men were on shore, + sailed out and gave battle. An indecisive action ensued, in which + the British suffered so much that five days later they burned one + of their frigates and withdrew to New York. De Grasse returned to + his anchorage, to find that De Barras had come in from Newport + with eight ships and ten transports carrying ordnance.</p> + + <p>While everything was thus moving well toward the consummation + of the campaign, Washington, in the midst of his delicate and + important work of breaking camp and beginning his rapid march to + the south, was harassed by the ever-recurring difficulties of the + feeble and bankrupt government of the confederation. He wrote + again and again to Morris for money, and finally got some. His + demands for men and supplies remained almost unheeded, but + somehow he got provisions enough to start. He foresaw the most + pressing need, and sent messages in all directions for shipping + to transport his army down the Chesapeake. No one responded, but + still he gathered the transports; at first a few, then more, and + finally, after many delays, enough to move his army to Yorktown. + The spectacle of such a struggle, so heroically made, one would + think, might have inspired every soul on the continent with + enthusiasm; but at this very moment, while Washington was + breaking camp and marching southward, Congress was considering + the reduction of the army!—which was as appropriate as it + would have been for the English Parliament to have reduced the + navy on the eve of Trafalgar, or for Lincoln to have advised the + restoration of the army to a peace footing while Grant was + fighting in the Wilderness. The fact was that the Continental + Congress was weakened in ability and very tired in point of nerve + and will-power. They saw that peace was coming, and naturally + thought that the sooner they could get it the better. They + entirely failed to see, as Washington saw, that in a too sudden + peace lurked the danger of the <i>uti possidetis</i>, and that + the mere fact of peace by no means implied necessarily complete + success. They did not, of course, effect their reductions, but + they remained inert, and so for the most part did the state + governments, becoming drags upon the wheels of war instead of + helpers to the man who was driving the Revolution forward to its + goal. Both state and confederate governments still meant well, + but they were worn out and relaxed. Yet over and through all + these heavy masses of misapprehension and feebleness, Washington + made his way. Here again all that can be said is that somehow or + other the thing was done. We can take account of the resisting + forces, but we cannot tell just how they were dealt with. We only + know that one strong man trampled them down and got what he + wanted done.</p> + + <p>Pushing on after the joyful news of the arrival of De Grasse + had been received, Washington left the army to go by water from + the Head of Elk, and hurried to Mount Vernon, accompanied by De + Rochambeau. It was six years since he had seen his home. He had + left it a Virginian colonel, full of forebodings for his country, + with a vast and unknown problem awaiting solution at his hands. + He returned to it the first soldier of his day, after six years + of battle and trial, of victory and defeat, on the eve of the + last and crowning triumph. As he paused on the well-beloved spot, + and gazed across the broad and beautiful river at his feet, + thoughts and remembrances must have come thronging to his mind + which it is given to few men to know. He lingered there two days, + and then pressing on again, was in Williamsburg on the 14th, and + on the 17th went on board the Ville de Paris to congratulate De + Grasse on his victory, and to concert measures for the siege.</p> + + <p>The meeting was most agreeable. All had gone well, all + promised well, and everything was smiling and harmonious. Yet + they were on the eve of the greatest peril which occurred in the + campaign. Washington had managed to scrape together enough + transports; but his almost unassisted labors had taken time, and + delay had followed. Then the transports were slow, and winds and + tides were uncertain, and there was further delay. The interval + permitted De Grasse to hear that the British fleet had received + reinforcements, and to become nervous in consequence. He wanted + to get out to sea; the season was advancing, and he was anxious + to return to the West Indies; and above all he did not wish to + fight in the bay. He therefore proposed firmly and vigorously to + leave two ships in the river, and stand out to sea with his + fleet. The Yorktown campaign began to look as if it had reached + its conclusion. Once again Washington wrote one of his masterly + letters of expostulation and remonstrance, and once more he + prevailed, aided by the reasoning and appeals of Lafayette, who + carried the message. De Grasse consented to stay, and Washington, + grateful beyond measure, wrote him that "a great mind knows how + to make personal sacrifice to secure an important general good." + Under the circumstances, and in view of the general truth of this + complimentary sentiment, one cannot help rejoicing that De Grasse + had "a great mind."</p> + + <p>At all events he stayed, and thereafter everything went well. + The northern army landed at Williamsburg and marched for Yorktown + on the 28th. They reconnoitred the outlying works the next day, + and prepared for an immediate assault; but in the night + Cornwallis abandoned all his outside works and withdrew into the + town. Washington thereupon advanced at once, and prepared for the + siege. On the night of the 5th, the trenches were opened only six + hundred yards from the enemy's line, and in three days the first + parallel was completed. On the 11th the second parallel was + begun, and on the 14th the American batteries played on the two + advanced redoubts with such effect that the breaches were + pronounced practicable. Washington at once ordered an assault. + The smaller redoubt was stormed by the Americans under Hamilton + and taken in ten minutes. The other, larger and more strongly + garrisoned, was carried by the French with equal gallantry, after + half an hour's fighting. During the assault Washington stood in + an embrasure of the grand battery watching the advance of the + men. He was always given to exposing himself recklessly when + there was fighting to be done, but not when he was only an + observer. This night, however, he was much exposed to the enemy's + fire. One of his aides, anxious and disturbed for his safety, + told him that the place was perilous. "If you think so," was the + quiet answer, "you are at liberty to step back." The moment was + too exciting, too fraught with meaning, to think of peril. The + old fighting spirit of Braddock's field was unchained for the + last time. He would have liked to head the American assault, + sword in hand, and as he could not do that he stood as near his + troops as he could, utterly regardless of the bullets whistling + in the air about him. Who can wonder at his intense excitement at + that moment? Others saw a brilliant storming of two outworks, but + to Washington the whole Revolution, and all the labor and thought + and conflict of six years were culminating in the smoke and din + on those redoubts, while out of the dust and heat of the sharp + quick fight success was coming. He had waited long, and worked + hard, and his whole soul went out as he watched the troops cross + the abattis and scale the works. He could have no thought of + danger then, and when all was over he turned to Knox and said, + "The work is done, and well done. Bring me my horse."</p> + + <p>Washington was not mistaken. The work was indeed done. + Tarleton early in the siege had dashed out against Lauzun on the + other side of the river and been repulsed. Cornwallis had been + forced back steadily into the town, and his redoubts, as soon as + taken, were included in the second parallel. A sortie to retake + the redoubts failed, and a wild attempt to transport the army + across the river was stopped by a gale of wind. On the 17th + Cornwallis was compelled to face much bloody and useless + slaughter, or to surrender. He chose the latter course, and after + opening negotiations and trying in vain to obtain delay, finally + signed the capitulation and gave up the town. The next day the + troops marched out and laid down their arms. Over 7000 British + and Hessian troops surrendered. It was a crushing defeat. The + victorious army consisted in round numbers of 5500 continentals, + 3500 militia, and 7000 French, and they were backed by the French + fleet with entire control of the sea.</p> + + <p>When Washington had once reached Yorktown with his fleet and + army, the campaign was really at an end, for he held Cornwallis + in an iron grip from which there was no escape. The masterly part + of the Yorktown campaign lay in the manner in which it was + brought about, in the management of so many elements, and in the + rapidity of movement which carried an army without any proper + supplies or means of transportation from New York to the mouth of + Chesapeake Bay. The control of the sea had been the great + advantage of the British from the beginning, and had enabled them + to achieve all that they ever gained. With these odds against + him, with no possibility of obtaining a fleet of his own, + Washington saw that his only chance of bringing the war to a + quick and successful issue was by means of the French. It is + difficult to manage allied troops. It is still more difficult to + manage allied troops and an allied fleet. Washington did both + with infinite address, and won. The chief factor of his success + in this direction lay in his profound personal influence on all + men with whom he came in contact. His courtesy and tact were + perfect, but he made no concessions, and never stooped. The + proudest French noble who came here shrank from disagreement with + the American general, and yet not one of them had anything but + admiration and respect to express when they wrote of Washington + in their memoirs, diaries, and letters. He impressed them one and + all with a sense of power and greatness which could not be + disregarded. Many times he failed to get the French fleet in + coöperation, but finally it came. Then he put forth all his + influence and all his address, and thus he got De Barras to the + Chesapeake, and kept De Grasse at Yorktown.</p> + + <p>This was one side of the problem, the most essential because + everything hinged on the fleet, but by no means the most + harassing. The doubt about the control of the sea made it + impossible to work steadily for a sufficient time toward any one + end. It was necessary to have a plan for every contingency, and + be ready to adopt any one of several plans at short notice. With + a foresight and judgment that never failed, Washington planned an + attack on New York, another on Yorktown, and a third on + Charleston. The division of the British forces gave him his + opportunity of striking at one point with an overwhelming force, + but there was always the possibility of their suddenly reuniting. + In the extreme south he felt reasonably sure that Greene would + hold Rawdon, but he was obliged to deceive and amuse Clinton, and + at the same time, with a ridiculously inferior force, to keep + Cornwallis from marching to South Carolina. Partly by good + fortune, partly by skill, Cornwallis was kept in Virginia, while + by admirably managed feints and threats Clinton was held in New + York in inactivity. When the decisive moment came, and it was + evident that the control of the sea was to be determined in the + Chesapeake, Washington, overriding all sorts of obstacles, moved + forward, despite a bankrupt and inert government, with a rapidity + and daring which have been rarely equaled. It was a bold stroke + to leave Clinton behind at the mouth of the Hudson, and only the + quickness with which it was done, and the careful deception which + had been practiced, made it possible. Once at Yorktown, there was + little more to do. The combination was so perfect, and the + judgment had been so sure, that Cornwallis was crushed as + helplessly as if he had been thrown before the car of Juggernaut. + There was really but little fighting, for there was no + opportunity to fight. Washington held the British in a vice, and + the utter helplessness of Cornwallis, the entire inability of + such a good and gallant soldier even to struggle, are the most + convincing proofs of the military genius of his antagonist.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <h2><a name="XI" id="XI"></a> CHAPTER XI</h2> + + <h2>PEACE</h2> + + <p>Fortitude in misfortune is more common than composure in the + hour of victory. The bitter medicine of defeat, however + unpalatable, is usually extremely sobering, but the strong new + wine of success generally sets the heads of poor humanity + spinning, and leads often to worse results than folly. The + capture of Cornwallis was enough to have turned the strongest + head, for the moment at least, but it had no apparent effect upon + the man who had brought it to pass, and who, more than any one + else, knew what it meant. Unshaken and undismayed in the New + Jersey winter, and among the complicated miseries of Valley + Forge, Washington turned from the spectacle of a powerful British + army laying down their arms as coolly as if he had merely fought + a successful skirmish, or repelled a dangerous raid. He had that + rare gift, the attribute of the strongest minds, of leaving the + past to take care of itself. He never fretted over what could not + be undone, nor dallied among pleasant memories while aught still + remained to do. He wrote to Congress in words of quiet + congratulation, through which pierced the devout and solemn sense + of the great deed accomplished, and then, while the salvos of + artillery were still booming in his ears, and the shouts of + victory were still rising about him, he set himself, after his + fashion, to care for the future and provide for the immediate + completion of his work.</p> + + <p>He wrote to De Grasse, urging him to join in an immediate + movement against Charleston, such as he had already suggested, + and he presented in the strongest terms the opportunities now + offered for the sudden and complete ending of the struggle. But + the French admiral was by no means imbued with the tireless and + determined spirit of Washington. He had had his fill even of + victory, and was so eager to get back to the West Indies, where + he was to fall a victim to Rodney, that he would not even + transport troops to Wilmington. Thus deprived of the force which + alone made comprehensive and extended movements possible, + Washington returned, as he had done so often before, to making + the best of cramped circumstances and straitened means. He sent + all the troops he could spare to Greene, to help him in wresting + the southern States from the enemy, the work to which he had in + vain summoned De Grasse. This done, he prepared to go north. On + his way he was stopped at Eltham by the illness and death of his + wife's son, John Custis, a blow which he felt severely, and which + saddened the great victory he had just achieved. Still the + business of the State could not wait on private grief. He left + the house of mourning, and, pausing for an instant only at Mount + Vernon, hastened on to Philadelphia. At the very moment of + victory, and while honorable members were shaking each other's + hands and congratulating each other that the war was now really + over, the commander-in-chief had fallen again to writing them + letters in the old strain, and was once more urging them to keep + up the army, while he himself gave his personal attention to + securing a naval force for the ensuing year, through the medium + of Lafayette. Nothing was ever finished with Washington until it + was really complete throughout, and he had as little time for + rejoicing as he had for despondency or despair, while a British + force still remained in the country. He probably felt that this + was as untoward a time as he had ever met in a pretty large + experience of unsuitable occasions, for offering sound advice, + but he was not deterred thereby from doing it. This time, + however, he was destined to an agreeable disappointment, for on + his arrival at Philadelphia he found an excellent spirit + prevailing in Congress. That body was acting cheerfully on his + advice, it had filled the departments of the government, and set + on foot such measures as it could to keep up the army. So + Washington remained for some time at Philadelphia, helping and + counseling Congress in its work, and writing to the States + vigorous letters, demanding pay and clothing for the soldiers, + ever uppermost in his thoughts.</p> + + <p>But although Congress was compliant, Washington could not + convince the country of the justice of his views, and of the + continued need of energetic exertion. The steady relaxation of + tone, which the strain of a long and trying war had produced, was + accelerated by the brilliant victory of Yorktown. Washington for + his own part had but little trust in the sense or the knowledge + of his enemy. He felt that Yorktown was decisive, but he also + thought that Great Britain would still struggle on, and that her + talk of peace was very probably a mere blind, to enable her to + gain time, and, by taking advantage of our relaxed and feeble + condition, to strike again in hope of winning back all that had + been lost. He therefore continued his appeals in behalf of the + army, and reiterated everywhere the necessity for fresh and ample + preparations.</p> + + <p>As late as May 4 he wrote sharply to the States for men and + money, saying that the change of ministry was likely to be + adverse to peace, and that we were being lulled into a false and + fatal sense of security. A few days later, on receiving + information from Sir Guy Carleton of the address of the Commons + to the king for peace, Washington wrote to Congress: "For my own + part, I view our situation as such that, instead of relaxing, we + ought to improve the present moment as the most favorable to our + wishes. The British nation appear to me to be staggered, and + almost ready to sink beneath the accumulating weight of debt and + misfortune. If we follow the blow with vigor and energy, I think + the game is our own."</p> + + <p>Again he wrote in July: "Sir Guy Carleton is using every art + to soothe and lull our people into a state of security. Admiral + Digby is capturing all our vessels, and suffocating as fast as + possible in prison-ships all our seamen who will not enlist into + the service of his Britannic Majesty; and Haldimand, with his + savage allies, is scalping and burning on the frontiers." Facts + always were the object of Washington's first regard, and while + gentlemen on all sides were talking of peace, war was going on, + and he could not understand the supineness which would permit our + seamen to be suffocated, and our borderers scalped, because some + people thought the war ought to be and practically was over. + While the other side was fighting, he wished to be fighting too. + A month later he wrote to Greene: "From the former infatuation, + duplicity, and perverse system of British policy, I confess I am + induced to doubt everything, to suspect everything." He could say + heartily with the Trojan priest, "Quicquid id est timeo Danaos et + dona ferentes." Yet again, a month later still, when the + negotiations were really going forward in Paris, he wrote to + McHenry: "If we are wise, let us prepare for the worst. There is + nothing which will so soon produce a speedy and honorable peace + as a state of preparation for war; and we must either do this, or + lay our account to patch up an inglorious peace, after all the + toil, blood, and treasure we have spent."</p> + + <p>No man had done and given so much as Washington, and at the + same time no other man had his love of thoroughness, and his + indomitable fighting temper. He found few sympathizers, his words + fell upon deaf ears, and he was left to struggle on and maintain + his ground as best he might, without any substantial backing. As + it turned out, England was more severely wounded than he dared to + hope, and her desire for peace was real. But Washington's + distrust and the active policy which he urged were, in the + conditions of the moment, perfectly sound, both in a military and + a political point of view. It made no real difference, however, + whether he was right or wrong in his opinion. He could not get + what he wanted, and he was obliged to drag through another year, + fettered in his military movements, and oppressed with anxiety + for the future. He longed to drive the British from New York, and + was forced to content himself, as so often before, with keeping + his army in existence. It was a trying time, and fruitful in + nothing but anxious forebodings. All the fighting was confined to + skirmishes of outposts, and his days were consumed in vain + efforts to obtain help from the States, while he watched with + painful eagerness the current of events in Europe, down which the + fortunes of his country were feebly drifting.</p> + + <p>Among the petty incidents of the year there was one which, in + its effects, gained an international importance, which has left a + deep stain upon the English arms, and which touched Washington + deeply. Captain Huddy, an American officer, was captured in a + skirmish and carried to New York, where he was placed in + confinement. Thence he was taken on April 12 by a party of Tories + in the British service, commanded by Captain Lippencott, and + hanged in the broad light of day on the heights near Middletown. + Testimony and affidavits to the fact, which was never questioned, + were duly gathered and laid before Washington. The deed was one + of wanton barbarity, for which it would be difficult to find a + parallel in the annals of modern warfare. The authors of this + brutal murder, to our shame be it said, were of American birth, + but they were fighting for the crown and wore the British + uniform. England, which for generations has deafened the world + with paeans of praise for her own love of fair play and for her + generous humanity, stepped in here and threw the mantle of her + protection over these cowardly hangmen. It has not been uncommon + for wild North American savages to deliver up criminals to the + vengeance of the law, but English ministers and officers condoned + the murder of Huddy, and sheltered his murderers.</p> + + <p>When the case was laid before Washington it stirred him to the + deepest wrath. He submitted the facts to twenty-five of his + general officers, who unanimously advised what he was himself + determined upon, instant retaliation. He wrote at once to Sir Guy + Carleton, and informed him that unless the murderers were given + up he should be compelled to retaliate. Carleton replied that a + court-martial was ordered, and some attempt was made to + recriminate; but Washington pressed on in the path he had marked + out, and had an English officer selected by lot and held in close + confinement to await the action of the enemy. These sharp + measures brought the British, as nothing else could have done, to + some sense of the enormity of the crime that had been committed. + Sir Guy Carleton wrote in remonstrance, and Washington replied: + "Ever since the commencement of this unnatural war my conduct has + borne invariable testimony against those inhuman excesses, which, + in too many instances, have marked its progress. With respect to + a late transaction, to which I presume your excellency alludes, I + have already expressed my resolution, a resolution formed on the + most mature deliberation, and from which I shall not recede." The + affair dragged along, purposely protracted by the British, and + the court-martial on a technical point acquitted Lippencott. Sir + Guy Carleton, however, who really was deeply indignant at the + outrage, wrote, expressing his abhorrence, disavowed Lippencott, + and promised a further inquiry. This placed Washington in a very + trying position, more especially as his humanity was touched by + the situation of the unlucky hostage. The fatal lot had fallen + upon a mere boy, Captain Asgill, who was both amiable and + popular, and Washington was beset with appeals in his behalf, for + Lady Asgill moved heaven and earth to save her son. She + interested the French court, and Vergennes made a special request + that Asgill should be released. Even Washington's own officers, + notably Hamilton, sought to influence him, and begged him to + recede. In these difficult circumstances, which were enhanced by + the fact that contrary to his orders to select an unconditional + prisoner, the lot had fallen on a Yorktown prisoner protected by + the terms of the capitulation,<a id="footnotetag1-16" name= + "footnotetag1-16"></a><a href="#footnote1-16"><sup>1</sup></a> he + hesitated, and asked instructions from Congress. He wrote to + Duane in September: "While retaliation was apparently necessary, + however disagreeable in itself, I had no repugnance to the + measure. But when the end proposed by it is answered by a + disavowal of the act, by a dissolution of the board of refugees, + and by a promise (whether with or without meaning to comply with + it, I shall not determine) that further inquisition should be + made into the matter, I thought it incumbent upon me, before I + proceeded any farther in the matter, to have the sense of + Congress, who had most explicitly approved and impliedly indeed + ordered retaliation to take place. To this hour I am held in + darkness."</p> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote1-16" name="footnote1-16"></a>[<b>Footnote + 1:</b> <a href="#footnotetag1-16">(return)</a> MS, letter to + Lincoln.] + </blockquote> + + <p>He did not long remain in doubt. The fact was that the public, + as is commonly the case, had forgotten the original crime and saw + only the misery of the man who was to pay the just penalty, and + who was, in this instance, an innocent and vicarious sufferer. It + was difficult to refuse Vergennes, and Congress, glad of the + excuse and anxious to oblige their allies, ordered the release of + Asgill. That Washington, touched by the unhappy condition of his + prisoner, did not feel relieved by the result, it would be absurd + to suppose. But he was by no means satisfied, for the murderous + wrong that had been done rankled in his breast. He wrote to + Vergennes: "Captain Asgill has been released, and is at perfect + liberty to return to the arms of an affectionate parent, whose + pathetic address to your Excellency could not fail of interesting + every feeling heart in her behalf. I have no right to assume any + particular merit from the lenient manner in which this + disagreeable affair has terminated."</p> + + <p>There is a perfect honesty about this which is very wholesome. + He had been freely charged with cruelty, and had regarded the + accusation with indifference. Now, when it was easy for him to + have taken the glory of mercy by simply keeping silent, he took + pains to avow that the leniency was not due to him. He was not + satisfied, and no one should believe that he was, even if the + admission seemed to justify the charge of cruelty. If he erred at + all it was in not executing some British officer at the very + start, unless Lippencott had been given up within a limited time. + As it was, after delay was once permitted, it is hard to see how + he could have acted otherwise than he did, but Washington was not + in the habit of receding from a fixed purpose, and being obliged + to do so in this case troubled him, for he knew that he did well + to be angry. But the frankness of the avowal to Vergennes is a + good example of his entire honesty and absolute moral + fearlessness.</p> + + <p>The matter, however, which most filled his heart and mind + during these weary days of waiting and doubt was the condition + and the future of his soldiers. To those persons who have + suspected or suggested that Washington was cold-blooded and + unmindful of others, the letters he wrote in regard to the + soldiers may be commended. The man whose heart was wrung by the + sufferings of the poor people on the Virginian frontier, in the + days of the old French war, never in fact changed his nature. + Fierce in fight, passionate and hot when his anger was stirred, + his love and sympathy were keen and strong toward his army. His + heart went out to the brave men who had followed him, loved him, + and never swerved in their loyalty to him and to their country. + Washington's affection for his men, and their devotion to him, + had saved the cause of American independence more often than + strategy or daring. Now, when the war was practically over, his + influence with both officers and soldiers was destined to be put + to its severest tests.