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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 12506 ***
+
+=CRITIQUES AND ADDRESSES.=
+
+BY
+
+THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY, LL.D., F.R.S.
+
+1873.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+The "Critiques and Addresses" gathered together in this volume, like
+the "Lay Sermons, Addresses, and Reviews," published three years ago,
+deal chiefly with educational, scientific, and philosophical subjects;
+and, in fact, indicate the high-water mark of the various tides of
+occupation by which I have been carried along since the beginning of
+the year 1870.
+
+In the end of that year, a confidence in my powers of work, which,
+unfortunately, has not been justified by events, led me to allow
+myself to be brought forward as a candidate for a seat on the London
+School Board. Thanks to the energy of my supporters I was elected, and
+took my share in the work of that body during the critical first year
+of its existence. Then my health gave way, and I was obliged to resign
+my place among colleagues whose large practical knowledge of the
+business of primary education, and whose self-sacrificing zeal in the
+discharge of the onerous and thankless duties thrown upon them by
+the Legislature, made it a pleasure to work with them, even though my
+position was usually that of a member of the minority.
+
+I mention these circumstances in order to account for (I had almost
+said to apologize for) the existence of the two papers which head
+the present series, and which are more or less political, both in the
+lower and in the higher senses of that word.
+
+The question of the expediency of any form of State Education is, in
+fact, a question of those higher politics which lie above the region
+in which Tories, Whigs, and Radicals "delight to bark and bite." In
+discussing it in my address on "Administrative Nihilism," I found
+myself, to my profound regret, led to diverge very widely (though even
+more perhaps in seeming than in reality) from the opinions of a man of
+genius to whom I am bound by the twofold tie of the respect due to a
+profound philosopher and the affection given to a very old friend. But
+had I no other means of knowing the fact, the kindly geniality of Mr.
+Herbert Spencer's reply[1] assures me that the tie to which I refer
+will bear a much heavier strain than I have put, or ever intend to
+put, upon it, and I rather rejoice that I have been the means of
+calling forth so vigorous a piece of argumentative writing. Nor is
+this disinterested joy at an attack upon myself diminished by the
+circumstance, that, in all humility, but in all sincerity, I think it
+may be repulsed.
+
+[Footnote 1: "Specialized Administration;" _Fortnightly Review_,
+December 1871.]
+
+Mr. Spencer complains that I have first misinterpreted, and then
+miscalled, the doctrine of which he is so able an expositor. It would
+grieve me very much if I were really open to this charge. But what are
+the facts? I define this doctrine as follows:--
+
+    "Those who hold these views support them by two lines of
+    argument. They enforce them deductively by arguing from an
+    assumed axiom, that the State has no right to do anything but
+    protect its subjects from aggression. The State is simply a
+    policeman, and its duty, neither more nor less than to prevent
+    robbery and murder and enforce contracts. It is not to promote
+    good, nor even to do anything to prevent evil, except by the
+    enforcement of penalties upon those who have been guilty
+    of obvious and tangible assaults upon purse or person. And,
+    according to this view, the proper form of government is
+    neither a monarchy, an aristocracy, nor a democracy, but an
+    _astynomocracy_, or police government. On the other hand,
+    these views are supported _à posteriori_ by an induction from
+    observation, which professes to show that whatever is done by
+    a Government beyond these negative limits, is not only sure
+    to be done badly, but to be done much worse than private
+    enterprise would have done the same thing."
+
+I was filled with surprised regret when I learned from the conclusion
+of the article on "Specialized Administration," that this statement is
+held by Mr. Spencer to be a misinterpretation of his views. Perhaps
+I ought to be still more sorry to be obliged to declare myself, even
+now, unable to discover where my misinterpretation lies, or in what
+respect my presentation of Mr. Spencer's views differs from his own
+most recent version of them. As the passage cited above shows I have
+carefully defined the sense in which I use the terms which I employ,
+and, therefore, I am not greatly concerned to defend the abstract
+appropriateness of the terms themselves. And when Mr. Spencer
+maintains the only proper functions of Government to be those which
+are comprehensible under the description of "Negatively regulative
+control," I may suggest that the difference between such "Negative
+Administration" and "Administrative Nihilism," in the sense defined by
+me, is not easily discernible.
+
+Having, as I hope, relieved myself from the suspicion of having
+misunderstood or misrepresented Mr. Spencer's views, I might, if I
+could forget that I am writing a preface, proceed to the discussion
+of the parallel which he elaborates, with much knowledge and power,
+between the physiological and the social organisms. But this is not
+the place for a controversy involving so many technicalities, and
+I content myself with one remark, namely, that the whole course of
+modern physiological discovery tends to show, with more and more
+clearness, that the vascular system, or apparatus for distributing
+commodities in the animal organism, is eminently under the control of
+the cerebro-spinal nervous centres--a fact which, unless I am again
+mistaken, is contrary to one of Mr. Spencer's fundamental assumptions.
+In the animal organism, Government does meddle with trade, and even
+goes so far as to tamper a good deal with the currency.
+
+In the same number of the _Fortnightly Review_ as that which contains
+Mr. Spencer's essay, Miss Helen Taylor assails me--though, I am bound
+to admit, more in sorrow than in anger--for what she terms, my
+"New Attack on Toleration." It is I, this time, who may complain of
+misinterpretation, if the greater part of Miss Taylor's article
+(with which I entirely sympathise) is supposed to be applicable to
+my "intolerance." Let us have full-toleration, by all means, upon
+all questions in which there is room for doubt, or which cannot be
+distinctly proved to affect the welfare of mankind. But when Miss
+Taylor has shown what basis exists for criminal legislation, except
+the clear right of mankind not to tolerate that which is demonstrably
+contrary to the welfare of society, I will admit that such
+demonstration ought only to be believed in by the "curates and
+old women" to whom she refers. Recent events have not weakened the
+conviction I expressed in a much-abused speech at the London School
+Board, that Ultramontanism is demonstrably the enemy of society; and
+must be met with resistance, merely passive if possible, but active if
+necessary, by "the whole power of the State."
+
+Next in order, it seems proper that I should briefly refer to my
+friend Mr. Mivart's onslaught upon my criticism of Mr. Darwin's
+critics, himself among the number, which will be found in this
+volume. In "Evolution and its Consequences"[1] I am accused of
+misrepresentation, misquotation, misunderstanding, and numerous other
+negative and positive literary and scientific sins; and much subtle
+ingenuity is expended by Mr. Mivart in attempting to extricate himself
+from the position in which my exposition of the real opinions of
+Father Suarez has placed him. So much more, in fact, has Mr. Mivart's
+ingenuity impressed me than any other feature of his reply, that I
+shall take the liberty of re-stating the main issue between us; and,
+for the present, leaving that issue alone to the judgment of the
+public.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Contemporary Review_, January 1872.]
+
+In his book on the "Genesis of Species" Mr. Mivart, after discussing
+the opinions of sundry Catholic writers of authority, among whom he
+especially includes St. Augustin, St. Thomas Aquinas, and the Jesuit
+Suarez, proceeds to say: "It is then evident that ancient and most
+venerable theological authorities distinctly assert _derivative_
+creation, and thus their teachings harmonize with all that modern
+science can possibly require."[1] By the "derivative creation" of
+organic forms, Mr. Mivart understands, "that God created them by
+conferring on the material world the power to evolve them under
+suitable conditions."
+
+[Footnote 1: Bunsen's "Outlines of the Philosophy of Universal
+History," vol. i.p. 349. 1854.]
+
+On the contrary, I proved by evidence, which Mr. Mivart does not
+venture to impugn, that Suarez, in his "Tractatus de Opere sex
+Dierum," expressly rejects St. Augustin's and St. Thomas' views; that
+he vehemently advocates the literal interpretation of the account of
+the creation given in the Book of Genesis; and that he treats with
+utter scorn the notion that the Almighty could have used the language
+of that Book, unless He meant it to be taken literally.
+
+Mr. Mivart, therefore, either has read Suarez and has totally
+misrepresented him--a hypothesis which, I hope I need hardly say, I do
+not for a moment entertain: or, he has got his information at second
+hand, and has himself been deceived. But in that case, it is surely
+an imprudence on his part, to reproach me with having "read Suarez _ad
+hoc_, and evidently without the guidance of anyone familiar with
+that author." No doubt, in the matter of guidance, Mr. Mivart has the
+advantage of me. Nevertheless, the guides who supplied him with his
+references to Suarez' "Metaphysica," while they left him in ignorance
+of the existence of the "Tractatus," are guides with whose services
+it might be better to dispense; leaders who wilfully shut their eyes,
+being even more liable to lodge one in a ditch, than blind leaders.
+
+At the time when the essay on "Methods and Results of Ethnology" was
+written, I had not met with a passage in Professor Max Müller's "Last
+Results of Turanian Researches"[1] which shows so appositely, that
+the profoundest study of philology leads to conclusions respecting the
+relation of Ethnology with Philology, similar to those at which I had
+arrived in approaching the question from the Anatomist's side, that I
+cannot refrain from quoting it:
+
+[Footnote 1: LONDON, _April_ 1873.]
+
+    "Nor should we, in our phonological studies, either expect or
+    desire more than general hints from physical ethnology. The
+    proper and rational connection between the two sciences is
+    that of mutual advice and suggestion, but nothing more. Much
+    of the confusion of terms and indistinctness of principles,
+    both in Ethnology and Phonology, are due to the combined
+    study of these heterogeneous sciences. Ethnological race
+    and phonological race are not commensurate, except in
+    ante-historical times, or perhaps at the very dawn of history.
+    With the migration of tribes, their wars, their colonies,
+    their conquests and alliances, which, if we may judge from
+    their effects, must have been much more violent in the
+    ethnic, than even in the political, period of history, it is
+    impossible to imagine that race and language should continue
+    to run parallel. The physiologist should pursue his own
+    science unconcerned about language."
+
+It is further desirable to remark that the statements in this Essay
+respecting the forms of Native American crania need rectification. On
+this point, I refer the reader who is interested in the subject to
+my paper "On the Form of the Cranium among the Patagonians and the
+Fuegians" published in the _Journal of Anatomy and Physiology_ for
+1868.
+
+If the problem discussed in my address to the British Association
+in 1870 has not yet received its solution, it is not because the
+champions of Abiogenesis have been idle, or wanting in confidence. But
+every new assertion on their side has been met by a counter assertion;
+and though the public may have been led to believe that so much noise
+must indicate rapid progress, one way or the other, an impartial
+critic will admit, with sorrow, that the question has been "marking
+time" rather than marching. In mere sound, these two processes are not
+so very different.
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+I.
+
+ADMINISTRATIVE NIHILISM. (An Address delivered to the Members of
+the Midland Institute, on the 9th of October, 1871, and subsequently
+published in the _Fortnightly Review_)
+
+
+II.
+
+THE SCHOOL BOARDS: WHAT THEY CAN DO, AND WHAT THEY MAY DO. (The
+_Contemporary Review_, 1870)
+
+
+III.
+
+ON MEDICAL EDUCATION. (An Address to the Students of the Faculty of
+Medicine in University College, London, 1870)
+
+
+IV.
+
+YEAST. (The _Contemporary Review_, 1871)
+
+
+V.
+
+ON THE FORMATION OF COAL. (A Lecture delivered before the Members of
+the Bradford Philosophical Institution, and subsequently published in
+the _Contemporary Review_)
+
+
+VI.
+
+ON CORAL AND CORAL REEFS. (_Good Words_, 1870)
+
+
+VII.
+
+ON THE METHODS AND RESULTS OF ETHNOLOGY. (The _Fortnightly Review_,
+1865)
+
+
+VIII.
+
+ON SOME FIXED POINTS IN BRITISH ETHNOLOGY. (The _Contemporary Review_,
+1871)
+
+
+IX.
+
+PALAEONTOLOGY AND THE DOCTRINE OF EVOLUTION. (The Presidential Address
+to the Geological Society, 1870)
+
+
+X.
+
+MR. DARWIN'S CRITICS. (The _Contemporary Review_, 1871)
+
+
+XI.
+
+THE GENEALOGY OF ANIMALS. (A Review of Haeckel's "Natürliche
+Schöpfungs-Geschichte." The _Academy_, 1869)
+
+
+XII.
+
+BISHOP BERKELEY ON THE METAPHYSICS OF SENSATION. _(Macmillan's
+Magazine_, 1871)
+
+
+
+
+CRITIQUES AND ADDRESSES.
+
+
+
+
+I.
+
+ADMINISTRATIVE NIHILISM.
+
+(AN ADDRESS TO THE MEMBERS OF THE MIDLAND INSTITUTE, OCTOBER 9TH,
+1871.)
+
+
+To me, and, as I trust, to the great majority of those whom I address,
+the great attempt to educate the people of England which has just been
+set afoot, is one of the most satisfactory and hopeful events in our
+modern history. But it is impossible, even if it were desirable,
+to shut our eyes to the fact, that there is a minority, not
+inconsiderable in numbers, nor deficient in supporters of weight and
+authority, in whose judgment all this legislation is a step in the
+wrong direction, false in principle, and consequently sure to produce
+evil in practice.
+
+The arguments employed by these objectors are of two kinds. The first
+is what I will venture to term the caste argument; for, if logically
+carried out, it would end in the separation of the people of this
+country into castes, as permanent and as sharply defined, if not as
+numerous, as those of India. It is maintained that the whole fabric
+of society will be destroyed if the poor, as well as the rich, are
+educated; that anything like sound and good education will only make
+them discontented with their station and raise hopes which, in the
+great majority of cases, will be bitterly disappointed. It is said:
+There must be hewers of wood and drawers of water, scavengers and
+coalheavers, day labourers and domestic servants, or the work of
+society will come to a standstill. But, if you educate and refine
+everybody, nobody will be content to assume these functions, and all
+the world will want to be gentlemen and ladies.
+
+One hears this argument most frequently from the representatives of
+the well-to-do middle class; and, coming from them, it strikes me as
+peculiarly inconsistent, as the one thing they admire, strive after,
+and advise their own children to do, is to get on in the world, and,
+if possible, rise out of the class in which they were born into that
+above them. Society needs grocers and merchants as much as it needs
+coalheavers; but if a merchant accumulates wealth and works his way to
+a baronetcy, or if the son of a greengrocer becomes a lord chancellor,
+or an archbishop, or, as a successful soldier, wins a peerage, all the
+world admires them; and looks with pride upon the social system which
+renders such achievements possible. Nobody suggests that there is
+anything wrong in _their_ being discontented with _their_ station; or
+that, in _their_ cases society suffers by men of ability reaching the
+positions for which nature has fitted them.
+
+But there are better replies than those of the _tu quoque_ sort to the
+caste argument. In the first place, it is not true that education,
+as such, unfits men for rough and laborious, or even disgusting,
+occupations. The life of a sailor is rougher and harder than that of
+nine landsmen out of ten, and yet, as every ship's captain knows, no
+sailor was ever the worse for possessing a trained intelligence. The
+life of a medical practitioner, especially in the country, is harder
+and more laborious than that of most artisans, and he is constantly
+obliged to do things which, in point of pleasantness, cannot be ranked
+above scavengering--yet he always ought to be, and he frequently is,
+a highly educated man. In the second place, though it may be granted
+that the words of the catechism, which require a man to do his duty in
+the station to which it has pleased God to call him, give an admirable
+definition of our obligation to ourselves and to society; yet the
+question remains, how is any given person to find out what is the
+particular station to which it has pleased God to call him? A new-born
+infant does not come into the world labelled scavenger, shopkeeper,
+bishop, or duke. One mass of red pulp is just like another to all
+outward appearance. And it is only by finding out what his faculties
+are good for, and seeking, not for the sake of gratifying a paltry
+vanity, but as the highest duty to himself and to his fellow-men,
+to put himself into the position in which they can attain their full
+development, that the man discovers his true station. That which is to
+be lamented, I fancy, is not that society should do its utmost to help
+capacity to ascend from the lower strata to the higher, but that it
+has no machinery by which to facilitate the descent of incapacity from
+the higher strata to the lower. In that noble romance, the "Republic"
+(which is now, thanks to the Master of Balliol, as intelligible to
+us all, as if it had been written in our mother tongue), Plato makes
+Socrates say that he should like to inculcate upon the citizens of his
+ideal state just one "royal lie."
+
+    "'Citizens,' we shall say to them in our tale--'You are
+    brothers, yet God has framed you differently. Some of you
+    have the power of command, and these he has composed of
+    gold, wherefore also they have the greatest honour; others
+    of silver, to be auxiliaries; others again, who are to be
+    husbandmen and craftsmen, he has made of brass and iron; and
+    the species will generally be preserved in the children. But
+    as you are of the same original family, a golden parent will
+    sometimes have a silver son, or a silver parent a golden son.
+    And God proclaims to the rulers, as a first principle, that
+    before all they should watch over their offspring, and see
+    what elements mingle with their nature; for if the son of a
+    golden or silver parent has an admixture of brass and iron,
+    then nature orders a transposition of ranks, and the eye of
+    the ruler must not be pitiful towards his child because he has
+    to descend in the scale and become a husbandman or artisan;
+    just as there may be others sprung from the artisan class, who
+    are raised to honour, and become guardians and auxiliaries.
+    For an oracle says that when a man of brass or iron guards the
+    State, it will then be destroyed.'"[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "The Dialogues of Plato." Translated into English, with
+Analysis and Introduction, by B. Jowett, M.A. Vol. ii. p. 243.]
+
+Time, whose tooth gnaws away everything else, is powerless against
+truth; and the lapse of more than two thousand years has not weakened
+the force of these wise words. Nor is it necessary that, as Plato
+suggests, society should provide functionaries expressly charged with
+the performance of the difficult duty of picking out the men of brass
+from those of silver and gold. Educate, and the latter will certainly
+rise to the top; remove all those artificial props by which the brass
+and iron folk are kept at the top, and, by a law as sure as that of
+gravitation, they will gradually sink to the bottom. We have all
+known noble lords who would have been coachmen, or gamekeepers, or
+billiard-markers, if they had not been kept afloat by our social
+corks; we have all known men among the lowest ranks, of whom everyone
+has said, "What might not that man have become, if he had only had a
+little education?"
+
+And who that attends, even in the most superficial way, to the
+conditions upon which the stability of modern society--and especially
+of a society like ours, in which recent legislation has placed
+sovereign authority in the hands of the masses, whenever they are
+united enough to wield their power--can doubt that every man of high
+natural ability, who is both ignorant and miserable, is as great a
+danger to society as a rocket without a stick is to the people
+who fire it? Misery is a match that never goes out; genius, as an
+explosive power, beats gunpowder hollow; and if knowledge, which
+should give that power guidance, is wanting, the chances are not small
+that the rocket will simply run a-muck among friends and foes. What
+gives force to the socialistic movement which is now stirring
+European society to its depths, but a determination on the part of the
+naturally able men among the proletariat, to put an end, somehow or
+other, to the misery and degradation in which a large proportion of
+their fellows are steeped? The question, whether the means by which
+they purpose to achieve this end are adequate or not, is at this
+moment the most important of all political questions--and it is beside
+my present purpose to discuss it. All I desire to point out is, that
+if the chance of the controversy being decided calmly and rationally,
+and not by passion and force, looks miserably small to an impartial
+bystander, the reason is that not one in ten thousand of those who
+constitute the ultimate court of appeal, by which questions of the
+utmost difficulty, as well as of the most momentous gravity, will have
+to be decided, is prepared by education to comprehend the real nature
+of the suit brought before their tribunal.
+
+Finally, as to the ladies and gentlemen question, all I can say is,
+would that every woman-child born into this world were trained to be
+a lady, and every man-child a gentleman! But then I do not use those
+much-abused words by way of distinguishing people who wear fine
+clothes, and live in fine houses, and talk aristocratic slang, from
+those who go about in fustian, and live in back slums, and talk gutter
+slang. Some inborn plebeian blindness, in fact, prevents me from
+understanding what advantage the former have over the latter. I have
+never even been able to understand why pigeon-shooting at Hurlingham
+should be refined and polite, while a rat-killing match in Whitechapel
+is low; or why "What a lark" should be coarse, when one hears "How
+awfully jolly" drop from the most refined lips twenty times in an
+evening.
+
+Thoughtfulness for others, generosity, modesty, and self-respect, are
+the qualities which make a real gentleman, or lady, as distinguished
+from the veneered article which commonly goes by that name. I by no
+means wish to express any sentimental preference for Lazarus against
+Dives, but, on the face of the matter, one does not see why the
+practice of these virtues should be more difficult in one state of
+life than another; and any one who has had a wide experience among all
+sorts and conditions of men, will, I think, agree with me that they
+are as common in the lower ranks of life as in the higher.
+
+Leaving the caste argument aside then, as inconsistent with the
+practice of those who employ it, as devoid of any justification in
+theory, and as utterly mischievous if its logical consequences were
+carried out, let us turn to the other class of objectors. To these
+opponents, the Education Act is only one of a number of pieces of
+legislation to which they object on principle; and they include under
+like condemnation the Vaccination Act, the Contagious Diseases Act,
+and all other sanitary Acts; all attempts on the part of the State to
+prevent adulteration, or to regulate injurious trades; all legislative
+interference with anything that bears directly or indirectly on
+commerce, such as shipping, harbours, railways, roads, cab-fares, and
+the carriage of letters; and all attempts to promote the spread of
+knowledge by the establishment of teaching bodies, examining
+bodies, libraries, or museums, or by the sending out of scientific
+expeditions; all endeavours to advance art by the establishment of
+schools of design, or picture galleries; or by spending money upon
+an architectural public building when a brick box would answer the
+purpose. According to their views, not a shilling of public money must
+be bestowed upon a public park or pleasure-ground; not sixpence upon
+the relief of starvation, or the cure of disease. Those who hold
+these views support them by two lines of argument. They enforce them
+deductively by arguing from an assumed axiom, that the State has no
+right to do anything but protect its subjects from aggression. The
+State is simply a policeman, and its duty is neither more nor less
+than to prevent robbery and murder and enforce contracts. It is not to
+promote good, nor even to do anything to prevent evil, except by the
+enforcement of penalties upon those who have been guilty of obvious
+and tangible assaults upon purses or persons. And, according to
+this view, the proper form of government is neither a monarchy,
+an aristocracy, nor a democracy, but an _astynomocracy_, or
+police government. On the other hand, these views are supported _à
+posteriori_, by an induction from observation, which professes to show
+that whatever is done by a Government beyond these negative limits, is
+not only sure to be done badly, but to be done much worse than private
+enterprise would have done the same thing.
+
+I am by no means clear as to the truth of the latter proposition. It
+is generally supported by statements which prove clearly enough that
+the State does a great many things very badly. But this is really
+beside the question. The State lives in a glass house; we see what it
+tries to do, and all its failures, partial or total, are made the most
+of. But private enterprise is sheltered under good opaque bricks and
+mortar. The public rarely knows what it tries to do, and only hears
+of failures when they are gross and patent to all the world. Who is
+to say how private enterprise would come out if it tried its hand
+at State work? Those who have had most experience of joint-stock
+companies and their management, will probably be least inclined to
+believe in the innate superiority of private enterprise over State
+management. If continental bureaucracy and centralization be fraught
+with multitudinous evils, surely English beadleocracy and parochial
+obstruction are not altogether lovely. If it be said that, as a matter
+of political experience, it is found to be for the best interests,
+including the healthy and free development, of a people, that the
+State should restrict itself to what is absolutely necessary, and
+should leave to the voluntary efforts of individuals as much as
+voluntary effort can be got to do, nothing can be more just. But, on
+the other hand, it seems to me that nothing can be less justifiable
+than the dogmatic assertion that State interference, beyond the limits
+of home and foreign police, must, under all circumstances, do harm.
+
+Suppose, however, for the sake of argument, that we accept the
+proposition that the functions of the State may be properly summed up
+in the one great negative commandment,--"Thou shalt not allow any man
+to interfere with the liberty of any other man,"--I am unable to see
+that the logical consequence is any such restriction of the power of
+Government, as its supporters imply. If my next-door neighbour
+chooses to have his drains in such a state as to create a poisonous
+atmosphere, which I breathe at the risk of typhus and diphtheria, he
+restricts my just freedom to live just as much as if he went about
+with a pistol, threatening my life; if he is to be allowed to let
+his children go unvaccinated, he might as well be allowed to leave
+strychnine lozenges about in the way of mine; and if he brings them up
+untaught and untrained, to earn their living, he is doing his best
+to restrict my freedom, by increasing the burden of taxation for the
+support of gaols and workhouses, which I have to pay.
+
+The higher the state of civilization, the more completely do the
+actions of one member of the social body influence all the rest, and
+the less possible is it for any one man to do a wrong thing
+without interfering, more or less, with the freedom of all his
+fellow-citizens. So that, even upon the narrowest view of the
+functions of the State, it must be admitted to have wider powers than
+the advocates of the police theory are disposed to admit.
+
+It is urged, I am aware, that if the right of the State to step beyond
+the assigned limits is admitted at all, there is no stopping; and that
+the principle which justifies the State in enforcing vaccination or
+education, will also justify it in prescribing my religious belief,
+or my mode of carrying on my trade or profession; in determining the
+number of courses I have for dinner, or the pattern of my waistcoat.
+
+But surely the answer is obvious that, on similar grounds, the right
+of a man to eat when he is hungry might be disputed, because if you
+once allow that he may eat at all, there is no stopping him until he
+gorges himself, and suffers all the ills of a surfeit. In practice,
+the man leaves off when reason tells him he has had enough; and, in
+a properly organized State, the Government, being nothing but the
+corporate reason of the community, will soon find out when State
+interference has been carried far enough. And, so far as my
+acquaintance with those who carry on the business of Government goes,
+I must say that I find them far less eager to interfere with the
+people, than the people are to be interfered with. And the reason is
+obvious. The people are keenly sensible of particular evils, and, like
+a man suffering from pain, desire an immediate remedy. The statesman,
+on the other hand, is like the physician, who knows that he can stop
+the pain at once by an opiate; but who also knows that the opiate may
+do more harm than good in the long run. In three cases out of four the
+wisest thing he can do is to wait, and leave the case to nature. But
+in the fourth case, in which the symptoms are unmistakable, and the
+cause of the disease distinctly known, prompt remedy saves a life.
+Is the fact that a wise physician will give as little medicine as
+possible any argument for his abstaining from giving any at all?
+
+But the argument may be met directly. It may be granted that the
+State, or corporate authority of the people, might with perfect
+propriety order my religion, or my waistcoat, if as good grounds
+could be assigned for such an order as for the command to educate my
+children. And this leads us to the question which lies at the root of
+the whole discussion--the question, namely, upon what foundation
+does the authority of the State rest, and how are the limits of that
+authority to be determined?
+
+One of the oldest and profoundest of English philosophers, Hobbes of
+Malmesbury, writes thus:--
+
+    "The office of the sovereign, be it monarch or an assembly,
+    consisteth in the end for which he was entrusted with the
+    sovereign power, namely, the procuration of _the safety_ of
+    the people: to which he is obliged by the law of nature, and
+    to render an account thereof to God, the author of that law,
+    and to none but Him. But by safety, here, is not meant a bare
+    preservation, but also all other contentments of life, which
+    every man by lawful industry, without danger or hurt to the
+    commonwealth, shall acquire to himself."
+
+At first sight this may appear to be a statement of the police-theory
+of government, pure and simple; but it is not so. For Hobbes goes on
+to say:--
+
+    "And this is intended should be done, not by care applied to
+    individuals, further than their protection from injuries, when
+    they shall complain; but by a general providence contained in
+    public instruction both of doctrine and example; and in the
+    making and executing of good laws to which individual persons
+    may apply their own cases."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "Leviathan," Molesworth's ed. p. 322.]
+
+To a witness of the civil war between Charles I. and the Parliament,
+it is not wonderful that the dissolution of the bonds of society which
+is involved in such strife should appear to be "the greatest evil that
+can happen in this life;" and all who have read the "Leviathan" know
+to what length Hobbes's anxiety for the preservation of the authority
+of the representative of the sovereign power, whatever its shape,
+leads him. But the justice of his conception of the duties of the
+sovereign power does not seem to me to be invalidated by his monstrous
+doctrines respecting the sacredness of that power.
+
+To Hobbes, who lived during the break-up of the sovereign power by
+popular force, society appeared to be threatened by everything which
+weakened that power: but, to John Locke, who witnessed the evils which
+flow from the attempt of the sovereign power to destroy the rights
+of the people by fraud and violence, the danger lay in the other
+direction.
+
+The safety of the representative of the sovereign power itself is to
+Locke a matter of very small moment, and he contemplates its abolition
+when it ceases to do its duty, and its replacement by another, as a
+matter of course. The great champion of the revolution of 1688 could
+do no less. Nor is it otherwise than natural that he should seek to
+limit, rather than to enlarge, the powers of the State, though in
+substance he entirely agrees with Hobbes's view of its duties:--
+
+    "But though men," says he, "when they enter into society, give
+    up the equality, liberty, and executive power they had in the
+    state of nature, into the hands of the society, to be so far
+    disposed of by the Legislature as the good of society shall
+    require; yet it being only with an intention in every one the
+    better to preserve himself, his liberty and property (for no
+    rational creature can be supposed to change his condition
+    with an intention to be worse), the power of the society,
+    or legislation, constituted by them can never be supposed to
+    extend further than the common good, but is obliged to secure
+    every one's property by providing against those three defects
+    above mentioned, that made the state of nature so unsafe and
+    uneasy. And so, whoever has the legislative or supreme
+    power of any commonwealth, is bound to govern by established
+    standing laws, promulgated and known to the people, and not
+    by extemporary decrees; by indifferent and upright judges, who
+    are to decide controversies by those laws: and to employ the
+    force of the community at home only in the execution of such
+    laws; or abroad, to prevent or redress foreign injuries, and
+    secure the community from inroads and invasion. And all this
+    to be directed to no other end than the peace, safety, and
+    public good of the people."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Locke's Essay, "Of Civil Government," § 131.]
+
+Just as in the case of Hobbes, so in that of Locke, it may at first
+sight appear from this passage that the latter philosopher's views of
+the functions of Government incline to the negative, rather than the
+positive, side. But a further study of Locke's writings will at
+once remove this misconception. In the famous "Letter concerning
+Toleration," Locke says:--
+
+    "The commonwealth seems to me to be a society of men
+    constituted only for the procuring, preserving, and
+    _advancing_ their own civil interests.
+
+    "Civil interests I call life, liberty, health, and indolency
+    of body; and the possession of outward things, such as money,
+    lands, houses, furniture, and the like.
+
+    "It is the duty of the civil magistrate, by the impartial
+    execution of equal laws, to secure unto all the people in
+    general, and to every one of his subjects in particular, the
+    just possession of those things belonging to this life.
+
+    "... The whole jurisdiction of the magistrate reaches only
+    to these civil concernments.... All civil power, right,
+    and dominion, is bounded and confined to the only care of
+    promoting these things."
+
+Elsewhere in the same "Letter," Locke lays down the proposition that
+if the magistrate understand washing a child "to be profitable to the
+curing or preventing any disease that children are subject unto, and
+esteem the matter weighty enough to be taken care of by a law, in that
+case he may order it to be done."
+
+Locke seems to differ most widely from Hobbes by his strong advocacy
+of a certain measure of toleration in religious matters. But the
+reason why the civil magistrate ought to leave religion alone is,
+according to Locke, simply this, that "true and saving religion
+consists in the inward persuasion of the mind." And since "such is the
+nature of the understanding that it cannot be compelled to the belief
+of anything by outward force," it is absurd to attempt to make men
+religious by compulsion. I cannot discover that Locke fathers the pet
+doctrine of modern Liberalism, that the toleration of error is a good
+thing in itself, and to be reckoned among the cardinal virtues; on
+the contrary, in this very "Letter on Toleration" he states in the
+clearest language that "No opinion contrary to human society, or to
+those moral rules which are necessary to the preservation of civil
+society, are to be tolerated by the magistrate." And the practical
+corollary which he draws from this proposition is that there ought to
+be no toleration for either Papists or Atheists.
+
+After Locke's time the negative view of the functions of Government
+gradually grew in strength, until it obtained systematic and able
+expression in Wilhelm von Humboldt's "Ideen,"[1] the essence of which
+is the denial that the State has a right to be anything more than
+chief policeman. And, of late years, the belief in the efficacy of
+doing nothing, thus formulated, has acquired considerable popularity
+for several reasons. In the first place, men's speculative convictions
+have become less and less real; their tolerance is large because their
+belief is small; they know that the State had better leave things
+alone unless it has a clear knowledge about them; and, with reason,
+they suspect that the knowledge of the governing power may stand no
+higher than the very low watermark of their own.
+
+[Footnote 1: An English translation has been published under the title
+of "Essay on the Sphere and Duties of Government."]
+
+In the second place, men have become largely absorbed in the mere
+accumulation of wealth; and as this is a matter in which the plainest
+and strongest form of self-interest is intensely concerned, science
+(in the shape of Political Economy) has readily demonstrated that
+self-interest may be safely left to find the best way of attaining
+its ends. Rapidity and certainty of intercourse between different
+countries, the enormous development of the powers of machinery, and
+general peace (however interrupted by brief periods of warfare), have
+changed the face of commerce as completely as modern artillery has
+changed that of war. The merchant found himself as much burdened by
+ancient protective measures as the soldier by his armour--and negative
+legislation has been of as much use to the one as the stripping off
+of breast-plates, greaves, and buff-coat to the other. But because the
+soldier is better without his armour it does not exactly follow that
+it is desirable that our defenders should strip themselves stark
+naked; and it is not more apparent why _laissez-faire_--great and
+beneficial as it may be in all that relates to the accumulation of
+wealth--should be the one great commandment which the State is to
+obey in all other matters; and especially in those in which the
+justification of _laissez-faire_, namely, the keen insight given by
+the strong stimulus of direct personal interest, in matters clearly
+understood, is entirely absent.
+
+Thirdly, to the indifference generated by the absence of fixed
+beliefs, and to the confidence in the efficacy of _laissez-faire_,
+apparently justified by experience of the value of that principle when
+applied to the pursuit of wealth, there must be added that nobler and
+better reason for a profound distrust of legislative interference,
+which animates Von Humboldt and shines forth in the pages of Mr.
+Mill's famous Essay on Liberty--I mean the just fear lest the end
+should be sacrificed to the means; lest freedom and variety should be
+drilled and disciplined out of human life in order that the great mill
+of the State should grind smoothly.
+
+One of the profoundest of living English philosophers, who is at the
+same time the most thoroughgoing and consistent of the champions of
+astynomocracy, has devoted a very able and ingenious essay[1] to the
+drawing out of a comparison between the process by which men have
+advanced from the savage state to the highest civilization, and that
+by which an animal passes from the condition of an almost shapeless
+and structureless germ, to that in which it exhibits a highly
+complicated structure and a corresponding diversity of powers. Mr.
+Spencer says with great justice--
+
+[Footnote 1: "The Social Organism:" Essays. Second Series.]
+
+    "That they gradually increase in mass; that they become,
+    little by little, more complex; that, at the same time, their
+    parts grow more mutually dependent; and that they continue to
+    live and grow as wholes, while successive generations of their
+    units appear and disappear,--are broad peculiarities which
+    bodies politic display, in common with all living bodies, and
+    in which they and living bodies differ from everything else."
+
+In a very striking passage of this essay Mr. Spencer shows with what
+singular closeness a parallel between the development of a nervous
+system, which is the governing power of the body in the series of
+animal organisms, and that of government, in the series of social
+organisms, can be drawn:--
+
+    "Strange as the assertion, will be thought," says Mr. Spencer,
+    "our Houses of Parliament discharge in the social economy
+    functions that are, in sundry respects, comparable to those
+    discharged by the cerebral masses in a vertebrate animal....
+    The cerebrum co-ordinates the countless heterogeneous
+    considerations which affect the present and future welfare of
+    the individual as a whole; and the Legislature co-ordinates
+    the countless heterogeneous considerations which affect the
+    immediate and remote welfare of the whole community. We may
+    describe the office of the brain as that of _averaging_ the
+    interests of life, physical, intellectual, moral, social; and
+    a good brain is one in which the desires answering to their
+    respective interests are so balanced, that the conduct they
+    jointly dictate sacrifice none of them. Similarly we may
+    describe the office of Parliament as that of _averaging_ the
+    interests of the various classes in a community; and a good
+    Parliament is one in which the parties answering to these
+    respective interests are so balanced, that their united
+    legislation concedes to each class as much as consists with
+    the claims of the rest."
+
+All this appears to be very just. But if the resemblances between the
+body physiological and the body politic are any indication, not only
+of what the latter is, and how it has become what it is, but of what
+it ought to be, and what it is tending to become, I cannot but think
+that the real force of the analogy is totally opposed to the negative
+view of State function.
+
+Suppose that, in accordance with this view, each muscle were to
+maintain that the nervous system had no right to interfere with its
+contraction, except to prevent it from hindering the contraction of
+another muscle; or each gland, that it had a right to secrete, so long
+as its secretion interfered with no other; suppose every separate cell
+left free to follow its own "interests," and _laissez-faire_ lord of
+all, what would become of the body physiological?
+
+The fact is that the sovereign power of the body thinks for the
+physiological organism, acts for it, and rules the individual
+components with a rod of iron. Even the blood-corpuscles can't hold a
+public meeting without being accused of "congestion"--and the brain,
+like other despots whom we have known, calls out at once for the
+use of sharp steel against them. As in Hobbes's "Leviathan," the
+representative of the sovereign authority in the living organism,
+though he derives all his powers from the mass which he rules, is
+above the law. The questioning of his authority involves death, or
+that partial death which we call paralysis. Hence, if the analogy of
+the body politic with the body physiological counts for anything, it
+seems to me to be in favour of a much larger amount of governmental
+interference than exists at present, or than I, for one, at all desire
+to see. But, tempting as the opportunity is, I am not disposed to
+build up any argument in favour of my own case upon this analogy,
+curious, interesting, and in many respects close, as it is, for it
+takes no cognizance of certain profound and essential differences
+between the physiological and the political bodies.
+
+Much as the notion of a "social contract" has been ridiculed, it
+nevertheless seems to be clear enough, that all social organization
+whatever depends upon what is substantially a contract, whether
+expressed or implied, between the members of the society. No society
+ever was, or ever can be, really held together by force. It may seem
+a paradox to say that a slaveholder does not make his slaves work
+by force, but by agreement. And yet it is true. There is a contract
+between the two which, if it were written out, would run in these
+terms:--"I undertake to feed, clothe, house, and not to kill, flog,
+or otherwise maltreat you, Quashie, if you perform a certain amount of
+work." Quashie, seeing no better terms to be had, accepts the bargain,
+and goes to work accordingly. A highwayman who garottes me, and then
+clears out my pockets, robs me by force in the strict sense of the
+words; but if he puts a pistol to my head and demands my money or
+my life, and I, preferring the latter, hand over my purse, we have
+virtually made a contract, and I perform one of the terms of that
+contract. If, nevertheless, the highwayman subsequently shoots me,
+everybody will see that, in addition to the crimes of murder and
+theft, he has been guilty of a breach of contract.
+
+A despotic Government, therefore, though often a mere combination
+of slaveholding and highway robbery, nevertheless implies a contract
+between governor and governed, with voluntary submission on the part
+of the latter; and _à fortiori_, all other forms of government are in
+like case.
+
+Now a contract between any two men implies a restriction of the
+freedom of each in certain particulars. The highwayman gives up his
+freedom to shoot me, on condition of my giving up my freedom to do
+as I like with my money: I give up my freedom to kill Quashie, on
+condition of Quashie's giving up his freedom to be idle. And the
+essence and foundation of every social organization, whether simple
+or complex, is the fact that each member of the society voluntarily
+renounces his freedom in certain directions, in return for the
+advantages which he expects from association with the other members
+of that society. Nor are constitutions, laws, or manners, in ultimate
+analysis, anything but so many expressed or implied contracts between
+the members of a society to do this, or abstain from that.
+
+It appears to me that this feature constitutes the difference
+between the social and the physiological organism. Among the higher
+physiological organisms, there is none which is developed by the
+conjunction of a number of primitively independent existences into
+a complex whole. The process of social organization appears to be
+comparable, not so much to the process of organic development, as
+to the synthesis of the chemist, by which independent elements are
+gradually built up into complex aggregations--in which each element
+retains an independent individuality, though held in subordination to
+the whole. The atoms of carbon and hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, which
+enter into a complex molecule, do not lose the powers originally
+inherent in them, when they unite to form that molecule, the
+properties of which express those forces of the whole aggregation
+which are not neutralized and balanced by one another. Each atom has
+given up something, in order that the atomic society, or molecule, may
+subsist. And as soon as any one or more of the atoms thus associated
+resumes the freedom which it has renounced, and follows some external
+attraction, the molecule is broken up, and all the peculiar properties
+which depended upon its constitution vanish.
+
+Every society, great or small, resembles such a complex molecule,
+in which the atoms are represented by men, possessed of all those
+multifarious attractions and repulsions which are manifested in their
+desires and volitions, the unlimited power of satisfying which, we
+call freedom. The social molecule exists in virtue of the renunciation
+of more or less of this freedom by every individual. It is decomposed,
+when the attraction of desire leads to the resumption of that freedom,
+the suppression of which is essential to the existence of the social
+molecule. And the great problem of that social chemistry we call
+politics, is to discover what desires of mankind may be gratified, and
+what must be suppressed, if the highly complex compound, society,
+is to avoid decomposition. That the gratification of some of
+men's desires shall be renounced is essential to order; that the
+satisfaction of others shall be permitted is no less essential to
+progress; and the business of the sovereign authority--which is, or
+ought-to be, simply a delegation of the people appointed to act for
+its good--appears to me to be, not only to enforce the renunciation of
+the anti-social desires, but, wherever it may be necessary, to promote
+the satisfaction of those which are conducive to progress.
+
+The great metaphysician, Immanuel Kant, who is at his greatest when
+he discusses questions which are not metaphysical, wrote, nearly a
+century ago, a wonderfully instructive essay entitled "A Conception of
+Universal History in relation to Universal Citizenship,"[1] from which
+I will borrow a few pregnant sentences:--
+
+[Footnote 1: "Idee zu einer allgemeinen Geschichte in weltbürgerlichen
+Absicht," 1784. This paper has been translated by De Quincey, and
+attention has been recently drawn to its "signal merits" by the Editor
+of the _Fortnightly Review_ in his Essay on Condorcet. (_Fortnightly
+Review_, No. xxxviii. N.S. pp. 136, 137.)]
+
+    "The means of which Nature has availed herself, in order to
+    bring about the development of all the capacities of man, is
+    the antagonism of those capacities to social organization,
+    so far as the latter does in the long run necessitate their
+    definite correlation. By antagonism, I here mean the unsocial
+    sociability of mankind--that is, the combination in them of
+    an impulse to enter into society, with a thorough spirit
+    of opposition which constantly threatens to break up this
+    society. The ground of this lies in human nature. Man has an
+    inclination to enter into society, because in that state he
+    feels that he becomes more a man, or, in other words, that his
+    natural faculties develop. But he has also a great tendency to
+    isolate himself, because he is, at the same time, aware of the
+    unsocial peculiarity of desiring to have everything his own
+    way; and thus, being conscious of an inclination to oppose
+    others, he is naturally led to expect opposition from them.
+
+    "Now it is this opposition which awakens all the dormant
+    powers of men, stimulates them to overcome their inclination
+    to be idle, and, spurred by the love of honour, or power, or
+    wealth, to make themselves a place among their fellows, whom
+    they can neither do with, nor do without.
+
+    "Thus they make the first steps from brutishness towards
+    culture, of which the social value of man is the measure. Thus
+    all talents become gradually developed, taste is formed,
+    and by continual enlightenment the foundations of a way of
+    thinking are laid, which gradually changes the mere rude
+    capacity of moral perception into determinate practical
+    principles; and thus society, which is originated by a sort
+    of pathological compulsion, becomes metamorphosed into a moral
+    unity." (_Loc. cit_. p. 147.)
+
+    "All the culture and art which adorn humanity, the most
+    refined social order, are produced by that unsociability which
+    is compelled by its own existence to discipline itself, and
+    so by enforced art to bring the seeds implanted by nature into
+    full flower." (_Loc. cit_. p. 148.)
+
+In these passages, as in others of this remarkable tract, Kant
+anticipates the application of the "struggle for existence" to
+politics, and indicates the manner in which the evolution of society
+has resulted from the constant attempt of individuals to strain its
+bonds. If individuality has no play, society does not advance; if
+individuality breaks out of all bounds, society perishes.
+
+But when men living in society once become aware that their welfare
+depends upon, two opposing tendencies of equal importance--the one
+restraining, the other encouraging, individual freedom--the
+question "What are the functions of Government?" is translated into
+another--namely, What ought we men, in our corporate capacity, to do,
+not only in the way of restraining that free individuality which is
+inconsistent with the existence of society, but in encouraging that
+free individuality which is essential to the evolution of the
+social organization? The formula which truly defines the function of
+Government must contain the solution of both the problems involved,
+and not merely of one of them.
+
+Locke has furnished us with such a formula, in the noblest, and at the
+same time briefest, statement of the purpose of Government known to
+me:--
+
+"THE END OF GOVERNMENT IS THE GOOD OF MANKIND."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "Of Civil Government," § 229.]
+
+But the good of mankind is not a something which is absolute and
+fixed for all men, whatever their capacities or state of civilization.
+Doubtless it is possible to imagine a true "Civitas Dei," in which
+every man's moral faculty shall be such as leads him to control all
+those desires which run counter to the good of mankind, and to cherish
+only those which conduce to the welfare of society; and in which every
+man's native intellect shall be sufficiently strong, and his culture
+sufficiently extensive, to enable him to know what he ought to do and
+to seek after. And, in that blessed State, police will be as much a
+superfluity as every other kind of government.
+
+But the eye of man has not beheld that State, and is not likely to
+behold it for some time to come. What we do see, in fact, is that
+States are made up of a considerable number of the ignorant and
+foolish, a small proportion of genuine knaves, and a sprinkling of
+capable and honest men, by whose efforts the former are kept in a
+reasonable state of guidance, and the latter of repression. And, such
+being the case, I do not see how any limit whatever can be laid down
+as to the extent to which, under some circumstances, the action of
+Government may be rightfully carried.
+
+Was our own Government wrong in suppressing Thuggee in India? If not,
+would it be wrong in putting down any enthusiast who attempted to set
+up the worship of Astarte in the Haymarket? Has the State no right to
+put a stop to gross and open violations of common decency? And if
+the State has, as I believe it has, a perfect right to do all these
+things, are we not bound to admit, with Locke, that it may have a
+right to interfere with "Popery" and "Atheism," if it be really true
+that the practical consequences of such beliefs con be proved to
+be injurious to civil society? The question where to draw the line
+between those things with which the State ought, and those with which
+it ought not, to interfere, then, is one which must be left to be
+decided separately for each individual case. The difficulty which
+meets the statesman is the same as that which meets us all in
+individual life, in which our abstract rights are generally clear
+enough, though it is frequently extremely hard to say at what point it
+is wise to cease our attempts to enforce them.
+
+The notion that the social body should be organized in such a manner
+as to advance the welfare of its members, is as old as political
+thought; and the schemes of Plato, More, Robert Owen, St. Simon,
+Comte, and the modern socialists, bear witness that, in every age, men
+whose capacity is of no mean order, and whose desire to benefit
+their fellows has rarely been excelled, have been strongly, nay,
+enthusiastically, convinced that Government may attain its end--the
+good of the people--by some more effectual process than the very
+simple and easy one of putting its hands in its pockets, and letting
+them alone.
+
+It may be, that all the schemes of social organization which have
+hitherto been propounded are impracticable follies. But if this be so,
+the fact proves, not that the idea which underlies them is worthless,
+but only that the science of politics is in a very rudimentary and
+imperfect state. Politics, as a science, is not older than astronomy;
+but though the subject-matter of the latter is vastly less complex
+than that of the former, the theory of the moon's motions is not quite
+settled yet.
+
+Perhaps it may help us a little way towards getting clearer notions of
+what the State may and what it may not do, if, assuming the truth of
+Locke's maxim that "the end of Government is the good of mankind," we
+consider a little what the good, of mankind is.
+
+I take it that the good of mankind means the attainment, by every
+man, of all the happiness which he can enjoy without diminishing the
+happiness of his fellow-men.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "Hie est itaque finis ad quem tendo, talem scilicet
+Naturam acquirere, et ut multi mecum eam acquirant, conari hoc est
+de mea felicitate etiam operam dare, ut alii multi idem atque ego
+intelligant, ut eorum intellectus et cupiditas prorsus cum meo
+intellectu et cupiditate convenient: atque hoc fiat, necesse est
+tantum de Natura intelligere, quantum sufficit ad talem naturam
+acquirendam; deinde formare talem societatem qualis est desideranda,
+ut quam plurimi quam facillime et secure eo perveniant."--B. SPINOZA,
+_De Intellectus Emendatione Tractatus._]
+
+If we inquire what kinds of happiness come under this definition, we
+find those derived from the sense of security or peace; from
+wealth, or commodity, obtained by commerce; from Art--whether it
+be architecture, sculpture, painting, music, or literature; from
+knowledge, or science; and, finally, from sympathy or friendship. No
+man is injured, but the contrary, by peace. No man is any the worse
+off because another acquires wealth by trade, or by the exercise of
+a profession; on the contrary, he cannot have acquired his wealth,
+except by benefiting others to the full extent of what they considered
+to be its value; and his wealth is no more than fairy gold if he does
+not go on benefiting others in the same way. A thousand men may enjoy
+the pleasure derived from a picture, a symphony, or a poem, without
+lessening the happiness of the most devoted connoisseur. The
+investigation of nature is an infinite pasture-ground, where all
+may graze, and where the more bite, the longer the grass grows, the
+sweeter is its flavour, and the more it nourishes. If I love a friend,
+it is no damage to me, but rather a pleasure, if all the world also
+love him and think of him as highly as I do.
+
+It appears to be universally agreed, for the reasons already
+mentioned, that it is unnecessary and undesirable for the State
+to attempt to promote the acquisition of wealth by any direct
+interference with commerce. But there is no such agreement as to the
+further question whether the State may not promote the acquisition of
+wealth by indirect means. For example, may the State make a road, or
+build a harbour, when it is quite clear that by so doing it will open
+up a productive district, and thereby add enormously to the total
+wealth of the community? And if so, may the State, acting for the
+general good, take charge of the means of communication between its
+members, or of the postal and telegraph services? I have not yet met
+with any valid, argument against the propriety of the State doing
+what our Government does in this matter; except the assumption, which
+remains to be proved, that Government will manage these things worse
+than private enterprise would do. Nor is there any agreement upon the
+still more important question whether the State ought, or ought not,
+to regulate the distribution of wealth. If it ought not, then all
+legislation which regulates inheritance--the statute of Mortmain, and
+the like--is wrong in principle; and, when a rich man dies, we
+ought to return to the state of nature, and have a scramble for
+his property. If, on the other hand, the authority of the State is
+legitimately employed in regulating these matters, then it is an open
+question, to be decided entirely by evidence as to what tends to
+the highest good of the people, whether we keep our present laws,
+or whether we modify them. At present the State protects men in the
+possession and enjoyment of their property, and defines what that
+property is. The justification for its so doing is that its action
+promotes the good of the people. If it can be clearly proved that the
+abolition of property would tend still, more to promote the good of
+the people, the State will have the same justification for abolishing
+property that it now has for maintaining it.
+
+Again, I suppose it is universally agreed that it would be useless
+and absurd for the State to attempt to promote friendship and sympathy
+between man and man directly. But I see no reason why, if it be
+otherwise expedient, the State may not do something towards that
+end indirectly. For example, I can conceive the existence of an
+Established Church which should be a blessing to the community. A
+Church in which, week by week, services should be devoted, not to the
+iteration of abstract propositions in theology, but to the setting
+before men's minds of an ideal of true, just, and pure living; a place
+in which those who are weary of the burden of daily cares, should
+find a moment's rest in the contemplation of the higher life which is
+possible for all, though attained by so few; a place in which the man
+of strife and of business should have time to think how small, after
+all, are the rewards he covets compared with peace and charity. Depend
+upon it, if such a Church existed, no one would seek to disestablish
+it.
+
+Whatever the State may not do, however, it is universally agreed that
+it may take charge of the maintenance of internal and external peace.
+Even the strongest advocate of administrative nihilism admits that
+Government may prevent aggression of one man on another. But this
+implies the maintenance of an army and navy, as much as of a body of
+police; it implies a diplomatic as well as a detective force; and it
+implies, further, that the State, as a corporate whole, shall have
+distinct and definite views as to its wants, powers, and obligations.
+
+For independent States stand in the same relation to one another as
+men in a state of nature, or unlimited freedom. Each endeavours to
+get all it can, until the inconvenience of the state of war suggests
+either the formation of those express contracts we call treaties,
+or mutual consent to those implied contracts which are expressed by
+international law. The moral rights of a State rest upon the same
+basis as those of an individual. If any number of States agree to
+observe a common set of international laws, they have, in fact, set up
+a sovereign authority or supra-national government, the end of
+which, like that of all governments, is the good of mankind; and the
+possession of as much freedom by each State, as is consistent with
+the attainment of that end. But there is this difference: that the
+government thus set up over nations is ideal, and has no concrete
+representative of the sovereign power; whence the only way of settling
+any dispute finally is to fight it out. Thus the supra-national
+society is continually in danger of returning to the state of nature,
+in which contracts are void; and the possibility of this contingency
+justifies a government in restricting the liberty of its subjects in
+many ways that would otherwise be unjustifiable.
+
+Finally, with respect to the advancement of science and art. I have
+never yet had the good fortune to hear any valid reason alleged why
+that corporation of individuals we call the State may not do what
+voluntary effort fails in doing, either from want of intelligence or
+lack of will. And here it cannot be alleged that the action of the
+State is always hurtful. On the contrary, in every country in Europe,
+universities, public libraries, picture galleries, museums, and
+laboratories, have been established by the State, and have done
+infinite service to the intellectual and moral progress and the
+refinement of mankind.
+
+A few days ago I received from one of the most eminent members of the
+Institut of France a pamphlet entitled "Pourquoi la France n'a
+pas trouvé d'hommes supérieurs au moment du péril." The writer, M.
+Pasteur, has no doubt that the cause of the astounding collapse of
+his countrymen is to be sought in the miserable neglect of the higher
+branches of culture, which has been one of the many disgraces of the
+Second Empire, if not of its predecessors.
+
+    "Au point où nous sommes arrivés de ce qu'on appelle la
+    _civilisation moderne_, la culture des sciences dans leur
+    expression la plus élevée est peut-être plus nécessaire encore
+    à l'état moral d'une nation qu'à sa prospérité materielle.
+
+    "Les grandes découvertes, les méditations de la pensée dans
+    les arts, dans les sciences et dans les lettres, en un mot les
+    travaux désintéresses de l'esprit dans tous les genres,
+    les centres d'enseignement propres à les faire connaître,
+    introduisent dans le corps social tout entier l'esprit
+    philosophique ou scientifique, cet esprit de discernement qui
+    soumet tout à une raison sévère, condamne l'ignorance,
+    dissipe les préjugés et les erreurs. Ils élèvent le niveau
+    intellectuel, le sentiment moral; par eux, l'idée divine
+    elle-même se répand et s'exalte.... Si, au moment du péril
+    suprême, la France n'a pas trouvé des hommes supérieurs pour
+    mettre en oeuvre ses ressources et le courage de ses enfants,
+    il faut l'attribuer, j'en ai la conviction, à ce que la France
+    EST désintéressée, depuis un demi-siècle, des grands travaux
+    de la pensée, particuliérement dans les sciences exactes."
+
+Individually, I have no love for academies on the continental model,
+and still less for the system of decorating men of distinction in
+science, letters, or art, with orders and titles, or enriching them
+with sinecures. What men of science want is only a fair day's wages
+for more than a fair day's work; and most of us, I suspect, would be
+well content if, for our days and nights of unremitting toil, we could
+secure the pay which a first-class Treasury clerk earns without any
+obviously trying strain upon his faculties. The sole order of nobility
+which, in my judgment, becomes a philosopher, is that rank which
+he holds in the estimation of his fellow-workers, who are the only
+competent judges in such matters. Newton and Cuvier lowered themselves
+when the one accepted an idle knighthood, and the other became a
+baron of the empire. The great men who went to their graves as Michael
+Faraday and George Grote seem to me to have understood the dignity of
+knowledge better when they declined all such meretricious trappings.
+
+But it is one thing for the State to appeal to the vanity and ambition
+which are to be found in philosophical as in other breasts, and
+another to offer men who desire to do the hardest of work for the most
+modest of tangible rewards, the means of making themselves useful to
+their age and generation. And this is just what the State does when it
+founds a public library or museum, or provides the means of scientific
+research by such grants of money as that administered by the Royal
+Society.
+
+It is one thing, again, for the State to take all the higher education
+of the nation into its own hands; it is another to stimulate and to
+aid, while they are yet young and weak, local efforts to the same
+end. The Midland Institute, Owens College in Manchester, the newly
+instituted Science College in Newcastle, are all noble products of
+local energy and munificence. But the good they are doing is not
+local--the commonwealth, to its uttermost limits, shares in the
+benefits they confer; and I am at a loss to understand upon what
+principle of equity the State, which admits the principle of payment
+on results, refuses to give a fair equivalent for these benefits; or
+on what principle of justice the State, which admits the obligation
+of sharing the duty of primary education with a locality, denies the
+existence of that obligation when the higher education is in question.
+
+To sum up: If the positive advancement of the peace, wealth, and the
+intellectual and moral development of its members, are objects which
+the Government, as the representative of the corporate authority of
+society, may justly strive after, in fulfilment of its end--the good
+of mankind; then it is clear that the Government may undertake to
+educate the people. For education promotes peace by teaching men the
+realities of life and the obligations which are involved in the very
+existence of society; it promotes intellectual development, not only
+by training the individual intellect, but by sifting out from the
+masses of ordinary or inferior capacities, those who are competent
+to increase the general welfare by occupying higher positions; and,
+lastly, it promotes morality and refinement, by teaching men to
+discipline themselves, and by leading them to see that the highest, as
+it is the only permanent, content is to be attained, not by grovelling
+in the rank and steaming valleys of sense, but by continual striving
+towards those high peaks, where, resting in eternal calm, reason
+discerns the undefined but bright ideal of the highest Good--"a cloud
+by day, a pillar of fire by night."
+
+
+
+
+II.
+
+THE SCHOOL BOARDS: WHAT THEY CAN DO, AND WHAT THEY MAY DO.
+
+
+An electioneering manifesto would be out of place in the pages of this
+Review; but any suspicion that may arise in the mind of the reader
+that the following pages partake of that nature, will be dispelled,
+if he reflect that they cannot be published[1] until after the day
+on which the ratepayers of the metropolis will have decided which
+candidates for seats upon the Metropolitan School Board they will
+take, and which they will leave.
+
+[Footnote 1: Notwithstanding Mr. Huxley's intentions, the Editor took
+upon himself, in what seemed to him to be the public interest, to send
+an extract from this article to the newspapers--before the day of the
+election of the School Board.--EDITOR of the _Contemporary Review_.]
+
+As one of those candidates, I may be permitted to say, that I feel
+much in the frame of mind of the Irish bricklayer's labourer, who bet
+another that he could not carry him to the top of the ladder in his
+hod. The challenged hodman won his wager, but as the stakes were
+handed over, the challenger wistfully remarked, "I'd great hopes of
+falling at the third round from the top." And, in view of the work
+and the worry which awaits the members of the School Boards, I must
+confess to an occasional ungrateful hope that the friends who are
+toiling upwards with me in their hod, may, when they reach "the third
+round from the top," let me fall back into peace and quietness.
+
+But whether fortune befriend me in this rough method, or not, I should
+like to submit to those of whom I am a potential, but of whom I may
+not be an actual, colleague, and to others who may be interested in
+this most important problem--how to get the Education Act to work
+efficiently--some considerations as to what are the duties of the
+members of the School Boards, and what are the limits of their power.
+
+I suppose no one will be disposed to dispute the proposition, that
+the prime duty of every member of such a Board is to endeavour to
+administer the Act honestly; or in accordance, not only with its
+letter, but with its spirit. And if so, it would seem that the first
+step towards this very desirable end is, to obtain a clear notion of
+what that letter signifies, and what that spirit implies; or, in
+other words, what the clauses of the Act are intended to enjoin and to
+forbid. So that it is really not admissible, except for factious and
+abusive purposes, to assume that any one who endeavours to get at
+this clear meaning is desirous only of raising quibbles and making
+difficulties.
+
+Reading the Act with this desire to understand it, I find that its
+provisions may be classified, as might naturally be expected, under
+two heads: the one set relating to the subject-matter of education;
+the other to the establishment, maintenance, and administration of the
+schools in which that education is to be conducted.