</p> + + <p>The people of the American colonies were self-governing in the + extremest sense, that is, they were accustomed to very little + government interference of any sort. They were also poor and + entirely unused to war. Suddenly they found themselves plunged + into a bitter and protracted conflict with the most powerful of + civilized nations. In the first flush of excitement, patriotic + enthusiasm supplied many defects; but as time wore on, and year + after year passed, and the whole social and political fabric was + shaken, the moral tone of the people relaxed. In such a struggle, + coming upon an unprepared people of the habits and in the + circumstances of the colonists, this relaxation was inevitable. + It was likewise inevitable that, as the war continued, there + should be in both national and state governments, and in all + directions, many shortcomings and many lamentable errors. But for + the treatment accorded the army, no such excuse can be made, and + no sufficient explanation can be offered. There was throughout + the colonies an inborn and a carefully cultivated dread of + standing armies and military power. But this very natural feeling + was turned most unreasonably against our own army, and carried in + that direction to the verge of insanity. This jealousy of + military power indeed pursued Washington from the beginning to + the end of the Revolution. It cropped out as soon as he was + appointed, and came up in one form or another whenever he was + obliged to take strong measures. Even at the very end, after he + had borne the cause through to triumph, Congress was driven + almost to frenzy because Vergennes proposed to commit the + disposition of a French subsidy to the commander-in-chief.</p> + + <p>If this feeling could show itself toward Washington, it is + easy to imagine that it was not restrained toward his officers + and men, and the treatment of the soldiers by Congress and by the + States was not only ungrateful to the last degree, but was + utterly unpardonable. Again and again the menace of immediate + ruin and the stern demands of Washington alone extorted the most + grudging concessions, and saved the army from dissolution. The + soldiers had every reason to think that nothing but personal fear + could obtain the barest consideration from the civil power. In + this frame of mind, they saw the war which they had fought and + won drawing to a close with no prospect of either provision or + reward for them, and every indication that they would be + disbanded when they were no longer needed, and left in many cases + to beggary and want. In the inaction consequent upon the victory + at Yorktown, they had ample time to reflect upon these facts, and + their reflections were of such a nature that the situation soon + became dangerous. Washington, who had struggled in season and out + of season for justice to the soldiers, labored more zealously + than ever during all this period, aided vigorously by Hamilton, + who was now in Congress. Still nothing was done, and in October, + 1782, he wrote to the Secretary of War in words warm with + indignant feeling: "While I premise that no one I have seen or + heard of appears opposed to the principle of reducing the army as + circumstances may require, yet I cannot help fearing the result + of the measure in contemplation, under present circumstances, + when I see such a number of men, goaded by a thousand stings of + reflection on the past and of anticipation on the future, about + to be turned into the world, soured by penury and what they call + the ingratitude of the public, involved in debts, without one + farthing of money to carry them home after having spent the + flower of their days, and many of them their patrimonies, in + establishing the freedom and independence of their country, and + suffered everything that human nature is capable of enduring on + this side of death.... You may rely upon it, the patriotism and + long-suffering of this army are almost exhausted, and that there + never was so great a spirit of discontent as at this instant. + While in the field I think it may be kept from breaking into acts + of outrage; but when we retire into winter-quarters, unless the + storm is previously dissipated, I cannot be at ease respecting + the consequences. It is high time for a peace."</p> + + <p>These were grave words, coming from such a man as Washington, + but they passed unheeded. Congress and the States went blandly + along as if everything was all right, and as if the army had no + grievances. But the soldiers thought differently. + "Dissatisfactions rose to a great and alarming height, and + combinations among officers to resign at given periods in a body + were beginning to take place." The outlook was so threatening + that Washington, who had intended to go to Mount Vernon, remained + in camp, and by management and tact thwarted these combinations + and converted these dangerous movements into an address to + Congress from the officers, asking for half-pay, arrearages, and + some other equally proper concessions. Still Congress did not + stir. Some indefinite resolutions were passed, but nothing was + done as to the commutation of half-pay into a fixed sum, and + after such a display of indifference the dissatisfaction + increased rapidly, and the army became more and more restless. In + March a call was issued for a meeting of officers, and an + anonymous address, written with much skill,—the work, as + afterwards appeared, of Major John Armstrong,—was published + at the same time. The address was well calculated to inflame the + passions of the troops; it advised a resort to force, and was + scattered broadcast through the camp. The army was now in a + ferment, and the situation was full of peril. A weak man would + have held his peace; a rash one would have tried to suppress the + meeting. Washington did neither, but quietly took control of the + whole movement himself. In general orders he censured the call + and the address as irregular, and then appointed a time and place + for the meeting. Another anonymous address thereupon appeared, + quieter in tone, but congratulating the army on the recognition + accorded by the commander-in-chief.</p> + + <p>When the officers assembled, Washington arose with a + manuscript in his hand, and as he took out his glasses said, + simply, "You see, gentlemen, I have grown both blind and gray in + your service." His address was brief, calm, and strong. The + clear, vigorous sentences were charged with meaning and with deep + feeling. He exhorted them one and all, both officers and men, to + remain loyal and obedient, true to their glorious past and to + their country. He appealed to their patriotism, and promised them + that which they had always had, his own earnest support in + obtaining justice from Congress. When he had finished he quietly + withdrew. The officers were deeply moved by his words, and his + influence prevailed. Resolutions were passed, reiterating the + demands of the army, but professing entire faith in the + government. This time Congress listened, and the measures + granting half-pay in commutation and certain other requests were + passed. Thus this very serious danger was averted, not by the + reluctant action of Congress, but by the wisdom and strength of + the general, who was loved by his soldiers after a fashion that + few conquerors could boast.</p> + + <p>Underlying all these general discontents, there was, besides, + a well-defined movement, which saw a solution of all difficulties + and a redress of all wrongs in a radical change of the form of + government, and in the elevation of Washington to supreme power. + This party was satisfied that the existing system was a failure, + and that it was not and could not be made either strong, honest, + or respectable. The obvious relief was in some kind of monarchy, + with a large infusion of the one-man power; and it followed, as a + matter of course, that the one man could be no other than the + commander-in-chief. In May, 1782, when the feeling in the army + had risen very high, this party of reform brought their ideas + before Washington through an old and respected friend of his, + Colonel Nicola. The colonel set forth very clearly the failure + and shortcomings of the existing government, argued in favor of + the substitution of something much stronger, and wound up by + hinting very plainly that his correspondent was the man for the + crisis and the proper savior of society. The letter was forcible + and well written, and Colonel Nicola was a man of character and + standing. It could not be passed over lightly or in silence, and + Washington replied as follows:—</p> + + <p>"With a mixture of surprise and astonishment, I have read with + attention the sentiments you have submitted to my perusal. Be + assured, sir, no occurrence in the course of the war has given me + more painful sensations than your information of there being such + ideas existing in the army as you have expressed, and [which] I + must view with abhorrence and reprehend with severity. For the + present, the communication of them will rest in my own bosom, + unless some further agitation of the matter shall make a + disclosure necessary. I am much at a loss to conceive what part + of my conduct could have given encouragement to an address which + seems to me big with the greatest mischiefs that can befall my + country. If I am not deceived in the knowledge of myself, you + could not have found a person to whom your schemes are more + disagreeable. At the same time, in justice to my own feelings, I + must add that no man possesses a more sincere wish to see justice + done to the army than I do; and as far as my power and influence + in a constitutional way extend, they shall be employed to the + utmost of my abilities to effect it, should there be any + occasion. Let me conjure you, then, if you have any regard for + your country, concern for yourself or posterity, or respect for + me, to banish these thoughts from your mind, and never + communicate, as from yourself or any one else, a sentiment of the + like nature."</p> + + <p>This simple but exceedingly plain letter checked the whole + movement at once; but the feeling of hostility to the existing + system of government and of confidence in Washington increased + steadily through the summer and winter. When the next spring had + come round, and the "Newburgh addresses" had been published, the + excitement was at fever heat. All the army needed was a leader. + It was as easy for Washington to have grasped supreme power then, + as it would have been for Cæsar to have taken the crown + from Antony upon the Lupercal. He repelled Nicola's suggestion + with quiet reproof, and took the actual movement, when it reared + its head, into his own hands and turned it into other channels. + This incident has been passed over altogether too carelessly by + historians and biographers. It has generally been used merely to + show the general nobility of Washington's sentiments, and no + proper stress has been laid upon the facts of the time which gave + birth to such an idea and such a proposition. It would have been + a perfectly feasible thing at that particular moment to have + altered the frame of government and placed the successful soldier + in possession of supreme power. The notion of kingly government + was, of course, entirely familiar to everybody, and had in itself + nothing repulsive. The confederation was disintegrated, the + States were demoralized, and the whole social and political life + was weakened. The army was the one coherent, active, and + thoroughly organized body in the country. Six years of war had + turned them from militia into seasoned veterans, and they stood + armed and angry, ready to respond to the call of the great leader + to whom they were entirely devoted. When the English troops were + once withdrawn, there was nothing on the continent that could + have stood against them. If they had moved, they would have been + everywhere supported by their old comrades who had returned to + the ranks of civil life, by all the large class who wanted peace + and order in the quickest and surest way, and by the timid and + tired generally. There would have been in fact no serious + opposition, probably because there would have been no means of + sustaining it.</p> + + <p>The absolute feebleness of the general government was shown a + few weeks later, when a recently recruited regiment of + Pennsylvania troops mutinied, and obliged Congress to leave + Philadelphia, unable either to defend themselves or procure + defense from the State. This mutiny was put down suddenly and + effectively by Washington, very wroth at the insubordination of + raw troops, who had neither fought nor suffered. Yet even such + mutineers as these would have succeeded in a large measure, had + it not been for Washington, and one can easily imagine from this + incident the result of disciplined and well-planned action on the + part of the army led by their great chief. In that hour of + debility and relaxation, a military seizure of the government and + the erection of some form of monarchy would not have been + difficult. Whether such a change would have lasted is another + question, but there is no reason to doubt that at the moment it + might have been effected. Washington, however, not only refused + to have anything to do with the scheme, but he used the personal + loyalty which might have raised him to supreme power to check all + dangerous movements and put in motion the splendid and unselfish + patriotism for which the army was conspicuous, and which underlay + all their irritations and discontents.</p> + + <p>The obvious view of Washington's action in this crisis as a + remarkable exhibition of patriotism is at best somewhat + superficial. In a man in any way less great, the letter of + refusal to Nicola and the treatment of the opportunity presented + at the time of the Newburgh addresses would have been fine in a + high degree. In Washington they were not so extraordinary, for + the situation offered him no temptation. Carlyle was led to think + slightingly of Washington, one may believe, because he did not + seize the tottering government with a strong hand, and bring + order out of chaos on the instant. But this is a woeful + misunderstanding of the man. To put aside a crown for love of + country is noble, but to look down upon such an opportunity + indicates a much greater loftiness and strength of mind. + Washington was wholly free from the vulgar ambition of the + usurper, and the desire of mere personal aggrandizement found no + place in his nature. His ruling passion was the passion for + success, and for thorough and complete success. What he could not + bear was the least shadow of failure. To have fought such a war + to a victorious finish, and then turned it to his own advantage, + would have been to him failure of the meanest kind. He fought to + free the colonies from England, and make them independent, not to + play the part of a Cæsar or a Cromwell in the wreck and + confusion of civil war. He flung aside the suggestion of supreme + power, not simply as dishonorable and unpatriotic, but because + such a result would have defeated the one great and noble object + at which he aimed. Nor did he act in this way through any + indolent shrinking from the great task of making what he had won + worth winning, by crushing the forces of anarchy and separation, + and bringing order and unity out of confusion. From the surrender + of Yorktown to the day of his retirement from the Presidency, he + worked unceasingly to establish union and strong government in + the country he had made independent. He accomplished this great + labor more successfully by honest and lawful methods than if he + had taken the path of the strong-handed savior of society, and + his work in this field did more for the welfare of his country + than all his battles. To have restored order at the head of the + army was much easier than to effect it in the slow and + law-abiding fashion which he adopted. To have refused supreme + rule, and then to have effected in the spirit and under the forms + of free government all and more than the most brilliant of + military chiefs could have achieved by absolute power, is a glory + which belongs to Washington alone.</p> + + <p>Nevertheless, at that particular juncture it was, as he + himself had said, "high time for a peace." The danger at Newburgh + had been averted by his commanding influence and the patriotic + conduct of the army. But it had been averted only, not removed. + The snake was scotched, not killed. The finishing stroke was + still needed in the form of an end to hostilities, and it was + therefore fortunate for the United States that a fortnight later, + on March 23, news came that a general treaty of peace had been + signed. This final consummation of his work, in addition to the + passage by Congress of the half-pay commutation and the + settlement of the army accounts, filled Washington with deep + rejoicing. He felt that in a short time, a few weeks at most, he + would be free to withdraw to the quiet life at Mount Vernon for + which he longed. But public bodies move slowly, and one delay + after another occurred to keep him still in the harness. He + chafed under the postponement, but it was not possible to him to + remain idle even when he awaited in almost daily expectation the + hour of dismissal. He saw with the instinctive glance of + statesmanship that the dangerous point in the treaty of peace was + in the provisions as to the western posts on the one side, and + those relating to British debts on the other. A month therefore + had not passed before he brought to the attention of Congress the + importance of getting immediate possession of those posts, and a + little later he succeeded in having Steuben sent out as a special + envoy to obtain their surrender. The mission was vain, as he had + feared. He was not destined to extract this thorn for many years, + and then only after many trials and troubles. Soon afterward he + made a journey with Governor Clinton to Ticonderoga, and along + the valley of the Mohawk, "to wear away the time," as he wrote to + Congress. He wore away time to more purpose than most people, for + where he traveled he observed closely, and his observations were + lessons which he never forgot. On this trip he had the western + posts and the Indians always in mind, and familiarized himself + with the conditions of a part of the country where these matters + were of great importance.</p> + + <p>On his return he went to Princeton, where Congress had been + sitting since their flight from the mutiny which he had recently + suppressed, and where a house had been provided for his use. He + remained there two months, aiding Congress in their work. During + the spring he had been engaged on the matter of a peace + establishment, and he now gave Congress elaborate and + well-matured advice on that question, and on those of public + lands, western settlement, and the best Indian policy. In all + these directions his views were clear, far-sighted, and wise. He + saw that in these questions was involved much of the future + development and wellbeing of the country, and he treated them + with a precision and an easy mastery which showed the thought he + had given to the new problems which now were coming to the front. + Unluckily, he was so far ahead, both in knowledge and perception, + of the body with which he dealt, that he could get little or + nothing done, and in September he wrote in plain but guarded + terms of the incapacity of the lawmakers. The people were not yet + ripe for his measures, and he was forced to bide his time, and + see the injuries caused by indifference and short-sightedness + work themselves out. Gradually, however, the absolutely necessary + business was brought to an end. Then Washington issued a circular + letter to the governors of the States, which was one of the + ablest he ever wrote, and full of the profoundest statesmanship, + and he also sent out a touching address of farewell to the army, + eloquent with wisdom and with patriotism.</p> + + <p>From Princeton he went to West Point, where the army that + still remained in service was stationed. Thence he moved to + Harlem, and on November 25 the British army departed, and + Washington, with his troops, accompanied by Governor Clinton and + some regiments of local militia, marched in and took possession. + This was the outward sign that the war was over, and that + American independence had been won. Carleton feared that the + entry of the American army might be the signal for confusion and + violence, in which the Tory inhabitants would suffer; but + everything passed off with perfect tranquillity and good order, + and in the evening Governor Clinton gave a public dinner to the + commander-in-chief and the officers of the army.</p> + + <p>All was now over, and Washington prepared to go to Annapolis + and lay down his commission. On December 4 his officers assembled + in Fraunces' Tavern to bid him farewell. As he looked about on + his faithful friends, his usual self-command deserted him, and he + could not control his voice. Taking a glass of wine, he lifted it + up, and said simply, "With a heart full of love and gratitude I + now take my leave of you, most devoutly wishing that your latter + days may be as prosperous and happy as your former ones have been + glorious and honorable." The toast was drunk in silence, and then + Washington added, "I cannot come to each of you and take my + leave, but shall be obliged if you will come and take me by the + hand." One by one they approached, and Washington grasped the + hand of each man and embraced him. His eyes were full of tears, + and he could not trust himself to speak. In silence he bade each + and all farewell, and then, accompanied by his officers, walked + to Whitehall Ferry. Entering his barge, the word was given, and + as the oars struck the water he stood up and lifted his hat. In + solemn silence his officers returned the salute, and watched the + noble and gracious figure of their beloved chief until the boat + disappeared from sight behind the point of the Battery.</p> + + <p>At Philadelphia he stopped a few days and adjusted his + accounts, which he had in characteristic fashion kept himself in + the neatest and most methodical way. He had drawn no pay, and had + expended considerable sums from his private fortune, which he had + omitted to charge to the government. The gross amount of his + expenses was about 15,000 pounds sterling, including secret + service and other incidental outlays. In these days of wild + money-hunting, there is something worth pondering in this simple + business settlement between a great general and his government, + at the close of eight years of war. This done, he started again + on his journey. From Philadelphia he proceeded to Annapolis, + greeted with addresses and hailed with shouts at every town and + village on his route, and having reached his destination, he + addressed a letter to Congress on December 20, asking when it + would be agreeable to them to receive him. The 23d was appointed, + and on that day, at noon, he appeared before Congress.</p> + + <p>The following year a French orator and "maître avocat," + in an oration delivered at Toulouse upon the American Revolution, + described this scene in these words: "On the day when Washington + resigned his commission in the hall of Congress, a crown decked + with jewels was placed upon the Book of the Constitutions. + Suddenly Washington seizes it, breaks it, and flings the pieces + to the assembled people. How small ambitious Cæsar seems + beside the hero of America." It is worth while to recall this + contemporary French description, because its theatrical and + dramatic untruth gives such point by contrast to the plain and + dignified reality. The scene was the hall of Congress. The + members representing the sovereign power were seated and covered, + while all the space about was filled by the governor and state + officers of Maryland, by military officers, and by the ladies and + gentlemen of the neighborhood, who stood in respectful silence + with uncovered heads. Washington was introduced by the Secretary + of Congress, and took a chair which had been assigned to him. + There was a brief pause, and then the president said that "the + United States in Congress assembled were prepared to receive his + communication." Washington rose, and replied as + follows:—</p> + + <p>"Mr. President: The great events, on which my resignation + depended, having at length taken place, I have now the honor of + offering my sincere congratulations to Congress, and of + presenting myself before them, to surrender into their hands the + trust committed to me, and to claim the indulgence of retiring + from the service of my country.</p> + + <p>"Happy in the confirmation of our independence and + sovereignty, and pleased with the opportunity afforded the United + States of becoming a respectable nation, I resign with + satisfaction the appointment I accepted with diffidence; a + diffidence in my abilities to accomplish so arduous a task, + which, however, was superseded by a confidence in the rectitude + of our cause, the support of the supreme power of the Union, and + the patronage of Heaven. The successful termination of the war + has verified the most sanguine expectations; and my gratitude for + the interposition of Providence, and the assistance I have + received from my countrymen, increases with every review of the + momentous contest." Then, after a word of gratitude to the army + and to his staff, he concluded as follows: "I consider it an + indispensable duty to close this last solemn act of my official + life by commending the interests of our dearest country to the + protection of Almighty God, and those who have the + superintendence of them to his holy keeping.</p> + + <p>"Having now finished the work assigned me, I retire from the + great theatre of action; and bidding an affectionate farewell to + this august body, under whose orders I have so long acted, I here + offer my commission, and take my leave of all the employments of + public life."</p> + + <p>In singularly graceful and eloquent words his old opponent, + Thomas Mifflin, the president, replied, the simple ceremony + ended, and Washington left the room a private citizen.</p> + + <p>The great master of English fiction, touching this scene with + skillful hand, has said: "Which was the most splendid spectacle + ever witnessed, the opening feast of Prince George in London, or + the resignation of Washington? Which is the noble character for + after ages to admire,—yon fribble dancing in lace and + spangles, or yonder hero who sheathes his sword after a life of + spotless honor, a purity unreproached, a courage indomitable, and + a consummate victory?"</p> + + <p>There is no need to say more. Comment or criticism on such a + farewell, from such a man, at the close of a long civil war, + would be not only superfluous but impertinent. The contemporary + newspaper, in its meagre account, said that the occasion was + deeply solemn and affecting, and that many persons shed tears. + Well indeed might those then present have been thus affected, for + they had witnessed a scene memorable forever in the annals of all + that is best and noblest in human nature. They had listened to a + speech which was not equaled in meaning and spirit in American + history until, eighty years later, Abraham Lincoln stood upon the + slopes of Gettysburg and uttered his immortal words upon those + who died that the country might live.</p> + + <p> </p> + <hr /> + + <h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX for Volumes I & + II</h2> + + <div class="index"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">ACKERSON, DAVID,</p> + + <p class="i4">describes Washington's personal appearance, ii. + 386-388.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Adams, Abigail,</p> + + <p class="i4">on Washington's appearance in 1775, i. 137.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Adams, John,</p> + + <p class="i4">moves appointment of Washington as + commander-in-chief, i. 134;</p> + + <p class="i4">on political necessity for his appointment, + 135;</p> + + <p class="i4">and objections to it, 135;</p> + + <p class="i4">statement as to Washington's difficulties, + 163;</p> + + <p class="i4">over-sanguine as to American prospects, + 171;</p> + + <p class="i4">finds fault with Washington, 214, 215;</p> + + <p class="i4">one of few national statesmen, 252;</p> + + <p class="i4">on Washington's opinion of titles, ii. 52;</p> + + <p class="i4">advocates ceremony, 54;</p> + + <p class="i4">returns to United States, 137;</p> + + <p class="i4">attacked by Jefferson as a monarchist, 226;</p> + + <p class="i4">praised by Democrats as superior to Washington, + 251;</p> + + <p class="i4">his administration upheld by Washington, + 259;</p> + + <p class="i4">advised by Washington, 260;</p> + + <p class="i4">his inauguration, 276;</p> + + <p class="i4">sends special mission to France, 284;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges Washington to take command of provisional + army, 285;</p> + + <p class="i4">wishes to make Knox senior to Hamilton, + 286;</p> + + <p class="i4">censured by Washington, gives way, 287;</p> + + <p class="i4">lack of sympathy with Washington, 287;</p> + + <p class="i4">his nomination of Murray disapproved by + Washington, 292, 293;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, on immigration, + 326.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Adams, J.Q.,</p> + + <p class="i4">on weights and measures, ii. 81.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Adams, Samuel,</p> + + <p class="i4">not sympathized with by Washington in working + for independence, i. 131;</p> + + <p class="i4">his inability to sympathize with Washington, + 204;</p> + + <p class="i4">an enemy of Constitution, ii. 71;</p> + + <p class="i4">a genuine American, 309.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Alcudia, Duke de,</p> + + <p class="i4">interviews with Pinckney, ii. 166.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Alexander, Philip,</p> + + <p class="i4">hunts with Washington, i. 115.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Alien and Sedition Laws,</p> + + <p class="i4">approved by Washington and Federalists, ii. + 290, 297.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Ames, Fisher,</p> + + <p class="i4">speech on behalf of administration in Jay + treaty affair, ii. 210.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">André, Major,</p> + + <p class="i4">meets Arnold, i. 282;</p> + + <p class="i4">announces capture to Arnold, 284;</p> + + <p class="i4">confesses, 284;</p> + + <p class="i4">condemned and executed, 287;</p> + + <p class="i4">justice of the sentence, 287, 288;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's opinion of, 288, ii. 357.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Armstrong, John, Major,</p> + + <p class="i4">writes Newburg address, i. 335.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Army of the Revolution,</p> + + <p class="i4">at Boston, adopted by Congress, i. 134;</p> + + <p class="i4">its organization and character, 136-143;</p> + + <p class="i4">sectional jealousies in, at New York, 162;</p> + + <p class="i4">goes to pieces after defeat, 167, 175, 176;</p> + + <p class="i4">condition in winter of 1777, 186;</p> + + <p class="i4">difficulties between officers, 189;</p> + + <p class="i4">with foreign officers, 190-192;</p> + + <p class="i4">improvement as shown by condition after + Brandywine and Germantown, 200, 201;</p> + + <p class="i4">hard winter at Valley Forge, 228;</p> + + <p class="i4">maintained alive only by Washington, 227, 228, + 232;</p> + + <p class="i4">improved morale at Monmouth, 239;</p> + + <p class="i4">mutinies for lack of pay, 258;</p> + + <p class="i4">suffers during 1779, 270;</p> + + <p class="i4">bad condition in 1780, 279;</p> + + <p class="i4">again mutinies for pay, 291, 292, 295;</p> + + <p class="i4">conduct of troops, 292, 293;</p> + + <p class="i4">jealousy of people towards, 332;</p> + + <p class="i4">badly treated by States and by Congress, + 333;</p> + + <p class="i4">grows mutinous, 334;</p> + + <p class="i4">adopts Newburg addresses, 335, 336;</p> + + <p class="i4">ready for a military dictatorship, 338, + 340;</p> + + <p class="i4">farewell of Washington to, 345.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Arnold, Benedict,</p> + + <p class="i4">sent by Washington to attack Quebec, i. + 144;</p> + + <p class="i4">sent against Burgoyne, 210;</p> + + <p class="i4">plans treason, 281;</p> + + <p class="i4">shows loyalist letter to Washington, 282;</p> + + <p class="i4">meets André, 282;</p> + + <p class="i4">receives news of André's capture, + 284;</p> + + <p class="i4">escapes, 284, 285;</p> + + <p class="i4">previous benefits from Washington, 286;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's opinion of, 288;</p> + + <p class="i4">ravages Virginia, 303;</p> + + <p class="i4">sent back to New York, 303;</p> + + <p class="i4">one of the few men who deceived Washington, ii. + 336.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Arnold, Mrs.,</p> + + <p class="i4">entertains Washington at time of her husband's + treachery, i. 284, 285.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Articles of Confederation,</p> + + <p class="i4">their inadequacy early seen by Washington, i. + 297, 298; ii. 17.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Asgill, Capt.,</p> + + <p class="i4">selected for retaliation for murder of Huddy, + i. 328;</p> + + <p class="i4">efforts for his release, 329;</p> + + <p class="i4">release ordered by Congress, 330.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">BACHE, B.F.,</p> + + <p class="i4">publishes Jay treaty in "Aurora," ii. 185;</p> + + <p class="i4">joins in attack on Washington, 238, 244;</p> + + <p class="i4">rejoices over his retirement, 256.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Baker,——,</p> + + <p class="i4">works out a pedigree for Washington, i. 31.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Ball, Joseph,</p> + + <p class="i4">advises against sending Washington to sea, i. + 49, 50.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Barbadoes,</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's description of, i. 64.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Beckley, John,</p> + + <p class="i4">accuses Washington of embezzling, ii. 245.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Bernard, John,</p> + + <p class="i4">his conversation with Washington referred to, + i. 58, 107;</p> + + <p class="i4">describes encounter with Washington, ii. + 281-283;</p> + + <p class="i4">his description of Washington's conversation, + 343-348.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Blackwell, Rev. Dr.,</p> + + <p class="i4">calls on Washington with Dr. Logan, ii. + 264.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Blair, John,</p> + + <p class="i4">appointed to Supreme Court, ii. 73.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Bland, Mary,</p> + + <p class="i4">"Lowland Beauty," admired by Washington, i. 95, + 96.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Blount, Governor,</p> + + <p class="i4">pacifies Cherokees, ii. 94.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Boston,</p> + + <p class="i4">visit of Washington to, i. 97, 99;</p> + + <p class="i4">political troubles in, 120;</p> + + <p class="i4">British measures against condemned by Virginia, + 122, 123;</p> + + <p class="i4">appeals to colonies, 124;</p> + + <p class="i4">protests against Jay treaty, ii. 186;</p> + + <p class="i4">answered by Washington, 190.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Botetourt, Lord, Governor of Virginia,</p> + + <p class="i4">quarrels with Assembly, i. 121;</p> + + <p class="i4">manages to calm dissension, 122;</p> + + <p class="i4">on friendly terms with Washington, 122.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Braddock, General Edward,</p> + + <p class="i4">arrives in Virginia, i. 82;</p> + + <p class="i4">invites Washington to serve on his staff, + 82;</p> + + <p class="i4">respects him, 83;</p> + + <p class="i4">his character and unfitness for his position, + 83;</p> + + <p class="i4">despises provincials, 83;</p> + + <p class="i4">accepts Washington's advice as to dividing + force, 84;</p> + + <p class="i4">rebukes Washington for warning against ambush, + 85;</p> + + <p class="i4">insists on fighting by rule, 85;</p> + + <p class="i4">defeated and mortally wounded, 85;</p> + + <p class="i4">death and burial, 87.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Bradford, William,</p> + + <p class="i4">succeeds Randolph, ii. 246.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Brandywine,</p> + + <p class="i4">battle of, i. 196-198.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Bunker Hill,</p> + + <p class="i4">question of Washington regarding battle of, i. + 136.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Burgoyne, General John,</p> + + <p class="i4">junction of Howe with, feared by Washington, i. + 194, 195, 205, 206;</p> + + <p class="i4">significance of his defeat, 202;</p> + + <p class="i4">danger of his invasion foreseen by Washington, + 203-206;</p> + + <p class="i4">captures Ticonderoga, 207;</p> + + <p class="i4">outnumbered and defeated, 210;</p> + + <p class="i4">surrenders, 211.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Burke, Edmund,</p> + + <p class="i4">understands significance of Washington's + leadership, i. 202;</p> + + <p class="i4">unsettled by French Revolution, ii. 294.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">CABOT, GEORGE,</p> + + <p class="i4">entertains Lafayette's son, ii. 366.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Cadwalader, General,</p> + + <p class="i4">fails to cross Delaware to help Washington, i. + 180;</p> + + <p class="i4">duel with Conway, 226.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Calvert, Eleanor,</p> + + <p class="i4">misgivings of Washington over her marriage to + John Custis, i. 111.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Camden, battle of, i. 281.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Canada,</p> + + <p class="i4">captured by Wolfe, i. 94;</p> + + <p class="i4">expedition of Montgomery against, 143, 144;</p> + + <p class="i4">project of Conway cabal against, 222; 253;</p> + + <p class="i4">project of Lafayette to attack, 254;</p> + + <p class="i4">plan considered dangerous by Washington, 254, + 255;</p> + + <p class="i4">not undertaken by France, 256.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Carleton, Sir Guy,</p> + + <p class="i4">informs Washington of address of Commons for + peace, i. 324;</p> + + <p class="i4">suspected by Washington, 325;</p> + + <p class="i4">remonstrates against retaliation by Washington + for murder of</p> + + <p class="i2">Huddy, 328;</p> + + <p class="i4">disavows Lippencott, 328;</p> + + <p class="i4">fears plunder of New York city, 345;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges Indians to attack the United States, ii. + 102, 175.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Carlisle, Earl of,</p> + + <p class="i4">peace commissioner, i. 233.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Carlyle, Thomas,</p> + + <p class="i4">sneers at Washington, i. 4, 14;</p> + + <p class="i4">calls him "a bloodless Cromwell," i. 69, ii. + 332;</p> + + <p class="i4">fails to understand his reticence, i. 70;</p> + + <p class="i4">despises him for not seizing power, 341.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Carmichael, William,</p> + + <p class="i4">minister at Madrid, ii. 165;</p> + + <p class="i4">on commission regarding the Mississippi, + 166.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Carrington, Paul,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 208;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's friendship for, 363.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Cary, Mary,</p> + + <p class="i4">early love affair of Washington with, i. + 96.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Chamberlayne, Major,</p> + + <p class="i4">entertains Washington at Williams' Ferry, i. + 101.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Charleston,</p> + + <p class="i4">siege and capture of, i. 273, 274, 276.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Chastellux, Marquis de,</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's friendship for and letter to, ii. + 351;</p> + + <p class="i4">on Washington's training of horses, 380.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Cherokees,</p> + + <p class="i4">beaten by Sevier, ii. 89;</p> + + <p class="i4">pacified by Blount, 94,101.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Chester, Colonel,</p> + + <p class="i4">researches on Washington pedigree, i. 31.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Chickasaws,</p> + + <p class="i4">desert from St. Clair, ii. 96.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">China,</p> + + <p class="i4">honors Washington, i. 6.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Choctaws,</p> + + <p class="i4">peaceable in 1788, ii. 89.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Cincinnati, Society of the,</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's connection with, ii. 4.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Clarke, Governor,</p> + + <p class="i4">thinks Washington is invading popular rights, + i. 215.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Cleaveland, Rev.——,</p> + + <p class="i4">complimented by Washington, ii. 359.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Clinton, George,</p> + + <p class="i4">appealed to by Washington to attack Burgoyne, + i. 210;</p> + + <p class="i4">journey with Washington to Ticonderoga, + 343;</p> + + <p class="i4">enters New York city, 345;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 1;</p> + + <p class="i4">meets Washington on journey to inauguration, + 45;</p> + + <p class="i4">opponent of the Constitution, 71;</p> + + <p class="i4">orders seizure of French privateers, 153.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Clinton, Sir Henry,</p> + + <p class="i4">fails to help Burgoyne, i. 210;</p> + + <p class="i4">replaces Howe at Philadelphia, his character, + 232;</p> + + <p class="i4">tries to cut off Lafayette, 233;</p> + + <p class="i4">leaves Philadelphia, 234;</p> + + <p class="i4">defeats Lee at Monmouth, 236;</p> + + <p class="i4">retreats to New York, 238;</p> + + <p class="i4">withdraws from Newport, 248;</p> + + <p class="i4">makes a raid, 265;</p> + + <p class="i4">fortifies Stony Point, 268;</p> + + <p class="i4">his aimless warfare, 269, 270;</p> + + <p class="i4">after capturing Charleston returns to New York, + 276;</p> + + <p class="i4">tries to save André, 287;</p> + + <p class="i4">alarmed at attacks on New York, 306;</p> + + <p class="i4">jealous of Cornwallis, refuses to send + reinforcements, 308;</p> + + <p class="i4">deceived by Washington, 311;</p> + + <p class="i4">sends Graves to relieve Cornwallis, 312.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Congress, Continental,</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's journey to, i. 128;</p> + + <p class="i4">its character and ability, 129;</p> + + <p class="i4">its state papers, 129;</p> + + <p class="i4">adjourns, 132;</p> + + <p class="i4">in second session, resolves to petition the + king, 133;</p> + + <p class="i4">adopts Massachusetts army and makes Washington + commander, 134;</p> + + <p class="i4">reasons for his choice, 135;</p> + + <p class="i4">adheres to short-term enlistments, 149;</p> + + <p class="i4">influenced to declare independence by + Washington, 160;</p> + + <p class="i4">hampers Washington in campaign of New York, + 167;</p> + + <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, 170, 179, 212, 225, + 229, 266, 278, 295, 321, 323, 333;</p> + + <p class="i4">takes steps to make army permanent, 171;</p> + + <p class="i4">its over-confidence, 171;</p> + + <p class="i4">insists on holding Forts Washington and Lee, + 174;</p> + + <p class="i4">dissatisfied with Washington's inactivity, + 187;</p> + + <p class="i4">criticises his proclamation requiring oath of + allegiance, 189;</p> + + <p class="i4">makes unwise appointments of officers, 189;</p> + + <p class="i4">especially of foreigners, 190-192; 248, + 249;</p> + + <p class="i4">applauds Washington's efforts at Germantown, + 200;</p> + + <p class="i4">deposes Schuyler and St. Clair, 208;</p> + + <p class="i4">appoints Gates, 210;</p> + + <p class="i4">irritation against Washington, 212-215;</p> + + <p class="i4">falls under guidance of Conway cabal, 221, + 222;</p> + + <p class="i4">discovers incompetence of cabal, 223;</p> + + <p class="i4">meddles with prisoners and officers, 231;</p> + + <p class="i4">rejects English peace offers, 233;</p> + + <p class="i4">makes alliance with France, 241;</p> + + <p class="i4">suppresses protests of officers against + D'Estaing, 244;</p> + + <p class="i4">decline in its character, 257;</p> + + <p class="i4">becomes feeble, 258;</p> + + <p class="i4">improvement urged by Washington, 259, 266;</p> + + <p class="i4">appoints Gates to command in South, 268;</p> + + <p class="i4">loses interest in war, 278;</p> + + <p class="i4">asks Washington to name general for the South, + 295;</p> + + <p class="i4">considers reduction of army, 313;</p> + + <p class="i4">elated by Yorktown, 323;</p> + + <p class="i4">its unfair treatment of army, 333, 335;</p> + + <p class="i4">driven from Philadelphia by Pennsylvania + troops, 340;</p> + + <p class="i4">passes half-pay act, 342;</p> + + <p class="i4">receives commission of Washington, 347-349;</p> + + <p class="i4">disbands army, ii. 6;</p> + + <p class="i4">indifferent to Western expansion, 15;</p> + + <p class="i4">continues to decline, 22;</p> + + <p class="i4">merit of its Indian policy, 88.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Congress, Federal,</p> + + <p class="i4">establishes departments, ii. 64;</p> + + <p class="i4">opened by Washington, 78, 79;</p> + + <p class="i4">ceremonial abolished by Jefferson, 79;</p> + + <p class="i4">recommendations made to by Washington, + 81-83;</p> + + <p class="i4">acts upon them, 81-83;</p> + + <p class="i4">creates commission to treat with Creeks, + 90;</p> + + <p class="i4">increases army, 94, 99;</p> + + <p class="i4">fails to solve financial problems, 106;</p> + + <p class="i4">debates Hamilton's report on credit, 107, + 108;</p> + + <p class="i4">establishes national bank, 109;</p> + + <p class="i4">establishes protective revenue duties, 113;</p> + + <p class="i4">imposes an excise tax, 123;</p> + + <p class="i4">prepares for retaliation on Great Britain, + 176;</p> + + <p class="i4">Senate ratifies Jay treaty conditionally, + 184;</p> + + <p class="i4">House demands papers, 207;</p> + + <p class="i4">debates over its right to concur in treaty, + 208-210;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses to adjourn on Washington's birthday, + 247;</p> + + <p class="i4">prepares for war with France, 285;</p> + + <p class="i4">passes Alien and Sedition Laws, 296.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Constitution, Federal,</p> + + <p class="i4">necessity of, foreseen by Washington, ii. + 17-18, 23, 24;</p> + + <p class="i4">the Annapolis Convention, 23-29;</p> + + <p class="i4">the Federal Convention, 30-36;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's attitude in, 31,34;</p> + + <p class="i4">his influence, 36;</p> + + <p class="i4">campaign for ratification, 38-41.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Contrecoeur, Captain,</p> + + <p class="i4">leader of French and Indians in Virginia, i. + 75.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">"Conway cabal,"</p> + + <p class="i4">elements of in Congress, i. 214, 215;</p> + + <p class="i4">in the army, 215;</p> + + <p class="i4">organized by Conway, 217;</p> + + <p class="i4">discovered by Washington, 220;</p> + + <p class="i4">gets control of Board of War, 221;</p> + + <p class="i4">tries to make Washington resign, 222, 224;</p> + + <p class="i4">fails to invade Canada or provide supplies, + 222, 223;</p> + + <p class="i4">harassed by Washington's letters, 223,226;</p> + + <p class="i4">breaks down, 226.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Conway, Moncure D.,</p> + + <p class="i4">his life of Randolph, ii. 65, note, 196;</p> + + <p class="i4">his defense of Randolph in Fauchet letter + affair, 196;</p> + + <p class="i4">on Washington's motives, 200;</p> + + <p class="i4">on his unfair treatment of Randolph, 201, + 202.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Conway, Thomas,</p> + + <p class="i4">demand for higher rank refused by Washington, + i. 216;</p> + + <p class="i4">plots against him, 217;</p> + + <p class="i4">his letter discovered by Washington, 221;</p> + + <p class="i4">made inspector-general, 221, 222;</p> + + <p class="i4">complains to Congress of his reception at camp, + 225;</p> + + <p class="i4">resigns, has duel with Cadwalader, 226;</p> + + <p class="i4">apologizes to Washington and leaves country, + 226.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Cooke, Governor,</p> + + <p class="i4">remonstrated with by Washington for raising + state troops, i. 186.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Cornwallis, Lord,</p> + + <p class="i4">pursues Washington in New Jersey, i. 175;</p> + + <p class="i4">repulsed at Assunpink, 181;</p> + + <p class="i4">outgeneraled by Washington, 182;</p> + + <p class="i4">surprises Sullivan at Brandywine, 197;</p> + + <p class="i4">defeats Lee at Monmouth, 236;</p> + + <p class="i4">pursues Greene in vain, 302;</p> + + <p class="i4">wins battle of Guilford Court House, 302;</p> + + <p class="i4">retreats into Virginia, 302;</p> + + <p class="i4">joins British troops in Virginia, 303;</p> + + <p class="i4">his dangerous position, 304;</p> + + <p class="i4">urged by Clinton to return troops to New York, + 306;</p> + + <p class="i4">plunders Virginia, 307;</p> + + <p class="i4">defeats Lafayette and Wayne, 307;</p> + + <p class="i4">wishes to retreat South, 307;</p> + + <p class="i4">ordered by ministry to stay on the Chesapeake, + 307;</p> + + <p class="i4">abandoned by Clinton, 308;</p> + + <p class="i4">establishes himself at Yorktown, 308;</p> + + <p class="i4">withdraws into town, 315;</p> + + <p class="i4">besieged, 316, 317;</p> + + <p class="i4">surrenders, 317;</p> + + <p class="i4">outgeneraled by Washington, 319, 320.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Cowpens,</p> + + <p class="i4">battle of, i. 301.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Craik, Dr.,</p> + + <p class="i4">attends Washington in last illness, ii. + 300-302;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's friendship with, 363.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Creeks,</p> + + <p class="i4">their relations with Spaniards, ii. 89, 90;</p> + + <p class="i4">quarrel with Georgia, 90;</p> + + <p class="i4">agree to treaty with United States, 91;</p> + + <p class="i4">stirred up by Spain, 101.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Curwen, Samuel,</p> + + <p class="i4">on Washington's appearance, i. 137.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Cushing, Caleb,</p> + + <p class="i4">appointed to Supreme Court, ii. 72.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Custis, Daniel Parke,</p> + + <p class="i4">first husband of Martha Washington, i. 101.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Custis, G.W.P.,</p> + + <p class="i4">tells mythical story of Washington and the + colt, i. 45;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's care for, ii. 369.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Custis, John,</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's tenderness toward, i. 111;</p> + + <p class="i4">care for his education and marriage, 111;</p> + + <p class="i4">hunts with Washington, 141;</p> + + <p class="i4">death of, 322.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Custis, Nellie,</p> + + <p class="i4">marriage with Washington's nephew, ii. 281, + 369;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, 377.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">DAGWORTHY, CAPTAIN,</p> + + <p class="i4">claims to outrank Washington in Virginia army, + i. 91, 97.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Dallas, Alexander,</p> + + <p class="i4">protests to Genet against sailing of Little + Sarah, ii. 155.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Dalton, Senator,</p> + + <p class="i4">entertains Washington at Newburyport, ii. + 359.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Deane, Silas,</p> + + <p class="i4">promises commissions to foreign military + adventurers, i. 190.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">De Barras,</p> + + <p class="i4">jealous of De Grasse, decides not to aid him, + i. 310;</p> + + <p class="i4">persuaded to do so by Washington and + Rochambeau, 311;</p> + + <p class="i4">reaches Chesapeake, 312.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">De Grasse, Comte,</p> + + <p class="i4">announces intention of coming to Washington, i. + 305;</p> + + <p class="i4">warned by Washington not to come to New York, + 305;</p> + + <p class="i4">sails to Chesapeake, 306;</p> + + <p class="i4">asked to meet Washington there, 308;</p> + + <p class="i4">reaches Chesapeake, 312;</p> + + <p class="i4">repulses British fleet, 312;</p> + + <p class="i4">wishes to return to West Indies, 315;</p> + + <p class="i4">persuaded to remain by Washington, 315;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses to join Washington in attack on + Charleston, 322;</p> + + <p class="i4">returns to West Indies, 322.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">De Guichen,——,</p> + + <p class="i4">commander of French fleet in West Indies, i. + 280;</p> + + <p class="i4">appealed to for aid by Washington, 281;</p> + + <p class="i4">returns home, 282.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Delancey, Oliver,</p> + + <p class="i4">escapes American attack, i. 306.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Democratic party,</p> + + <p class="i4">its formation as a French party, ii. 225;</p> + + <p class="i4">furnished with catch-words by Jefferson, + 226;</p> + + <p class="i4">with a newspaper organ, 227;</p> + + <p class="i4">not ready to oppose Washington for president in + 1792, 235;</p> + + <p class="i4">organized against treasury measure, 236;</p> + + <p class="i4">stimulated by French Revolution, 238;</p> + + <p class="i4">supports Genet, 237;</p> + + <p class="i4">begins to attack Washington, 238;</p> + + <p class="i4">his opinion of it, 239, 240, 258, 261, 267, + 268;</p> + + <p class="i4">forms clubs on French model, 241;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's opinion of, 242, 243;</p> + + <p class="i4">continues to abuse him, 244, 245, 250, 252;</p> + + <p class="i4">exults at his retirement, 256;</p> + + <p class="i4">prints slanders, 257.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Demont, William,</p> + + <p class="i4">betrays plans of Fort Washington to Howe, i. + 175.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">D'Estaing, Admiral,</p> + + <p class="i4">reaches America, i. 242;</p> + + <p class="i4">welcomed by Washington, 243;</p> + + <p class="i4">fails to cut off Howe and goes to Newport, + 243;</p> + + <p class="i4">after battle with Howe goes to Boston, 244;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, 246;</p> + + <p class="i4">sails to West Indies, 246;</p> + + <p class="i4">second letter of Washington to, 247;</p> + + <p class="i4">attacks Savannah, 248;</p> + + <p class="i4">withdraws, 248.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">De Rochambeau, Comte,</p> + + <p class="i4">arrives at Newport, i. 277;</p> + + <p class="i4">ordered to await second division of army, + 278;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses to attack New York, 280;</p> + + <p class="i4">wishes a conference with Washington, 282;</p> + + <p class="i4">meets him at Hartford, 282;</p> + + <p class="i4">disapproves attacking Florida, 301;</p> + + <p class="i4">joins Washington before New York, 306;</p> + + <p class="i4">persuades De Barras to join De Grasse, 311;</p> + + <p class="i4">accompanies Washington to Yorktown, 314.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Dickinson, John,</p> + + <p class="i4">commands scouts at Monmouth, i. 326.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Digby, Admiral,</p> + + <p class="i4">bitter comments of Washington on, i. 325.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Dinwiddie, Governor,</p> + + <p class="i4">remonstrates against French encroachments, i. + 66;</p> + + <p class="i4">sends Washington on mission to French, 66;</p> + + <p class="i4">quarrels with the Virginia Assembly, 71;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, 73;</p> + + <p class="i4">wishes Washington to attack French, 79;</p> + + <p class="i4">tries to quiet discussions between regular and + provincial troops, 80;</p> + + <p class="i4">military schemes condemned by Washington, + 91;</p> + + <p class="i4">prevents his getting a royal commission, + 93.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Diplomatic History:</p> + + <p class="i4">refusal by Washington of special privileges to + French minister, ii. 59-61;</p> + + <p class="i4">slow growth of idea of non-intervention, 132, + 133;</p> + + <p class="i4">difficulties owing to French Revolution, + 134;</p> + + <p class="i4">to English retention of frontier posts, + 135;</p> + + <p class="i4">attitude of Spain, 135;</p> + + <p class="i4">relations with Barbary States, 136;</p> + + <p class="i4">mission of Gouverneur Morris to sound English + feeling, 137;</p> + + <p class="i4">assertion by Washington of non-intervention + policy toward Europe, 145, 146;</p> + + <p class="i4">issue of neutrality proclamation, 147, 148;</p> + + <p class="i4">its importance, 148;</p> + + <p class="i4">mission of Genet, 148-162;</p> + + <p class="i4">guarded attitude of Washington toward + émigrés, 151;</p> + + <p class="i4">excesses of Genet, 151;</p> + + <p class="i4">neutrality enforced, 153, 154;</p> + + <p class="i4">the Little Sarah episode, 154-157;</p> + + <p class="i4">recall of Genet demanded, 158;</p> + + <p class="i4">futile missions of Carmichael and Short to + Spain, 165, 166;</p> + + <p class="i4">successful treaty of Thomas Pinckney, + 166-168;</p> + + <p class="i4">question as to binding nature of French treaty + of commerce, 169-171;</p> + + <p class="i4">irritating relations with England, 173-176;</p> + + <p class="i4">Jay's mission, 177-184;</p> + + <p class="i4">the questions at issue, 180, 181;</p> + + <p class="i4">terms of the treaty agreed upon, 182;</p> + + <p class="i4">good and bad points, 183;</p> + + <p class="i4">ratified by Senate, 184;</p> + + <p class="i4">signing delayed by renewal of provision order, + 185;</p> + + <p class="i4">war with England prevented by signing, 205;</p> + + <p class="i4">difficulties with France over Morris and + Monroe, 211-214;</p> + + <p class="i4">doings of Monroe, 212, 213;</p> + + <p class="i4">United States compromised by him, 213, 214;</p> + + <p class="i4">Monroe replaced by Pinckney, 214;</p> + + <p class="i4">review of Washington's foreign policy, + 216-219;</p> + + <p class="i4">mission of Pinckney, Marshall, and Gerry to + France, 284;</p> + + <p class="i4">the X.Y.Z. affair, 285.