+
+Now it is a most important circumstance, that all the sections of the
+Act, except four, belong to the latter division; that is, they refer
+to mere matters of administration. The four sections in question are
+the seventh, the fourteenth, the sixteenth, and the ninety-seventh. Of
+these, the seventh, the fourteenth, and the ninety-seventh deal with
+the subject-matter of education, while the sixteenth defines the
+nature of the relations which are to exist between the "Education
+Department" (an euphemism for the future Minister of Education)
+and the School Boards. It is the sixteenth clause which is the most
+important, and, in some respects, the most remarkable of all. It runs
+thus:--
+
+    "If the School Board do, or permit, any act in contravention
+    of, or fail to comply with, the regulations, according to
+    which a school provided by them is required by this Act to
+    be conducted, the Education Department may declare the School
+    Board to be, and such Board shall accordingly be deemed to be,
+    a Board in default, and the Education Department may proceed
+    accordingly; and every act, or omission, of any member of
+    the School Board, or manager appointed by them, or any
+    person under the control of the Board, shall be deemed to be
+    _permitted_ by the Board, unless the contrary be proved.
+
+    "If any dispute arises as to whether the School Board have
+    done, or permitted, any act in contravention of, or have
+    failed to comply with, the said regulations, _the matter
+    shall be referred to the Education Department, whose decision
+    thereon shall be final_."
+
+It will be observed that this clause gives the Minister of Education
+absolute power over the doings of the School Boards. He is not
+only the administrator of the Act, but he is its interpreter. I
+had imagined that on the occurrence of a dispute, not as regards a
+question of pure administration, but as to the meaning of a clause of
+the Act, a case might be taken and referred to a court of justice. But
+I am led to believe that the Legislature has, in the present instance,
+deliberately taken this power out of the hands of the judges and
+lodged it in those of the Minister of Education, who, in accordance
+with our method of making Ministers, will necessarily be a political
+partisan, and who may be a strong theological sectary into the
+bargain. And I am informed by members of Parliament who watched the
+progress of the Act, that the responsibility for this unusual state of
+things rests, not with the Government, but with the Legislature, which
+exhibited a singular disposition to accumulate power in the hands of
+the future Minister of Education, and to evade the more troublesome
+difficulties of the education question by leaving them to be settled
+between that Minister and the School Boards.
+
+I express no opinion whether it is, or is not, desirable that such
+powers of controlling all the School Boards in the country should be
+possessed by a person who may be, like Mr. Forster, eminently likely
+to use these powers justly and wisely, but who also may be quite the
+reverse. I merely wish to draw attention to the fact that such powers
+are given to the Minister, whether he be fit or unfit. The extent
+of these powers becomes apparent when the other sections of the Act
+referred to are considered. The fourth clause of the seventh section
+says:--
+
+    "The school shall be conducted in accordance with the
+    conditions required to be fulfilled by an elementary school in
+    order to obtain an annual Parliamentary grant."
+
+What these conditions are appears from the following clauses of the
+ninety-seventh section:--
+
+    "The conditions required to be fulfilled by an elementary
+    school in order to obtain an annual Parliamentary grant shall
+    be those contained in the minutes of the Education Department
+    in force for the time being.... Provided that no such minute
+    of the Education Department, not in force at the time of the
+    passing of this Act, shall be deemed to be in force until
+    it has lain for not less than one month on the table of both
+    Houses of Parliament."
+
+Let us consider how this will work in practice. A school established
+by a School Board may receive support from three sources--from the
+rates, the school fees, and the Parliamentary grant. The latter may be
+as great as the two former taken together; and as it may be assumed,
+without much risk of error, that a constant pressure will be exerted
+by the ratepayers on the members who represent them, to get as much
+out of the Government, and as little out of the rates, as possible,
+the School Boards will have a very strong motive for shaping the
+education they give, as nearly as may be, on the model which the
+Education Minister offers for their imitation, and for the copying of
+which he is prepared to pay.
+
+The Revised Code did not compel any schoolmaster to leave off teaching
+anything; but, by the very simple process of refusing to pay for many
+kinds of teaching, it has practically put an end to them. Mr. Forster
+is said to be engaged in revising the Revised Code; a successor of
+his may re-revise it--and there will be no sort of check upon
+these revisions and counter-revisions, except the possibility of a
+Parliamentary debate, when the revised, or added, minutes are laid
+upon the table. What chance is there that any such debate will take
+place on a matter of detail relating to elementary education--a
+subject with which members of the Legislature, having been, for the
+most part, sent to our public schools thirty years ago, have not the
+least practical acquaintance, and for which they care nothing, unless
+it derives a political value from its connection with sectarian
+politics?
+
+I cannot but think, then, that the School Boards will have the
+appearance, but not the reality, of freedom of action, in regard to
+the subject-matter of what is commonly called "secular" education.
+
+As respects what is commonly called "religious" education, the power
+of the Minister of Education is even more despotic. An interest,
+almost amounting to pathos, attaches itself, in my mind, to the
+frantic exertions which are at present going on in almost every school
+division, to elect certain candidates whose names have never before
+been heard of in connection with education, and who are either
+sectarian partisans, or nothing. In my own particular division, a body
+organized _ad hoc_ is moving heaven and earth to get the seven seats
+filled by seven gentlemen, four of whom are good Churchmen, and three
+no less good Dissenters. But why should this seven times heated fiery
+furnace of theological zeal be so desirous to shed its genial warmth
+over the London School Board? Can it be that these zealous sectaries
+mean to evade the solemn pledge given in the Act?
+
+    "No religious catechism or religious formulary which is
+    distinctive of any particular denomination shall be taught in
+    the school."
+
+I confess I should have thought it my duty to reject any such
+suggestion, as dishonouring to a number of worthy persons, if it had
+not been for a leading article and some correspondence which appeared
+in the _Guardian_ of November 9th, 1870.
+
+The _Guardian_ is, as everybody knows, one of the best of the
+"religious" newspapers; and, personally. I have every reason to speak
+highly of the fairness, and indeed kindness, with which the editor
+is good enough to deal with a writer who must, in many ways, be so
+objectionable to him as myself. I quote the following passages from a
+leading article on a letter of mine, therefore, with all respect, and
+with a genuine conviction that the course of conduct advocated by the
+writer must appear to him in a very different light from that under
+which I see it:--
+
+    "The first of these points is the interpretation which
+    Professor Huxley puts on the 'Cowper-Temple clause.' It is,
+    in fact, that which we foretold some time ago as likely to be
+    forced upon it by those who think with him. The clause itself
+    was one of those compromises which it is very difficult to
+    define or to maintain logically. On the one side was the
+    simple freedom to School Boards to establish what schools they
+    pleased, which Mr. Forster originally gave, but against
+    which the Nonconformists lifted up their voices, because they
+    conceived it likely to give too much power to the Church. On
+    the other side there was the proposition to make the schools
+    secular--intelligible enough, but in the consideration of
+    public opinion simply impossible--and there was the vague
+    impracticable idea, which Mr. Gladstone thoroughly tore to
+    pieces, of enacting that the teaching of all schoolmasters
+    in the new schools should be strictly 'undenominational.' The
+    Cowper-Temple clause was, we repeat, proposed simply to tide
+    over the difficulty. It was to satisfy the Nonconformists and
+    the 'unsectarian,' as distinct from the secular party of
+    the League, by forbidding all distinctive 'catechisms and
+    formularies,' which might have the effect of openly assigning
+    the schools to this or that religious body. It refused, at the
+    same time, to attempt the impossible task of defining what
+    was undenominational; and its author even contended, if
+    we understood him correctly, that it would in no way, even
+    indirectly, interfere with the substantial teaching of any
+    master in any school. This assertion we always believed to be
+    untenable; we could not see how, in the face of this clause,
+    a distinctly denominational tone could be honestly given to
+    schools nominally general. But beyond this mere suggestion of
+    an attempt at a general tone of comprehensiveness in religious
+    teaching it was not intended to go, and only because such was
+    its limitation was it accepted by the Government and by the
+    House.
+
+    "But now we are told that it is to be construed as doing
+    precisely that which it refused to do. A 'formulary,' it
+    seems, is a collection of formulas, and formulas are simply
+    propositions of whatever kind touching religious faith. All
+    such propositions, if they cannot be accepted by all
+    Christian denominations, are to be proscribed; and it is added
+    significantly that the Jews also are a denomination, and so
+    that any teaching distinctively Christian is perhaps to be
+    excluded, lest it should interfere with their freedom and
+    rights. Are we then to fall back on the simple reading of
+    the letter of the Bible? No! this, it is granted, would be
+    an 'unworthy pretence.' The teacher is to give 'grammatical,
+    geographical, or historical explanations;' but he is to keep
+    clear of 'theology proper,' because, as Professor Huxley takes
+    great pains to prove, there is no theological teaching which
+    is not opposed by some sect or other, from Roman Catholicism
+    on the one hand to Unitarianism on the other. It was not,
+    perhaps, hard to see that this difficulty would be started;
+    and to those who, like Professor Huxley, look at it
+    theoretically, without much practical experience of schools,
+    it may appear serious or unanswerable. But there is very
+    little in it practically; when it is faced determinately and
+    handled firmly, it will soon shrink into its true
+    dimensions. The class who are least frightened at it are the
+    school-teachers, simply because they know most about it. It is
+    quite clear that the school-managers must be cautioned against
+    allowing their schools to be made places of proselytism:
+    but when this is done, the case is simple enough. Leave the
+    masters under this general understanding to teach freely; if
+    there is ground of complaint, let it be made, but leave the
+    _onus pro-bandi_ on the objectors. For extreme peculiarities
+    of belief or unbelief there is the Conscience Clause; as
+    to the mass of parents, they will be more anxious to have
+    religion taught than afraid of its assuming this or that
+    particular shade. They will trust the school-managers
+    and teachers till they have reason to distrust them, and
+    experience has shown that they may trust them safely enough.
+    Any attempt to throw the burden of making the teaching
+    undenominational upon the managers must be sternly resisted:
+    it is simply evading the intentions of the Act in an elaborate
+    attempt to carry them out. We thank Professor Huxley for the
+    warning. To be forewarned is to be forearmed."
+
+A good deal of light seems to me to be thrown on the practical
+significance of the opinions expressed in the foregoing extract by the
+following interesting letter, which appeared in the same paper:--
+
+    "Sir,--I venture to send to you the substance of a
+    correspondence with the Education Department upon the question
+    of the lawfulness of religious teaching in rate schools under
+    section 14 (2) of the Act. I asked whether the words 'which
+    is distinctive,' &c., taken grammatically as limiting the
+    prohibition of any religious formulary, might be construed
+    as allowing (subject, however, to the other provisions of the
+    Act) any religious formulary common to any two denominations
+    anywhere in England to be taught in such schools; and if
+    practically the limit could not be so extended, but would have
+    to be fixed according to the special circumstances of each
+    district, then what degree of general acceptance in a district
+    would exempt such a formulary from the prohibition? The answer
+    to this was as follows:--'It was understood, when clause 14 of
+    the Education Act was discussed in the House of Commons,
+    that, according to a well-known rule of interpreting Acts
+    of Parliament, "denomination" must be held to include
+    "denominations." When any dispute is referred to the Education
+    Department under the last paragraph of section 16, it will be
+    dealt with according to the circumstances of the case.'
+
+    "Upon my asking further if I might hence infer that the
+    lawfulness of teaching any religious formulary in a rate
+    school would thus depend _exclusively_ on local circumstances,
+    and would accordingly be so decided by the Education
+    Department in case of dispute, I was informed in explanation
+    that 'their lordships'' letter was intended to convey to
+    me that no general rule, beyond that stated in the first
+    paragraph of their letter, could at present be laid down by
+    them; and that their decision in each particular case must
+    depend on the special circumstances accompanying it.
+
+    "I think it would appear from this that it may yet be in many
+    cases both lawful and expedient to teach religious formularies
+    in rate schools.
+
+    "H.I. Steyning, _November_ 5, 1870."
+
+Of course I do not mean to suggest that the editor of the _Guardian_
+is bound by the opinions of his correspondent; but I cannot help
+thinking that I do not misrepresent him, when I say that he also
+thinks "that it may yet be, in many cases, both lawful and
+expedient to teach religious formularies in rate schools under these
+circumstances."
+
+It is not uncharitable, therefore, to assume that, the express words
+of the Act of Parliament notwithstanding, all the sectaries who are
+toiling so hard for seats in the London School Board have the lively
+hope of the gentleman from Steyning, that it may be "both lawful and
+expedient to teach religious formularies in rate schools;" and
+that they mean to do their utmost to bring this happy consummation
+about.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: A passage in an article on the "Working of the Education
+Act," in the _Saturday Review_ for Nov. 19, 1870, completely justifies
+this anticipation of the line of action which the sectaries mean to
+take. After commending the Liverpool compromise, the writer goes on to
+say:--
+
+"If this plan is fairly adopted in Liverpool, the fourteenth clause
+of the Act will in effect be restored to its original form, and the
+majority of the ratepayers in each district be permitted to decide to
+what denomination the school shall belong."
+
+In a previous paragraph the writer speaks of a possible "mistrust"
+of one another by the members of the Board, and seems to anticipate
+"accusations of dishonesty." If any of the members of the Board adopt
+his views, I think it highly probable that he may turn out to be a
+true prophet.]
+
+Now the pathetic emotion to which I have referred, as accompanying my
+contemplations of the violent struggles of so many excellent persons,
+is caused by the circumstance that, so far as I can judge, their
+labour is in vain.
+
+Supposing that the London School Board contains, as it probably will
+do, a majority of sectaries; and that they carry over the heads of a
+minority, a resolution that certain theological formulas, about which
+they all happen to agree,--say, for example, the doctrine of the
+Trinity,--shall be taught in the schools. Do they fondly imagine that
+the minority will not at once dispute their interpretation of the Act,
+and appeal to the Education Department to settle that dispute? And if
+so, do they suppose that any Minister of Education, who wants to keep
+his place, will tighten boundaries which the Legislature has left
+loose; and will give a "final decision" which shall be offensive to
+every Unitarian and to every Jew in the House of Commons, besides
+creating a precedent which will afterwards be used to the injury of
+every Nonconformist? The editor of the _Guardian_ tells his friends
+sternly to resist every attempt to throw the burden of making the
+teaching undenominational on the managers, and thanks me for the
+warning I have given him. I return the thanks, with interest, for
+_his_ warning, as to the course the party he represents intends
+to pursue, and for enabling me thus to draw public attention to a
+perfectly constitutional and effectual mode of checkmating them.
+
+And, in truth, it is wonderful to note the surprising entanglement
+into which our able editor gets himself in the struggle between his
+native honesty and judgment and the necessities of his party. "We
+could not see," says he, "in the face of this clause how a distinct
+denominational tone could be honestly given to schools nominally
+general." There speaks the honest and clearheaded man. "Any attempt
+to throw the burden of making the teaching undenominational must be
+sternly resisted." There speaks the advocate holding a brief for his
+party. "Verily," as Trinculo says, "the monster hath two mouths:" the
+one, the forward mouth, tells us very justly that the teaching cannot
+"honestly" be "distinctly denominational;" but the other, the
+backward mouth, asserts that it must by no manner of means be
+"undenominational." Putting the two utterances together, I can only
+interpret them to mean that the teaching is to be "indistinctly
+denominational." If the editor of the _Guardian_ had not shown signs
+of anger at my use of the term "theological fog," I should have been
+tempted to suppose it must have been what he had in his mind, under
+the name of "indistinct denominationalism." But this reading being
+plainly inadmissible, I can only imagine that he inculcates the
+teaching of formulas common to a number of denominations.
+
+But the Education Department has already told the gentleman from
+Steyning that any such proceeding will be illegal. "According to a
+well-known rule of interpreting Acts of Parliament, 'denomination'
+would be held to include 'denominations.'" In other words, we must
+read the Act thus:--
+
+"No religious catechism or religious formulary which is distinctive of
+any particular _denominations_ shall be taught."
+
+Thus we are really very much indebted to the editor of the _Guardian_
+and his correspondent. The one has shown us that the sectaries mean
+to try to get as much denominational teaching as they can agree upon
+among themselves, forced into the elementary schools; while the other
+has obtained a formal declaration from the Education Department that
+any such attempt will contravene the Act of Parliament, and that,
+therefore, the unsectarian, law-abiding members of the School Boards
+may safely reckon upon, bringing down upon their opponents the heavy
+hand of the Minister of Education.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Since this paragraph was written, Mr. Forster, in
+speaking at the Birkbeck Institution, has removed all doubt as to
+what his "final decision" will be in the case of such disputes being
+referred to him:--"I have the fullest confidence that in the reading
+and explaining of the Bible, what the children will be taught will be
+the great truths of Christian life and conduct, which all of us desire
+they should know, and that no effort will be made to cram into their
+poor little minds, theological dogmas which their tender age prevents
+them from understanding."]
+
+So much for the powers of the School Boards. Limited as they seem to
+be, it by no means follows that such Boards, if they are composed of
+intelligent and practical men, really more in earnest about education
+than about sectarian squabbles, may not exert a very great amount of
+influence. And, from many circumstances, this is especially likely to
+be the case with the London School Board, which, if it conducts itself
+wisely, may become a true educational parliament, as subordinate
+in authority to the Minister of Education, theoretically, as the
+Legislature is to the Crown, and yet, like the Legislature, possessed
+of great practical authority. And I suppose that no Minister
+of Education would be other than glad to have the aid of the
+deliberations of such a body, or fail to pay careful attention to its
+recommendations.
+
+What, then, ought to be the nature and scope of the education which
+a School Board should endeavour to give to every child under its
+influence, and for which it should try to obtain the aid of the
+Parliamentary grants? In my judgment it should include at least the
+following kinds of instruction and of discipline:--
+
+1. Physical training and drill, as part of the regular business of the
+school.
+
+It is impossible to insist too much on the importance of this part
+of education for the children of the poor of great towns. All
+the conditions of their lives are unfavourable to their physical
+well-being. They are badly lodged, badly housed, badly fed, and live
+from one year's end to another in bad air, without chance of a change.
+They have no play-grounds; they amuse themselves with marbles and
+chuck-farthing, instead of cricket or hare-and-hounds; and if it were
+not for the wonderful instinct which leads all poor children of tender
+years to run under the feet of cab-horses whenever they can, I know
+not how they would learn to use their limbs with agility.
+
+Now there is no real difficulty about teaching drill and the simpler
+kinds of gymnastics. It is done admirably well, for example, in the
+North Surrey Union schools; and a year or two ago, when I had an
+opportunity of inspecting these schools, I was greatly struck with
+the effect of such training upon the poor little waifs and strays of
+humanity, mostly picked out of the gutter, who are being made into
+cleanly, healthy, and useful members of society in that excellent
+institution.
+
+Whatever doubts people may entertain about the efficacy of natural
+selection, there can be none about artificial selection; and the
+breeder who should attempt to make, or keep up, a fine stock of pigs,
+or sheep, under the conditions to which the children of the poor
+are exposed, would be the laughing-stock even of the bucolic mind.
+Parliament has already done something in this direction, by declining
+to be an accomplice in the asphyxiation of school children. It refuses
+to make any grant to a school in which the cubical contents of the
+school-room are inadequate to allow of proper respiration. I should
+like to see it make another step in the same direction, and either
+refuse to give a grant to a school in which physical training is not
+a part of the programme, or, at any rate, offer to pay upon such
+training. If something of the kind is not done, the English physique,
+which has been, and is still, on the whole, a grand one, will become
+as extinct as the dodo, in the great towns.
+
+And then the moral and intellectual effect of drill, as an
+introduction to, and aid of, all other sorts of training, must not be
+overlooked. If you want to break in a colt, surely the first thing to
+do is to catch him and get him quietly to face his trainer; to know
+his voice and bear his hand; to learn that colts have something else
+to do with their heels than to kick them up whenever they feel so
+inclined; and to discover that the dreadful human figure has no desire
+to devour, or even to beat him, but that, in case of attention and
+obedience, he may hope for patting and even a sieve of oats.
+
+But, your "street Arabs," and other neglected poor children, are
+rather worse and wilder than colts; for the reason that the horse-colt
+has only his animal instincts in him, and his mother, the mare, has
+been always tender over him, and never came home drunk and kicked him
+in her life; while the man-colt is inspired by that very real devil,
+perverted manhood, and _his_ mother may have done all that and more.
+So, on the whole, it may probably be even more expedient to begin your
+attempt to get at the higher nature of the child, than at that of the
+colt, from the physical side.
+
+2. Next in order to physical training I put the instruction of
+children, and especially of girls, in the elements of household work
+and of domestic economy; in the first place for their own sakes, and
+in the second for that of their future employers.
+
+Everyone who knows anything of the life of the English poor is aware
+of the misery and waste caused by their want of knowledge of domestic
+economy, and by their lack of habits of frugality and method. I
+suppose it is no exaggeration to say that a poor Frenchwoman would
+make the money which the wife of a poor Englishman spends in food
+go twice as far, and at the same time turn out twice as palatable a
+dinner. Why Englishmen, who are so notoriously fond of good living,
+should be so helplessly incompetent in the art of cookery, is one of
+the great mysteries of nature; but from the varied abominations of
+the railway refreshment-rooms to the monotonous dinners of the poor,
+English feeding is either wasteful or nasty, or both.
+
+And as to domestic service, the groans of the housewives of England
+ascend to heaven! In five cases out of six, the girl who takes a
+"place" has to be trained by her mistress in the first rudiments of
+decency and order; and it is a mercy if she does not turn up her
+nose at anything like the mention of an honest and proper economy.
+Thousands of young girls are said to starve, or worse, yearly in
+London; and at the same time thousands of mistresses of households
+are ready to pay high wages for a decent housemaid, or cook, or a fair
+workwoman; and can by no means get what they want.
+
+Surely, if the elementary schools are worth anything, they may put an
+end to a state of things which is demoralizing the poor, while it is
+wasting the lives of those better off in small worries and annoyances.
+
+3. But the boys and girls for whose education the School Boards have
+to provide, have not merely to discharge domestic duties, but each
+of them is a member of a social and political organization of
+great complexity, and has, in future life, to fit himself into that
+organization, or be crushed by it. To this end it is surely needful,
+not only that they should be made acquainted with the elementary laws
+of conduct, but that their affections should be trained, so as to love
+with all their hearts that conduct which tends to the attainment of
+the highest good for themselves and their fellow-men, and to hate with
+all their hearts that opposite course of action which is fraught with
+evil.
+
+So far as the laws of conduct are determined by the intellect, I
+apprehend that they belong to science, and to that part of science
+which is called morality. But the engagement of the affections in
+favour of that particular kind of conduct which we call good, seems to
+me to be something quite beyond mere science. And I cannot but think
+that it, together with the awe and reverence, which have no kinship
+with base fear, but arise whenever one tries to pierce below the
+surface of things, whether they be material or spiritual, constitutes
+all that has any unchangeable reality in religion.
+
+And just as I think it would, be a mistake to confound the science,
+morality, with the affection, religion; so do I conceive it to be a
+most lamentable and mischievous error, that the science, theology,
+is so confounded in the minds of many--indeed, I might say, of the
+majority of men.
+
+I do not express any opinion as to whether theology is a true science,
+or whether it does not come under the apostolic definition of "science
+falsely so called;" though I may be permitted to express the belief
+that if the Apostle to whom that much misapplied phrase is due
+could make the acquaintance of much of modern theology, he would not
+hesitate a moment in declaring that it is exactly what he meant the
+words to denote.
+
+But it is at any rate conceivable, that the nature of the Deity, and
+His relations to the universe, and more especially to mankind, are
+capable of being ascertained, either inductively or deductively, or
+by both processes. And, if they have been ascertained, then a body of
+science has been formed which is very properly called theology.
+
+Further, there can be no doubt that affection for the Being thus
+defined and described by theologic science would be properly termed
+religion; but it would not be the whole of religion. The affection for
+the ethical ideal defined by moral science would claim equal if not
+superior rights. For suppose theology established the existence of an
+evil deity--and some theologies, even Christian ones, have come very
+near this,--is the religious affection to be transferred from the
+ethical ideal to any such omnipotent demon? I trow not. Better
+a thousand times that the human race should perish under his
+thunderbolts than it should say, "Evil, be thou my good."
+
+There is nothing new, that I know of, in this statement of the
+relations of religion with the science of morality on the one hand and
+that of theology on the other. But I believe it to be altogether
+true, and very needful, at this time, to be clearly and emphatically
+recognized as such, by those who have to deal with the education
+question.
+
+We are divided into two parties--the advocates of so-called
+"religious" teaching on the one hand, and those of so-called "secular"
+teaching on the other. And both parties seem to me to be not only
+hopelessly wrong, but in such a position that if either succeeded
+completely, it would discover, before many years were over, that
+it had made a great mistake and done serious evil to the cause of
+education.
+
+For, leaving aside the more far-seeing minority on each side, what the
+"religious" party is crying for is mere theology, under the name
+of religion; while the "secularists" have unwisely and wrongfully
+admitted the assumption of their opponents, and demand the abolition
+of all "religious" teaching, when they only want to be free of
+theology--Burning your ship to get rid of the cockroaches!
+
+But my belief is, that no human being, and no society composed of
+human beings, ever did, or ever will, come to much, unless their
+conduct was governed and guided by the love of some ethical ideal.
+Undoubtedly, your gutter child may be converted by mere intellectual
+drill into "the subtlest of all the beasts of the field;" but we know
+what has become of the original of that description, and there is
+no need to increase the number of those who imitate him successfully
+without being aided by the rates. And if I were compelled to choose
+for one of my own children, between a school in which real religious
+instruction is given, and one without it, I should prefer the former,
+even though the child might have to take a good deal of theology with
+it. Nine-tenths of a dose of bark is mere half-rotten wood; but one
+swallows it for the sake of the particles of quinine, the beneficial
+effect of which may be weakened, but is not destroyed, by the wooden
+dilution, unless in a few cases of exceptionally tender stomachs.
+
+Hence, when the great mass of the English people declare that they
+want to have the children in the elementary schools taught the Bible,
+and when it is plain from the terms of the Act, the debates in and
+out of Parliament, and especially the emphatic declarations of
+the Vice-President of the Council, that it was intended that such
+Bible-reading should be permitted, unless good cause for prohibiting
+it could be shown, I do not see what reason there is for opposing that
+wish. Certainly, I, individually, could with no shadow of consistency
+oppose the teaching of the children of other people to do that which
+my own children are taught to do. And, even if the reading the Bible
+were not, as I think it is, consonant with political reason and
+justice, and with a desire to act in the spirit of the education
+measure, I am disposed to think it might still be well to read that
+book in the elementary schools.
+
+I have always been strongly in favour of secular education, in the
+sense of education without theology; but I must confess I have been
+no less seriously perplexed to know by what practical measures the
+religious feeling, which is the essential basis of conduct, was to
+be kept up, in the present utterly chaotic state of opinion on these
+matters, without the use of the Bible. The Pagan moralists lack life
+and colour, and even the noble Stoic, Marcus Antoninus, is too high
+and refined for an ordinary child. Take the Bible as a whole; make the
+severest deductions which fair criticism can dictate for shortcomings
+and positive errors; eliminate, as a sensible lay-teacher would do, if
+left to himself, all that it is not desirable for children to occupy
+themselves with; and there still remains in this old literature a vast
+residuum of moral beauty and grandeur. And then consider the great
+historical fact that, for three centuries, this book has been woven
+into the life of all that is best and noblest in English history;
+that it has become the national epic of Britain, and is as familiar to
+noble and simple, from John-o'-Groat's House to Land's End, as Dante
+and Tasso once were to the Italians; that it is written in the noblest
+and purest English, and abounds in exquisite beauties of mere literary
+form; and, finally, that it forbids the veriest hind who never left
+his village to be ignorant of the existence of other countries and
+other civilizations, and of a great past, stretching back to the
+furthest limits of the oldest nations in the world. By the study of
+what other book could children be so much humanized and made to
+feel that each figure in that vast historical procession fills,
+like themselves, but a momentary space in the interval between
+two eternities; and earns the blessings or the curses of all time,
+according to its effort to do good and hate evil, even as they also
+are earning their payment for their work?
+
+On the whole, then, I am in favour of reading the Bible, with
+such grammatical, geographical, and historical explanations by a
+lay-teacher as may be needful, with rigid exclusion of any further
+theological teaching than that contained in the Bible itself. And in
+stating what this is, the teacher would do well not to go beyond the
+precise words of the Bible; for if he does, he will, in the first
+place, undertake a task beyond his strength, seeing that all the
+Jewish and Christian sects have been at work upon that subject for
+more than two thousand years, and have not yet arrived, and are not in
+the least likely to arrive, at an agreement; and, in the second
+place, he will certainly begin to teach something distinctively
+denominational, and thereby come into violent collision with the Act
+of Parliament.
+
+4. The intellectual training to be given in the elementary schools
+must of course, in the first place, consist in learning to use the
+means of acquiring knowledge, or reading, writing, and arithmetic; and
+it will be a great matter to teach reading so completely that the act
+shall have become easy and pleasant. If reading remains "hard," that
+accomplishment will not be much resorted to for instruction, and still
+less for amusement--which last is one of its most valuable uses to
+hard-worked people.
+
+But along with a due proficiency in the use of the means of learning,
+a certain amount of knowledge, of intellectual discipline, and of
+artistic training should be conveyed in the elementary schools; and in
+this direction--for reasons which I am afraid to repeat, having
+urged them so often--I can conceive no subject-matter of education
+so appropriate and so important as the rudiments of physical science,
+with drawing, modelling, and singing. Not only would such teaching
+afford the best possible preparation for the technical schools about
+which so much is now said, but the organization for carrying it into
+effect already exists. The Science and Art Department, the operations
+of which have already attained considerable magnitude, not only offers
+to examine and pay the results of such examination in elementary
+science and art, but it provides what is still more important, viz.
+a means of giving children of high natural ability, who are just as
+abundant among the poor as among the rich, a helping hand. A good old
+proverb tells us that "One should not take a razor to cut a block:"
+the razor is soon spoiled, and the block is not so well cut as it
+would be with a hatchet. But it is worse economy to prevent a possible
+Watt from being anything but a stoker, or to give a possible Faraday
+no chance of doing anything but to bind books. Indeed, the loss in
+such cases of mistaken vocation has no measure; it is absolutely
+infinite and irreparable. And among the arguments in favour of the
+interference of the State in education, none seems to be stronger
+than this--that it is the interest of every one that ability should be
+neither wasted, nor misapplied, by any one; and, therefore, that every
+one's representative, the State, is necessarily fulfilling the wishes
+of its constituents when it is helping the capacities to reach their
+proper places.
+
+It may be said that the scheme of education here sketched is too large
+to be effected in the time during which the children will remain at
+school; and, secondly, that even if this objection did not exist, it
+would cost too much.
+
+I attach no importance whatever to the first objection until the
+experiment has been fairly tried. Considering how much catechism,
+lists of the kings of Israel, geography of Palestine, and the like,
+children are made to swallow now, I cannot believe there will be any
+difficulty in inducing them to go through the physical training, which
+is more than half play; or the instruction in household work, or in
+those duties to one another and to themselves, which have a daily and
+hourly practical interest. That children take kindly to elementary
+science and art no one can doubt who has tried the experiment
+properly. And if Bible-reading is not accompanied by constraint and
+solemnity, as if it were a sacramental operation, I do not believe
+there is anything in which children take more pleasure. At least I
+know that some of the pleasantest recollections of my childhood are
+connected with the voluntary study of an ancient Bible which belonged
+to my grandmother. There were splendid pictures in it, to be sure; but
+I recollect little or nothing about them save a portrait of the
+high priest in his vestments. What come vividly back on my mind are
+remembrances of my delight in the histories of Joseph and of David;
+and of my keen appreciation of the chivalrous kindness of Abraham in
+his dealings with Lot. Like a sudden flash there returns back upon
+me, my utter scorn of the pettifogging meanness of Jacob, and my
+sympathetic grief over the heartbreaking lamentation of the cheated
+Esau, "Hast thou not a blessing for me also, O my father?" And I see,
+as in a cloud, pictures of the grand phantasmagoria of the Book of
+Revelation.
+
+I enumerate, as they issue, the childish impressions which come
+crowding out of the pigeon-holes in my brain, in which they have lain
+almost undisturbed for forty years. I prize them as an evidence that a
+child of five or six years old, left to his own devices, may be deeply
+interested in the Bible, and draw sound moral sustenance from it. And
+I rejoice that I was left to deal with the Bible alone; for if I had
+had some theological "explainer" at my side, he might have tried,
+as such do, to lessen my indignation against Jacob, and thereby have
+warped my moral sense for ever; while the great apocalyptic spectacle
+of the ultimate triumph of right and justice might have been turned to
+the base purposes of a pious lampooner of the Papacy.
+
+And as to the second objection--costliness--the reply is, first, that
+the rate and the Parliamentary grant together ought to be enough,
+considering that science and art teaching is already provided
+for; and, secondly, that if they are not, it may be well for the
+educational parliament to consider what has become of those endowments
+which were originally intended to be devoted, more or less largely, to
+the education of the poor.
+
+When the monasteries were spoiled, some of their endowments were
+applied to the foundation of cathedrals; and in all such cases it was
+ordered that a certain portion of the endowment should be applied to
+the purposes of education. How much is so applied? Is that which may
+be so applied given to help the poor, who cannot pay for education, or
+does it virtually subsidize the comparatively rich, who can? How
+are Christ's Hospital and Alleyn's foundation securing their right
+purposes, or how far are they perverted into contrivances for
+affording relief to the classes who can afford to pay for education?
+How--But this paper is already too long, and, if I begin, I may find
+it hard to stop asking questions of this kind, which after all are
+worthy only of the lowest of Radicals.
+
+
+
+
+III.
+
+ON MEDICAL EDUCATION.
+
+(AN ADDRESS TO THE STUDENTS OF THE FACULTY OF MEDICINE IN UNIVERSITY
+COLLEGE, LONDON, MAY 18, 1870, ON THE OCCASION OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF
+PRIZES FOR THE SESSION.)
+
+
+It has given me sincere pleasure to be here to-day, at the desire of
+your highly respected President and the Council of the College. In
+looking back upon my own past, I am sorry to say that I have found
+that it is a quarter of a century since I took part in those hopes and
+in those fears by which you have all recently been agitated, and which
+now are at an end. But, although so long a time has elapsed since
+I was moved by the same feelings, I beg leave to assure you that my
+sympathy with both victors and vanquished remains fresh--so fresh,
+indeed, that I could almost try to persuade myself that, after all, it
+cannot be so very long ago. My business during the last hour, however,
+has been to show that sympathy with one side only, and I assure you
+I have done my best to play my part heartily, and to rejoice in the
+success of those who have succeeded. Still, I should like to remind
+you at the end of it all, that success on an occasion of this kind,
+valuable and important as it is, is in reality only putting the foot
+upon one rung of the ladder which leads upwards; and that the rung of
+a ladder was never meant to rest upon, but only to hold a man's foot
+long enough to enable him to put the other somewhat higher. I trust
+that you will all regard these successes as simply reminders that your
+next business is, having enjoyed the success of the day, no longer to
+look at that success, but to look forward to the next difficulty
+that is to be conquered. And now, having had so much to say to the
+successful candidates, you must forgive me if I add that a sort of
+undercurrent of sympathy has been going on in my mind all the time for
+those who have not been successful, for those valiant knights who have
+been overthrown in your tourney, and have not made their appearance in
+public. I trust that, in accordance with old custom, they, wounded and
+bleeding, have been carried off to their tents, to be carefully tended
+by the fairest of maidens; and in these days, when the chances are
+that every one of such maidens will be a qualified practitioner,
+I have no doubt that all the splinters will have been carefully
+extracted, and that they are now physically healed. But there may
+remain some little fragment of moral or intellectual discouragement,
+and therefore I will take the liberty to remark that your chairman
+to-day, if he occupied his proper place, would be among them. Your
+chairman, in virtue of his position, and for the brief hour that he
+occupies that position, is a person of importance; and it may be some
+consolation to those who have failed if I say, that the quarter of a
+century which I have been speaking of, takes me back to the time
+when I was up at the University of London, a candidate for honours in
+anatomy and physiology, and when I was exceedingly well beaten by my
+excellent friend Dr. Ransom, of Nottingham. There is a person here
+who recollects that circumstance very well. I refer to your venerated
+teacher and mine, Dr. Sharpey. He was at that time one of the
+examiners in anatomy and physiology, and you may be quite sure that,
+as he was one of the examiners, there remained not the smallest doubt
+in my mind of the propriety of his judgment, and I accepted my defeat
+with the most comfortable assurance that I had thoroughly well earned
+it. But, gentlemen, the competitor having been a worthy one, and
+the examination, a fair one, I cannot say that I found in that
+circumstance anything very discouraging. I said to myself, "Never
+mind; what's the next thing to be done?" And I found that policy of
+"never minding" and going on to the next thing to be done, to be the
+most important of all policies in the conduct of practical life. It
+does not matter how many tumbles you have in this life, so long as you
+do not get dirty when you tumble; it is only the people who have to
+stop to be washed and made clean, who must necessarily lose the race.
+And I can assure you that there is the greatest practical benefit
+in making a few failures early in life. You learn that which is of
+inestimable importance--that there are a great many people in the
+world who are just as clever as you are. You learn to put your trust,
+by and by, in an economy and frugality of the exercise of your powers,
+both moral and intellectual; and you very soon find out, if you have
+not found it out before, that patience and tenacity of purpose are
+worth more than twice their weight of cleverness. In fact, if I were
+to go on discoursing on this subject, I should become almost eloquent
+in praise of non-success; but, lest so doing should seem, in any way,
+to wither well-earned laurels, I will turn from that topic, and ask
+you to accompany me in some considerations touching another subject
+which has a very profound interest for me, and which I think ought to
+have an equally profound interest for you.
+
+I presume that the great majority of those whom I address propose to
+devote themselves to the profession of medicine; and I do not doubt,
+from the evidences of ability which have been given to-day, that
+I have before me a number of men who will rise to eminence in that
+profession, and who will exert a great and deserved influence upon
+its future. That in which I am interested, and about which I wish to
+speak, is the subject of medical education, and I venture to speak
+about it for the purpose, if I can, of influencing you, who may have
+the power of influencing the medical education of the future. You may
+ask, by what authority do I venture, being a person not concerned in
+the practice of medicine, to meddle with that subject? I can only tell
+you it is a fact, of which a number of you I dare say are aware by
+experience (and I trust the experience has no painful associations),
+that I have been for a considerable number of years (twelve or
+thirteen years to the best of my recollection) one of the examiners in
+the University of London. You are further aware that the men who
+come up to the University of London are the picked men of the medical
+schools of London, and therefore such observations as I may have
+to make upon the state of knowledge of these gentlemen, if they be
+justified, in regard to any faults I may have to find, cannot be held
+to indicate defects in the capacity, or in the power of application of
+those gentlemen, but must be laid, more or less, to the account of the
+prevalent system of medical education. I will tell you what has struck
+me--but in speaking in this frank way, as one always does about the
+defects of one's friends, I must beg you to disabuse your minds of
+the notion that I am alluding to any particular school, or to any
+particular college, or to any particular person; and to believe that
+if I am silent when I should be glad to speak with high praise, it is
+because that praise would come too close to this locality. What has
+struck me, then, in this long experience of the men best instructed in
+physiology from the medical schools of London, is (with the many and
+brilliant exceptions to which I have referred), taking it as a whole,
+and broadly, the singular unreality of their knowledge of physiology.
+Now, I use that word "unreality" advisedly: I do not say "scanty;" on
+the contrary, there is plenty of it--a great deal too much of it--but
+it is the quality, the nature of the knowledge, which I quarrel with.
+I know I used to have--I don't know whether I have now, but I had once
+upon a time--a bad reputation among students for setting up a very
+high standard of acquirement, and I dare say you may think that the
+standard of this old examiner, who happily is now very nearly an
+extinct examiner, has been pitched too high. Nothing of the kind, I
+assure you. The defects I have noticed, and the faults I have to find,
+arise entirely from the circumstance that my standard is pitched too
+low. This is no paradox, gentlemen, but quite simply the fact.
+The knowledge I have looked for was a real, precise, thorough, and
+practical knowledge of fundamentals; whereas that which the best of
+the candidates, in a large proportion of cases, have had to give me
+was a large, extensive, and inaccurate knowledge of superstructure;
+and that is what I mean by saying that my demands went too low,
+and not too high. What I have had to complain of is, that a large
+proportion of the gentlemen who come up for physiology to the
+University of London do not know it as they know their anatomy, and
+have not been taught it as they have been taught their anatomy. Now, I
+should not wonder at all if I heard a great many "No, noes" here; but
+I am not talking about University College; as I have told you before,
+I am talking about the average education of medical schools. What I
+have found, and found so much reason to lament, is, that while anatomy
+has been taught as a science ought to be taught, as a matter of
+autopsy, and observation, and strict discipline; in a very large
+number of cases, physiology has been taught as if it were a mere
+matter of books and of hearsay. I declare to you, gentlemen, that
+I have often expected to be told, when I have been asked a question
+about the circulation of the blood, that Professor Breitkopf is
+of opinion that it circulates, but that the whole thing is an open
+question. I assure you that I am hardly exaggerating the state of mind
+on matters of fundamental importance which I have found over and over
+again to obtain, among gentlemen coming up to that picked examination
+of the University of London. Now, I do not think that is a desirable
+state of things. I cannot understand why physiology should not be
+taught--in fact, you have here abundant evidence that it can be
+taught--with the same definiteness and the same precision as anatomy
+is taught. And you may depend upon this, that the only physiology
+which is to be of any good whatever in medical practice, or in its
+application to the study of medicine, is that physiology which a man
+knows of his own knowledge; just as the only anatomy which would be
+of any good to the surgeon is the anatomy which he knows of his own
+knowledge. Another peculiarity I have found in the physiology which
+has been current, and that is, that in the minds of a great many
+gentlemen it has been supplanted by histology. They have learnt a
+great deal of histology, and they have fancied that histology and
+physiology are the same things. I have asked for some knowledge of the
+physics and the mechanics and the chemistry of the human body, and I
+have been met by talk about cells. I declare to you I believe it will
+take me two years, at least, of absolute rest from the business of
+an examiner to hear the word "cell," "germinal matter," or "carmine,"
+without a sort of inward shudder.
+
+Well, now, gentlemen, I am sure my colleagues in this examination will
+bear me out in saying that I have not been exaggerating the evils and
+defects which are current--have been current--in a large quantity
+of the physiological teaching, the results of which come before
+examiners. And it becomes a very interesting question to know how all
+this comes about, and in what way it can be remedied. How it comes
+about will be perfectly obvious to any one who has considered the
+growth of medicine. I suppose that medicine and surgery first began
+by some savage, more intelligent than the rest, discovering that a
+certain herb was good for a certain pain, and that a certain pull,
+somehow or other, set a dislocated joint right. I suppose all things
+had their humble beginnings, and medicine and surgery were in the same
+condition. People who wear watches know nothing about watchmaking. A
+watch goes wrong and it stops; you see the owner giving it a shake,
+or, if he is very bold, he opens the case, and gives the balance-wheel
+a turn. Gentlemen, that is empirical practice, and you know what are
+the results upon the watch. I should think you can divine what are the
+results of analogous operations upon the human body. And because men
+of sense very soon found that such were the effects of meddling with
+very complicated machinery they did not understand, I suppose the
+first thing, as being the easiest, was to study the nature of the
+works of the human watch, and the next thing was to study the way the
+parts worked together, and the way the watch worked. Thus, by degrees,
+we have had growing up our body of anatomists, or knowers of the
+construction of the human watch, and our physiologists, who know how
+the machine works. And just as any sensible man, who has a valuable
+watch, does not meddle with it himself, but goes to some one who has
+studied watchmaking, and understands what the effect of doing this
+or that may be; so, I suppose, the man who, having charge of that
+valuable machine, his own body, wants to have it kept in good order,
+comes to a professor of the medical art for the purpose of having it
+set right, believing that, by deduction from the facts of structure
+and from the facts of function, the physician will divine what may be
+the matter with his bodily watch at that particular time, and what may
+be the best means of setting it right. If that may be taken as a
+just representation of the relation of the theoretical branches of
+medicine--what we may call the institutes of medicine, to use an old
+term--to the practical branches, I think it will be obvious to you
+that they are of prime and fundamental importance. Whatever tends to
+affect the teaching of them injuriously must tend to destroy and
+to disorganize the whole fabric of the medical art. I think every
+sensible man has seen this long ago; but the difficulties in the way
+of attaining good teaching in the different branches of the theory, or
+institutes, of medicine are very serious. It is a comparatively
+easy matter--pray mark that I use the word "comparatively"--it is a
+comparatively easy matter to learn anatomy and to teach it; it is a
+very difficult matter to learn physiology and to teach it. It is a
+very difficult matter to know and to teach those branches of physics
+and those branches of chemistry which bear directly upon physiology;
+and hence it is that, as a matter of fact, the teaching of physiology,
+and the teaching of the physics and the chemistry which bear upon it,
+must necessarily be in a state of relative imperfection; and there is
+nothing to be grumbled at in the fact that this relative imperfection
+exists. But is the relative imperfection which exists only such as
+is necessary, or is it made worse by our practical arrangements? I
+believe--and if I did not so believe I should not have troubled you
+with these observations--I believe it is made infinitely worse by
+our practical arrangements, or rather, I ought to say, our very
+unpractical arrangements. Some very wise man long ago affirmed that
+every question, in the long run, was a question of finance; and there
+is a good deal to be said for that view. Most assuredly the question
+of medical teaching is, in a very large and broad sense, a question of
+finance. What I mean is this: that in London the arrangements of the
+medical schools, and the number of them, are such as to render it
+almost impossible that men who confine themselves to the teaching
+of the theoretical branches of the profession should be able to make
+their bread by that operation; and, you know, if a man cannot make his
+bread, he cannot teach--at least his teaching comes to a speedy end.
+That is a matter of physiology. Anatomy is fairly well taught, because
+it lies in the direction of practice, and a man is all the better
+surgeon for being a good anatomist. It does not absolutely interfere
+with the pursuits of a practical surgeon if he should hold a Chair
+of Anatomy--though I do not for one moment say that he would not be a
+better teacher if he did not devote himself to practice. (Applause.)
+Yes, I know exactly what that cheer means, but I am keeping as
+carefully as possible from any sort of allusion to Professor Ellis.
+But the fact is, that even human anatomy has now grown to be so large
+a matter, that it takes the whole devotion of a man's life to put the
+great mass of knowledge upon that subject into such a shape that it
+can be teachable to the mind of the ordinary student. What the student
+wants in a professor is a man who shall stand between him and the
+infinite diversity and variety of human knowledge, and who shall
+gather all that together, and extract from it that which is capable
+of being assimilated by the mind. That function is a vast and an
+important one, and unless, in such subjects as anatomy, a man is
+wholly free from other cares, it is almost impossible that he can
+perform it thoroughly and well. But if it be hardly possible for a man
+to pursue anatomy without actually breaking with his profession, how
+is it possible for him to pursue physiology?
+
+I get every year those very elaborate reports of Henle and
+Meissner--volumes of, I suppose, 400 pages altogether--and they
+consist merely of abstracts of the memoirs and works which have been
+written on Anatomy and Physiology--only abstracts of them! How is
+a man to keep up his acquaintance with all that is doing in the
+physiological world--in a world advancing with enormous strides every
+day and every hour--if he has to be distracted with the cares of
+practice? You know very well it must be impracticable to do so. Our
+men of ability join our medical schools with an eye to the future.
+They take the Chairs of Anatomy or of Physiology; and by and by they
+leave those Chairs for the more profitable pursuits into which they
+have drifted by professional success, and so they become clothed,
+and physiology is bare. The result is, that in those schools in which
+physiology is thus left to the benevolence, so to speak, of those
+who have no time to look to it, the effect of such teaching comes
+out obviously, and is made manifest in what I spoke of just now--the
+unreality, the bookishness of the knowledge of the taught. And if this
+is the case in physiology, still more must it be the case in those
+branches of physics which are the foundation of physiology; although
+it may be less the case in chemistry, because for an able chemist a
+certain honourable and independent career lies in the direction of
+his work, and he is able, like the anatomist, to look upon what he
+may teach to the student as not absolutely taking him away from his
+bread-winning pursuits.
+
+But it is of no use to grumble about this state of things unless
+one is prepared to indicate some sort of practical remedy. And I
+believe--and I venture to make the statement because I am wholly
+independent of all sorts of medical schools, and may, therefore, say
+what I believe without being supposed to be affected by any personal
+interest--but I say I believe that the remedy for this state of
+things, for that imperfection of our theoretical knowledge which keeps
+down the ability of England at the present time in medical matters,
+is a mere affair of mechanical arrangement; that so long as you have
+a dozen medical schools scattered about in different parts of the
+metropolis, and dividing the students among them, so long, in all the
+smaller schools at any rate, it is impossible that any other state of
+things than that which I have been depicting should obtain. Professors
+must live; to live they must occupy themselves with practice, and
+if they occupy themselves with practice, the pursuit of the abstract
+branches of science must go to the wall. All this is a plain and
+obvious matter of common-sense reasoning. I believe you will never
+alter this state of things until, either by consent or by _force
+majeure_--and I should be very sorry to see the latter applied--but
+until there is some new arrangement, and until all the theoretical
+branches of the profession, the institutes of medicine, are taught in
+London in not more than one or two, or at the outside three, central
+institutions, no good will be effected. If that large body of men, the
+medical students of London, were obliged in the first place to get a
+knowledge of the theoretical branches of their profession in two or
+three central schools, there would be abundant means for maintaining
+able professors--not, indeed, for enriching them, as they would be
+able to enrich themselves by practice--but for enabling them to make
+that choice which such men are so willing to make; namely, the choice
+between wealth and a modest competency, when that modest competency
+is to be combined with a scientific career, and the means of advancing
+knowledge. I do not believe that all the talking about, and tinkering
+of, medical education will do the slightest good until the fact
+is clearly recognized, that men must be thoroughly grounded in the
+theoretical branches of their profession, and that to this end the
+teaching of those theoretical branches must be confined to two or
+three centres.
+
+Now let me add one other word, and that is, that if I were a despot, I
+would cut down these branches to a very considerable extent. The next
+thing to be done beyond that which I mentioned just now, is to go
+back to primary education. The great step towards a thorough medical
+education is to insist upon the teaching of the elements of the
+physical sciences in all schools, so that medical students shall not
+go up to the medical colleges utterly ignorant of that with which they
+have to deal; to insist on the elements of chemistry, the elements of
+botany, and the elements of physics being taught in our ordinary
+and common schools, so that there shall be some preparation for
+the discipline of medical colleges. And, if this reform were once
+effected, you might confine the "Institutes of Medicine" to physics
+as applied to physiology--to chemistry as applied to physiology--to
+physiology itself, and to anatomy. Afterwards, the student, thoroughly
+grounded in these matters, might go to any hospital he pleased for
+the purpose of studying the practical branches of his profession. The
+practical teaching might be made as local as you like; and you
+might use to advantage the opportunities afforded by all these
+local institutions for acquiring a knowledge of the practice of the
+profession. But you may say: "This is abolishing a great deal; you are
+getting rid of botany and zoology to begin with." I have not a doubt
+that they ought to be got rid of, as branches of special medical
+education; they ought to be put back to an earlier stage, and made
+branches of general education. Let me say, by way of self-denying
+ordinance, for which you will, I am sure, give me credit, that I
+believe that comparative anatomy ought to be absolutely abolished.
+I say so, not without a certain fear of the Vice-Chancellor of the
+University of London who sits upon my left. But I do not think the
+charter gives him very much power over me; moreover, I shall soon come
+to an end of my examinership, and therefore I am not afraid, but shall
+go on to say what I was going to say, and that is, that in my belief
+it is a downright cruelty--I have no other word for it--to require
+from gentlemen who are engaged in medical studies, the pretence--for
+it is nothing else, and can be nothing else, than a pretence--of a
+knowledge of comparative anatomy as part of their medical curriculum.
+Make it part of their Arts teaching if you like, make it part of their
+general education if you like, make it part of their qualification for
+the scientific degree by all means--that is its proper place; but to
+require that gentlemen whose whole faculties should be bent upon
+the acquirement of a real knowledge of human physiology should
+worry themselves with getting up hearsay about the alternation of
+generations in the Salpae is really monstrous. I cannot characterize
+it in any other way. And having sacrificed my own pursuit, I am sure I
+may sacrifice other people's; and I make this remark with all the
+more willingness because I discovered, on reading the name-of your
+Professors just now, that the Professor of Materia Medica is not
+present. I must confess, if I had my way I should abolish Materia
+Medica[1] altogether. I recollect, when I was first under examination
+at the University of London, Dr. Pereira was the examiner, and you
+know that "Pereira's Materia Medica" was a book _de omnibus rebus_. I
+recollect my struggles with that book late at night and early in the
+morning (I worked very hard in those days), and I do believe that I
+got that book into my head somehow or other, but then I will undertake
+to say that I forgot it all a week afterwards. Not one trace of a
+knowledge of drugs has remained in my memory from that time to this;
+and really, as a matter of common sense, I cannot understand the
+arguments for obliging a medical man to know all about drugs and
+where they come from. Why not make him belong to the Iron and Steel
+Institute, and learn something about cutlery, because he uses knives?
+
+[Footnote 1: It will, I hope, be understood that I do not include
+Therapeutics under this head.]
+
+But do not suppose that, after all these deductions, there would not
+be ample room for your activity. Let us count up what we have left. I
+suppose all the time for medical education that can be hoped for is,
+at the outside, about four years. Well, what have you to master in
+those four years upon my supposition? Physics applied to physiology;
+chemistry applied to physiology; physiology; anatomy; surgery;
+medicine (including therapeutics); obstetrics; hygiene; and medical
+jurisprudence--nine subjects for four years! And when you consider
+what those subjects are, and that the acquisition of anything beyond
+the rudiments of any one of them may tax the energies of a lifetime,
+I think that even those energies which you young gentlemen have
+been displaying for the last hour or two might be taxed to keep you
+thoroughly up to what is wanted for your medical career.
+
+I entertain a very strong conviction that any one who adds to medical
+education one iota or tittle beyond what is absolutely necessary, is
+guilty of a very grave offence. Gentlemen, it will depend upon the
+knowledge that you happen to possess,--upon your means of applying it
+within your own field of action,--whether the bills of mortality of
+your district are increased or diminished; and that, gentlemen, is a
+very serious consideration indeed. And, under those circumstances, the
+subjects with which you have to deal being so difficult, their extent
+so enormous, and the time at your disposal so limited, I could not
+feel my conscience easy if I did not, on such an occasion as this,
+raise a protest against employing your energies upon the acquisition
+of any knowledge which may not be absolutely needed in your future
+career.
+
+
+
+
+IV.
+
+YEAST.
+
+
+IT has been known, from time immemorial, that the sweet liquids which
+may be obtained by expressing the juices of the fruits and stems
+of various plants, or by steeping malted barley in hot water, or
+by mixing honey with water--are liable to undergo a series of very
+singular changes, if freely exposed to the air and left to themselves,
+in warm weather. However clear and pellucid the liquid may have been
+when first prepared, however carefully it may have been freed, by
+straining and filtration, from even the finest visible impurities, it
+will not remain clear. After a time it will become cloudy and turbid;
+little bubbles will be seen rising to the surface, and their abundance
+will increase until the liquid hisses as if it were simmering on
+the fire. By degrees, some of the solid particles which produce the
+turbidity of the liquid collect at its surface into a scum, which
+is blown up by the emerging air-bubbles into a thick, foamy froth.
+Another moiety sinks to the bottom, and accumulates as a muddy
+sediment, or "lees."
+
+When this action has continued, with more or less violence, for
+a certain time, it gradually moderates. The evolution of bubbles
+slackens, and finally comes to an end; scum and lees alike settle at
+the bottom, and the fluid is once more clear and transparent. But
+it has acquired properties of which no trace existed in the original
+liquid. Instead of being a mere sweet fluid, mainly composed of sugar
+and water, the sugar has more or less completely disappeared, and it
+has acquired that peculiar smell and taste which we call "spirituous."
+Instead of being devoid of any obvious effect upon the animal economy,
+it has become possessed of a very wonderful influence on the nervous
+system; so that in small doses it exhilarates, while in larger it
+stupefies, and may even destroy life.
+
+Moreover, if the original fluid is put into a still, and heated for a
+while, the first and last product of its distillation is simple water;
+while, when the altered fluid is subjected to the same process, the
+matter which is first condensed in the receiver is found to be a
+clear, volatile substance, which is lighter than water, has a pungent
+taste and smell, possesses the intoxicating powers of the fluid in
+an eminent degree, and takes fire the moment it is brought in contact
+with a flame. The alchemists called this volatile liquid, which
+they obtained from wine, "spirits of wine," just as they called
+hydrochloric acid "spirits of salt," and as we, to this day, call
+refined turpentine "spirits of turpentine." As the "spiritus," or
+breath, of a man was thought to be the most refined and subtle part
+of him, the intelligent essence of man was also conceived as a sort
+of breath, or spirit; and, by analogy, the most refined essence of
+anything was called its "spirit." And thus it has come about that we
+use the same word for the soul of man and for a glass of gin.
+
+At the present day, however, we even more commonly use another name
+for this peculiar liquid--namely, "alcohol," and its origin is not
+less singular. The Dutch physician, Van Helmont, lived in the latter
+part of the sixteenth and the beginning of the seventeenth century--in
+the transition period between alchemy and chemistry--and was rather
+more alchemist than chemist. Appended to his "Opera Omnia," published
+in 1707, there is a very needful "Clavis ad obscuriorum sensum
+referandum," in which the following passage occurs:--
+
+    "ALCOHOL.--Chymicis est liquor aut pulvis summè subtilisatus,
+    vocabulo Orientalibus quoque, cum primis Habessinis,
+    familiari, quibus _cohol_ speciatim pulverem impalpabilem ex
+    antimonio pro oculis tin-gendis denotat ... Hodie autem, ob
+    analogiam, quivis pulvis teuerior, ut pulvis oculorum cancri
+    summe subtilisatus _alcohol_ audit, hand aliter ac spiritus
+    rectificatissimi _alcolisati_ dicuntur."
+
+Similarly, Robert Boyle speaks of a fine powder as "alcohol;" and,
+so late as the middle of the last century, the English lexicographer,
+Nathan Bailey, defines "alcohol" as "the pure substance of anything
+separated from the more gross, a very fine and impalpable powder, or a
+very pure, well-rectified spirit." But, by the time of the publication
+of Lavoisier's "Traité Élémentaire de Chimie," in 1789, the term
+"alcohol," "alkohol," or "alkool" (for it is spelt in all three ways),
+which Van Helmont had applied primarily to a fine powder, and
+only secondarily to spirits of wine, had lost its primary meaning
+altogether; and, from the end of the last century until now, it has,
+I believe, been used exclusively as the denotation of spirits of wine,
+and bodies chemically allied to that substance.
+
+The process which gives rise to alcohol in a saccharine fluid is known
+to us as "fermentation;" a term based upon the apparent boiling up or
+"effervescence" of the fermenting liquid, and of Latin origin.
+
+Our Teutonic cousins call the same process "gähren," "gäsen,"
+"göschen," and "gischen;" but, oddly enough, we do not seem to have
+retained their verb or their substantive denoting the action itself,
+though we do use names identical with, or plainly derived from, theirs
+for the scum and lees. These are called, in Low German, "gäscht"
+and "gischt;" in Anglo-Saxon, "gest," "gist," and "yst," whence our
+"yeast." Again, in Low German and in Anglo-Saxon, there is another
+name for yeast, having the form "barm," or "beorm;" and, in the
+Midland Counties, "barm" is the name by which yeast is still best
+known. In High German, there is a third name for yeast, "hefe," which
+is not represented in English, so far as I know.
+
+All these words are said by philologers to be derived from roots
+expressive of the intestine motion of a fermenting substance. Thus
+"hefe" is derived from "heben," to raise; "barm" from "beren" or
+"bären," to bear up; "yeast," "yst," and "gist," have all to do with
+seething and foam, with "yeasty waves," and "gusty" breezes.
+
+The same reference to the swelling up of the fermenting substance is
+seen in the Gallo-Latin terms "levure" and "leaven."
+
+It is highly creditable to the ingenuity of our ancestors that the
+peculiar property of fermented liquids, in virtue of which they "make
+glad the heart of man," seems to have been known in the remotest
+periods of which we have any record. All savages take to alcoholic
+fluids as if they were to the manner born. Our Vedic forefathers
+intoxicated themselves with the juice of the "soma;" Noah, by a not
+unnatural reaction against a superfluity of water, appears to have
+taken the earliest practicable opportunity of qualifying that which
+he was obliged to drink; and the ghosts of the ancient Egyptians were
+solaced by pictures of banquets in which the winecup passes round,
+graven on the walls of their tombs. A knowledge of the process of
+fermentation, therefore, was in all probability possessed by the
+prehistoric populations of the globe; and it must have become a matter
+of great interest even to primaeval wine-bibbers to study the methods
+by which fermented liquids could be surely manufactured. No doubt,
+therefore, it was soon discovered that the most certain, as well as
+the most expeditious, way of making a sweet juice ferment was to add
+to it a little of the scum, or lees, of another fermenting juice.