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Donop, Count,</p> + + <p class="i4">drives Griffin out of New Jersey, i. 180;</p> + + <p class="i4">killed at Fort Mercer, 217.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Dorchester, Lord.</p> + + <p class="i4">See Carleton.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Duane, James,</p> + + <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, i. 294, 329.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Dumas, Comte,</p> + + <p class="i4">describes enthusiasm of people for Washington, + i. 288.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Dunbar, Colonel,</p> + + <p class="i4">connection with Braddock's expedition, i. 84, + 87.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Dunmore, Lord,</p> + + <p class="i4">arrives in Virginia as governor, i. 122;</p> + + <p class="i4">on friendly terms with Washington, 122, + 123;</p> + + <p class="i4">dissolves assembly, 123.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Duplaine, French consul,</p> + + <p class="i4">exequatur of revoked, ii. 159.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">EDEN, WILLIAM,</p> + + <p class="i4">peace commissioner, i. 233.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Edwards, Jonathan,</p> + + <p class="i4">a typical New England American, ii. 309.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Emerson, Rev. Dr.,</p> + + <p class="i4">describes Washington's reforms in army before + Boston, i. 140.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Emigrés,</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's treatment of, ii. 151, 253.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">England,</p> + + <p class="i4">honors Washington, i. 20;</p> + + <p class="i4">arrogant behavior toward colonists, 80, 81, 82, + 148;</p> + + <p class="i4">its policy towards Boston condemned by + Virginia, 119, 121, 123, 126;</p> + + <p class="i4">by Washington, 124, 125,126;</p> + + <p class="i4">sends incompetent officers to America, 155, + 201, 202, 233;</p> + + <p class="i4">stupidity of its operations, 203, 205, 206, + 265;</p> + + <p class="i4">sincerity of its desire for peace doubted by + Washington, 324, 325;</p> + + <p class="i4">arrogant conduct of toward the United States + after peace, ii. 24, 25;</p> + + <p class="i4">stirs up the Six Nations and Northwestern + Indians, 92, 94, 101;</p> + + <p class="i4">folly of her policy, 102;</p> + + <p class="i4">sends Hammond as minister, 169;</p> + + <p class="i4">its opportunity to win United States as ally + against France, 171, 172;</p> + + <p class="i4">adopts contrary policy of opposition, 172, + 173;</p> + + <p class="i4">adopts "provision order," 174;</p> + + <p class="i4">incites Indians against United States, 175;</p> + + <p class="i4">indignation of America against, 176;</p> + + <p class="i4">receives Jay well, but refuses to yield points + at issue, 180;</p> + + <p class="i4">insists on monopoly of West India trade, + 180;</p> + + <p class="i4">and on impressment, 181;</p> + + <p class="i4">later history of, 181;</p> + + <p class="i4">renews provision order, 185;</p> + + <p class="i4">danger of war with, 193;</p> + + <p class="i4">avoided by Jay treaty, 205;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington said to sympathize with England, + 252;</p> + + <p class="i4">his real hostility toward, 254;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's opinion of liberty in, 344.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Ewing, General James,</p> + + <p class="i4">fails to help Washington at Trenton, i. + 180.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">FAIRFAX, BRYAN,</p> + + <p class="i4">hunts with Washington, i. 115;</p> + + <p class="i4">remonstrates with Washington against violence + of patriots, 124;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's replies to, 124, 126, 127;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to in Revolution, ii. + 366.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Fairfax, George,</p> + + <p class="i4">married to Miss Cary, i. 55;</p> + + <p class="i4">accompanies Washington on surveying expedition, + 58;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, 133.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Fairfax, Mrs.——,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 367.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Fairfax, Thomas, Lord,</p> + + <p class="i4">his career in England, i. 55;</p> + + <p class="i4">comes to his Virginia estates, 55;</p> + + <p class="i4">his character, 55;</p> + + <p class="i4">his friendship for Washington, 56;</p> + + <p class="i4">sends him to survey estates, 56;</p> + + <p class="i4">plans a manor across the Blue Ridge, 59;</p> + + <p class="i4">secures for Washington position as public + surveyor, 60;</p> + + <p class="i4">probably influential in securing his + appointment as envoy to</p> + + <p class="i2">French, 66;</p> + + <p class="i4">hunts with Washington, 115;</p> + + <p class="i4">his death remembered by Washington, ii. + 366.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Fairlie, Major,</p> + + <p class="i4">amuses Washington, ii. 374.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Farewell Address, ii. 248, 249.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Fauchet, M.,——,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of, incriminating Randolph, ii. 195,196, + 202.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Fauntleroy, Betsy,</p> + + <p class="i4">love affair of Washington with, i. 97.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Fauquier, Francis, Governor,</p> + + <p class="i4">at Washington's wedding, i. 101.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Federal courts,</p> + + <p class="i4">suggested by Washington, i. 150.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">"Federalist,"</p> + + <p class="i4">circulated by Washington, ii. 40.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Federalist party,</p> + + <p class="i4">begun by Hamilton's controversy with Jefferson, + ii. 230;</p> + + <p class="i4">supports Washington for reëlection, + 235;</p> + + <p class="i4">organized in support of financial measures, + 236;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington looked upon by Democrats as its + head, 244, 247;</p> + + <p class="i4">only its members trusted by Washington, 246, + 247, 259, 260, 261;</p> + + <p class="i4">becomes a British party, 255;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington considers himself a member of, + 269-274;</p> + + <p class="i4">the only American party until 1800, 273;</p> + + <p class="i4">strengthened by X, Y, Z affair, 285;</p> + + <p class="i4">dissensions in, over army appointments, + 286-290;</p> + + <p class="i4">its horror at French Revolution, 294, 295;</p> + + <p class="i4">attempts of Washington to heal divisions in, + 298.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Fenno's newspaper,</p> + + <p class="i4">used by Hamilton against the "National + Gazette," ii. 230.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Finances of the Revolution,</p> + + <p class="i4">effect of paper money on war, i. 258, 262;</p> + + <p class="i4">difficulties in paying troops, 258;</p> + + <p class="i4">labors of Robert Morris, 259, 264, 312;</p> + + <p class="i4">connection of Washington with, 263;</p> + + <p class="i4">continued collapse, 280, 290, 312.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Financial History,</p> + + <p class="i4">bad condition in 1789, ii. 105;</p> + + <p class="i4">decay of credit, paper, and revenue, 106;</p> + + <p class="i4">futile propositions, 106;</p> + + <p class="i4">Hamilton's report on credit, 107;</p> + + <p class="i4">debate over assumption of state debt, 107;</p> + + <p class="i4">bargain between Hamilton and Jefferson, + 108;</p> + + <p class="i4">establishment of bank, 109;</p> + + <p class="i4">other measures adopted, 112;</p> + + <p class="i4">protection in the first Congress, 112-115;</p> + + <p class="i4">the excise tax imposed, 123;</p> + + <p class="i4">opposition to, 123-127;</p> + + <p class="i4">"Whiskey Rebellion," 127-128.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Fishbourn, Benjamin,</p> + + <p class="i4">nomination rejected by Senate, ii. 63.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Fontanes, M. de,</p> + + <p class="i4">delivers funeral oration on Washington, i. + 1.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Forbes, General,</p> + + <p class="i4">renews attack on French in Ohio, i. 93.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Forman, Major,</p> + + <p class="i4">describes impressiveness of Washington, ii. + 389.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Fox, Charles James,</p> + + <p class="i4">understands significance of Washington's + leadership, i. 202.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">France,</p> + + <p class="i4">pays honors to Washington, i. I, 6;</p> + + <p class="i4">war with England, see French and Indian + war;</p> + + <p class="i4">takes possession of Ohio, 65;</p> + + <p class="i4">considers Jumonville assassinated by + Washington, 74;</p> + + <p class="i4">importance of alliance with foreseen by + Washington, 191;</p> + + <p class="i4">impressed by battle of Germantown, 200;</p> + + <p class="i4">makes treaty of alliance with United States, + 241;</p> + + <p class="i4">sends D'Estaing, 243;</p> + + <p class="i4">declines to attack Canada, 256;</p> + + <p class="i4">sends army and fleet, 274, 277;</p> + + <p class="i4">relations of French to Washington, 318, + 319;</p> + + <p class="i4">absolute necessity of their naval aid, 318, + 319;</p> + + <p class="i4">Revolution in, applauded by America, ii. 138, + 139, 142;</p> + + <p class="i4">real character understood by Washington and + others, 139-142, 295;</p> + + <p class="i4">debate over in America, 142;</p> + + <p class="i4">question of relations with United States, 143, + 144;</p> + + <p class="i4">warned by Washington, 144, 145;</p> + + <p class="i4">neutrality toward declared, 147;</p> + + <p class="i4">tries to drive United States into alliance, + 149;</p> + + <p class="i4">terms of the treaty with, 169;</p> + + <p class="i4">latter held to be no longer binding, + 169-171;</p> + + <p class="i4">abrogates it, 171;</p> + + <p class="i4">demands recall of Morris, 211;</p> + + <p class="i4">mission of Monroe to, 211-214;</p> + + <p class="i4">makes vague promises, 212, 213;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's fairness toward, 253;</p> + + <p class="i4">tries to bully or corrupt American ministers, + 284;</p> + + <p class="i4">the X, Y, Z affair, 285;</p> + + <p class="i4">war with not expected by Washington, 291;</p> + + <p class="i4">danger of concession to, 292, 293;</p> + + <p class="i4">progress of Revolution in, 294.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Franklin, Benjamin,</p> + + <p class="i4">gets wagons for Braddock's expedition, i. + 84;</p> + + <p class="i4">remark on Howe in Philadelphia, 219;</p> + + <p class="i4">national, like Washington, 252, ii. 8;</p> + + <p class="i4">despairs of success of Constitutional + Convention, 35;</p> + + <p class="i4">his unquestioned Americanism, 309;</p> + + <p class="i4">respect of Washington for, 344, 346, 364.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Frederick II., the Great,</p> + + <p class="i4">his opinion of Trenton campaign, i. 183;</p> + + <p class="i4">of Monmouth campaign, 239.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">French and Indian war, i. 64-94;</p> + + <p class="i4">inevitable conflict, 65;</p> + + <p class="i4">efforts to negotiate, 66, 67;</p> + + <p class="i4">hostilities begun, 72;</p> + + <p class="i4">the Jumonville affair, 74;</p> + + <p class="i4">defeat of Washington, 76;</p> + + <p class="i4">Braddock's campaign, 82-88;</p> + + <p class="i4">ravages in Virginia, 90;</p> + + <p class="i4">carried to a favorable conclusion by Pitt, 93, + 94.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Freneau, Philip,</p> + + <p class="i4">brought to Philadelphia and given clerkship by + Jefferson, ii. 227;</p> + + <p class="i4">attacks Adams, Hamilton, and Washington in + "National Gazette," 227;</p> + + <p class="i4">makes conflicting statements as to Jefferson's + share in the paper, 227, 228;</p> + + <p class="i4">the first to attack Washington, 238.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Fry, Colonel,</p> + + <p class="i4">commands a Virginia regiment against French and + Indians, i. 71;</p> + + <p class="i4">dies, leaving Washington in command, 75.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">GAGE, GENERAL THOMAS,</p> + + <p class="i4">conduct at Boston condemned by Washington, i. + 126;</p> + + <p class="i4">his treatment of prisoners protested against by + Washington, 145;</p> + + <p class="i4">sends an arrogant reply, 147;</p> + + <p class="i4">second letter of Washington to, 147, 156.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Gallatin, Albert,</p> + + <p class="i4">connection with Whiskey Rebellion, ii. 129.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Gates, Horatio,</p> + + <p class="i4">visits Mt. Vernon, his character, i. 132;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses to cooperate with Washington at + Trenton, 180;</p> + + <p class="i4">his appointment as commander against Burgoyne + urged, 208;</p> + + <p class="i4">chosen by Congress, 209;</p> + + <p class="i4">his part in defeating Burgoyne, 210;</p> + + <p class="i4">neglects to inform Washington, 211;</p> + + <p class="i4">loses his head and wishes to supplant + Washington, 215;</p> + + <p class="i4">forced to send troops South, 216, 217;</p> + + <p class="i4">his attitude discovered by Washington, 221;</p> + + <p class="i4">makes feeble efforts at opposition, 221, + 223;</p> + + <p class="i4">correspondence with Washington, 221, 223, + 226;</p> + + <p class="i4">becomes head of board of war, 221;</p> + + <p class="i4">quarrels with Wilkinson, 223;</p> + + <p class="i4">sent to his command, 226;</p> + + <p class="i4">fears attack of British on Boston, 265;</p> + + <p class="i4">sent by Congress to command in South, 268;</p> + + <p class="i4">defeated at Camden, 281, 294;</p> + + <p class="i4">loses support of Congress, 294.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Genet, Edmond Charles,</p> + + <p class="i4">arrives as French minister, ii. 148;</p> + + <p class="i4">his character, 149;</p> + + <p class="i4">violates neutrality, 151;</p> + + <p class="i4">his journey to Philadelphia, 151;</p> + + <p class="i4">reception by Washington, 152;</p> + + <p class="i4">complains of it, 153;</p> + + <p class="i4">makes demands upon State Department, 153;</p> + + <p class="i4">protests at seizure of privateers, 153;</p> + + <p class="i4">insists on sailing of Little Sarah, 155;</p> + + <p class="i4">succeeds in getting vessel away, 157;</p> + + <p class="i4">his recall demanded, 158;</p> + + <p class="i4">reproaches Jefferson, 158;</p> + + <p class="i4">remains in America, 158;</p> + + <p class="i4">threatens to appeal from Washington to + Massachusetts, 159;</p> + + <p class="i4">demands denial from Washington of Jay's + statements, 159;</p> + + <p class="i4">loses popular support, 160;</p> + + <p class="i4">tries to raise a force to invade Southwest, + 161;</p> + + <p class="i4">prevented by state and federal authorities, + 162;</p> + + <p class="i4">his arrival the signal for divisions of + parties, 237;</p> + + <p class="i4">hurts Democratic party by his excesses, + 241;</p> + + <p class="i4">suggests clubs, 241.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">George IV.,</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's opinion of, ii. 346.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Georgia,</p> + + <p class="i4">quarrels with Creeks, asks aid of United + States, ii. 90;</p> + + <p class="i4">becomes dissatisfied with treaty, 91;</p> + + <p class="i4">disregards treaties of the United States, + 103.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Gerard, M.,</p> + + <p class="i4">notifies Washington of return of D'Estaing, i. + 246.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Germantown,</p> + + <p class="i4">battle of, i. 199.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Gerry, Elbridge,</p> + + <p class="i4">on special mission to France, ii. 284;</p> + + <p class="i4">disliked by Washington, 292.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Giles, W.B.,</p> + + <p class="i4">attacks Washington in Congress, ii. 251, + 252.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Gist, Christopher,</p> + + <p class="i4">accompanies Washington on his mission to + French, i. 66;</p> + + <p class="i4">wishes to shoot French Indians, 68.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Gordon,——,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, i. 227.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Graves, Admiral,</p> + + <p class="i4">sent to relieve Cornwallis, i. 312; defeated by + De Grasse, 312.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Grayson, William,</p> + + <p class="i4">hunts with Washington, i. 115; letter to, ii. + 22.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Green Springs,</p> + + <p class="i4">battle of, i. 307.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Greene, General Nathanael,</p> + + <p class="i4">commands at Long Island, ill with fever, i. + 164;</p> + + <p class="i4">wishes forts on Hudson held, 174;</p> + + <p class="i4">late in attacking at Germantown, 199;</p> + + <p class="i4">conducts retreat, 200;</p> + + <p class="i4">succeeds Mifflin as quartermaster-general, + 232;</p> + + <p class="i4">selected by Washington to command in South, + 268;</p> + + <p class="i4">commands army at New York in absence of + Washington, 282;</p> + + <p class="i4">appointed to command Southern army, 295;</p> + + <p class="i4">retreats from Cornwallis, 302;</p> + + <p class="i4">fights battle of Guilford Court House, 302;</p> + + <p class="i4">clears Southern States of enemy, 302;</p> + + <p class="i4">strong position, 304;</p> + + <p class="i4">reinforced by Washington, 322;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter to, 325;</p> + + <p class="i4">his military capacity early recognized by + Washington, ii. 334;</p> + + <p class="i4">amuses Washington, 374.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Greene, Mrs.——,</p> + + <p class="i4">dances three hours with Washington, ii. + 380.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Grenville, Lord,</p> + + <p class="i4">denies that ministry has incited Indians + against United States, ii. 175;</p> + + <p class="i4">receives Jay, 180;</p> + + <p class="i4">declines to grant United States trade with West + Indies, 181.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Griffin, David,</p> + + <p class="i4">commissioner to treat with Creeks, ii. 90.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Griffin,——,</p> + + <p class="i4">fails to help Washington at Trenton, i. + 180.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Grymes, Lucy,</p> + + <p class="i4">the "Lowland Beauty," love affair of Washington + with, i. 95;</p> + + <p class="i4">marries Henry Lee, 96.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">HALDIMAND, SIR FREDERICK,</p> + + <p class="i4">leads Indians against colonists, i. 325.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Hale, Nathan, compared with André, i. + 288.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Half-King,</p> + + <p class="i4">kept to English alliance by Washington, i. + 68;</p> + + <p class="i4">his criticism of Washington's first campaign, + 76.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Hamilton, Alexander,</p> + + <p class="i4">forces Gates to send back troops to Washington, + i. 216, 217;</p> + + <p class="i4">remark on councils of war before Monmouth, + 234;</p> + + <p class="i4">informs Washington of Arnold's treason, + 284;</p> + + <p class="i4">sent to intercept Arnold, 285;</p> + + <p class="i4">writes letters on government and finance, + 298;</p> + + <p class="i4">leads attack at Yorktown, i. 316;</p> + + <p class="i4">requests release of Asgill, 329;</p> + + <p class="i4">aids Washington in Congress, 333;</p> + + <p class="i4">only man beside Washington and Franklin to + realize American future, ii. 7;</p> + + <p class="i4">letters of Washington to on necessity of a + strong government, 17, 18;</p> + + <p class="i4">writes letters to Duane and Morris, 19;</p> + + <p class="i4">speech in Federal Convention and departure, + 35;</p> + + <p class="i4">counseled by Washington, 39;</p> + + <p class="i4">consulted by Washington as to etiquette, + 54;</p> + + <p class="i4">made secretary of treasury, 66;</p> + + <p class="i4">his character, 67;</p> + + <p class="i4">his report on the mint, 81;</p> + + <p class="i4">on the public credit, 107;</p> + + <p class="i4">upheld by Washington, 107, 108;</p> + + <p class="i4">his arrangement with Jefferson, 108;</p> + + <p class="i4">argument on the bank, 110;</p> + + <p class="i4">his success largely due to Washington, 112;</p> + + <p class="i4">his report on manufactures, 112, 114, 116;</p> + + <p class="i4">advocates an excise, 122;</p> + + <p class="i4">fails to realize its unpopularity, 123;</p> + + <p class="i4">accompanies expedition to suppress Whiskey + Rebellion, 128;</p> + + <p class="i4">comprehends French Revolution, 139;</p> + + <p class="i4">frames questions to cabinet on neutrality, + 147;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges decisive measures against Genet, 154;</p> + + <p class="i4">argues against United States being bound by + French treaty, 169;</p> + + <p class="i4">selected for English mission, but withdraws, + 177;</p> + + <p class="i4">not likely to have done better than Jay, + 183;</p> + + <p class="i4">mobbed in defending Jay treaty, 187;</p> + + <p class="i4">writes Camillus letters in favor of Jay treaty, + 206;</p> + + <p class="i4">intrigued against by Monroe, 212;</p> + + <p class="i4">causes for his breach with Jefferson, 224;</p> + + <p class="i4">his aristocratic tendencies, 225;</p> + + <p class="i4">attacked by Jefferson and his friends, 228, + 229;</p> + + <p class="i4">disposes of the charges, 229;</p> + + <p class="i4">retorts in newspapers with effect, 230;</p> + + <p class="i4">ceases at Washington's request, 230, 234;</p> + + <p class="i4">resigns from the cabinet, 234;</p> + + <p class="i4">desires Washington's reëlection, 235;</p> + + <p class="i4">selected by Washing, ton as senior general, + 286;</p> + + <p class="i4">appeals to Washington against Adams's reversal + of rank, 286;</p> + + <p class="i4">fails to soothe Knox's anger, 288;</p> + + <p class="i4">report on army organization, 290;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, condemning Adams's + French mission, 293;</p> + + <p class="i4">fears anarchy from Democratic success, 295;</p> + + <p class="i4">approves Alien and Sedition Acts, 296;</p> + + <p class="i4">his scheme of a military academy approved by + Washington, 299;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's affection for, 317, 362;</p> + + <p class="i4">his ability early recognized by Washington, + 334, 335;</p> + + <p class="i4">aids Washington in literary points, 340;</p> + + <p class="i4">takes care of Lafayette's son, 366.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Hammond, George,</p> + + <p class="i4">protests against violations of neutrality, ii. + 151;</p> + + <p class="i4">his arrival as British minister, 169;</p> + + <p class="i4">his offensive tone, 173;</p> + + <p class="i4">does not disavow Lord Dorchester's speech to + Indians, 176;</p> + + <p class="i4">gives Fauchet letters to Wolcott, 195;</p> + + <p class="i4">intrigues with American public men, 200.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Hampden, John,</p> + + <p class="i4">compared with Washington, ii. 312, 313.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Hancock, John,</p> + + <p class="i4">disappointed at Washington's receiving command + of army, i. 135;</p> + + <p class="i4">his character, ii. 74;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses to call first on Washington as + President, 75;</p> + + <p class="i4">apologizes and calls, 75, 76.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Hardin, Colonel,</p> + + <p class="i4">twice surprised and defeated by Indians, ii. + 93.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Harmar, Colonel,</p> + + <p class="i4">invades Indian country, ii. 92;</p> + + <p class="i4">attacks the Miamis, 93;</p> + + <p class="i4">sends out unsuccessful expeditions and + retreats, 93;</p> + + <p class="i4">court-martialed and resigns, 93.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Harrison, Benjamin,</p> + + <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, i. 259, 261; ii. + 10.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Hartley, Mrs.——,</p> + + <p class="i4">admired by Washington, i. 95.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Heard, Sir Isaac,</p> + + <p class="i4">Garter King at Arms, makes out a pedigree for + Washington, i. 30, 31.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Heath, General,</p> + + <p class="i4">checks Howe at Frog's Point, i. 173;</p> + + <p class="i4">left in command at New York, 311.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Henry, Patrick,</p> + + <p class="i4">his resolutions supported by Washington, i. + 119;</p> + + <p class="i4">accompanies him to Philadelphia, 128;</p> + + <p class="i4">his tribute to Washington's influence, 130;</p> + + <p class="i4">ready for war, 132;</p> + + <p class="i4">letters of Conway cabal to against Washington, + 222;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, 225;</p> + + <p class="i4">appealed to by Washington on behalf of + Constitution, ii. 38;</p> + + <p class="i4">an opponent of the Constitution, 71;</p> + + <p class="i4">urged by Washington to oppose Virginia + resolutions, 266-268, 293;</p> + + <p class="i4">a genuine American, 309;</p> + + <p class="i4">offered secretaryship of state, 324;</p> + + <p class="i4">friendship of Washington for, 362.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Hertburn, Sir William de,</p> + + <p class="i4">ancestor of Washington family, i. 31, 33.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Hessians,</p> + + <p class="i4">in Revolution, i. 194.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Hickey, Thomas,</p> + + <p class="i4">hanged for plotting to murder Washington, i. + 160.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Hobby,——, a sexton,</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's earliest teacher, i. 48.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Hopkinson, Francis,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 3.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Houdon, J.A., sculptor,</p> + + <p class="i4">on Washington's appearance, ii. 386.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Howe, Lord,</p> + + <p class="i4">arrives at New York with power to negotiate and + pardon, i. 161;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses to give Washington his title, 161;</p> + + <p class="i4">tries to negotiate with Congress, 167;</p> + + <p class="i4">escapes D'Estaing at Delaware, 244;</p> + + <p class="i4">attacks D'Estaing off Newport, 244.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Howe, Sir William,</p> + + <p class="i4">has controversy with Washington over treatment + of prisoners, i. 148;</p> + + <p class="i4">checked at Frog's Point, 173;</p> + + <p class="i4">attacks cautiously at Chatterton Hill, 173;</p> + + <p class="i4">retreats and attacks forts on Hudson, 174;</p> + + <p class="i4">takes Fort Washington, 175;</p> + + <p class="i4">goes into winter quarters in New York, 177, + 186;</p> + + <p class="i4">suspected of purpose to meet Burgoyne, 194, + 195;</p> + + <p class="i4">baffled in advance across New Jersey by + Washington, 194;</p> + + <p class="i4">goes by sea, 195;</p> + + <p class="i4">arrives at Head of Elk, 196;</p> + + <p class="i4">defeats Washington at Brandywine, 197;</p> + + <p class="i4">camps at Germantown, 199;</p> + + <p class="i4">withdraws after Germantown into Philadelphia, + 201;</p> + + <p class="i4">folly of his failure to meet Burgoyne, 205, + 206;</p> + + <p class="i4">offers battle in vain to Washington, 218;</p> + + <p class="i4">replaced by Clinton, 232;</p> + + <p class="i4">tries to cut off Lafayette, 233.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Huddy, Captain,</p> + + <p class="i4">captured by English, hanged by Tories, i. + 327.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Humphreys, Colonel,</p> + + <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, ii. 13, 339;</p> + + <p class="i4">at opening of Congress, 78;</p> + + <p class="i4">commissioner to treat with Creeks, 90;</p> + + <p class="i4">anecdote of, 375.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Huntington, Lady,</p> + + <p class="i4">asks Washington's aid in Christianizing + Indians, ii. 4.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">IMPRESSMENT,</p> + + <p class="i4">right of, maintained by England, ii. 181.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Independence,</p> + + <p class="i4">not wished, but foreseen, by Washington, i. + 131, 156;</p> + + <p class="i4">declared by Congress, possibly through + Washington's influence, 160.