+And it can hardly be questioned that this singular excitation of
+fermentation in one fluid, by a sort of infection, or inoculation,
+of a little ferment taken from some other fluid, together with the
+strange swelling, foaming, and hissing of the fermented substance,
+must have always attracted attention from the more thoughtful.
+Nevertheless, the commencement of the scientific analysis of the
+phenomena dates from a period not earlier than the first half of the
+seventeenth century.
+
+At this time, Van Helmont made a first step, by pointing out that the
+peculiar hissing and bubbling of a fermented liquid is due, not to the
+evolution of common air (which he, as the inventor of the term "gas,"
+calls "gas ventosum"), but to that of a peculiar kind of air such
+as is occasionally met with in caves, mines, and wells, and which he
+calls "gas sylvestre."
+
+But a century elapsed before the nature of this "gas sylvestre," or,
+as it was afterwards called, "fixed air," was clearly determined, and
+it was found to be identical with that deadly "choke-damp" by which
+the lives of those who descend into old wells, or mines, or brewers'
+vats, are sometimes suddenly ended; and with the poisonous aëriform
+fluid which is produced by the combustion of charcoal, and now goes by
+the name of carbonic acid gas.
+
+During the same time it gradually became clear that the presence of
+sugar was essential to the production of alcohol and the evolution of
+carbonic acid gas, which are the two great and conspicuous products of
+fermentation. And finally, in 1787, the Italian chemist, Fabroni, made
+the capital discovery that the yeast ferment, the presence of which
+is necessary to fermentation, is what he termed a "vegeto-animal"
+substance--or is a body which gives off ammoniacal salts when it is
+burned, and is, in other ways, similar to the gluten of plants and the
+albumen and casein of animals.
+
+These discoveries prepared the way for the illustrious Frenchman,
+Lavoisier, who first approached the problem of fermentation with a
+complete conception of the nature of the work to be done. The words
+in which he expresses this conception, in the treatise on elementary
+chemistry to which reference has already been made, mark the year 1789
+as the commencement of a revolution of not less moment in the world of
+science than that which simultaneously burst over the political world,
+and soon engulfed Lavoisier himself in one of its mad eddies.
+
+"We may lay it down as an incontestable axiom that, in all the
+operations of art and nature, nothing is created; an equal quantity
+of matter exists both before and after the experiment: the quality and
+quantity of the elements remain precisely the same, and nothing takes
+place beyond changes and modifications in the combinations of these
+elements. Upon this principle, the whole art of performing chemical
+experiments depends; we must always suppose an exact equality between
+the elements of the body examined and those of the products of its
+analysis.
+
+"Hence, since from must of grapes we procure alcohol and carbonic
+acid, I have an undoubted right to suppose that must consists of
+carbonic acid and alcohol. From these premisses we have two modes
+of ascertaining what passes during vinous fermentation: either
+by determining the nature of, and the elements which compose, the
+fermentable substances; or by accurately examining the products
+resulting from fermentation; and it is evident that the knowledge
+of either of these must lead to accurate conclusions concerning the
+nature and composition of the other. From these considerations it
+became necessary accurately to determine the constituent elements of
+the fermentable substances; and for this purpose I did not make use
+of the compound juices of fruits, the rigorous analysis of which
+is perhaps impossible, but made choice of sugar, which is easily
+analysed, and the nature of which I have already explained. This
+substance is a true vegetable oxyd, with two bases, composed of
+hydrogen and carbon, brought to the state of an oxyd by means of a
+certain proportion of oxygen; and these three elements are combined
+in such a way that a very slight force is sufficient to destroy the
+equilibrium of their connection."
+
+After giving the details of his analysis of sugar and of the products
+of fermentation, Lavoisier continues:--
+
+"The effect of the vinous fermentation upon sugar is thus reduced to
+the mere separation of its elements into two portions; one part is
+oxygenated at the expense of the other, so as to form carbonic acid;
+while the other part, being disoxygenated in favour of the latter, is
+converted into the combustible substance called alkohol; therefore,
+if it were possible to re-unite alkohol and carbonic acid together, we
+ought to form sugar."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "Elements of Chemistry." By M. Lavoisier. Translated by
+Robert Kerr. Second Edition, 1793 (pp. 186--196).]
+
+Thus Lavoisier thought he had demonstrated that the carbonic acid and
+the alcohol which are produced by the process of fermentation, are
+equal in weight to the sugar which disappears; but the application of
+the more refined methods of modern chemistry to the investigation of
+the products of fermentation by Pasteur, in 1860, proved that this is
+not exactly true, and that there is a deficit of from 5 to 7 per cent.
+of the sugar which is not covered by the alcohol and carbonic acid
+evolved. The greater part of this deficit is accounted for by the
+discovery of two substances, glycerine and succinic acid, of the
+existence of which Lavoisier was unaware, in the fermented liquid.
+But about 1-1/2 per cent. still remains to be made good. According to
+Pasteur, it has been appropriated by the yeast, but the fact that such
+appropriation takes place cannot be said to be actually proved.
+
+However this may be, there can be no doubt that the constituent
+elements of fully 98 per cent. of the sugar which has vanished during
+fermentation have simply undergone rearrangement; like the soldiers
+of a brigade, who at the word of command divide themselves into the
+independent regiments to which they belong. The brigade is sugar, the
+regiments are carbonic acid, succinic acid, alcohol, and glycerine.
+
+From the time of Fabroni, onwards, it has been admitted that the agent
+by which this surprising rearrangement of the particles of the sugar
+is effected is the yeast. But the first thoroughly conclusive evidence
+of the necessity of yeast for the fermentation of sugar was furnished
+by Appert, whose method of preserving perishable articles of food
+excited so much attention in France at the beginning of this century.
+Gay-Lussac, in his "Mémoire sur la Fermentation,"[1] alludes to
+Appert's method of preserving beer-wort unfermented for an indefinite
+time, by simply boiling the wort and closing the vessel in which the
+boiling fluid is contained, in such a way as thoroughly to exclude
+air; and he shows that, if a little yeast be introduced into such
+wort, after it has cooled, the wort at once begins to ferment, even
+though every precaution be taken to exclude air. And this statement
+has since received full confirmation from Pasteur.
+
+[Footnote 1: "Annales de Chimie," 1810.]
+
+On the other hand, Schwann, Schroeder and Dusch, and Pasteur, have
+amply proved that air may be allowed to have free access to beer-wort,
+without exciting fermentation, if only efficient precautions are taken
+to prevent the entry of particles of yeast along with the air.
+
+Thus, the truth that the fermentation of a simple solution of sugar in
+water depends upon the presence of yeast, rests upon an unassailable
+foundation; and the inquiry into the exact nature of the substance
+which possesses such a wonderful chemical influence becomes profoundly
+interesting.
+
+The first step towards the solution of this problem was made two
+centuries ago by the patient and painstaking Dutch naturalist,
+Leeuwenhoek, who in the year 1680 wrote thus:--
+
+    "Saepissimo examinavi fermentum cerevisiae, semperque hoc ex
+    globulis per materiam pellucidam fluitantibus, quam cerevisiam
+    esse censui, constare observavi: vidi etiam evidentissime,
+    unumquemque hujus fermenti globulum denuo ex sex distinctis
+    globullis constare, accurate eidem quantitate et formae, cui
+    globulis sanguinis nostri, respondentibus.
+
+    "Verum talis mini de horum origine et formatione conceptus
+    formabam; globulis nempe ex quibus farina Tritici, Hordei,
+    Avenae, Fagotritici, se constat aquae calore dissolvi et aquae
+    commisceri; hac, vero aqua, quam cerevisiam vocare licet,
+    refrigescente, multos ex minimis particulis in cerevisia
+    coadunari, et hoc pacto efficere particulam sive globulum,
+    quae sexta pars est globuli faecis, et iterum sex ex hisce
+    globulis conjungi."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Leeuwenhoek, "Arcana Naturae Detecta." Ed. Nov., 1721.]
+
+Thus Leeuwenhoek discovered that yeast consists of globules floating
+in a fluid; but he thought that they were merely the starchy particles
+of the grain from which the wort was made, re-arranged. He discovered
+the fact that yeast had a definite structure, but not the meaning of
+the fact. A century and a half elapsed, and the investigation of
+yeast was recommenced almost simultaneously by Cagniard de la Tour in
+France, and by Schwann and Kützing in Germany. The French observer
+was the first to publish his results; and the subject received at his
+hands and at those of his colleague, the botanist Turpin, full and
+satisfactory investigation.
+
+The main conclusions at which they arrived are these. The globular,
+or oval, corpuscles which float so thickly in the yeast as to make it
+muddy, though the largest are not more than one two-thousandth of
+an inch in diameter, and the smallest may measure less than one
+seven-thousandth of an inch, are living organisms. They multiply with
+great rapidity, by giving off minute buds, which soon attain the size
+of their parent, and then either become detached or remain united,
+forming the compound globules of which Leeuwenhoek speaks, though the
+constancy of their arrangement in sixes existed only in the worthy
+Dutchman's imagination.
+
+It was very soon made out that these yeast organisms, to which Turpin
+gave the name of _Torula cerevisiae_, were more nearly allied to the
+lower Fungi than to anything else. Indeed Turpin, and subsequently
+Berkeley and Hoffmann, believed that they had traced the development
+of the _Torula_ into the well-known and very common mould--the
+_Penicillium glaucum_. Other observers have not succeeded in verifying
+these statements; and my own observations lead me to believe, that
+while the connection between _Torula_ and the moulds is a very close
+one, it is of a different nature from that which has been supposed. I
+have never been able to trace the development of _Torula_ into a true
+mould; but it is quite easy to prove that species of true mould,
+such as _Penicillium_, when sown in an appropriate nidus, such as
+a solution of tartrate of ammonia and yeast-ash, in water, with or
+without sugar, give rise to _Torulae_, similar in all respects to _T.
+cerevisiae_, except that they are, on the average, smaller. Moreover,
+Bail has observed the development of a _Torula_ larger than _T.
+cerevisiae_, from a _Mucor_, a mould allied to _Penicillium_.
+
+It follows, therefore, that the _Torulae_, or organisms of yeast,
+are veritable plants; and conclusive experiments have proved that the
+power which causes the rearrangement of the molecules of the sugar is
+intimately connected with the life and growth of the plant. In fact,
+whatever arrests the vital activity of the plant also prevents it from
+exciting fermentation.
+
+Such being the facts with regard to the nature of yeast, and the
+changes which it effects in sugar, how are they to be accounted for?
+Before modern chemistry had come into existence, Stahl, stumbling,
+with the stride of genius, upon the conception which lies at the
+bottom of all modern views of the process, put forward the notion that
+the ferment, being in a state of internal motion, communicated
+that motion to the sugar, and thus caused its resolution into new
+substances. And Lavoisier, as we have seen, adopts substantially the
+same view, (But Fabroni, full of the then novel conception of acids
+and bases and double decompositions, propounded the hypothesis that
+sugar is an oxide with two bases, and the ferment a carbonate with two
+bases; that the carbon of the ferment unites with the oxygen of the
+sugar, and gives rise to carbonic acid; while the sugar, uniting with
+the nitrogen of the ferment, produces a new substance analogous to
+opium. This is decomposed by distillation, and gives rise to alcohol.)
+Next, in 1803, Thénard propounded a hypothesis which partakes somewhat
+of the nature of both Stahl's and Fabroni's views. "I do not believe
+with Lavoisier," he says, "that all the carbonic acid formed proceeds
+from the sugar. How, in that case, could we conceive the action of the
+ferment on it? I think that the first portions of the acid are due
+to a combination of the carbon of the ferment with the oxygen of the
+sugar, and that it is by carrying off a portion of oxygen from
+the last that the ferment causes the fermentation to commence--the
+equilibrium between the principles of the sugar being disturbed, they
+combine afresh to form carbonic acid and alcohol."
+
+The three views here before us may be familiarly exemplified by
+supposing the sugar to be a card-house. According to Stahl, the
+ferment is somebody who knocks the table, and shakes the card-house
+down; according to Fabroni, the ferment takes out some cards, but puts
+others in their places; according to Thénard, the ferment simply takes
+a card out of the bottom story, the result of which is that all the
+others fall.
+
+As chemistry advanced, facts came to light which put a new face upon
+Stahl's hypothesis, and gave it a safer foundation than it previously
+possessed. The general nature of these phenomena may be thus
+stated:--A body, A, without giving to, or taking from, another
+body, B, any material particles, causes B to decompose into other
+substances, C, D, E, the sum of the weights of which is equal to the
+weight of B, which decomposes.
+
+Thus, bitter almonds contain two substances, amygdalin and synaptase,
+which can be extracted, in a separate state, from the bitter almonds.
+The amygdalin thus obtained, if dissolved in water, undergoes no
+change; but if a little synaptase be added to the solution, the
+amygdalin splits up into bitter almond oil, prussic acid, and a kind
+of sugar.
+
+A short time after Cagniard de la Tour discovered the yeast plant,
+Liebig, struck with the similarity between this and other such
+processes and the fermentation of sugar, put forward the hypothesis
+that yeast contains a substance which acts upon sugar, as synaptase
+acts upon amygdalin. And as the synaptase is certainly neither
+organized nor alive, but a mere chemical substance, Liebig treated
+Cagniard de la Tour's discovery with no small contempt, and, from
+that time to the present, has steadily repudiated the notion that the
+decomposition of the sugar is, in any sense, the result of the vital
+activity of the _Torula_. But, though the notion that the _Torula_ is
+a creature which eats sugar and excretes carbonic acid and alcohol,
+which is not unjustly ridiculed in the most surprising paper that
+ever made its appearance in a grave scientific journal[1], may be
+untenable, the fact that the _Torulae_ are alive, and that yeast does
+not excite fermentation unless it contains living _Torulae_, stands
+fast. Moreover, of late years, the essential participation of living
+organisms in fermentation other than the alcoholic, has been clearly
+made out by Pasteur and other chemists.
+
+[Footnote 1: "Das enträthselte Geheimniss der geistigen Gährung
+(Vorläufige briefliche Mittheilung)" is the title of an anonymous
+contribution, to Wöhler and Liebig's "Annalen der Pharmacie" for
+1839, in which a somewhat Rabelaisian imaginary description of the
+organization of the "yeast animals" and of the manner in which their
+functions are performed, is given with a circumstantiality worthy
+of the author of Gulliver's Travels. As a specimen of the writer's
+humour, his account of what happens when fermentation comes to an end
+may suffice. "Sobald nämlich die Thiere keinen Zucker mehr vorfinden,
+so fressen sie sich gegenseitig selbst auf, was durch eine eigene
+Manipulation geschicht; alles wird verdaut bis auf die Eier, welche
+unverändert durch den Darmkanal hineingehen; man hat zuletzt wieder
+gährungsfähige Hefe, nämlich den Saamen der Thiere, der übrig
+bleibt."]
+
+However, it may be asked, is there any necessary opposition between
+the so-called "vital" and the strictly physico-chemical views of
+fermentation? It is quite possible that the living _Torula_ may excite
+fermentation in sugar, because it constantly produces, as an essential
+part of its vital manifestations, some substance which acts upon the
+sugar, just as the synaptase acts upon the amygdalin. Or it may
+be, that, without the formation of any such special substance,
+the physical condition of the living tissue of the yeast plant is
+sufficient to effect that small disturbance of the equilibrium of the
+particles of the sugar, which Lavoisier thought sufficient to effect
+its decomposition.
+
+Platinum in a very fine state of division--known as platinum black, or
+_noir de platine_--has the very singular property of causing alcohol
+to change into acetic acid with great rapidity. The vinegar plant,
+which is closely allied to the yeast plant, has a similar effect upon
+dilute alcohol, causing it to absorb the oxygen of the air, and become
+converted into vinegar; and Liebig's eminent opponent, Pasteur, who
+has done so much for the theory and the practice of vinegar-making,
+himself suggests that in this case--
+
+    "La cause du phénomène physique qui accompagne la vie de la
+    plante réside dans un état physique propre, analogue à celui
+    du noir de platine. Mais il est essentiel de remarquer que cet
+    état physique de la plante est étroitement lié avec la vie de
+    cette plante."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "Etudes sur les Mycodermes," Comptes-Rendus, liv., 1862.]
+
+Now, if the vinegar plant gives rise to the oxidation of alcohol,
+on account of its merely physical constitution, it is at any rate
+possible that the physical constitution of the yeast plant may exert a
+decomposing influence on sugar.
+
+But, without presuming to discuss a question which leads us into the
+very arcana of chemistry, the present state of speculation upon the
+_modus operandi_ of the yeast plant in producing fermentation is
+represented, on the one hand, by the Stahlian doctrine, supported by
+Liebig, according to which the atoms of the sugar are shaken into new
+combinations, either directly by the _Torulae_, or indirectly, by some
+substance formed by them; and, on the other hand, by the Thénardian
+doctrine, supported by Pasteur, according to which the yeast plant
+assimilates part of the sugar, and, in so doing, disturbs the rest,
+and determines its resolution into the products of fermentation.
+Perhaps the two views are not so much opposed as they seem at first
+sight to be.
+
+
+But the interest which attaches to the influence of the yeast plants
+upon the medium in which they live and grow does not arise solely
+from its bearing upon the theory of fermentation. So long ago as 1838,
+Turpin compared the _Torulae_ to the ultimate elements of the tissues
+of animals and plants--"Les organes élémentaires de leurs tissus,
+comparables aux petits végétaux des levures ordinaires, sont aussi les
+décompositeurs des substances qui les environnent."
+
+Almost at the same time, and, probably, equally guided by his study of
+yeast, Schwann was engaged in those remarkable investigations into
+the form and development of the ultimate structural elements of the
+tissues of animals, which led him to recognize their fundamental
+identity with the ultimate structural elements of vegetable organisms.
+
+The yeast plant is a mere sac, or "cell," containing a semi-fluid
+matter, and Schwann's microscopic analysis resolved all living
+organisms, in the long run, into an aggregation of such sacs or cells,
+variously modified; and tended to show, that all, whatever their
+ultimate complication, begin their existence in the condition of such
+simple cells.
+
+In his famous "Mikroskopische Untersuchungen," Schwann speaks of
+_Torula_ as a "cell;" and, in a remarkable note to the passage in
+which he refers to the yeast plant, Schwann says:--
+
+    "I have been unable to avoid mentioning fermentation, because
+    it is the most fully and exactly known operation of cells,
+    and represents, in the simplest fashion, the process which is
+    repeated by every cell of the living body."
+
+In other words, Schwann conceives that every cell of the living body
+exerts an influence on the matter which surrounds and permeates it,
+analogous to that which a _Torula_ exerts on the saccharine solution
+by which it is bathed. A wonderfully suggestive thought, opening up
+views of the nature of the chemical processes of the living body,
+which have hardly yet received all the development of which they are
+capable.
+
+Kant defined the special peculiarity of the living body to be that the
+parts exist for the sake of the whole and the whole for the sake of
+the parts. But when Turpin and Schwann resolved the living body into
+an aggregation of quasi-independent cells, each, like a _Torula_,
+leading its own life and having its own laws of growth and
+development, the aggregation being dominated and kept working towards
+a definite end only by a certain harmony among these units, or by the
+superaddition of a controlling apparatus, such as a nervous system,
+this conception ceased to be tenable. The cell lives for its own sake,
+as well as for the sake of the whole organism; and the cells, which
+float in the blood, live at its expense, and profoundly modify it, are
+almost as much independent organisms as the _Torulae_ which float in
+beer-wort.
+
+Schwann burdened his enunciation of the "cell theory" with two false
+suppositions; the one, that the structures he called "nucleus" and
+"cell-wall" are essential to a cell; the other, that cells are usually
+formed independently of other cells; but, in 1839, it was a vast and
+clear gain to arrive at the conception, that the vital functions of
+all the higher animals and plants are the resultant of the forces
+inherent in the innumerable minute cells of which they are composed,
+and that each of them is, itself, an equivalent of one of the lowest
+and simplest of independent living beings--the _Torula._
+
+From purely morphological investigations, Turpin and Schwann, as we
+have seen, arrived at the notion of the fundamental unity of structure
+of living beings. And, before long, the researches of chemists
+gradually led up to the conception of the fundamental unity of their
+composition.
+
+So far back as 1803, Thénard pointed out, in most distinct terms, the
+important fact that yeast contains a nitrogenous "animal" substance;
+and that such a substance is contained in all ferments. Before him,
+Fabroni and Fourcroy speak of the "vegeto-animal" matter of yeast.
+In 1844 Mulder endeavoured to demonstrate that a peculiar substance,
+which he called "protein," was essentially characteristic of living
+matter. In 1846, Payen writes:--
+
+    "Enfin, une loi sans exception me semble apparaître dans les
+    faits nombreux que j'ai observés et conduire à envisager sous
+    un nouveau jour la vie végétale; si je ne m'abuse, tout ce
+    que dans les tissus végétaux la vue directe où amplifiée nous
+    permet de discerner sous la forme de cellules et de vaisseaux,
+    ne représente autre chose que les enveloppes protectrices,
+    les réservoirs et les conduits, à l'aide desquels les corps
+    animés qui les secrètent et les façonnent, se logent, puisent
+    et charriant leurs aliments, déposent et isolent les matières
+    excrétées."
+
+And again:--
+
+    "A fin de complêter aujourd'hui l'énoncé du fait général, je
+    rappellerai que les corps, doué des fonctions accomplies
+    dans les tissus des plantes, sont formés des éléments qui
+    constituent, en proportion peu variable, les organismes
+    animaux; qu'ainsi l'on est conduit à reconnaître une immense
+    unité de composition élémentaire dans tous les corps vivants
+    de la nature."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "Mém. sur les Développements des Végétaux," &c.--"Mém.
+Présentées." ix. 1846.]
+
+In the year (1846) in which these remarkable passages were published,
+the eminent German botanist, Von Mohl, invented the word "protoplasm,"
+as a name for one portion of those nitrogenous contents of the cells
+of living plants, the close chemical resemblance of which to the
+essential constituents of living animals is so strongly indicated by
+Payen. And through the twenty-five years that have passed, since the
+matter of life was first called protoplasm, a host of investigators,
+among whom Cohn, Max Schulze, and Kühne must be named as leaders, have
+accumulated evidence, morphological, physiological, and chemical, in
+favour of that "immense unité de composition élémentaire dans tous les
+corps vivants de la nature," into which Payen had, so early, a clear
+insight.
+
+As far back as 1850, Cohn wrote, apparently without any knowledge of
+what Payen had said before him:--
+
+    "The protoplasm of the botanist, and the contractile substance
+    and sarcode of the zoologist, must be, if not identical, yet
+    in a high degree analogous substances. Hence, from this point
+    of view, the difference between animals and plants consists
+    in this; that, in the latter, the contractile substance, as
+    a primordial utricle, is enclosed within an inert cellulose
+    membrane, which permits it only to exhibit an internal motion,
+    expressed by the phenomena of rotation and circulation, while,
+    in the former, it is not so enclosed. The protoplasm in the
+    form of the primordial utricle is, as it were, the animal
+    element in the plant, but which is imprisoned, and only
+    becomes free in the animal; _or_, to strip off the metaphor
+    which obscures simple thought, the energy of organic vitality
+    which is manifested in movement is especially exhibited by a
+    nitrogenous contractile substance, which in plants is limited
+    and fettered by an inert membrane, in animals not so."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Cohn, "Ueber Protococcus pluvialis," in the "Nova Acta"
+for 1850.]
+
+In 1868, thinking that an untechnical statement of the views current
+among the leaders of biological science might be interesting to the
+general public, I gave a lecture embodying them in Edinburgh. Those
+who have not made the mistake of attempting to approach biology,
+either by the high _à priori_ road of mere philosophical speculation,
+or by the mere low _à posteriori_ lane offered by the tube of a
+microscope, but have taken the trouble to become acquainted with
+well-ascertained facts and with their history, will not need to be
+told that in what I had to say "as regards protoplasm" in my lecture
+"On the Physical Basis of Life," there was nothing new; and, as I
+hope, nothing that the present state of knowledge does not justify us
+in believing to be true. Under these circumstances, my surprise may be
+imagined, when I found, that the mere statement of facts and of views,
+long familiar to me as part of the common scientific property of
+continental workers, raised a sort of storm in this country, not only
+by exciting the wrath of unscientific persons whose pet prejudices
+they seemed to touch, but by giving rise to quite superfluous
+explosions on the part of some who should have been better informed.
+
+Dr. Stirling, for example, made my essay the subject of a special
+critical lecture[1], which I have read with much interest, though, I
+confess, the meaning of much of it remains as dark to me as does the
+"Secret of Hegel" after Dr. Stirling's elaborate revelation of it.
+Dr. Stirling's method of dealing with the subject is peculiar.
+"Protoplasm" is a question of history, so far as it is a name; of
+fact, so far as it is a thing. Dr. Stirling has not taken the trouble
+to refer to the original authorities for his history, which is
+consequently a travesty; and still less has he concerned himself with
+looking at the facts, but contents himself with taking them also at
+secondhand. A most amusing example of this fashion of dealing with
+scientific statements is furnished by Dr. Stirling's remarks upon my
+account of the protoplasm of the nettle hair. That account was drawn
+up from careful and often-repeated observation of the facts. Dr.
+Stirling thinks he is offering a valid criticism, when he says that my
+valued friend Professor Stricker gives a somewhat different statement
+about protoplasm. But why in the world did not this distinguished
+Hegelian look at a nettle hair for himself, before venturing to
+speak about the matter at all? Why trouble himself about what either
+Stricker or I say, when any tyro can see the facts for himself, if he
+is provided with those not rare articles, a nettle and a microscope?
+But I suppose this would have been "_Aufklärung_"--a recurrence to the
+base common-sense philosophy of the eighteenth century, which liked
+to see before it believed, and to understand before it criticised. Dr.
+Stirling winds up his paper with the following paragraph:--
+
+[Footnote 1: Subsequently published under the title of "As regards
+Protoplasm."]
+
+    "In short, the whole position of Mr. Huxley, (1) that all
+    organisms consist alike of the same life-matter, (2) which
+    life-matter is, for its part, due only to chemistry, must be
+    pronounced untenable--nor less untenable (3) the materialism
+    he would found on it."
+
+The paragraph contains three distinct assertions concerning my views,
+and just the same number of utter misrepresentations of them. That
+which I have numbered (1) turns on the ambiguity of the word "same,"
+for a discussion of which I would refer Dr. Stirling to a great hero
+of "_Aufklärung_", Archbishop Whately; statement number (2) is, in my
+judgment, absurd, and certainly I have never said anything resembling
+it; while, as to number (3), one great object of my essay was to show
+that what is called "materialism," has no sound philosophical basis!
+
+As we have seen, the study of yeast has led investigators face to face
+with problems of immense interest in pure chemistry, and in animal and
+vegetable morphology. Its physiology is not less rich in subjects for
+inquiry. Take, for example, the singular fact that yeast will increase
+indefinitely when grown in the dark, in water containing only tartrate
+of ammonia, a small percentage of mineral salts, and sugar. Out of
+these materials the _Torulae_ will manufacture nitrogenous protoplasm,
+cellulose, and fatty matters, in any quantity, although they are
+wholly deprived of those rays of the sun, the influence of which is
+essential to the growth of ordinary plants. There has been a great
+deal of speculation lately, as to how the living organisms buried
+beneath two or three thousand fathoms of water, and therefore in all
+probability almost deprived of light, live.
+
+If any of them possess the same powers as yeast (and the same capacity
+for living without light is exhibited by some other fungi) there would
+seem to be no difficulty about the matter.
+
+Of the pathological bearings of the study of yeast, and other such
+organisms, I have spoken elsewhere. It is certain that, in
+some animals, devastating epidemics are caused by fungi of low
+order--similar to those of which _Torula_ is a sort of offshoot. It is
+certain that such diseases are propagated by contagion and infection,
+in just the same way as ordinary contagious and infectious diseases
+are propagated. Of course, it does not follow from this, that all
+contagious and infectious diseases are caused by organisms of as
+definite and independent a character as the _Torula_; but, I think,
+it does follow that it is prudent and wise to satisfy oneself in each
+particular case, that the "germ theory" cannot and will not explain
+the facts, before having recourse to hypotheses which have no equal
+support from analogy.
+
+
+
+
+V.
+
+ON THE FORMATION OF COAL.
+
+
+The lumps of coal in a coal-scuttle very often have a roughly cubical
+form. If one of them be picked out and examined with a little care, it
+will be found that its six sides are not exactly alike. Two opposite
+sides are comparatively smooth and shining, while the other four are
+much rougher, and are marked by lines which run parallel with the
+smooth sides. The coal readily splits along these lines, and the split
+surfaces thus formed are parallel with the smooth faces. In other
+words, there is a sort of rough and incomplete stratification in the
+lump of coal, as if it were a book, the leaves of which had stuck
+together very closely.
+
+Sometimes the faces along which the coal splits are not smooth, but
+exhibit a thin layer of dull, charred-looking substance, which is
+known as "mineral charcoal."
+
+Occasionally one of the faces of a lump of coal will present
+impressions, which are obviously those of the stem, or leaves, of a
+plant; but though hard mineral masses of pyrites, and even fine mud,
+may occur here and there, neither sand nor pebbles are met with.
+
+When the coal burns, the chief ultimate products of its combustion
+are carbonic acid, water, and ammoniacal products, which escape up the
+chimney; and a greater or less amount of residual earthy salts, which
+take the form of ash. These products are, to a great extent, such as
+would result from the burning of so much wood.
+
+These properties of coal may be made out without any very refined
+appliances, but the microscope reveals something more. Black and
+opaque as ordinary coal is, slices of it become transparent if they
+are cemented in Canada balsam, and rubbed down very thin, in the
+ordinary way of making thin sections of non-transparent bodies. But
+as the thin slices, made in this way, are very apt to crack and break
+into fragments, it is better to employ marine glue as the cementing
+material. By the use of this substance, slices of considerable size
+and of extreme thinness and transparency may be obtained.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: My assistant in the Museum of Practical Geology, Mr.
+Newton, invented this excellent method of obtaining thin slices of
+coal.]
+
+Now let us suppose two such slices to be prepared from our lump of
+coal--one parallel with the bedding, the other perpendicular to it;
+and let us call the one the horizontal, and the other the vertical,
+section. The horizontal section will present more or less rounded
+yellow patches and streaks, scattered irregularly through the dark
+brown, or blackish, ground substance; while the vertical section will
+exhibit more elongated bars and granules of the same yellow materials,
+disposed in lines which correspond, roughly, with the general
+direction of the bedding of the coal.
+
+This is the microscopic structure of an ordinary piece of coal. But if
+a great series of coals, from different localities and seams, or even
+from different parts of the same seam, be examined, this structure
+will be found to vary in two directions. In the anthracitic, or
+stone-coals, which burn like coke, the yellow matter diminishes, and
+the ground substance becomes more predominant, and blacker, and more
+opaque, until it becomes impossible to grind a section thin enough to
+be translucent; while, on the other hand, in such as the "Better-Bed"
+coal of the neighbourhood of Bradford, which burns with much flame,
+the coal is of a far lighter colour, and transparent sections are very
+easily obtained. In the browner parts of this coal, sharp eyes will
+readily detect multitudes of curious little coin-shaped bodies, of a
+yellowish brown colour, embedded in the dark brown ground substance.
+On the average, these little brown bodies may have a diameter of about
+one-twentieth of an inch. They lie with their flat surfaces nearly
+parallel with the two smooth faces of the block in which they are
+contained; and, on one side of each, there may be discerned a figure,
+consisting of three straight linear marks, which radiate from the
+centre of the disk, but do not quite reach its circumference. In the
+horizontal section these disks are often converted into more or less
+complete rings; while in the vertical sections they appear like thick
+hoops, the sides of which have been pressed together. The disks are,
+therefore, flattened bags; and favourable sections show that the
+three-rayed marking is the expression of three clefts, which penetrate
+one wall of the bag.
+
+The sides of the bags are sometimes closely approximated; but, when
+the bags are less flattened, their cavities are, usually, filled with
+numerous, irregularly rounded, hollow bodies, having the same kind of
+wall as the large ones, but not more than one seven-hundredth of an
+inch in diameter.
+
+In favourable specimens, again, almost the whole ground substance
+appears to be made up of similar bodies--more or less carbonized
+or blackened--and, in these, there can be no doubt that, with the
+exception of patches of mineral charcoal, here and there, the whole
+mass of the coal is made up of an accumulation of the larger and of
+the smaller sacs.
+
+But, in one and the same slice, every transition can be observed from
+this structure to that which has been described as characteristic of
+ordinary coal. The latter appears to rise out of the former, by the
+breaking-up and increasing carbonization of the larger and the smaller
+sacs. And, in the anthracitic coals, this process appears to have gone
+to such a length, as to destroy the original structure altogether, and
+to replace it by a completely carbonized substance.
+
+Thus coal may be said, speaking broadly, to be composed of two
+constituents: firstly, mineral charcoal; and, secondly, coal proper.
+The nature of the mineral charcoal has long since been determined. Its
+structure shows it to consist of the remains of the stems and leaves
+of plants, reduced to little more than their carbon. Again, some of
+the coal is made up of the crushed and flattened bark, or outer coat,
+of the stems of plants, the inner wood of which has completely decayed
+away. But what I may term the "saccular matter" of the coal, which,
+either in its primary or in its degraded form, constitutes by far the
+greater part of all the bituminous coals I have examined, is certainly
+not mineral charcoal; nor is its structure that of any stem or leaf.
+Hence its real nature is, at first, by no means apparent, and has been
+the subject of much discussion.
+
+The first person who threw any light upon the problem, as far as I
+have been able to discover, was the well-known geologist, Professor
+Morris. It is now thirty-four years since he carefully described and
+figured the coin-shaped bodies, or larger sacs, as I have called
+them, in a note appended to the famous paper "On the Coal-brookdale
+Coal-Field," published at that time, by the present President of
+the Geological Society, Mr. Prestwich. With much sagacity, Professor
+Morris divined the real nature of these bodies, and boldly
+affirmed them to be the spore-cases of a plant allied to the living
+club-mosses.
+
+But discovery sometimes makes a long halt; and it is only a few
+years since Mr. Carruthers determined the plant (or rather one of the
+plants) which produces these spore-cases, by finding the discoidal
+sacs still adherent to the leaves of the fossilized cone which
+produced them. He gave the name of _Flemingites gracilis_ to the plant
+of which the cones form a part. The branches and stem of this plant
+are not yet certainly known, but there is no sort of doubt that it was
+closely allied to the _Lepidodendron_, the remains of which abound in
+the coal formation. The _Lepidodendra_ were shrubs and trees which put
+one more in mind of an _Araucaria_ than of any other familiar plant;
+and the ends of the fruiting branches were terminated by cones, or
+catkins, somewhat like the bodies so named in a fir, or a willow.
+These conical fruits, however, did not produce seeds; but the leaves
+of which they were composed bore upon their surfaces sacs full of
+spores or sporangia, such as those one sees on the under surface of a
+bracken leaf. Now, it is these sporangia of the Lepidodendroid plant
+_Flemingites_ which were identified by Mr. Carruthers with the free
+sporangia described by Professor Morris, which are the same as the
+large sacs of which I have spoken. And, more than this, there is
+no doubt that the small sacs are the spores, which were originally
+contained in the sporangia.
+
+The living club-mosses are, for the most part, insignificant and
+creeping herbs, which, superficially, very closely resemble true
+mosses, and none of them reach more than two or three feet in height.
+But, in their essential structure, they very closely resemble the
+earliest Lepidodendroid trees of the coal: their stems and leaves are
+similar; so are their cones; and no less like are the sporangia and
+spores; while even in their size, the spores of the _Lepidodendron_
+and those of the existing _Lycopodium_, or club-moss, very closely
+approach one another.
+
+Thus, the singular conclusion is forced upon us, that the greater and
+the smaller sacs of the "Better-Bed" and other coals, in which the
+primitive structure is well preserved, are simply the sporangia and
+spores of certain plants, many of which were closely allied to the
+existing club-mosses. And if, as I believe, it can be demonstrated
+that ordinary coal is nothing but "saccular" coal which has undergone
+a certain amount of that alteration which, if continued, would convert
+it into anthracite; then, the conclusion is obvious, that the great
+mass of the coal we burn is the result of the accumulation of the
+spores and spore-cases of plants, other parts of which have furnished
+the carbonized stems and the mineral charcoal, or have left their
+impressions on the surfaces of the layer.
+
+Of the multitudinous speculations which, at various times, have been
+entertained respecting the origin and mode of formation of coal,
+several appear to be negatived, and put out of court, by the
+structural facts the significance of which I have endeavoured to
+explain. These facts, for example, do not permit us to suppose that
+coal is an accumulation of peaty matter, as some have held.
+
+Again, the late Professor Quekett was one of the first observers
+who gave a correct description of what I have termed the "saccular"
+structure of coal; and, rightly perceiving that this structure was
+something quite different from that of any known plant, he imagined
+that it proceeded from some extinct vegetable organism which was
+peculiarly abundant amongst the coal-forming plants. But this
+explanation is at once shown to be untenable when the smaller and the
+larger sacs are proved to be spores or sporangia.
+
+Some, once more, have imagined that coal was of submarine origin; and
+though the notion is amply and easily refuted by other considerations,
+it may be worth while to remark, that it is impossible to comprehend
+how a mass of light and resinous spores should have reached the bottom
+of the sea, or should have stopped in that position if they had got
+there.
+
+At the same time, it is proper to remark that I do not presume to
+suggest that all coal must needs have the same structure; or that
+there may not be coals in which the proportions of wood and spores, or
+spore-cases, are very different from those which I have examined. All
+I repeat is, that none of the coals which have come under my notice
+have enabled me to observe such a difference. But, according to
+Principal Dawson, who has so sedulously examined the fossil remains of
+plants in North America, it is otherwise with the vast accumulations
+of coal in that country.
+
+    "The true coal," says Dr. Dawson, "consists principally of
+    the flattened bark of Sigillarioid and other trees, intermixed
+    with leaves of Ferns and _Cordaites_, and other herbaceous
+    _débris_, and with fragments of decayed wood, constituting
+    'mineral charcoal,' all these materials having manifestly
+    alike grown and accumulated where we find them."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "Acadian Geology," 2nd edition, p. 138.]
+
+When I had the pleasure of seeing Principal Dawson in London last
+summer, I showed him my sections of coal, and begged him to re-examine
+some of the American coals on his return to Canada, with an eye to the
+presence of spores and sporangia, such as I was able to show him in
+our English and Scotch coals. He has been good enough to do so; and in
+a letter dated September 26th, 1870, he informs me that--
+
+    "Indications of spore-cases are rare, except in certain coarse
+    shaly coals and portions of coals, and in the roofs of the
+    seams. The most marked case I have yet met with is the shaly
+    coal referred to as containing _Sporangites_ in my paper
+    on the conditions of accumulation of coal (_Journal of the
+    Geological Society_, vol. xxii. pp. 115, 139, and 165). The
+    purer coals certainly consist principally of cubical tissues
+    with some true woody matter, and the spore-cases, &c.,
+    are chiefly in the coarse and shaly layers. This is my old
+    doctrine in my two papers in the _Journal of the Geological
+    Society_, and I see nothing to modify it. Your observations,
+    however, make it probable that the frequent _clear spots_ in
+    the cannels are spore-cases."
+
+Dr. Dawson's results are the more remarkable, as the numerous
+specimens of British coal, from various localities, which I have
+examined, tell one tale as to the predominance of the spore and
+sporangium element in their composition; and as it is exactly in the
+finest and purest coals, such as the "Better-Bed" coal of Lowmoor,
+that the spores and sporangia obviously constitute almost the entire
+mass of the deposit.
+
+Coal, such as that which has been described, is always found in
+sheets, or "seams," varying from a fraction of an inch to many feet
+in thickness, enclosed in the substance of the earth at very various
+depths, between beds of rock of different kinds. As a rule, every seam
+of coal rests upon a thicker, or thinner, bed of clay, which is known
+as "under-clay." These alternations of beds of coal, clay, and rock
+may be repeated many times, and are known as the "coal-measures;"
+and in some regions, as in South Wales and in Nova Scotia, the
+coal-measures attain a thickness of twelve or fourteen thousand
+feet, and enclose eighty or a hundred seams of coal, each with its
+under-clay, and separated from those above and below by beds of
+sandstone and shale.
+
+The position of the beds which constitute the coal-measures is
+infinitely diverse. Sometimes they are tilted up vertically, sometimes
+they are horizontal, sometimes curved into great basins; sometimes
+they come to the surface, sometimes they are covered up by thousands
+of feet of rock. But, whatever their present position, there is
+abundant and conclusive evidence that every under-clay was once a
+surface soil. Not only do carbonized root-fibres frequently abound in
+these under-clays; but the stools of trees, the trunks of which are
+broken off and confounded with the bed of coal, have been repeatedly
+found passing into radiating roots, still embedded in the under-clay.
+On many parts of the coast of England, what are commonly known as
+"submarine forests" are to be seen at low water. They consist, for the
+most part, of short stools of oak, beech, and fir trees, still fixed
+by their long roots in the bed of blue clay in which they originally
+grew. If one of these submarine forest beds should be gradually
+depressed and covered up by new deposits, it would present just the
+same characters as an under-clay of the coal, if the _Sigillaria_ and
+_Lepidodendron_ of the ancient world were substituted for the oak, or
+the beech, of our own times.
+
+In a tropical forest, at the present day, the trunks of fallen trees,
+and the stools of such trees as may have been broken by the violence
+of storms, remain entire for but a short time. Contrary to what might
+be expected, the dense wood of the tree decays, and suffers from the
+ravages of insects, more swiftly than the bark. And the traveller,
+setting his foot on a prostrate trunk, finds that it is a mere shell,
+which breaks under his weight, and lands his foot amidst the insects,
+or the reptiles, which have sought food or refuge within.
+
+The trees of the coal forests present parallel conditions. When the
+fallen trunks which have entered into the composition of the bed of
+coal are identifiable, they are mere double shells of bark, flattened
+together in consequence of the destruction of the woody core; and Sir
+Charles Lyell and Principal Dawson discovered, in the hollow stools
+of coal trees of Nova Scotia, the remains of snails, millipedes,
+and salamander-like creatures, embedded in a deposit of a different
+character from that which surrounded the exterior of the trees. Thus,
+in endeavouring to comprehend the formation of a seam of coal, we must
+try to picture to ourselves a thick forest, formed for the most part
+of trees like gigantic club-mosses, mares-tails, and tree ferns, with
+here and there some that had more resemblance to our existing yews and
+fir-trees. We must suppose that, as the seasons rolled by, the plants
+grew and developed their spores and seeds; that they shed these in
+enormous quantities, which accumulated on the ground beneath; and
+that, every now and then, they added a dead frond or leaf; or, at
+longer intervals, a rotten branch, or a dead trunk, to the mass.
+
+A certain proportion of the spores and seeds no doubt fulfilled their
+obvious function, and, carried by the wind to unoccupied regions,
+extended the limits of the forest; many might be washed away by rain
+into streams, and be lost; but a large portion must have remained, to
+accumulate like beech-mast, or acorns, beneath the trees of a modern
+forest.
+
+But, in this case, it may be asked, why does not our English coal
+consist of stems and leaves to a much greater extent than it does?
+What is the reason of the predominance of the spores and spore-cases
+in it?
+
+A ready answer to this question is afforded by the study of a living
+full-grown club-moss. Shake it upon a piece of paper, and it emits a
+cloud of fine dust, which falls over the paper, and is the well-known
+Lycopodium powder. Now this powder used to be, and I believe still
+is, employed for two objects, which seem at first sight to have no
+particular connection with one another. It is, or was, employed in
+making lightning, and in making pills. The coats of the spores contain
+so much resinous matter, that a pinch of Lycopodium powder, thrown
+through the flame of a candle, burns with an instantaneous flash,
+which has long done duty for lightning on the stage. And the same
+character makes it a capital coating for pills; for the resinous
+powder prevents the drug from being wetted by the saliva, and thus
+bars the nauseous flavour from the sensitive papillae of the tongue.
+
+But this resinous matter, which lies in the walls of the spores and
+sporangia, is a substance not easily altered by air and water,
+and hence tends to preserve these bodies, just as the bituminized
+cerecloth preserves an Egyptian mummy; while, on the other hand, the
+merely woody stem and leaves tend to rot, as fast as the wood of the
+mummy's coffin has rotted. Thus the mixed heap of spores, leaves,
+and stems in the coal-forest would be persistently searched by the
+long-continued action of air and rain; the leaves and stems would
+gradually be reduced to little but their carbon, or, in other words,
+to the condition of mineral charcoal in which we find them; while the
+spores and sporangia remained as a comparatively unaltered and compact
+residuum.
+
+There is, indeed, tolerably clear evidence that the coal must, under
+some circumstances, have been converted into a substance hard enough
+to be rolled into pebbles, while it yet lay at the surface of the
+earth; for in some seams of coal, the courses of rivulets, which must
+have been living water, while the stratum in which their remains are
+found was still at the surface, have been observed to contain rolled
+pebbles of the very coal through which the stream has cut its way.
+
+The structural facts are such as to leave no alternative but to adopt
+the view of the origin of such coal as I have described, which has
+just been stated; but, happily, the process is not without analogy at
+the present day. I possess a specimen of what is called "white coal"
+from Australia. It is an inflammable material, burning with a bright
+flame, and having much the consistence and appearance of oat-cake,
+which, I am informed, covers a considerable area. It consists, almost
+entirely, of a compacted mass of spores and spore-cases. But the fine
+particles of blown sand which are scattered through it, show that it
+must have accumulated, subaërially, upon the surface of a soil covered
+by a forest of cryptogamous plants, probably tree-ferns.
+
+As regards this important point of the subaërial region of coal, I am
+glad to find myself in entire accordance with Principal Dawson,
+who bases his conclusions upon other, but no less forcible,
+considerations. In a passage, which is the continuation of that
+already cited, he writes:--
+
+    "(3) The microscopical structure and chemical composition of
+    the beds of cannel coal and earthy bitumen, and of the more
+    highly bituminous and carbonaeceous shale, show them to have
+    been of the nature of the fine vegetable mud which accumulates
+    in the ponds and shallow lakes of modern swamps. When such
+    fine vegetable sediment is mixed, as is often the case, with
+    clay, it becomes similar to the bituminous limestone and
+    calcareo-bituminous shales of the coal-measures. (4) A few of
+    the under-clays, which support beds of coal, are of the nature
+    of the vegetable mud above referred to; but the greater part
+    are argillo-arenaceous in composition, with little vegetable
+    matter, and bleached by the drainage from them of water
+    containing the products of vegetable decay. They are, in
+    short, loamy or clay soils, and must have been sufficiently
+    above water to admit of drainage. The absence of sulphurets,
+    and the occurrence of carbonate of iron in connection with
+    them, prove that, when they existed as soils, rain-water, and
+    not sea-water, percolated them. (5) The coal and the fossil
+    forests present many evidences of subaërial conditions. Most
+    of the erect and prostrate trees had become hollow shells of
+    bark before they were finally embedded, and their wood had
+    broken into cubical pieces of mineral charcoal. Land-snails
+    and galley-worms _Xylobius_ crept into them, and they became
+    dens, or traps, for reptiles. Large quantities of mineral
+    charcoal occur on the surface of all the large beds of
+    coal. None of these appearances could have been produced by
+    subaqueous action. (6) Though the roots of the _Sigillaria_
+    bear more resemblance to the rhizomes of certain aquatic
+    plants; yet, structurally, they are absolutely identical with
+    the roots of Cycads, which the stems also resemble. Further,
+    the _Sigillariae_ grew on the same soils which supported
+    Conifers, _Lepidodendra, Cordaites_, and Ferns--plants which
+    could not have grown in water. Again, with the exception
+    perhaps of some _Pinnulariae_ and _Asterophyllites_, there
+    is a remarkable absence from the coal measures of any form of
+    properly aquatic vegetation. (7) The occurrence of marine, or
+    brackish-water animals, in the roofs of coal-beds, or even
+    in the coal itself, affords no evidence of subaqueous
+    accumulation, since the same thing occurs in the case of
+    modern submarine forests. For these and other reasons, some of
+    which are more fully stated in the papers already referred
+    to, while I admit that the areas of coal accumulation were
+    frequently submerged, I must maintain that the true coal is a
+    subaërial accumulation by vegetable growth on soils, wet and
+    swampy it is true, but not submerged."
+
+I am almost disposed to doubt whether it is necessary to make the
+concession of "wet and swampy;" otherwise, there is nothing that I
+know of to be said against this excellent conspectus of the reasons
+for believing in the subaërial origin of coal.
+
+But the coal accumulated upon the area covered by one of the great
+forests of the carboniferous epoch would, in course of time, have
+been wasted away by the small, but constant, wear and tear of rain and
+streams, had the land which supported it remained at the same level,
+or been gradually raised to a greater elevation. And, no doubt, as
+much coal as now exists has been destroyed, after its formation, in
+this way. What are now known as coal districts owe their importance to
+the fact that they were areas of slow depression, during a greater or
+less portion of the carboniferous epoch; and that, in virtue of this
+circumstance, Mother Earth was enabled to cover up her vegetable
+treasures, and preserve them from destruction.
+
+Wherever a coal-field now exists, there must formerly have been free
+access for a great river, or for a shallow sea, bearing sediment in
+the shape of sand and mud. When the coal-forest area became slowly
+depressed, the waters must have spread over it, and have deposited
+their burden upon the surface of the bed of coal, in the form of
+layers, which are now converted into shale, or sandstone. Then
+followed a period of rest, in which the superincumbent shallow waters
+became completely filled up, and finally replaced, by fine mud, which
+settled down into a new under-clay, and furnished the soil for a fresh
+forest growth. This flourished, and heaped up its spores and wood into
+coal, until the stage of slow depression recommenced. And, in some
+localities, as I have mentioned, the process was repeated until the
+first of the alternating beds had sunk to near three miles below its
+original level at the surface of the earth.
+
+In reflecting on the statement, thus briefly made, of the main facts
+connected with the origin of the coal formed during the carboniferous
+epoch, two or three considerations suggest themselves.
+
+In the first place, the great phantom of geological time rises before
+the student of this, as of all other, fragments of the history of our
+earth--springing irrepressibly out of the facts, like the Djin from
+the jar which the fisherman so incautiously opened; and like the Djin
+again, being vaporous, shifting, and indefinable, but unmistakably
+gigantic. However modest the bases of one's calculation may be,
+the minimum of time assignable to the coal period remains something
+stupendous.
+
+Principal Dawson is the last person likely to be guilty of
+exaggeration in this matter, and it will be well to consider what he
+has to say about it:--
+
+    "The rate of accumulation of coal was very slow. The climate
+    of the period, in the northern temperate zone, was of such
+    a character that the true conifers show rings of growth, not
+    larger, nor much less distinct, than those of many of their
+    modern congeners. The _Sigillariae_ and _Calamites_ were not,
+    as often supposed, composed wholly, or even principally, of
+    lax and soft tissues, or necessarily short-lived. The former
+    had, it is true, a very thick inner bark; but their dense
+    woody axis, their thick and nearly imperishable outer bark,
+    and their scanty and rigid foliage, would indicate no very
+    rapid growth or decay. In the case of the _Sigillariae_, the
+    variations in the leaf-scars in different parts of the trunk,
+    the intercalation of new ridges at the surface representing
+    that of new woody wedges in the axis, the transverse marks
+    left by the stages of upward growth, all indicate that several
+    years must have been required for the growth of stems of
+    moderate size. The enormous roots of these trees, and the
+    condition of the coal-swamps, must have exempted them from the
+    danger of being overthrown by violence. They probably fell in
+    successive generations from natural decay; and making every
+    allowance for other materials, we may safely assert that every
+    foot of thickness of pure bituminous coal implies the
+    quiet growth and fall of at least fifty generations of
+    _Sigillariae_, and therefore an undisturbed condition of
+    forest growth enduring through many centuries. Further, there
+    is evidence that an immense amount of loose parenchymatous
+    tissue, and even of wood, perished by decay, and we do not
+    know to what extent even the most durable tissues may have
+    disappeared in this way; so that, in many coal-seams, we may
+    have only a very small part of the vegetable matter produced."
+
+Undoubtedly the force of these reflections is not diminished when the
+bituminous coal, as in Britain, consists of accumulated spores and
+spore-cases, rather than of stems. But, suppose we adopt Principal
+Dawson's assumption, that one foot of coal represents fifty
+generations of coal plants; and, further, make the moderate
+supposition that each generation of coal plants took ten years to come
+to maturity--then, each foot-thickness of coal represents five hundred
+years. The superimposed beds of coal in one coal-field may amount to
+a thickness of fifty or sixty feet, and therefore the coal alone, in
+that field, represents 500 x 50 = 25,000 years. But the actual coal is
+but an insignificant portion of the total deposit, which, as has been
+seen, may amount to between two and three miles of vertical thickness.
+Suppose it be 12,000 feet--which is 240 times the thickness of the
+actual coal--is there any reason why we should believe it may not have
+taken 240 times as long to form? I know of none. But, in this case,
+the time which the coal-field represents would be 25,000 x 240
+=6,000,000 years. As affording a definite chronology, of course such
+calculations as these are of no value; but they have much use in
+fixing one's attention upon a possible minimum. A man may be puzzled
+if he is asked how long Rome took a-building; but he is proverbially
+safe if he affirms it not to have been built in a day; and our
+geological calculations are all, at present, pretty much on that
+footing.
+
+A second consideration which the study of the coal brings prominently
+before the mind of anyone who is familiar with palaeontology is, that
+the coal Flora, viewed in relation to the enormous period of time
+which it lasted, and to the still vaster period which has elapsed
+since it flourished, underwent little change while it endured, and in
+its peculiar characters, differs strangely little from that which at
+present exists.
+
+The same species of plants are to be met with throughout the whole
+thickness of a coal-field, and the youngest are not sensibly different
+from the oldest. But more than this. Notwithstanding that the
+carboniferous period is separated from us by more than the whole time
+represented by the secondary and tertiary formations, the great types
+of vegetation were as distinct then as now. The structure of the
+modern club-moss furnishes a complete explanation of the fossil
+remains of the _Lepidodendra_, and the fronds of some of the ancient
+ferns are hard to distinguish from existing ones. At the same time,
+it must be remembered, that there is nowhere in the world, at present,
+any _forest_ which bears more than a rough analogy with a coal-forest.
+The types may remain, but the details of their form, their relative
+proportions, their associates, are all altered. And the tree-fern
+forest of Tasmania, or New Zealand, gives one only a faint and remote
+image of the vegetation of the ancient world.
+
+Once more, an invariably-recurring lesson of geological history,
+at whatever point its study is taken up: the lesson of the almost
+infinite slowness of the modification of living forms. The lines of
+the pedigrees of living things break off almost before they begin to
+converge.
+
+Finally, yet another curious consideration. Let us suppose that one of
+the stupid, salamander-like Labyrinthodonts, which pottered, with
+much belly and little leg, like Falstaff in his old age, among the
+coal-forests, could have had thinking power enough in his small brain
+to reflect upon the showers of spores which kept on falling through
+years and centuries, while perhaps not one in ten million fulfilled
+its apparent purpose, and reproduced the organism which gave it birth:
+surely he might have been excused for moralizing upon the thoughtless
+and wanton extravagance which Nature displayed in her operations.
+
+But we have the advantage over our shovel-headed predecessor--or
+possibly ancestor--and can perceive that a certain vein of thrift runs
+through this apparent prodigality. Nature is never in a hurry, and
+seems to have had always before her eyes the adage, "Keep a thing long
+enough, and you will find a use for it." She has kept her beds of coal
+many millions of years without being able to find much use for them;
+she has sent them down beneath the sea, and the sea-beasts could make
+nothing of them; she has raised them up into dry land, and laid the
+black veins bare, and still, for ages and ages, there was no living
+thing on the face of the earth that could see any sort of value in
+them; and it was only the other day, so to speak, that she turned a
+new creature out of her workshop, who by degrees acquired sufficient
+wits to make a fire, and then to discover that the black rock would
+burn.
+
+I suppose that nineteen hundred years ago, when Julius Caesar was good
+enough to deal with Britain as we have dealt with New Zealand, the
+primaeval Briton, blue with cold and woad, may have known that the
+strange black stone, of which he found lumps here and there in his
+wanderings, would burn, and so help to warm his body and cook his
+food. Saxon, Dane, and Norman swarmed into the land. The English
+people grew into a powerful nation, and Nature still waited for a full
+return of the capital she had invested in the ancient club-mosses. The
+eighteenth century arrived, and with it James Watt. The brain of that
+man was the spore out of which was developed the steam-engine, and all
+the prodigious trees and branches of modern industry which have grown
+out of this. But coal is as much an essential condition of this growth
+and development as carbonic acid is for that of a club-moss. Wanting
+coal, we could not have smelted the iron needed to make our engines,
+nor have worked our engines when we had got them. But take away the
+engines, and the great towns of Yorkshire and Lancashire vanish like a
+dream. Manufactures give place to agriculture and pasture, and not ten
+men can live where now ten thousand are amply supported.
+
+Thus, all this abundant wealth of money and of vivid life is Nature's
+interest upon her investment in club-mosses, and the like, so long
+ago. But what becomes of the coal which is burnt in yielding this
+interest? Heat comes out of it, light comes out of it, and if we could
+gather together all that goes up the chimney; and all that remains in
+the grate of a thoroughly-burnt coal-fire, we should find ourselves in
+possession of a quantity of carbonic acid, water, ammonia, and mineral
+matters, exactly equal in weight to the coal. But these are the very
+matters with which Nature supplied the club-mosses which made the
+coal. She is paid back principal and interest at the same time; and
+she straightway invests the carbonic acid, the water, and the ammonia
+in new forms of life, feeding with them the plants that now live.
+Thrifty Nature! Surely no prodigal, but most notable of housekeepers!
+
+
+
+
+VI.
+
+ON CORAL AND CORAL REEFS.
+
+
+The marine productions which are commonly known by the names of
+"Corals" and "Corallines," were thought by the ancients to be
+sea-weeds, which had the singular property of becoming hard and
+solid, when they were fished up from their native depths and came into
+contact with the air.
+
+    "Sic et curalium, quo primum contigit auras Tempore durescit:
+    mollis fuit herba sub undis,"
+
+says Ovid (Metam. xv.); and it was not until the seventeenth century
+that Boccone was emboldened, by personal experience of the facts, to
+declare that the holders of this belief were no better than "idiots,"
+who had been misled by the softness of the outer coat of the living
+red coral to imagine that it was soft all through.
+
+Messer Boccone's strong epithet is probably undeserved, as the
+notion he controverts, in all likelihood, arose merely from the
+misinterpretation of the strictly true statement which any coral
+fisherman would make to a curious inquirer; namely, that the outside
+coat of the red coral is quite soft when it is taken out of the sea.
+At any rate, he did good service by eliminating this much error from
+the current notions about coral. But the belief that corals are plants
+remained, not only in the popular, but in the scientific mind; and
+it received what appeared to be a striking confirmation from the
+researches of Marsigli in 1706. For this naturalist, having the
+opportunity of observing freshly-taken red coral, saw that its
+branches were beset with what looked like delicate and beautiful
+flowers, each having eight petals. It was true that these "flowers"
+could protrude and retract themselves, but their motions were hardly
+more extensive, or more varied, than those of the leaves of the
+sensitive plant; and therefore they could not be held to militate
+against the conclusion so strongly suggested by their form and their
+grouping upon the branches of a tree-like structure.
+
+Twenty years later, a pupil of Marsigli, the young Marseilles
+physician, Peyssonel, conceived the desire to study these singular
+sea-plants, and was sent by the French Government on a mission to the
+Mediterranean for that purpose. The pupil undertook the investigation
+full of confidence in the ideas of his master, but being able to see
+and think for himself, he soon discovered that those ideas by no means
+altogether corresponded with reality. In an essay entitled "Traité du
+Corail," which was communicated to the French Academy of Science, but
+which has never been published, Peyssonel writes:--
+
+    "Je fis fleurir le corail dans des vases pleins d'eau de mer,
+    et j'observai que ce que nous croyons être la fleur de cette
+    prétendue plante n'était au vrai, qu'un insecte semblable à
+    une petite Ortie ou Poulpe. J'avais le plaisir de voir remuer
+    les pattes, ou pieds, de cette Ortie, et ayant mis le vase
+    plein d'eau où le corail était à une douce chaleur auprès
+    du feu, tous les petites insectes s'épanouirent ... L'Ortie
+    sortie étend les pieds, et forme ce que M. de Marsigli et moi
+    avions pris pour les pétales de la fleur. Le calice de cette
+    prétendue fleur est le corps même de l'animal avancé et sorti
+    hors de la cellule."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: This extract from Peysonnel's manuscript is given by
+M. Lacaze Duthiers in his valuable "Histoire Naturelle du Corail"
+(1866).]
+
+The comparison of the flowers of the coral to a "petite ortie" or
+"little nettle" is perfectly just, but needs explanation. "Ortie de
+mer," or "sea-nettle," is, in fact, the French appellation for our
+"sea-anemone," a creature with which everybody, since the great
+aquarium mania, must have become familiar, even to the limits of
+boredom. In 1710, the great naturalist, Réaumur, had written a memoir
+for the express purpose of demonstrating that these "orties" are
+animals; and with this important paper Peyssonel must necessarily have
+been familiar. Therefore, when he declared the "flowers" of the red
+coral to be little "orties," it was the same thing as saying that
+they were animals of the same general nature as sea-anemones. But
+to Peyssonel's contemporaries this was an extremely startling
+announcement. It was hard to imagine the existence of such a thing
+as an association of animals into a structure with stem and branches
+altogether like a plant, and fixed to the soil as a plant is fixed;
+and the naturalists of that day preferred not to imagine it. Even
+Réaumur could not bring himself to accept the notion, and France being
+blessed with Academicians, whose great function (as the late Bishop
+Wilson and an eminent modern writer have so well shown) is to cause
+sweetness and light to prevail, and to prevent such unmannerly fellows
+as Peyssonel from blurting out unedifying truths, they suppressed him;
+and, as aforesaid, his great work remained in manuscript, and may
+at this day be consulted by the curious in that state, in the
+"Bibliothèque du Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle." Peyssonel, who
+evidently was a person of savage and untameable disposition, so far
+from appreciating the kindness of the Academicians in giving him time
+to reflect upon the unreasonableness, not to say rudeness, of making
+public statements in opposition to the views of some of the most
+distinguished of their body, seems bitterly to have resented the
+treatment he met with. For he sent all further communications to the
+Royal Society of London, which never had, and it is to be hoped never
+will have, anything of an academic constitution; and finally took
+himself off to Guadaloupe, and became lost to science altogether.
+
+Fifteen or sixteen years after the date of Peyssonel's suppressed
+paper, the Abbé Trembley published his wonderful researches upon the
+fresh-water _Hydra_. Bernard de Jussieu and Guettard followed them
+up by like inquiries upon the marine sea-anemones and corallines;
+Réaumur, convinced against his will of the entire justice of
+Peyssonel's views, adopted them, and made him a half-and-half apology
+in the preface to the next published volume of the "Mémoires pour
+servir à l'Histoire des Insectes;" and, from this time forth,
+Peyssonel's doctrine that corals are the work of animal organisms has
+been part of the body of established scientific truth.
+
+Peyssonel, in the extract from his memoir already cited, compares the
+flower-like animal of the coral to a "poulpe," which is the French
+form of the name "polypus,"--"the many-footed,"--which the ancient
+naturalists gave to the soft-bodied cuttle-fishes, which, like the
+coral animal, have eight arms, or tentacles, disposed around a central
+mouth. Réaumur, admitting the analogy indicated by Peyssonel, gave the
+name of _polypes_, not only to the sea-anemone, the coral animal, and
+the fresh-water _Hydra_, but to what are now known as the _Polyzoa_,
+and he termed the skeleton which they fabricate a "_polypier_" or
+"polypidom."
+
+The progress of discovery, since Réaumur's time, has made us very
+completely acquainted with the structure and habits of all these
+polypes. We know that, among the sea-anemones and coral-forming
+animals, each polype has a mouth leading to a stomach, which is open
+at its inner end, and thus communicates freely with the general cavity
+of the body; that the tentacles placed round the mouth are hollow, and
+that they perform the part of arms in seizing and capturing prey. It
+is known that many of these creatures are capable of being multiplied
+by artificial division, the divided halves growing, after a time, into
+complete and separate animals; and that many are able to perform a
+very similar process naturally, in such a manner that one polype may,
+by repeated incomplete divisions, give rise to a sort of sheet,
+or turf, formed by innumerable connected, and yet independent,
+descendants. Or, what is still more common, a polype may throw out
+buds, which are converted into polypes, or branches bearing polypes,
+until a tree-like mass, sometimes of very considerable size, is
+formed.
+
+This is what happens in the case of the red coral of commerce. A
+minute polype, fixed to the rocky bottom of the deep sea, grows up
+into a branched trunk. The end of every branch and twig is terminated
+by a polype; and all the polypes are connected together by a fleshy
+substance, traversed by innumerable canals which place each polype in
+communication with every other, and carry nourishment to the substance
+of the supporting stem. It is a sort of natural co-operative store,
+every polype helping the whole, at the same time as it helps itself.
+The interior of the stem, like that of the branches, is solidified
+by the deposition of carbonate of lime in its tissue, somewhat in the
+same fashion as our own bones are formed of animal matter impregnated
+with lime salts; and it is this dense skeleton (usually turned
+deep red by a peculiar colouring matter) cleared of the soft animal
+investment, as the heart-wood of a tree might be stripped of its bark,
+which is the red coral.
+
+In the case of the red coral, the hard skeleton belongs to the
+interior of the stem and branches only; but in the commoner white
+corals, each polype has a complete skeleton of its own. These
+polypes ate sometimes solitary, in which case the whole skeleton is
+represented by a single cup, with partitions radiating from its centre
+to its circumference. When the polypes formed by budding or division
+remain associated, the polypidom is sometimes made up of nothing but
+an aggregation of these cups, while at other times the cups are at
+once separated and held together, by an intermediate substance, which
+represents the branches of the red coral. The red coral polype
+again is a comparatively rare animal, inhabiting a limited area, the
+skeleton of which has but a very insignificant mass; while the white
+corals are very common, occur in almost all seas, and form skeletons
+which are sometimes extremely massive.
+
+With a very few exceptions, both the red and the white coral polypes
+are, in their adult state, firmly adherent to the sea-bottom; nor do
+their buds naturally become detached and locomotive. But, in addition
+to budding and division, these creatures possess the more ordinary
+methods of multiplication; and, at particular seasons, they give
+rise to numerous eggs of minute size. Within these eggs the young are
+formed, and they leave the egg in a condition which has no sort of
+resemblance to the perfect animal. It is, in fact, a minute oval body,
+many hundred times smaller than the full-grown creature, and it
+swims about with great activity by the help of multitudes of little
+hair-like filaments, called cilia, with which its body is covered.
+These cilia all lash the water in one direction, and so drive the
+little body along as if it were propelled by thousands of extremely
+minute paddles. After enjoying its freedom for a longer or shorter
+time, and being carried either by the force of its own cilia, or by
+currents which bear it along, the embryo coral settles down to the
+bottom, loses its cilia, and becomes fixed to the rock, gradually
+assuming the polype form and growing up to the size of its parent.
+As the infant polypes of the coral may retain this free and active
+condition for many hours, or even days, and as a tidal or other
+current in the sea may easily flow at the speed of two or even
+more miles in an hour, it is clear that the embryo must often be
+transported to very considerable distances from the parent. And it
+is easily understood how a single polype, which may give rise to
+hundreds, or perhaps thousands, of embryos, may, by this process of
+partly active and partly passive migration, cover an immense surface
+with its offspring. The masses of coral which may be formed by the
+assemblages of polypes which spring by budding, or by dividing, from a
+single polype, occasionally attain very considerable dimensions. Such
+skeletons are sometimes great plates, many feet long and several feet
+in thickness; or they may form huge half globes, like the brainstone
+corals, or may reach the magnitude of stout shrubs, or even small
+trees. There is reason to believe that such masses as these take a
+long time to form, and hence that the age a polype tree, or polype
+turf, may attain, may be considerable. But, sooner or later, the coral
+polypes, like all other things, die; the soft flesh decays, while the
+skeleton is left as a stony mass at the bottom of the sea, where it
+retains its integrity for a longer or a shorter time, according as its
+position affords it more or less protection from the wear and tear of
+the waves.
+
+The polypes which give rise to the white coral are found, as has been
+said, in the seas of all parts of the world; but in the temperate and
+cold oceans they are scattered and comparatively small in size,
+so that the skeletons of those which die do not accumulate in any
+considerable quantity. But it is otherwise in the greater part of the
+ocean which lies in the warmer parts of the world, comprised within a
+distance of about 1,800 miles on each side of the equator. Within the
+zone thus bounded, by far the greater part of the ocean is inhabited
+by coral polypes, which not only form very strong and large skeletons,
+but associate together into great masses, like the thickets and the
+meadow turf, or, better still, the accumulations of peat, to which
+plants give rise on the dry land. These masses of stony matter, heaped
+up beneath the waters of the ocean, become as dangerous to mariners
+as so much ordinary rock, and to these, as to common rock ridges, the
+seaman gives the name of "reefs."
+
+Such coral reefs cover many thousand square miles in the Pacific and
+in the Indian Oceans. There is one reef, or rather great series of
+reefs, called the Barrier Reef, which stretches, almost continuously,
+for more than 1,100 miles off the east coast of Australia. Multitudes
+of the island in the Pacific are either reefs themselves, or are
+surrounded by reefs. The Red Sea is in many parts almost a maze of
+such reefs; and they abound no less in the West Indies, along the
+coast of Florida, and even as far north as the Bahama Islands. But it
+is a very remarkable circumstance that, within the area of what we may
+call the "coral zone," there are no coral reefs upon the west coast of
+America, nor upon the west coast of Africa; and it is a general fact
+that the reefs are interrupted, or absent, opposite the mouths of
+great rivers. The causes of this apparent caprice in the distribution
+of coral reefs are not far to seek. The polypes which fabricate them
+require for their vigorous growth a temperature which must not fall
+below 68 degrees Fahrenheit all the year round, and this temperature
+is only to be found within the distance on each side of the equator
+which has been mentioned, or thereabouts. But even within the coral
+zone this degree of warmth is not everywhere to be had. On the west
+coast of America, and on the corresponding coast of Africa, currents
+of cold water from the icy regions which surround the South Pole set
+northward, and it appears to be due to their cooling influence that
+the sea in these regions is free from the reef builders. Again, the
+coral polypes cannot live in water which is rendered brackish by
+floods from the land, or which is perturbed by mud from the same
+source, and hence it is that they cease to exist opposite the mouths
+of rivers, which damage them in both these ways.
+
+Such is the general distribution of the reef-building corals, but
+there are some very interesting and singular circumstances to be
+observed in the conformation of the reefs, when we consider them
+individually. The reefs, in fact, are of three different kinds; some
+of them stretch out from the shore, almost like a prolongation of the
+beach, covered only by shallow water, and in the case of an island,
+surrounding it like a fringe of no considerable breadth. These are
+termed "fringing reefs." Others are separated by a channel which may
+attain a width of many miles, and a depth of twenty or thirty fathoms
+or more, from the nearest land; and when this land is an island, the
+reef surrounds it like a low wall, and the sea between the reef and
+the land is, as it were, a moat inside this wall. Such reefs as these
+are called "encircling" when they surround an island; and "barrier"
+reefs, when they stretch parallel with the coast of a continent.
+In both these cases there is ordinary dry land inside the reef, and
+separated from it only by a narrower or a wider, a shallower or a
+deeper, space of sea, which is called a "lagoon," or "inner passage."
+But there is a third kind of reef, of very common occurrence in the
+Pacific and Indian Oceans, which goes by the name of an "Atoll." This
+is, to all intents and purposes, an encircling reef, without anything
+to encircle; or, in other words, without an island in the middle
+of its lagoon. The atoll has exactly the appearance of a vast,
+irregularly oval, or circular, breakwater, enclosing smooth water in
+its midst. The depth of the water in the lagoon rarely exceeds twenty
+or thirty fathoms, but, outside the reef, it deepens with great
+rapidity to 200 or 300 fathoms. The depth immediately outside the
+barrier, or encircling, reefs, may also be very considerable; but, at
+the outer edge of a fringing reef, it does not amount usually to more
+than twenty or twenty-five fathoms; in other words, from 120 to 150
+feet.
+
+Thus, if the water of the ocean could be suddenly drained away, we
+should see the atolls rising from the sea-bed like vast truncated
+cones, and resembling so many volcanic craters, except that their
+sides would be steeper than those of an ordinary volcano. In the case
+of the encircling reefs, the cone, with the enclosed island, would
+look like Vesuvius with Monte Nuovo within the old crater of Somma;
+while, finally, the island with a fringing reef would have the
+appearance of an ordinary hill, or mountain, girded by a vast parapet,
+within which would lie a shallow moat. And the dry bed of the Pacific
+might afford grounds for an inhabitant of the moon to speculate
+upon the extraordinary subterranean activity to which these vast and
+numerous "craters" bore witness!
+
+When the structure of a fringing reef is investigated, the bottom of
+the lagoon is found to be covered with fine whitish mud, which results
+from the breaking up of the dead corals. Upon this muddy floor there
+lie, here and there, growing corals, or occasionally great blocks of
+dead coral, which have been torn by storms from the outer edge of
+the reef, and washed into the lagoon. Shell-fish and worms of various
+kinds abound; and fish, some of which prey upon the coral, sport in
+the deeper pools. But the corals which are to be seen growing in the
+shallow waters of the lagoon are of a different kind from those which
+abound on the outer edge of the reef, and of which the reef is built
+up. Close to the seaward edge of the reef, over which, even in calm
+weather, a surf almost always breaks, the coral rock is encrusted with
+a thick coat of a singular vegetable organism, which contains a great
+deal of lime--the so-called _Nullipora_. Beyond this, in the part of
+the edge of the reef which is always covered by the breaking waves,
+the living, true, reef--polypes make their appearance; and, in
+different forms, coat the steep seaward face of the reef to a depth of
+100 or even 150 feet. Beyond this depth the sounding-lead rests, not
+upon the wall-like face of the reef, but on the ordinary shelving
+sea-bottom. And the distance to which a fringing reef extends from the
+land corresponds with that at which the sea has a depth of twenty or
+five-and-twenty fathoms.
+
+If, as we have supposed, the sea could be suddenly withdrawn from
+around an island provided with a fringing reef, such as the Mauritius,
+the reef would present the aspect of a terrace, its seaward face,
+100 feet or more high, blooming with the animal flowers of the coral,
+while its surface would be hollowed out into a shallow and irregular
+moat-like excavation.
+
+The coral mud, which occupies the bottom of the lagoon, and with which
+all the interstices of the coral skeletons which accumulate to form
+the reef are filled up, does not proceed from the washing action of
+the waves alone; innumerable fishes, and other creatures which prey
+upon the coral, add a very important contribution of finely-triturated
+calcareous matter; and the corals and mud becoming incorporated
+together, gradually harden and give rise to a sort of limestone rock,
+which may vary a good deal in texture. Sometimes it remains friable
+and chalky, but, more often, the infiltration of water, charged with
+carbonic acid, dissolves some of the calcareous matter, and deposits
+it elsewhere in the interstices of the nascent rock, thus glueing
+and cementing the particles together into a hard mass; or it may even
+dissolve the carbonate of lime more extensively, and re-deposit it in
+a crystalline form. On the beach of the lagoon, where the coral sand
+is washed into layers by the action of the waves, its grains become
+thus fused together into strata of a limestone, so hard that they
+ring when struck with a hammer, and inclined at a gentle angle,
+corresponding with that of the surface of the beach. The hard parts
+of the many animals which live upon the reef become imbedded in this
+coral limestone, so that a block may be full of shells of bivalves and
+univalves, or of sea-urchins; and even sometimes encloses the eggs of
+turtles in a state of petrifaction. The active and vigorous growth of
+the reef goes on only at the seaward margins, where the polypes are
+exposed to the wash of the surf, and are thereby provided with an
+abundant supply of air and of food. The interior portion of the reef
+may be regarded as almost wholly an accumulation of dead skeletons.
+Where a river comes down from the land there is a break in the reef,
+for the reasons which have been already mentioned.
+
+The origin and mode of formation of a fringing reef, such as that just
+described, are plain enough. The embryos of the coral polypes have
+fixed themselves upon the submerged shore of the island, as far out as
+they could live, namely, to a depth of twenty or twenty-five fathoms.
+One generation has succeeded another, building itself up upon the dead
+skeletons of its predecessor. The mass has been consolidated by
+the infiltration of coral mud, and hardened by partial solution and
+redeposition, until a great rampart of coral rock 100 or 150 feet high
+on its seaward face has been formed all round the island, with only
+such gaps as result from the outflow of rivers, in the place of
+sally-ports.
+
+The structure of the rocky accumulation in the encircling reefs and
+in the atolls is essentially the same as in the fringing reef. But, in
+addition to the differences of depth inside and out, they present
+some other peculiarities. These reefs, and especially the atolls, are
+usually interrupted at one part of their circumference, and this part
+is always situated on the leeward side of the reef, or that which is
+the more sheltered side. Now, as all these reefs are situated within
+the region in which the trade-winds prevail, it follows that, on the
+north side of the equator, where the trade-wind is a north-easterly
+wind, the opening of the reef is on the south-west side: while in the
+southern hemisphere, where the trade-winds blow from the south-east,
+the opening lies to the north-west. The curious practical result
+follows from this structure, that the lagoons of these reefs really
+form admirable harbours, if a ship can only get inside them. But the
+main difference between the encircling reefs and the atolls, on the
+one hand, and the fringing reefs on the other, lies in the fact of the
+much greater depth of water on the seaward faces of the former. As a
+consequence of this fact, the whole of this face is not, as it is in
+the case of the fringing reef, covered with living coral polypes. For,
+as we have seen, these polypes cannot live at a greater depth than
+about twenty-five fathoms; and actual observation has shown that
+while, down to this depth, the sounding-lead will bring up branches of
+live coral from the outer wall of such a reef, at a greater depth it
+fetches to the surface nothing but dead coral and coral sand. We must,
+therefore, picture to ourselves an atoll, or an encircling reef, as
+fringed for 100 feet, or more, from its summit, with coral polypes
+busily engaged in fabricating coral; while, below this comparatively
+narrow belt, its surface is a bare and smooth expanse of coral sand,
+supported upon and within a core of coral limestone. Thus, if the bed
+of the Pacific were suddenly laid bare, as was just now supposed, the
+appearance of the reef-mountains would be exactly the reverse of that
+presented by many high mountains on land. For these are white with
+snow at the top, while their bases are clothed with an abundant and
+gaudily-coloured vegetation. But the coral cones would look grey and
+barren below, while their summits would be gay with a richly-coloured
+parterre of flower-like coral polypes.
+
+The practical difficulties of sounding upon, and of bringing up
+portions of, the seaward face of an atoll or of an encircling reef,
+are so great, in consequence of the constant and dangerous swell which
+sets towards it, that no exact information concerning the depth to
+which the reefs are composed of coral has yet been obtained. There is
+no reason to doubt, however, that the reef-cone has the same structure
+from its summit to its base, and that its sea-wall is throughout
+mainly composed of dead coral.
+
+And now arises a serious difficulty. If the coral polypes cannot live
+at a greater depth than 100 or 150 feet, how can they have built up
+the base of the reef-cone, which may be 2,000 feet, or more, below the
+surface of the sea?
+
+In order to get over this objection, it was at one time supposed that
+the reef-building polypes had settled upon the summits of a chain
+of submarine mountains. But what is there in physical geography
+to justify the assumption of the existence of a chain of mountains
+stretching for 1,000 miles or more, and so nearly of the same height,
+that none should rise above the level of the sea, nor fall 150 feet
+below that level?
+
+How again, on this hypothesis, are atolls to be accounted for, unless,
+as some have done, we take refuge in the wild supposition that every
+atoll corresponds with the crater of a submarine volcano? And what
+explanation does it afford of the fact that, in some parts of the
+ocean, only atolls and encircling reefs occur, while others present
+none but fringing reefs?
+
+These and other puzzling facts remained insoluble until the
+publication, in the year 1840, of Mr. Darwin's famous work on
+coral reefs; in which a key was given to all the difficult problems
+connected with the subject, and every difficulty was shown to be
+capable of solution by deductive reasoning from a happy combination of
+certain well-established geological and biological truths. Mr.
+Darwin, in fact, showed, that so long as the level of the sea remains
+unaltered in any area in which coral reefs are being formed, or if the
+level of the sea relatively to that of the land is falling, the
+only reefs which can be formed are fringing reefs. While if, on the
+contrary, the level of the sea is rising relatively to that of the
+land, at a rate not faster than that at which the upward growth of
+the coral can keep pace with it, the reef will gradually pass from the
+condition of a fringing, into that of an encircling or barrier reef.
+And, finally, that if the relative level of the sea rise so much that
+the encircled land is completely submerged, the reef must necessarily
+pass into the condition of an atoll.
+
+For, suppose the relative level of the sea to remain stationary, after
+a fringing reef has reached that distance from the land at which
+the depth of water amounts to 150 feet. Then the reef cannot extend
+seaward by the migration of coral germs, because these coral germs
+would find the bottom of the sea to be too deep for them to live in.
+And the only manner in which the reef could extend outwards, would
+be by the gradual accumulation, at the foot of its seaward face, of a
+talus of coral fragments torn off by the violence of the waves, which
+talus might, in course of time, become high enough to bring its upper
+surface within the limits of coral growth, and in that manner provide
+a sort of factitious sea-bottom upon which the coral embryos might
+perch. If, on the other hand, the level of the sea were slowly and
+gradually lowered, it is clear that the parts of its bottom originally
+beyond the limit of coral growth, would gradually be brought within
+the required distance of the surface, and thus the reef might be
+indefinitely extended. But this process would give rise neither to an
+encircling reef nor to an atoll, but to a broad belt of upheaved
+coral rock, increasing the dimensions of the dry land, and continuous
+seawards with the fresh fringing reef.
+
+Suppose, however, that the sea-level rose instead of falling, at the
+same slow and gradual rate at which we know it to be rising in some
+parts of the world--not more, in fact, than a few inches, or, at
+most, a foot or two, in a hundred years. Then, while the reef would
+be unable to extend itself seaward, the sea-bottom outside it being
+gradually more and more removed from the depth at which the life of
+the coral polypes is possible, it would be able to grow upwards
+as fast as the sea rose. But the growth would take place almost
+exclusively around the circumference of the reef, this being the only
+region in which the coral polypes would find the conditions favourable
+for their existence. The bottom of the lagoon would be raised, in the
+main, only by the coral _débris_ and coral mud, formed in the manner
+already described; consequently, the margins of the reef would
+rise faster than the bottom, or, in other words, the lagoon would
+constantly become deeper. And, at the same time, it would gradually
+increase in breadth; as the rising sea, covering more and more of the
+land, would occupy a wider space between the edge of the reef and what
+remained of the land. Thus the rising sea would eventually convert a
+large island with a fringing reef, into a small island surrounded by
+an encircling reef. And it will be obvious that when the rising of the
+sea has gone so far as completely to cover the highest points of the
+island, the reef will have passed into the condition of an atoll.
+
+But how is it possible that the relative level of the land and sea
+should be altered to this extent? Clearly, only in one of two ways:
+either the sea must have risen over those areas which are now covered
+by atolls and encircling reefs; or, the land upon which the sea rests
+must have been depressed to a corresponding extent.
+
+If the sea has risen, its rise must have taken place over the whole
+world simultaneously, and it must have risen to the same height over
+all parts of the coral zone. Grounds have been shown for the belief
+that the general level of the sea may have been different at different
+times; it has been suggested, for example, that the accumulation of
+ice about the poles during one of the cold periods of the earth's
+history, necessarily implies a diminution in the volume of the sea
+proportioned to the amount of its water thus permanently locked up in
+the Arctic and Antarctic ice-cellars; while, in the warm periods,
+the greater or less disappearance of the polar ice-cap implies a
+corresponding addition of water to the ocean. And no doubt this
+reasoning must be admitted to be sound in principle; though it is very
+hard to say what practical effect the additions and subtractions thus
+made have had on the level of the ocean; inasmuch as such additions
+and subtractions might be either intensified or nullified, by
+contemporaneous changes in the level of the land. And no one has yet
+shown that any such great melting of polar ice, and consequent raising
+of the level of the water of the ocean, has taken place since the
+existing atolls began to be formed.
+
+In the absence of any evidence that the sea has ever risen to the
+extent required to give rise to the encircling reefs and the atolls,
+Mr. Darwin adopted the opposite hypothesis, viz. that the land has
+undergone extensive and slow depression in those localities in which
+these structures exist.
+
+It seems, at first, a startling paradox, to suppose that the land
+is less fixed than the sea; but that such is the case is the uniform
+testimony of geology. Beds of sandstone or limestone, thousands of
+feet thick, and all full of marine remains, occur in various parts of
+the earth's surface, and prove, beyond a doubt, that when these beds
+were formed, that portion of the sea-bottom which they then occupied
+underwent a slow and gradual depression to a distance which cannot
+have been less than the thickness of those beds, and may have been
+very much greater. In supposing, therefore, that the great areas of
+the Pacific and of the Indian Ocean, over which atolls and encircling
+reefs are found scattered, have undergone a depression of some
+hundreds, or, it may be, thousands of feet, Mr. Darwin made a
+supposition which had nothing forced or improbable, but was entirely
+in accordance with what we know to have taken place over similarly
+extensive areas, in other periods of the world's history. But Mr.
+Darwin subjected his hypothesis to an ingenious indirect test. If
+his view be correct, it is clear that neither atolls, nor encircling
+reefs, should be found in those portions of the ocean in which we have
+reason to believe, on independent grounds, that the sea-bottom has
+long been either stationary, or slowly rising. Now it is known that,
+as a general rule, the level of the land is either stationary, or is
+undergoing a slow upheaval, in the neighbourhood of active volcanoes;
+and, therefore, neither atolls nor encircling reefs ought to be found
+in regions in which volcanoes are numerous and active. And this turns
+out to be the case. Appended to Mr. Darwin's great work on coral
+reefs, there is a map on which atolls and encircling reefs are
+indicated by one colour, fringing reefs by another, and active
+volcanoes by a third. And it is at once obvious that the lines of
+active volcanoes lie around the margins of the areas occupied by the
+atolls and the encircling reefs. It is exactly as if the upheaving
+volcanic agencies had lifted up the edges of these great areas, while
+their centres had undergone a corresponding depression. An atoll area
+may, in short, be pictured as a kind of basin, the margins of which
+have been pushed up by the subterranean forces, to which the craters
+of the volcanoes have, at intervals, given vent.
+
+Thus we must imagine the area of the Pacific now covered by the
+Polynesian Archipelago, as having been, at some former time,
+occupied by large islands, or, may be, by a great continent, with the
+ordinarily diversified surface of plain, and hill, and mountain chain.
+The shores of this great land were doubtless fringed by coral reefs;
+and, as it slowly underwent depression, the hilly regions, converted
+into islands, became, at first, surrounded by fringing reefs, and
+then, as depression went on, these became converted into encircling
+reefs, and these, finally, into atolls, until a maze of reefs and
+coral-girdled islets took the place of the original land masses.
+
+Thus the atolls and the encircling reefs furnish us with clear, though
+indirect, evidence of changes in the physical geography of large parts
+of the earth's surface; and even, as my lamented friend, the late
+Professor Jukes, has suggested, give us indications of the manner in
+which some of the most puzzling facts connected with the distribution
+of animals have been brought about. For example, Australia and New
+Guinea are separated by Torres Straits, a broad belt of sea 100 or
+120 miles wide. Nevertheless, there is in many respects a curious
+resemblance between the land animals which inhabit New Guinea and
+the land animals which inhabit Australia. But, at the same time, the
+marine shell-fish which are found in the shallow waters of the shores
+of New Guinea, are quite different from those which are met with upon
+the coasts of Australia. Now, the eastern end of Torres Straits is
+full of atolls, which, in fact, form the northern termination of the
+Great Barrier Reef which skirts the eastern coast of Australia. It
+follows, therefore, that the eastern end of Torres Straits is an area
+of depression, and it is very possible, and on many grounds highly
+probable, that, in former times, Australia and New Guinea were
+directly connected together, and that Torres Straits did not exist.
+If this were the case, the existence of cassowaries and of marsupial
+quadrupeds, both in New Guinea and in Australia, becomes intelligible;
+while the difference between the littoral molluscs of the north and
+the south shores of Torres Straits is readily explained by the great
+probability that, when the depression in question took place, and
+what was, at first, an arm of the sea became converted into a strait
+separating Australia from New Guinea, the northern shore of this new
+sea became tenanted with marine animals from the north, while the
+southern shore was peopled by immigrants from the already existing
+marine Australian fauna.
+
+Inasmuch as the growth of the reef depends upon that of successive
+generations of coral polypes, and as each generation takes a certain
+time to grow to its full size, and can only separate its calcareous
+skeleton from the water in which it lives at a certain rate, it is
+clear that the reefs are records not only of changes in physical
+geography, but of the lapse of time. It is by no means easy, however,
+to estimate the exact value of reef-chronology, and the attempts which
+have been made to determine the rate at which a reef grows vertically,
+have yielded anything but precise results. A cautious writer, Mr.
+Dana, whose extensive study of corals and coral reefs makes him an
+eminently competent judge, states his conclusion in the following
+terms:--
+
+    "The rate of growth of the common branching madrepore is not
+    over one and a half inches a year. As the branches are open,
+    this would not be equivalent to more than half an inch in
+    height of solid coral for the whole surface covered by
+    the madrepore; and, as they are also porous, to not over
+    three-eighths of an inch of solid limestone. But a coral
+    plantation has large bare patches without corals, and the
+    coral sands are widely distributed by currents, part of them
+    to depths over one hundred feet where there are no living
+    corals; not more than one-sixth of the surface of a reef
+    region is, in fact, covered with growing species. This reduces
+    the three-eighths to _one-sixteenth_. Shells and other organic
+    relics may contribute one-fourth as much as corals. At the
+    outside, the average upward increase of the whole reef-ground
+    per year would not exceed _one-eighth_ of an inch.
+
+    "Now some reefs are at least two thousand feet thick, which at
+    one-eighth of an inch a year, corresponds to one hundred and
+    ninety-two thousand years."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Dana, "Manual of Geology," p. 591.]
+
+Halve, or quarter, this estimate if you will, in order to be certain
+of erring upon the right side, and still there remains a prodigious
+period during which the ancestors of the existing coral polypes have
+been undisturbedly at work; and during which, therefore, the climatal
+conditions over the coral area must have been much what they are now.
+
+And all this lapse of time has occurred within the most recent period
+of the history of the earth. The remains of reefs formed by coral
+polypes of different kinds from those which exist now, enter largely
+into the composition of the limestones of the Jurassic period; and
+still more widely different coral polypes have contributed their quota
+to the vast thickness of the carboniferous and Devonian strata. Then
+as regards the latter group of rocks in America, the high authority
+already quoted tells us:--
+
+    "The Upper Helderberg period is eminently the coral reef
+    period of the palaeozoic ages. Many of the rocks abound in
+    coral, and are as truly coral reefs as the modern reefs of the
+    Pacific. The corals are sometimes standing on the rocks in the
+    position they had when growing: others are lying in fragments,
+    as they were broken and heaped by the waves; and others were
+    reduced to a compact limestone by the finer trituration before
+    consolidation into rock. This compact variety is the most
+    common kind among the coral reef rocks of the present seas;
+    and it often contains but few distinct fossils, although
+    formed in water that abounded in life. At the fall of the
+    Ohio, near Louisville, there is a magnificent display of
+    the old reef. Hemispherical _Favosites_, five or six feet
+    in diameter, lie there nearly as perfect as when they were
+    covered by their flower-like polypes; and besides these,
+    there are various branching corals, and a profusion of
+    _Cyathophiyllia_, or cup-corals."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Dana, "Manual of Geology," p. 272.]
+
+Thus, in all the great periods of the earth's history of which we
+know anything, a part of the then living matter has had the form of
+polypes, competent to separate from the water of the sea the carbonate
+of lime necessary for their own skeletons. Grain by grain, and
+particle by particle, they have built up vast masses of rock, the
+thickness of which is measured by hundreds of feet, and their area by
+thousands of square miles. The slow oscillations of the crust of the
+earth, producing great changes in the distribution of land and water,
+have often obliged the living matter of the coral-builders to shift
+the locality of its operations; and, by variation and adaptation to
+these modifications of condition, its forms have as often changed. The
+work it has done in the past is, for the most part, swept away, but
+fragments remain; and, if there were no other evidence, suffice to
+prove the general constancy of the operations of Nature in this world,
+through periods of almost inconceivable duration.
+
+
+
+
+VII.
+
+ON THE METHODS AND RESULTS OF ETHNOLOGY.
+
+
+Ethonology is the science which determines the distinctive characters
+of the persistent modifications of mankind; which ascertains the
+distribution of those modifications in present and past times, and
+seeks to discover the causes, or conditions of existence, both of
+the modifications and of their distribution. I say "persistent"
+modifications, because, unless incidentally, ethnology has nothing to
+do with chance and transitory peculiarities of human structure. And
+I speak of "persistent modifications" or "stocks" rather than of
+"varieties," or "races," or "species," because each of these last
+well-known terms implies, on the part of its employer, a preconceived
+opinion touching one of those problems, the solution of which is the
+ultimate object of the science; and in regard to which, therefore,
+ethnologists are especially bound to keep their minds open and their
+judgments freely balanced.
+
+Ethnology, as thus defined, is a branch of anthropology, the great
+science which unravels the complexities of human structure; traces out
+the relations of man to other animals; studies all that is especially
+human in the mode in which man's complex functions are performed; and
+searches after the conditions which have determined his presence in
+the world. And anthropology is a section of zoology, which again is
+the animal half of biology--the science of life and living things.
+
+Such is the position of ethnology, such are the objects of the
+ethnologist. The paths or methods, by following which he may hope to
+reach his goal, are diverse. He may work at man from the point of
+view of the pure zoologist, and investigate the anatomical and
+physiological peculiarities of Negroes, Australians, or Mongolians,
+just as he would inquire into those of pointers, terriers, and
+turnspits,--"persistent modifications" of man's almost universal
+companion. Or he may seek aid from researches into the most human
+manifestation of humanity--language; and assuming that what is true of
+speech is true of the speaker--a hypothesis as questionable in science
+as it is in ordinary life--he may apply to mankind themselves the
+conclusions drawn from a searching analysis of their words and
+grammatical forms.
+
+Or, the ethnologist may turn to the study of the practical life
+of men; and relying upon the inherent conservatism and small
+inventiveness of untutored mankind, he may hope to discover in manners
+and customs, or in weapons, dwellings, and other handiwork, a clue to
+the origin of the resemblances and differences of nations. Or, he may
+resort to that kind of evidence which is yielded by history proper,
+and consists of the beliefs of men concerning past events, embodied
+in traditional, or in written, testimony. Or, when that thread breaks,
+archaeology, which is the interpretation of the unrecorded remains of
+man's works, belonging to the epoch since the world has reached its
+present condition, may still guide him. And, when even the dim light
+of archaeology fades, there yet remains paleontology, which, in these
+latter years, has brought to daylight once more the exuvia of ancient
+populations, whose world was not our world, who have been buried in
+river beds immemorially dry, or carried by the rush of waters into
+caves, inaccessible to inundation since the dawn of tradition.
+
+Along each, or all, of these paths the ethnologist may press towards
+his goal; but they are not equally straight, or sure, or easy to
+tread. The way of palaeontology has but just been laid open to us.
+Archaeological and historical investigations are of great value for
+all those peoples whose ancient state has differed widely from their
+present condition, and who have the good or evil fortune to possess a
+history. But on taking a broad survey of the world, it is astonishing
+how few nations present either condition. Respecting five-sixths of
+the persistent modifications of mankind, history and archaeology are
+absolutely silent. For half the rest, they might as well be silent for
+anything that is to be made of their testimony. And, finally, when the
+question arises as to what was the condition of mankind more than a
+paltry two or three thousand years ago, history and archaeology are,
+for the most part, mere dumb dogs. What light does either of these
+branches of knowledge throw on the past of the man of the New World,
+if we except the Central Americans and the Peruvians; on that of the
+Africans, save those of the valley of the Nile and a fringe of the
+Mediterranean; on that of all the Polynesian, Australian, and central
+Asiatic peoples, the former of whom probably, and the last certainly,
+were, at the dawn of history, substantially what they are now? While
+thankfully accepting what history has to give him, therefore, the
+ethnologist must not look for too much from her.
+
+Is more to be expected from inquiries into the customs and handicrafts
+of men? It is to be feared not. In reasoning from identity of custom
+to identity of stock the difficulty always obtrudes itself, that
+the minds of men being everywhere similar, differing in quality and
+quantity but not in kind of faculty, like circumstances must tend to
+produce like contrivances; at any rate, so long as the need to be
+met and conquered is of a very simple kind. That two nations use
+calabashes or shells for drinking-vessels, or that they employ
+spears, or clubs, or swords and axes of stone and metal as weapons and
+implements, cannot be regarded as evidence that these two nations
+had a common origin, or even that intercommunication ever took place
+between them; seeing that the convenience of using calabashes or
+shells for such purposes, and the advantage of poking an enemy with a
+sharp stick, or hitting him with a heavy one, must be early forced
+by nature upon the mind of even the stupidest savage. And when he had
+found out the use of a stick, he would need no prompting to discover
+the value of a chipped or wetted stone, or an angular piece of native
+metal, for the same object. On the other hand, it may be doubted
+whether the chances are not greatly against independent peoples
+arriving at the manufacture of a boomerang, or of a bow; which last,
+if one comes to think of it, is a rather complicated apparatus; and
+the tracing of the distribution of inventions as complex as these,
+and of such strange customs as betel-chewing and tobacco-smoking, may
+afford valuable ethnological hints.
+
+Since the time of Leibnitz, and guided by such men as Humboldt, Abel
+Remusat, and Klaproth, Philology has taken far higher ground. Thus
+Prichard affirms that "the history of nations, termed Ethnology, must
+be mainly founded on the relations of their languages."
+
+An eminent living philologer, August Schleicher, in a recent essay,
+puts forward the claims of his science still more forcibly:--
+
+    "If, however, language is the human [Greek: kat ezochhên], the
+    suggestion arises whether it should not form the basis of
+    any scientific systematic arrangement of mankind; whether the
+    foundation of the natural classification of the genus Homo has
+    not been discovered in it.
+
+    "How little constant are cranial peculiarities and other
+    so-called race characters! Language, on the other hand,
+    is always a perfectly constant diagnostic. A German may
+    occasionally compete in hair and prognathism with a negro,
+    but a negro language will never be his mother tongue. Of how
+    little importance for mankind the so-called race characters
+    are, is shown by the fact that speakers of languages belonging
+    to one and the same linguistic family may exhibit the
+    peculiarities of various races. Thus the settled Osmanli Turk
+    exhibits Caucasian characters, while other so-called Tartaric
+    Turks exemplify the Mongol type. On the other hand, the
+    Magyar and the Basque do not depart in any essential physical
+    peculiarity from the Indo-Germans, whilst the Magyar, Basque,
+    and Indo-Germanic tongues are widely different. Apart from
+    their inconstancy, again, the so-called race characters can
+    hardly yield a scientifically natural system. Languages, on
+    the other hand, readily fall into a natural arrangement, like
+    that of which other vital products are susceptible, especially
+    when viewed from their morphological side.... The externally
+    visible structure of the cerebral and facial skeletons, and
+    of the body generally, is less important than that no less
+    material but infinitely more delicate corporeal structure, the
+    function of which is speech. I conceive, therefore, that
+    the natural classification of languages is also the natural
+    classification of mankind. With language, moreover, all the
+    higher manifestations of man's vital activity are closely
+    interwoven, so that these receive due recognition in and by
+    that of speech."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: August Schleicher. Ueber die Bedeutung der Sprache für
+die Naturgeschichte des Menschen, pp. 16-18. Weimar, 1858.]
+
+Without the least desire to depreciate the value of philology as
+an adjuvant to ethnology, I must venture to doubt, with Rudolphi,
+Desmoulins, Crawfurd, and others, its title to the leading position
+claimed for it by the writers whom I have just quoted. On the
+contrary, it seems to me obvious that, though, in the absence of any
+evidence to the contrary, unity of languages may afford a certain
+presumption in favour of the unity of stock of the peoples speaking
+those languages, it cannot be held to prove that unity of stock,
+unless philologers are prepared to demonstrate, that no nation can
+lose its language and acquire that of a distinct nation, without a
+change of blood corresponding with the change of language. Desmoulins
+long ago put this argument exceedingly well:--
+
+    "Let us imagine the recurrence of one of those slow, or
+    sudden, political revolutions, or say of those secular changes
+    which among different people and at different epochs have
+    annihilated historical monuments and even extinguished
+    tradition. In that case, the evidence, now so clear, that the
+    negroes of Hayti were slaves imported by a French colony, who,
+    by the very effect of the subordination involved in slavery,
+    lost their own diverse languages and adopted that of their
+    masters, would vanish. And metaphysical philosophers,
+    observing the identity of Haytian French with that spoken on
+    the shores of the Seine and the Loire, would argue that the
+    men of St. Domingo with woolly heads, black and oily skins,
+    small calves, and slightly bent knees, are of the same race,
+    descended from the same parental stock, as the Frenchmen with
+    silky brown, chestnut, or fair hair, and white skins. For they
+    would say, their languages are more similar than French is to
+    German or Spanish."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Desmoulins, "Histoire Naturelle des Races Humaines," p.
+345. 1826.]
+
+It must not be imagined that the case put by Desmoulins is a merely
+hypothetical one. Events precisely similar to the transport of a body
+of Africans to the West India Islands, indeed, cannot have happened
+among uncivilized races, but similar results have followed the
+importation of bodies of conquerors among an enslaved people over and
+over again. There is hardly a country in Europe in which two or more
+nations speaking widely different tongues have not become intermixed;
+and there is hardly a language of Europe of which we have any right
+to think that its structure affords a just indication of the amount of
+that intermixture.
+
+As Dr. Latham has well said:--
+
+    "It is certain that the language of England is of Anglo-Saxon
+    origin, and that the remains of the original Keltic are
+    unimportant. It is by no means so certain that the blood of
+    Englishmen is equally Germanic. A vast amount of Kelticism,
+    not found in our tongue, very probably exists in our
+    pedigrees. The ethnology of France is still more complicated.
+    Many writers make the Parisian a Roman on the strength of his
+    language; whilst others make him a Kelt on the strength of
+    certain moral characteristics, combined with the previous
+    Kelticism of the original Gauls. Spanish and Portuguese, as
+    languages, are derivations from the Latin; Spain and Portugal,
+    as countries, are Iberic, Latin, Gothic, and Arab, in
+    different proportions. Italian is modern Latin all the world
+    over; yet surely there must be much Keltic blood in Lombardy,
+    and much Etruscan intermixture in Tuscany.
+
+    "In the ninth century every man between the Elbe and the
+    Niemen spoke some Slavonic dialect; they now nearly all speak
+    German. Surely the blood is less exclusively Gothic than the
+    speech."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Latham, "Man and his Migrations," p. 171.]
+
+In other words, what philologer, if he had nothing but the vocabulary
+and grammar of the French and English languages to guide him, would
+dream of the real causes of the unlikeness of a Norman to a Provençal,
+of an Orcadian to a Cornishman? How readily might he be led to suppose
+that the different climatal conditions to which these speakers of
+one tongue have so long been exposed, have caused their physical
+differences; and how little would he suspect that these are due (as we
+happen to know they are) to wide differences of blood.
+
+Few take duly into account the evidence which exists as to the
+ease with which unlettered savages gain or lose a language. Captain
+Erskine, in his interesting "Journal of a Cruise among the Islands of
+the Western Pacific," especially remarks upon the "avidity with
+which the inhabitants of the polyglot islands of Melanesia, from New
+Caledonia to the Solomon Islands, adopt the improvements of a more
+perfect language than their own, which different causes and accidental
+communication still continue to bring to them;" and he adds that
+"among the Melanesian islands scarcely one was found by us which did
+not possess, in some cases still imperfectly, the decimal system of
+numeration in addition to their own, in which they reckon only to
+five."
+
+Yet how much philological reasoning in favour of the affinity
+or diversity of two distinct peoples has been based on the mere
+comparison of numerals!
+
+But the most instructive example of the fallacy which may attach to
+merely philological reasonings, is that afforded by the Feejeans, who
+are, physically, so intimately connected with the adjacent Negritos of
+New Caledonia, &c., that no one can doubt to what stock they belong,
+and who yet, in the form and substance of their language, are
+Polynesian. The case is as remarkable as if the Canary Islands should
+have been found to be inhabited by negroes speaking Arabic, or some
+other clearly Semitic dialect, as their mother tongue. As it happens,
+the physical peculiarities of the Feejeans are so striking, and
+the conditions under which they live are so similar to those of the
+Polynesians, that no one has ventured to suggest that they are merely
+modified Polynesians--a suggestion which could otherwise certainly
+have been made. But if languages may be thus transferred from one
+stock to another, without any corresponding intermixture of blood,
+what ethnological value has philology?--what security does unity of
+language afford us that the speakers of that language may not have
+sprung from two, or three, or a dozen, distinct sources?
+
+Thus we come, at last, to the purely zoological method, from which
+it is not unnatural to expect more than from any other, seeing that,
+after all, the problems of ethnology are simply those which are
+presented to the zoologist by every widely distributed animal he
+studies. The father of modern zoology seems to have had no doubt upon
+this point. At the twenty-eighth page of the standard twelfth edition
+of the "Systema Naturae," in fact, we find:--
+
+
+
+I. PRIMATES.
+
+
+_Dentes primores incisores: superiores IV. paralleli, mammae
+pectorales II._
+
+1. HOMO.        Nosce te ipsum.
+Sapiens.        1. H. diurnus: _varians cultura, loco._
+_Ferus_.   Tetrapus, mutus, hirsutus.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Americanus_ [Greek: a].  Rufus, cholericus, rectus--_Pilis_
+                               nigris, rectis, crassis--_Naribus_
+                               patulis--_Facie_ ephelitica:
+                               _Mento_ subimberbi.
+                               _Pertinax_, contentus, liber. _Pingit_
+                               se lineis daedaleis rubris.
+                               _Regitur_ Consuetudine.
+
+_Europaeus_ [Greek: b].   Albus sauguineus torosus. _Pilis_
+                               flavescentibus, prolixis.
+                               _Oculis_ caeruleis.
+                               _Levis_, argutus, inventor.
+                               _Tegitur_ Vestimentis arctis.
+                               _Regitur_ Ritibus.
+
+_Asiaticus_ [Greek: g].   Luridus, melancholicus, rigidus.
+                               _Pilis_ nigricantibus. _Oculis_
+                               fuscis.  _Severus_, fastuosus, avarus.
+                               _Tegitur_ Indumentis laxis.
+                               _Regitur_ Opinionibus.
+
+_Afer_ [Greek: d].        Niger, phlegmaticus, laxus. _Pilis_
+                               atris, contortuplicatis. _Cute_ holosericea.
+                               _Naso_ simo.  _Labiis_ tumidis.
+                               _Feminis_ sinus pudoris.
+                               _Mammae_ lactantes prolixae.
+                               _Vafer_, segnis, negligens. _Ungit_ se
+                               pingui. _Regitur_ Arbitrio.
+
+_Monstrosus_ [Greek: e].  Solo (a) et arte (b c) variat.:
+                            a. _Alpini_ parvi, agiles, timidi.
+                               _Patagonici_ magni, segnes.
+                            b. _Monorchides_ ut minus fertiles:
+                               Hottentotti.
+                               _Junceae_ puellae, abdomine attenuato:
+                               Europoeae.
+                            c. _Macrocephali_ capiti conico: Chinenses.
+                               _Plagiocephali_ capite antice compresso:
+                               Canadenses.
+
+Turn a few pages further on in the same volume, and there appears,
+with a fine impartiality in the distribution of capitals and
+sub-divisional headings:--
+
+III. FERAE.
+
+
+_Dentes primores superiores sex, acutiusculi. Canini solitarii._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+12. CANIS.           _Dentes primores_ superiores VI.: laterales
+                     longiores distantes: intermedii lobati.
+                     Inferiores VI.: laterales lobati.
+                     _Laniarii_ solitarii, incurvati.
+                     Molares VI. s. VII. (pluresve quam in reliquis).
+
+_familiaris_ [Greek: i].  C. cauda (sinistrorsum) recurvata....
+
+_domesticus_ [Greek: a].  auriculis erectis, cauda subtus lanata.
+
+_sagax_ [Greek: b].       auriculis pendulis, digito spurio ad
+                          tibias posticas.
+
+_grajus_ [Greek: g].      magnitudine lupi, trunco curvato, rostro
+                          attenuato, &c. &c.
+
+Linnaeus' definition of what he considers to be mere varieties of
+the species Man are, it will be observed, as completely free from
+any allusion to linguistic peculiarities as those brief and pregnant
+sentences in which he sketches the characters of the varieties of
+the species Dog. "Pilis nigris, naribus patulis" may be set against
+"auriculis erectis, cauda subtus lanata;" while the remarks on the
+morals and manners of the human subject seem as if they were thrown in
+merely by way of makeweight.
+
+Buffon, Blumenbach (the founder of ethnology as a special science),
+Rudolphi, Bory de St. Vincent, Desmoulins, Cuvier, Retzius, indeed I
+may say all the naturalists proper, have dealt with man from a no
+less completely zoological point of view; while, as might have been
+expected, those who have been least naturalists, and most linguists,
+have most neglected the zoological method, the neglect culminating in
+those who have been altogether devoid of acquaintance with anatomy.
+
+Prichard's proposition, that language is more persistent than physical
+characters, is one which has never been proved, and indeed admits of
+no proof, seeing that the records of language do not extend so far
+as those of physical characters. But, until the superior tenacity
+of linguistic over physical peculiarities is shown, and until the
+abundant evidence which exists, that the language of a people may
+change without corresponding physical change in that people, is shown
+to be valueless, it is plain that the zoological court of appeal
+is the highest for the ethnologist, and that no evidence can be set
+against that derived from physical characters.
+
+What, then, will a new survey of mankind from the Linnaean point of
+view teach us?
+
+The great antipodal block of land we call Australia has, speaking
+roughly, the form of a vast quadrangle, 2,000 miles on the side, and
+extends from the hottest tropical, to the middle of the temperate,
+zone. Setting aside the foreign colonists introduced within the
+last century, it is inhabited by people no less remarkable for the
+uniformity, than for the singularity, of their physical characters and
+social state. For the most part of fair stature, erect and well built,
+except for an unusual slenderness of the lower limbs, the AUSTRALIANS
+have dark, usually chocolate-coloured skins; fine dark wavy hair; dark
+eyes, overhung by beetle brows; coarse, projecting jaws; broad and
+dilated, but not especially flattened, noses; and lips which, though
+prominent, are eminently flexible.
+
+The skulls of these people are always long and narrow, with a smaller
+development of the frontal sinuses than usually corresponds with such
+largely developed brow ridges. An Australian skull of a round form,
+or one the transverse diameter of which exceeds eight-tenths of its
+length, has never been seen. These people, in a word, are eminently
+"dolichocephalic," or long-headed; but, with this one limitation,
+their crania present considerable variations, some being comparatively
+high and arched, while others are more remarkably depressed than
+almost any other human skulls.
+
+The female pelvis differs comparatively little from the European;
+but in the pelves of male Australians which I have examined, the
+antero-posterior and transverse diameters approach equality more
+nearly than is the case in Europeans.
+
+No Australian tribe has ever been known to cultivate the ground,
+to use metals, pottery, or any kind of textile fabric. They rarely
+construct huts. Their means of navigation are limited to rafts or
+canoes, made of sheets of bark. Clothing, except skin cloaks for
+protection from cold, is a superfluity with which they dispense; and
+though they have some singular weapons, almost peculiar to themselves,
+they are wholly unacquainted with bows and arrows.
+
+It is but a step, as it were, across Bass's Straits to Tasmania.
+Neither climate nor the characteristic forms of vegetable or animal
+life change largely on the south side of the Straits, but the early
+voyagers found Man singularly different from him on the north side.
+The skin of the Tasmanian was dark, though he lived between parallels
+of latitude corresponding with those of middle Europe in our own
+hemisphere; his jaws projected, his head was long and narrow; his
+civilization was about on a footing with that of the Australian, if
+not lower, for I cannot discover that the Tasmanian understood the
+use of the throwing-stick. But he differed from the Australian in his
+woolly, negro-like hair, whence the name of NEGRITO, which has been
+applied to him and his congeners.
+
+Such Negritos--differing more or less from the Tasmanian, but agreeing
+with him in dark skin and woolly hair--occupy New Caledonia, the New
+Hebrides, the Louisiade Archipelago; and stretching to the Papuan
+Islands, and for a doubtful extent beyond them to the north and
+west, form a sort of belt, or zone, of Negrito population, interposed
+between the Australians on the west and the inhabitants of the great
+majority of the Pacific islands on the east.
+
+The cranial characters of the Negritos vary considerably more than
+those of their skin and hair, the most notable circumstance being
+the strong Australian aspect which distinguishes many Negrito skulls,
+while others tend rather towards forms common in the Polynesian
+islands.
+
+In civilization, New Caledonia exhibits an advance upon Tasmania, and,
+farther north, there is a still greater improvement. But the bows
+and arrows, the perched houses, the outrigger canoes, the habits of
+betel-chewing and of kawa-drinking, which abound more or less among
+the northern Negritos, are probably to be regarded not as the products
+of an indigenous civilization, but merely as indications of the extent
+to which foreign influences have modified the primitive social state
+of these people.
+
+From Tasmania or New Caledonia, to New Zealand or Tongataboo, is again
+but a brief voyage; but it brings about a still more notable change
+in the aspect of the indigenous population than that effected by the
+passage of Bass's Straits. Instead of being chocolate-coloured people,
+the Maories and Tongans are light brown; instead of woolly, they have
+straight, or wavy, black hair. And if from New Zealand, we travel
+some 5,000 miles east to Easter Island; and from Easter Island, for as
+great a distance north-west, to the Sandwich Islands; and thence 7,000
+miles, westward and southward, to Sumatra; and even across the Indian
+Ocean, into the interior of Madagascar, we shall everywhere meet with
+people whose hair is straight or wavy, and whose skins exhibit various
+shades of brown. These are the Polynesians, Micronesians, Indonesians,
+whom Latham has grouped together under the common title of
+AMPHINESIANS.
+
+The cranial characters of these people, as of the Negritos, are less
+constant than those of their skin and hair. The Maori has a long
+skull; the Sandwich Islander a broad skull. Some, like these, have
+strong brow ridges; others, like the Dayaks and many Polynesians, have
+hardly any nasal indentation.
+
+It is only in the westernmost parts of their area that the Amphinesian
+nations know anything about bows and arrows as weapons, or are
+acquainted with the use of metals or with pottery. Everywhere they
+cultivate the ground, construct houses, and skilfully build and manage
+outrigger, or double, canoes; while, almost everywhere, they use some
+kind of fabric for clothing.
+
+Between Easter Island, or the Sandwich Islands, and any part of the
+American coast is a much wider interval than that between Tasmania and
+New Zealand, but the ethnological interval between the American and
+the Polynesian is less than that between either of the previously
+named stocks.
+
+The typical AMERICAN has straight black hair and dark eyes, his skin
+exhibiting various shades of reddish or yellowish brown, sometimes
+inclining to olive. The face is broad and scantily bearded; the skull
+wide and high. Such people extend from Patagonia to Mexico, and much
+farther north along the west coast. In the main a race of hunters,
+they had nevertheless, at the time of the discovery of the Americas,
+attained a remarkable degree of civilization in some localities. They
+had domesticated ruminants, and not only practised agriculture,
+but had learned the value of irrigation. They manufactured textile
+fabrics, were masters of the potter's art, and knew how to erect
+massive buildings of stone. They understood the working of the
+precious, though not of the useful, metals; and had even attained to a
+rude kind of hieroglyphic, or picture, writing.
+
+The Americans not only employ the bow and arrow, but, like some
+Amphinesians, the blow-pipe, as offensive weapons: but I am not aware
+that the outrigger canoe has ever been observed among them.
+
+I have reason to suspect that some of the Fuegian tribes differ
+cranially from the typical Americans; and the Northern and Eastern
+American tribes have longer skulls than their Southern compatriots.
+But the ESQUIMAUX, who roam on the desolate and ice-bound coasts of
+Arctic America, certainly present us with a new stock. The Esquimaux
+(among whom the Greenlanders are included), in fact, though they
+share the straight black hair of the proper Americans, are a duller
+complexioned, shorter, and more squat people, and they have still
+more prominent cheek-bones. But the circumstance which most completely
+separates them from the typical Americans, is the form of their
+skulls, which instead of being broad, high, and truncated behind, are
+eminently long, usually low, and prolonged backwards.
+
+These Hyperborean people clothe themselves in skins, know nothing of
+pottery, and hardly anything of metals. Dependent for existence upon
+the produce of the chase, the seal and the whale are to them what
+the cocoa-nut tree and the plantain are to the savages of more genial
+climates. Not only are those animals meat and raiment, but they are
+canoes, sledges, weapons, tools, windows, and fire; while they support
+the dog, who is the indispensable ally and beast of burden of the
+Esquimaux.
+
+It is admitted that the Tchuktchi, on the eastern side of Behring's
+Straits, are, in all essential respects, Esquimaux; and I do not know
+that there is any satisfactory evidence to show that the Tunguses and
+Samoiedes do not essentially share the physical characters of the same
+people. Southward, there are indications of Esquimaux characters among
+the Japanese, and it is possible that their influence may be traced
+yet further.
+
+However this may be, Eastern Asia, from Mantchouria to Siam, Thibet,
+and Northern Hindostan, is continuously inhabited by men, usually of
+short stature, with skins varying in colour from yellow to olive; with
+broad cheek-bones and faces that, owing to the insignificance of the
+nose, are exceedingly flat; and with small, obliquely-set, black eyes
+and straight black hair, which sometimes attains a very great length
+upon the scalp, but is always scanty upon the face and body. The
+skull is never much elongated, and is, generally, remarkably broad
+and rounded, with hardly any nasal depression, and but slight, if any,
+projection of the jaws.
+
+Many of these people, for whom the old name of MONGOLIANS may be
+retained, are nomades; others, as the Chinese, have attained a
+remarkable and apparently indigenous civilization, only surpassed by
+that of Europe.
+
+At the north-western extremity of Europe the Lapps repeat the
+characters of the Eastern Asiatics. Between these extreme points, the
+Mongolian stock is not continuous, but is represented by a chain of
+more or less isolated tribes, who pass under the name of Calmucks and
+Tartars, and form Mongolian islands, as it were, in the midst of an
+ocean of other people.
+
+The waves of this ocean are the nations for whom, in order
+to avoid the endless confusion produced by our present
+half-physical, half-philological classification, I shall use a new
+name--XANTHOCHROI--indicating that they are "yellow" haired and "pale"
+in complexion. The Chinese historians of the Han dynasty, writing
+in the third century before our era, describe, with much minuteness,
+certain numerous and powerful barbarians with "yellow hair, green
+eyes, and prominent noses," who, the black-haired, skew-eyed, and
+flat-nosed annalists remark in passing, are "just like the apes from
+whom they are descended." These people held, in force, the upper
+waters of the Yenisei, and thence under various names stretched
+southward to Thibet and Kashgar. Fair-haired and blue-eyed northern
+enemies were no less known to the ancient Hindoos, to the Persians,
+and to the Egyptians, on the south of the great central Asiatic area;
+while the testimony of all European antiquity is to the effect that,
+before and since the period in question, there lay beyond the Danube,
+the Rhine, and the Seine, a vast and dangerous yellow or red haired,
+fair-skinned, blue-eyed population. Whether the disturbers of the
+marches of the Roman Empire were called Gauls or Germans, Goths,
+Alans, or Scythians, one thing seems certain, that until the invasion
+of the Huns, they were tall, fair, blue-eyed men.
+
+If any one should think fit to assume that in the year 100 B.C.,
+there was one continuous Xanthochroic population from the Rhine to the
+Yenisei, and from the Ural mountains to the Hindoo Koosh, I know not
+that any evidence exists by which that position could be upset, while
+the existing state of things is rather in its favour than otherwise.
+For the Scandinavians, wholly, the Germans to a great extent, the
+Slavonian and the Finnish tribes, some of the inhabitants of Greece,
+many Turks, some Kirghis, and some Mantchous, the Ossetes in the
+Caucasus, the Siahposh, the Rohillas, are at the present day fair,
+yellow or red haired, and blue-eyed; and the interpolation of tribes
+of Mongolian hair and complexion, as far west as the Caspian Steppes
+and the Crimea, might justly be accounted for by those subsequent
+westward irruptions of the Mongolian stock, of which history furnishes
+abundant testimony.
+
+The furthermost limit of the Xanthochroi north-westward is Iceland
+and the British Isles; south-westward, they are traceable at intervals
+through the Berber country, and end in the Canary Islands.