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Indians,</p> + + <p class="i4">wars with in Virginia, i. 37, 38;</p> + + <p class="i4">in French and Indian war, 67,68;</p> + + <p class="i4">desert English, 76;</p> + + <p class="i4">in Braddock's defeat, 85, 86, 88;</p> + + <p class="i4">restless before Revolution, 122;</p> + + <p class="i4">in War of Revolution, 266, 270;</p> + + <p class="i4">punished by Sullivan, 269;</p> + + <p class="i4">policy toward, early suggested by Washington, + 344;</p> + + <p class="i4">recommendations relative to in Washington's + address to Congress, ii. 82;</p> + + <p class="i4">the "Indian problem" under Washington's + administration, 83-105;</p> + + <p class="i4">erroneous popular ideas of, 84, 85;</p> + + <p class="i4">real character and military ability, 85-87;</p> + + <p class="i4">understood by Washington, 87, 88;</p> + + <p class="i4">a real danger in 1788, 88;</p> + + <p class="i4">situation in the Northwest, 89;</p> + + <p class="i4">difficulties with Cherokees and Creeks, 89, + 90;</p> + + <p class="i4">influence of Spanish intrigue, 90;</p> + + <p class="i4">successful treaty with Creeks, 90, 91;</p> + + <p class="i4">wisdom of this policy, 92;</p> + + <p class="i4">warfare in the Northwest, 92;</p> + + <p class="i4">defeats of Harmar and Hardin, 93;</p> + + <p class="i4">causes for the failure, 93, 94;</p> + + <p class="i4">intrigues of England, 92, 94, 175, 178;</p> + + <p class="i4">expedition and defeat of St. Clair, 95-97;</p> + + <p class="i4">results, 99;</p> + + <p class="i4">expedition of Wayne, 100, 102;</p> + + <p class="i4">his victory, 103;</p> + + <p class="i4">success of Washington's policy toward, 104, + 105.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Iredell, James,</p> + + <p class="i4">appointed to Supreme Court, ii. 73.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">JACKSON, MAJOR,</p> + + <p class="i4">accompanies Washington to opening of Congress, + ii. 78.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Jameson, Colonel,</p> + + <p class="i4">forwards Andrews letter to Arnold, i. 284;</p> + + <p class="i4">receives orders from Washington, 285.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Jay, John,</p> + + <p class="i4">on opposition in Congress, to Washington, i. + 222;</p> + + <p class="i4">consulted by Washington as to etiquette, ii. + 54;</p> + + <p class="i4">appointed chief justice, 72;</p> + + <p class="i4">publishes card against Genet, 159;</p> + + <p class="i4">appointed on special mission to England, + 177;</p> + + <p class="i4">his character, 177;</p> + + <p class="i4">instructions from Washington, 179;</p> + + <p class="i4">his reception in England, 180;</p> + + <p class="i4">difficulties in negotiating, 181;</p> + + <p class="i4">concludes treaty, 182;</p> + + <p class="i4">burnt in effigy while absent, 186;</p> + + <p class="i4">execrated after news of treaty, 187;</p> + + <p class="i4">hampered by Monroe in France, 213.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Jay treaty, ii. 180-184;</p> + + <p class="i4">opposition to and debate over signing, + 184-201;</p> + + <p class="i4">reasons of Washington for signing, 205.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Jefferson, Thomas,</p> + + <p class="i4">his flight from Cornwallis, i. 307;</p> + + <p class="i4">discusses with Washington needs of government, + ii. 9;</p> + + <p class="i4">adopts French democratic phraseology, 27;</p> + + <p class="i4">contrast with Washington, 27, 28, 69;</p> + + <p class="i4">criticises Washington's manners, 56;</p> + + <p class="i4">made secretary of state, 68;</p> + + <p class="i4">his previous relations with Washington, 68;</p> + + <p class="i4">his character, 69;</p> + + <p class="i4">supposed to be a friend of the Constitution, + 72;</p> + + <p class="i4">his objections to President's opening Congress, + 79;</p> + + <p class="i4">on weights and measures, 81;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to on assumption of state + debts, 107;</p> + + <p class="i4">makes bargain with Hamilton, 108;</p> + + <p class="i4">opposes a bank, 110;</p> + + <p class="i4">asked to prepare neutrality instructions, + 146;</p> + + <p class="i4">upholds Genet, 153;</p> + + <p class="i4">argues against him publicly, supports him + privately, 154;</p> + + <p class="i4">notified of French privateer Little Sarah, + 155;</p> + + <p class="i4">allows it to sail, 155;</p> + + <p class="i4">retires to country and is censured by + Washington, 156;</p> + + <p class="i4">assures Washington that vessel will wait his + decision, 156;</p> + + <p class="i4">his un-American attitude, 157;</p> + + <p class="i4">wishes to make terms of note demanding Genet's + recall mild, 158;</p> + + <p class="i4">argues that United States is bound by French + treaty, 170, 171;</p> + + <p class="i4">begs Madison to answer Hamilton's "Camillus" + letters, 206;</p> + + <p class="i4">his attitude upon first entering cabinet, + 223;</p> + + <p class="i4">causes for his breach with Hamilton, 224;</p> + + <p class="i4">jealousy, incompatibility of temper, 224;</p> + + <p class="i4">his democratic opinions, 225;</p> + + <p class="i4">skill in creating party catch-words, 225;</p> + + <p class="i4">prints "Rights of Man" with note against Adams, + 226;</p> + + <p class="i4">attacks him further in letter to Washington, + 226;</p> + + <p class="i4">brings Freneau to Philadelphia and gives him an + office, 227;</p> + + <p class="i4">denies any connection with Freneau's newspaper, + 227;</p> + + <p class="i4">his real responsibility, 228;</p> + + <p class="i4">his purpose to undermine Hamilton, 228;</p> + + <p class="i4">causes his friends to attack him, 229;</p> + + <p class="i4">writes a letter to Washington attacking + Hamilton's treasury measures, 229;</p> + + <p class="i4">fails to produce any effect, 230;</p> + + <p class="i4">winces under Hamilton's counter attacks, + 230;</p> + + <p class="i4">reiterates charges and asserts devotion to + Constitution, 231;</p> + + <p class="i4">continues attacks and resigns, 234;</p> + + <p class="i4">wishes reëlection of Washington, 235;</p> + + <p class="i4">his charge of British sympathies resented by + Washington, 252;</p> + + <p class="i4">plain letter of Washington to, 259;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's opinion of, 259;</p> + + <p class="i4">suggests Logan's mission to France, 262, + 265;</p> + + <p class="i4">takes oath as vice-president, 276;</p> + + <p class="i4">regarded as a Jacobin by Federalists, 294;</p> + + <p class="i4">jealous of Washington, 306;</p> + + <p class="i4">accuses him of senility, 307;</p> + + <p class="i4">a genuine American, 309.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Johnson, William,</p> + + <p class="i4">Tory leader in New York, i. 143.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Johnstone, Governor,</p> + + <p class="i4">peace commissioner, i. 233.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Jumonville, De, French leader,</p> + + <p class="i4">declared to have been assassinated by + Washington, i. 74,79;</p> + + <p class="i4">really a scout and spy, 75.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">KENTUCKY RESOLUTIONS,</p> + + <p class="i4">condemned by Washington, ii. 266-268.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">King, Clarence,</p> + + <p class="i4">his opinion that Washington was not American, + ii. 308.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">King, Rufus,</p> + + <p class="i4">publishes card exposing Genet, ii. 159.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">King's Bridge,</p> + + <p class="i4">fight at, i. 170.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Kip's Landing,</p> + + <p class="i4">fight at, i. 168.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Kirkland, Rev. Samuel,</p> + + <p class="i4">negotiates with Six Nations, ii. 101.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Knox, Henry,</p> + + <p class="i4">brings artillery to Boston from Ticonderoga, i. + 152;</p> + + <p class="i4">accompanies Washington to meet De Rochambeau, + 283;</p> + + <p class="i4">at West Point, 285;</p> + + <p class="i4">sent by Washington to confer with governors of + States, 295;</p> + + <p class="i4">urged by Washington to establish Western posts, + ii. 7;</p> + + <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, 30, 39;</p> + + <p class="i4">made secretary of war, 65;</p> + + <p class="i4">his character, 65;</p> + + <p class="i4">a Federalist, 71;</p> + + <p class="i4">deals with Creeks, 91;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges decisive measure against Genet, 154, + 155;</p> + + <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, 260;</p> + + <p class="i4">selected by Washington as third major-general, + 286;</p> + + <p class="i4">given first place by Adams, 286;</p> + + <p class="i4">angry at Hamilton's higher rank, 288;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses the office, 289;</p> + + <p class="i4">his offer to serve on Washington's staff + refused, 289;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's affection for, 317, 362.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">LAFAYETTE, Madame de,</p> + + <p class="i4">aided by Washington, ii. 366;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, 377.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Lafayette, Marquis de,</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's regard for, i. 192;</p> + + <p class="i4">his opinion of Continental troops, 196;</p> + + <p class="i4">sent on fruitless journey to the lakes by + cabal, 222, 253;</p> + + <p class="i4">encouraged by Washington, 225;</p> + + <p class="i4">narrowly escapes being cut off by Clinton, + 233;</p> + + <p class="i4">appointed to attack British rear, 235;</p> + + <p class="i4">superseded by Lee, 235;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges Washington to come, 235;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, regarding quarrel + between D'Estaing and Sullivan, 245;</p> + + <p class="i4">regard of Washington for, 249;</p> + + <p class="i4">desires to conquer Canada, 254;</p> + + <p class="i4">his plan not supported in France, 256;</p> + + <p class="i4">works to get a French army sent, 264;</p> + + <p class="i4">brings news of French army and fleet, 274;</p> + + <p class="i4">tries to get De Rochambeau to attack New York, + 280;</p> + + <p class="i4">accompanies Washington to meet De Rochambeau, + 283;</p> + + <p class="i4">told by Washington of Arnold's treachery, + 285;</p> + + <p class="i4">on court to try André, 287;</p> + + <p class="i4">opinion of Continental soldiers, 293;</p> + + <p class="i4">harasses Cornwallis, 307;</p> + + <p class="i4">defeated at Green Springs, 307;</p> + + <p class="i4">watches Cornwallis at Yorktown, 308;</p> + + <p class="i4">reinforced by De Grasse, 312;</p> + + <p class="i4">persuades him to remain, 315;</p> + + <p class="i4">sends Washington French wolf-hounds, ii. 2;</p> + + <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, 23, 26, 118, 144, + 165, 222, 261;</p> + + <p class="i4">his son not received by Washington, 253;</p> + + <p class="i4">later taken care of, 277, 281, 366;</p> + + <p class="i4">his worth, early seen by Washington, 334;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's affection for, 365;</p> + + <p class="i4">sends key of Bastile to Mt. Vernon, 365;</p> + + <p class="i4">helped by Washington, 365,366.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Laurens, Henry,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Conway cabal to, making attack on + Washington, i. 222;</p> + + <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, 254, 288;</p> + + <p class="i4">sent to Paris to get loans, 299.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Lauzun, Duc de,</p> + + <p class="i4">repulses Tarleton at Yorktown, i. 317.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Lear, Tobias,</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's secretary, ii. 263;</p> + + <p class="i4">his account of Washington's last illness, + 299-303, 385;</p> + + <p class="i4">letters to, 361, 382.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Lee, Arthur,</p> + + <p class="i4">example of Virginia gentleman educated abroad, + i. 23.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Lee, Charles,</p> + + <p class="i4">visits Mt. Vernon, his character, i. 132;</p> + + <p class="i4">accompanies Washington to Boston, 136;</p> + + <p class="i4">aids Washington in organizing army, 140;</p> + + <p class="i4">disobeys orders and is captured, 175;</p> + + <p class="i4">objects to attacking Clinton, 234;</p> + + <p class="i4">first refuses, then claims command of van, + 235;</p> + + <p class="i4">disobeys orders and retreats, 236;</p> + + <p class="i4">rebuked by Washington, 236, 237;</p> + + <p class="i4">court martial of and dismissal from army, + 237;</p> + + <p class="i4">his witty remark on taking oath of allegiance, + ii. 375.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Lee, Henry, marries Lucy Grymes,</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's "Lowland Beauty," i. 96.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Lee, Henry,</p> + + <p class="i4">son of Lucy Grymes, Washington's "Lowland + Beauty," i. 96; ii. 362;</p> + + <p class="i4">captures Paulus Hook, i. 269;</p> + + <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, ii. 23, 26, 149, 235, + 239, 242, 252;</p> + + <p class="i4">considered for command against Indians, + 100;</p> + + <p class="i4">commands troops to suppress Whiskey Rebellion, + 127;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's affection for, 362.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Lee, Richard Henry,</p> + + <p class="i4">unfriendly to Washington, i. 214;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 160.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Lewis, Lawrence,</p> + + <p class="i4">at opening of Congress, ii. 78;</p> + + <p class="i4">takes social duties at Mt. Vernon, 280.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Liancourt, Duc de,</p> + + <p class="i4">refused reception by Washington, ii. 253.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Lincoln, Abraham,</p> + + <p class="i4">compared with Washington, i. 349; ii. + 308-313.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Lincoln, Benjamin,</p> + + <p class="i4">sent by Washington against Burgoyne, i. + 210;</p> + + <p class="i4">fails to understand Washington's policy and + tries to hold Charleston, 273, 274;</p> + + <p class="i4">captured, 276;</p> + + <p class="i4">commissioner to treat with Creeks, ii. 90.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Lippencott, Captain,</p> + + <p class="i4">orders hanging of Huddy, i. 327;</p> + + <p class="i4">acquitted by English court martial, 328.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Little Sarah,</p> + + <p class="i4">the affair of, 155-157.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Livingston, Chancellor,</p> + + <p class="i4">administers oath at Washington's inauguration, + ii. 46.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Livingston, Edward,</p> + + <p class="i4">moves call for papers relating to Jay treaty, + ii. 207.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Logan, Dr. George,</p> + + <p class="i4">goes on volunteer mission to France, ii. + 262;</p> + + <p class="i4">ridiculed by Federalists, publishes defense, + 263;</p> + + <p class="i4">calls upon Washington, 263;</p> + + <p class="i4">mercilessly snubbed, 263-265.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Long Island,</p> + + <p class="i4">battle of, i. 164,165.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">London, Lord,</p> + + <p class="i4">disappoints Washington by his inefficiency, i. + 91.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Lovell, James,</p> + + <p class="i4">follows the Adamses in opposing Washington, i. + 214;</p> + + <p class="i4">wishes to supplant him by Gates, 215;</p> + + <p class="i4">writes hostile letters, 222.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">MACKENZIE, CAPTAIN,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, i. 130.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Madison, James,</p> + + <p class="i4">begins to desire a stronger government, ii. 19, + 29;</p> + + <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, 30, 39, 53;</p> + + <p class="i4">chosen for French mission, but does not go, + 211.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Magaw, Colonel,</p> + + <p class="i4">betrayed at Fort Washington, i. 175.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">"Magnolia,"</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's pet colt, beaten in a race, i. 99, + 113; ii. 381.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Marshall, John,</p> + + <p class="i4">Chief Justice, on special commission to France, + ii. 284;</p> + + <p class="i4">tells anecdote of Washington's anger at + cowardice, 392.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Maryland, the Washington family in, i.36.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Mason, George,</p> + + <p class="i4">discusses political outlook with Washington, i. + 119;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, 263;</p> + + <p class="i4">an opponent of the Constitution, ii. 71;</p> + + <p class="i4">friendship of Washington for, 362;</p> + + <p class="i4">debates with Washington the site of Pohick + Church, 381.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Mason, S.T.,</p> + + <p class="i4">communicates Jay treaty to Bache, ii. 185.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Massey, Rev. Lee,</p> + + <p class="i4">rector of Pohick Church, i. 44.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Mathews, George,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, i. 294.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Matthews, Edward,</p> + + <p class="i4">makes raids in Virginia, i. 269.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Mawhood, General,</p> + + <p class="i4">defeated at Princeton, i. 182.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">McGillivray, Alexander,</p> + + <p class="i4">chief of the Creeks, ii. 90;</p> + + <p class="i4">his journey to New York and interview with + Washington, 91.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">McHenry, James,</p> + + <p class="i4">at West Point, i. 284;</p> + + <p class="i4">letters to, 325, ii. 22, 278, 287, 384;</p> + + <p class="i4">becomes secretary of war, 246;</p> + + <p class="i4">advised by Washington not to appoint Democrats, + 260, 261.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">McKean, Thomas, given letters to Dr. Logan, ii. + 265.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">McMaster, John B.,</p> + + <p class="i4">calls Washington "an unknown man," i. 7, ii. + 304;</p> + + <p class="i4">calls him cold, 332, 352;</p> + + <p class="i4">and avaricious in small ways, 352.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Meade, Colonel Richard,</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's opinion of, ii. 335.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Mercer, Hugh,</p> + + <p class="i4">killed at Princeton, i. 182.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Merlin,——,</p> + + <p class="i4">president of Directory, interview with Dr. + Logan, ii. 265.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Mifflin, Thomas,</p> + + <p class="i4">wishes to supplant Washington by Gates, i. + 216;</p> + + <p class="i4">member of board of war, 221;</p> + + <p class="i4">put under Washington's orders, 226;</p> + + <p class="i4">replies to Washington's surrender of + commission, 349;</p> + + <p class="i4">meets Washington on journey to inauguration, + ii. 44;</p> + + <p class="i4">notified of the Little Sarah, French privateer, + 154;</p> + + <p class="i4">orders its seizure, 155.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Militia,</p> + + <p class="i4">abandon Continental army, i. 167;</p> + + <p class="i4">cowardice of, 168;</p> + + <p class="i4">despised by Washington, 169;</p> + + <p class="i4">leave army again, 175;</p> + + <p class="i4">assist in defeat of Burgoyne, 211.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Mischianza, i. 232.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Monmouth,</p> + + <p class="i4">battle of, i. 235-239.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Monroe, James,</p> + + <p class="i4">appointed minister to France, ii. 211;</p> + + <p class="i4">his character, 212;</p> + + <p class="i4">intrigues against Hamilton, 212;</p> + + <p class="i4">effusively received in Paris, 212;</p> + + <p class="i4">acts foolishly, 213;</p> + + <p class="i4">tries to interfere with Jay, 213;</p> + + <p class="i4">upheld, then condemned and recalled by + Washington, 213, 214;</p> + + <p class="i4">writes a vindication, 215;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's opinion of him, 215, 216;</p> + + <p class="i4">his selection one of Washington's few mistakes, + 334.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Montgomery, General Richard,</p> + + <p class="i4">sent by Washington to invade Canada, i. + 143.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Morgan, Daniel,</p> + + <p class="i4">sent against Burgoyne by Washington, i. + 208;</p> + + <p class="i4">at Saratoga, 210;</p> + + <p class="i4">wins battle of Cowpens, joins Greene, 301.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Morris, Gouverneur,</p> + + <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, i. 248, 263;</p> + + <p class="i4">efforts towards financial reform, 264;</p> + + <p class="i4">quotes speech of Washington at Federal + convention in his eulogy, ii. 31;</p> + + <p class="i4">discussion as to his value as an authority, 32, + note;</p> + + <p class="i4">goes to England on unofficial mission, 137;</p> + + <p class="i4">balked by English insolence, 137;</p> + + <p class="i4">comprehends French Revolution, 139;</p> + + <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, on the Revolution, + 140,142,145;</p> + + <p class="i4">recall demanded by France, 211;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, 217,240, 254;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's friendship for, 363.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Morris, Robert,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, i. 187;</p> + + <p class="i4">helps Washington to pay troops, 259;</p> + + <p class="i4">efforts towards financial reform, 264;</p> + + <p class="i4">difficulty in helping Washington in 1781, 309, + 312;</p> + + <p class="i4">considered for secretary of treasury, ii. + 66;</p> + + <p class="i4">his bank policy approved by Washington, + 110;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's friendship for, 363.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Moustier,</p> + + <p class="i4">demands private access to Washington, ii. + 59;</p> + + <p class="i4">refused, 59, 60.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Murray, Vans, minister in Holland,</p> + + <p class="i4">interview with Dr. Logan, ii. 264;</p> + + <p class="i4">nominated for French mission by Adams, 292;</p> + + <p class="i4">written to by Washington, 292.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Muse, Adjutant,</p> + + <p class="i4">trains Washington in tactics and art of war, i. + 65.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">NAPOLEON,</p> + + <p class="i4">orders public mourning for Washington's death, + i. 1.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Nelson, General,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, i. 257.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Newburgh,</p> + + <p class="i4">addresses, ii. 335.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">New England,</p> + + <p class="i4">character of people, i. 138;</p> + + <p class="i4">attitude toward Washington, 138, 139;</p> + + <p class="i4">troops disliked by Washington, 152;</p> + + <p class="i4">later praised by him, 152, 317, 344;</p> + + <p class="i4">threatened by Burgoyne's invasion, 204;</p> + + <p class="i4">its delegates in Congress demand appointment of + Gates, 208;</p> + + <p class="i4">and oppose Washington, 214;</p> + + <p class="i4">welcomes Washington on tour as President, ii. + 74;</p> + + <p class="i4">more democratic than other colonies before + Revolution, 315;</p> + + <p class="i4">disliked by Washington for this reason, + 316.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Newenham, Sir Edward,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to on American foreign + policy, ii. 133.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">New York,</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's first visit to, i. 99, 100;</p> + + <p class="i4">defense of, in Revolution, 159-169;</p> + + <p class="i4">abandoned by Washington, 169;</p> + + <p class="i4">Howe establishes himself in, 177;</p> + + <p class="i4">reoccupied by Clinton, 264;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's journey to, ii. 44;</p> + + <p class="i4">inauguration in, 46;</p> + + <p class="i4">rioting in, against Jay treaty, 187.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Nicholas, John,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 259.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Nicola, Col.,</p> + + <p class="i4">urges Washington to establish a despotism, i. + 337.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Noailles, Vicomte de, French + émigré,</p> + + <p class="i4">referred to State Department, ii. 151, 253.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">O'FLINN, CAPTAIN,</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's friendship with, ii. 318.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Organization of the national government,</p> + + <p class="i4">absence of materials to work with, ii. 51;</p> + + <p class="i4">debate over title of President, 52;</p> + + <p class="i4">over his communications with Senate, 53;</p> + + <p class="i4">over presidential etiquette, 53-56;</p> + + <p class="i4">appointment of officials to cabinet offices + established by Congress, 64-71;</p> + + <p class="i4">appointment of supreme court judges, 72.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Orme,——,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, i. 84.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">PAINE, THOMAS,</p> + + <p class="i4">his "Rights of Man" reprinted by Jefferson, ii. + 226.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Parkinson, Richard,</p> + + <p class="i4">says Washington was harsh to slaves, i. + 105;</p> + + <p class="i4">contradicts statement elsewhere, 106;</p> + + <p class="i4">tells stories of Washington's pecuniary + exactness, ii. 353, 354, 382;</p> + + <p class="i4">his character, 355;</p> + + <p class="i4">his high opinion of Washington, 356.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Parton, James,</p> + + <p class="i4">considers Washington as good but commonplace, + ii. 330, 374.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Peachey, Captain,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, i. 92.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Pendleton, Edmund,</p> + + <p class="i4">Virginia delegate to Continental Congress, i. + 128.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Pennsylvania,</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses to fight the French, i. 72,83;</p> + + <p class="i4">fails to help Washington, 225;</p> + + <p class="i4">remonstrates against his going into winter + quarters, 229;</p> + + <p class="i4">condemned by Washington, 229;</p> + + <p class="i4">compromises with mutineers, 292.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Philipse, Mary,</p> + + <p class="i4">brief love-affair of Washington with, i. 99, + 100.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Phillips, General,</p> + + <p class="i4">commands British troops in Virginia, i. + 303;</p> + + <p class="i4">death of, 303.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Pickering, Colonel, quiets Six Nations, ii. + 94.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Pickering, Timothy,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, on French Revolution, + ii. 140;</p> + + <p class="i4">on failure of Spanish negotiations, 166;</p> + + <p class="i4">recalls Washington to Philadelphia to receive + Fauchet letter, 195;</p> + + <p class="i4">succeeds Randolph, 246;</p> + + <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, on party government, + 247;</p> + + <p class="i4">appeals to Washington against Adams's reversal + of Hamilton's rank, 286;</p> + + <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, 292, 324;</p> + + <p class="i4">criticises Washington as a commonplace person, + 307.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Pinckney, Charles C.,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 90;</p> + + <p class="i4">appointed to succeed Monroe as minister to + France, 214;</p> + + <p class="i4">refused reception, 284;</p> + + <p class="i4">sent on special commission, 284;</p> + + <p class="i4">named by Washington as general, 286;</p> + + <p class="i4">accepts without complaint of Hamilton's higher + rank, 290;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's friendship with, 363.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Pinckney, Thomas,</p> + + <p class="i4">sent on special mission to Spain, ii. 166;</p> + + <p class="i4">unsuccessful at first, 166;</p> + + <p class="i4">succeeds in making a good treaty, 167;</p> + + <p class="i4">credit of his exploit, 168;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, 325.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Pitt, William,</p> + + <p class="i4">his conduct of French war, i. 93, 94.