+
+The cranial characters of the Xanthochroi are not, at present,
+strictly definable. The Scandinavians are certainly long-headed; but
+many Germans, the Swiss so far as they are Germanized, the Slavonians,
+the Fins, and the Turks, are short-headed. What were the cranial
+characters of the ancient "U-suns" and "Ting-lings" of the valley of
+the Yenisei is unknown.
+
+West of the area occupied by the chief mass of the Xanthochroi, and
+north of the Sahara, is a broad belt of land, shaped like a =Y=.
+Between the forks of the =Y= lies the Mediterranean; the stem of it
+is Arabia. The stem is bathed by the Indian Ocean, the western ends of
+the forks by the Atlantic. The people inhabiting the area thus roughly
+sketched have, like the Xanthochroi, prominent noses, pale skins and
+wavy hair, with abundant beards; but, unlike them, the hair is black
+or dark, and the eyes usually so. They may thence be called the
+MELANOCHROI. Such people are found in the British Islands, in Western
+and Southern Gaul, in Spain, in Italy south of the Po, in parts of
+Greece, in Syria and Arabia, stretching as far northward and eastward
+as the Caucasus and Persia. They are the chief inhabitants of Africa
+north of the Sahara, and, like the Xanthochroi, they end in the
+Canary Islands. They are known as Kelts, Iberians, Etruscans, Romans,
+Pelasgians, Berbers, Semites. The majority of them are long-headed,
+and of smaller stature than the Xanthochroi.
+
+It is needless to remark upon the civilization of these two great
+stocks. With them has originated everything that is highest in
+science, in art, in law, in politics, and in mechanical inventions.
+In their hands, at the present moment, lies the order of the social
+world, and to them its progress is committed.
+
+South of the Atlas, and of the Great Desert, Middle Africa exhibits
+a new type of humanity in the NEGRO, with his dark skin, woolly hair,
+projecting jaws, and thick lips. As a rule, the skull of the Negro
+is remarkably long; it rarely approaches the broad type, and never
+exhibits the roundness of the Mongolian. A cultivator of the ground,
+and dwelling in villages; a maker of pottery, and a worker in the
+useful as well as the ornamental metals; employing the bow and arrow
+as well as the spear, the typical negro stands high in point of
+civilization above the Australian.
+
+Resembling the Negroes in cranial characters, the BUSHMEN of South
+Africa differ from them in their yellowish brown skins, their tufted
+hair, their remarkably small stature, and their tendency to fatty and
+other integumentary outgrowths; nor is the wonderful click with which
+their speech is interspersed to be overlooked in enumerating the
+physical characteristics of this strange people.
+
+The so-called "Drawidian" populations of Southern Hindostan lead us
+back, physically as well as geographically, towards the Australians;
+while the diminutive MINCOPIES of the Andaman Islands lie midway
+between the Negro and Negrito races, and, as Mr. Busk has pointed
+out, occasionally present the rare combination of Brachycephaly, or
+short-headedness, with woolly hair.
+
+In the preceding progress along the outskirts of the habitable world,
+eleven readily distinguishable stocks, or persistent modifications, of
+mankind, have been recognized. I have purposely omitted such people as
+the Abyssinians and the Hindoos, who there is every reason to believe
+result from the intermixture of distinct stocks. Perhaps I ought, for
+like reasons, to have ignored the Mincopies. But I do not pretend that
+my enumeration is complete or, in any sense, perfect. It is enough for
+my purpose if it be admitted (and I think it cannot be denied) that
+those which I have mentioned exist, are well marked, and occupy the
+greater part of the habitable globe.
+
+In attempting to classify these persistent modifications after the
+manner of naturalists, the first circumstance that attracts one's
+attention is the broad contrast between the people with straight and
+wavy hair, and those with crisp, woolly, or tufted hair. Bory de
+St. Vincent, noting this fundamental distinction, divided mankind
+accordingly into the two primary groups of _Leiotrichi_ and
+_Ulotrichi_,--terms which are open to criticism, but which I adopt in
+the accompanying table, because they have been used. It is better for
+science to accept a faulty name which has the merit of existence, than
+to burthen it with a faultless newly invented one.
+
+Under each of these divisions are two columns, one for the
+Brachycephali, or short heads, and one for the Dolichocephali[1], or
+long heads. Again, each column is subdivided transversely into four
+compartments, one for the "leucous," people with fair complexions and
+yellow or red hair; one for the "leucomelanous," with dark hair and
+pale skins; one for the "xanthomelanous," with black hair and yellow,
+brown, or olive skins; and one for the "melanous," with black hair and
+dark brown or blackish skins.
+
+[Footnote 1: Skulls, the transverse diameter of which is more than
+eight-tenths the long diameter, are short; those which have the
+transverse diameter less than eight-tenths the longitudinal, are
+long.]
+
+             LEIOTRICHI.                       ULOTRICHI.
+   ______________________________     ____________________________
+  /                              \   /                            \
+    Dolichocephali. Brachycephali.   Dolichocephali. Brachycephali.
+Leucous.
+        .... Xanthochroi ....
+Leucomelanous.
+        .... Melanochroi ....
+Xanthomelanous.
+  _Esquimaux_.    Mongolians.   _Bushmen_.
+         _Amphinesians_.
+          _Americans_.
+Melanous.
+  _Australians_.                 Negroes.            _Mincopies_(?)
+                                   _Negritos_
+
+NOTE: _The names of the stocks known only since the fifteenth century
+are put into italics. If the "Skrälings" of the Norse discoverers of
+America were Esquimaux, Europeans became acquainted with the latter
+six or seven centuries earlier_.
+
+It is curious to observe that almost all the woolly-headed people are
+also long-headed; while among the straight-haired nations broad heads
+preponderate, and only two stocks, the Esquimaux and the Australians,
+are exclusively long-headed.
+
+One of the acutest and most original of ethnologists, Desmoulins,
+originated the idea, which has subsequently been fully developed by
+Agassiz, that the distribution of the persistent modifications of man
+is governed by the same laws as that of other animals, and that both
+fall into the same great distributional provinces. Thus, Australia;
+America, south of Mexico; the Arctic regions; Europe, Syria,
+Arabia, and North Africa, taken together, are each regions eminently
+characterized by the nature of their animal and vegetable populations,
+and each, as we have seen, has its peculiar and characteristic form of
+man. But it may be doubted whether the parallel thus drawn will hold
+good strictly, and in all cases. The Tasmanian Fauna and Flora are
+essentially Australian, and the like is true to a less extent of many,
+if not of all, the Papuan islands; but the Negritos who inhabit these
+islands are strikingly different from the Australians. Again, the
+differences between the Mongolians and the Xanthochroi are out of all
+proportion greater than those between the Faunae and Florae of Central
+and Eastern Asia. But whatever the difficulties in the way of the
+detailed application of this comparison of the distribution of men
+with that of animals, it is well worthy of being borne in mind, and
+carried as far as it will go.
+
+Apart from all speculation, a very curious fact regarding the
+distribution of the persistent modifications of mankind becomes
+apparent on inspecting an Ethnological chart, projected in such
+a manner that the Pacific Ocean occupies its centre. Such a chart
+exhibits an Australian area occupied by dark smooth-haired people,
+separated by an incomplete inner zone of dark woolly-haired
+Negritos and Negroes, from an outer zone of comparatively pale and
+smooth-haired men, occupying the Americas, and nearly all Asia and
+North Africa.
+
+Such is a brief sketch of the characters and distribution of the
+persistent modifications, or stocks, of mankind at the present day.
+If we seek for direct evidence of how long this state of things
+has lasted, we shall find little enough, and that little far from
+satisfactory. Of the eleven different stocks enumerated, seven have
+been known to us for less than 400 years; and of these seven not
+one possessed a fragment of written history at the time it came into
+contact with European civilization. The other four--the Negroes,
+Mongolians, Xanthochroi, and Melanochroi--have always existed in some
+of the localities in which they are now found, nor do the negroes ever
+seem to have voluntarily travelled beyond the limits of their present
+area. But ancient history is in a great measure the record of the
+mutual encroachments of the other three stocks.
+
+On the whole, however, it is wonderful how little change has been
+effected by these mutual invasions and intermixtures. As at the
+present time, so at the dawn of history, the Melanochroi fringed
+the Atlantic and the Mediterranean; the Xanthochroi occupied most
+of Central and Eastern Europe, and much of Western and Central Asia;
+while Mongolians held the extreme east of the Old World. So far as
+history teaches us, the populations of Europe, Asia, and Africa were,
+twenty centuries ago, just what they are now, in their broad features
+and general distribution.
+
+The evidence yielded by Archaeology is not very definite, but, so
+far as it goes, it is to much the same effect. The mound builders of
+Central America seem to have had the characteristic short and broad
+head of the modern inhabitants of that continent. The tumuli and tombs
+of Ancient Scandinavia, of pre-Roman Britain, of Gaul, of Switzerland,
+reveal two types of skull--a broad and a long--of which, in
+Scandinavia, the broad seems to have belonged to the older stock,
+while the reverse was probably the case in Britain, and certainly
+in Switzerland. It has been assumed that the broad-skulled people of
+ancient Scandinavia were Lapps; but there is no proof of the fact,
+and they may have been, like the broad-skulled Swiss and Germans,
+Xanthochroi. One of the greatest of ethnological difficulties is to
+know where the modern Swedes, Norsemen, and Saxons got their long
+heads, as all their neighbours, Fins, Lapps, Slavonians, and
+South Germans, are broad-headed. Again, who were the small-handed,
+long-headed people of the "bronze epoch," and what has become of the
+infusion of their blood among the Xanthochroi?
+
+At present Palaeontology yields no safe data to the ethnologist. We
+know absolutely nothing of the ethnological characters of the men of
+Abbeville and Hoxne; but must be content with the demonstration, in
+itself of immense value, that Man existed in Western Europe when its
+physical condition was widely different from what it is now, and
+when animals existed, which, though they belong to what is, properly
+speaking, the present order of things, have long been extinct. Beyond
+the limits of a fraction of Europe, Palaeontology tells us nothing of
+man or of his works.
+
+To sum up our knowledge of the ethnological past of man: so far as the
+light is bright, it shows him substantially as he is now; and, when it
+grows dim, it permits us to see no sign that he was other than he is
+now.
+
+It is a general belief that men of different stocks differ as much
+physiologically as they do morphologically; but it is very hard
+to prove, in any particular case, how much of a supposed national
+characteristic is due to inherent physiological peculiarities, and
+how much to the influence of circumstances. There is much evidence to
+show, however, that some stocks enjoy a partial or complete immunity
+from diseases which destroy, or decimate, others. Thus there seems
+good ground for the belief that Negroes are remarkably exempt from
+yellow fever; and that, among Europeans, the melanochrous people are
+less obnoxious to its ravages than the xanthochrous. But many writers,
+not content with physiological differences of this kind, undertake to
+prove the existence of others of far greater moment; and, indeed, to
+show that certain stocks of mankind exhibit, more or less distinctly,
+the physiological characters of true species. Unions between these
+stocks, and still more between the half-breeds arising from their
+mixture, are affirmed to be either infertile, or less fertile than
+those which take place between males and females of either stock under
+the same circumstances. Some go so far as to assert that no mixed
+breeds of mankind can maintain themselves without the assistance of
+one or other of the parent stocks, and that, consequently, they must
+inevitably be obliterated in the long run.
+
+Here, again, it is exceedingly difficult to obtain trustworthy
+evidence, and to free the effects of the pure physiological experiment
+from adventitious influences. The only trial which, by a strange
+chance, was kept clear of all such influences--the only instance in
+which two distinct stocks of mankind were crossed, and their progeny
+intermarried without any admixture from without--is the famous case
+of the Pitcairn Islanders, who were the progeny of Bligh's English
+sailors by Tahitian women. The results of this experiment, as
+everybody knows, are dead against those who maintain the doctrine of
+human hybridity, seeing that the Pitcairn Islanders, even though they
+necessarily contracted consanguineous marriages, throve and multiplied
+exceedingly.
+
+But those who are disposed to believe in this doctrine should study
+the evidence brought forward in its support by M. Broca, its latest
+and ablest advocate, and compare this evidence with that which the
+botanists, as represented by a Gaertner, or by a Darwin, think it
+indispensable to obtain before they will admit the infertility of
+crosses between two allied kinds of plants. They will then, I think,
+be satisfied that the doctrine in question rests upon a very unsafe
+foundation; that the facts adduced in its support are capable of many
+other interpretations; and, indeed, that from the very nature of
+the case, demonstrative evidence one way or the other is almost
+unattainable. _A priori_, I should be disposed to expect a certain
+amount of infertility between some of the extreme modifications of
+mankind; and still more between the offsprings of their intermixture.
+_A posteriori_, I cannot discover any satisfactory proof that such
+infertility exists.
+
+From the facts of ethnology I now turn to the theories and
+speculations of ethnologists, which have been devised to explain
+these facts, and to furnish satisfactory answers to the inquiry--what
+conditions have determined the existence of the persistent
+modifications of mankind, and have caused their distribution to be
+what it is?
+
+These speculations may be grouped under three heads: firstly, the
+Monogenist hypotheses; secondly, those of the Polygenists; and
+thirdly, that which would result from a simple application of
+Darwinian principles to mankind.
+
+According to the Monogenists, all mankind have sprung from a single
+pair, whose multitudinous progeny spread themselves over the world,
+such as it now is, and became modified into the forms we meet with in
+the various regions of the earth, by the effect of the climatal and
+other conditions to which they were subjected.
+
+The advocates of this hypothesis are divisible into several schools.
+There are those who represent the most numerous, respectable,
+and would-be orthodox of the public, and are what may be called
+"Adamites," pure and simple. They believe that Adam was made out of
+earth somewhere in Asia, about six thousand years ago; that Eve was
+modelled from one of his ribs; and that the progeny of these two
+having been reduced to the eight persons who were landed on the summit
+of Mount Ararat after an universal deluge, all the nations of the
+earth have proceeded from these last, have migrated to their present
+localities, and have become converted into Negroes, Australians,
+Mongolians, &c., within that time. Five-sixths of the public are
+taught this Adamitic Monogenism, as if it were an established truth,
+and believe it. I do not; and I am not acquainted with any man of
+science, or duly instructed person, who does.
+
+A second school of monogenists, not worthy of much attention, attempts
+to hold a place midway between the Adamites and a third division, who
+take up a purely scientific position, and require to be dealt with
+accordingly. This third division, in fact, numbers in its ranks
+Linnaeus, Buffon, Blumenbach, Cuvier, Prichard, and many distinguished
+living ethnologists.
+
+These "Rational Monogenists," or, at any rate, the more modern among
+them, hold, firstly, that the present condition of the earth has
+existed for untold ages; secondly, that, at a remote period, beyond
+the ken of Archbishop Usher, man was created, somewhere between the
+Caucasus and the Hindoo Koosh; thirdly, that he might have migrated
+thence to all parts of the inhabited world, seeing that none of them
+are unattainable from some other inhabited part, by men provided with
+only such means of transport as savages are known to possess and
+must have invented; fourthly, that the operation of the existing
+diversities of climate and other conditions upon people so migrating,
+is sufficient to account for all the diversities of mankind.
+
+Of the truth of the first of these propositions no competent judge now
+entertains any doubt. The second is more open to discussion, for in
+these latter days many question the special creation of man: and even
+if his special creation be granted, there is not a shadow of a reason
+why he should have been created in Asia rather than anywhere else.
+Of all the odd myths that have arisen in the scientific world, the
+"Caucasian mystery," invented quite innocently by Blumenbach, is the
+oddest. A Georgian woman's skull was the handsomest in his collection.
+Hence it became his model exemplar of human skulls, from which all
+others might be regarded as deviations; and out of this, by some
+strange intellectual hocus-pocus, grew up the notion that the
+Caucasian man is the prototypic "Adamic" man, and his country the
+primitive centre of our kind. Perhaps the most curious thing of all
+is, that the said Georgian skull, after all, is not a skull of average
+form, but distinctly belongs to the brachycephalic group.
+
+With the third proposition I am quite disposed to agree, though
+it must be recollected that it is one thing to allow that a given
+migration is possible, and another to admit there is good reason to
+believe it has really taken place.
+
+But I can find no sufficient ground for accepting the fourth
+proposition; and I doubt if it would ever have obtained its general
+currency except for the circumstance that fair Europeans are very
+readily tanned and embrowned by the sun. But I am not aware that there
+is a particle of proof that the cutaneous change thus effected can
+become hereditary, any more than that the enlarged livers, which
+plague our countrymen in India, can be transmitted;--while there is
+very strong evidence to the contrary. Not only, in fact, are there
+such cases as those of the English families in Barbadoes, who have
+remained for six generations unaltered in complexion, but which are
+open to the objection that they may have received infusions of
+fresh European blood; but there is the broad fact, that not a single
+indigenous Negro exists either in the great alluvial plains of
+tropical South America, or in the exposed islands of the Polynesian
+Archipelago, or among the populations of equatorial Borneo or Sumatra.
+No satisfactory explanation of these obvious difficulties has been
+offered by the advocates of the direct influence of conditions. And as
+for the more important modifications observed in the structure of the
+brain, and in the form of the skull, no one has ever pretended to show
+in what way they can be effected directly by climate.
+
+It is here, in fact, that the strength of the Polygenists, or those
+who maintain that men primitively arose, not from one, but from many
+stocks, lies. Show us, they say to the Monogenists, a single case in
+which the characters of a human stock have been essentially modified
+without its being demonstrable, or, at least, highly probable, that
+there has been intermixture of blood with some foreign stock. Bring
+forward any instance in which a part of the world, formerly inhabited
+by one stock, is now the dwelling-place of another, and we will prove
+the change to be the result of migration, or of intermixture, and not
+of modification of character by climatic influences. Finally, prove
+to us that the evidence in favour of the specific distinctness of many
+animals, admitted to be distinct species by all zoologists, is a whit
+better than that upon which we maintain the specific distinctness of
+men.
+
+If presenting unanswerable objections to your adversary were the same
+thing as proving your own case, the Polygenists would be in a fair way
+towards victory; but, unfortunately, as I have already observed, they
+have as yet completely failed to adduce satisfactory positive proof
+of the specific diversity of mankind. Like the Monogenists, the
+Polygenists are of several sects; some imagine that their assumed
+species of mankind were created where we find them--the African in
+Africa, and the Australian in Australia, along with the other animals
+of their distributional province; others conceive that each species of
+man has resulted from the modification of some antecedent species of
+ape--the American from the broad-nosed Simians of the New World, the
+African from the Troglodytic stock, the Mongolian from the Orangs.
+
+The first hypothesis is hardly likely to win much favour. The whole
+tendency of modern science is to thrust the origination of things
+further and further into the background; and the chief philosophical
+objection to Adam being, not his oneness, but the hypothesis of his
+special creation; the multiplication of that objection tenfold is,
+whatever it may look, an increase, instead of a diminution, of the
+difficulties of the case. And, as to the second alternative, it may
+safely be affirmed that, even if the differences between men are
+specific, they are so small, that the assumption of more than one
+primitive stock for all is altogether superfluous. Surely no one can
+now be found to assert that any two stocks of mankind differ as much
+as a chimpanzee and an orang do; still less that they are as unlike as
+either of these is to any New World Simian!
+
+Lastly, the granting of the Polygenist premises does not, in the
+slightest degree, necessitate the Polygenist conclusion. Admit that
+Negroes and Australians, Negritos and Mongols are distinct species,
+or distinct genera, if you will, and you may yet, with perfect
+consistency, be the strictest of Monogenists, and even believe in Adam
+and Eve as the primaeval parents of all mankind.
+
+It is to Mr. Darwin we owe this discovery: it is he who, coming
+forward in the guise of an eclectic philosopher, presents his doctrine
+as the key to ethnology, and as reconciling and combining all that is
+good in the Monogenistic and Polygenistic schools.
+
+It is true that Mr. Darwin has not, in so many words, applied his
+views to ethnology; but even he who "runs and reads" the "Origin of
+Species" can hardly fail to do so; and, furthermore, Mr. Wallace and
+M. Pouchet have recently treated of ethnological questions from this
+point of view. Let me, in conclusion, add my own contribution to the
+same store.
+
+I assume Man to have arisen in the manner which I have discussed
+elsewhere, and probably, though by no means necessarily, in one
+locality. Whether he arose singly, or a number of examples appeared
+contemporaneously, is also an open question for the believer in the
+production of species by the gradual modification of pre-existing
+ones. At what epoch of the world's history this took place, again, we
+have no evidence whatever. It may have been in the older tertiary,
+or earlier, but what is most important to remember is, that the
+discoveries of late years have proved that man inhabited Western
+Europe, at any rate, before the occurrence of those great physical
+changes which have given Europe its present aspect. And as the same
+evidence shows that man was the contemporary of animals which are now
+extinct, it is not too much to assume that his existence dates back
+at least as far as that of our present Fauna and Flora, or before the
+epoch of the drift.
+
+But if this be true, it is somewhat startling to reflect upon the
+prodigious changes which have taken place in the physical geography of
+this planet since man has been an occupant of it.
+
+During that period the greater part of the British islands, of Central
+Europe, of Northern Asia, have been submerged beneath the sea and
+raised up again. So has the great desert of Sahara, which occupies the
+major part of Northern Africa. The Caspian and the Aral seas have been
+one, and their united waters have probably communicated with both the
+Arctic and the Mediterranean oceans. The greater part of North America
+has been under water, and has emerged. It is highly probable that
+a large part of the Malayan Archipelago has sunk, and its primitive
+continuity with Asia has been destroyed. Over the great Polynesian
+area subsidence has taken place to the extent of many thousands of
+feet--subsidence of so vast a character, in fact, that if a continent
+like Asia had once occupied the area of the Pacific, the peaks of its
+mountains would now show not more numerous than the islands of the
+Polynesian Archipelago.
+
+What lands may have been thickly populated for untold ages, and
+subsequently have disappeared and left no sign above the waters, it
+is of course impossible for us to say; but unless we are to make the
+wholly unjustifiable assumption that no dry land rose elsewhere when
+our present dry land sank, there must be half-a-dozen Atlantises
+beneath the waves of the various oceans of the world. But if the
+regions which have undergone these slow and gradual, but immense
+alterations, were wholly or in part inhabited before the changes I
+have indicated began--and it is more probable that they were, than
+that they were not--what a wonderfully efficient "Emigration Board"
+must have been at work all over the world long before canoes, or even
+rafts, were invented; and before men were impelled to wander by any
+desire nobler or stronger than hunger. And as these rude and primitive
+families were thrust, in the course of long series of generations,
+from land to land, impelled by encroachments of sea or of marsh, or
+by severity of summer heat or winter cold, to change their positions,
+what opportunities must have been offered for the play of natural
+selection, in preserving one family variation and destroying another!
+
+Suppose, for example, that some families of a horde which had reached
+a land charged with the seeds of yellow fever, varied in the direction
+of woolliness of hair and darkness of skin. Then, if it be true that
+these physical characters are accompanied by comparative or absolute
+exemptions from that scourge, the inevitable tendency would be to the
+preservation and multiplication of the darker and woollier families,
+and the elimination of the whiter and smoother-haired. In fact, by the
+operation of causes precisely similar to those which, in the famous
+instance cited by Mr. Darwin, have given rise to a race of black pigs
+in the forests of Louisiana, a negro stock would eventually people the
+region.
+
+Again, how often, by such physical changes, must a stock have been
+isolated from all others for innumerable generations, and have found
+ample time for the hereditary hardening of its special peculiarities
+into the enduring characters of a persistent modification.
+
+Nor, if it be true that the physiological difference of species may be
+produced by variation and natural selection, as Mr. Darwin supposes,
+would it be at all astonishing if, in some of these separated stocks,
+the process of differentiation should have gone so far as to give
+rise to the phenomena of hybridity. In the face of the overwhelming
+evidence in favour of the unity of the origin of mankind afforded by
+anatomical considerations, satisfactory proof of the existence of any
+degree of sterility in the unions of members of two of the "persistent
+modifications" of mankind, might well be appealed to by Mr. Darwin
+as crucial evidence of the truth of his views regarding the origin of
+species in general.
+
+
+
+
+VIII.
+
+ON SOME FIXED POINTS IN BRITISH ETHNOLOGY.
+
+
+In view of the many discussions to which the complicated problems
+offered by the ethnology of the British Islands have given rise, it
+may be useful to attempt to pick out, from amidst the confused masses
+of assertion and of inference, those propositions which appear to rest
+upon a secure foundation, and to state the evidence by which they are
+supported. Such is the purpose of the present paper.
+
+Some of these well-based propositions relate to the physical
+characters of the people of Britain and their neighbours; while others
+concern the languages which they spoke. I shall deal, in the first
+place, with the physical questions.
+
+I. _Eighteen hundred years ago the population of Britain comprised
+people of two types of complexion--the one fair, and the other dark.
+The dark people resembled the Aquitani and the Iberians; the fair
+people were like the Belgic Gauls._
+
+The chief direct evidence of the truth of this proposition is the
+well-known passage of Tacitus:--
+
+    "Ceterum Britanniam qui mortales initio coluerint, indigenae
+    an advecti, ut inter barbaros, parum compertum. Habitus
+    corporum varii: atque ex eo argumenta: nam rutilae Caledoniam
+    habitantium comae, magni artus Germanicam originem asseverant.
+    Silurum colorati vultus et torti plerumque crines, et posita
+    contra Hispaniam, Iberos veteres trajecisse, easque sedes
+    occupasse, fidem faciunt. Proximi Gallis et similes sunt; seu
+    durante originis vi, seu procurrentibus in diversa terris,
+    positio coeli corporibus habitum dedit. In universum tamen
+    aestimanti, Gallos vicinum solum occupasse, credibile est;
+    eorum sacra deprehendas, superstitionum persuasione; sermo
+    haud multum diversus."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Taciti Agricola, c. 11.]
+
+This passage, it will be observed, contains statements as to facts,
+and certain conclusions deduced from these facts. The matters of fact
+asserted are: firstly, that the inhabitants of Britain exhibit much
+diversity in their physical characters; secondly, that the Caledonians
+are red-haired and large-limbed, like the Germans; thirdly, that
+the Silures have curly hair and dark complexions, like the people of
+Spain; fourthly, that the British people nearest Gaul resemble the
+"Galli."
+
+Tacitus, therefore, states positively what the Caledonians and Silures
+were like; but the interpretation of what he says about the other
+Britons must depend upon what we learn from other sources as to the
+characters of these "Galli." Here the testimony of "divus Julius"
+comes in with great force and appropriateness. Caesar writes:--
+
+    "Britanniae pars interior ab iis incolitur, quos natos in
+    insula ipsi memoria proditum dicunt: marituma pars ab iis,
+    qui predae ac belli inferendi causa ex Belgio transierant; qui
+    omnes fere iis nominibus civitatum appellantur quibus orti ex
+    civitatibus eo pervenerunt, et bello inlato ibi permanserunt
+    atque agros colere coeperunt."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: De Bello Gallico, v. 12.]
+
+From these passages it is obvious that in the opinion of Caesar
+and Tacitus, the southern Britons resembled the northern Gauls, and
+especially the Belgae; and the evidence of Strabo is decisive as to
+the characters in which the two people resembled one another: "The men
+(of Britain) are taller than the Kelts, with hair less yellow; they
+are slighter in their persons."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "The Geography of Strabo." Translated by Hamilton and
+Falconer; v. 5.]
+
+The evidence adduced appears to leave no reasonable ground for
+doubting that, at the time of the Roman conquest, Britain contained
+people of two types, the one dark and the other fair complexioned, and
+that there was a certain difference between the latter in the north
+and in the south of Britain: the northern folk being, in the judgment
+of Tacitus, or, more properly, according to the information he had
+received from Agricola and others, more similar to the Germans than
+the latter. As to the distribution of these stocks, all that is clear
+is, that the dark people were predominant in certain parts of the west
+of the southern half of Britain, while the fair stock appears to have
+furnished the chief elements of the population elsewhere.
+
+No ancient writer troubled himself with measuring skulls, and
+therefore there is no direct evidence as to the cranial characters
+of the fair and the dark stocks. The indirect evidence is not very
+satisfactory. The tumuli of Britain of pre-Roman date have yielded two
+extremely different forms of skull, the one broad and the other long;
+and the same variety has been observed in the skulls of the ancient
+Gauls[1]. The suggestion is obvious that the one form of skull may
+have been associated with the fair, and the other with the dark,
+complexion. But any conclusion of this kind is at once checked by the
+reflection that the extremes of long and short-headedness are to be
+met with among the fair inhabitants of Germany and of Scandinavia
+at the present day--the south-western Germans and the Swiss being
+markedly broad-headed, while the Scandinavians are as predominantly
+long-headed.
+
+[Footnote 1: See Dr. Thurnam "On the Two principal Forms of Ancient
+British and Gaulish Skulls."]
+
+What the natives of Ireland were like at the time of the Roman
+conquest of Britain, and for centuries afterwards, we have no certain
+knowledge; but the earliest trustworthy records prove the existence,
+side by side with one another, of a fair and a dark stock, in Ireland
+as in Britain. The long form of skull is predominant among the
+ancient, as among modern, Irish.
+
+II. _The people termed Gauls, and those called Germans, by the Romans,
+did not differ in any important physical character._
+
+The terms in which the ancient writers describe both Gauls and Germans
+are identical. They are always tall people, with massive limbs, fair
+skins, fierce blue eyes, and hair the colour of which ranges from
+red to yellow. Zeuss, the great authority on these matters, affirms
+broadly that no distinction in bodily feature is to be found between
+the Gauls, the Germans, and the Wends, so far as their characters are
+recorded by the old historians; and he proves his case by citations
+from a cloud of witnesses.
+
+An attempt has been made to show that the colour of the hair of the
+Gauls must have differed very much from that which obtained among the
+Germans, on the strength of the story told by Suetonius (Caligula, 4),
+that Caligula tried to pass off Gauls for Germans by picking out the
+tallest, and making them "rutilare et summittere comam."
+
+The Baron de Belloguet remarks upon this passage:--
+
+    "It was in the very north of Gaul, and near the sea, that
+    Caligula got up this military comedy. And the fact proves
+    that the Belgae were already sensibly different from their
+    ancestors, whom Strabo had found almost identical with their
+    _brothers_ on the other side of the Rhine."
+
+But the fact recorded by Suetonius, if fact it be, proves nothing;
+for the Germans themselves were in the habit of reddening their hair.
+Ammianus Marcellinus[1] tells how, in the year 367 A.D., the Roman
+commander, Jovinus, surprised a body of Alemanni near the town now
+called Charpeigne, in the valley of the Moselle; and how the Roman
+soldiers, as, concealed by the thick wood, they stole upon their
+unsuspecting enemies, saw that some were bathing and others "comas
+rutilantes ex more." More than two centuries earlier Pliny gives
+indirect evidence to the same effect when he says of soap:--
+
+[Footnote 1: Res Gestae, xxvii.]
+
+    "Galliarum hoc inventum rutilandis capillis ... apud Germanos
+    majore in usu viris quam foeminis."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Historia Naturalis, xxviii. 51.]
+
+Here we have a writer who flourished only a short time after the date
+of the Caligula story, telling us that the Gauls invented soap for the
+purpose of doing that which, according to Suetonius, Caligula forced
+them to do. And, further, the combined and independent testimony of
+Pliny and Ammianus assures us that the Germans were as much in the
+habit of reddening their hair as the Gauls. As to De Belloguet's
+supposition that, even in Caligula's time, the Gauls had become darker
+than their ancestors were, it is directly contradicted by Ammianus
+Marcellinus, who knew the Gauls well. "Celsioris staturae et candidi
+poene Galli sunt onions, et rutili, luminumque torvitate terribiles,"
+is his description; and it would fit the Gauls who sacked Rome.
+
+III. _In none of the invasions of Britain which have taken place since
+the Roman dominion, has any other type of man been introduced than one
+or other of the two which existed during that dominion_.
+
+
+
+The North Germans, who effected what is commonly called the Saxon
+conquest of Britain, were, most assuredly, a fair, yellow, or
+red-haired, blue eyed, long-skulled people. So were the Danes and the
+Norsemen who followed them; though it is very possible that the active
+slave trade which went on, and the intercourse with Ireland, may have
+introduced a certain admixture of the dark stock into both Denmark and
+Norway. The Norman conquest brought in new ethnological elements, the
+precise value of which cannot be estimated with exactness; but as to
+their quality, there can be no question, inasmuch as even the wide
+area from which William drew his followers could yield him nothing but
+the fair and the dark types of men, already present in Britain. But
+whether the Norman settlers, on the whole, strengthened the fair or
+the dark element, is a problem, the elements of the solution of which
+are not attainable.
+
+I am unable to discover any grounds for believing that a Lapp element
+has ever entered into the population of these islands. So far as the
+physical evidence goes, it is perfectly consistent with the hypothesis
+that the only constituent stocks of that population, now, or at any
+other period about which we have evidence, are the dark whites, whom
+I have proposed to call "_Melanochroi_" and the fair whites, or
+"_Xanthochroi._"
+
+IV. _The Xanthochroi and the Melanochroi of Britain are, speaking
+broadly, distributed, at present, as they were in the time of Tacitus;
+and their representatives on the continent of Europe have the same
+general distribution as at the earliest period of which we have any
+record._
+
+At the present day, and notwithstanding the extensive intermixture
+effected by the movements consequent on civilization and on political
+changes, there is a predominance of dark men in the west, and of fair
+men in the east and north, of Britain. At the present day, as from
+the earliest times, the predominant constituents of the riverain
+population of the North Sea and the eastern half of the British
+Channel, are fair men. The fair stock continues in force through
+Central Europe, until it is lost in Central Asia. Offshoots of this
+stock extend into Spain, Italy, and Northern India, and by way of
+Syria and North Africa, to the Canary Islands. They were known in
+very early times to the Chinese, and in still earlier to the ancient
+Egyptians, as frontier tribes. The Thracians were notorious for their
+fair hair and blue eyes many centuries before our era.
+
+On the other hand, the dark stock predominates in Southern and
+Western France, in Spain, along the Ligurian shore, and in Western and
+Southern Italy; in Greece, Asia, Syria, and North Africa; in Arabia,
+Persia, Afghanistan, and Hindostan, shading gradually, through all
+stages of darkening, into the type of the modern Egyptian, or of the
+wild Hill-man of the Dekkan. Nor is there any record of the existence
+of a different population in all these countries.
+
+The extreme north of Europe, and the northern part of Western Asia,
+are at present occupied by a Mongoloid stock, and, in the absence of
+evidence to the contrary, may be assumed to have been so peopled from
+a very remote epoch. But, as I have said, I can find no evidence that
+this stock ever took part in peopling Britain. Of the three great
+stocks of mankind which extend from the western coast of the
+great Eurasiatic continent to its southern and eastern shores, the
+Mongoloids occupy a vast triangle, the base of which is the whole of
+Eastern Asia, while its apex lies in Lapland. The Melanochroi, on the
+other hand, may be represented as a broad band stretching from Ireland
+to Hindostan; while the Xanthochroic area lies between the two, thins
+out, so to speak, at either end, and mingles, at its margins, with
+both its neighbours.
+
+Such is a brief and summary statement of what I believe to be the
+chief facts relating to the physical ethnology of the people of
+Britain. The conclusions which I draw from these and other facts are
+(1) That the Melanochroi and the Xanthochroi are two separate races in
+the biological sense of the word race; (2) That they have had the same
+general distribution as at present from the earliest times of which
+any record exists on the continent of Europe; (3) That the population
+of the British Islands is derived from them, and from them only.
+
+The people of Europe, however, owe their national names, not to
+their physical characteristics, but to their languages, or to their
+political relations; which, it is plain, need not have the slightest
+relation to these characteristics.
+
+Thus, it is quite certain that, in Caesar's time, Gaul was divided
+politically into three nationalities--the Belgae, the Celtae, and
+the Aquitani; and that the last were very widely different, both in
+language and in physical characteristics, from the two former. The
+Belgae and the Celtae, on the other hand, differed comparatively
+little either in physique or in language. On the former point there is
+the distinct testimony of Strabo; as to the latter, St. Jerome states
+that the "Galatians had almost the same language as the Treviri." Now,
+the Galatians were emigrant Volcae Tectosages, and therefore Celtae;
+while the Treviri were Belgae.
+
+At the present day, the physical characters of the people of
+Belgic Gaul remain distinct from those of the people of Aquitaine,
+notwithstanding the immense changes which have taken place since
+Caesar's time; but Belgae, Celtae, and Aquitani (all but a mere
+fraction of the last two, represented by the Basques and the Britons)
+are fused into one nationality, "le peuple Français." But they have
+adopted the language of one set of invaders, and the name of another;
+their original names and languages having almost disappeared.
+Suppose that the French language remained as the sole evidence of
+the existence of the population of Gaul, would the keenest philologer
+arrive at any other conclusion than that this population was
+essentially and fundamentally a "Latin" race, which had had some
+communication with Celts and Teutons? Would he so much as suspect the
+former existence of the Aquitani?
+
+Community of language testifies to close contact between the people
+who speak the language, but to nothing else; philology has absolutely
+nothing to do with ethnology, except so far as it suggests the
+existence or the absence of such contact. The contrary assumption,
+that language is a test of race, has introduced the utmost confusion
+into ethnological speculation, and has nowhere worked greater
+scientific and practical mischief than in the ethnology of the British
+Islands.
+
+What is known, for certain, about the languages spoken in these
+islands and their affinities may, I believe, be summed up as
+follows:--
+
+I. _At the time of the Roman conquest, one language, the Celtic, under
+two principal dialectical divisions, the Cymric and the Gaelic, was
+spoken throughout the British Islands. Cymric was spoken in Britain,
+Gaelic in Ireland._
+
+If a language allied to Basque had in earlier times been spoken in
+the British Islands, there is no evidence that any Euskarian-speaking
+people remained at the time of the Roman conquest. The dark and the
+fair population of Britain alike spoke Celtic tongues, and therefore
+the name "Celt" is as applicable to the one as to the other.
+
+What was spoken in Ireland can only be surmised by reasoning from the
+knowledge of later times; but there seems to be no doubt that it was
+Gaelic; and that the Gaelic dialect was introduced into the Western
+Highlands by Irish invaders.
+
+II. _The Belgae and the Celtae, with the offshoots of the latter in
+Asia Minor, spoke dialects of the Cymric division of Celtic_.
+
+The evidence of this proposition lies in the statement of St. Jerome
+before cited; in the similarity of the names of places in Belgic Gaul
+and in Britain; and in the direct comparison of sundry ancient Gaulish
+and Belgic words which have been preserved, with the existing Cymric
+dialects, for which I must refer to the learned work of Brandes.
+
+Formerly, as at the present day, the Cymric dialects of Celtic were
+spoken by both the fair and the dark stocks.
+
+III. _There is no record of Gaelic being spoken anywhere save in
+Ireland, Scotland, and the Isle of Man_.
+
+This appears to be the final result of the long discussions which have
+taken place on this much-debated question. As is the case with the
+Cymric dialects, Gaelic is now spoken by both dark and fair stocks.
+
+IV. _When the Teutonic languages first became known, they were spoken
+only Xanthochroi, that is to say, by the Germans, the Scandinavians,
+and Goths. And they were imported by Xanthochroi into Gaul and into
+Britain._
+
+In Gaul the imported Teutonic dialect has been completely overpowered
+by the more or less modified Latin, which it found already in
+possession; and what Teutonic blood there may be in modern Frenchmen
+is not adequately represented in their language. In Britain, on the
+contrary, the Teutonic dialects have overpowered the pre-existing
+forms of speech, and the people are vastly less "Teutonic" than
+their language. Whatever may have been the extent to which the
+Celtic-speaking population of the eastern half of Britain was trodden
+out and supplanted by the Teutonic-speaking Saxons and Danes, it is
+quite certain that no considerable displacement of the Celtic-speaking
+people occurred in Cornwall, Wales, or the Highlands of Scotland; and
+that nothing approaching to the extinction of that people took place
+in Devonshire, Somerset, or the western moiety of Britain generally.
+Nevertheless, the fundamentally Teutonic English language is now
+spoken throughout Britain, except by an insignificant fraction of the
+population in Wales and the Western Highlands. But it is obvious
+that this fact affords not the slightest justification for the common
+practice of speaking of the present inhabitants of Britain as an
+"Anglo-Saxon" people. It is, in fact, just as absurd as the habit of
+talking of the French people as a "Latin" race, because they speak a
+language which is, in the main, derived from Latin. And the absurdity
+becomes the more patent when those who have no hesitation in calling
+a Devonshire man, or a Cornish man, an "Anglo-Saxon," would think it
+ridiculous to call a Tipperary man by the same title, though he and
+his forefathers may have spoken English for as long a time as the
+Cornish man.
+
+Ireland, at the earliest period of which we have any knowledge,
+contained like Britain, a dark and a fair stock, which, there is every
+reason to believe, were identical with the dark and the fair stocks
+of Britain. When the Irish first became known they spoke a Gaelic
+dialect, and though, for many centuries, Scandinavians made continual
+incursions upon, and settlements among them, the Teutonic languages
+made no more way among the Irish than they did among the French. How
+much Scandinavian blood was introduced there is no evidence to show.
+But after the conquest of Ireland by Henry II., the English people,
+consisting in part of the descendants of Cymric speakers, and in part
+of the descendants of Teutonic speakers, made good their footing in
+the eastern half of the island, as the Saxons and Danes made good
+theirs in England; and did their best to complete the parallel by
+attempting the extirpation of the Gaelic-speaking Irish. And they
+succeeded to a considerable extent; a large part of Eastern Ireland is
+now peopled by men who are substantially English by descent, and the
+English language has spread over the land far beyond the limits of
+English blood.
+
+Ethnologically, the Irish people were originally, like the people of
+Britain, a mixture of Melanochroi and Xanthochroi. They resembled the
+Britons in speaking a Celtic tongue; but it was a Gaelic and not a
+Cymric form of the Celtic language. Ireland was untouched by the Roman
+conquest, nor do the Saxons seem to have had any influence upon
+her destinies, but the Danes and Norsemen poured in a contingent of
+Teutonism, which has been largely supplemented by English and Scotch
+efforts.
+
+What, then, is the value of the ethnological difference between the
+Englishman of the western half of England and the Irishman of the
+eastern half of Ireland? For what reason does the one deserve the
+name of a "Celt," and not the other? And further, if we turn to
+the inhabitants of the western half of Ireland, why should the term
+"Celts" be applied to them more than to the inhabitants of Cornwall?
+And if the name is applicable to the one as justly as to the other,
+why should not intelligence, perseverance, thrift, industry, sobriety,
+respect for law, be admitted to be Celtic virtues? And why should we
+not seek for the cause of their absence in something else than the
+idle pretext of "Celtic blood?"
+
+I have been unable to meet with any answers to these questions.
+
+V. _The Celtic and the Teutonic dialects are members of the same
+great Aryan family of languages; but there is evidence to show that a
+non-Aryan language was at one time spoken over a large extent of the
+area occupied by Melanochroi in Europe_.
+
+The non-Aryan language here referred to is the Euskarian, now spoken
+only by the Basques, but which seems in earlier times to have been
+the language of the Aquitanians and Spaniards, and may possibly have
+extended much further to the East. Whether it has any connection with
+the Ligurian and Oscan dialects are questions upon which, of course,
+I do not presume to offer any opinion. But it is important to remark
+that it is a language the area of which has gradually diminished
+without any corresponding extirpation of the people who primitively
+spoke it; so that the people of Spain and of Aquitaine at the present
+day must be largely "Euskarian" by descent in just the same sense as
+the Cornish men are "Celtic" by descent.
+
+Such seem to me to be the main facts respecting the ethnology of the
+British islands and of Western Europe, which may be said to be fairly
+established. The hypothesis by which I think (with De Belloguet and
+Thurnam) the facts may best be explained is this: In very remote times
+Western Europe and the British islands were inhabited by the dark
+stock, or the Melanochroi, alone, and these Melanochroi spoke dialects
+allied to the Euskarian. The Xanthochroi, spreading over the great
+Eurasiatic plains westward, and speaking Aryan dialects, gradually
+invaded the territories of the Melanochroi. The Xanthochroi, who
+thus came into contact with the Western Melanochroi, spoke a Celtic
+language; and that Celtic language, whether Cymric or Gaelic, spread
+over the Melanochroi far beyond the limits of intermixture of blood,
+supplanting Euskarian, just as English and French, have supplanted
+Celtic. Even as early as Caesar's time, I suppose that the Euskarian
+was everywhere, except in Spain and in Aquitaine, replaced by Celtic,
+and thus the Celtic speakers were no longer of one ethnological stock,
+but of two. Both in Western Europe and in England a third wave of
+language--in the one case Latin, in the other Teutonic--has spread
+over the same area. In Western Europe, it has left a fragment of the
+primary Euskarian in one corner of the country, and a fragment of the
+secondary Celtic in another. In the British islands, only outlying
+pools of the secondary linguistic wave remain in Wales, the Highlands,
+Ireland, and the Isle of Man. If this hypothesis is a sound one, it
+follows that the name of Celtic is not properly applicable to the
+Melanochroic or dark stock of Europe. They are merely, so to speak,
+secondary Celts. The primary and aboriginal Celtic-speaking people are
+Xanthochroi--the typical Gauls of the ancient writers, and the close
+allies by blood, customs, and language, of the Germans.
+
+
+
+
+IX.
+
+PALAEONTOLOGY AND THE DOCTRINE OF EVOLUTION.
+
+(THE ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS TO THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY, FOR 1870.)
+
+
+It is now eight years since, in the absence of the late Mr. Leonard
+Homer, who then presided over us, it fell to my lot, as one of the
+Secretaries of this Society, to draw up the customary Annual Address.
+I availed myself of the opportunity to endeavour to "take stock"
+of that portion of the science of biology which is commonly called
+"palaeontology," as it then existed; and, discussing one after another
+the doctrines held by palaeontologists, I put before you the results
+of my attempts to sift the well-established from the hypothetical or
+the doubtful. Permit me briefly to recall to your minds what those
+results were:--
+
+1. The living population of all parts of the earth's surface which
+have yet been examined has undergone a succession of changes which,
+upon the whole, have been of a slow and gradual character.
+
+2. When the fossil remains which are the evidences of these successive
+changes, as they have occurred in any two more or less distant parts
+of the surface of the earth, are compared, they exhibit a certain
+broad and general parallelism. In other words, certain forms of life
+in one locality occur in the same general order of succession as, or
+are _homotaxial_ with, similar forms in the other locality.
+
+3. Homotaxis is not to be held identical with synchronism without
+independent evidence. It is possible that similar, or even identical,
+faunae and florae in two different localities may be of extremely
+different ages, if the term "age" is used in its proper chronological
+sense. I stated that "geographical provinces, or zones, may have been
+as distinctly marked in the Palaeozoic epoch as at present; and those
+seemingly sudden appearances of new genera and species, which we
+ascribe to new creation, may be simple results of migration."
+
+4. The opinion that the oldest known fossils are the earliest forms of
+life has no solid foundation.
+
+5. If we confine ourselves to positively ascertained facts, the total
+amount of change in the forms of animal and vegetable life, since the
+existence of such forms is recorded, is small. When compared with the
+lapse of time since the first appearance of these forms, the amount
+of change is wonderfully small. Moreover, in each great group of the
+animal and vegetable kingdoms, there are certain forms which I termed
+PERSISTENT TYPES, which have remained, with but very little apparent
+change, from their first appearance to the present time.
+
+6. In answer to the question "What, then, does an impartial survey of
+the positively ascertained truths of palaeontology testify in relation
+to the common doctrines of progressive modification, which suppose
+that modification to have taken place by a necessary progress from
+more to less embryonic forms, from more to less generalized types,
+within, the limits of the period represented by the fossiliferous
+rocks?" I reply, "It negatives these doctrines; for it either shows us
+no evidence of such modification, or demonstrates such modification as
+has occurred to have been very slight; and, as to the nature of
+that modification, it yields no evidence whatsoever that the earlier
+members of any long-continued group were more generalized in structure
+than the later ones."
+
+I think that I cannot employ my last opportunity of addressing you,
+officially, more properly--I may say more dutifully--than in
+revising these old judgments with such help as further knowledge and
+reflection, and an extreme desire to get at the truth, may afford me.
+
+1. With respect to the first proposition, I may remark that
+whatever may be the case among the physical geologists, catastrophic
+palaeontologists are practically extinct. It is now no part of
+recognized geological doctrine that the species of one formation all
+died out and were replaced by a brand-new set in the next formation.
+On the contrary, it is generally, if not universally, agreed that
+the succession of life has been, the result of a slow and gradual
+replacement of species by species; and that all appearances of
+abruptness of change are due to breaks in the series of deposits, or
+other changes in physical conditions. The continuity of living forms
+has been unbroken from the earliest times to the present day.
+
+2, 3. The use of the word "homotaxis" instead of "synchronism" has
+not, so far as I know, found much favour in the eyes of geologists.
+I hope, therefore, that it is a love for scientific caution, and not
+mere personal affection for a bantling of my own, which leads me still
+to think that the change of phrase is of importance, and that the
+sooner it is made, the sooner shall we get rid of a number of pitfalls
+which beset the reasoner upon the facts and theories of geology.
+
+One of the latest pieces of foreign intelligence which has reached
+us is the information that the Austrian geologists have, at last,
+succumbed to the weighty evidence which M. Barrande has accumulated,
+and have admitted the doctrine of colonies. But the admission of the
+doctrine of colonies implies the further admission that even identity
+of organic remains is no proof of the synchronism of the deposits
+which contain them.
+
+4. The discussions touching the _Eozoon_, which commenced in 1864,
+have abundantly justified the fourth proposition. In 1862, the oldest
+record of life was in the Cambrian rocks; but if the _Eozoon_ be,
+as Principal Dawson and Dr. Carpenter have shown so much reason for
+believing, the remains of a living being, the discovery of its true
+nature carried life back to a period which, as Sir William Logan has
+observed, is as remote from that during which the Cambrian rocks were
+deposited, as the Cambrian epoch itself is from the tertiaries. In
+other words, the ascertained duration of life upon the globe was
+nearly doubled at a stroke.
+
+5. The significance of persistent types, and of the small amount of
+change which has taken place even in those forms which can be shown to
+have been modified, becomes greater and greater in my eyes, the longer
+I occupy myself with the biology of the past.
+
+Consider how long a time has elapsed since the Miocene epoch. Yet, at
+that time, there is reason to believe that every important group in
+every order of the _Mammalia_ was represented. Even the comparatively
+scanty Eocene fauna yields examples of the orders _Cheiroptera,
+Insectivora, Rodentia_, and _Perissodactyla_; of _Artiodactyla_
+under both the Ruminant and the Porcine modifications; of _Carnivora,
+Cetacea_, and _Marsupialia_.
+
+Or, if we go back to the older half of the Mesozoic epoch, how truly
+surprising it is to find every order of the _Reptilia_, except
+the _Ophidia_, represented; while some groups, such as the
+_Ornithoscelida_ and the _Pterosauria_, more specialized than any
+which now exist, abounded.
+
+There is one division of the _Amphibia_ which offers especially
+important evidence upon this point, inasmuch as it bridges over the
+gap between the Mesozoic and the Palaeozoic formations (often supposed
+to be of such prodigious magnitude), extending, as it does, from the
+bottom of the Carboniferous series to the top of the Trias, if not
+into the Lias. I refer to the Labyrinthodonts. As the address of 1862
+was passing through the press, I was able to mention, in a note, the
+discovery of a large Labyrinthodont, with well-ossified vertebrae, in
+the Edinburgh coal-field. Since that time eight or ten distinct genera
+of Labyrinthodonts have been discovered in the Carboniferous rocks
+of England, Scotland, and Ireland, not to mention the American forms
+described by Principal Dawson and Professor Cope. So that, at the
+present time, the Labyrinthodont Fauna of the Carboniferous rocks is
+more extensive and diversified than that of the Trias, while its chief
+types, so far as osteology enables us to judge, are quite as highly
+organized. Thus it is certain that a comparatively highly organized
+vertebrate type, such as that of the Labyrinthodonts, is capable
+of persisting, with no considerable change, through the period
+represented by the vast deposits which constitute the Carboniferous,
+the Permian, and the Triassic formations.
+
+The very remarkable results which have been brought to light by the
+sounding and dredging operations, which have been carried on with
+such remarkable success by the expeditions sent out by our own, the
+American, and the Swedish Governments, under the supervision of
+able naturalists, have a bearing in the same direction. These
+investigations have demonstrated the existence, at great depths in the
+ocean, of living animals in some cases identical with, in others very
+similar to, those which are found fossilized in the white chalk. The
+_Globigerinae_, Cyatholiths, Coccospheres, Discoliths in the one are
+absolutely identical with those in the other; there are identical, or
+closely analogous, species of Sponges, Echinoderms, and Brachiopods.
+Off the coast of Portugal, there now lives a species of _Beryx_,
+which, doubtless, leaves its bones and scales here and there in the
+Atlantic ooze, as its predecessor left its spoils in the mud of the
+sea of the Cretaceous epoch.
+
+Many years ago[1] I ventured to speak of the Atlantic mud as "modern
+chalk," and I know of no fact inconsistent with the view which
+Professor Wyville Thomson has advocated, that the modern chalk is not
+only the lineal descendant of the ancient chalk, but that it remains,
+so to speak, in the possession of the ancestral estate; and that from
+the Cretaceous period (if not much earlier) to the present day, the
+deep sea has covered a large part of what is now the area of the
+Atlantic. But if _Globigerinae_, and _Terebratula caput-serpentis_
+and _Beryx_, not to mention other forms of animals and of plants, thus
+bridge over the interval between the present and the Mesozoic periods,
+is it possible that the majority of other living things underwent a
+"sea-change into something new and strange" all at once?
+
+[Footnote 1: See an article in the _Saturday Review_, for 1858, on
+"Chalk, Ancient and Modern."]
+
+6. Thus far I have endeavoured to expand and to enforce by fresh
+arguments, but not to modify in any important respect, the ideas
+submitted to you on a former occasion. But when I come to the
+propositions touching progressive modification, it appears to me, with
+the help of the new light which has broken from various quarters, that
+there is much ground for softening the somewhat Brutus-like severity
+with which, in 1862, I dealt with a doctrine, for the truth of which I
+should have been glad enough to be able to find a good foundation.
+So far, indeed, as the _Invertebrata_, and the lower _Vertebrata_ are
+concerned, the facts and the conclusions which are to be drawn from
+them appear to me to remain what they were. For anything that, as yet,
+appears to the contrary, the earliest known Marsupials may have been
+as highly organized as their living congeners; the Permian lizards
+show no signs of inferiority to those of the present day; the
+Labyrinthodonts cannot be placed below the living Salamander and
+Triton; the Devonian Ganoids are closely related to _Polypterus_ and
+to _Lepidosiren_.
+
+But when we turn to the higher _Vertebrata_, the results of recent
+investigations, however we may sift and criticise them, seem to me to
+leave a clear balance in favour of the doctrine of the evolution
+of living forms one from another. Nevertheless, in discussing this
+question, it is very necessary to discriminate carefully between the
+different kinds of evidence from fossil remains which are brought
+forward in favour of evolution.
+
+Every fossil which takes an intermediate place between forms of
+life already known, may be said, so far as it is intermediate, to be
+evidence in favour of evolution, inasmuch as it shows a possible road
+by which evolution may have taken place. But the mere discovery of
+such a form does not, in itself, prove that evolution took place by
+and through it, nor does it constitute more than presumptive evidence
+in favour of evolution in general. Suppose A, B, C to be three
+forms, while B is intermediate in structure between A and C. Then the
+doctrine of evolution offers four possible alternatives. A may have
+become C by way of B; or C may have become A by way of B; or A and
+C may be independent modifications of B; or A, B, and C may be
+independent modifications of some unknown D. Take the case of the
+Pigs, the _Anoplotheridae_, and the Ruminants. The _Anoplotheridae_
+are intermediate between the first and the last; but this does not
+tell us whether the Ruminants have come from the Pigs, or the Pigs
+from Ruminants, or both from _Anoplotheridae_, or whether Pigs,
+Ruminants, and _Anoplotheridae_ alike may not have diverged from some
+common stock.
+
+But if it can be shown that A, B, and C exhibit successive stages in
+the degree of modification, or specialization, of the same type; and
+if, further, it can be proved that they occur in successively
+newer deposits. A being in the oldest and C in the newest, then the
+intermediate character of B has quite another importance, and I should
+accept it, without hesitation, as a link in the genealogy of C. I
+should consider the burden of proof to be thrown upon anyone who
+denied C to have been derived from A by way of B, or in some closely
+analogous fashion; for it is always probable that one may not hit upon
+the exact line of filiation, and, in dealing with fossils, may mistake
+uncles and nephews for fathers and sons.
+
+I think it necessary to distinguish between the former and the latter
+classes of intermediate forms, as _intercalary types_ and _linear
+types_. When I apply the former term, I merely mean to say that as
+a matter of fact, the form B, so named, is intermediate between the
+others, in the sense in which the _Anoplotherium_ is intermediate
+between the Pigs and the Ruminants--without either affirming, or
+denying, any direct genetic relation between the three forms involved.
+When I apply the latter term, on the other hand, I mean to express the
+opinion that the forms A, B, and C constitute a line of descent, and
+that B is thus part of the lineage of C.
+
+From the time when Cuvier's wonderful researches upon the extinct
+Mammals of the Paris gypsum first made intercalary types known, and
+caused them to be recognized as such, the number of such forms has
+steadily increased among the higher _Mammalia_. Not only do we now
+know numerous intercalary forms of _Ungulata_, but M. Gaudry's great
+monograph upon the fossils of Pikermi (which strikes me as one of the
+most perfect pieces of palaeontological work I have seen for a long
+time) shows us, among the _Primates, Mesopithecus_ as an intercalary
+form between the _Semnopitheci_ and the _Macaci_; and among the
+_Carnivora, Hyaenictis_ and _Ictitherium_ as intercalary, or, perhaps,
+linear types between the _Viverridae_ and the _Hyaenidae_.
+
+Hardly any order of the higher _Mammalia_ stands so apparently
+separate and isolated from the rest as that of the _Cetacea_; though
+a careful consideration of the structure of the pinnipede _Carnivora_,
+or Seals, shows, in them, many an approximation towards the still more
+completely marine mammals. The extinct _Zeuglodon_, however, presents
+us with an intercalary form between the type of the Seals and that of
+the Whales. The skull of this great Eocene sea-monster, in fact, shows
+by the narrow and prolonged interorbital region; the extensive union
+of the parietal bones in a sagittal suture; the well-developed nasal
+bones; the distinct and large incisors implanted in premaxillary
+bones, which take a full share in bounding the fore part of the gape;
+the two-fanged molar teeth with triangular and serrated crowns,
+not exceeding five on each side in each jaw; and the existence of a
+deciduous dentition--its close relation with the Seals. While, on
+the other hand, the produced rostral form of the snout, the
+long symphysis, and the low coronary process of the mandible are
+approximations to the cetacean form of those parts.
+
+The scapula resembles that of the cetacean _Hyperoodon_, but the
+supra-spinous fossa is larger and more seal-like; as is the humerus,
+which differs from that of the _Cetacea_ in presenting true articular
+surfaces for the free jointing of the bones of the fore-arm. In the
+apparently complete absence of hinder limbs, and in the characters of
+the vertebral column, the _Zeuglodon_ lies on the cetacean side of the
+boundary line; so that, upon the whole, the Zeuglodonts, transitional
+as they are, are conveniently retained in the cetacean order. And the
+publication, in 1864, of M. Van Beneden's memoir on the Miocene and
+Pliocene _Squalodon_, furnished much better means than anatomists
+previously possessed of fitting in another link of the chain which
+connects the existing _Cetacea_ with _Zeuglodon_. The teeth are much
+more numerous, although the molars exhibit the zeuglodont double fang;
+the nasal bones are very short, and the upper surface of the rostrum
+presents the groove, filled up during life by the prolongation of the
+ethmoidal cartilage, which is so characteristic of the majority of the
+_Cetacea_.
+
+It appears to me that, just as among the existing _Carnivora_,
+the walruses and the eared seals are intercalary forms between the
+fissipede Carnivora and the ordinary seals, so the Zeuglodonts are
+intercalary between the _Carnivora_, as a whole, and the _Cetacea_.
+Whether the Zeuglodonts are also linear types in their relation to
+these two groups cannot be ascertained, until we have more definite
+knowledge than we possess at present, respecting the relations in time
+of the _Carnivora_ and _Cetacea_.
+
+Thus far we have been concerned with the intercalary types which
+occupy the intervals between Families or Orders of the same class; but
+the investigations which have been carried on by Professor Gegenbaur,
+Professor Cope, and myself into the structure and relations of the
+extinct reptilian forms of the _Ornithoscelida_ (or _Dinosauria_ and
+_Compsognatha_) have brought to light the existence of intercalary
+forms between what have hitherto been always regarded as very distinct
+classes of the vertebrate sub-kingdom, namely _Reptilia_ and _Aves_.
+Whatever inferences may, or may not, be drawn from the fact, it is now
+an established truth that, in many of these _Ornithoscelida_, the hind
+limbs and the pelvis are much more similar to those of Birds than
+they are to those of Reptiles, and that these Bird-reptiles, or
+Reptile-birds, were more or less completely bipedal.
+
+When I addressed you in 1862, I should have been bold indeed had I
+suggested that palaeontology would before long show us the possibility
+of a direct transition from the type of the lizard to that of the
+ostrich. At the present moment we have, in the _Ornithoscelida_, the
+intercalary type, which proves that transition to be something more
+than a possibility; but it is very doubtful whether any of the genera
+of _Ornithoscelida_ with which we are at present acquainted are the
+actual linear types by which the transition from the lizard to the
+bird was effected. These, very probably, are still hidden from us in
+the older formations.
+
+Let us now endeavour to find some cases of true linear types, or forms
+which are intermediate between others because they stand in a direct
+genetic relation to them. It is no easy matter to find clear and
+unmistakable evidence of filiation among fossil animals; for, in order
+that such evidence should be quite satisfactory, it is necessary that
+we should be acquainted with all the most important features of the
+organization of the animals which are supposed to be thus related, and
+not merely with the fragments upon which the genera and species of the
+palaeontologist are so often based. M. Gaudry has arranged the species
+of _Hyaenidae, Proboscidea, Rhinocerotidae_, and _Equidae_ in their
+order of filiation from their earliest appearance in the Miocene epoch
+to the present time, and Professor Rütimeyer has drawn up similar
+schemes for the Oxen and other _Ungulata_--with what, I am disposed
+to think, is a fair and probable approximation to the order of nature.
+But, as no one is better aware than these two learned, acute, and
+philosophical biologists, all such arrangements must be regarded as
+provisional, except in those cases in which, by a fortunate accident,
+large series of remains are obtainable from a thick and wide-spread
+series of deposits. It is easy to accumulate probabilities--hard
+to make out some particular case in such a way that it will stand
+rigorous criticism.
+
+After much search, however, I think that such a case is to be made out
+in favour of the pedigree of the Horses.
+
+The genus _Equus_ is represented as far back as the latter part of the
+Miocene epoch; but in deposits belonging to the middle of that
+epoch its place is taken by two other genera, _Hipparion_ and
+_Anchitherium_[1]; and, in the lowest Miocene and upper Eocene, only
+the last genus occurs. A species of _Anchitherium_ was referred by
+Cuvier to the _Palaeotheria_ under the name of _P. aurelianense_. The
+grinding-teeth are in fact very similar in shape and in pattern, and
+in the absence of any thick layer of cement, to those of some species
+of _Palaeotherium_, especially Cuvier's _Palaeotherium minus_, which
+has been formed into a separate genus, _Plagiolophus_, by Pomel. But
+in the fact that there are only six full-sized grinders in the lower
+jaw, the first premolar being very small; that the anterior grinders
+are as large as, or rather larger than, the posterior ones; that the
+second premolar has an anterior prolongation; and that the posterior
+molar of the lower jaw has, as Cuvier pointed out, a posterior lobe of
+much smaller size and different form, the dentition of _Anchitherium_
+departs from the type of the _Palaeotherium_, and approaches that of
+the Horse.
+
+[Footnote 1: Hermann von Meyer gave the name of _Anchitherium_ to _A.
+Ezguerrae_; and in his paper on the subject he takes great pains
+to distinguish the latter as the type of a new genus, from Cuvier's
+_Palaeotherium d'Orléans._ But it is precisely the _Palaeotherium
+d'Orléans_ which is the type of Christol's genus _Hipparitherium_; and
+thus, though _Hipparitherium_ is of later date than _Anchitherium_,
+it seemed to me to have a sort of equitable right to recognition
+when this address was written. On the whole, however, it seems most
+convenient to adopt _Anchitherium_.]
+
+Again, the skeleton of _Anchitherium_ is extremely equine. M. Christol
+goes so far as to say that the description of the bones of the
+horse, or the ass, current in veterinary works, would fit those of
+_Anchitherium._ And, in a general way, this may be true enough; but
+there are some most important differences, which, indeed, are justly
+indicated by the same careful observer. Thus the ulna is complete
+throughout, and its shaft is not a mere rudiment, fused into one bone
+with the radius. There are three toes, one large in the middle and one
+small on each side. The femur is quite like that of a horse, and has
+the characteristic fossa above the external condyle. In the British
+Museum there is a most instructive specimen of the leg-bones, showing
+that the fibula was represented by the external malleolus and by a
+flat tongue of bone, which extends up from it on the outer side of the
+tibia, and is closely ankylosed with the latter bone.[1] The hind toes
+are three, like those of the fore leg; and the middle metatarsal bone
+is much less compressed from side to side than that of the horse.
+
+[Footnote 1: I am indebted to M. Gervais for a specimen which
+indicates that the fibula was complete, at any rate, in some cases;
+and for a very interesting ramus of a mandible, which shows that, as
+in the _Palaeotheria_, the hindermost milk-molar of the lower jaw
+was devoid of the posterior lobe which exists in the hindermost true
+molar.]
+
+In the _Hipparion_ the teeth nearly resemble those of the Horses,
+though the crowns of the grinders are not so long; like those of the
+Horses, they are abundantly coated with cement. The shaft of the
+ulna is reduced to a mere style ankylosed throughout nearly its whole
+length with the radius, and appearing to be little more than a ridge
+on the surface of the latter bone until it is carefully examined. The
+front toes are still three, but the outer ones are more slender than
+in _Anchitherium_, and their hoofs smaller in proportion to that of
+the middle toe: they are, in fact, reduced to mere dew-claws, and do
+not touch the ground. In the leg, the distal end of the fibula is so
+completely united with the tibia that it appears to be a mere process
+of the latter bone, as in the Horses.
+
+In _Equus_, finally, the crowns of the grinding-teeth become longer,
+and their patterns are slightly modified; the middle of the shaft of
+the ulna usually vanishes, and its proximal and distal ends ankylose
+with the radius. The phalanges of the two outer toes in each foot
+disappear, their metacarpal and metatarsal bones being left as the
+"splints."
+
+The _Hipparion_ has large depressions on the face in front of the
+orbits, like those for the "larmiers" of many ruminants; but traces
+of these are to be seen in some of the fossil horses from the Sewalik
+Hills; and, as Leidy's recent researches show, they are preserved in
+_Anchitherium_.
+
+When we consider these facts, and the further circumstance that
+the Hipparions, the remains of which have been collected in immense
+numbers, were subject, as M. Gaudry and others have pointed out, to
+a great range of variation, it appears to me impossible to resist the
+conclusion that the types of the _Anchitherium_, of the _Hipparion_,
+and of the ancient Horses constitute the lineage of the modern Horses,
+the _Hipparion_ being the intermediate stage between the other two,
+and answering; to B in my former illustration.
+
+The process by which the _Anchitherium_ has been converted into
+_Equus_ is one of specialization, or of more and more complete
+deviation from what might be called the average form of an ungulate
+mammal. In the Horses, the reduction of some parts of the limbs,
+together with the special modification of those which are left, is
+carried to a greater extent than in any other hoofed mammals. The
+reduction is less and the specialization is less in the _Hipparion_,
+and still less in the _Anchitherium_; but yet, as compared with
+other mammals, the reduction and specialization of parts in the
+_Anchitherium_ remain great.
+
+Is it not probable then, that, just as in the Miocene epoch, we find
+an ancestral equine form less modified than _Equus_, so, if we go
+back to the Eocene epoch, we shall find some quadruped related to the
+_Anchitherium_, as _Hipparion_ is related to _Equus_, and consequently
+departing less from the average form?
+
+I think that this desideratum is very nearly, if not quite, supplied
+by _Plagiolophus_, remains of which occur abundantly in some parts
+of the Upper and Middle Eocene formations. The patterns of
+the grinding-teeth of _Plagiolophus_ are similar to those of
+_Anchitherium_, and their crowns are as thinly covered with cement;
+but the grinders diminish in size forwards, and the last lower molar
+has a large hind lobe, convex outwards and concave inwards, as in
+_Palceotherium_. The ulna is complete and much larger than in any
+of the _Equidae_, while it is more slender than in most of the true
+_Palaeotheria_; it is fixedly united, but not ankylosed, with the
+radius. There are three toes in the fore limb, the outer ones being
+slender, but less attenuated than in the _Equidae_. The femur is more
+like that of the _Palaeotheria_ than that of the horse, and has only
+a small depression above its outer condyle in the place of the great
+fossa which is so obvious in the _Equidae_. The fibula is distinct,
+but very slender, and its distal end is ankylosed with the tibia.
+There are three toes on the hind foot having similar proportions to
+those on the fore foot. The principal metacarpal and metatarsal bones
+are flatter than they are in any of the _Equidae_; and the metacarpal
+bones are longer than the metatarsals, as in the _Palaeotheria_.
+
+In its general form, _Plagiolophus_ resembles a very small and slender
+horse[1], and is totally unlike the reluctant, pig-like creature
+depicted in Cuvier's restoration of his _Palaeotherium minus_ in the
+"Os semens Fossils."
+
+[Footnote 1: Such, at least, is the conclusion suggested by the
+proportions of the skeleton figured by Cuvier and De Blainville; but
+perhaps something between a Horse and an Agouti would be nearest the
+mark.]
+
+It would be hazardous to say that _Plagiolophus_ is the exact radical
+form of the Equine quadrupeds; but I do not think there can be any
+reasonable doubt that the latter animals have resulted from the
+modification of some quadruped similar to _Plagiolophus_.
+
+We have thus arrived at the Middle Eocene formation, and yet
+have traced back the Horses only to a three-toed stock; but these
+three-toed forms, no less than the Equine quadrupeds themselves,
+present rudiments of the two other toes which appertain to what I
+have termed the "average" quadruped. If the expectation raised by
+the splints of the Horses that, in some ancestor of the Horses, these
+splints would be found to be complete digits, has been verified,
+we are furnished with very strong reasons for looking for a no
+less complete verification of the expectation that the three-toed.
+_Plagiolophus_-like "avus" of the horse must have had a five-toed
+"atavus" at some earlier period.
+
+No such five-toed "atavus," however, has yet made its appearance among
+the few middle and older Eocene _Mammalia_ which are known.
+
+Another series of closely affiliated forms, though the evidence they
+afford is perhaps less complete than that of the Equine series,
+is presented to us by the _Dichobune_ of the Eocene epoch, the
+_Cainotherium_ of the Miocene, and the _Tragulidae_, or so-called
+"Musk-deer," of the present day.
+
+The _Tragulidae_ have no incisors in the upper jaw, and only six
+grinding-teeth on each side of each jaw; while the canine is moved up
+to the outer incisor, and there is a diastema, in the lower jaw. There
+are four complete toes on the hind foot, but the middle metatarsals
+usually become, sooner or later, ankylosed into a cannon bone. The
+navicular and the cuboid unite, and the distal end of the fibula is
+ankylosed with the tibia.
+
+In _Cainotherium_ and _Dichobune_ the upper incisors are fully
+developed. There are seven grinders; the teeth form a continuous
+series without a diastema. The metatarsals, the navicular and cuboid,
+and the distal end of the fibula, remain free. In the _Cainotherium_,
+also, the second metacarpal is developed, but is much shorter than the
+third, while the fifth is absent or rudimentary. In this respect it
+resembles _Anoplotherium secundarium_. This circumstance, and the
+peculiar pattern of the upper molars in _Cainotherium_, lead me
+to hesitate in considering it as the actual ancestor of the modern
+_Tragulidae_. If _Dichobune_ has a four-toed fore foot (though I am
+inclined to suspect that it resembles _Cainotherium_), it will be a
+better representative of the oldest forms of the Traguline series; but
+_Dichobune_ occurs in the Middle-Eocene, and is, in fact, the oldest
+known artiodactyle mammal. Where, then, must we look for its five-toed
+ancestor?
+
+If we follow down other lines of recent and tertiary _Ungulata_, the
+same question presents itself. The Pigs are traceable back through
+the Miocene epoch to the Upper Eocene, where they appear in the
+two well-marked forms of _Hyopotamus_ and _Chaeropotamus_; but
+_Hyopotamus_ appears to have had only two toes.
+
+Again, all the great groups of the Ruminants, the _Bovidae,
+Antilopidae, Camelopardalidae_, and _Cervidae_, are represented in
+the Miocene epoch, and so are the Camels. The Upper Eocene
+_Anoplotherium_, which is intercalary between the Pigs and the
+_Tragulidae_, has only two or, at most, three toes. Among the scanty
+mammals of the Lower Eocene formation we have the perissodactyle
+_Ungulata_ represented by _Coryphodon, Hyra-cotherium_, and
+_Pliolophus_. Suppose for a moment, for the sake of following out
+the argument, that _Pliolophus_ represents the primary stock of the
+Perissodactyles, and _Dichobune_ that of the Artiodactyles (though
+I am far from saying that such is the case), then we find, in the
+earliest fauna of the Eocene epoch to which our investigations carry
+us, the two divisions of the _Ungulata_ completely differentiated, and
+no trace of any common stock of both, or of five-toed predecessors to
+either. With the case of the Horses before us, justifying a belief in
+the production of new animal forms by modification of old ones, I see
+no escape from the necessity of seeking for these ancestors of the
+_Ungulata_ beyond the limits of the Tertiary formations.
+
+I could as soon admit special creation, at once, as suppose that the
+Perissodactyles and Artiodactyles had no five-toed ancestors. And when
+we consider how large a portion of the Tertiary period elapsed before
+_Anchitherium_ was converted into _Equus_, it is difficult to escape
+the conclusion that a large proportion of time anterior to the
+Tertiary period must have been expended in converting the common stock
+of the _Ungulata_ into Perissodactyles and Artiodactyles.
+
+The same moral is inculcated by the study of every other order of
+Tertiary monodelphous _Mammalia_. Each of these orders is represented
+in the Miocene epoch: the Eocene formation, as I have already said,
+contains _Cheiroptera, Insectivora, Rodentia, Ungulata, Carnivora,_
+and _Cetacea_. But the _Cheiroptera_ are extreme modifications of the
+_Insectivora_, just as the _Cetacea_ are extreme modifications of
+the Carnivorous type; and therefore it is to my mind incredible
+that monodelphous _Insectivora_ and _Carnivora_ should not have been
+abundantly developed, along with _Ungulata_, in the Mesozoic epoch.
+But if this be the case, how much further back must we go to find the
+common stock of the monodelphous _Mammalia_? As to the _Didelphia_,
+if we may trust the evidence which seems to be afforded by their
+very scanty remains, a Hypsiprymnoid form existed at the epoch of the
+Trias, contemporaneously with a Carnivorous form. At the epoch of the
+Trias, therefore, the _Marsupialia_ must have, already existed long
+enough to have become differentiated into carnivorous and herbivorous
+forms. But the _Monotremata_ are lower forms than the _Didelphia,_
+which last are intercalary between the _Ornithodelphia_ and the
+_Monodelphia_. To what point of the Palaeozoic epoch, then, must we,
+upon any rational estimate, relegate the origin of the _Monotremata_?
+
+The investigation of the occurrence of the classes and of the orders
+of the _Sauropsida_ in time points in exactly the same direction.
+If, as there is great reason to believe, true Birds existed in the
+Triassic epoch, the ornithoscelidous forms by which Reptiles passed
+into Birds must have preceded them. In fact there is, even at present,
+considerable ground for suspecting the existence of _Dinosauria_ in
+the Permian formations; but, in that case, lizards must be of still
+earlier date. And if the very small differences which are observable
+between the _Crocodilia_ of the older Mesozoic formations and those of
+the present day furnish any sort of approximation towards an estimate
+of the average rate of change among the _Sauropsida_, it is almost
+appalling to reflect how far back in Palaeozoic times we must go,
+before we can hope to arrive at that common stock from which the
+_Crocodilia, Lacertilia, Ornithoscelida_, and _Plesiosauria_, which
+had attained so great a development in the Triassic epoch, must have
+been derived.
+
+The _Amphibia_ and _Pisces_ tell the same story. There is not a
+single class of vertebrated animals which, when it first appears,
+is represented by analogues of the lowest known members of the same
+class. Therefore, if there is any truth in the doctrine of evolution,
+every class must be vastly older than the first record of its
+appearance upon the surface of the globe. But if considerations of
+this kind compel us to place the origin of vertebrated animals at
+a period sufficiently distant from the Upper Silurian, in which the
+first Elasmobranchs and Ganoids occur, to allow of the evolution of
+such fishes as these from a Vertebrate as simple as the _Amphioxus_,
+I can only repeat that it is appalling to speculate upon the extent to
+which that origin must have preceded the epoch of the first recorded
+appearance of vertebrate life.
+
+Such is the further commentary which I have to offer upon the
+statement of the chief results of palaeontology which I formerly
+ventured to lay before you.
+
+But the growth of knowledge in the interval makes me conscious of
+an omission of considerable moment in that statement, inasmuch as it
+contains no reference to the bearings of palaeontology upon the theory
+of the distribution of life; nor takes note of the remarkable manner
+in which the facts of distribution, in present and past times, accord
+with the doctrine of evolution, especially in regard to land animals.
+
+That connection between palaeontology and geology and the present
+distribution of terrestrial animals, which so strikingly impressed
+Mr. Darwin, thirty years ago, as to lead him to speak of a "law of
+succession of types," and of the wonderful relationship on the same
+continent between the dead and the living, has recently received much
+elucidation from the researches of Gaudry, of Rütimeyer, of Leidy,
+and of Alphonse Milne-Edwards, taken in connection with the
+earlier labours of our lamented colleague Falconer; and it has been
+instructively discussed in the thoughtful and ingenious work of Mr.
+Andrew Murray "On the Geographical Distribution of Mammals."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: The paper "On the Form and Distribution of the
+Land-tracts during the Secondary and Tertiary Periods respectively;
+and on the Effect upon Animal Life which great Changes in Geographical
+Configuration have probably produced," by Mr. Searles V. Wood, jun.,
+which was published in the _Philosophical Magazine_, in 1862, was
+unknown to me when this Address was written. It is well worthy of the
+most careful study.]
+
+I propose to lay before you, as briefly as I can, the ideas to which a
+long consideration of the subject has given rise in my own mind.
+
+If the doctrine of evolution is sound, one of its immediate
+consequences clearly is, that the present distribution of life
+upon the globe is the product of two factors, the one being the
+distribution which obtained in the immediately preceding epoch, and
+the other the character and the extent of the changes which have taken
+place in physical geography between the one epoch and the other; or,
+to put the matter in another way, the Fauna and Flora of any given
+area, in any given epoch, can consist only of such forms of life as
+are directly descended from those which constituted the Fauna and
+Flora of the same area in the immediately preceding epoch, unless the
+physical geography (under which I include climatal conditions) of
+the area has been so altered as to give rise to immigration of living
+forms from some other area.
+
+The evolutionist, therefore, is bound to grapple with the following
+problem whenever it is clearly put before him:--Here are the Faunae of
+the same area during successive epochs. Show good cause for believing
+either that these Faunae have been derived from one another by gradual
+modification, or that the Faunae have reached the area in question
+by migration from some area in which they have undergone their
+development.
+
+I propose to attempt to deal with this problem, so far as it is
+exemplified by the distribution of the terrestrial _Vertebrata_, and I
+shall endeavour to show you that it is capable of solution in a sense
+entirely favourable to the doctrine of evolution.
+
+I have elsewhere[1] stated at length the reasons which lead me to
+recognize four primary distributional provinces for the terrestrial
+_Vertebrata_ in the present world, namely,--first, the _Novozelanian_,
+or New-Zealand province; secondly, the _Australian_ province,
+including Australia, Tasmania, and the Negrito Islands; thirdly,
+_Austro-Columbia_, or South America _plus_ North America as far as
+Mexico; and fourthly, the rest of the world, or _Arctogaea_, in which
+province America north of Mexico constitutes one sub-province, Africa
+south of the Sahara a second, Hindostan a third, and the remainder of
+the Old World, a fourth.
+
+[Footnote 1: "On the Classification and Distribution of the
+Alectoromorphae;" Proceedings of the Zoological Society, 1868.]
+
+Now the truth which Mr. Darwin perceived and promulgated as "the law
+of the succession of types" is, that, in all these provinces, the
+animals found in Pliocene or later deposits are closely affined to
+those which now inhabit the same provinces; and that, conversely, the
+forms characteristic of other provinces are absent. North and South
+America, perhaps, present one or two exceptions to the last rule, but
+they are readily susceptible of explanation. Thus, in Australia, the
+later Tertiary mammals are marsupials (possibly with exception of the
+Dog and a Rodent or two, as at present). In Austro-Columbia the later
+Tertiary fauna exhibits numerous and varied forms of Platyrrhine
+Apes, Rodents, Cats, Dogs, Stags, _Edentata_, and Opossums; but, as
+at present, no Catarrhine Apes, no Lemurs, no _Insectivora_, Oxen,
+Antelopes, Rhinoceroses, nor _Didelphia_ other than Opossums. And in
+the wide-spread Arctogaeal province, the Pliocene and later mammals
+belong to the same groups as those which now exist in the province.
+The law of succession of types, therefore, holds good for the present
+epoch as compared with its predecessor. Does it equally well apply to
+the Pliocene fauna when we compare it with that of the Miocene epoch?
+By great good fortune, an extensive mammalian fauna of the latter
+epoch has now become known, in four very distant portions of the
+Arctogaeal province which do not differ greatly in latitude. Thus
+Falconer and Cautley have made known the fauna of the sub-Himalayas
+and the Perim Islands; Gaudry that of Attica; many observers that of
+Central Europe and France; and Leidy that of Nebraska, on the eastern
+flank of the Rocky Mountains. The results are very striking. The total
+Miocene fauna comprises many genera, and species of Catarrhine Apes,
+of Bats, of _Insectivora_; of Arctogaeal types of _Rodentia_; of
+_Proboscidea_; of equine, rhinocerotic, and tapirine quadrupeds; of
+cameline, bovine, antilopine, cervine, and traguline Ruminants; of
+Pigs and Hippopotamuses; of _Viverridae_ and _Hyaenidae_ among other
+_Carnivora_; with _Edentata_ allied to the Arctogaeal _Orycteropus_
+and _Manis_, and not to the Austro-Columbian Edentates. The only type
+present in the Miocene, but absent in the existing, fauna of Eastern
+Arctogaea, is that of the _Didelphidae_, which, however, remains in
+North America.
+
+But it is very remarkable that while the Miocene fauna of the
+Arctogaeal province, as a whole, is of the same character as the
+existing fauna of the same province, as a whole, the component
+elements of the fauna were differently associated. In the Miocene
+epoch, North America possessed Elephants, Horses, Rhinoceroses, and
+a great number and variety of Ruminants and Pigs, which are absent
+in the present indigenous fauna; Europe had its Apes, Elephants,
+Rhinoceroses, Tapirs, Musk-deer, Giraffes, Hyaenas, great Cats,
+Edentates, and Opossum-like Marsupials, which have equally vanished
+from its present fauna; and in Northern India, the African types of
+Hippopotamuses, Giraffes, and Elephants were mixed up with what
+are now the Asiatic types of the latter, and with Camels, and
+Semnopithecine and Pithecine Apes of no less distinctly Asiatic forms.
+
+In fact the Miocene mammalian fauna of Europe and the Himalayan
+regions contains, associated together, the types which are at present
+separately located in the South-African and Indian sub-provinces of
+Arctogaea. Now there is every reason to believe, on other grounds,
+that both Hindostan, south of the Ganges, and Africa, south of the
+Sahara, were separated by a wide sea from Europe and North Asia during
+the Middle and Upper Eocene epochs. Hence it becomes highly probable
+that the well-known similarities, and no less remarkable differences,
+between the present Faunae of India and South Africa have arisen
+in some such fashion as the following. Some time during the Miocene
+epoch, possibly when the Himalayan chain was elevated, the bottom of
+the nummulitic sea was upheaved and converted into dry land, in the
+direction of a line extending from Abyssinia to the mouth of the
+Ganges. By this means, the Dekhan on the one hand, and South Africa
+on the other, became connected with the Miocene dry land and with one
+another. The Miocene mammals spread gradually over this intermediate
+dry land; and if the condition of its eastern and western ends offered
+as wide contrasts as the valleys of the Ganges and Arabia do now, many
+forms which made their way into Africa must have been different from
+those which reached the Dekhan, while others might pass into both
+these sub-provinces.
+
+That there was a continuity of dry land between Europe and North
+America during the Miocene epoch, appears to me to be a necessary
+consequence of the fact that many genera of terrestrial mammals, such
+as _Castor_, _Hystrix_, _Elephas_, _Mastodon_, _Equus_, _Hipparion_,
+_Anchitherium_, _Rhinoceros_, _Cervus_, _Amphicyon_, _Hyaenarctos_,
+and _Machairodus_, are common to the Miocene formations of the two
+areas, and have as yet been found (except perhaps _Anchitherium_) in
+no deposit of earlier age. Whether this connection took place by the
+east, or by the west, or by both sides of the Old World, there is at
+present no certain evidence, and the question is immaterial to the
+present argument; but, as there are good grounds for the belief that
+the Australian province and the Indian and South-African sub-provinces
+were separated by sea from the rest of Arctogaea before the Miocene
+epoch, so it has been rendered no less probable, by the investigations
+of Mr. Carrick Moore and Professor Duncan, that Austro-Columbia was
+separated by sea from North America during a large part of the Miocene
+epoch.
+
+It is unfortunate that we have no knowledge of the Miocene mammalian
+fauna of the Australian and Austro-Columbian provinces; but, seeing
+that not a trace of a Platyrrhine Ape, of a Procyonine Carnivore, of a
+characteristically South-American Rodent, of a Sloth, an Armadillo,
+or an Ant-eater has yet been found in Miocene deposits of Arctogaea, I
+cannot doubt that they already existed in the Miocene Austro-Columbian
+province.
+
+Nor is it less probable that the characteristic types of Australian
+Mammalia were already developed in that region in Miocene times.
+
+But Austro-Columbia presents difficulties from which Australia is
+free; _Camelidae_ and _Tapiridae_ are now indigenous in South America
+as they are in Arctogaea; and, among the Pliocene Austro-Columbian
+mammals, the Austro-Columbian genera _Equus_, _Mastodon_, and
+_Machairodus_ are numbered. Are these Postmiocene immigrants, or
+Praemiocene natives?
+
+Still more perplexing are the strange and interesting forms _Toxodon_,
+_Macrauchenia_, _Typotherium_, and a new Anoplotherioid mammal
+(_Homalodotherium_) which Dr. Cunningham sent over to me some time ago
+from Patagonia. I confess I am strongly inclined to surmise that these
+last, at any rate, are remnants of the population of Austro-Columbia
+before the Miocene epoch, and were not derived from Arctogaea by way
+of the north and east.
+
+The fact that this immense fauna of Miocene Arctogaea is now fully
+and richly represented only in India and in South Africa, while it
+is shrunk and depauperized in North Asia, Europe, and North America,
+becomes at once intelligible, if we suppose that India and South
+Africa had but a scanty mammalian population before the Miocene
+immigration, while the conditions were highly favourable to the new
+comers. It is to be supposed that these new regions offered themselves
+to the Miocene Ungulates, as South America and Australia offered
+themselves to the cattle, sheep, and horses of modern colonists. But,
+after these great areas were thus peopled, came the Glacial epoch,
+during which the excessive cold, to say nothing of depression and
+ice-covering, must have almost depopulated all the northern parts of
+Arctogaea, destroying all the higher mammalian forms, except those
+which, like the Elephant and Rhinoceros, could adjust their coats to
+the altered conditions. Even these must have been driven away from the
+greater part of the area; only those Miocene mammals which had passed
+into Hindostan and into South Africa would escape decimation by such
+changes in the physical geography of Arctogaea. And when the northern
+hemisphere passed into its present condition, these lost tribes of the
+Miocene Fauna were hemmed by the Himalayas, the Sahara, the Red Sea,
+and the Arabian deserts, within their present boundaries. Now, on the
+hypothesis of evolution, there is no sort of difficulty in admitting
+that the differences between the Miocene forms of the mammalian
+Fauna and those which exist at present are the results of gradual
+modification; and, since such differences in distribution as obtain
+are readily explained by the changes which have taken place in the
+physical geography of the world since the Miocene epoch, it is clear
+that the result of the comparison of the Miocene and present Fauna is
+distinctly in favour of evolution. Indeed I may go further. I may
+say that the hypothesis of evolution explains the facts of Miocene,
+Pliocene, and Recent distribution, and that no other supposition even
+pretends to account for them. It is, indeed, a conceivable supposition
+that every species of Rhinoceros and every species of Hyaena, in the
+long succession of forms between the Miocene and the present species,
+was separately constructed out of dust, or out of nothing, by
+supernatural power; but until I receive distinct evidence of the fact,
+I refuse to run the risk of insulting any sane man by supposing that
+he seriously holds such a notion.
+
+Let us now take a step further back in time, and inquire into the
+relations between the Miocene Fauna and its predecessor of the Upper
+Eocene formation.
+
+Here it is to be regretted that our materials for forming a judgment
+are nothing to be compared in point of extent or variety with those
+which are yielded by the Miocene strata. However, what we do know
+of this Upper Eocene Fauna of Europe gives sufficient positive
+information to enable us to draw some tolerably safe inferences. It
+has yielded representatives of _Insectivora_, of _Cheiroptera_,
+of _Rodentia_, of _Carnivora_, of artiodactyle and perissodactyle
+_Ungulata_, and of opossum-like Marsupials. No Australian type of
+Marsupial has been discovered in the Upper Eocene strata, nor any
+Edentate mammal. The genera (except perhaps in the case of some of the
+_Insectivora_, _Cheiroptera_, and _Rodentia_) are different from those
+of the Miocene epoch, but present a remarkable general similarity to
+the Miocene and recent genera. In several cases, as I have already
+shown, it has now been clearly made out that the relation between
+the Eocene and Miocene forms is such that the Eocene form is the less
+specialized; while its Miocene ally is more so, and the specialization
+reaches its maximum in the recent forms of the same type.
+
+So far as the Upper Eocene and the Miocene Mammalian Faunae are
+comparable, their relations are such as in no way to oppose the
+hypothesis that the older are the progenitors of the more recent
+forms, while, in some cases, they distinctly favour that hypothesis.
+The period in time and the changes in physical geography represented
+by the nummulitic deposits are undoubtedly very great, while the
+remains of Middle Eocene and Older Eocene Mammals are comparatively
+few. The general facies of the Middle Eocene Fauna, however, is quite
+that of the Upper. The Older Eocene pre-nummulitic mammalian Fauna
+contains Bats, two genera of _Carnivora_, three genera of _Ungulata_
+(probably all perissodactyle), and a didelphid Marsupial; all these
+forms, except perhaps the Bat and the Opossum, belong to genera
+which are not known to occur out of the Lower Eocene formation. The
+_Coryphodon_ appears to have been allied to the Miocene and later
+Tapirs, while _Pliolophus_, in its skull and dentition, curiously
+partakes of both artiodactyle and perissodactyle characters; the third
+trochanter upon its femur, and its three-toed hind foot, however,
+appear definitely to fix its position in the latter division.
+
+There is nothing, then, in what is known of the older Eocene mammals
+of the Arctogaeal province to forbid the supposition that they stood
+in an ancestral relation to those of the Calcaire Grossier and the
+Gypsum of the Paris basin, and that our present fauna, therefore, is
+directly derived from that which already existed in Arctogaea at the
+commencement of the Tertiary period. But if we now cross the frontier
+between the Cainozoic and the Mesozoic faunae, as they are preserved
+within the Arctogaeal area, we meet with an astounding change, and
+what appears to be a complete and unmistakable break in the line of
+biological continuity.
+
+Among the twelve or fourteen species of _Mammalia_ which are said to
+have been found in the Purbecks, not one is a member of the orders
+_Cheiroptera_, _Rodentia_, _Ungulata_, or _Carnivora_, which are so
+well represented in the Tertiaries. No _Insectivora_ are certainly
+known, nor any opossum-like Marsupials. Thus there is a vast negative
+difference between the Cainozoic and the Mesozoic mammalian faunae
+of Europe. But there is a still more important positive difference,
+inasmuch as all these Mammalia appear to be Marsupials belonging to
+Australian groups, and thus appertaining to a different distributional
+province from the Eocene and Miocene marsupials, which are
+Austro-Columbian. So far as the imperfect materials which exist enable
+a judgment to be formed, the same law appears to have held good for
+all the earlier Mesozoic _Mammalia_. Of the Stonesfield slate mammals,
+one, _Amphitherium_, has a definitely Australian character; one,
+_Phascolotherium_, may be either Dasyurid or Didelphine; of a third,
+_Stereognathus_, nothing can at present be said. The two mammals of
+the Trias, also, appear to belong to Australian groups.
+
+Every one is aware of the many curious points of resemblance between
+the marine fauna of the European Mesozoic rocks and that which now
+exists in Australia. But if there was this Australian facies about
+both the terrestrial and the marine faunae of Mesozoic Europe, and
+if there is this unaccountable and immense break between the fauna
+of Mesozoic and that of Tertiary Europe, is it not a very obvious
+suggestion that, in the Mesozoic epoch, the Australian province
+included Europe, and that the Arctogaeal province was contained within
+other limits? The Arctogaeal province is at present enormous, while
+the Australian is relatively small. Why should not these proportions
+have been different during the Mesozoic epoch?
+
+Thus I am led to think that by far the simplest and most rational
+mode of accounting for the great change which took place in the living
+inhabitants of the European area at the end of the Mesozoic epoch, is
+the supposition that it arose from a vast alteration of the physical
+geography of the globe; whereby an area long tenanted by Cainozoic
+forms was brought into such relations with the European area that
+migration from the one to the other became possible, and took place on
+a great scale.
+
+This supposition relieves us, at once, from the difficulty in which we
+were left, some time ago, by the arguments which I used to demonstrate
+the necessity of the existence of all the great types of the Eocene
+epoch in some antecedent period.
+
+It is this Mesozoic continent (which may well have lain in the
+neighbourhood of what are now the shores of the North Pacific Ocean)
+which I suppose to have been occupied by the Mesozoic _Monodelphia_;
+and it is in this region that I conceive they must have gone through
+the long series of changes by which they were specialized into the
+forms which we refer to different orders. I think it very probable
+that what is now South America may have received the characteristic
+elements of its mammalian fauna during the Mesozoic epoch; and there
+can be little doubt that the general nature of the change which took
+place at the end of the Mesozoic epoch in Europe was the upheaval of
+the eastern and northern regions of the Mesozoic sea-bottom into a
+westward extension of the Mesozoic continent, over which the mammalian
+fauna, by which it was already peopled, gradually spread. This
+invasion of the land was prefaced by a previous invasion of the
+Cretaceous sea by modern forms of mollusca and fish.
+
+It is easy to imagine how an analogous change might come about in the
+existing world. There is, at present, a great difference between the
+fauna of the Polynesian Islands and that of the west coast of America.
+The animals which are leaving their spoils in the deposits now forming
+in these localities are widely different. Hence, if a gradual
+shifting of the deep sea, which at present bars migration between the
+easternmost of these islands and America, took place to the westward,
+while the American side of the sea-bottom was gradually upheaved,
+the palaeontologist of the future would find, over the Pacific area,
+exactly such a change as I am supposing to have occurred in the
+North-Atlantic area at the close of the Mesozoic period. An Australian
+fauna would be found underlying an American fauna, and the transition
+from the one to the other would be as abrupt as that between the Chalk
+and lower Tertiaries; and as the drainage-area of the newly formed
+extension of the American continent gave rise to rivers and lakes, the
+mammals mired in their mud would differ from those of like deposits on
+the Australian side, just as the Eocene mammals differ from those of
+the Purbecks.
+
+How do similar reasonings apply to the other great change of
+life--that which took place at the end of the Palaeozoic period?
+
+In the Triassic epoch, the distribution of the dry land and of
+terrestrial vertebrate life appears to have been, generally, similar
+to that which existed in the Mesozoic epoch; so that the Triassic
+continents and their faunae seem to be related to the Mesozoic lands
+and their faunae, just as those of the Miocene epoch are related to
+those of the present day. In fact, as I have recently endeavoured
+to prove to the Society, there was an Arctogaeal continent and an
+Arctogaeal province of distribution in Triassic times as there is now;
+and the _Sauropsida_ and _Marsupialia_ which constituted that
+fauna were, I doubt not, the progenitors of the _Sauropsida_ and
+_Marsupialia_ of the whole Mesozoic epoch.
+
+Looking at the present terrestrial fauna of Australia, it appears to
+me to be very probable that it is essentially a remnant of the
+fauna of the Triassic, or even of an earlier, age[1]; in which
+case Australia must at that time have been in continuity with the
+Arctogaeal continent.
+
+[Footnote 1: Since this Address was read, Mr. Krefft has sent us
+news of the discovery in Australia of a fresh-water fish of strangely
+Palaeozoic aspect, and apparently a Ganoid intermediate between
+_Dipterus_ and _Lepidosiren_.]
+
+But now comes the further inquiry. Where was the highly differentiated
+Sauropsidan fauna of the Trias in Palaeozoic times? The supposition
+that the Dinosaurian, Crocodilian, Dicynodontian, and Plesiosaurian
+types were suddenly created at the end of the Permian epoch may
+be dismissed, without further consideration, as a monstrous and
+unwarranted assumption. The supposition that all these types were
+rapidly differentiated out of _Lacertilia_, in the time represented by
+the passage from the Palaeozoic to the Mesozoic formation, appears to
+me to be hardly more credible, to say nothing of the indications of
+the existence of Dinosaurian forms in the Permian rocks which have
+already been obtained.
+
+For my part, I entertain no sort of doubt that the Reptiles, Birds,
+and Mammals of the Trias are the direct descendants of Reptiles,
+Birds, and Mammals which existed in the latter part of the Palaeozoic
+epoch, but not in any area of the present dry land which has yet been
+explored by the geologist.
+
+This may seem a bold assumption, but it will not appear unwarrantable
+to those who reflect upon the very small extent of the earth's surface
+which has hitherto exhibited the remains of the great Mammalian fauna
+of the Eocene times. In this respect, the Permian land Vertebrate
+fauna appears to me to be related to the Triassic much as the Eocene
+is to the Miocene. Terrestrial reptiles have been found in Permian
+rocks only in three localities; in some spots of France, and recently
+of England, and over a more extensive area in Germany. Who can suppose
+that the few fossils yet found in these regions give any sufficient
+representation of the Permian fauna?
+
+It may be said that the Carboniferous formations demonstrate the
+existence of a vast extent of dry land in the present dry-land area,
+and that the supposed terrestrial Palaeozoic Vertebrate Fauna ought to
+have left its remains in the Coal-measures, especially as there is now
+reason to believe that much of the coal was formed by the accumulation
+of spores and sporangia on dry land. But if we consider the matter
+more closely, I think that this apparent objection loses its force. It
+is clear that, during the Carboniferous epoch, the vast area of land
+which is now covered by Coal-measures must have been undergoing a
+gradual depression. The dry land thus depressed must, therefore, have
+existed, as such, before the Carboniferous epoch--in other words, in
+Devonian times--and its terrestrial population may never have been
+other than such as existed during the Devonian, or some previous
+epoch, although much higher forms may have been developed elsewhere.
+
+Again, let me say that I am making no gratuitous assumption of
+inconceivable changes. It is clear that the enormous area of Polynesia
+is, on the whole, an area over which depression has taken place to
+an immense extent; consequently a great continent, or assemblage of
+subcontinental masses of land, must have existed at some former time,
+and that at a recent period, geologically speaking, in the area of
+the Pacific. But if that continent had contained Mammals, some of
+them must have remained to tell the tale; and as it is well known that
+these islands have no indigenous _Mammalia_, it is safe to assume that
+none existed. Thus, midway between Australia and South America, each
+of which possesses an abundant and diversified mammalian fauna, a mass
+of land, which may have been as large as both put together, must have
+existed without a mammalian inhabitant. Suppose that the shores of
+this great land were fringed, as those of tropical Australia are now,
+with belts of mangroves, which would extend landwards on the one
+side, and be buried beneath littoral deposits on the other side,
+as depression went on; and great beds of mangrove lignite might
+accumulate over the sinking land. Let upheaval of the whole now take
+place, in such a manner as to bring the emerging land into continuity
+with the South-American or Australian continent, and, in course of
+time, it would be peopled by an extension of the fauna of one of these
+two regions--just as I imagine the European Permian dry land to have
+been peopled.
+
+I see nothing whatever against the supposition that distributional
+provinces of terrestrial life existed in the Devonian epoch, inasmuch
+as M. Barrande has proved that they existed much earlier. I am aware
+of no reason for doubting that, as regards the grades of terrestrial
+life contained in them, one of these may have been related to another
+as New Zealand is to Australia, or as Australia is to India, at the
+present day. Analogy seems to me to be rather in favour of, than
+against, the supposition that while only Ganoid fishes inhabited the
+fresh waters of our Devonian land, _Amphibia_ and _Reptilia_, or even
+higher forms, may have existed, though we have not yet found them. The
+earliest Carboniferous _Amphibia_ now known, such as _Anthracosaurus_,
+are so highly specialized that I can by no means conceive that they
+have been developed out of piscine forms in the interval between the
+Devonian and the Carboniferous periods, considerable as that is. And I
+take refuge in one of two alternatives: either they existed in our own
+area during the Devonian epoch and we have simply not yet found them;
+or they formed part of the population of some other distributional
+province of that day, and only entered our area by migration at the
+end of the Devonian epoch. Whether _Reptilia_ and _Mammalia_ existed
+along with them is to me, at present, a perfectly open question, which
+is just as likely to receive an affirmative as a negative answer from
+future inquirers.
+
+Let me now gather together the threads of my argumentation into the
+form of a connected hypothetical view of the manner in which the
+distribution of living and extinct animals has been brought about.
+
+I conceive that distinct provinces of the distribution of terrestrial
+life have existed since the earliest period at which that life is
+recorded, and possibly much earlier; and I suppose, with Mr. Darwin,
+that the progress of modification of terrestrial forms is more rapid
+in areas of elevation than in areas of depression. I take it to be
+certain that Labyrinthodont _Amphibia_ existed in the distributional
+province which included the dry land depressed during the
+Carboniferous epoch; and I conceive that, in some other distributional
+provinces of that day, which remained in the condition of stationary
+or of increasing dry land, the various types of the terrestrial
+_Sauropsida_ and of the _Mammalia_ were gradually developing.
+
+The Permian epoch marks the commencement of a new movement of upheaval
+in our area, which attained its maximum in the Triassic epoch, when
+dry land existed in North America, Europe, Asia, and Africa, as it
+does now. Into this great new continental area the Mammals, Birds, and
+Reptiles developed during the Palaeozoic epoch spread, and formed the
+great Triassic Arctogaeal province. But, at the end of the Triassic
+period, the movement of depression recommenced in our area, though
+it was doubtless balanced by elevation elsewhere; modification and
+development, checked in the one province, went on in that "elsewhere;"
+and the chief forms of Mammals, Birds, and Reptiles, as we know them,
+were evolved and peopled the Mesozoic continent. I conceive Australia
+to have become separated from the continent as early as the end of
+the Triassic epoch, or not much later. The Mesozoic continent must, I
+conceive, have lain to the east, about the shores of the North Pacific
+and Indian Oceans; and I am inclined to believe that it continued
+along the eastern side of the Pacific area to what is now the province
+of Austro-Columbia, the characteristic fauna of which is probably a
+remnant of the population of the latter part of this period.
+
+Towards the latter part of the Mesozoic period the movement of
+upheaval around the shores of the Atlantic once more recommenced,
+and was very probably accompanied by a depression around those of the
+Pacific. The Vertebrate fauna elaborated in the Mesozoic continent
+moved westward and took possession of the new lands, which gradually
+increased in extent up to, and in some directions after, the Miocene
+epoch.
+
+It is in favour of this hypothesis, I think, that it is consistent
+with the persistence of a general uniformity in the positions of the
+great masses of land and water. From the Devonian period, or earlier,
+to the present day, the four great oceans, Atlantic, Pacific, Arctic,
+and Antarctic, may have occupied their present positions, and only
+their coasts and channels of communication have undergone an incessant
+alteration. And, finally, the hypothesis I have put before you
+requires no supposition that the rate of change in organic life has
+been either greater or less in ancient times than it is now; nor
+any assumption, either physical or biological, which has not its
+justification in analogous phenomena of existing nature.
+
+I have now only to discharge the last duty of my office, which is
+to thank you, not only for the patient attention with which you have
+listened to me so long to-day, but also for the uniform kindness with
+which, for the past two years, you have rendered my endeavours
+to perform the important, and often laborious, functions of your
+President a pleasure instead of a burden.
+
+
+
+
+X.
+
+MR. DARWIN'S CRITICS.[1]
+
+
+The gradual lapse of time has now separated us by more than a decade
+from the date of the publication of the "Origin of Species"--and
+whatever may be thought or said about Mr. Darwin's doctrines, or the
+manner in which he has propounded them, this much is certain, that,
+in a dozen years, the "Origin of Species" has worked as complete
+a revolution in biological science as the "Principia" did in
+astronomy--and it has done so, because, in the words of Helmholtz, it
+contains "an essentially new creative thought."[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: 1. "Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection."
+By A.R. Wallace. 1870.--2. "The Genesis of Species." By St. George
+Mivart, F.R.S. Second Edition. 1871.--3. "Darwin's Descent of Man."
+_Quarterly Review_, July 1871.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Helmholtz: "Ueber das Ziel und die Fortschritte der
+Naturwissenschaft." Eröffnungsrede für die Naturforscherversammlung zu
+Innsbruck. 1869.]
+
+And as time has slipped by, a happy change has come over Mr. Darwin's
+critics. The mixture of ignorance and insolence which, at first,
+characterized a large proportion of the attacks with which he
+was assailed, is no longer the sad distinction of anti-Darwinian
+criticism. Instead of abusive nonsense, which merely discredited its
+writers, we read essays, which are, at worst, more or less intelligent
+and appreciative; while, sometimes, like that which appeared in the
+_North British Review_ for 1867, they have a real and permanent value.
+
+The several publications of Mr. Wallace and Mr. Mivart contain
+discussions of some of Mr. Darwin's views, which are worthy of
+particular attention, not only on account of the acknowledged
+scientific competence of these writers, but because they exhibit an
+attention to those philosophical questions which underlie all physical
+science, which is as rare as it is needful. And the same may be said
+of an article in the _Quarterly Review_ for July 1871, the comparison
+of which with an article in the same Review for July 1860, is perhaps
+the best evidence which can be brought forward of the change which has
+taken place in public opinion on "Darwinism."
+
+The Quarterly Reviewer admits "the certainty of the action of natural
+selection" (p. 49); and further allows that there is an _à priori_
+probability in favour of the evolution of man from some lower animal
+form, if these lower animal forms themselves have arisen by evolution.
+
+Mr. Wallace and Mr. Mivart go much further than this. They are as
+stout believers in evolution as Mr. Darwin himself; but Mr. Wallace
+denies that man can have been evolved from a lower animal by that
+process of natural selection which he, with Mr. Darwin, holds to have
+been sufficient for the evolution of all animals below man; while
+Mr. Mivart, admitting that natural selection has been one of the
+conditions of the evolution of the animals below man, maintains that
+natural selection must, even in their case, have been supplemented by
+"some other cause"--of the nature of which, unfortunately, he does
+not give us any idea. Thus Mr. Mivart is less of a Darwinian than Mr.
+Wallace, for he has less faith in the power of natural selection. But
+he is more of an evolutionist than Mr. Wallace, because Mr. Wallace
+thinks it necessary to call in an intelligent agent--a sort of
+supernatural Sir John Sebright--to produce even the animal frame of
+man; while Mr. Mivart requires no Divine assistance till he comes to
+man's soul.
+
+Thus there is a considerable divergence between Mr. Wallace and Mr.
+Mivart. On the other hand, there are some curious similarities between
+Mr. Mivart and the Quarterly Reviewer, and these are sometimes so
+close, that, if Mr. Mivart thought it worth while, I think he
+might make out a good case of plagiarism against the Reviewer, who
+studiously abstains from quoting him.
+
+Both the Reviewer and Mr. Mivart reproach Mr. Darwin with being, "like
+so many other physicists," entangled in a radically false metaphysical
+system, and with setting at nought the first principles of both
+philosophy and religion. Both enlarge upon the necessity of a sound
+philosophical basis, and both, I venture to add, make a conspicuous
+exhibition of its absence. The Quarterly Reviewer believes that man
+"differs more from an elephant or a gorilla than do these from the
+dust of the earth on which they tread," and Mr. Mivart has expressed
+the opinion that there is more difference between man and an ape than
+there is between an ape and a piece of granite.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: See the _Tablet_ for March 11, 1871.]
+
+And even when Mr. Mivart (p. 86) trips in a matter of anatomy, and
+creates a difficulty for Mr. Darwin out of a supposed close similarity
+between the eyes of fishes and cephalopods, which (as Gegenbaur and
+others have clearly shown) does not exist, the Quarterly Reviewer
+adopts the argument without hesitation (p. 66).
+
+There is another important point, however, in which it is hard to say
+whether Mr. Mivart diverges from the Quarterly Reviewer or not.
+
+The Reviewer declares that Mr. Darwin has, "with needless opposition,
+set at nought the first principles of both philosophy and religion"
+(p. 90).
+
+It looks, at first, as if this meant, that Mr. Darwin's views being
+false, the opposition to "religion" which flows from them must be
+needless. But I suspect this is not the right view of the meaning of
+the passage, as Mr. Mivart, from whom the Quarterly Reviewer plainly
+draws so much inspiration, tells us that "the consequences which have
+been drawn from evolution, whether exclusively Darwinian or not, to
+the prejudice of religion, by no means follow from it, and are in fact
+illegitimate" (p. 5).
+
+I may assume, then, that the Quarterly Reviewer and Mr. Mivart admit
+that there is no necessary opposition between "evolution, whether
+exclusively Darwinian or not," and religion. But then, what do they
+mean by this last much-abused term? On this point the Quarterly
+Reviewer is silent. Mr. Mivart, on the contrary, is perfectly
+explicit, and the whole tenor of his remarks leaves no doubt that by
+"religion" he means theology; and by theology, that particular variety
+of the great Proteus, which is expounded by the doctors of the Roman
+Catholic Church, and held by the members of that religious community
+to be the sole form of absolute truth and of saving faith.
+
+According to Mr. Mivart, the greatest and most orthodox authorities
+upon matters of Catholic doctrine agree in distinctly asserting
+"derivative creation" or evolution; "and thus their teachings
+harmonize with all that modern science can possibly require" (p. 305).
+
+I confess that this bold assertion interested me more than anything
+else in Mr. Mivart's book. What little knowledge I possessed of
+Catholic doctrine, and of the influence exerted by Catholic authority
+in former times, had not led me to expect that modern science was
+likely to find a warm welcome within the pale of the greatest and most
+consistent of theological organizations.
+
+And my astonishment reached its climax when I found Mr. Mivart citing
+Father Suarez as his chief witness in favour of the scientific freedom
+enjoyed by Catholics--the popular repute of that learned theologian
+and subtle casuist not being such as to make his works a likely place
+of refuge for liberality of thought. But in these days, when Judas
+Iscariot and Robespierre, Henry VIII. and Catiline, have all been
+shown to be men of admirable virtue, far in advance of their age,
+and consequently the victims of vulgar prejudice, it was obviously
+possible that Jesuit Suarez might be in like case. And, spurred by Mr.
+Mivart's unhesitating declaration, I hastened to acquaint myself
+with such of the works of the great Catholic divine as bore upon
+the question, hoping, not merely to acquaint myself with the true
+teachings of the infallible Church, and free myself of an unjust
+prejudice; but, haply, to enable myself, at a pinch, to put some
+Protestant bibliolater to shame, by the bright example of Catholic
+freedom from the trammels of verbal inspiration.
+
+I regret to say that my anticipations have been cruelly disappointed.
+But the extent to which my hopes have been crushed can only be fully
+appreciated by citing, in the first place, those passages of Mr.
+Mivart's work by which they were excited. In his introductory chapter
+I find the following passages:--
+
+"The prevalence of this theory [of evolution] need alarm no one, for
+it is, without any doubt, perfectly consistent with the strictest and
+most orthodox Christian[1] theology" (p. 5).
+
+[Footnote 1: It should be observed that Mr. Mivart employs the term
+"Christian" as if it were the equivalent of "Catholic."]
+
+"Mr. Darwin and others may perhaps be excused if they have not devoted
+much time to the study of Christian philosophy; but they have no right
+to assume or accept without careful examination, as an unquestioned
+fact, that in that philosophy there is a necessary antagonism between
+the two ideas 'creation' and 'evolution,' as applied to organic forms.
+
+"It is notorious and patent to all who choose to seek, that many
+distinguished Christian thinkers have accepted, and do accept, both
+ideas, i.e. both 'creation' and 'evolution.'
+
+"As much as ten years ago an eminently Christian writer observed: 'The
+creationist theory does not necessitate the perpetual search after
+manifestations of miraculous power and perpetual "catastrophes."
+Creation is not a miraculous interference with the laws of nature, but
+the very institution of those laws. Law and regularity, not arbitrary
+intervention, was the patristic ideal of creation. With this notion
+they admitted, without difficulty, the most surprising origin of
+living creatures, provided it took place by _law_. They held that
+when God said, "Let the waters produce," "Let the earth produce," He
+conferred forces on the elements of earth and water, which enabled
+them naturally to produce the various species of organic beings. This
+power, they thought, remains attached to the elements throughout all
+time.' The same writer quotes St. Augustin and St. Thomas Aquinas,
+to the effect that, 'in the institution of nature, we do not look for
+miracles, but for the laws of nature,' And, again, St. Basil speaks
+of the continued operation of natural laws in the production of all
+organisms.
+
+"So much for the writers of early and mediaeval times. As to the
+present day, the author can confidently affirm that there are many
+as well versed in theology as Mr. Darwin is in his own department
+of natural knowledge, who would not be disturbed by the thorough
+demonstration of his theory. Nay, they would not even be in the least
+painfully affected at witnessing the generation of animals of complex
+organization by the skilful artificial arrangement of natural forces,
+and the production, in the future, of a fish by means analogous to
+those by which we now produce urea.
+
+"And this because they know that the possibility of such phenomena,
+though by no means actually foreseen, has yet been fully provided
+for in the old philosophy centuries before Darwin, or even centuries
+before Bacon, and that their place in the system can be at once
+assigned them without even disturbing its order or marring its
+harmony.
+
+"Moreover, the old tradition in this respect has never been abandoned,
+however much it may have been ignored or neglected by some modern
+writers. In proof of this, it may be observed that perhaps no
+post-mediaeval theologian has a wider reception amongst Christians
+throughout the world than Suarez, who has a separate section[1] in
+opposition to those who maintain the distinct creation of the various
+kinds--or substantial forms--of organic life" (pp. 19-21).
+
+[Footnote 1: Suarez; Metaphysica. Edition Vivés. Paris, 1868, vol. i.
+Disput. xv. § 2.]
+
+Still more distinctly does Mr. Mivart express himself, in the same
+sense, in his last chapter, entitled "Theology and Evolution" (pp.
+302-5).
+
+"It appears, then, that Christian thinkers are perfectly free to
+accept the general evolution theory. But are there any theological
+authorities to justify this view of the matter?
+
+"Now, considering how extremely recent are these biological
+speculations, it might hardly be expected _à priori_ that writers of
+earlier ages should have given expression to doctrines harmonizing
+in any degree with such very modern views; nevertheless, this is
+certainly the case, and it would be easy to give numerous examples.
+It will be better, however, to cite one or two authorities of weight.
+Perhaps no writer of the earlier Christian ages could be quoted whose
+authority is more generally recognized than that of St. Augustin. The
+same may be said of the mediaeval period for St. Thomas Aquinas: and
+since the movement of Luther, Suarez may be taken as an authority,
+widely venerated, and one whose orthodoxy has never been questioned.
+
+"It must be borne in mind that for a considerable time even after
+the last of these writers no one had disputed the generally received
+belief as to the small age of the world, or at least of the kinds of
+animals and plants inhabiting it. It becomes, therefore, much more
+striking if views formed under such a condition of opinion are found
+to harmonize with modern ideas concerning 'Creation' and organic Life.
+
+"Now St. Augustin insists in a very remarkable manner on the merely
+derivative sense in which God's creation of organic forms is to
+be understood; that is, that God created them by conferring on the
+material world the power to evolve them under suitable conditions."
+
+Mr. Mivart then cites certain passages from St. Augustin, St. Thomas
+Aquinas, and Cornelius à Lapide, and finally adds:--
+
+    "As to Suarez, it will be enough to refer to Disp. xv. sec.
+    2, No. 9, p. 508, t.i. edition Vivés, Paris; also Nos. 13--15.
+    Many other references to the same effect could easily be
+    given, but these may suffice.
+
+    "It is then evident that ancient and most venerable
+    theological authorities distinctly assert _derivative_
+    creation, and thus their teachings harmonize with all that
+    modern science can possibly require."
+
+It will be observed that Mr. Mivart refers solely to Suarez's
+fifteenth Disputation, though he adds, "Many other references to the
+same effect could easily be given." I shall look anxiously for these
+references in the third edition of the "Genesis of Species." For the
+present, all I can say is, that I have sought in vain, either in
+the fifteenth Disputation, or elsewhere, for any passage in Suarez's
+writings which, in the slightest degree, bears out Mr. Mivart's views
+as to his opinions.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: The edition of Suarez's "Disputationes" from which the
+following citations are given, is Birckmann's, in two volumes folio,
+and is dated 1630.]
+
+The title of this fifteenth Disputation is "De causa formali
+substantiali," and the second section of that Disputation (to which
+Mr. Mivart refers) is headed, "Quomodo possit forma substantialis
+fieri in materia et ex materia?"
+
+The problem which Suarez discusses in this place may be popularly
+stated thus: According to the scholastic philosophy every natural body
+has two components--the one its "matter" (_materia prima_), the other
+its "substantial form" (_forma substantialis_). Of these the matter
+is everywhere the same, the matter of one body being indistinguishable
+from the matter of any other body. That which differentiates any one
+natural body from all others is its substantial form, which inheres
+in the matter of that body, as the human soul inheres in the matter
+of the frame of man, and is the source of all the activities and other
+properties of the body.
+
+Thus, says Suarez, if water is heated, and the source of heat is then
+removed, it cools again. The reason of this is that there is a certain
+"_intimius principium_" in the water, which brings it back to the
+cool condition when the external impediment to the existence of that
+condition is removed. This _intimius principium_, is the "substantial
+form" of the water. And the substantial form of the water is not only
+the cause (_radix_) of the coolness of the water, but also of its
+moisture, of its density, and of all its other properties.
+
+It will thus be seen that "substantial forms" play nearly the same
+part in the scholastic philosophy as "forces" do in modern science;
+the general tendency of modern thought being to conceive all bodies as
+resolvable into material particles and forces, in virtue of which last
+these particles assume those dispositions and exercise those powers
+which are characteristic of each particular kind of matter.
+
+But the Schoolmen distinguished two kinds of substantial forms,
+the one spiritual and the other material. The former division is
+represented by the human soul, the _anima rationalis_; and they affirm
+as a matter, not merely of reason, but of faith, that every human soul
+is created out of nothing, and by this act of creation is endowed with
+the power of existing for all eternity, apart from the _materia
+prima_ of which the corporeal frame of man is composed. And the _anima
+rationalis_, once united with the _materia prima_ of the body,
+becomes its substantial form, and is the source of all the powers and
+faculties of man--of all the vital and sensitive phenomena which he
+exhibits--just as the substantial form of water is the source of all
+its qualities.
+
+The "material substantial forms" are those which inform all other
+natural bodies except that of man; and the object of Suarez in the
+present Disputation, is to show that the axiom "_ex nihilo nihil
+fit_," though not true of the substantial form of man, is true of the
+substantial forms of all other bodies, the endless mutations of which
+constitute the ordinary course of nature. The origin of the difficulty
+which he discusses is easily comprehensible. Suppose a piece of bright
+iron to be exposed to the air. The existence of the iron depends on
+the presence within it of a substantial form, which is the cause of
+its properties, e.g. brightness, hardness, weight. But, by degrees,
+the iron becomes converted into a mass of rust, which is dull, and
+soft, and light, and, in all other respects, is quite different from
+the iron. As, in the scholastic view, this difference is due to the
+rust being informed by a new substantial form, the grave problem
+arises, how did this new substantial form come into being? Has it been
+created? or has it arisen by the power of natural causation? If the
+former hypothesis is correct, then the axiom, "_ex nihilo nihil fit_,"
+is false, even in relation to the ordinary course of nature, seeing
+that such mutations of matter as imply the continual origin of new
+substantial forms are occurring every moment. But the harmonization of
+Aristotle with theology was as dear to the Schoolmen, as the smoothing
+down the differences between Moses and science is to our Broad
+Churchmen, and they were proportionably unwilling to contradict one
+of Aristotle's fundamental propositions. Nor was their objection to
+flying in the face of the Stagirite likely to be lessened by the fact
+that such flight landed them in flat Pantheism.