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Princeton,</p> + + <p class="i4">battle of, i. 181-3.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Privateers,</p> + + <p class="i4">sent out by Washington, i. 150.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">"Protection"</p> + + <p class="i4">favored in the first Congress, ii. 113-115;</p> + + <p class="i4">arguments of Hamilton for, 114, 115;</p> + + <p class="i4">of Washington, 116-122.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Provincialism,</p> + + <p class="i4">of Americans, i. 193;</p> + + <p class="i4">with regard to foreign officers, 193, 234, + 250-252;</p> + + <p class="i4">with regard to foreign politics, ii. 131, 132, + 163, 237, 255.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Putnam, Israel,</p> + + <p class="i4">escapes with difficulty from New York, i. + 169;</p> + + <p class="i4">fails to help Washington at Trenton, 180;</p> + + <p class="i4">warned to defend the Hudson, 195;</p> + + <p class="i4">tells Washington of Burgoyne's surrender, + 211;</p> + + <p class="i4">rebuked by Washington, 217;</p> + + <p class="i4">amuses Washington, ii. 374.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">RAHL, COLONEL,</p> + + <p class="i4">defeated and killed at Trenton, i. 181.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Randolph, Edmund,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 30, 39;</p> + + <p class="i4">relations with Washington, 64;</p> + + <p class="i4">appointed attorney-general, 64;</p> + + <p class="i4">his character, 64, 65;</p> + + <p class="i4">a friend of the Constitution, 71;</p> + + <p class="i4">opposes a bank, 110;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, on protective + bounties, 118;</p> + + <p class="i4">drafts neutrality proclamation, 147;</p> + + <p class="i4">vacillates with regard to Genet, 154;</p> + + <p class="i4">argues that United States is bound by French + alliance, 170;</p> + + <p class="i4">succeeds Jefferson as secretary of state, + 184;</p> + + <p class="i4">directed to prepare a remonstrance against + English "provision order," 185;</p> + + <p class="i4">opposed to Jay treaty, 188;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, on conditional + ratification, 189, 191, 192, 194;</p> + + <p class="i4">guilty, apparently, from Fauchet letter, of + corrupt practices, 196;</p> + + <p class="i4">his position not a cause for Washington's + signing treaty, 196-200;</p> + + <p class="i4">receives Fauchet letter, resigns, 201;</p> + + <p class="i4">his personal honesty, 201;</p> + + <p class="i4">his discreditable carelessness, 202;</p> + + <p class="i4">fairly treated by Washington, 203, 204;</p> + + <p class="i4">his complaints against Washington, 203;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, concerning Monroe, + 213;</p> + + <p class="i4">at first a Federalist, 246.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Randolph, John,</p> + + <p class="i4">on early disappearance of Virginia colonial + society, i. 15.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Rawdon, Lord,</p> + + <p class="i4">commands British forces in South, too distant + to help Cornwallis, i. 304.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Reed, Joseph,</p> + + <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, i. 151, 260.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Revolution, War of,</p> + + <p class="i4">foreseen by Washington, i. 120, 122;</p> + + <p class="i4">Lexington and Concord, 133;</p> + + <p class="i4">Bunker Hill, 136;</p> + + <p class="i4">siege of Boston, 137-154;</p> + + <p class="i4">organization of army, 139-142;</p> + + <p class="i4">operations in New York, 143;</p> + + <p class="i4">invasion of Canada, 143, 144;</p> + + <p class="i4">question as to treatment of prisoners, + 145-148;</p> + + <p class="i4">causes of British defeat, 154, 155;</p> + + <p class="i4">campaign near New York, 161-177;</p> + + <p class="i4">causes for attempted defense of Brooklyn, 163, + 164;</p> + + <p class="i4">battle of Long Island, 164-165;</p> + + <p class="i4">escape of Americans, 166;</p> + + <p class="i4">affair at Kip's Bay, 168;</p> + + <p class="i4">at King's Bridge, 170;</p> + + <p class="i4">at Frog's Point, 173;</p> + + <p class="i4">battle of White Plains, 173;</p> + + <p class="i4">at Chatterton Hill, 174;</p> + + <p class="i4">capture of Forts Washington and Lee, 174, + 175;</p> + + <p class="i4">pursuit of Washington into New Jersey, + 175-177;</p> + + <p class="i4">retirement of Howe to New York, 177;</p> + + <p class="i4">battle of Trenton, 180, 181;</p> + + <p class="i4">campaign of Princeton, 181-183;</p> + + <p class="i4">its brilliancy, 183;</p> + + <p class="i4">Philadelphia campaign, 194-202;</p> + + <p class="i4">British march across New Jersey prevented by + Washington, 194;</p> + + <p class="i4">sea voyage to Delaware, 195;</p> + + <p class="i4">battle of the Brandywine, 196-198;</p> + + <p class="i4">causes for defeat, 198;</p> + + <p class="i4">defeat of Wayne, 198;</p> + + <p class="i4">Philadelphia taken by Howe, 199;</p> + + <p class="i4">battle of Germantown, 199;</p> + + <p class="i4">its significance, 200, 201;</p> + + <p class="i4">Burgoyne's invasion, 203-211;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's preparations for, 204-206;</p> + + <p class="i4">Howe's error in neglecting to cooperate, + 205;</p> + + <p class="i4">capture of Ticonderoga, 207;</p> + + <p class="i4">battles of Bennington, Oriskany, Fort Schuyler, + 210;</p> + + <p class="i4">battle of Saratoga, 211;</p> + + <p class="i4">British repulse at Fort Mercer, 217;</p> + + <p class="i4">destruction of the forts, 217;</p> + + <p class="i4">fruitless skirmishing before Philadelphia, + 218;</p> + + <p class="i4">Valley Forge, 228-232;</p> + + <p class="i4">evacuation of Philadelphia, 234;</p> + + <p class="i4">battle of Monmouth, 235-239;</p> + + <p class="i4">its effect, 239;</p> + + <p class="i4">cruise and failure of D'Estaing at Newport, + 243, 244;</p> + + <p class="i4">failure of D'Estaing at Savannah, 247, 248;</p> + + <p class="i4">storming of Stony Point, 268, 269;</p> + + <p class="i4">Tory raids near New York, 269;</p> + + <p class="i4">standstill in 1780, 272;</p> + + <p class="i4">siege and capture of Charleston, 273, 274, + 276;</p> + + <p class="i4">operations of French and Americans near + Newport, 277, 278;</p> + + <p class="i4">battle of Camden, 281;</p> + + <p class="i4">treason of Arnold, 281-289;</p> + + <p class="i4">battle of Cowpens, 301;</p> + + <p class="i4">retreat of Greene before Cornwallis, 302;</p> + + <p class="i4">battle of Guilford Court House, 302;</p> + + <p class="i4">successful operations of Greene, 302, 303;</p> + + <p class="i4">Southern campaign planned by Washington, + 304-311;</p> + + <p class="i4">feints against Clinton, 306;</p> + + <p class="i4">operations of Cornwallis and Lafayette in + Virginia, 307;</p> + + <p class="i4">naval supremacy secured by Washington, 310, + 311;</p> + + <p class="i4">battle of De Grasse and Graves off Chesapeake, + 312;</p> + + <p class="i4">transport of American army to Virginia, + 311-313;</p> + + <p class="i4">siege and capture of Yorktown, 315-318;</p> + + <p class="i4">masterly character of campaign, 318-320;</p> + + <p class="i4">petty operations before New York, 326;</p> + + <p class="i4">treaty of peace, 342.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Rives,</p> + + <p class="i4">on Washington's doubts of constitutionality of + Bank, ii. 110.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Robinson, Beverly,</p> + + <p class="i4">speaker of Virginia House of Burgesses, his + compliment to Washington, i. 102.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Robinson, Colonel,</p> + + <p class="i4">loyalist, i. 282.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Rumsey, James,</p> + + <p class="i4">the inventor, asks Washington's consideration + of his steamboat, ii. 4.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Rush, Benjamin,</p> + + <p class="i4">describes Washington's impressiveness, ii. + 389.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Rutledge, John,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, i. 281;</p> + + <p class="i4">nomination rejected by Senate, ii. 63;</p> + + <p class="i4">nominated to Supreme Court, 73.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">ST. CLAIR, Arthur,</p> + + <p class="i4">removed after loss of Ticonderoga, i. 208;</p> + + <p class="i4">appointed to command against Indians, ii. + 94;</p> + + <p class="i4">receives instructions and begins expedition, + 95;</p> + + <p class="i4">defeated, 96;</p> + + <p class="i4">his character, 99;</p> + + <p class="i4">fair treatment by Washington, 99;</p> + + <p class="i4">popular execration of, 105.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">St. Pierre, M. de,</p> + + <p class="i4">French governor in Ohio, i. 67.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">St. Simon, Count,</p> + + <p class="i4">reinforces Lafayette, i. 312.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Sandwich, Lord,</p> + + <p class="i4">calls all Yankees cowards, i. 155.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Saratoga,</p> + + <p class="i4">anecdote concerning, i. 202.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Savage, Edward,</p> + + <p class="i4">characteristics of his portrait of Washington, + i. 13.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Savannah,</p> + + <p class="i4">siege of, i. 247.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Scammel, Colonel,</p> + + <p class="i4">amuses Washington, ii. 374.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Schuyler, Philip,</p> + + <p class="i4">accompanies Washington to Boston, i. 136;</p> + + <p class="i4">appointed military head in New York, 136;</p> + + <p class="i4">directed by Washington how to meet Burgoyne, + 204;</p> + + <p class="i4">fails to carry out directions, 207;</p> + + <p class="i4">removed, 208;</p> + + <p class="i4">value of his preparations, 209.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Scott, Charles, commands expedition against + Indians, ii. 95.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Sea-power,</p> + + <p class="i4">its necessity seen by Washington, i. 283, 303, + 304, 306, 310, 318, 319.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Sectional feeling,</p> + + <p class="i4">deplored by Washington, ii. 222.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Sharpe, Governor,</p> + + <p class="i4">offers Washington a company, i. 80;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's reply to, 81.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Shays's Rebellion,</p> + + <p class="i4">comments of Washington and Jefferson upon, ii. + 26, 27.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Sherman, Roger,</p> + + <p class="i4">makes sarcastic remark about Wilkinson, i. + 220.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Shirley, Governor William,</p> + + <p class="i4">adjusts matter of Washington's rank, i. 91, + 97.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Short, William, minister to Holland,</p> + + <p class="i4">on commission regarding opening of Mississippi, + ii. 166.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Six Nations,</p> + + <p class="i4">make satisfactory treaties, ii. 88;</p> + + <p class="i4">stirred up by English, 94;</p> + + <p class="i4">but pacified, 94, 101.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Slavery,</p> + + <p class="i4">in Virginia, i. 20;</p> + + <p class="i4">its evil effects, 104;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's attitude toward slaves, 105;</p> + + <p class="i4">his condemnation of the system, 106, 107;</p> + + <p class="i4">gradual emancipation favored, 107, 108.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Smith, Colonel,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 340.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Spain,</p> + + <p class="i4">instigates Indians to hostilities, ii. 89, 94, + 101;</p> + + <p class="i4">blocks Mississippi, 135;</p> + + <p class="i4">makes treaty with Pinckney opening Mississippi, + 167, 168;</p> + + <p class="i4">angered at Jay treaty, 210.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Sparks, Jared,</p> + + <p class="i4">his alterations of Washington's letters, ii. + 337, 338.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Spotswood, Alexander,</p> + + <p class="i4">asks Washington's opinion of Alien and Sedition + Acts, ii. 297.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Stamp Act,</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's opinion of, i. 119, 120.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Stark, General,</p> + + <p class="i4">leads attack at Trenton, i. 181.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">States, in the Revolutionary war,</p> + + <p class="i4">appeals of Washington to, i. 142, 186, 204, + 259, 277, 295, 306, 323, 324, 326, 344;</p> + + <p class="i4">issue paper money, 258;</p> + + <p class="i4">grow tired of the war, 290;</p> + + <p class="i4">alarmed by mutinies, 294;</p> + + <p class="i4">try to appease soldiers, 295, 296;</p> + + <p class="i4">their selfishness condemned by Washington, 333; + ii. 21, 23;</p> + + <p class="i4">thwart Indian policy of Congress, 88.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Stephen, Adam,</p> + + <p class="i4">late in attacking at Germantown, i. 199.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Steuben, Baron,</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's appreciation of, i. 192, 249;</p> + + <p class="i4">drills the army at Valley Forge, 232;</p> + + <p class="i4">annoys Washington by wishing higher command, + 249;</p> + + <p class="i4">sent on mission to demand surrender of Western + posts, 343;</p> + + <p class="i4">his worth recognized by Washington, ii. + 334.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Stirling, Lord,</p> + + <p class="i4">defeated and captured at Long Island, i. + 165.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Stockton, Mrs.,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 349.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Stone, General,</p> + + <p class="i4">tells stories of Washington's closeness, ii. + 353, 354.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Stuart, David,</p> + + <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, ii. 107, 221, 222, + 258.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Stuart, Gilbert,</p> + + <p class="i4">his portrait of Washington contrasted with + Savage's, i. 13.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Sullivan, John, General,</p> + + <p class="i4">surprised at Long Island, i. 165;</p> + + <p class="i4">attacks at Trenton, 180;</p> + + <p class="i4">surprised and crushed at Brandywine, 197, + 198;</p> + + <p class="i4">unites with D'Estaing to attack Newport, + 243;</p> + + <p class="i4">angry at D'Estaing's desertion, 244;</p> + + <p class="i4">soothed by Washington, 244;</p> + + <p class="i4">sent against Indians, 266, 269.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Supreme Court,</p> + + <p class="i4">appointed by Washington, ii. 72.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">TAFT,——,</p> + + <p class="i4">kindness of Washington toward, ii. 367.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Talleyrand,</p> + + <p class="i4">eulogistic report to Napoleon on death of + Washington, i. 1, note;</p> + + <p class="i4">remark on Hamilton, ii. 139;</p> + + <p class="i4">refused reception by Washington, 253.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Tarleton, Sir Banastre,</p> + + <p class="i4">tries to escape at Yorktown, i. 317.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Thatcher, Dr.,</p> + + <p class="i4">on Washington's appearance when taking command + of army, i. 137.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Thomson, Charles,</p> + + <p class="i4">complimented by Washington on retiring from + secretary-ship of Continental Congress, ii. 350.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Tories,</p> + + <p class="i4">hated by Washington, i. 156;</p> + + <p class="i4">his reasons, 157;</p> + + <p class="i4">active in New York, 158;</p> + + <p class="i4">suppressed by Washington, 159;</p> + + <p class="i4">in Philadelphia, impressed by Continental army, + 196;</p> + + <p class="i4">make raids on frontier, 266;</p> + + <p class="i4">strong in Southern States, 267;</p> + + <p class="i4">raids under Tryon, 269.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Trent, Captain,</p> + + <p class="i4">his incompetence in dealing with Indians and + French, i. 72.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Trenton, campaign of, i. 180-183.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Trumbull, Governor,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, refusing to stand for + a third term, ii. 269-271;</p> + + <p class="i4">other letters, 298.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Trumbull, John,</p> + + <p class="i4">on New England army before Boston, i. 139.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Trumbull, Jonathan,</p> + + <p class="i4">his message on better government praised by + Washington, ii. 21;</p> + + <p class="i4">letters to, 42;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's friendship for, 363.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Tryon, Governor,</p> + + <p class="i4">Tory leader in New York, i. 143;</p> + + <p class="i4">his intrigues stopped by Washington, 158, + 159;</p> + + <p class="i4">conspires to murder Washington, 160;</p> + + <p class="i4">makes raids in Connecticut, 269.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">VALLEY FORGE,</p> + + <p class="i4">Continental Army at, i. 228-232.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Van Braam, Jacob,</p> + + <p class="i4">friend of Lawrence Washington, trains George in + fencing, i. 65;</p> + + <p class="i4">accompanies him on mission to French, 66.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Vergennes,</p> + + <p class="i4">requests release of Asgill, i. 329, 330;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, 330;</p> + + <p class="i4">proposes to submit disposition of a subsidy to + Washington, 332.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Virginia, society in,</p> + + <p class="i4">before the Revolution, i. 15-29;</p> + + <p class="i4">its entire change since then, 15, 16;</p> + + <p class="i4">population, distribution, and numbers, 17, + 18;</p> + + <p class="i4">absence of towns, 18;</p> + + <p class="i4">and town life, 19;</p> + + <p class="i4">trade and travel in, 19;</p> + + <p class="i4">social classes, 20-24;</p> + + <p class="i4">slaves and poor whites, 20;</p> + + <p class="i4">clergy, 21;</p> + + <p class="i4">planters and their estates, 22;</p> + + <p class="i4">their life, 22;</p> + + <p class="i4">education, 23;</p> + + <p class="i4">habits of governing, 24;</p> + + <p class="i4">luxury and extravagance, 25;</p> + + <p class="i4">apparent wealth, 26;</p> + + <p class="i4">agreeableness of life, 27;</p> + + <p class="i4">aristocratic ideals, 28;</p> + + <p class="i4">vigor of stock, 29;</p> + + <p class="i4">unwilling to fight French, 71;</p> + + <p class="i4">quarrels with Dinwiddie, 71;</p> + + <p class="i4">thanks Washington after his French campaign, + 79;</p> + + <p class="i4">terrified at Braddock's defeat, 88;</p> + + <p class="i4">gives Washington command, 89;</p> + + <p class="i4">fails to support him, 89, 90, 93;</p> + + <p class="i4">bad economic conditions in, 104,105;</p> + + <p class="i4">local government in, 117;</p> + + <p class="i4">condemns Stamp Act, 119;</p> + + <p class="i4">adopts non-importation, 121;</p> + + <p class="i4">condemns Boston Port Bill, 123;</p> + + <p class="i4">asks opinion of counties, 124;</p> + + <p class="i4">chooses delegates to a congress, 127;</p> + + <p class="i4">prepares for war, 132;</p> + + <p class="i4">British campaign in, 307, 315-318;</p> + + <p class="i4">ratifies Constitution, ii. 40;</p> + + <p class="i4">evil effect of free trade upon, 116, 117;</p> + + <p class="i4">nullification resolutions, 266;</p> + + <p class="i4">strength of its aristocracy, 315.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">WADE, COLONEL,</p> + + <p class="i4">in command at West Point after Arnold's flight, + i. 285.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Walker, Benjamin,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 257.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Warren, James,</p> + + <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, i. 262, ii. 118.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Washington,</p> + + <p class="i4">ancestry, i. 30-40;</p> + + <p class="i4">early genealogical researches concerning, + 30-32;</p> + + <p class="i4">pedigree finally established, 32;</p> + + <p class="i4">origin of family, 33;</p> + + <p class="i4">various members during middle ages, 34;</p> + + <p class="i4">on royalist side in English civil war, 34, + 36;</p> + + <p class="i4">character of family, 35;</p> + + <p class="i4">emigration to Virginia, 35, 36;</p> + + <p class="i4">career of Washingtons in Maryland, 37;</p> + + <p class="i4">in Virginia history, 38;</p> + + <p class="i4">their estates, 39.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Washington, Augustine, father of George + Washington,</p> + + <p class="i4">birth, i. 35;</p> + + <p class="i4">death, 39;</p> + + <p class="i4">character, 39;</p> + + <p class="i4">his estate, 41;</p> + + <p class="i4">ridiculous part played by in Weems's anecdotes, + 44, 47.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Washington, Augustine, half brother of George + Washington,</p> + + <p class="i4">keeps him after his father's death, i. 48.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Washington, Bushrod,</p> + + <p class="i4">refused appointment as attorney by Washington, + ii. 62;</p> + + <p class="i4">educated by him, 370.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Washington, George,</p> + + <p class="i4">honors to his memory in France, i. 1;</p> + + <p class="i4">in England, 2;</p> + + <p class="i4">grief in America, 3, 4;</p> + + <p class="i4">general admission of his greatness, 4;</p> + + <p class="i4">its significance, 5, 6;</p> + + <p class="i4">tributes from England, 6;</p> + + <p class="i4">from other countries, 6, 7;</p> + + <p class="i4">yet an "unknown" man, 7;</p> + + <p class="i4">minuteness of knowledge concerning, 8;</p> + + <p class="i4">has become subject of myths, 9;</p> + + <p class="i4">development of the Weems myth about, 10, + 11;</p> + + <p class="i4">necessity of a new treatment of, 12;</p> + + <p class="i4">significant difference of real and ideal + portraits of, 13;</p> + + <p class="i4">his silence regarding himself, 14;</p> + + <p class="i4">underlying traits, 14.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2"><i>Early Life</i>.</p> + + <p class="i4">Ancestry, 30-41;</p> + + <p class="i4">birth, 39;</p> + + <p class="i4">origin of Weems's anecdotes about, 41-44;</p> + + <p class="i4">their absurdity and evil results, 45-48;</p> + + <p class="i4">early schooling, 48;</p> + + <p class="i4">plan to send him to sea, 49, 50;</p> + + <p class="i4">studies to be a surveyor, 51;</p> + + <p class="i4">his rules of behavior, 52;</p> + + <p class="i4">his family connections with Fairfaxes, 54, + 55;</p> + + <p class="i4">his friendship with Lord Fairfax, 56;</p> + + <p class="i4">surveys Fairfax's estate, 57, 58, 59;</p> + + <p class="i4">made public surveyor, 60;</p> + + <p class="i4">his life at the time, 60, 61;</p> + + <p class="i4">influenced by Fairfax's cultivation, 62;</p> + + <p class="i4">goes to West Indies with his brother, 62;</p> + + <p class="i4">has the small-pox, 63;</p> + + <p class="i4">observations on the voyage, 63, 64;</p> + + <p class="i4">returns to Virginia, 64;</p> + + <p class="i4">becomes guardian of his brother's daughter, + 64.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2"><i>Service against the French and + Indians</i>.</p> + + <p class="i4">Receives military training, 65;</p> + + <p class="i4">a military appointment, 66;</p> + + <p class="i4">goes on expedition to treat with French, + 66;</p> + + <p class="i4">meets Indians, 67;</p> + + <p class="i4">deals with French, 67;</p> + + <p class="i4">dangers of journey, 68;</p> + + <p class="i4">his impersonal account, 69, 70;</p> + + <p class="i4">appointed to command force against French, 71, + 72;</p> + + <p class="i4">his anger at neglect of Virginia Assembly, + 73;</p> + + <p class="i4">attacks and defeats force of Jumonville, + 74;</p> + + <p class="i4">called murderer by the French, 74;</p> + + <p class="i4">surrounded by French at Great Meadows, 76;</p> + + <p class="i4">surrenders, 76;</p> + + <p class="i4">recklessness of his expedition, 77, 78;</p> + + <p class="i4">effect of experience upon, 79;</p> + + <p class="i4">gains a European notoriety, 79;</p> + + <p class="i4">thanked by Virginia, 79;</p> + + <p class="i4">protests against Dinwiddie's organization of + soldiers, 80;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses to serve when ranked by British + officers, 81;</p> + + <p class="i4">accepts position on Braddock's staff, 82;</p> + + <p class="i4">his treatment there, 82;</p> + + <p class="i4">advises Braddock, 84;</p> + + <p class="i4">rebuked for warning against surprise, 85;</p> + + <p class="i4">his bravery in the battle, 86;</p> + + <p class="i4">conducts retreat, 86, 87;</p> + + <p class="i4">effect of experience on him, 87;</p> + + <p class="i4">declines to solicit command of Virginia troops, + 88;</p> + + <p class="i4">accepts it when offered, 88;</p> + + <p class="i4">his difficulties with Assembly, 89;</p> + + <p class="i4">and with troops, 90;</p> + + <p class="i4">settles question of rank, 91;</p> + + <p class="i4">writes freely in criticism of government, 91, + 92;</p> + + <p class="i4">retires for rest to Mt. Vernon, 93;</p> + + <p class="i4">offers services to General Forbes, 93;</p> + + <p class="i4">irritated at slowness of English, 93, 94;</p> + + <p class="i4">his love affairs, 95, 96;</p> + + <p class="i4">journey to Boston, 97-101;</p> + + <p class="i4">at festivities in New York and Philadelphia, + 99;</p> + + <p class="i4">meets Martha Custis, 101;</p> + + <p class="i4">his wedding, 101, 102;</p> + + <p class="i4">elected to House of Burgesses, 102;</p> + + <p class="i4">confused at being thanked by Assembly, 102;</p> + + <p class="i4">his local position, 103;</p> + + <p class="i4">tries to farm his estate, 104;</p> + + <p class="i4">his management of slaves, 105, 106, 108, + 109;</p> + + <p class="i4">cares for interests of old soldiers, 109;</p> + + <p class="i4">rebukes a coward, 110;</p> + + <p class="i4">cares for education of stepson, 111;</p> + + <p class="i4">his furnishing of house, 112;</p> + + <p class="i4">hunting habits, 113-115;</p> + + <p class="i4">punishes a poacher, 116;</p> + + <p class="i4">participates in colonial and local government, + 117;</p> + + <p class="i4">enters into society, 117, 118.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2"><i>Congressional delegate from + Virginia</i>.</p> + + <p class="i4">His influence in Assembly, 119;</p> + + <p class="i4">discusses Stamp Act with Mason, 119;</p> + + <p class="i4">foresees result to be independence, 119;</p> + + <p class="i4">rejoices at its repeal, but notes Declaratory + Act, 120;</p> + + <p class="i4">ready to use force to defend colonial rights, + 120;</p> + + <p class="i4">presents non-importation resolutions to + Burgesses, 121;</p> + + <p class="i4">abstains from English products, 121;</p> + + <p class="i4">notes ominous movements among Indians, 122;</p> + + <p class="i4">on good terms with royal governors, 122, + 123;</p> + + <p class="i4">observes fast on account of Boston Port Bill, + 123;</p> + + <p class="i4">has controversy with Bryan Fairfax over + Parliamentary policy, 124, 125, 126;</p> + + <p class="i4">presides at Fairfax County meeting, 126;</p> + + <p class="i4">declares himself ready for action, 126;</p> + + <p class="i4">at convention of counties, offers to march to + relief of Boston, 127;</p> + + <p class="i4">elected to Continental Congress, 127;</p> + + <p class="i4">his journey, 128;</p> + + <p class="i4">silent in Congress, 129;</p> + + <p class="i4">writes to a British officer that independence + is not</p> + + <p class="i4">desired, but war is certain, 130, 131;</p> + + <p class="i4">returns to Virginia, 132;</p> + + <p class="i4">aids in military preparations, 132;</p> + + <p class="i4">his opinion after Concord, 133;</p> + + <p class="i4">at second Continental Congress, wears uniform, + 134;</p> + + <p class="i4">made commander-in-chief, 134;</p> + + <p class="i4">his modesty and courage in accepting position, + 134, 135;</p> + + <p class="i4">political motives for his choice, 135;</p> + + <p class="i4">his popularity, 136;</p> + + <p class="i4">his journey to Boston, 136, 137;</p> + + <p class="i4">receives news of Bunker Hill, 136;</p> + + <p class="i4">is received by Massachusetts Provincial + Assembly, 137.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2"><i>Commander of the Army</i>.