+
+So Father Suarez fights stoutly for the second hypothesis; and I quote
+the principal part of his argumentation as an exquisite specimen of
+that speech which is a "darkening of counsel."
+
+    "13. Secundo de omnibus aliis formis substantialibus (sc.
+    materialibus) dicendum est non fieri proprie ex nihilo, sed
+    ex potentia praejacentis materiae educi: ideoque in effectione
+    harum formarum nil fieri contra illud axioma, _Ex nihila
+    nihil fit_, si recte intelligatur. Haec assertio sumitur ex
+    Aristotele 1. Physicorum per totum et libro 7. Metaphyss.
+    et ex aliis authoribus, quos statim referam. Et declaratur
+    breviter, nam fieri ex nihilo duo dicit, unum est fieri
+    absolute et simpliciter, aliud est quod talis effectio fit ex
+    nihilo. Primum propriè dicitur de re subsistente, quia ejus
+    est fieri, cujus est esse: id autem proprie quod subsistit et
+    habet esse; nam quod alteri adjacet, potius est quo aliud est.
+    Ex hac ergo parte, formae substantiales materiales non fiunt
+    ex nihilo, quia proprie non fiunt. Atque hanc rationem reddit
+    Divus Thomas I parte, quaestione 45, articulo 8, et quaestione
+    90, articulo 2, et ex dicendis magis explicabitur. Sumendo
+    ergo ipsum _fieri_ in hac proprietate et rigore, sic fieri
+    ex nihilo est fieri secundum se totum, id est nulla sui parte
+    praesupposita, ex quo fiat. Et hac ratione res naturales
+    dum de novo fiunt, non fiunt ex nihilo, quia fiunt ex
+    praesupposita materia, ex qua componuntur, et ita non fiunt,
+    secundum se totae, sed secundum aliquid sui. Formae autem
+    harum rerum, quamvis revera totam suam entitatem de novo
+    accipiant, quam antea non habebant, quia vero ipsae non fiunt,
+    ut dictum est, ideo neque ex nihilo fiunt. Attamen, quia
+    latiori modo sumendo verbum illud _fieri_ negari non potest:
+    quia forma facta sit, eo modo quo nunc est, et antea non erat,
+    ut etiam probat ratio dubitandi posita in principio sectionis,
+    ideo addendum est, sumpto _fieri_ in hac amplitudine, fieri
+    ex nihilo non tamen negare habitudinem materialis causea
+    intrinsecè componentis id quod fit, sed etiam habitudinem
+    causae materialis per se causantis et sustentantis formam quae
+    fit, seu confit. Diximus enim in superioribus materiam et esse
+    causam compositi et formae dependentis ab ilia: ut res ergo
+    dicatur ex nihilo fieri uterque modus causalitatis negari
+    debet; et eodem sensu accipiendum est illud axioma, ut
+    sit verum: _Ex nihilo nihil fit_, scilicet virtute agentis
+    naturalis et finiti nihil fieri, nisi ex praesupposito
+    subjecto per se concurrente, et ad compositum et ad formam,
+    si utrumque suo modo ab eodem agente fiat. Ex his ergo rectè
+    concluditur, formas substantiales materiales non fieri ex
+    nihilo, quia fiunt ex materia, quae in suo genere per se
+    concurrit, et influit ad esse, et fieri talium formarum;
+    quia, sicut esse non possunt nisi affixae materiae, a qua
+    sustententur in esse: ita nec fieri possunt, nisi earum
+    effectio et penetratio in eadem materia sustentetur. Et haec
+    est propria et per se differentia inter effectionem ex nihilo,
+    et ex aliquo, propter quam, ut infra ostendemus, prior modus
+    effciendi superat vim finitam naturaliam agentium, non vero
+    posterior.
+
+    "14. Ex his etiam constat, proprie de his formis dici non
+    creari, sed educi de potentia materiae."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Suarez, _loc. cit_. Disput. xv. § ii.]
+
+If I may venture to interpret these hard sayings, Suarez conceives
+that the evolution of substantial forms in the ordinary course of
+nature, is conditioned not only by the existence of the _materia
+prima_, but also by a certain "concurrence and influence" which
+that _materia_ exerts; and every new substantial form being thus
+conditioned, and in part, at any rate, caused, by a pre-existing
+something, cannot be said to be created out of nothing.
+
+But as the whole tenor of the context shows, Suarez applies this
+argumentation merely to the evolution of material substantial forms
+in the ordinary course of nature. How the substantial forms of animals
+and plants primarily originated, is a question to which, so far as
+I am able to discover, he does not so much as allude in his
+"Metaphysical Disputations." Nor was there any necessity that he
+should do so, inasmuch as he has devoted a separate treatise of
+considerable bulk to the discussion of all the problems which arise
+out of the account of the Creation which is given in the Book of
+Genesis. And it is a matter of wonderment to me that Mr. Mivart, who
+somewhat sharply reproves "Mr. Darwin and others" for not acquainting
+themselves with the true teachings of his Church, should allow
+himself to be indebted to a heretic like myself for a knowledge of
+the existence of that "Tractatus de opere sex Dierum," I in which
+the learned Father, of whom he justly speaks, as "an authority widely
+venerated, and whose orthodoxy has never been questioned," directly
+opposes all those opinions, for which Mr. Mivart claims the shelter of
+his authority.
+
+In the tenth and eleventh chapters of the first book of this treatise,
+Suarez inquires in what sense the word "day," as employed in the first
+chapter of Genesis, is to be taken. He discusses the views of Philo
+and of Augustin on this question, and rejects them. He suggests that
+the approval of their allegorizing interpretations by St. Thomas
+Aquinas, merely arose out of St. Thomas's modesty, and his desire not
+to seem openly to controvert St. Augustin--"voluisse Divus Thomas pro
+sua modestia subterfugere vim argumenti potius quam aperte Augustinum
+inconstantiae arguere."
+
+Finally, Suarez decides that the writer of Genesis meant that the
+term "day" should be taken in its natural sense; and he winds up
+the discussion with the very just and natural remark that "it is
+not probable that God, in inspiring Moses to write a history of the
+Creation which was to be believed by ordinary people, would have made
+him use language, the true meaning of which it is hard to discover,
+and still harder to believe."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "Tractatus de opere sex Dierum, seu de Universi
+Creatione, quatenus sex diebus perfecta esse, in libro Genesis cap. i.
+refertur, et praesertim de productioue hominis in statu innocentiae."
+Ed. Birckmann, 1622.]
+
+And in chapter xii. 3, Suarez further observes:--
+
+    "Ratio enim retinendi veram significationem diei naturalis est
+    illa communis, quod verba Scripturae non sunt ad metaphoras
+    transferenda, nisi vel necessitas cogit, vel ex ipsa scriptura
+    constet, et maximè in historica narratione et ad instructionem
+    fidei pertinente: sed haec ratio non minus cogit ad
+    intelligendum propriè dierum numerum, quam diei qualitatem,
+    QUIA NON MINUS UNO MODO QUAM ALIO DESTRUITUR SINCERITAS,
+    IMO ET VERITAS HISTORIAE. Secundo hoc valde confirmant alia
+    Scripturae loca, in quibus hi sex dies tanquam veri, et inter
+    se distincti commemorantur, ut Exod. 20 dicitur, _Sex diebus
+    operabis et facies omnia opera tua, septimo autem die Sabbatum
+    Domini Dei tui est_. Et infra: _Sex enim diebus fecit Dominus
+    caelum et terram et mare et omnia quae in eis sunt_, et idem
+    repetitur in cap. 31. In quibus locis sermonis proprietas
+    colligi potest tum ex aequiparatione, nam cum dicitur: _sex
+    diebus operabis_, propriissimè intelligitur: tum quia non est
+    verisimile, potuisse populum intelligere verba illa in alio
+    sensu, et è contrario incredibile est, Deum in suis praeceptis
+    tradendis illis verbis ad populum fuisse loquutum, quibus
+    deciperetur, falsum sensum concipiendo, si Deus non per sex
+    veros dies opera sua fecisset."
+
+These passages leave no doubt that this great doctor of the Catholic
+Church, of unchallenged authority and unspotted orthodoxy, not only
+declares it to be Catholic doctrine that the work of creation took
+place in the space of six natural days; but that he warmly repudiates,
+as inconsistent with our knowledge of the Divine attributes, the
+supposition that the language which Catholic faith requires the
+believer to hold that God inspired, was used in any other sense than
+that which He knew it would convey to the minds of those to whom it
+was addressed.
+
+And I think that in this repudiation Father Suarez will have the
+sympathy of every man of common uprightness, to whom it is certainly
+"incredible" that the Almighty should have acted in a manner which He
+would esteem dishonest and base in a man.
+
+But the belief that the universe was created in six natural days is
+hopelessly inconsistent with the doctrine of evolution, in so far as
+it applies to the stars and planetary bodies; and it can be made to
+agree with a belief in the evolution of living beings only by the
+supposition that the plants and animals, which are said to have been
+created on the third, fifth, and six days, were merely the primordial
+forms, or rudiments, out of which existing plants and animals have
+been evolved; so that, on these days, plants and animals were not
+created actually, but only potentially.
+
+The latter view is that held by Mr. Mivart, who follows St. Augustin,
+and implies that he has the sanction of Suarez. But, in point of fact,
+the latter great light of orthodoxy takes no small pains to give the
+most explicit and direct contradiction to all such imaginations, as
+the following passages prove. In the first place, as regards plants,
+Suarez discusses the problem:--
+
+    "_Quomodo herba virens et caetera vegetabilia hoc [tertio] die
+    fuerint producta._[1]
+
+    [Footnote 1: "Propter haec ergo sententia illa Augustini et
+    propter nimiam obscuritatem et subtilitatem ejus difficilis
+    creditu est: quia verisimile non est Deum inspirasse Moysi,
+    ut historiam de creatione mundi ad fidem totius populi adeo
+    necessariam per nomina dierum explicaret, quorum significatio
+    vix inveniri et difficillime ab aliquo credi posset." _(Loc.
+    cit._ Lib. I. cap. xi. 42.)]
+
+    "Praecipua enim difficultas hîc est, quam attingit Div. Thomas
+    I, par. qu. 69, art. 2, an haec productio plantarum hoc die
+    facta intelligenda sit de productione ipsarum in proprio esse
+    actuali et formali (ut sic rem explicerem) vel de productione
+    tantum in semine et in potentia. Nam Divus Augustinus libro
+    quinto Genes, ad liter, cap. 4 et 5 et libro 8, cap. 3,
+    posteriorem partem tradit, dicens, terram in hoc die accepisse
+    virtutem germinandi omnia vegetabilia quasi concepto omnium
+    illorum semine, non tamen statim vegetabilia omnia produxisse.
+    Quod primo suadet verbis illis capitis secundi. _In die quo
+    fecit Deus coelum et terram et omne virgultum agri priusquam,
+    germinaret_. Quomodo enim potuerunt virgulta fieri antequam
+    terra germinaret nisi quia causaliter prius et quasi in
+    radice, seu in semine facta sunt, et postea in actu producta?
+    Secundo confirmari potest, quia verbum illud _germinet terra_
+    optimè exponitur potestativè ut sic dicam, id est, accipiat
+    terra vim germinandi. Sicut in eodem capite dicitur _crescite
+    et multiplicamini_. Tertio potest confirmari, quia actualis
+    productio vegetabilium non tarn ad opus creationis, quam ad
+    opus propagationis pertinet, quod postea factum est. Et hanc
+    sententiam sequitur Eucherius lib. 1, in Gen. cap. 11, et illi
+    faveat Glossa, interli. Hugo. et Lyran. dum verbum _germinet_
+    dicto modo exponunt. NIHILOMINUS CONTRARIA SENTENTIA TENENDA
+    EST: SCILICET, PRODUXISSE DEUM HOC DIE HERBAM, ARBORES, ET
+    ALIA VEGETABILIA ACTU IN PROPRIA SPECIE ET NATURA. Haec est
+    communis sententia Patrum.--Basil, homil. 5; Exaemer. Ambros.
+    lib. 3; Exaemer. cap. 8,11, et 16; Chrysost, homil. 5 in Gen.
+    Damascene, lib. 2 de Fid. cap. 10; Theodor. Cyrilli. Bedae,
+    Glossae ordinariae et aliorum in Gen. Et idem sentit Divus
+    Thomas, _supra_, solvens argumenta Augustini, quamvis propter
+    reverentiam ejus quasi problematicè semper procedat. Denique
+    idem sentiunt omnes qui in his operibus veram successionem et
+    temporalem distinctionem agnoscant."
+
+Secondly, with respect to animals, Suarez is no less decided:--
+
+    _De animalium ratione carentium productione quinto et sexto
+    die facta._[1]
+
+    "32. Primo ergo nobis certum sit haec animantia non in virtute
+    tantum aut in semine, sed actu, et in seipsis, facta fuisse
+    his diebus in quibus facta narrantur. Quanquam Augustinus
+    lib. 3, Gen. ad liter, cap. 5 in sua persistens sententia
+    contrarium sentire videatur."
+
+[Footnote 1: _Loc. cit._ Lib. II. cap. vii. et viii. 1, 32, 35.]
+
+But Suarez proceeds to refute Augustin's opinions at great length, and
+his final judgment may be gathered from the following passage:--
+
+    "35. Tertio dicendum est, haec animalia omnia his diebus
+    producta esse, IN PERFECTO STATU, IN SINGULIS INDIVIDUIS, SEU
+    SPECIEBUS SUIS, JUXTA UNIUSCUJUSQUE NATURAM.... ITAQUE FUERUNT
+    OMNIA CREATA INTEGRA ET OMNIBUS SUIS MEMBRIS PERFECTA."
+
+As regards the creation of animals and plants, therefore, it is clear
+that Suarez, so far from "distinctly asserting derivative creation,"
+denies it as distinctly and positively as he can; that he is at much
+pains to refute St. Augustin's opinions; that he does not hesitate to
+regard the faint acquiescence of St. Thomas Aquinas in the views of
+his brother saint as a kindly subterfuge on the part of Divus Thomas;
+and that he affirms his own view to be that which is supported by the
+authority of the Fathers of the Church. So that, when Mr. Mivart tells
+us that Catholic theology is in harmony with all that modern science
+can possibly require; that "to the general theory of evolution, and
+to the special Darwinian form of it, no exception ... need be taken on
+the ground of orthodoxy;" and that "law and regularity, not arbitrary
+intervention, was the Patristic ideal of creation," we have to choose
+between his dictum, as a theologian, and that of a great light of
+his Church, whom he himself declares to be "widely venerated as an
+authority, and whose orthodoxy has never been questioned."
+
+But Mr. Mivart does not hesitate to push his attempt to harmonize
+science with Catholic orthodoxy to its utmost limit; and, while
+assuming that the soul of man "arises from immediate and direct
+creation," he supposes that his body was "formed at first (as now
+in each separate individual) by derivative, or secondary creation,
+through natural laws" (p. 331).
+
+This means, I presume, that an animal, having the corporeal form and
+bodily powers of man, may have been developed out of some lower form
+of life by a process of evolution; and that, after this anthropoid
+animal had existed for a longer or shorter time, God made a soul by
+direct creation, and put it into the manlike body, which, heretofore,
+had been devoid of that _anima rationalis_, which is supposed to be
+man's distinctive character.
+
+This hypothesis is incapable of either proof or disproof, and
+therefore may be true; but if Suarez is any authority, it is not
+Catholic doctrine. "Nulla est in homine forma educta de potentia
+materiae,"[1] is a dictum which is absolutely inconsistent with the
+doctrine of the natural evolution of any vital manifestation of the
+human body.
+
+[Footnote 1: Disput. xv. § x. No. 27.]
+
+Moreover, if man existed as an animal before he was provided with a
+rational soul, he must, in accordance with the elementary requirements
+of the philosophy in which Mr. Mivart delights, have possessed a
+distinct sensitive and vegetative soul, or souls. Hence, when the
+"breath of life" was breathed into the manlike animal's nostrils,
+he must have already been a living and feeling creature. But Suarez
+particularly discusses this point, and not only rejects Mr. Mivart's
+view, but adopts language of very theological strength regarding it.
+
+    "Possent praeterea his adjungi argumenta theologica, ut est
+    illud quod sumitur ex illis verbis Genes. 2. _Formavit Deus
+    hominem ex limo terrae et inspiravit in faciem ejus spiraculum
+    vitae et factus est homo in animam viventem_: ille enim
+    spiritus, quam Deus spiravit, anima rationalis fuit, et PER
+    EADEM FACTUS EST HOMO VIVENS, ET CONSEQUENTER, ETIAM SENTIENS.
+
+    "Aliud est ex VIII. Synodo Generali quae est
+    Constantinopolitana IV. can. 11, qui sic habet. _Apparet
+    quosdam in tantum impietatis venisse ut homines duas animas
+    habere dogmatizent: talis igitur impietatis inventores et
+    similes sapientes, cum Vetus et Novum Testamentum_ _omnesque
+    Ecclesiae patres unam animam rationalem hominem habere
+    asseverent, Sancta et universalis Synodus anathematizat_."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Disput. xv. "De causa formali substantiali," § x. No.
+24.]
+
+Moreover, if the animal nature of man was the result of evolution, so
+must that of woman have been. But the Catholic doctrine, according to
+Suarez, is that woman was, in the strictest and most literal sense of
+the words, made out of the rib of man.
+
+    "Nihilominus sententia Catholica est, verba illa Scripturae
+    esse ad literam intelligenda. AC PROINDE VERE, AC REALITER,
+    TULISSE DEUM COSTAM ADAE, ET, EX ILLA, CORPUS EVAE
+    FORMASSE."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "Tractatus de Opere," Lib. III. "De hominis creatione,"
+cap. ii. No. 3.]
+
+Nor is there any escape in the supposition that some woman existed
+before Eve, after the fashion of the Lilith of the rabbis;
+since Suarez qualifies that notion, along with some other Judaic
+imaginations, as simply "damnabilis."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Ibid. Lib. III. cap. iv. Nos. 8 and 9.]
+
+After the perusal of the "Tractatus de Opere" it is, in fact,
+impossible to admit that Suarez held any opinion respecting the origin
+of species, except such as is consistent with the strictest and most
+literal interpretation of the words of Genesis. For Suarez, it is
+Catholic doctrine, that the world was made in six natural days. On the
+first of these days the _materia prima_ was made out of nothing, to
+receive afterwards those "substantial forms" which moulded it into
+the universe of things; on the third day, the ancestors of all living
+plants suddenly came into being, full-grown, perfect, and possessed of
+all the properties which now distinguish them; while, on the fifth
+and sixth days, the ancestors of all existing animals were similarly
+caused to exist in their complete and perfect state, by the infusion
+of their appropriate material substantial forms into the matter
+which had already been created. Finally on the sixth day, the _anima
+rationalis_--that rational and immortal substantial form which is
+peculiar to man--was created out of nothing, and "breathed into" a
+mass of matter which, till then, was mere dust of the earth, and so
+man arose. But the species man was represented by a solitary male
+individual, until the Creator took out one of his ribs and fashioned
+it into a female.
+
+This is the view of the "Genesis of Species," held by Suarez to be the
+only one consistent with Catholic faith: it is because he holds this
+view to be Catholic that he does not hesitate to declare St. Augustin
+unsound, and St. Thomas Aquinas guilty of weakness, when the one
+swerved from this view and the other tolerated the deviation. And,
+until responsible Catholic authority--say, for example, the Archbishop
+of Westminster--formally declares that Suarez was wrong, and that
+Catholic priests are free to teach their flocks that the world was
+_not_ made in six natural days, and that plants and animals were _not_
+created in their perfect and complete state, but have been evolved by
+natural processes through long ages from certain germs in which they
+were potentially contained, I, for one, shall feel bound to believe
+that the doctrines of Suarez are the only ones which are sanctioned
+by Infallible Authority, as represented by the Holy Father and the
+Catholic Church.
+
+I need hardly add that they are as absolutely denied and repudiated by
+Scientific Authority, as represented by Reason and Fact. The question
+whether the earth and the immediate progenitors of its present living
+population were made in six natural days or not, is no longer one upon
+which two opinions can be held.
+
+The fact that it did not so come into being stands upon as sound a
+basis as any fact of history whatever. It is not true that existing
+plants and animals came into being within three days of the creation
+of the earth out of nothing, for it is certain that innumerable
+generations of other plants and animals lived upon the earth before
+its present population. And when, Sunday after Sunday, men who profess
+to be our instructors in righteousness read out the statement, "In
+six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that in them
+is," in innumerable churches, they are either propagating what they
+may easily know, and, therefore, are bound to know, to be falsities;
+or, if they use the words in some non-natural sense, they fall below
+the moral standard of the much-abused Jesuit.
+
+Thus far the contradiction between Catholic verity and Scientific
+verity is complete and absolute, quite independently of the truth or
+falsehood of the doctrine of evolution. But, for those who hold the
+doctrine of evolution, all the Catholic verities about the creation of
+living beings must be no less false. For them, the assertion that
+the progenitors of all existing plants were made on the third day, of
+animals on the fifth and sixth days, in the forms they now present, is
+simply false. Nor can they admit that man was made suddenly out of the
+dust of the earth; while it would be an insult to ask an evolutionist
+whether he credits the preposterous fable respecting the fabrication
+of woman to which Suarez pins his faith. If Suarez has rightly stated
+Catholic doctrine, then is evolution utter heresy. And such I believe
+it to be. In addition to the truth of the doctrine of evolution,
+indeed, one of its greatest merits in my eyes, is the fact that it
+occupies a position of complete and irreconcilable antagonism to that
+vigorous and consistent enemy of the highest intellectual, moral, and
+social life of mankind--the Catholic Church. No doubt, Mr. Mivart,
+like other putters of new wine into old bottles, is actuated by
+motives which are worthy of respect, and even of sympathy; but his
+attempt has met with the fate which the Scripture prophesies for all
+such.
+
+Catholic theology, like all theologies which are based upon the
+assumption of the truth of the account of the origin of things given
+in the Book of Genesis, being utterly irreconcilable with the doctrine
+of evolution, the student of science, who is satisfied that the
+evidence upon which the doctrine of evolution rests, is incomparably
+stronger and better than that upon which the supposed authority of
+the Book of Genesis rests, will not trouble himself further with these
+theologies, but will confine his attention to such arguments against
+the view he holds as are based upon purely scientific data--and
+by scientific data I do not merely mean the truths of physical,
+mathematical, or logical science, but those of moral and metaphysical
+science. For, by science, I understand all knowledge which rests upon
+evidence and reasoning of a like character to that which claims our
+assent to ordinary scientific propositions. And if any one is able to
+make good the assertion that his theology rests upon valid evidence
+and sound reasoning, then it appears to me that such theology will
+take its place as a part of science.
+
+The present antagonism between theology and science does not arise
+from any assumption by the men of science that all theology must
+necessarily be excluded from science; but simply because they are
+unable to allow that reason and morality have two weights and two
+measures; and that the belief in a proposition, because authority
+tells you it is true, or because you wish to believe it, which is a
+high crime and misdemeanour when the subject matter of reasoning is
+of one kind, becomes under the _alias_ of "faith" the greatest of all
+virtues, when the subject matter of reasoning is of another kind.
+
+The Bishop of Brechin said well the other day:--"Liberality in
+religion--I do not mean tender and generous allowances for the
+mistakes of others--is only unfaithfulness to truth."[1] And, with
+the same qualification, I venture to paraphrase the Bishop's dictum:
+"Ecclesiasticism in science is only unfaithfulness to truth."
+
+[Footnote 1: Charge at the Diocesan Synod of Brechin. _Scotsman_,
+Sept. 14, 1871.]
+
+Elijah's great question, "Will you serve God or Baal? Choose ye," is
+uttered audibly enough in the ears of every one of us as we come to
+manhood. Let every man who tries to answer it seriously, ask himself
+whether he can be satisfied with the Baal of authority, and with all
+the good things his worshippers are promised in this world and the
+next. If he can, let him, if he be so inclined, amuse himself with
+such scientific implements as authority tells him are safe and will
+not cut his fingers; but let him not imagine he is, or can be, both a
+true son of the Church and a loyal soldier of science.
+
+And, on the other hand, if the blind acceptance of authority appears
+to him in its true colours, as mere private judgment _in excelsis_,
+and if he have the courage to stand alone, face to face with the abyss
+of the Eternal and Unknowable, let him be content, once for all, not
+only to renounce the good things promised by "Infallibility," but even
+to bear the bad things which it prophesies; content to follow reason
+and fact in singleness and honesty of purpose, wherever they may lead,
+in the sure faith that a hell of honest men will, to him, be more
+endurable than a paradise full of angelic shams.
+
+Mr. Mivart asserts that "without a belief in a personal God, there is
+no religion worthy of the name." This is a matter of opinion. But
+it may be asserted, with less reason to fear contradiction, that the
+worship of a personal God, who, on Mr. Mivart's hypothesis, must
+have used language studiously calculated to deceive His creatures and
+worshippers, is "no religion worthy of the name." "Incredibile est,
+Deum illis verbis ad populum fuisse locutum quibus deciperetur," is a
+verdict in which, for once, Jesuit casuistry concurs with the healthy
+moral sense of all mankind.
+
+Having happily got quit of the theological aspect of evolution, the
+supporter of that great truth who turns to the scientific objections
+which are brought against it by recent criticism, finds, to his
+relief, that the work before him is greatly lightened by the
+spontaneous retreat of the enemy from nine-tenths of the territory
+which he occupied ten years ago. Even the Quarterly Reviewer not only
+abstains from venturing to deny that evolution has taken place, but he
+openly admits that Mr. Darwin has forced on men's minds "a recognition
+of the probability, if not more, of evolution, and of the certainty of
+the action of natural selection" (p. 49).
+
+I do not quite see, myself, how, if the action of natural selection is
+_certain_, the occurrence of evolution is only _probable_; inasmuch as
+the development of a new species by natural selection is, so far as
+it goes, evolution. However, it is not worth while to quarrel with
+the precise terms of a sentence which shows that the high watermark of
+intelligence among those most respectable of Britons, the readers of
+the _Quarterly Review_, has now reached such a level that the next
+tide may lift them easily and pleasantly on the once-dreaded shore of
+evolution. Nor, having got there, do they seem likely to stop, until
+they have reached the inmost heart of that great region, and accepted
+the ape ancestry of, at any rate, the body of man. For the Reviewer
+admits that Mr. Darwin can be said to have established:
+
+    "That if the various kinds of lower animals have been evolved
+    one from the other by a process of natural generation or
+    evolution, then it becomes highly probable, _à priori_, that
+    man's body has been similarly evolved; but this, in such a
+    case, becomes equally probable from the admitted fact that he
+    is an animal at all" (p. 65).
+
+From the principles laid down in the last sentence, it would follow
+that if man were constructed upon a plan as different from that of any
+other animal as that of a sea-urchin is from that of a whale, it
+would be "equally probable" that he had been developed from some other
+animal as it is now, when we know that for every bone, muscle, tooth,
+and even pattern of tooth, in man, there is a corresponding bone,
+muscle, tooth, and pattern of tooth, in an ape. And this shows one
+of two things--either that the Quarterly Reviewer's notions of
+probability are peculiar to himself; or, that he has such an
+overpowering faith in the truth of evolution, that no extent of
+structural break between one animal and another is sufficient to
+destroy his conviction that evolution has taken place.
+
+But this by the way. The importance of the admission that there is
+nothing in man's physical structure to interfere with his having been
+evolved from an ape, is not lessened because it is grudgingly made and
+inconsistently qualified. And instead of jubilating over the extent of
+the enemy's retreat, it will be more worth while to lay siege to his
+last stronghold--the position that there is a distinction in kind
+between the mental faculties of man and those of brutes; and that, in
+consequence of this distinction in kind, no gradual progress from
+the mental faculties of the one to those of the other can have taken
+place.
+
+The Quarterly Reviewer entrenches himself within formidable-looking
+psychological outworks, and there is no getting at him without
+attacking them one by one.
+
+He begins by laying down the following proposition: "'Sensation' is
+not 'thought,' and no amount of the former would constitute the most
+rudimentary condition of the latter, though sensations supply the
+conditions for the existence of 'thought' or 'knowledge'" (p. 67).
+
+This proposition is true, or not, according to the sense in which the
+word "thought" is employed. Thought is not uncommonly used in a sense
+co-extensive with consciousness, and, especially, with those states
+of consciousness we call memory. If I recall the impression made by a
+colour or an odour, and distinctly remember blueness or muskiness, I
+may say with perfect propriety that I "think of" blue or musk; and,
+so long as the thought lasts, it is simply a faint reproduction of the
+state of consciousness to which I gave the name in question, when it
+first became known to me as a sensation.
+
+Now, if that faint reproduction of a sensation, which we call the
+memory of it, is properly termed a thought, it seems to me to be
+a somewhat forced, proceeding to draw a hard and fast line of
+demarcation between thoughts and sensations. If sensations are
+not rudimentary thoughts, it may be said that some thoughts are
+rudimentary sensations. No amount of sound constitutes an echo, but
+for all that no one would pretend that an echo is something of totally
+different nature from a sound. Again, nothing can be looser, or more
+inaccurate, than the assertion that "sensations supply the conditions
+for the existence of thought or knowledge." If this implies that
+sensations supply the conditions for the existence of our memory of
+sensations or of our thoughts about sensations, it is a truism which
+it is hardly worth while to state so solemnly. If it implies that
+sensations supply anything else, it is obviously erroneous. And if it
+means, as the context would seem to show it does, that sensations are
+the subject-matter of all thought or knowledge, then it is no less
+contrary to fact, inasmuch as our emotions, which constitute a
+large part of the subject-matter of thought or of knowledge, are not
+sensations.
+
+More eccentric still is the Quarterly Reviewer's next piece of
+psychology.
+
+    "Altogether, we may clearly distinguish at least six kinds of
+    action to which the nervous system ministers:--
+
+    "I. That in which impressions received result in appropriate
+    movements without the intervention of sensation or thought, as
+    in the cases of injury above given.--This is the reflex action
+    of the nervous system.
+
+    "II. That in which stimuli from without result in sensations
+    through the agency of which their due effects are wrought
+    out--Sensation.
+
+    "III. That in which impressions received result in
+    sensations which give rise to the observation of sensible
+    objects.--Sensible perception.
+
+    "IV. That in which sensations and perceptions continue to
+    coalesce, agglutinate, and combine in more or less complex
+    aggregations, according to the laws of the association of
+    sensible perceptions.--Association.
+
+    "The above four groups contain only indeliberate operations,
+    consisting, as they do at the best, but of mere _presentative_
+    sensible ideas in no way implying any reflective or
+    _representative_ faculty. Such actions minister to and form
+    _Instinct_. Besides these, we may distinguish two other kinds
+    of mental action, namely:--
+
+    "V. That in which sensations and sensible perceptions are
+    reflected on by thought, and recognized as our own, and
+    we ourselves recognized by ourselves as affected and
+    perceiving.--Self-consciousness.
+
+    "VI. That in which we reflect upon our sensations or
+    perceptions, and ask what they are, and why they are.--Reason.
+
+    "These two latter kinds of action are deliberate operations,
+    performed, as they are, by means of representative ideas
+    implying the use of a _reflective representative_ faculty.
+    Such actions distinguish the _intellect_ or rational faculty.
+    Now, we assert that possession in perfection of all the first
+    four _(presentative)_ kinds of action by no means implies
+    the possession of the last two _(representative)_ kinds.
+    All persons, we think, must admit the truth of the following
+    proposition:--
+
+    "Two faculties are distinct, not in degree but _in kind_,
+    if we may possess the one in perfection without that fact
+    implying that we possess the other also. Still more will
+    this be the case if the two faculties tend to increase in
+    an inverse ratio. Yet this is the distinction between the
+    _instinctive_ and the _intellectual_ parts of man's nature.
+
+    "As to animals, we fully admit that they may possess all the
+    first four groups of actions--that they may have, so to speak,
+    mental images of sensible objects combined in all degrees of
+    complexity, as governed by the laws of association. We deny to
+    them, on the other hand, the possession of the last two
+    kinds of mental action. We deny them, that is, the power of
+    reflecting on their own existence, or of inquiring into the
+    nature of objects and their causes. We deny that they know
+    that they know or know themselves in knowing. In other words,
+    we deny them _reason_. The possession of the presentative
+    faculty, as above explained, in no way implies that of the
+    reflective faculty; nor does any amount of direct operation
+    imply the power of asking the reflective question before
+    mentioned, as to 'what' and 'why.'" _(Loc. cit_. pp. 67, 68.)
+
+Sundry points are worthy of notice in this remarkable account of the
+intellectual powers. In the first place the Reviewer ignores emotion
+and volition, though they are no inconsiderable "kinds of action to
+which the nervous system ministers," and memory has a place in his
+classification only by implication. Secondly, we are told that the
+second "kind of action to which the nervous system ministers" is "that
+in which stimuli from without result in sensations through the agency
+of which their due effects are wrought out.--Sensation." Does this
+really mean that, in the writer's opinion, "sensation" is the "agent"
+by which the "due effect" of the stimulus, which gives rise to
+sensation, is "wrought out"? Suppose somebody runs a pin into me. The
+"due effect" of that particular stimulus will probably be threefold;
+namely, a sensation of pain, a start, and an interjectional expletive.
+Does the Quarterly Reviewer really think that the "sensation" is the
+"agent" by which the other two phenomena are wrought out?
+
+But these matters are of little moment to anyone but the Reviewer
+and those persons who may incautiously take their physiology, or
+psychology, from him. The really interesting point is this, that when
+he fully admits that animals "may possess all the first four groups
+of actions," he grants all that is necessary for the purposes of
+the evolutionist. For he hereby admits that in animals "impressions
+received result in sensations which give rise to the observation
+of sensible objects," and that they have what he calls "sensible
+perception." Nor was it possible to help the admission; for we have
+as much reason to ascribe to animals, as we have to attribute to our
+fellow-men, the power, not only of perceiving external objects as
+external, and thus practically recognizing the difference between the
+self and the not-self; but that of distinguishing between like
+and unlike, and between simultaneous and successive things. When a
+gamekeeper goes out coursing with a greyhound in leash, and a hare
+crosses the field of vision, he becomes the subject of those states
+of consciousness we call visual sensation, and that is all he receives
+from without. Sensation, as such, tells him nothing whatever about
+the cause of these states of consciousness; but the thinking faculty
+instantly goes to work upon the raw material of sensation furnished to
+it through the eye, and gives rise to a train of thoughts. First comes
+the thought that there is an object at a certain distance; then arises
+another thought--the perception of the likeness between the states of
+consciousness awakened by this object to those presented by memory,
+as, on some former occasion, called up by a hare; this is succeeded
+by another thought of the nature of an emotion--namely, the desire
+to possess the hare; then follows a longer or shorter train of other
+thoughts, which end in a volition and an act--the loosing of the
+greyhound from the leash. These several thoughts are the concomitants
+of a process which goes on in the nervous system of the man. Unless
+the nerve-elements of the retina, of the optic nerve, of the brain, of
+the spinal chord, and of the nerves of the arms went through certain
+physical changes in due order and correlation, the various states
+of consciousness which have been enumerated would not make their
+appearance. So that in this, as in all other intellectual operations,
+we have to distinguish two sets of successive changes--one in the
+physical basis of consciousness, and the other in consciousness
+itself; one set which may, and doubtless will, in course of time,
+be followed through all their complexities by the anatomist and the
+physicist, and one of which only the man himself can have immediate
+knowledge.
+
+As it is very necessary to keep up a clear distinction between
+these two processes, let the one be called _neurosis_, and the other
+_psychosis_. When the gamekeeper was first trained to his work, every
+step in the process of neurosis was accompanied by a corresponding
+step in that of psychosis, or nearly so. He was conscious of seeing
+something, conscious of making sure it was a hare, conscious of
+desiring to catch it, and therefore to loose the greyhound at the
+right time, conscious of the acts by which he let the dog out of the
+leash. But with practice, though the various steps of the neurosis
+remain--for otherwise the impression on the retina would not result
+in the loosing of the dog--the great majority of the steps of the
+psychosis vanish, and the loosing of the dog follows unconsciously, or
+as we say, without thinking about it, upon the sight of the hare.
+No one will deny that the series of acts which originally intervened
+between the sensation and the letting go of the dog were, in the
+strictest sense, intellectual and rational operations. Do they cease
+to be so when the man ceases to be conscious of them? That depends
+upon what is the essence and what the accident of those operations,
+which, taken together, constitute ratiocination.
+
+Now ratiocination is resolvable into predication, and predication
+consists in marking, in some way, the existence, the co-existence,
+the succession, the likeness and unlikeness, of things or their ideas.
+Whatever does this, reasons; and if a machine produces the effects of
+reason, I see no more ground for denying to it the reasoning power,
+because it is unconscious, than I see for refusing to Mr. Babbage's
+engine the title of a calculating machine on the same grounds.
+
+Thus it seems to me that a gamekeeper reasons, whether he is conscious
+or unconscious, whether his reasoning is carried on by neurosis alone,
+or whether it involves more or less psychosis. And if this is true
+of the gamekeeper, it is also true of the greyhound. The essential
+resemblances in all points of structure and function, so far as they
+can be studied, between the nervous system of the man and that of the
+dog, leave no reasonable doubt that the processes which go on in the
+one are just like those which take place in the other. In the dog,
+there can be no doubt that the nervous matter which lies between
+the retina and the muscles undergoes a series of changes, precisely
+analogous to those which, in the man, give rise to sensation, a train
+of thought, and volition.
+
+Whether this neurosis is accompanied by such psychosis as ours, it is
+impossible to say; but those who deny that the nervous changes, which,
+in the dog, correspond with those which underlie thought in a man, are
+accompanied by consciousness, are equally bound to maintain that those
+nervous changes in the dog, which correspond with those which underlie
+sensation in a man, are also unaccompanied by consciousness. In other
+words, if there is no ground for believing that a dog thinks, neither
+is there any for believing that he feels.
+
+As is well known, Descartes boldly faced this dilemma, and
+maintained that all animals were mere machines and entirely devoid of
+consciousness. But he did not deny, nor can anyone deny, that in this
+case they are reasoning machines, capable of performing all those
+operations which are performed by the nervous system of man when he
+reasons. For even supposing that in man, and in man only, psychosis is
+superadded to neurosis--the neurosis which is common to both man
+and animal gives their reasoning processes a fundamental unity.
+But Descartes's position is open to very serious objections, if the
+evidence that animals feel is insufficient to prove that they really
+do so. What is the value of the evidence which leads one to believe
+that one's fellow-man feels? The only evidence in this argument of
+analogy, is the similarity of his structure and of his actions to
+one's own. And if that is good enough to prove that one's fellow-man
+feels, surely it is good enough to prove that an ape feels. For the
+differences of structure and function between men and apes are utterly
+insufficient to warrant the assumption, that while men have those
+states of consciousness we call sensations, apes have nothing of the
+kind. Moreover, we have as good evidence that apes are capable of
+emotion and volition as we have that men other than ourselves are. But
+if apes possess three out of the four kinds of states of consciousness
+which we discover in ourselves, what possible reason is there for
+denying them the fourth? If they are capable of sensation, emotion,
+and volition, why are they to be denied thought (in the sense of
+predication)?
+
+No answer has ever been given to these questions. And as the law of
+continuity is as much opposed, as is the common sense of mankind, to
+the notion that all animals are unconscious machines, it may safely be
+assumed that no sufficient answer ever will be given to them.
+
+There is every reason to believe that consciousness is a function
+of nervous matter, when, that nervous matter has attained a certain
+degree of organization, just as we know the other "actions to which
+the nervous system ministers," such as reflex action and the like, to
+be. As I have ventured to state my view of the matter elsewhere, "our
+thoughts are the expression of molecular changes in that matter of
+life which is the source of our other vital phenomena."
+
+Mr. Wallace objects to this statement in the following terms:--
+
+    "Not having been able to find any clue in Professor Huxley's
+    writings to the steps by which he passes from those vital
+    phenomena, which consist only, in their last analysis, of
+    movements by particles of matter, to those other phenomena
+    which we term thought, sensation, or consciousness; but,
+    knowing that so positive an expression of opinion from him
+    will have great weight with many persons, I shall endeavour
+    to show, with as much brevity as is compatible with clearness,
+    that this theory is not only incapable of proof, but is also,
+    as it appears to me, inconsistent with accurate conceptions of
+    molecular physics."
+
+With all respect for Mr. Wallace, it appears to me that his remarks
+are entirely beside the question. I really know nothing whatever, and
+never hope to know anything, of the steps by which the passage from
+molecular movement to states of consciousness is effected; and I
+entirely agree with the sense of the passage which he quotes from
+Professor Tyndall, apparently imagining that it is in opposition to
+the view I hold.
+
+All that I have to say is, that, in my belief, consciousness and
+molecular action are capable of being expressed by one another, just
+as heat and mechanical action are capable of being expressed in terms
+of one another. Whether we shall ever be able to express consciousness
+in foot-pounds, or not, is more than I will venture to say; but
+that there is evidence of the existence of some correlation between
+mechanical motion and consciousness, is as plain as anything can be.
+Suppose the poles of an electric battery to be connected by a platinum
+wire. A certain intensity of the current gives rise in the mind of a
+bystander to that state of consciousness we call a "dull red light"--a
+little greater intensity to another which we call a "bright red
+light;" increase the intensity, and the light becomes white; and,
+finally, it dazzles, and a new state of consciousness arises, which we
+term pain. Given the same wire and the same nervous apparatus, and the
+amount of electric force required to give rise to these several states
+of consciousness will be the same, however often the experiment
+is repeated. And as the electric force, the light-waves, and the
+nerve-vibrations caused by the impact of the light-waves on the
+retina, are all expressions of the molecular changes which are taking
+place in the elements of the battery; so consciousness is, in the same
+sense, an expression of the molecular changes which take place in that
+nervous matter, which is the organ of consciousness.
+
+And, since this, and any number of similar examples that may be
+required, prove that one form of consciousness, at any rate, is, in
+the strictest sense, the expression of molecular change, it really
+is not worth while to pursue the inquiry, whether a fact so easily
+established is consistent with any particular system of molecular
+physics or not.
+
+Mr. Wallace, in fact, appears to me to have mixed up two very distinct
+propositions: the one, the indisputable truth that consciousness is
+correlated with molecular changes in the organ of consciousness;
+the other, that the nature of that correlation is known, or can be
+conceived, which is quite another matter. Mr. Wallace, presumably,
+believes in that correlation of phenomena which we call cause and
+effect as firmly as I do. But if he has ever been able to form the
+faintest notion how a cause gives rise to its effect, all I can say is
+that I envy him. Take the simplest case imaginable--suppose a ball in
+motion to impinge upon another ball at rest. I know very well, as a
+matter of fact, that the ball in motion will communicate some of its
+motion to the ball at rest, and that the motion of the two balls after
+collision is precisely correlated with the masses of both balls and
+the amount of motion of the first. But how does this come about? In
+what manner can we conceive that the _vis viva_ of the first ball
+passes into the second? I confess I can no more form any conception
+of what happens in this case, than I can of what takes place when the
+motion of particles of my nervous matter, caused by the impact of a
+similar ball, gives rise to the state of consciousness I call pain. In
+ultimate analysis everything is incomprehensible, and the whole object
+of science is simply to reduce the fundamental incomprehensibilities
+to the smallest possible number.
+
+But to return to the Quarterly Reviewer. He admits that animals
+have "mental images of sensible objects, combined in all degrees of
+complexity, as governed by the laws of association." Presumably, by
+this confused and imperfect statement the Reviewer means to admit
+more than the words imply. For mental images of sensible objects,
+even though "combined in all degrees of complexity," are, and can be,
+nothing more than mental images of sensible objects. But judgments,
+emotions, and volitions cannot by any possibility be included under
+the head of "mental images of sensible objects."
+
+If the greyhound had no better mental endowment than the Reviewer
+allows him, he might have the "mental image" of the "sensible
+object"--the hare--and that might be combined with the mental images
+of other sensible objects, to any degree of complexity, but he would
+have no power of judging it to be at a certain distance from him; no
+power of perceiving its similarity to his memory of a hare; and no
+desire to get at it. Consequently he would stand stock still, and the
+noble art of coursing would have no existence. On the other hand,
+as that art is largely practised, it follows that greyhounds alone
+possess a number of mental powers, the existence of which, in any
+animal, is absolutely denied by the Quarterly Reviewer.
+
+Finally, what are the mental powers which he reserves as the especial
+prerogative of man? They are two. First, the recognition of "ourselves
+by ourselves as affected and perceiving.--Self-consciousness."
+
+Secondly. "The reflection upon our sensations and perceptions, and
+asking what they are and why they are.--Reason."
+
+To the faculty defined in the last sentence, the Reviewer, without
+assigning the least ground for thus departing from both common usage
+and technical propriety, applies the name of reason. But if man is not
+to be considered a reasoning being, unless he asks what his sensations
+and perceptions are, and why they are, what is a Hottentot, or an
+Australian black fellow; or what the "swinked hedger" of an ordinary
+agricultural district? Nay, what becomes of an average country squire
+or parson? How many of these worthy persons who, as their wont is,
+read the _Quarterly Review_, would do other than stand agape, if you
+asked them whether they had ever reflected what their sensations and
+perceptions are, and why they are?
+
+So that if the Reviewer's new definition of reason be correct, the
+majority of men, even among the most civilized nations, are devoid of
+that supreme characteristic of manhood. And if it be as absurd as I
+believe it to be, then, as reason is certainly not self-consciousness,
+and as it, as certainly, is one of the "actions to which the nervous
+system ministers," we must, if the Reviewer's classification is to be
+adopted, seek it among those four faculties which he allows animals
+to possess. And thus, for the second time, he really surrenders, while
+seeming to defend, his position.
+
+The Quarterly Reviewer, as we have seen, lectures the evolutionists
+upon their want of knowledge of philosophy altogether. Mr. Mivart
+is not less pained at Mr. Darwin's ignorance of moral science. It is
+grievous to him that Mr. Darwin (and _nous autres_) should not
+have grasped the elementary distinction between material and formal
+morality; and he lays down as an axiom, of which no tyro ought to be
+ignorant, the position that "acts, unaccompanied by mental acts
+of conscious will directed towards the fulfilment of duty," are
+"absolutely destitute of the most incipient degree of real or formal
+goodness."
+
+Now this may be Mr. Mivart's opinion, but it is a proposition which,
+really, does not stand on the footing of an undisputed axiom. Mr. Mill
+denies it in his work on Utilitarianism. The most influential writer
+of a totally opposed school, Mr. Carlyle, is never weary of denying
+it, and upholding the merit of that virtue which is unconscious; nay,
+it is, to my understanding, extremely hard to reconcile Mr. Mivart's
+dictum with that noble summary of the whole duty of man--"Thou shalt
+love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and
+with all thy strength; and thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself."
+According to Mr. Mivart's definition, the man who loves God and his
+neighbour, and, out of sheer love and affection for both, does all he
+can to please them, is, nevertheless, destitute of a particle of real
+goodness.
+
+And it further happens that Mr. Darwin, who is charged by Mr. Mivart
+with being ignorant of the distinction between material and formal
+goodness, discusses the very question at issue, in a passage which
+is well worth reading (vol. i.p. 87), and also comes to a conclusion
+opposed to Mr. Mivart's axiom. A proposition which has been so much
+disputed and repudiated, should, under no circumstances, have been
+thus confidently assumed to be true. For myself, I utterly reject
+it, inasmuch as the logical consequence of the adoption of any such
+principle is the denial of all moral value to sympathy and affection.
+According to Mr. Mivart's axiom, the man who, seeing another
+struggling in the water, leaps in at the risk of his own life to save
+him, does that which is "destitute of the most incipient degree of
+real goodness," unless, as he strips off his coat, he says to himself,
+"Now mind, I am going to do this because it is my duty and for no
+other reason;" and the most beautiful character to which humanity
+can attain, that of the man who does good without thinking about it,
+because he loves justice and mercy and is repelled by evil, has no
+claim on our moral approbation. The denial that a man acts morally
+because he does not think whether he does so or not, may be put upon
+the same footing as the denial of the title of an arithmetician to the
+calculating boy, because he did not know how he worked his sums. If
+mankind ever generally accept and act upon Mr. Mivart's axiom, they
+will simply become a set of most unendurable prigs; but they never
+have accepted it, and I venture to hope that evolution has nothing so
+terrible in store for the human race.
+
+But, if an action, the motive of which is nothing out affection or
+sympathy, may be deserving of moral approbation and really good, who
+that has ever had a dog of his own will deny that animals are capable
+of such actions? Mr. Mivart indeed says:--"It may be safely affirmed,
+however, that there is no trace in brutes of any actions simulating
+morality which are not explicable by the fear of punishment, by the
+hope of pleasure, or by personal affection" (p. 221). But it may
+be affirmed, with equal truth, that there is no trace in men of any
+actions which are not traceable to the same motives. If a man does
+anything, he does it either because he fears to be punished if he
+does not do it, or because he hopes to obtain pleasure by doing it, or
+because he gratifies his affections[1] by doing it.
+
+[Footnote 1: In separating pleasure and the gratification of
+affection, I simply follow Mr. Mivart without admitting the justice of
+the separation.]
+
+Assuming the position of the absolute moralists, let it be granted
+that there is a perception of right and wrong innate in every man.
+This means, simply, that when certain ideas are presented to his
+mind, the feeling of approbation arises; and when certain others, the
+feeling of disapprobation. To do your duty is to earn the approbation
+of your conscience, or moral sense; to fail in your duty is to feel
+its disapprobation, as we all say. Now, is approbation a pleasure or
+a pain? Surely a pleasure. And is disapprobation a pleasure or a pain?
+Surely a pain. Consequently all that is really meant by the absolute
+moralists is that there is, in the very nature of man, something which
+enables him to be conscious of these particular pleasures and pains.
+And when they talk of immutable and eternal principles of morality,
+the only intelligible sense which I can put upon the words, is that
+the nature of man being what it is, he always has been, and always
+will be, capable of feeling these particular pleasures and pains. _A
+priori_, I have nothing to say against this proposition. Admitting its
+truth, I do not see how the moral faculty is on a different footing
+from any of the other faculties of man. If I choose to say that it is
+an immutable and eternal law of human nature that "ginger is hot
+in the mouth," the assertion has as much foundation of truth as the
+other, though I think it would be expressed in needlessly pompous
+language. I must confess that I have never been able to understand why
+there should be such a bitter quarrel between the intuitionists and
+the utilitarians. The intuitionist is, after all, only a utilitarian
+who believes that a particular class of pleasures and pains has an
+especial importance, by reason of its foundation in the nature of man,
+and its inseparable connection with his very existence as a thinking
+being. And as regards the motive of personal affection: Love, as
+Spinoza profoundly says, is the association of pleasure with that
+which is loved.[1] Or, to put it to the common sense of mankind,
+is the gratification of affection a pleasure or a pain? Surely a
+pleasure. So that whether the motive which leads us to perform
+an action is the love of our neighbour, or the love of God, it is
+undeniable that pleasure enters into that motive.
+
+[Footnote 1: "Nempe, Amor nihil aliud est, quam Laetitia, concomitante
+idea causae externae."--_Ethices_ III. xiii.]
+
+Thus much in reply to Mr. Mivart's arguments. I cannot but think
+that it is to be regretted that he ekes them out by ascribing to the
+doctrines of the philosophers with whom he does not agree, logical
+consequences which have been over and over again proved not to flow
+from them: and when reason fails him, tries the effect of an injurious
+nickname. According to the views of Mr. Spencer, Mr. Mill, and Mr.
+Darwin, Mr. Mivart tells us, "_virtue is a mere kind of retrieving;"
+_ and, that we may not miss the point of the joke, he puts it in
+italics. But what if it is? Does that make it less virtue? Suppose I
+say that sculpture is a "mere way" of stone-cutting, and painting
+a "mere way" of daubing canvas, and music a "mere way" of making a
+noise, the statements are quite true; but they only show that I see no
+other method of depreciating some of the noblest aspects of humanity,
+than that of using language in an inadequate and misleading sense
+about them. And the peculiar in appropriateness of this particular
+nickname to the views in question, arises from the circumstance which
+Mr. Mivart would doubtless have recollected, if his wish to ridicule
+had not for the moment obscured his judgment--that whether the law
+of evolution applies to man or not, that of hereditary transmission
+certainly does. Mr. Mivart will hardly deny that a man owes a large
+share of the moral tendencies which he exhibits to his ancestors;
+and the man who inherits a desire to steal from a kleptomaniac, or a
+tendency to benevolence from a Howard, is, so far as he illustrates
+hereditary transmission, comparable to the dog who inherits the desire
+to fetch a duck out of the water from his retrieving sire. So that,
+evolution, or no evolution, moral qualities are comparable to a "kind
+of retrieving;" though the comparison, if meant for the purposes of
+casting obloquy on evolution, does not say much for the fairness of
+those who make it.
+
+The Quarterly Reviewer and Mr. Mivart base their objections to the
+evolution of the mental faculties of man from those of some lower
+animal form, upon what they maintain to be a difference in kind
+between the mental and moral faculties of men and brutes; and I
+have endeavoured to show, by exposing the utter unsoundness of their
+philosophical basis, that these objections are devoid of importance.
+
+The objections which Mr. Wallace brings forward to the doctrine of
+the evolution of the mental faculties of man from those of brutes
+by natural causes, are of a different order, and require separate
+consideration.
+
+If I understand him rightly, he by no means doubts that both the
+bodily and the mental faculties of man have been evolved from those of
+some lower animal; but he is of opinion, that some agency beyond that
+which has been concerned in the evolution of ordinary animals, has
+been operative in the case of man. "A superior intelligence has guided
+the development of man in a definite direction and for a special
+purpose, just as man guides the development of many animal and
+vegetable forms."[1] I understand this to mean that, just as the
+rock-pigeon has been produced by natural causes, while the
+evolution of the tumbler from the blue rock has required the special
+intervention of the intelligence of man, so some anthropoid form may
+have been evolved by variation and natural selection; but it could
+never have given rise to man, unless some superior intelligence had
+played the part of the pigeon-fancier.
+
+[Footnote 1: The limits of Natural Selection as applied to Man _(loc.
+cit_. p. 359).]
+
+According to Mr. Wallace, "whether we compare the savage with the
+higher developments of man, or with the brutes around him, we are
+alike driven to the conclusion, that, in his large and well-developed
+brain, he possesses an organ quite disproportioned to his
+requirements" (p. 343); and he asks, "What is there in the life of the
+savage but the satisfying of the cravings of appetite in the simplest
+and easiest way? What thoughts, idea, or actions are there that raise
+him many grades above the elephant or the ape?" (p. 342). I answer Mr.
+Wallace by citing a remarkable passage which occurs in his instructive
+paper on "Instinct in Man and Animals."
+
+    "Savages make long journeys in many directions, and, their
+    whole faculties being directed to the subject, they gain a
+    wide and accurate knowledge of the topography, not only
+    of their own district, but of all the regions round about.
+    Everyone who has travelled in a new direction communicates his
+    knowledge to those who have travelled less, and descriptions
+    of routes and localities, and minute incidents of travel, form
+    one of the main staples of conversation around the evening
+    fire. Every wanderer or captive from another tribe adds to
+    the store of information, and, as the very existence of
+    individuals and of whole families and tribes depends upon
+    the completeness of this knowledge, all the acute perceptive
+    faculties of the adult savage are directed to acquiring and
+    perfecting it. The good hunter or warrior thus comes to know
+    the bearing of every hill and mountain range, the directions
+    and junctions of all the streams, the situation of each tract
+    characterized by peculiar vegetation, not only within the
+    area he has himself traversed, but perhaps for a hundred miles
+    around it. His acute observation enables him to detect the
+    slightest undulations of the surface, the various changes of
+    subsoil and alterations in the character of the vegetation
+    that would be quite imperceptible to a stranger. His eye is
+    always open to the direction in which he is going; the mossy
+    side of trees, the presence of certain plants under the shade
+    of rocks, the morning and evening flight of birds, are to
+    him indications of direction almost as sure as the sun in the
+    heavens" (pp. 207-8).
+
+I have seen enough of savages to be able to declare that nothing can
+be more admirable than this description of what a savage has to learn.
+But it is incomplete. Add to all this the knowledge which a savage
+is obliged to gain of the properties of plants, of the characters and
+habits of animals, and of the minute indications by which their course
+is discoverable: consider that even an Australian can make excellent
+baskets and nets, and neatly fitted and beautifully balanced spears;
+that he learns to use these so as to be able to transfix a quartern
+loaf at sixty yards; and that very often, as in the case of the
+American Indians, the language of a savage exhibits complexities which
+a well-trained European finds it difficult to master: consider that
+every time a savage tracks his game, he employs a minuteness of
+observation, and an accuracy of inductive and deductive reasoning
+which, applied to other matters, would assure some reputation to a man
+of science, and I think we need ask no further why he possesses such a
+fair supply of brains. In complexity and difficulty, I should say that
+the intellectual labour of a "good hunter or warrior" considerably
+exceeds that of an ordinary Englishman. The Civil Service Examiners
+are held in great terror by young Englishmen; but even their ferocity
+never tempted them to require a candidate to possess such a knowledge
+of a parish, as Mr. Wallace justly points out savages may possess of
+an area a hundred miles, or more, in diameter.
+
+But suppose, for the sake of argument, that a savage has more brains
+than seems proportioned to his wants, all that can be said is that
+the objection to natural selection, if it be one, applies quite
+as strongly to the lower animals. The brain of a porpoise is quite
+wonderful for its mass, and for the development of the cerebral
+convolutions. And yet since we have ceased to credit the story of
+Arion, it is hard to believe that porpoises are much troubled with
+intellect: and still more difficult is it to imagine that their big
+brains are only a preparation for the advent of some accomplished
+cetacean of the future. Surely, again, a wolf must have too much
+brains, or else how is it that a dog, with only the same quantity and
+form of brain, is able to develop such singular intelligence? The wolf
+stands to the dog in the same relation as the savage to the man; and,
+therefore, if Mr. Wallace's doctrine holds good, a higher power must
+have superintended the breeding up of wolves from some inferior stock,
+in order to prepare them to become dogs.
+
+Mr. Wallace further maintains that the origin of some of man's mental
+faculties by the preservation of useful variations is not possible.
+Such, for example, are "the capacity to form ideal conceptions of
+space and time, of eternity and infinity; the capacity for intense
+artistic feelings of pleasure in form, colour, and composition; and
+for those abstract notions of form and number which render geometry
+and arithmetic possible." "How," he asks, "were all or any of these
+faculties first developed, when they could have been of no possible
+use to man in his early stages of barbarism?"
+
+Surely the answer is not far to seek. The lowest savages are as
+devoid of any such conceptions as the brutes themselves. What sort of
+conceptions of space and time, of form and number, can be possessed by
+a savage who has not got so far as to be able to count beyond five or
+six, who does not know how to draw a triangle or a circle, and has not
+the remotest notion of separating the particular quality we call
+form, from the other qualities of bodies? None of these capacities
+are exhibited by men, unless they form part of a tolerably advanced
+society. And, in such a society, there are abundant conditions by
+which a selective influence is exerted in favour of those persons who
+exhibit an approximation towards the possession of these capacities.
+
+The savage who can amuse his fellows by telling a good story over the
+nightly fire, is held by them in esteem and rewarded, in one way or
+another, for so doing in other words, it is an advantage to him to
+possess this power. He who can carve a paddle, or the figure-head of
+a canoe better, similarly profits beyond his duller neighbour. He
+who counts a little better than others, gets most yams when barter
+is going on, and forms the shrewdest estimate of the numbers of an
+opposing tribe. The experience of daily life shows that the conditions
+of our present social existence exercise the most extraordinarily
+powerful selective influence in favour of novelists, artists, and
+strong intellects of all kinds; and it seems unquestionable that
+all forms of social existence must have had the same tendency, if we
+consider the indisputable facts that even animals possess the power of
+distinguishing form and number, and that they are capable of deriving
+pleasure from particular forms and sounds. If we admit, as Mr. Wallace
+does, that the lowest savages are not raised "many grades above the
+elephant and the ape;" and if we further admit, as I contend must be
+admitted, that the conditions of social life tend, powerfully, to
+give an advantage to those individuals who vary in the direction of
+intellectual or aesthetic excellence, what is there to interfere
+with the belief that these higher faculties, like the rest, owe their
+development to natural selection?
+
+Finally, with respect to the development of the moral sense out of the
+simple feelings of pleasure and pain, liking and disliking, with which
+the lower animals are provided, I can find nothing in Mr. Wallace's
+reasonings which has not already been met by Mr. Mill, Mr. Spencer, or
+Mr. Darwin.