</p> + + <p class="i4">Takes command at Cambridge, 137;</p> + + <p class="i4">his impression upon people, 137, 138, 139;</p> + + <p class="i4">begins reorganization of army, 139;</p> + + <p class="i4">secures number of troops, 140;</p> + + <p class="i4">enforces discipline, his difficulties, 140, + 141;</p> + + <p class="i4">forced to lead Congress, 142;</p> + + <p class="i4">to arrange rank of officers, 142;</p> + + <p class="i4">organizes privateers, 142;</p> + + <p class="i4">discovers lack of powder, 143;</p> + + <p class="i4">plans campaigns in Canada and elsewhere, 143, + 144;</p> + + <p class="i4">his plans of attack on Boston overruled by + council of war, 144;</p> + + <p class="i4">writes to Gage urging that captives be treated + as prisoners of war, 145;</p> + + <p class="i4">skill of his letter, 146;</p> + + <p class="i4">retorts to Gage's reply, 147;</p> + + <p class="i4">continues dispute with Howe, 148;</p> + + <p class="i4">annoyed by insufficiency of provisions, + 149;</p> + + <p class="i4">and by desertions, 149;</p> + + <p class="i4">stops quarrel between Virginia and Marblehead + soldiers, 149;</p> + + <p class="i4">suggests admiralty committees, 150;</p> + + <p class="i4">annoyed by army contractors, 150;</p> + + <p class="i4">and criticism, 151;</p> + + <p class="i4">letter to Joseph Reed, 151;</p> + + <p class="i4">occupies Dorchester Heights, 152;</p> + + <p class="i4">begins to like New England men better, 152;</p> + + <p class="i4">rejoices at prospect of a fight, 153;</p> + + <p class="i4">departure of British due to his leadership, + 154;</p> + + <p class="i4">sends troops immediately to New York, 155;</p> + + <p class="i4">enters Boston, 156;</p> + + <p class="i4">expects a hard war, 156;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges upon Congress the necessity of preparing + for a long struggle, 156;</p> + + <p class="i4">his growing hatred of Tories, 156, 157;</p> + + <p class="i4">goes to New York, 157, 158;</p> + + <p class="i4">difficulties of the situation, 158;</p> + + <p class="i4">suppresses Tories, 159;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges Congress to declare independence, 159, + 160;</p> + + <p class="i4">discovers and punishes a conspiracy to + assassinate, 160;</p> + + <p class="i4">insists on his title in correspondence with + Howe, 161;</p> + + <p class="i4">justice of his position, 162;</p> + + <p class="i4">quiets sectional jealousies in army, 162;</p> + + <p class="i4">his military inferiority to British, 163;</p> + + <p class="i4">obliged by political considerations to attempt + defense of New York, 163, 164;</p> + + <p class="i4">assumes command on Long Island, 164;</p> + + <p class="i4">sees defeat of his troops, 165;</p> + + <p class="i4">sees plan of British fleet to cut off retreat, + 166;</p> + + <p class="i4">secures retreat of army, 167;</p> + + <p class="i4">explains his policy of avoiding a pitched + battle, 167;</p> + + <p class="i4">anger at flight of militia at Kip's Bay, + 168;</p> + + <p class="i4">again secures safe retreat, 169;</p> + + <p class="i4">secures slight advantage in a skirmish, + 170;</p> + + <p class="i4">continues to urge Congress to action, 170, + 171;</p> + + <p class="i4">success of his letters in securing a permanent + army, 171;</p> + + <p class="i4">surprised by advance of British fleet, 172;</p> + + <p class="i4">moves to White Plains, 173;</p> + + <p class="i4">blocks British advance, 174;</p> + + <p class="i4">advises abandonment of American forts, 174;</p> + + <p class="i4">blames himself for their capture, 175;</p> + + <p class="i4">leads diminishing army through New Jersey, + 175;</p> + + <p class="i4">makes vain appeals for aid, 176;</p> + + <p class="i4">resolves to take the offensive, 177;</p> + + <p class="i4">desperateness of his situation, 178;</p> + + <p class="i4">pledges his estate and private fortune to raise + men, 179;</p> + + <p class="i4">orders disregarded by officers, 180;</p> + + <p class="i4">crosses Delaware and captures Hessians, 180, + 181;</p> + + <p class="i4">has difficulty in retaining soldiers, 181;</p> + + <p class="i4">repulses Cornwallis at Assunpink, 181;</p> + + <p class="i4">outwits Cornwallis and wins battle at + Princeton, 182;</p> + + <p class="i4">excellence of his strategy, 183;</p> + + <p class="i4">effect of this campaign in saving Revolution, + 183, 184;</p> + + <p class="i4">withdraws to Morristown, 185;</p> + + <p class="i4">fluctuations in size of army, 186;</p> + + <p class="i4">his determination to keep the field, 186, + 187;</p> + + <p class="i4">criticised by Congress for not fighting, + 187;</p> + + <p class="i4">hampered by Congressional interference, + 188;</p> + + <p class="i4">issues proclamation requiring oath of + allegiance, 188;</p> + + <p class="i4">attacked in Congress for so doing, 189;</p> + + <p class="i4">annoyed by Congressional alterations of rank, + 189;</p> + + <p class="i4">and by foreign military adventurers, 191;</p> + + <p class="i4">value of his services in suppressing them, + 192;</p> + + <p class="i4">his American feelings, 191, 193;</p> + + <p class="i4">warns Congress in vain that Howe means to + attack Philadelphia, 193;</p> + + <p class="i4">baffles Howe's advance across New Jersey, + 195;</p> + + <p class="i4">learning of his sailing, marches to defend + Philadelphia, 195;</p> + + <p class="i4">offers battle at Brandywine, 196, 197;</p> + + <p class="i4">out-generaled and beaten, 197;</p> + + <p class="i4">rallies army and prepares to fight again, + 198;</p> + + <p class="i4">prevented by storm, 199;</p> + + <p class="i4">attacks British at Germantown, 199;</p> + + <p class="i4">defeated, 200;</p> + + <p class="i4">exposes himself in battle, 200;</p> + + <p class="i4">real success of his action, 201;</p> + + <p class="i4">despised by English, 202;</p> + + <p class="i4">foresees danger of Burgoyne's invasion, + 203;</p> + + <p class="i4">sends instructions to Schuyler, 204;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges use of New England and New York militia, + 304;</p> + + <p class="i4">dreads northern advance of Howe, 205;</p> + + <p class="i4">determines to hold him at all hazards, 206, + 207;</p> + + <p class="i4">not cast down by loss of Ticonderoga, 207;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges New England to rise, 208;</p> + + <p class="i4">sends all possible troops, 208;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses to appoint a commander for Northern + army, 208;</p> + + <p class="i4">his probable reasons, 209;</p> + + <p class="i4">continues to send suggestions, 210;</p> + + <p class="i4">slighted by Gates after Burgoyne's surrender, + 211;</p> + + <p class="i4">rise of opposition in Congress, 212;</p> + + <p class="i4">arouses ill-feeling by his frankness, 212, + 213;</p> + + <p class="i4">distrusted by Samuel and John Adams, 214;</p> + + <p class="i4">by others, 214, 215;</p> + + <p class="i4">formation of a plan to supplant him by Gates, + 215;</p> + + <p class="i4">opposed by Gates, Mifflin, and Conway, 215, + 216;</p> + + <p class="i4">angers Conway by preventing his increase in + rank, 216;</p> + + <p class="i4">is refused troops by Gates, 217;</p> + + <p class="i4">defends and loses Delaware forts, 217;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses to attack Howe, 218;</p> + + <p class="i4">propriety of his action, 219;</p> + + <p class="i4">becomes aware of cabal, 220;</p> + + <p class="i4">alarms them by showing extent of his knowledge, + 221;</p> + + <p class="i4">attacked bitterly in Congress, 222;</p> + + <p class="i4">insulted by Gates, 223;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses to resign, 224;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses to notice cabal publicly, 224;</p> + + <p class="i4">complains privately of slight support from + Pennsylvania, 225;</p> + + <p class="i4">continues to push Gates for explanations, + 226;</p> + + <p class="i4">regains complete control after collapse of + cabal, 226, 227;</p> + + <p class="i4">withdraws to Valley Forge, 227;</p> + + <p class="i4">desperation of his situation, 228;</p> + + <p class="i4">criticised by Pennsylvania legislature for + going into winter quarters, 229;</p> + + <p class="i4">his bitter reply, 229;</p> + + <p class="i4">his unbending resolution, 230;</p> + + <p class="i4">continues to urge improvements in army + organization, 231;</p> + + <p class="i4">manages to hold army together, 232;</p> + + <p class="i4">sends Lafayette to watch Philadelphia, 233;</p> + + <p class="i4">determines to fight, 234;</p> + + <p class="i4">checked by Lee, 234;</p> + + <p class="i4">pursues Clinton, 235;</p> + + <p class="i4">orders Lee to attack British rearguard, + 235;</p> + + <p class="i4">discovers his force retreating, 236;</p> + + <p class="i4">rebukes Lee and punishes him, 236, 237;</p> + + <p class="i4">takes command and stops retreat, 237;</p> + + <p class="i4">repulses British and assumes offensive, + 238;</p> + + <p class="i4">success due to his work at Valley Forge, + 239;</p> + + <p class="i4">celebrates French alliance, 241;</p> + + <p class="i4">has to confront difficulty of managing allies, + 241, 242;</p> + + <p class="i4">welcomes D'Estaing, 243;</p> + + <p class="i4">obliged to quiet recrimination after Newport + failure, 244;</p> + + <p class="i4">his letter to Sullivan, 244;</p> + + <p class="i4">to Lafayette, 245;</p> + + <p class="i4">to D'Estaing, 246;</p> + + <p class="i4">tact and good effect of his letters, 246;</p> + + <p class="i4">offers to cooperate in an attack on New York, + 247;</p> + + <p class="i4">furnishes admirable suggestions to D'Estaing, + 247;</p> + + <p class="i4">not dazzled by French, 248;</p> + + <p class="i4">objects to giving rank to foreign officers, + 248, 249;</p> + + <p class="i4">opposes transfer of Steuben from inspectorship + to the line, 249;</p> + + <p class="i4">his thoroughly American position, 250;</p> + + <p class="i4">absence of provinciality, 251, 252;</p> + + <p class="i4">a national leader, 252;</p> + + <p class="i4">opposes invasion of Canada, 253;</p> + + <p class="i4">foresees danger of its recapture by France, + 254, 255;</p> + + <p class="i4">his clear understanding of French motives, 255, + 256;</p> + + <p class="i4">rejoices in condition of patriot cause, + 257;</p> + + <p class="i4">foresees ruin to army in financial troubles, + 258;</p> + + <p class="i4">has to appease mutinies among unpaid troops, + 258;</p> + + <p class="i4">appeals to Congress, 259;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges election of better delegates to Congress, + 259;</p> + + <p class="i4">angry with speculators, 260, 261;</p> + + <p class="i4">futility of his efforts, 261, 262;</p> + + <p class="i4">his increasing alarm at social demoralization, + 263;</p> + + <p class="i4">effect of his exertions, 264;</p> + + <p class="i4">conceals his doubts of the French, 264;</p> + + <p class="i4">watches New York, 264;</p> + + <p class="i4">keeps dreading an English campaign, 265;</p> + + <p class="i4">labors with Congress to form a navy, 266;</p> + + <p class="i4">plans expedition to chastise Indians, 266;</p> + + <p class="i4">realizes that things are at a standstill in the + North, 267;</p> + + <p class="i4">sees danger to lie in the South, but determines + to remain himself near New York, 267;</p> + + <p class="i4">not consulted by Congress in naming general for + Southern army, 268;</p> + + <p class="i4">plans attack on Stony Point, 268;</p> + + <p class="i4">hatred of ravaging methods of British warfare, + 270;</p> + + <p class="i4">again has great difficulties in winter + quarters, 270;</p> + + <p class="i4">unable to act on offensive in the spring, 270, + 272;</p> + + <p class="i4">unable to help South, 272;</p> + + <p class="i4">advises abandonment of Charleston, 273;</p> + + <p class="i4">learns of arrival of French army, 274;</p> + + <p class="i4">plans a number of enterprises with it, 275, + 276;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses, even after loss of Charleston, to + abandon Hudson, 276;</p> + + <p class="i4">welcomes Rochambeau, 277;</p> + + <p class="i4">writes to Congress against too optimistic + feelings, 278, 279;</p> + + <p class="i4">has extreme difficulty in holding army + together, 280;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges French to attack New York, 280;</p> + + <p class="i4">sends Maryland troops South after Camden, + 281;</p> + + <p class="i4">arranges meeting with Rochambeau at Hartford, + 282;</p> + + <p class="i4">popular enthusiasm over him, 283;</p> + + <p class="i4">goes to West Point, 284;</p> + + <p class="i4">surprised at Arnold's absence, 284;</p> + + <p class="i4">learns of his treachery, 284, 285;</p> + + <p class="i4">his cool behavior, 285;</p> + + <p class="i4">his real feelings, 286;</p> + + <p class="i4">his conduct toward André, 287;</p> + + <p class="i4">its justice, 287, 288;</p> + + <p class="i4">his opinion of Arnold, 288, 289;</p> + + <p class="i4">his responsibility in the general breakdown of + the Congress and army, 290;</p> + + <p class="i4">obliged to quell food mutinies in army, 291, + 292;</p> + + <p class="i4">difficulty of situation, 292;</p> + + <p class="i4">his influence the salvation of army, 293;</p> + + <p class="i4">his greatness best shown in this way, 293;</p> + + <p class="i4">rebukes Congress, 294;</p> + + <p class="i4">appoints Greene to command Southern army, + 295;</p> + + <p class="i4">sends Knox to confer with state governors, + 296;</p> + + <p class="i4">secures temporary relief for army, 296;</p> + + <p class="i4">sees the real defect is in weak government, + 296;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges adoption of Articles of Confederation, + 297;</p> + + <p class="i4">works for improvements in executive, + 298,299;</p> + + <p class="i4">still keeps a Southern movement in mind, + 301;</p> + + <p class="i4">unable to do anything through lack of naval + power, 303;</p> + + <p class="i4">rebukes Lund Washington for entertaining + British at Mt. Vernon, 303;</p> + + <p class="i4">still unable to fight, 304;</p> + + <p class="i4">tries to frighten Clinton into remaining in New + York, 305;</p> + + <p class="i4">succeeds with aid of Rochambeau, 306;</p> + + <p class="i4">explains his plan to French and to Congress, + 306;</p> + + <p class="i4">learns of De Grasse's approach, prepares to + move South, 306;</p> + + <p class="i4">writes to De Grasse to meet him in Chesapeake, + 308;</p> + + <p class="i4">fears a premature peace, 308;</p> + + <p class="i4">pecuniary difficulties, 309;</p> + + <p class="i4">absolute need of command of sea, 310;</p> + + <p class="i4">persuades De Barras to join De Grasse, 311;</p> + + <p class="i4">starts on march for Chesapeake, 311;</p> + + <p class="i4">hampered by lack of supplies, 312;</p> + + <p class="i4">and by threat of Congress to reduce army, + 313;</p> + + <p class="i4">passes through Mt. Vernon, 314;</p> + + <p class="i4">succeeds in persuading De Grasse not to abandon + him, 315;</p> + + <p class="i4">besieges Cornwallis, 315;</p> + + <p class="i4">sees capture of redoubts, 316;</p> + + <p class="i4">receives surrender of Cornwallis, 317;</p> + + <p class="i4">admirable strategy and management of campaign, + 318;</p> + + <p class="i4">his personal influence the cause of success, + 318;</p> + + <p class="i4">especially his use of the fleet, 319;</p> + + <p class="i4">his management of Cornwallis through Lafayette, + 319;</p> + + <p class="i4">his boldness in transferring army away from New + York, 320;</p> + + <p class="i4">does not lose his head over victory, 321;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges De Grasse to repeat success against + Charleston, 322;</p> + + <p class="i4">returns north, 322;</p> + + <p class="i4">saddened by death of Custis, 322;</p> + + <p class="i4">continues to urge Congress to action, 323;</p> + + <p class="i4">writes letters to the States, 323;</p> + + <p class="i4">does not expect English surrender, 324;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges renewed vigor, 324;</p> + + <p class="i4">points out that war actually continues, + 325;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges not to give up army until peace is + actually secured, 325;</p> + + <p class="i4">failure of his appeals, 326;</p> + + <p class="i4">reduced to inactivity, 326;</p> + + <p class="i4">angered at murder of Huddy, 327;</p> + + <p class="i4">threatens Carleton with retaliation, 328;</p> + + <p class="i4">releases Asgill at request of Vergennes and + order of Congress, 329, 330;</p> + + <p class="i4">disclaims credit, 330;</p> + + <p class="i4">justification of his behavior, 330;</p> + + <p class="i4">his tenderness toward the soldiers, 331;</p> + + <p class="i4">jealousy of Congress toward him, 332;</p> + + <p class="i4">warns Congress of danger of further neglect of + army, 333, 334;</p> + + <p class="i4">takes control of mutinous movement, 335;</p> + + <p class="i4">his address to the soldiers, 336;</p> + + <p class="i4">its effect, 336;</p> + + <p class="i4">movement among soldiers to make him dictator, + 337;</p> + + <p class="i4">replies to revolutionary proposals, 337;</p> + + <p class="i4">reality of the danger, 339;</p> + + <p class="i4">causes for his behaviour, 340, 341;</p> + + <p class="i4">a friend of strong government, but devoid of + personal ambition, 342;</p> + + <p class="i4">chafes under delay to disband army, 343;</p> + + <p class="i4">tries to secure Western posts, 343;</p> + + <p class="i4">makes a journey through New York, 343;</p> + + <p class="i4">gives Congress excellent but futile advice, + 344;</p> + + <p class="i4">issues circular letter to governors, 344;</p> + + <p class="i4">and farewell address to army, 345;</p> + + <p class="i4">enters New York after departure of British, + 345;</p> + + <p class="i4">his farewell to his officers, 345;</p> + + <p class="i4">adjusts his accounts, 346;</p> + + <p class="i4">appears before Congress, 347;</p> + + <p class="i4">French account of his action, 347;</p> + + <p class="i4">makes speech resigning commission, 348, + 349.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2"><i>In Retirement</i>.</p> + + <p class="i4">Returns to Mt. Vernon, ii. I;</p> + + <p class="i4">tries to resume old life, 2;</p> + + <p class="i4">gives up hunting, 2;</p> + + <p class="i4">pursued by lion-hunters and artists, 3;</p> + + <p class="i4">overwhelmed with correspondence, 3;</p> + + <p class="i4">receives letters from Europe, 4;</p> + + <p class="i4">from cranks, 4;</p> + + <p class="i4">from officers, 4;</p> + + <p class="i4">his share in Society of Cincinnati, 4;</p> + + <p class="i4">manages his estate, 5;</p> + + <p class="i4">visits Western lands, 5;</p> + + <p class="i4">family cares, 5, 6;</p> + + <p class="i4">continues to have interest in public affairs, + 6;</p> + + <p class="i4">advises Congress regarding peace establishment, + 6;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges acquisition of Western posts, 7;</p> + + <p class="i4">his broad national views, 7;</p> + + <p class="i4">alone in realizing future greatness of country, + 7, 8;</p> + + <p class="i4">appreciates importance of the West, 8;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges development of inland navigation, 9;</p> + + <p class="i4">asks Jefferson's aid, 9, 10;</p> + + <p class="i4">lays canal scheme before Virginia legislature, + 10;</p> + + <p class="i4">his arguments, 10;</p> + + <p class="i4">troubled by offer of stock, 11;</p> + + <p class="i4">uses it to endow two schools, 12;</p> + + <p class="i4">significance of his scheme, 12, 13;</p> + + <p class="i4">his political purposes in binding West to East, + 13;</p> + + <p class="i4">willing to leave Mississippi closed for this + purpose, 14, 15, 16;</p> + + <p class="i4">feels need of firmer union during Revolution, + 17;</p> + + <p class="i4">his arguments, 18, 19;</p> + + <p class="i4">his influence starts movement for reform, + 20;</p> + + <p class="i4">continues to urge it during retirement, 21;</p> + + <p class="i4">foresees disasters of confederation, 21;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges impost scheme, 22;</p> + + <p class="i4">condemns action of States, 22, 23, 25;</p> + + <p class="i4">favours commercial agreement between Maryland + and Virginia, 23;</p> + + <p class="i4">stung by contempt of foreign powers, 24;</p> + + <p class="i4">his arguments for a national government, + 24;</p> + + <p class="i4">points out designs of England, 25;</p> + + <p class="i4">works against paper money craze in States, + 26;</p> + + <p class="i4">his opinion of Shays's rebellion, 26;</p> + + <p class="i4">his position contrasted with Jefferson's, + 27;</p> + + <p class="i4">influence of his letters, 28, 29;</p> + + <p class="i4">shrinks from participating in Federal + convention, 29;</p> + + <p class="i4">elected unanimously, 30;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses to go to a feeble convention, 30, + 31;</p> + + <p class="i4">finally makes up his mind, 31.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2"><i>In the Federal Convention</i>.</p> + + <p class="i4">Speech attributed to Washington by Morris on + duties of delegates, 31, 32;</p> + + <p class="i4">chosen to preside, 33;</p> + + <p class="i4">takes no part in debate, 34;</p> + + <p class="i4">his influence in convention, 34, 35;</p> + + <p class="i4">despairs of success, 35;</p> + + <p class="i4">signs the Constitution, 36;</p> + + <p class="i4">words attributed to him, 36;</p> + + <p class="i4">silent as to his thoughts, 36, 37;</p> + + <p class="i4">sees clearly danger of failure to ratify, + 37;</p> + + <p class="i4">tries at first to act indifferently, 38;</p> + + <p class="i4">begins to work for ratification, 38;</p> + + <p class="i4">writes letters to various people, 38, 39;</p> + + <p class="i4">circulates copies of "Federalist," 40;</p> + + <p class="i4">saves ratification in Virginia, 40;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges election of Federalists to Congress, + 41;</p> + + <p class="i4">receives general request to accept presidency, + 41;</p> + + <p class="i4">his objections, 41, 42;</p> + + <p class="i4">dreads failure and responsibility, 42;</p> + + <p class="i4">elected, 42;</p> + + <p class="i4">his journey to New York, 42-46;</p> + + <p class="i4">speech at Alexandria, 43;</p> + + <p class="i4">popular reception at all points, 44, 45;</p> + + <p class="i4">his feelings, 46;</p> + + <p class="i4">his inauguration, 46.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2"><i>President</i>.</p> + + <p class="i4">His speech to Congress, 48;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges no specific policy, 48, 49;</p> + + <p class="i4">his solemn feelings, 49;</p> + + <p class="i4">his sober view of necessities of situation, + 50;</p> + + <p class="i4">question of his title, 52;</p> + + <p class="i4">arranges to communicate with Senate by writing, + 52, 53;</p> + + <p class="i4">discusses social etiquette, 53;</p> + + <p class="i4">takes middle ground, 54;</p> + + <p class="i4">wisdom of his action, 55;</p> + + <p class="i4">criticisms by Democrats, 55, 56;</p> + + <p class="i4">accused of monarchical leanings, 56, 57;</p> + + <p class="i4">familiarizes himself with work already + accomplished under Confederation, 58;</p> + + <p class="i4">his business habits, 58;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses special privileges to French minister, + 59, 60;</p> + + <p class="i4">skill of his reply, 60, 61;</p> + + <p class="i4">solicited for office, 61;</p> + + <p class="i4">his views on appointment, 62;</p> + + <p class="i4">favors friends of Constitution and old + soldiers, 62;</p> + + <p class="i4">success of his appointments, 63;</p> + + <p class="i4">selects a cabinet, 64;</p> + + <p class="i4">his regard for Knox 65;</p> + + <p class="i4">for Morris, 66;</p> + + <p class="i4">his skill in choosing, 66;</p> + + <p class="i4">his appreciation of Hamilton, 67;</p> + + <p class="i4">his grounds for choosing Jefferson, 68;</p> + + <p class="i4">his contrast with Jefferson, 69;</p> + + <p class="i4">his choice a mistake in policy, 70;</p> + + <p class="i4">his partisan characteristics, 70, 71;</p> + + <p class="i4">excludes anti-Federalists, 71;</p> + + <p class="i4">nominates justices of Supreme Court, 72;</p> + + <p class="i4">their party character, 73;</p> + + <p class="i4">illness, 73;</p> + + <p class="i4">visits the Eastern States, 73;</p> + + <p class="i4">his reasons, 74;</p> + + <p class="i4">stirs popular enthusiasm, 74;</p> + + <p class="i4">snubbed by Hancock in Massachusetts, 75;</p> + + <p class="i4">accepts Hancock's apology, 75;</p> + + <p class="i4">importance of his action, 76;</p> + + <p class="i4">success of journey, 76;</p> + + <p class="i4">opens Congress, 78, 79;</p> + + <p class="i4">his speech and its recommendations, 81;</p> + + <p class="i4">how far carried out, 81-83;</p> + + <p class="i4">national character of the speech, 83;</p> + + <p class="i4">his fitness to deal with Indians, 87;</p> + + <p class="i4">his policy, 88;</p> + + <p class="i4">appoints commission to treat with Creeks, + 90;</p> + + <p class="i4">ascribes its failure to Spanish intrigue, + 90;</p> + + <p class="i4">succeeds by a personal interview in making + treaty, 91;</p> + + <p class="i4">wisdom of his policy, 92;</p> + + <p class="i4">orders an expedition against Western Indians, + 93;</p> + + <p class="i4">angered at its failure, 94;</p> + + <p class="i4">and at conduct of frontiersmen, 94;</p> + + <p class="i4">prepares St. Clair's expedition, 95;</p> + + <p class="i4">warns against ambush, 95;</p> + + <p class="i4">hopes for decisive results, 97;</p> + + <p class="i4">learns of St. Clair's defeat, 97;</p> + + <p class="i4">his self-control, 97;</p> + + <p class="i4">his outburst of anger against St. Clair, 97, + 98;</p> + + <p class="i4">masters his feelings, 98;</p> + + <p class="i4">treats St. Clair kindly, 99;</p> + + <p class="i4">determines on a second campaign, 100;</p> + + <p class="i4">selects Wayne and other officers, 100;</p> + + <p class="i4">tries to secure peace with tribes, 101;</p> + + <p class="i4">efforts prevented by English influence, 101, + 102;</p> + + <p class="i4">and in South by conduct of Georgia, 103;</p> + + <p class="i4">general results of his Indian policy, 104;</p> + + <p class="i4">popular misunderstandings and criticism, 104, + 105;</p> + + <p class="i4">favors assumption of state debts by the + government, 107, 108;</p> + + <p class="i4">satisfied with bargain between Hamilton and + Jefferson, 108;</p> + + <p class="i4">his respectful attitude toward Constitution, + 109;</p> + + <p class="i4">asks opinions of cabinet on constitutionality + of bank, 110;</p> + + <p class="i4">signs bill creating it, 110;</p> + + <p class="i4">reasons for his decision, 111;</p> + + <p class="i4">supports Hamilton's financial policy, 112;</p> + + <p class="i4">supports Hamilton's views on protection, 115, + 116;</p> + + <p class="i4">appreciates evil economic condition of + Virginia, 116, 117;</p> + + <p class="i4">sees necessity for self-sufficient industries + in war time, 117;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges protection, 118, 119, 120;</p> + + <p class="i4">his purpose to build up national feeling, + 121;</p> + + <p class="i4">approves national excise tax, 122, 123;</p> + + <p class="i4">does not realize unpopularity of method, + 123;</p> + + <p class="i4">ready to modify but insists on obedience, 124, + 125;</p> + + <p class="i4">issues proclamation against rioters, 125;</p> + + <p class="i4">since Pennsylvania frontier continues + rebellious, issues second proclamation threatening to use + force, 127;</p> + + <p class="i4">calls out the militia, 127;</p> + + <p class="i4">his advice to leaders and troops, 128;</p> + + <p class="i4">importance of Washington's firmness, 129;</p> + + <p class="i4">his good judgment and patience, 130;</p> + + <p class="i4">decides success of the central authority, + 130;</p> + + <p class="i4">early advocacy of separation of United States + from European politics, 133;</p> + + <p class="i4">studies situation, 134, 135;</p> + + <p class="i4">sees importance of binding West with Eastern + States, 135;</p> + + <p class="i4">sees necessity of good relations with England, + 137;</p> + + <p class="i4">authorizes Morris to sound England as to + exchange of ministers and a commercial treaty, 137;</p> + + <p class="i4">not disturbed by British bad manners, 138;</p> + + <p class="i4">succeeds in establishing diplomatic relations, + 138;</p> + + <p class="i4">early foresees danger of excess in French + Revolution, 139, 140;</p> + + <p class="i4">states a policy of strict neutrality, 140, 142, + 143;</p> + + <p class="i4">difficulties of his situation, 142;</p> + + <p class="i4">objects to action of National Assembly on + tobacco and oil, 144;</p> + + <p class="i4">denies reported request by United States that + England mediate with Indians, 145;</p> + + <p class="i4">announces neutrality in case of a European war, + 146;</p> + + <p class="i4">instructs cabinet to prepare a neutrality + proclamation, 147;</p> + + <p class="i4">importance of this step not understood at time, + 148, 149;</p> + + <p class="i4">foresees coming difficulties, 149, 150;</p> + + <p class="i4">acts cautiously toward + <i>émigrés</i>, 151;</p> + + <p class="i4">contrast with Genet, 152;</p> + + <p class="i4">greets him coldly, 152;</p> + + <p class="i4">orders steps taken to prevent violations of + neutrality, 153, 154;</p> + + <p class="i4">retires to Mt. Vernon for rest, 154;</p> + + <p class="i4">on returning finds Jefferson has allowed Little + Sarah to escape, 156;</p> + + <p class="i4">writes a sharp note to Jefferson, 156;</p> + + <p class="i4">anger at escape, 157;</p> + + <p class="i4">takes matters out of Jefferson's hands, + 157;</p> + + <p class="i4">determines on asking recall of Genet, 158;</p> + + <p class="i4">revokes exequatur of Duplaine, French consul, + 159;</p> + + <p class="i4">insulted by Genet, 159, 160;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses to deny Jay's card, 160;</p> + + <p class="i4">upheld by popular feeling, 160;</p> + + <p class="i4">his annoyance at the episode, 160;</p> + + <p class="i4">obliged to teach American people self-respect, + 162, 163;</p> + + <p class="i4">deals with troubles incited by Genet in the + West, 162, 163;</p> + + <p class="i4">sympathizes with frontiersmen, 163;</p> + + <p class="i4">comprehends value of Mississippi, 164, 165;</p> + + <p class="i4">sends a commission to Madrid to negotiate about + free navigation, 166;</p> + + <p class="i4">later sends Thomas Pinckney, 166;</p> + + <p class="i4">despairs of success, 166;</p> + + <p class="i4">apparent conflict between French treaties and + neutrality, 169, 170;</p> + + <p class="i4">value of Washington's policy to England, + 171;</p> + + <p class="i4">in spite of England's attitude, intends to keep + peace, 177;</p> + + <p class="i4">wishes to send Hamilton as envoy, 177;</p> + + <p class="i4">after his refusal appoints Jay, 177;</p> + + <p class="i4">fears that England intends war, 178;</p> + + <p class="i4">determines to be prepared, 178;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges upon Jay the absolute necessity of + England's giving up Western posts, 179;</p> + + <p class="i4">dissatisfied with Jay treaty but willing to + sign it, 184;</p> + + <p class="i4">in doubt as to meaning of conditional + ratification, 184;</p> + + <p class="i4">protests against English "provision order" and + refuses signature, 185;</p> + + <p class="i4">meets uproar against treaty alone, 188;</p> + + <p class="i4">determines to sign, 189;</p> + + <p class="i4">answers resolutions of Boston town meeting, + 190;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses to abandon his judgment to popular + outcry, 190;</p> + + <p class="i4">distinguishes temporary from permanent feeling, + 191;</p> + + <p class="i4">fears effect of excitement upon French + government, 192;</p> + + <p class="i4">his view of dangers of situation, 193, 194;</p> + + <p class="i4">recalled to Philadelphia by cabinet, 195;</p> + + <p class="i4">receives intercepted correspondence of Fauchet, + 195, 196;</p> + + <p class="i4">his course of action already determined, 197, + 198;</p> + + <p class="i4">not influenced by the Fauchet letter, 198;</p> + + <p class="i4">evidence of this, 199, 200;</p> + + <p class="i4">reasons for ratifying before showing letter to + Randolph, 199, 200;</p> + + <p class="i4">signs treaty, 201;</p> + + <p class="i4">evidence that he did not sacrifice Randolph, + 201, 202;</p> + + <p class="i4">fairness of his action, 203;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses to reply to Randolph's attack, 204;</p> + + <p class="i4">reasons for signing treaty, 205;</p> + + <p class="i4">justified in course of time, 206;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses on constitutional grounds the call of + representatives for documents, 208;</p> + + <p class="i4">insists on independence of treaty-making by + executive and Senate, 209;</p> + + <p class="i4">overcomes hostile majority in House, 210;</p> + + <p class="i4">wishes Madison to succeed Morris at Paris, + 211;</p> + + <p class="i4">appoints Monroe, 216;</p> + + <p class="i4">his mistake in not appointing a political + supporter, 212;</p> + + <p class="i4">disgusted at Monroe's behavior, 213, 214;</p> + + <p class="i4">recalls Monroe and appoints C.C. Pinckney, + 214;</p> + + <p class="i4">angered at French policy, 214;</p> + + <p class="i4">his contempt for Monroe's self-justification, + 215, 216;</p> + + <p class="i4">review of foreign policy, 216-219;</p> + + <p class="i4">his guiding principle national independence, + 216;</p> + + <p class="i4">and abstention from European politics, 217;</p> + + <p class="i4">desires peace and time for growth, 217, + 218;</p> + + <p class="i4">wishes development of the West, 218, 219;</p> + + <p class="i4">wisdom of his policy, 219;</p> + + <p class="i4">considers parties dangerous, 220;</p> + + <p class="i4">but chooses cabinet from Federalists, 220;</p> + + <p class="i4">prepared to undergo criticism, 221;</p> + + <p class="i4">willingness to bear it, 221;</p> + + <p class="i4">desires to learn public feeling, by travels, + 221, 222;</p> + + <p class="i4">feels that body of people will support national + government, 222;</p> + + <p class="i4">sees and deplores sectional feelings in the + South, 222, 223;</p> + + <p class="i4">objects to utterances of newspapers, 223;</p> + + <p class="i4">attacked by "National Gazette," 227;</p> + + <p class="i4">receives attacks on Hamilton from Jefferson and + his friends, 228, 229;</p> + + <p class="i4">sends charges to Hamilton, 229;</p> + + <p class="i4">made anxious by signs of party division, + 229;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges both Hamilton and Jefferson to cease + quarrel, 230, 231;</p> + + <p class="i4">dreads an open division in cabinet, 232;</p> + + <p class="i4">desirous to rule without party, 233;</p> + + <p class="i4">accomplishes feat of keeping both secretaries + in cabinet, 233;</p> + + <p class="i4">keeps confidence in Hamilton, 234;</p> + + <p class="i4">urged by all parties to accept presidency + again, 235;</p> + + <p class="i4">willing to be reelected, 235;</p> + + <p class="i4">pleased at unanimous vote, 235;</p> + + <p class="i4">his early immunity from attacks, 237;</p> + + <p class="i4">later attacked by Freneau and Bache, 238;</p> + + <p class="i4">regards opposition as dangerous to country, + 239;</p> + + <p class="i4">asserts his intention to disregard them, + 240;</p> + + <p class="i4">his success in Genet affair, 241;</p> + + <p class="i4">disgusted at "democratic" societies, 242;</p> + + <p class="i4">thinks they fomented Whiskey Rebellion, + 242;</p> + + <p class="i4">denounces them to Congress, 243;</p> + + <p class="i4">effect of his remarks, 244;</p> + + <p class="i4">accused of tyranny after Jay treaty, 244;</p> + + <p class="i4">of embezzlement, 245;</p> + + <p class="i4">of aristocracy, 245;</p> + + <p class="i4">realizes that he must compose cabinet of + sympathizers, 246;</p> + + <p class="i4">reconstructs it, 246;</p> + + <p class="i4">states determination to govern by party, + 247;</p> + + <p class="i4">slighted by House, 247;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses a third term, 248;</p> + + <p class="i4">publishes Farewell Address, 248;</p> + + <p class="i4">his justification for so doing, 248;</p> + + <p class="i4">his wise advice, 249;</p> + + <p class="i4">address Attacked by Democrats, 250, 251;</p> + + <p class="i4">assailed in Congress by Giles, 251;</p> + + <p class="i4">resents charge of being a British sympathizer, + 252;</p> + + <p class="i4">his scrupulously fair conduct toward France, + 253;</p> + + <p class="i4">his resentment at English policy, 254;</p> + + <p class="i4">his retirement celebrated by the opposition, + 255;</p> + + <p class="i4">remarks of the "Aurora," 256;</p> + + <p class="i4">forged letters of British circulated, 257;</p> + + <p class="i4">he repudiates them, 257;</p> + + <p class="i4">his view of opposition, 259.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2"><i>In Retirement</i>.</p> + + <p class="i4">Regards Adams's administration as continuation + of his own, 259;</p> + + <p class="i4">understands Jefferson's attitude, 259;</p> + + <p class="i4">wishes generals of provisional army to be + Federalist, 260;</p> + + <p class="i4">doubts fidelity of opposition as soldiers, + 260;</p> + + <p class="i4">dreads their poisoning mind of army, 261;</p> + + <p class="i4">his condemnation of Democrats, 261, 262;</p> + + <p class="i4">snubs Dr. Logan for assuming an unofficial + mission to France, 263-265;</p> + + <p class="i4">alarmed at Virginia and Kentucky resolutions, + 266;</p> + + <p class="i4">urges Henry to oppose Virginia resolutions, + 267;</p> + + <p class="i4">condemns the French party as unpatriotic, + 267;</p> + + <p class="i4">refuses request to stand again for presidency, + 269;</p> + + <p class="i4">comments on partisanship of Democrats, 269;</p> + + <p class="i4">believes that he would be no better candidate + than any other Federalist, 270, 271;</p> + + <p class="i4">error of statement that Washington was not a + party man, 271, 272;</p> + + <p class="i4">slow to relinquish non-partisan position, + 272;</p> + + <p class="i4">not the man to shrink from declaring his + position, 273;</p> + + <p class="i4">becomes a member of Federalist party, 273, + 274;</p> + + <p class="i4">eager for end of term of office, 275;</p> + + <p class="i4">his farewell dinner, 275;</p> + + <p class="i4">at Adams's inauguration, 276;</p> + + <p class="i4">popular enthusiasm at Philadelphia, 276;</p> + + <p class="i4">at Baltimore, 277;</p> + + <p class="i4">returns to Mt. Vernon, 279;</p> + + <p class="i4">describes his farm life, 278, 279;</p> + + <p class="i4">burdened by necessities of hospitality, + 280;</p> + + <p class="i4">account of his meeting with Bernard, + 281-283;</p> + + <p class="i4">continued interest in politics, 284;</p> + + <p class="i4">accepts command of provisional army, 285;</p> + + <p class="i4">selects Hamilton, Pinckney, and Knox as + major-generals, 286;</p> + + <p class="i4">surprised at Adams's objection to Hamilton, + 286;</p> + + <p class="i4">rebukes Adams for altering order of rank of + generals, 286, 287;</p> + + <p class="i4">not influenced by intrigue, 287;</p> + + <p class="i4">annoyed by Adams's conduct, 288;</p> + + <p class="i4">tries to soothe Knox's irritation, 289;</p> + + <p class="i4">fails to pacify him, 289;</p> + + <p class="i4">carries out organization of army, 290;</p> + + <p class="i4">does not expect actual war, 291;</p> + + <p class="i4">disapproves of Gerry's conduct, 292;</p> + + <p class="i4">disapproves of Adams's nomination of Vans + Murray, 292;</p> + + <p class="i4">his dread of French Revolution, 295;</p> + + <p class="i4">distrusts Adams's attempts at peace, 296;</p> + + <p class="i4">approves Alien and Sedition laws, 296;</p> + + <p class="i4">his defense of them, 297;</p> + + <p class="i4">distressed by dissensions among Federalists, + 298;</p> + + <p class="i4">predicts their defeat, 298;</p> + + <p class="i4">his sudden illness, 299-302;</p> + + <p class="i4">death, 303.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2"><i>Character</i>.</p> + + <p class="i4">misunderstood, 304;</p> + + <p class="i4">extravagantly praised, 304;</p> + + <p class="i4">disliked on account of being called faultless, + 305;</p> + + <p class="i4">bitterly attacked in lifetime, 306;</p> + + <p class="i4">sneered at by Jefferson, 306;</p> + + <p class="i4">by Pickering, 307;</p> + + <p class="i4">called an Englishman, not an American, 307, + 308;</p> + + <p class="i4">difference of his type from that of Lincoln, + 310;</p> + + <p class="i4">none the less American, 311, 312;</p> + + <p class="i4">compared with Hampden, 312;</p> + + <p class="i4">his manners those of the times elsewhere in + America, 314;</p> + + <p class="i4">aristocratic, but of a non-English type, + 314-316;</p> + + <p class="i4">less affected by Southern limitations than his + neighbors, 316;</p> + + <p class="i4">early dislike of New England changed to + respect, 316, 317;</p> + + <p class="i4">friendly with people of humble origin, 317, + 318;</p> + + <p class="i4">never an enemy of democracy, 318;</p> + + <p class="i4">but opposes French excesses, 318;</p> + + <p class="i4">his self-directed and American training, 319, + 320;</p> + + <p class="i4">early conception of a nation, 321;</p> + + <p class="i4">works toward national government during + Revolution, 321;</p> + + <p class="i4">his interest in Western expansion, 321, + 322;</p> + + <p class="i4">national character of his Indian policy, + 322;</p> + + <p class="i4">of his desire to secure free Mississippi + navigation, 322;</p> + + <p class="i4">of his opposition to war as a danger to Union, + 323;</p> + + <p class="i4">his anger at accusation of foreign + subservience, 323;</p> + + <p class="i4">continually asserts necessity for independent + American policy, 324, 325;</p> + + <p class="i4">opposes foreign educational influences, 325, + 326;</p> + + <p class="i4">favors foundation of a national university, + 326;</p> + + <p class="i4">breadth and strength of his national feeling, + 327;</p> + + <p class="i4">absence of boastfulness about country, 328;</p> + + <p class="i4">faith in it, 328;</p> + + <p class="i4">charge that he was merely a figure-head, + 329;</p> + + <p class="i4">its injustice, 330;</p> + + <p class="i4">charged with commonplaceness of intellect, + 330;</p> + + <p class="i4">incident of the deathbed explained, 330, + 331;</p> + + <p class="i4">falsity of the charge, 331;</p> + + <p class="i4">inability of mere moral qualities to achieve + what he did, 331;</p> + + <p class="i4">charged with dullness and coldness, 332;</p> + + <p class="i4">his seriousness, 333;</p> + + <p class="i4">responsibility from early youth, 333;</p> + + <p class="i4">his habits of keen observation, 333;</p> + + <p class="i4">power of judging men, 334;</p> + + <p class="i4">ability to use them for what they were worth, + 335;</p> + + <p class="i4">anecdote of advice to Hamilton and Meade, + 335;</p> + + <p class="i4">deceived only by Arnold, 336;</p> + + <p class="i4">imperfect education, 337;</p> + + <p class="i4">continual efforts to improve it, 337, 338;</p> + + <p class="i4">modest regarding his literary ability, 339, + 340;</p> + + <p class="i4">interested in education, 339;</p> + + <p class="i4">character of his writing, 340;</p> + + <p class="i4">tastes in reading, 341;</p> + + <p class="i4">modest but effective in conversation, 342;</p> + + <p class="i4">his manner and interest described by Bernard, + 343-347;</p> + + <p class="i4">attractiveness of the picture, 347, 348;</p> + + <p class="i4">his pleasure in society, 348;</p> + + <p class="i4">power of paying compliments, letter to Mrs. + Stockton, 349;</p> + + <p class="i4">to Charles Thompson, 350;</p> + + <p class="i4">to De Chastellux, 351;</p> + + <p class="i4">his warmth of heart, 352;</p> + + <p class="i4">extreme exactness in pecuniary matters, + 352;</p> + + <p class="i4">illustrative anecdotes, 353,354;</p> + + <p class="i4">favorable opinion of teller of anecdotes, + 356;</p> + + <p class="i4">stern towards dishonesty or cowardice, 357;</p> + + <p class="i4">treatment of André and Asgill, 357, + 358;</p> + + <p class="i4">sensitive to human suffering, 357, 358;</p> + + <p class="i4">kind and courteous to poor, 359;</p> + + <p class="i4">conversation with Cleaveland, 359;</p> + + <p class="i4">sense of dignity in public office, 360;</p> + + <p class="i4">hospitality at Mt. Vernon, 360, 361;</p> + + <p class="i4">his intimate friendships, 361,362;</p> + + <p class="i4">relations with Hamilton, Knox, Mason, Henry + Lee, Craik, 362, 363;</p> + + <p class="i4">the officers of the army, 363;</p> + + <p class="i4">Trumbull, Robert and Gouverneur Morris, + 363;</p> + + <p class="i4">regard for and courtesy toward Franklin, + 364;</p> + + <p class="i4">love for Lafayette, 365;</p> + + <p class="i4">care for his family, 366;</p> + + <p class="i4">lasting regard for Fairfaxes, 366, 367;</p> + + <p class="i4">kindness to Taft family, 367, 368;</p> + + <p class="i4">destroys correspondence with his wife, 368;</p> + + <p class="i4">their devoted relationship, 368;</p> + + <p class="i4">care for his step-children and relatives, 369, + 370;</p> + + <p class="i4">charged with lack of humor, 371;</p> + + <p class="i4">but never made himself ridiculous, 372;</p> + + <p class="i4">not joyous in temperament, 372;</p> + + <p class="i4">but had keen pleasure in sport, 373;</p> + + <p class="i4">enjoyed a joke, even during Revolution, + 374;</p> + + <p class="i4">appreciates wit, 375;</p> + + <p class="i4">writes a humorous letter, 376-378;</p> + + <p class="i4">not devoid of worldly wisdom, 378, 379;</p> + + <p class="i4">enjoys cards, dancing, the theatre, 380;</p> + + <p class="i4">loves horses, 380;</p> + + <p class="i4">thorough in small affairs as well as great, + 381;</p> + + <p class="i4">controversy over site of church, 381;</p> + + <p class="i4">his careful domestic economy, 382;</p> + + <p class="i4">love of method, 383;</p> + + <p class="i4">of excellence in dress and furniture, 383, + 384;</p> + + <p class="i4">gives dignity to American cause, 385;</p> + + <p class="i4">his personal appearance, 385;</p> + + <p class="i4">statements of Houdon, 386;</p> + + <p class="i4">of Ackerson, 386, 387;</p> + + <p class="i4">his tremendous muscular strength, 388;</p> + + <p class="i4">great personal impressiveness, 389, 390;</p> + + <p class="i4">lacking in imagination, 391;</p> + + <p class="i4">strong passions, 391;</p> + + <p class="i4">fierce temper, 392;</p> + + <p class="i4">anecdotes of outbreaks, 392;</p> + + <p class="i4">his absence of self-love, 393;</p> + + <p class="i4">confident in judgment of posterity, 393;</p> + + <p class="i4">religious faith, 394;</p> + + <p class="i4">summary and conclusion, 394, 395.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2"><i>Characteristics of</i>.</p> + + <p class="i4">General view, ii. 304-395;</p> + + <p class="i4">general admiration for, i. 1-7;</p> + + <p class="i4">myths about, i. 9-12, ii. 307 ff.;</p> + + <p class="i4">comparisons with Jefferson, ii. 69;</p> + + <p class="i4">with Lincoln, ii. 310-312;</p> + + <p class="i4">with Hampden, ii. 312, 313;</p> + + <p class="i4">absence of self-seeking, i. 341;</p> + + <p class="i4">affectionateness, i. 111, 285,331,345, ii. 332, + 362-371;</p> + + <p class="i4">agreeableness, ii. 344-347, 377;</p> + + <p class="i4">Americanism, ii. 307-328;</p> + + <p class="i4">aristocratic habits, ii. 314, 316;</p> + + <p class="i4">business ability, i. 105, 109, ii. 5, 352, + 382;</p> + + <p class="i4">coldness on occasion, i. 223, 224, 263, ii. + 318;</p> + + <p class="i4">courage, i. 77, 78, 86, 127, 168, 292;</p> + + <p class="i4">dignity, i. 81,161, ii. 52-57, 76;</p> + + <p class="i4">hospitality, ii. 360;</p> + + <p class="i4">impressiveness, i. 56, 83, 130, 138, 319, ii. + 385;</p> + + <p class="i4">indomitableness, i. 177, 181, 227;</p> + + <p class="i4">judgments of men, i. 295, ii. 64, 86, 334, + 335;</p> + + <p class="i4">justice and sternness, i. 287, 330, ii. 203, + 352-358, 389;</p> + + <p class="i4">kindliness, ii. 349-356, 359;</p> + + <p class="i4">lack of education, i. 62, ii. 337;</p> + + <p class="i4">love of reading, i. 62, ii. 341, 342;</p> + + <p class="i4">love of sport, i. 56, 98, 113-116, 118, ii. + 380;</p> + + <p class="i4">manners, ii. 282-283, 314;</p> + + <p class="i4">military ability, i. 154, 166, 174, 183, 197, + 204, 207, 239, 247, 265, 267, 305-320, ii. 331;</p> + + <p class="i4">modesty, i. 102, 134;</p> + + <p class="i4">not a figure-head, ii. 329, 330;</p> + + <p class="i4">not a prig, i. 10-12, 41-47;</p> + + <p class="i4">not cold and inhuman, ii. 332, 342;</p> + + <p class="i4">not dull or commonplace, ii. 330, 332;</p> + + <p class="i4">not superhuman and distant, i. 9, 10, 12, ii. + 304, 305;</p> + + <p class="i4">open-mindedness, ii. 317;</p> + + <p class="i4">passionateness, i. 58, 73, 90;</p> + + <p class="i4">personal appearance, i. 57, 136, 137, ii. 282, + 343, 385-389;</p> + + <p class="i4">religious views, i. 321, ii. 393;</p> + + <p class="i4">romantic traits, i. 95-97;</p> + + <p class="i4">sense of humor, ii. 371-377;</p> + + <p class="i4">silence regarding self, i. 14, 69, 70, 116, + 129, 285; ii. 37, 336;</p> + + <p class="i4">simplicity, i. 59, 69, 348; ii. 50, 340;</p> + + <p class="i4">sobriety, i. 49, 52, 134; ii. 43, 45, 333, + 373;</p> + + <p class="i4">tact, i. 162, 243, 244-246;</p> + + <p class="i4">temper, i. 73, 92, 110, 168, 236, 237, 260; ii. + 98, 392;</p> + + <p class="i4">thoroughness, i. 112, 323, 341, ii. 381.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2"><i>Political Opinions</i>.</p> + + <p class="i4">On Alien and Sedition Acts, ii. 196;</p> + + <p class="i4">American nationality, i. 191, 250, 251, 255, + 262, 279, ii. 7, 61, 133, 145, 324, 325, 327, 328;</p> + + <p class="i4">Articles of Confederation, i. 297, ii. 17, + 24;</p> + + <p class="i4">bank, ii. 110, 111;</p> + + <p class="i4">colonial rights, i. 120, 124-126, 130;</p> + + <p class="i4">Constitution, i. 38-41;</p> + + <p class="i4">democracy, ii. 317-319;</p> + + <p class="i4">Democratic party, ii. 214, 239, 240, 258, 261, + 267, 268;</p> + + <p class="i4">disunion, ii. 22;</p> + + <p class="i4">duties of the executive, ii. 190;</p> + + <p class="i4">education, ii. 81, 326, 330;</p> + + <p class="i4">Federalist party, ii. 71, 246, 247, 259, 260, + 261, 269-274, 298;</p> + + <p class="i4">finance, ii. 107, 108, 112, 122;</p> + + <p class="i4">foreign relations, ii. 25, 134, 142, 145, 147, + 179, 217-219, 323;</p> + + <p class="i4">French Revolution, ii. 139, 140, 295, 318;</p> + + <p class="i4">independence of colonies, i. 131, 159, 160;</p> + + <p class="i4">Indian policy, ii. 82, 87, 88, 91, 92, 104, + 105;</p> + + <p class="i4">Jay treaty, ii. 184-205;</p> + + <p class="i4">judiciary, i. 150;</p> + + <p class="i4">nominations to office, ii. 62;</p> + + <p class="i4">party, ii. 70, 222, 233, 249;</p> + + <p class="i4">protection, ii. 116-122;</p> + + <p class="i4">slavery, i. 106-108;</p> + + <p class="i4">Stamp Act, i. 119;</p> + + <p class="i4">strong government, i. 298, ii. 18, 24, 129, + 130;</p> + + <p class="i4">treaty power, ii. 190, 207-210;</p> + + <p class="i4">Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, ii. 266, + 267;</p> + + <p class="i4">Western expansion, ii. 6, 8-16, 135, 163-165, + 218, 322.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Washington, George Steptoe,</p> + + <p class="i4">his sons educated by Washington, ii. 370.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Washington, John, brother of George,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington, to, i. 132.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Washington, Lawrence, brother of George + Washington,</p> + + <p class="i4">educated in England, i. 54;</p> + + <p class="i4">has military career, 54;</p> + + <p class="i4">returns to Virginia and builds Mt. Vernon, + 54;</p> + + <p class="i4">marries into Fairfax family, 54, 55;</p> + + <p class="i4">goes to West Indies for his health, 62;</p> + + <p class="i4">dies, leaving George guardian of his daughter, + 64;</p> + + <p class="i4">chief manager of Ohio Company, 65;</p> + + <p class="i4">gives George military education, 65.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Washington, Lund,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, i. 152;</p> + + <p class="i4">rebuked by Washington for entertaining British, + ii. 303.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Washington, Martha, widow of Daniel P. + Custis,</p> + + <p class="i4">meets Washington, i. 101;</p> + + <p class="i4">courtship of, and marriage, 101, 102;</p> + + <p class="i4">hunts with her husband, 114;</p> + + <p class="i4">joins him at Boston, 151;</p> + + <p class="i4">holds levees as wife of President, ii. 54;</p> + + <p class="i4">during his last illness, 300;</p> + + <p class="i4">her correspondence destroyed, 368;</p> + + <p class="i4">her relations with her husband, 368, 369.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Washington, Mary,</p> + + <p class="i4">married to Augustine Washington, i. 39;</p> + + <p class="i4">mother of George Washington, 39;</p> + + <p class="i4">limited education but strong character, 40, + 41;</p> + + <p class="i4">wishes George to earn a living, 49;</p> + + <p class="i4">opposes his going to sea, 49;</p> + + <p class="i4">letters to, 88;</p> + + <p class="i4">visited by her son, ii. 5.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Waters, Henry E.,</p> + + <p class="i4">establishes Washington pedigree, i. 32.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Wayne, Anthony,</p> + + <p class="i4">defeated after Brandywine, i. 198;</p> + + <p class="i4">his opinion of Germantown, 199;</p> + + <p class="i4">at Monmouth urges Washington to come, 235;</p> + + <p class="i4">ready to attack Stony Point, 268;</p> + + <p class="i4">his successful exploit, 269;</p> + + <p class="i4">joins Lafayette in Virginia, 307;</p> + + <p class="i4">appointed to command against Indians, ii. + 100;</p> + + <p class="i4">his character, 100;</p> + + <p class="i4">organizes his force, 101;</p> + + <p class="i4">his march, 102;</p> + + <p class="i4">defeats the Indians, 103.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Weems, Mason L.,</p> + + <p class="i4">influence of his life of Washington on popular + opinion, i. 10;</p> + + <p class="i4">originates idea of his priggishness, 11;</p> + + <p class="i4">his character, 41, 43;</p> + + <p class="i4">character of his book, 42;</p> + + <p class="i4">his mythical "rectorate" of Mt. Vernon, 43, + 44;</p> + + <p class="i4">invents anecdotes of Washington's childhood, + 44;</p> + + <p class="i4">folly of cherry-tree and other stories, 46;</p> + + <p class="i4">their evil influence, 47.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">West, the,</p> + + <p class="i4">its importance realized by Washington, ii. + 7-16;</p> + + <p class="i4">his influence counteracted by inertia of + Congress, 8;</p> + + <p class="i4">forwards inland navigation, 9;</p> + + <p class="i4">desires to bind East to West, 9-11, 14;</p> + + <p class="i4">formation of companies, 11-13;</p> + + <p class="i4">on Mississippi navigation, 14-16, 164;</p> + + <p class="i4">projects of Genet in, 162;</p> + + <p class="i4">its attitude understood by Washington, 163, + 164;</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington wishes peace in order to develop it, + 218, 219, 321.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">"Whiskey Rebellion,"</p> + + <p class="i4">passage of excise law, ii. 123;</p> + + <p class="i4">outbreaks of violence in Pennsylvania and North + Carolina, 124;</p> + + <p class="i4">proclamation issued warning rioters to desist, + 125;</p> + + <p class="i4">renewed outbreaks in Pennsylvania, 125, + 126;</p> + + <p class="i4">the militia called out, 127;</p> + + <p class="i4">suppression of the insurrection, 128;</p> + + <p class="i4">real danger of movement, 129;</p> + + <p class="i4">its suppression emphasizes national authority, + 129, 130;</p> + + <p class="i4">supposed by Washington to have been stirred up + by Democratic clubs, 242.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">White Plains,</p> + + <p class="i4">battle at, i. 173.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Wilkinson, James,</p> + + <p class="i4">brings Gates's message to Washington at + Trenton, i. 180;</p> + + <p class="i4">brings news of Saratoga to Congress, 220;</p> + + <p class="i4">nettled at Sherman's sarcasm, discloses Conway + cabal, 220;</p> + + <p class="i4">quarrels with Gates, 223;</p> + + <p class="i4">resigns from board of war, 223, 226;</p> + + <p class="i4">leads expedition against Indians, ii. 95.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Willett, Colonel,</p> + + <p class="i4">commissioner to Creeks, his success, ii. + 91.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">William and Mary College,</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington Chancellor of, ii. 339.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Williams,</p> + + <p class="i4">Washington's teacher, i. 48, 51.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Willis, Lewis,</p> + + <p class="i4">story of Washington's school days, i. 95.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Wilson, James,</p> + + <p class="i4">appointed to Supreme Court, ii. 72.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Wilson, James, "of England,"</p> + + <p class="i4">hunts with Washington, i. 115.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Wolcott, Oliver,</p> + + <p class="i4">receives Fauchet letter, ii. 195;</p> + + <p class="i4">succeeds Hamilton as Secretary of Treasury, + 246.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">Wooster, Mrs.,</p> + + <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 61.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> </p> + + <p class="i2">YORKTOWN,</p> + + <p class="i4">siege of, i. 315-318.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">"Young Man's Companion,"</p> + + <p class="i4">used by George Washington, origin of his rules + of conduct, i. 52.</p> + </div> + </div> + +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 12652 ***</div> +</body> +</html> diff --git a/12652-h/images/illus0379.jpg b/12652-h/images/illus0379.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..61a659e --- /dev/null +++ b/12652-h/images/illus0379.jpg diff --git a/12652-h/images/illus0381.jpg b/12652-h/images/illus0381.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3237da8 --- /dev/null +++ b/12652-h/images/illus0381.jpg diff --git a/12652-h/images/illus0383.jpg b/12652-h/images/illus0383.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b556bb9 --- /dev/null +++ b/12652-h/images/illus0383.jpg diff --git a/12652-h/images/illus0385.jpg b/12652-h/images/illus0385.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..fd17ba1 --- /dev/null +++ b/12652-h/images/illus0385.jpg diff --git a/12652-h/images/illus0387.jpg b/12652-h/images/illus0387.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..97d9110 --- /dev/null +++ b/12652-h/images/illus0387.jpg diff --git a/12652-h/images/illus0389.jpg b/12652-h/images/illus0389.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..83d137b --- /dev/null +++ b/12652-h/images/illus0389.jpg |