+
+I do not propose to follow the Quarterly Reviewer and Mr. Mivart
+through the long string of objections in matters of detail which they
+bring against Mr. Darwin's views. Everyone who has considered
+the matter carefully will be able to ferret out as many more
+"difficulties;" but he will also, I believe, fail as completely as
+they appear to me to have done, in bringing forward any fact which is
+really contradictory of Mr. Darwin's views. Occasionally, too, their
+objections and criticisms are based upon errors of their own. As, for
+example, when Mr. Mivart and the Quarterly Reviewer insist upon the
+resemblances between the eyes of _Cephalopoda_ and _Vertebrata_,
+quite forgetting that there are striking and altogether fundamental
+differences between them; or when the Quarterly Reviewer corrects Mr.
+Darwin for saying that the gibbons, "without having been taught,
+can walk or run upright with tolerable quickness, though they move
+awkwardly, and much less securely than man." The Quarterly Reviewer
+says, "This is a little misleading, inasmuch as it is not stated that
+this upright progression is effected by placing the enormously long
+arms behind the head, or holding them out backwards as a balance in
+progression."
+
+Now, before carping at a small statement like this, the Quarterly
+Reviewer should have made sure that he was quite right. But he happens
+to be quite wrong. I suspect he got his notion of the manner in which
+a gibbon walks from a citation in "Man's Place in Nature." But at
+that time I had not seen a gibbon walk. Since then I have, and I can
+testify that nothing can be more precise than Mr. Darwin's statement.
+The gibbon I saw walked without either putting his arms behind his
+head or holding them out backwards. All he did was to touch the ground
+with the outstretched fingers of his long arms now and then, just as
+one sees a man who carries a stick, but does not need one, touch the
+ground with it as he walks along.
+
+Again, a large number of the objections brought forward by Mr. Mivart
+and the Quarterly Reviewer apply to evolution in general, quite as
+much as to the particular form of that doctrine advocated by Mr.
+Darwin; or, to their notions of Mr. Darwin's views and not to what
+they really are. An excellent example of this class of difficulties
+is to be found in Mr. Mivart's chapter on "Independent Similarities
+of Structure." Mr. Mivart says that these cannot be explained by
+an "absolute and pure Darwinian," but "that an innate power and
+evolutionary law, aided by the corrective action of natural selection,
+should have furnished like needs with like aids, is not at all
+improbable" (p. 82).
+
+I do not exactly know what Mr. Mivart means by an "absolute and
+pure Darwinian;" indeed Mr. Mivart makes that creature hold so many
+singular opinions that I doubt if I can ever have seen one alive. But
+I find nothing in his statement of the view which he imagines to
+be originated by himself, which is really inconsistent with what I
+understand to be Mr. Darwin's views.
+
+I apprehend that the foundation of the theory of natural selection is
+the fact that living bodies tend incessantly to vary. This variation
+is neither indefinite, nor fortuitous, nor does it take place in all
+directions, in the strict sense of these words.
+
+Accurately speaking, it is not indefinite, nor does it take place in
+all directions, because it is limited by the general characters of the
+type to which the organism exhibiting the variation belongs. A whale
+does not tend to vary in the direction of producing feathers, nor a
+bird in the direction of developing whalebone. In popular language
+there is no harm in saying that the waves which break upon the
+sea-shore are indefinite, fortuitous, and break in all directions.
+In scientific language, on the contrary, such a statement would be
+a gross error, inasmuch as every particle of foam is the result of
+perfectly definite forces, operating according to no less definite
+laws. In like manner, every variation of a living form, however
+minute, however apparently accidental, is inconceivable except as the
+expression of the operation of molecular forces or "powers" resident
+within the organism. And, as these forces certainly operate according
+to definite laws, their general result is, doubtless, in accordance
+with some general law which subsumes them all. And there appears to
+be no objection to call this an "evolutionary law." But nobody is the
+wiser for doing so, or has thereby contributed, in the least degree,
+to the advance of the doctrine of evolution, the great need of which
+is a theory of variation.
+
+When Mr. Mivart tells us that his "aim has been to support the
+doctrine that these species have been evolved by ordinary _natural
+laws_ (for the most part unknown), aided by the _subordinate_ action
+of 'natural selection'" (pp. 332-3), he seems to be of opinion that
+his enterprise has the merit of novelty. All I can say is that I have
+never had the slightest notion that Mr. Darwin's aim is in any way
+different from this. If I affirm that "species have been evolved by
+variation[1] (a natural process, the laws of which are for the most
+part unknown), aided by the subordinate action of natural selection,"
+it seems to me that I enunciate a proposition which constitutes the
+very pith and marrow of the first edition of the "Origin of Species."
+And what the evolutionist stands in need of just now, is not an
+iteration of the fundamental principle of Darwinism, but some light
+upon the questions, What are the limits of variation? and, If
+a variety has arisen, can that variety be perpetuated, or even
+intensified, when selective conditions are indifferent, or perhaps
+unfavourable, to its existence? I cannot find that Mr. Darwin has ever
+been very dogmatic in answering these questions. Formerly, he seems
+to have inclined to reply to them in the negative, while now his
+inclination is the other way. Leaving aside those broad questions of
+theology, philosophy, and ethics, by the discussion of which neither
+the Quarterly Reviewer nor Mr. Mivart can be said to have damaged
+Darwinism--whatever else they have injured--this is what their
+criticisms come to. They confound a struggle for some rifle-pits with
+an assault on the fortress.
+
+[Footnote 1: Including under this head hereditary transmission.]
+
+In some respects, finally, I can only characterize the Quarterly
+Reviewer's treatment of Mr. Darwin as alike unjust and unbecoming.
+Language of this strength requires justification, and on that ground I
+add the remarks which follow.
+
+The Quarterly Reviewer opens his essay by a careful enumeration of
+all those points upon which, during the course of thirteen years of
+incessant labour, Mr. Darwin has modified his opinions. It has often
+and justly been remarked, that what strikes a candid student of Mr.
+Darwin's works is not so much his industry, his knowledge, or even
+the surprising fertility of his inventive genius; but that unswerving
+truthfulness and honesty which never permit him to hide a weak place,
+or gloss over a difficulty, but lead him, on all occasions, to point
+out the weak places in his own armour, and even sometimes, it appears
+to me, to make admissions against himself which are quite unnecessary.
+A critic who desires to attack Mr. Darwin has only to read his works
+with a desire to observe, not their merits, but their defects, and
+he will find, ready to hand, more adverse suggestions than are likely
+ever to have suggested themselves to his own sharpness, without Mr.
+Darwin's self-denying aid.
+
+Now this quality of scientific candour is not so common that it needs
+to be discouraged; and it appears to me to deserve other treatment
+than that adopted by the Quarterly Reviewer, who deals with Mr. Darwin
+as an Old Bailey barrister deals with a man against whom he wishes
+to obtain a conviction, _per fas aut nefas_, and opens his case by
+endeavouring to create a prejudice against the prisoner in the minds
+of the jury. In his eagerness to carry out this laudable design, the
+Quarterly Reviewer cannot even state the history of the doctrine
+of natural selection without an oblique and entirely unjustifiable
+attempt to depreciate Mr. Darwin. "To Mr. Darwin," says he, "and
+(through Mr. Wallace's reticence) to Mr. Darwin alone, is due the
+credit of having first brought it prominently forward and demonstrated
+its truth." No one can less desire than I do, to throw a doubt upon
+Mr. Wallace's originality, or to question his claim to the honour of
+being one of the originators of the doctrine of natural selection; but
+the statement that Mr. Darwin has the sole credit of originating the
+doctrine because of Mr. Wallace's reticence is simply ridiculous. The
+proof of this is, in the first place, afforded by Mr. Wallace himself,
+whose noble freedom from petty jealousy in this matter, smaller folk
+would do well to imitate; and who writes thus:--"I have felt all my
+life, and I still feel, the most sincere satisfaction that Mr. Darwin
+had been at work long before me, and that it was not left for me to
+attempt to write the 'Origin of Species.' I have long since measured
+my own strength, and know well that it would be quite unequal to that
+task." So that if there was any reticence at all in the matter, it
+was Mr. Darwin's reticence during the long twenty years of study which
+intervened between the conception and the publication of his theory,
+which gave Mr. Wallace the chance of being an independent discoverer
+of the importance of natural selection. And, finally, if it be
+recollected that Mr. Darwin's and Mr. Wallace's essays were published
+simultaneously in the _Journal of the Linnaean Society_ for 1858, it
+follows that the Reviewer, while obliquely depreciating Mr. Darwin's
+deserts, has in reality awarded to him a priority which, in legal
+strictness, does not exist.
+
+Mr. Mivart, whose opinions so often concur with those of the Quarterly
+Reviewer, puts the case in a way, which I much regret to be obliged to
+say, is, in my judgment, quite as incorrect; though the injustice may
+be less glaring. He says that the theory of natural selection is,
+in general, exclusively associated with the name of Mr. Darwin, "on
+account of the noble self-abnegation of Mr. Wallace." As I have said,
+no one can honour Mr. Wallace more than I do, both for what he has
+done and for what he has not done, in his relation to Mr. Darwin. And
+perhaps nothing is more creditable to him than his frank declaration
+that he could not have written such a work as the "Origin of Species."
+But, by this declaration, the person most directly interested in the
+matter repudiates, by anticipation, Mr. Mivart's suggestion that Mr.
+Darwin's eminence is more or less due to Mr. Wallace's modesty.
+
+
+
+
+XI.
+
+THE GENEALOGY OF ANIMALS.[1]
+
+
+Considering that Germany now takes the lead of the world in scientific
+investigation, and particularly in biology, Mr. Darwin must be well
+pleased at the rapid spread of his views among some of the ablest and
+most laborious of German naturalists.
+
+[Footnote 1: "The Natural History of Creation." By Dr. Ernst Haeckel
+(_Natürliche Schöpfungs-Geschichte._--Von Dr. Ernst Haeckel, Professor
+an der Universität Jena.) Berlin, 1868.]
+
+Among those, Professor Haeckel, of Jena, is the Coryphaeus. I know of
+no more solid and important contributions to biology in the past seven
+years than Haeckel's work on the _Radiolaria_, and the researches of
+his distinguished colleague Gegenbaur, in vertebrate anatomy; while
+in Haeckel's _Generelle Morphologie_ there is all the force,
+suggestiveness, and, what I may term the systematizing power, of Oken,
+without his extravagance. The _Generelle Morphologie_ is, in fact, an
+attempt to put the doctrine of Evolution, so far as it applies to
+the living world, into a logical form; and to work out its practical
+applications to their final results. The work before us, again, may
+be said to be an exposition of the _Generelle Morphologie_ for an
+educated public, consisting, as it does, of the substance of a series
+of lectures delivered before a mixed audience at Jena, in the session
+1867-8.
+
+"The Natural History of Creation,"--or, as Professor Haeckel admits
+it would have been better to call his work, "The History of the
+Development or Evolution of Nature,"--deals, in the first six
+lectures, with the general and historical aspects of the question,
+and contains a very interesting and lucid account of the views of
+Linnaeus, Cuvier, Agassiz, Goethe, Oken, Kant, Lamarck, Lyell, and
+Darwin, and of the historical filiation of these philosophers.
+
+The next six lectures are occupied by a well-digested statement of Mr.
+Darwin's views. The thirteenth lecture discusses two topics which are
+not touched by Mr. Darwin, namely, the origin of the present form of
+the solar system, and that of living matter. Full justice is done to
+Kant, as the originator of that "cosmic gas theory," as the Germans
+somewhat quaintly call it, which is commonly ascribed to Laplace. With
+respect to spontaneous generation, while admitting that there is no
+experimental evidence in its favour, Professor Haeckel denies the
+possibility of disproving it, and points out that the assumption that
+it has occurred is a necessary part of the doctrine of Evolution. The
+fourteenth lecture, on "Schöpfungs-Perioden und Schöpfungs-Urkunden,"
+answers pretty much to the famous disquisition on the "Imperfection of
+the Geological Record" in the _Origin of Species_.
+
+The following five lectures contain the most original matter of any,
+being devoted to "Phylogeny," or the working out of the details of the
+process of Evolution in the animal and vegetable kingdoms, so as
+to prove the line of descent of each group of living beings, and to
+furnish it with its proper genealogical tree, or "phylum."
+
+The last lecture considers objections and sums up the evidence in
+favour of biological Evolution.
+
+I shall best testify to my sense of the value of the work thus briefly
+analysed if I now proceed to note down some of the more important
+criticisms which have been suggested to me by its perusal.
+
+I. In more than one place, Professor Haeckel enlarges upon the service
+which the _Origin of Species_ has done, in favouring what he terms
+the "causal or mechanical" view of living nature as opposed to the
+"teleological or vitalistic" view. And no doubt it is quite true that
+the doctrine of Evolution is the most formidable opponent of all
+the commoner and coarser forms of Teleology. But perhaps the most
+remarkable service to the philosophy of Biology rendered by Mr. Darwin
+is the reconciliation of Teleology and Morphology, and the explanation
+of the facts of both which his views offer.
+
+The Teleology which supposes that the eye, such as we see it in man
+or one of the higher _Vertebrata_, was made with the precise structure
+which it exhibits, for the purpose of enabling the animal which
+possesses it to see, has undoubtedly received its death-blow.
+Nevertheless it is necessary to remember that there is a wider
+Teleology, which is not touched by the doctrine of Evolution, but is
+actually based upon the fundamental proposition of Evolution. That
+proposition is, that the whole world, living and not living, is the
+result of the mutual interaction, according to definite laws, of the
+forces possessed by the molecules of which the primitive nebulosity of
+the universe was composed. If this be true, it is no less certain that
+the existing world lay, potentially, in the cosmic vapour; and that a
+sufficient intelligence could, from a knowledge of the properties of
+the molecules of that vapour, have predicted, say the state of the
+Fauna of Britain in 1869, with as much certainty as one can say what
+will happen to the vapour of the breath in a cold winter's day.
+
+Consider a kitchen clock, which ticks loudly, shows the hours,
+minutes, and seconds, strikes, cries "cuckoo!" and perhaps shows the
+phases of the moon. When the clock is wound up, all the phenomena
+which it exhibits are potentially contained in its mechanism, and a
+clever clockmaker could predict all it will do after an examination of
+its structure.
+
+If the evolution theory is correct, the molecular structure of the
+cosmic gas stands in the same relation to the phenomena of the world
+as the structure of the clock to its phenomena.
+
+Now let us suppose a death-watch, living in the clock-case, to be a
+learned and intelligent student of its works. He might say, "I find
+here nothing but matter and force and pure mechanism from beginning to
+end," and he would be quite right. But if he drew the conclusion that
+the clock was not contrived for a purpose, he would be quite wrong.
+On the other hand, imagine another death-watch of a different turn of
+mind. He, listening to the monotonous "tick! tick!" so exactly like
+his own, might arrive at the conclusion that the clock was itself a
+monstrous sort of death-watch, and that its final cause and purpose
+was to tick. How easy to point to the clear relation of the whole
+mechanism to the pendulum, to the fact that the one thing the clock
+did always and without intermission was to tick, and that all the rest
+of its phenomena were intermittent and subordinate to ticking! For
+all this, it is certain that kitchen clocks are not contrived for the
+purpose of making a ticking noise.
+
+Thus the teleological theorist would be as wrong as the mechanical
+theorist, among our death-watches; and, probably, the only death-watch
+who would be right would be the one who should maintain that the
+sole thing death-watches could be sure about was the nature of the
+clock-works and the way they move; and that the purpose of the clock
+lay wholly beyond the purview of beetle faculties.
+
+Substitute "cosmic vapour" for "clock," and "molecules" for "works,"
+and the application of the argument is obvious. The teleological
+and the mechanical views of nature are not, necessarily, mutually
+exclusive. On the contrary, the more purely a mechanist the speculator
+is, the more firmly does he assume a primordial molecular arrangement,
+of which all the phenomena of the universe are the consequences; and
+the more completely is he thereby at the mercy of the teleologist,
+who can always defy him to disprove that this primordial molecular
+arrangement was not intended to evolve the phenomena of the universe.
+On the other hand, if the teleologist assert that this, that, or
+the other result of the working of any part of the mechanism of the
+universe is its purpose and final cause, the mechanist can always
+inquire how he knows that it is more than an unessential incident--the
+mere ticking of the clock, which he mistakes for its function. And
+there seems to be no reply to this inquiry, any more than to the
+further, not irrational, question, why trouble oneself about matters
+which are out of reach, when the working of the mechanism itself,
+which is of infinite practical importance, affords scope for all our
+energies?
+
+Professor Haeckel has invented a new and convenient name,
+"Dysteleology," for the study of the "purposelessnesses" which are
+observable in living organisms--such as the multitudinous cases of
+rudimentary and apparently useless structures. I confess, however,
+that it has often appeared to me that the facts of Dysteleology cut
+two ways. If we are to assume, as evolutionists in general do,
+that useless organs atrophy, such cases as the existence of lateral
+rudiments of toes, in the foot of a horse, place us in a dilemma. For,
+either these rudiments are of no use to the animal, in which case,
+considering that the horse has existed in its present form since the
+Pliocene epoch, they surely ought to have disappeared; or they are of
+some use to the animal, in which case they are of no use as arguments
+against Teleology. A similar, but still stronger, argument may be
+based upon the existence of teats, and even functional mammary glands,
+in male mammals. Numerous cases of "Gynaecomasty," or functionally
+active breasts in men, are on record, though there is no mammalian
+species whatever in which the male normally suckles the young. Thus,
+there can be little doubt that the mammary gland was as apparently
+useless in the remotest male mammalian ancestor of man as in living
+men, and yet it has not disappeared. Is it then still profitable
+to the male organism to retain it? Possibly; but in that case its
+dysteleological value is gone.
+
+II. Professor Haeckel looks upon the causes which have led to the
+present diversity of living nature as twofold. Living matter, he tells
+us, is urged by two impulses: a centripetal, which tends to preserve
+and transmit the specific form, and which he identifies with heredity;
+and a centrifugal, which results from the tendency of external
+conditions to modify the organism and effect its adaptation to
+themselves. The internal impulse is conservative, and tends to the
+preservation of specific, or individual, form; the external impulse is
+metamorphic, and tends to the modification of specific, or individual,
+form.
+
+In developing his views upon this subject, Professor Haeckel
+introduces qualifications which disarm some of the criticisms I should
+have been disposed to offer; but I think that his method of stating
+the case has the inconvenience of tending to leave out of sight
+the important fact--which is a cardinal point in the Darwinian
+hypothesis--that the tendency to vary, in a given organism, may have
+nothing to do with the external conditions to which that individual
+organism is exposed, but may depend wholly upon internal conditions.
+No one, I imagine, would dream of seeking in the direct influence of
+the external conditions of his life for the cause of the development
+of the sixth finger and toe in the famous Maltese.
+
+I conceive that both hereditary transmission and adaptation need to be
+analysed into their constituent conditions by the further application
+of the doctrine of the Struggle for Existence. It is a probable
+hypothesis, that what the world is to organisms in general, each
+organism is to the molecules of which it is composed. Multitudes of
+these, having diverse tendencies, are competing with one another for
+opportunity to exist and multiply; and the organism, as a whole, is as
+much the product of the molecules which are victorious as the Fauna,
+or Flora, of a country is the product of the victorious organic beings
+in it.
+
+On this hypothesis, hereditary transmission is the result of the
+victory of particular molecules contained in the impregnated germ.
+Adaptation to conditions is the result of the favouring of the
+multiplication of those molecules whose organizing tendencies are
+most in harmony with such conditions. In this view of the matter,
+conditions are not actively productive, but are passively permissive;
+they do not cause variation in any given direction, but they permit
+and favour a tendency in that direction which already exists.
+
+It is true that, in the long run, the origin of the organic molecules
+themselves, and of their tendencies, is to be sought in the external
+world; but if we carry our inquiries as far back as this, the
+distinction between internal and external impulses vanishes. On the
+other hand, if we confine ourselves to the consideration of a single
+organism, I think it must be admitted that the existence of an
+internal metamorphic tendency must be as distinctly recognized as
+that of an internal conservative tendency; and that the influence of
+conditions is mainly, if not wholly, the result of the extent to which
+they favour the one, or the other, of these tendencies.
+
+III. There is only one point upon which I fundamentally and entirely
+disagree with Professor Haeckel, but that is the very important one
+of his conception of geological time, and of the meaning of the
+stratified rocks as records and indications of that time. Conceiving
+that the stratified rocks of an epoch indicate a period of depression,
+and that the intervals between the epochs correspond with periods
+of elevation of which we have no record, he intercalates between the
+different epochs, or periods, intervals which he terms "Ante-periods."
+Thus, instead of considering the Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous, and
+Eocene periods, as continuously successive, he interposes a
+period before each, as an "Antetrias-zeit," "Antejura-zeit,"
+"Antecreta-zeit," "Antecocen-zeit," &c. And he conceives that the
+abrupt changes between the Faunae of the different formations are due
+to the lapse of time, of which we have no organic record, during their
+"Ante-periods."
+
+The frequent occurrence of strata containing assemblages of organic
+forms which are intermediate between those of adjacent formations, is,
+to my mind, fatal to this view. In the well-known St. Cassian beds,
+for example, Palaeozoic and Mesozoic forms are commingled, and,
+between the Cretaceous and the Eocene formations, there are similar
+transitional beds. On the other hand, in the middle of the Silurian
+series, extensive unconformity of the strata indicates the lapse of
+vast intervals of time between the deposit of successive beds, without
+any corresponding change in the Fauna.
+
+Professor Haeckel will, I fear, think me unreasonable, if I say that
+he seems to be still overshadowed by geological superstitions; and
+that he will have to believe in the completeness of the geological
+record far less than he does at present. He assumes, for example, that
+there was no dry land, nor any terrestrial life, before the end of the
+Silurian epoch, simply because, up to the present time, no indications
+of fresh water, or terrestrial organisms, have been found in rocks of
+older date. And, in speculating upon the origin of a given group, he
+rarely goes further back than the "Ante-period," which precedes that
+in which the remains of animals belonging to that group are found.
+Thus, as fossil remains of the majority of the groups of _Reptilia_
+are first found in the Trias, they are assumed to have originated in
+the "Antetriassic" period, or between the Permian and Triassic epochs.
+
+I confess this is wholly incredible to me. The Permian and the
+Triassic deposits pass completely into one another; there is no sort
+of discontinuity answering to an unrecorded "Antetrias;" and, what
+is more, we have evidence of immensely extensive dry land during the
+formation of these deposits. We know that the dry land of the Trias
+absolutely teemed with reptiles of all groups except Pterodactyles,
+Snakes, and perhaps Tortoises; there is every probability that true
+Birds existed, and _Mammalia_ certainly did. Of the inhabitants of the
+Permian dry land, on the contrary, all that have left a record are a
+few lizards. Is it conceivable that these last should really
+represent the whole terrestrial population of that time, and that
+the development of Mammals, of Birds, and of the highest forms of
+Reptiles, should have been crowded into the time during which the
+Permian conditions quietly passed away, and the Triassic conditions
+began? Does not any such supposition become in the highest degree
+improbable, when, in the terrestrial or fresh-water Labyrinthodonts,
+which lived on the land of the Carboniferous epoch, as well as on
+that of the Trias, we have evidence that one form, of terrestrial life
+persisted, throughout all these ages, with no important modification?
+For my part, having regard to the small amount of modification (except
+in the way of extinction) which the Crocodilian, Lacertilian, and
+Chelonian _Reptilia_ have undergone, from the older Mesozoic times to
+the present day, I cannot but put the existence of the common stock
+from which they sprang far back in the Palaeozoic epoch; and I should
+apply a similar argumentation to all other groups of animals.
+
+IV. Professor Haeckel proposes a number of modifications in Taxonomy,
+all of which are well worthy of consideration. Thus he establishes a
+third primary division of the living world, distinct from both
+animals and plants, under the name of the _Protista_, to include the
+_Myxomycetes_, the _Diatomaceae_, and the _Labyrinthulae_, which are
+commonly regarded as plants, with the _Noctilucae_, the _Flagellata_,
+the _Rhizopoda_, the _Protoplasta_, and the _Monera_, which are most
+generally included within the animal world. A like attempt has been
+made, by other writers, to escape the inconvenience of calling these
+dubious organisms by the name of plant or animal; but I confess,
+it appears to me, that the inconvenience which is eluded in one
+direction, by this step, is met in two others. Professor Haeckel
+himself doubts whether the _Fungi_ ought not to be removed into his
+_Protista_. If they are not, indeed, the _Myxomycetes_ render the
+drawing of every line of demarcation between _Protista_ and Plants
+impossible. But if they are, who is to define the _Fungi_ from the
+_Algae_? Yet the sea-weeds are surely, in every respect, plants.
+On the other hand, Professor Haeckel puts the sponges among the
+_Coelenterata_ (or polypes and corals), with the double inconvenience,
+as it appears to me, of separating the sponges from their immediate
+kindred, the _Protoplasta_, and destroying the definition of the
+_Coelenterata_. So again, the _Infusoria_ possess all the characters
+of animality, but it can hardly be said that they are as clearly
+allied to the worms as they are to the _Noctilucae_.
+
+On the whole, it appears to me to be most convenient to adhere to
+the old plan of calling such of these low forms as are more animal in
+habit, _Protozoa_, and such as are more vegetal, _Protophyta_.
+
+Another considerable innovation is the proposition to divide the class
+Pisces into the four groups of _Leptocardia, Cyclostomata, Pisces_,
+and _Dipneusta_. As regards the establishment of a separate class for
+the Lancelet _(Amphioxus)_, I think there can be little doubt of the
+propriety of so doing, inasmuch as it is far more different from all
+other fishes than they are from one another. And there is much to
+be said in favour of the same promotion of the _Cyclostomata_, or
+Lampreys and Hags. But considering the close relation of the
+Mudfish with the _Ganoidei_, and the wide differences between the
+_Elasmobranchii_ and the _Teleostei_, I greatly doubt the propriety of
+separating the _Dipneusta_, as a class, from the other _Pisces_.
+
+Professor Haeckel proposes to break up the vertebrate sub-kingdom,
+first, into the two provinces of _Leptocardia_ and _Pachycardia;
+Amphioxus_ being in the former, and all other vertebrates in the
+latter division. The _Pachycardia_ are then divided into _Monorhina_,
+which contains the Cyclostome fishes, distinguished by their single
+nasal aperture; and _Amphirhina_, comprising the other _Vertebrata_,
+which have two nasal apertures. These are further subdivided into
+_Anamnia (Pisces, Dipneusta, Amphibia)_ and _Amniota (Reptilia, Aves,
+Mammalia)_. This classification undoubtedly expresses many of the most
+important facts in vertebrate structure in a clear and compendious
+way; whether it is the best that can he adopted remains to be seen.
+
+With much reason the Lemurs are removed altogether from the
+_Primates_, under the name of _Prosimiae_. But I am surprised to
+find the _Sirenia_ left in one group with the _Cetacea_, and the
+_Plesiosauria_ with the _Ichthyosauria_; the ordinal distinctness of
+these having, to my mind, been long since fully established.
+
+V. In Professor Haeckel's speculations on Phylogeny, or the genealogy
+of animal forms, there is much that is profoundly interesting, and
+his suggestions are always supported by sound knowledge and great
+ingenuity. Whether one agrees or disagrees with him, one feels that
+he has forced the mind into lines of thought in which it is more
+profitable to go wrong than to stand still.
+
+To put his views into a few words, he conceives that all forms of life
+originally commenced as _Monera_, or simple particles of protoplasm;
+and that these _Monera_ originated from not-living matter. Some of the
+_Monera_ acquired tendencies towards the Protistic, others towards the
+Vegetal, and others towards the Animal modes of life. The last became
+animal _Monera_. Some of the animal _Monera_ acquired a nucleus, and
+became amoeba-like creatures; and, out of certain of these, ciliated
+infusorium-like animals were developed. These became modified into two
+stirpes: A, that of the worms; and B, that of the sponges. The latter
+by progressive modification gave rise to all the _Coelenterata_; the
+former to all other animals. But A soon broke up into two principal
+stirpes, of which one, _a_, became the root of the _Annelida,
+Echinodermata_, and _Arthropoda_, while the other, _b_, gave rise to
+the _Polyzoa_ and _Ascidioida_, and produced the two remaining stirpes
+of the _Vertebrata_ and the _Mollusca_.
+
+Perhaps the most startling proposition of all those which Professor
+Haeckel puts before us is that which he bases upon Kowalewsky's
+researches into the development of _Amphioxus_ and of the
+_Ascidioida_, that the origin of the _Vertebrata_ is to be sought
+in an Ascidioid form. Goodsir long ago insisted upon the resemblance
+between _Amphioxus_ and the Ascidians; but the notion of a genetic
+connection between the two, and especially the identification of the
+notochord of the _Vertebrate_ with the axis of the caudal appendage of
+the larva of the Ascidian, is a novelty which, at first, takes one's
+breath away. I must confess, however, that the more I have pondered
+over it, the more grounds appear in its favour, though I am not
+convinced that there is any real parallelism between the mode
+of development of the ganglion of the _Ascidian_ and that of the
+_Vertebrate_ cerebro-spinal axis.
+
+The hardly less startling hypothesis that the _Echinoderms_ are
+coalesced worms, on the other hand, appears to be open to serious
+objection. As a matter of anatomy, it does not seem to me to
+correspond with fact; for there is no worm with a calcareous skeleton,
+nor any which has a band-like ventral nerve, superficial to which lies
+an ambulacral vessel. And, as a question of development, the formation
+of the radiate _Echinoderm_ within its vermiform larva seems to me
+to be analogous to the formation of a radiate Medusa upon a Hydrozoic
+stock. But a Medusa is surely not the result of the coalescence of as
+many organisms as it presents morphological segments.
+
+Professor Haeckel adduces the fossil _Crossopodia_ and _Phyllodocites_
+as examples of the Annelidan forms, by the coalescence of which
+the Echinoderms may have been produced; but, even supposing the
+resemblance of these worms to detached starfish arms to be perfect,
+it is possible that they may be the extreme term, and not the
+commencement, of Echinoderm development. A pentacrinoid Echinoderm,
+with a complete jointed stalk, is developed within the larva of
+_Antedon_. Is it not possible that the larva of _Crossopodia_ may have
+developed a vermiform Echinoderm?
+
+With respect to the Phylogeny of the _Arthropoda_, I find myself
+disposed to take a somewhat different view from that of Professor
+Haeckel. He assumes that the primary stock of the whole group was
+a crustacean, having that _Nauplius_ form in which Fritz Müller
+has shown that so many _Crustacea_ commence their lives. All the
+_Entomostraca_ arose by the modification of some one or other of these
+Naupliform "_Archicarida_." Other _Archicarida_ underwent a further
+metamorphosis into a _Zoaea_-form. From some of these "_Zoeopoda_"
+arose all the remaining Malacostracous _Crustacea_; while, from
+others, was developed some form analogous to the existing _Galeodes_,
+out of which proceeded, by gradual differentiation, all the
+_Myriapoda, Arachnida,_ and _Insecta_.
+
+I should, be disposed to interpret the facts of the embryological
+history and of the anatomy of the _Arthropoda_ in a different manner.
+The _Copepoda_, the _Ostracoda_, and the _Branchiopoda_ are
+the _Crustacea_ which have departed least from the embryonic or
+_Nauplius_-forms; and, of these, I imagine that the _Copepoda_
+represent the hypothetical _Archicarida_ most closely. _Apus_ and
+_Sapphirina_ indicate the relations of these Archaeocarids with the
+_Trilobita_, and the _Eurypterida_ connect the _Trilobita_ and the
+_Copepoda_ with the _Xiphosura_. But the _Xiphosura_ have such close
+morphological relations with the _Arachnida_, and especially with the
+oldest known Arachnidan, _Scorpio_, that I cannot doubt the existence
+of a genetic connection between the two groups. On the other hand, the
+_Branchiopoda_ do, even at the present day, almost pass into the
+true _Podophthalmia_, by _Nebalia_. By the _Trilobita_, again, the
+_Archicarida_ are connected with such _Edriophthalmia_ as _Serolis_.
+The _Stomapoda_ are extremely modified _Edriophthalmia_ of the
+amphipod type. On the other side, the _Isopoda_ lead to the
+_Myriapoda_, and the latter to the _Insecta_. Thus the Arthropod
+phylum, which suggests itself to me, is that the branches of the
+_Podophthalmia_, of the _Insecta_ (with the _Myriapoda_), and of the
+_Arachnida_, spring separately and distinctly from the Archaeocarid
+root--and that the _Zoaea_-forms occur only at the origin of the
+Podophthalmous branch.
+
+The phylum of the _Vertebrata_ is the most interesting of all, and is
+admirably discussed by Professor Haeckel. I can note only a few points
+which seem to me to be open to discussion. The _Monorhina_, having
+been developed out of the _Leptocardia_, gave rise, according to
+Professor Haeckel, to a shark-like form, which was the common stock
+of all the _Amphirhina_. From this "Protamphirhine" were developed, in
+divergent lines, the true Sharks, Rays, and _Chimaerae_; the Ganoids,
+and the _Dipneusta_. The _Teleostei_ are modified _Ganoidei_. The
+_Dipneusta_ gave rise to the _Amphibia_, which are the root of all
+other _Vertebrata_, inasmuch as out of them were developed the first
+_Vertebrata_ provided with an amnion, or the _Protamniota_. The
+_Protamniota_ split up into two stems, one that of the _Mammalia_, the
+other common to _Reptilia_ and _Aves_.
+
+The only modification which it occurs to me to suggest in this
+general view of the Phylogeny of the _Vertebrata_ is, that the
+"Protamphirhine" was possibly more ganoid than shark-like. So far as
+our present information goes the Ganoids are as old as the Sharks;
+and it is very interesting to observe that the remains of the oldest
+Ganoids, _Cephalaspis_ and _Pteraspis_, have as yet displayed no trace
+of jaws. It is just possible that they may connect the _Monorhina_,
+with the Sturgeons among the _Amphirhina_. On the other hand,
+the Crossopterygian Ganoids exhibit the closest connection with
+_Lepidosiren_, and thereby with the _Amphibia_. It should not be
+forgotten that the development of the Lampreys exhibits curious points
+of resemblance with that of the _Amphibia_, which are absent in
+the Sharks and Rays. Of the development of the _Ganoidei_ we have
+unfortunately no knowledge, but their brains and their reproductive
+organs are more amphibian than are those of the Sharks.
+
+On the whole, I am disposed to think that the direct stem of ascent
+from the _Monorhina_ to the _Amphibia_ is formed by the Ganoids and
+the Mudfishes; while the Osseous fishes and the Sharks are branches in
+different directions from this stem.
+
+What the _Protamniota_ were like, I do not suppose any one is in a
+position to say, but I cannot think that the thoroughly Lacertian
+_Protorosaurus_ had anything to do with them. The reptiles which are
+most amphibian in their characters, and therefore, probably, most
+nearly approach the _Protamniota_, are the _Ichthyosauria_ and the
+_Chelonia_.
+
+That the _Didelphia_ were developed out of some ornithodelphous form,
+as Professor Haeckel supposes, seems to be unquestionable; but the
+existing Opossums and Kangaroos are certainly extremely modified and
+remote from their ancestors the "_Prodidelphia_," of which we have
+not, at present the slightest knowledge. The mode of origin of the
+_Monodelphia_ from these is a very difficult problem, for the most
+part left open by Professor Haeckel. He considers the _Prosimiae_, or
+Lemurs, to be the common stock of the _Deciduata_, and the _Cetacea_
+(with which he includes the _Sirenia_) to be modified _Ungulata_. As
+regards the latter question, I have little doubt that the _Sirenia_
+connect the _Ungulata_ with the _Proboscidea_; and none, that the
+_Cetacea_ are extremely modified _Carnivora_. The passage between the
+Seals and the _Cetacea_ by _Zeuglodon_ is complete. I also think
+that there is much to be said for the opinion, that the _Insectivora_
+represent the common stock of the _Primates_ (which passed into
+them by the _Prosimiae_), the _Cheiroptera_, the _Rodentia_, and the
+_Carnivora_. And I am greatly disposed to look for the common root
+of all the _Ungulata_, as well, in some ancient non-deciduate Mammals
+which were more like _Insectivora_ than anything else. On the other
+hand, the _Edentata_ appear to form a series by themselves.
+
+The latter part of this notice of the _Natürliche
+Schöpfungs-Geschichte_, brings so strongly into prominence the points
+of difference between its able author and myself, that I do not like
+to conclude without reminding the reader of my entire concurrence with
+the general tenor and spirit of the work, and of my high estimate of
+its value.
+
+
+
+
+XII.
+
+BISHOP BERKELEY ON THE METAPHYSICS OF SENSATION.[1]
+
+
+Professor Fraser has earned the thanks of all students of philosophy
+for the conscientious labour which he has bestowed upon his new
+edition of the works of Berkeley; in which, for the first time, we
+find collected together every thought which can be traced to the
+subtle and penetrating mind of the famous Bishop of Cloyne; while the
+"Life and Letters" will rejoice those who care less for the idealist
+and the prophet of tar-water, than for the man who stands out as one
+of the noblest and purest figures of his time: that Berkeley from whom
+the jealousy of Pope did not withhold a single one of all "the virtues
+under heaven;" nor the cynicism of Swift, the dignity of "one of the
+first men of the kingdom for learning and virtue;" the man whom the
+pious Atterbury could compare to nothing less than an angel; and whose
+personal influence and eloquence filled the Scriblerus Club and the
+House of Commons with enthusiasm for the evangelization of the North
+American Indians; and even led Sir Robert Walpole to assent to the
+appropriation of public money to a scheme which was neither business
+nor bribery.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: "The Works of George Berkeley, D.D., formerly Bishop
+of Cloyne, including many of his Works hitherto unpublished, with
+Preface, Annotations, his Life and Letters, and an Account of his
+Philosophy." By A.C. Fraser. Four vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
+1871.]
+
+[Footnote 2: In justice to Sir Robert, however, it is proper to remark
+that he declared afterwards, that he gave his assent to Berkeley's
+scheme for the Bermuda University only because he thought the House of
+Commons was sure to throw it out.]
+
+Hardly any epoch in the intellectual history of England is more
+remarkable in itself, or possesses a greater interest for us in these
+latter days, than that which coincides broadly with the conclusion of
+the seventeenth and the opening of the eighteenth century.
+
+The political fermentation of the preceding age was gradually working
+itself out; domestic peace gave men time to think; and the toleration
+won by the party of which Locke was the spokesman, permitted a freedom
+of speech and of writing such as has rarely been exceeded in later
+times.
+
+Fostered by these circumstances, the great faculty for physical and
+metaphysical inquiry, with which the people of our race are naturally
+endowed, developed itself vigorously; and at least two of its products
+have had a profound and a permanent influence upon the subsequent
+course of thought in the world. The one of these was English
+Freethinking; the other, the Theory of Gravitation.
+
+Looking back to the origin of the intellectual impulses of which these
+were the results, we are led to Herbert, to Hobbes, to Bacon; and to
+one who stands in advance of all these, as the most typical man of his
+time--Descartes. It is the Cartesian doubt--the maxim that assent may
+properly be given to no propositions but such as are perfectly
+clear and distinct--which, becoming incarnate, so to speak, in the
+Englishmen, Anthony Collins, Toland, Tindal, Woolston, and in the
+wonderful Frenchman, Pierre Bayle, reached its final term in Hume.
+
+And, on the other hand, although the theory of Gravitation set
+aside the Cartesian vortices--yet the spirit of the "Principes de
+Philosophie" attained its apotheosis when Newton demonstrated all the
+host of heaven to be but the elements of a vast mechanism, regulated
+by the same laws as those which govern the falling of a stone to the
+ground. There is a passage in the preface to the first edition of the
+"Principia" which shows that Newton was penetrated, as completely
+as Descartes, with the belief that all the phenomena of nature are
+expressible in terms of matter and motion.
+
+"Would that the rest of the phenomena of nature could be deduced by
+a like kind of reasoning from mechanical principles. For many
+circumstances lead me to suspect that all these phenomena may depend
+upon certain forces, in virtue of which the particles of bodies, by
+causes not yet known, are either mutually impelled against one another
+and cohere into regular figures, or repel and recede from one another;
+which forces being unknown, philosophers have as yet explored nature
+in vain. But I hope that, either by this method of philosophizing, or
+by some other and better, the principles here laid down may throw some
+light upon the matter."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "Utinam caetera naturae phaenomena ex principiis
+mechanicis, eodem argumentandi genere, derivare licet. Nam multa me
+movent, ut nonnihil suspicer ca omnia ex viribus quibusdam pendere
+posse, quibus corporum particulae, per causas nondum cognitas, vel in
+se mutuo impelluntur et secundum figuras regulares cohaerent vel ab
+invicem fugantur et reced ent: quibus viribus ignotis, Philosophi
+hactenus Naturam frustra tentarunt. Spero autem quod vel huic
+philosophandi modo, vel veriori, alicui, principia hic posita lucem
+aliquam praebebunt."--Preface to First Edition of _Principia_, May 8,
+1686.]
+
+But the doctrine that all the phenomena of nature are resolvable into
+mechanism is what people have agreed to call "materialism;" and when
+Locke and Collins maintained that matter may possibly be able
+to think, and Newton himself could compare infinite space to the
+sensorium of the Deity, it was not wonderful that the English
+philosophers should be attacked as they were by Leibnitz in the famous
+letter to the Princess of Wales, which gave rise to his correspondence
+with Clarke.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "Collection of Papers which passed between the late
+learned Mr. Leibnitz and Dr. Clarke."--1717.]
+
+"1. Natural religion itself seems to decay [in England] very much.
+Many will have human souls to be material; others make God Himself a
+corporeal Being.
+
+"2. Mr. Locke and his followers are uncertain, at least, whether the
+soul be not material and naturally perishable.
+
+"3. Sir Isaac Newton says that space is an organ which God makes use
+of to perceive things by. But if God stands in need of any organ to
+perceive things by, it will follow that they do not depend altogether
+upon Him, nor were produced by Him.
+
+"4. Sir Isaac Newton and his followers have also a very odd opinion
+concerning the work of God. According to their doctrine, God Almighty
+wants to wind up His watch from time to time; otherwise it would cease
+to move.[1] He had not, it seems, sufficient foresight to make it a
+perpetual motion. Nay, the machine of God's making is so imperfect,
+according to these gentlemen, that He is obliged to clean it now
+and then by an extraordinary concourse, and even to mend it as a
+clockmaker mends his work."
+
+[Footnote 1: Goethe seems to have had this saying of Leibnitz in his
+mind when he wrote his famous lines--
+
+"Was wär' ein Gott der nur von aussen stiesse Im Kreis das All am
+Finger laufen liesse."]
+
+It is beside the mark, at present, to inquire how far Leibnitz paints
+a true picture, and how far he is guilty of a spiteful caricature of
+Newton's views in these passages; and whether the beliefs which Locke
+is known to have entertained are consistent with the conclusions which
+may logically be drawn from some parts of his works. It is undeniable
+that English philosophy in Leibnitz's time had the general character
+which he ascribes to it. The phenomena of nature were held to be
+resolvable into the attractions and the repulsions of particles
+of matter; all knowledge was attained through the senses; the mind
+antecedent to experience was a _tabula rasa_. In other words, at the
+commencement of the eighteenth century, the character of speculative
+thought in England was essentially sceptical, critical, and
+materialistic. Why "materialism" should be more inconsistent with the
+existence of a Deity, the freedom of the will, or the immortality
+of the soul, or with any actual or possible system of theology, than
+"idealism," I must declare myself at a loss to divine. But in the
+year 1700 all the world appears to have been agreed, Tertullian
+notwithstanding, that materialism necessarily leads to very dreadful
+consequences. And it was thought that it conduced to the interests of
+religion and morality to attack the materialists with all the weapons
+that came to hand. Perhaps the most interesting controversy which
+arose out of these questions is the wonderful triangular duel between
+Dodwell, Clarke, and Anthony Collins, concerning the materiality of
+the soul, and--what all the disputants considered to be the necessary
+consequence of its materiality--its natural mortality. I do not think
+that anyone can read the letters which passed between Clarke and
+Collins, without admitting that Collins, who writes with wonderful
+power and closeness of reasoning, has by far the best of the argument,
+so far as the possible materiality of the soul goes; and that, in this
+battle, the Goliath of Freethinking overcame the champion of what was
+considered Orthodoxy.
+
+But in Dublin, all this while, there was a little David practising
+his youthful strength upon the intellectual lions and bears of Trinity
+College. This was George Berkeley, who was destined to give the same
+kind of development to the idealistic side of Descartes' philosophy,
+that the Freethinkers had given to its sceptical side, and the
+Newtonians to its mechanical side.
+
+Berkeley faced the problem boldly. He said to the materialists: "You
+tell me that all the phenomena of nature are resolvable into matter
+and its affections. I assent to your statement, and now I put to you
+the further question, 'What is matter?' In answering this question you
+shall be bound by your own conditions; and I demand, in the terms of
+the Cartesian axiom, that in turn you give your assent only to such
+conclusions as are perfectly clear and obvious."
+
+It is this great argument which is worked out in the "Treatise
+concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge," and in those "Dialogues
+between Hylas and Philonous," which rank among the most exquisite
+examples of English style, as well as among the subtlest of
+metaphysical writings; and the final conclusion of which is summed
+up in a passage remarkable alike for literary beauty and for calm
+audacity of statement.
+
+    "Some truths there are so near and obvious to the mind that
+    a man need only open his eyes to see them. Such I take this
+    important one to be, viz., that all the choir of heaven and
+    furniture of the earth--in a word, all those bodies which
+    compose the mighty frame of the world--have not any substance
+    without a mind; that their being is to be perceived or known;
+    that consequently, so long as they are not actually perceived
+    by me, or do not exist in my mind or that of any other created
+    spirit, they must either have no existence at all or else
+    subsist in the mind of some eternal spirit; it being
+    perfectly unintelligible, and involving all the absurdity
+    of abstraction, to attribute to any single part of them an
+    existence independent of a spirit."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "Treatise concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge,"
+Part I. § 6.]
+
+Doubtless this passage sounds like the acme of metaphysical paradox,
+and we all know that "coxcombs vanquished Berkeley with a grin;" while
+common-sense folk refuted him by stamping on the ground, or some such
+other irrelevant proceeding. But the key to all philosophy lies in the
+clear apprehension of Berkeley's problem--which is neither more nor
+less than one of the shapes of the greatest of all questions, "What
+are the limits of our faculties?" And it is worth any amount of
+trouble to comprehend the exact nature of the argument by which
+Berkeley arrived at his results, and to know by one's own knowledge
+the great truth which he discovered--that the honest and rigorous
+following up of the argument which leads us to materialism, inevitably
+carries us beyond it.
+
+Suppose that I accidentally prick my finger with a pin. I immediately
+become aware of a condition of my consciousness--a feeling which I
+term pain. I have no doubt whatever that the feeling is in myself
+alone; and if anyone were to say that the pain I feel is something
+which inheres in the needle, as one of the qualities of the
+substance of the needle, we should all laugh at the absurdity of the
+phraseology. In fact, it is utterly impossible to conceive pain except
+as a state of consciousness.
+
+Hence, so far as pain is concerned, it is sufficiently obvious
+that Berkeley's phraseology is strictly applicable to our power of
+conceiving its existence--"its being is to be perceived or known," and
+"so long as it is not actually perceived by me, or does not exist in
+my mind, or that of any other created spirit, it must either have no
+existence at all, or else subsist in the mind of some eternal spirit."
+
+So much for pain. Now let us consider an ordinary sensation. Let the
+point of the pin be gently rested upon the skin, and I become aware
+of a feeling or condition of consciousness quite different from the
+former--the sensation of what I call "touch." Nevertheless this touch
+is plainly just as much in myself as the pain was. I cannot for a
+moment conceive this something which I call touch as existing apart
+from myself, or a being capable of the same feelings as myself. And
+the same reasoning applies to all the other simple sensations. A
+moment's reflection is sufficient to convince one that the smell, and
+the taste, and the yellowness, of which we become aware when an
+orange is smelt, tasted, and seen, are as completely states of our
+consciousness as is the pain which arises if the orange happens to
+be too sour. Nor is it less clear that every sound is a state of the
+consciousness of him who hears it. If the universe contained only
+blind and deaf beings, it is impossible for us to imagine but that
+darkness and silence should reign everywhere.
+
+It is undoubtedly true, then, of all the simple sensations that,
+as Berkeley says, their "_esse_ is _percipi_"--their being is to be
+"perceived or known." But that which perceives, or knows, is mind
+or spirit; and therefore that knowledge which the senses give us is,
+after all, a knowledge of spiritual phenomena.
+
+All this was explicitly or implicitly admitted, and, indeed, insisted
+upon, by Berkeley's contemporaries, and by no one more strongly than
+by Locke, who terms smells, tastes, colours, sounds, and the like,
+"secondary qualities," and observes, with respect to these "secondary
+qualities," that "whatever reality we by mistake attribute to them
+[they] are in truth nothing in the objects themselves."
+
+And again: "Flame is denominated hot and light; snow, white and cold;
+and manna, white and sweet, from the ideas they produce in us; which
+qualities are commonly thought to be the same in these bodies; that
+those ideas are in us, the one the perfect resemblance of the other
+as they are in a mirror; and it would by most men be judged very
+extravagant if one should say otherwise. And yet he that will consider
+that the same fire that at one distance produces in us the sensation
+of warmth, does at a nearer approach produce in us the far different
+sensation of pain, ought to bethink himself what reason he has to say
+that his idea of warmth, which was produced in him by the fire,
+is actually in the fire; and his idea of pain which the same fire
+produced in him in the same way, is not in the fire. Why are whiteness
+and coldness in snow, and pain not, when it produces the one and the
+other idea in us; and can do neither but by the bulk, figure, number,
+and motion of its solid parts?"[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Locke, "Human Understanding," Book II. chap. viii. §§ 14,
+15.]
+
+Thus far then materialists and idealists are agreed. Locke and
+Berkeley, and all logical thinkers who have succeeded them, are of
+one mind about secondary qualities--their being is to be perceived or
+known--their materiality is, in strictness, a spirituality.
+
+But Locke draws a great distinction between the secondary qualities of
+matter, and certain others which he terms "primary qualities." These
+are extension, figure, solidity, motion and rest, and number; and he
+is as clear that these primary qualities exist independently of the
+mind, as he is that the secondary qualities have no such existence.
+
+    "The particular bulk, number, figure, and motion of the parts
+    of fire and snow are really in them, whether anyone's senses
+    perceive them or not, and therefore they may be called real
+    qualities, because they really exist in those bodies; but
+    light, heat, whiteness, or coldness, are no more really in
+    them, than sickness, or pain, is in manna. Take away the
+    sensation of them; let not the eyes see light or colours, nor
+    the ears hear sounds; let the palate not taste, nor the nose
+    smell; and all colours, tastes, odours and sounds, as they are
+    such particular ideas, vanish and cease, and are reduced to
+    their causes, i.e. bulk, figure, and motion of parts.
+
+    "18. A piece of manna of sensible bulk is able to produce in
+    us the idea of a round or square figure; and, by being removed
+    from one place to another, the idea of motion. This idea of
+    motion represents it as it really is in the manna moving; a
+    circle and square are the same, whether in idea or existence,
+    in the mind or in the manna; and thus both motion and figure
+    are really in the manna, whether we take notice of them or no:
+    this everybody is ready to agree to."
+
+So far as primary qualities are concerned, then, Locke is as
+thoroughgoing a realist as St. Anselm. In Berkeley, on the other
+hand, we have as complete a representative of the nominalists and
+conceptualists--an intellectual descendant of Roscellinus and of
+Abelard. And by a curious irony of fate, it is the nominalist who is,
+this time, the champion of orthodoxy, and the realist that of heresy.
+
+Once more let us try to work out Berkeley's principles for ourselves,
+and inquire what foundation there is for the assertion that extension,
+form, solidity, and the other "primary qualities," have an existence
+apart from mind. And for this purpose let us recur to our experiment
+with the pin.
+
+It has been seen that when the finger is pricked with a pin, a state
+of consciousness arises which we call pain; and it is admitted that
+this pain is not a something which inheres in the pin, but a something
+which exists only in the mind, and has no similitude elsewhere.
+
+But a little attention will show that this state of consciousness is
+accompanied by another, which can by no effort be got rid of. I not
+only have the feeling, but the feeling is localized. I am just as
+certain that the pain is in my finger, as I am that I have it at all.
+Nor will any effort of the imagination enable me to believe that the
+pain is not in my finger.
+
+And yet nothing is more certain than that it is not, and cannot be, in
+the spot in which I feel it, nor within a couple of feet of that spot.
+For the skin of the finger is connected by a bundle of fine nervous
+fibres, which run up the whole length of the arm, with the spinal
+marrow and brain, and we know that the feeling of pain caused by the
+prick of a pin is dependent on the integrity of those fibres. After
+they have been cut through close to the spinal cord, no pain will be
+felt, whatever injury is done to the finger; and if the ends which
+remain in connection with the cord be pricked, the pain which arises
+will appear to have its seat in the finger just as distinctly as
+before. Nay, if the whole arm be cut off, the pain which arises from
+pricking the nerve stump will appear to be seated in the fingers, just
+as if they were still connected with the body.
+
+It is perfectly obvious, therefore, that the localization of the
+pain at the surface of the body is an act of the mind. It is an
+_extradition_ of that consciousness, which has its seat in the
+brain, to a definite point of the body--which takes place without our
+volition, and may give rise to ideas which are contrary to fact. We
+might call this extradition of consciousness a reflex feeling, just
+as we speak of a movement which is excited apart from, or contrary to,
+our volition, as a reflex motion. Locality is no more in the pin than
+pain is; of the former, as of the latter, it is true that "its being
+is to be perceived," and that its existence apart from a thinking mind
+is not conceivable.
+
+The foregoing reasoning will be in no way affected, if, instead of
+pricking the finger, the point of the pin rests gently against it, so
+as to give rise merely to a tactile sensation. The tactile sensation
+is referred outwards to the point touched, and seems to exist there.
+But it is certain that it is not and cannot be there really, because
+the brain is the sole seat of consciousness; and, further, because
+evidence, as strong as that in favour of the sensation being in the
+finger, can be brought forward in support of propositions which are
+manifestly absurd.
+
+For example, the hairs and nails are utterly devoid of sensibility,
+as everyone knows. Nevertheless, if the ends of the nails or hairs
+are touched, ever so lightly, we feel that they are touched, and the
+sensation seems to be situated in the nails or hairs. Nay more, if a
+walking-stick a yard long is held firmly by the handle and the other
+end is touched, the tactile sensation, which is a state of our own
+consciousness, is unhesitatingly referred to the end of the stick; and
+yet no one will say that it _is_ there.
+
+Let us now suppose that, instead of one pin's point resting against
+the end of my finger, there are two. Each of these can be known to
+me, as we have seen, only as a state of a thinking mind, referred
+outwards, or localized. But the existence of these two states, somehow
+or other, generates in my mind a host of new ideas, which did not make
+their appearance when only one state was present.
+
+For example, I get the ideas of co-existence, of number, of distance,
+and of relative place or direction. But all these ideas are ideas of
+relations, and imply the existence of something which perceives those
+relations. If a tactile sensation is a state of the mind, and if
+the localization of that sensation is an act of the mind, how is it
+conceivable that a relation between two localized sensations should
+exist apart from the mind? It is, I confess, quite as easy for me to
+imagine that redness may exist apart from a visual sense, as it is to
+suppose that co-existence, number, and distance can have any existence
+apart from the mind of which they are ideas.
+
+Thus it seems clear that the existence of some, at any rate, of
+Locke's primary qualities of matter, such as number and extension,
+apart from mind, is as utterly unthinkable as the existence of colour
+and sound under like circumstances.
+
+Will the others--namely, figure, motion and rest, and
+solidity--withstand a similar criticism? I think not. For all these,
+like the foregoing, are perceptions by the mind of the relations
+of two or more sensations to one another. If distance and place are
+inconceivable, in the absence of the mind, of which they are ideas,
+the independent existence of figure, which is the limitation of
+distance, and of motion, which is change of place, must be equally
+inconceivable. Solidity requires more particular consideration, as it
+is a term applied to two very different things, the one of which is
+solidity of form, or geometrical solidity; while the other is solidity
+of substance, or mechanical solidity.
+
+If those motor nerves of a man by which volitions are converted into
+motion were all paralysed, and if sensation remained only in the palm
+of his hand (which is a conceivable case), he would still be able to
+attain to clear notions of extension, figure, number, and motion, by
+attending to the states of consciousness which might be aroused by the
+contact of bodies with the sensory surface of the palm. But it does
+not appear that such a person could arrive at any conception of
+geometrical solidity. For that which does not come in contact with the
+sensory surface is non-existent for the sense of touch; and a solid
+body, impressed upon the palm of the hand, gives rise only to the
+notion of the extension of that particular part of the solid which is
+in contact with the skin.
+
+Nor is it possible that the idea of outness (in the sense of
+discontinuity with the sentient body) could be attained by such a
+person; for, as we have seen, every tactile sensation is referred to
+a point either of the natural sensory surface itself, or of some
+solid in continuity with that surface. Hence it would appear that the
+conception of the difference between the Ego and the non-Ego could
+not be attained by a man thus situated. His feelings would be his
+universe, and his tactile sensations his "moenia mundi." Time would
+exist for him as for us, but space would have only two dimensions.
+
+But now remove the paralysis from the motor apparatus, and give the
+palm of the hand of our imaginary man perfect freedom to move, so as
+to be able to glide in all directions over the bodies with which it is
+in contact. Then with the consciousness of that mobility, the notion
+of space of three dimensions--which is "_Raum_" or "room" to move with
+perfect freedom--is at once given. But the notion that the tactile
+surface itself moves, cannot be given by touch alone, which is
+competent to testify only to the fact of change of place, not to its
+cause. The idea of the motion of the tactile surface could not, in
+fact, be attained, unless the idea of change of place were accompanied
+by some state of consciousness, which does not exist when the tactile
+surface is immoveable. This state of consciousness is what is termed
+the muscular sense, and its existence is very easily demonstrable.
+
+Suppose the back of my hand to rest upon a table, and a sovereign to
+rest upon the upturned palm, I at once acquire a notion of extension,
+and of the limit of that extension. The impression made by the
+circular piece of gold is quite different from that which would be
+made by a triangular, or a square, piece of the same size, and thereby
+I arrive at the notion of figure. Moreover, if the sovereign slides
+over the palm, I acquire a distinct conception of change of place
+or motion, and of the direction of that motion. For as the sovereign
+slides, it affects new nerve-endings, and gives rise to new states of
+consciousness. Each of them is definitely and separately localized by
+a reflex act of the mind, which, at the same time, becomes aware of
+the difference between two successive localizations; and therefore of
+change of place, which is motion.
+
+If, while the sovereign lies on the hand, the latter being kept quite
+steady, the fore-arm is gradually and slowly raised; the tactile
+sensations, with all their accompaniments, remain exactly as they
+were. But, at the same time, something new is introduced; namely, the
+sense of effort. If I try to discover where this sense of effort seems
+to be, I find myself somewhat perplexed at first; but, if I hold the
+fore-arm in position long enough, I become aware of an obscure sense
+of fatigue, which is apparently seated either in the muscles of the
+arm, or in the integument directly over them. The fatigue seems to be
+related to the sense of effort, in much the same way as the pain which
+supervenes upon the original sense of contact, when a pin is slowly
+pressed against the skin, is related to touch.
+
+A little attention will show that this sense of effort accompanies
+every muscular contraction by which the limbs, or other parts of the
+body, are moved. By its agency the fact of their movement is known;
+while the direction of the motion is given by the accompanying tactile
+sensations. And, in consequence of the incessant association of the
+muscular and the tactile sensations, they become so fused together
+that they are often confounded tinder the same name.
+
+If freedom to move in all directions is the very essence of that
+conception of space of three dimensions which we obtain by the sense
+of touch; and if that freedom to move is really another name for the
+feeling of unopposed effort, accompanied by that of change of place,
+it is surely impossible to conceive of such space as having existence
+apart from that which is conscious of effort.
+
+But it may be said that we derive our conception of space of three
+dimensions not only from touch, but from vision; that if we do not
+feel things actually outside us, at any rate we see them. And it was
+exactly this difficulty which presented itself to Berkeley at the
+outset of his speculations. He met it, with characteristic boldness,
+by denying that we do see things outside us; and, with no less
+characteristic ingenuity, by devising that "New Theory of Vision"
+which has met with wider acceptance than any of his views, though it
+has been the subject of continual controversies.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: I have not specifically alluded to the writings of
+Bailey, Mill, Abbott, and others, on this vexed question, not because
+I have failed to study them carefully, but because this is not a
+convenient occasion for controversial discussion. Those who are
+acquainted with the subject, however, will observe that the view I
+have taken agrees substantially with that of Mr. Barley.]
+
+In the "Principles of Human Knowledge," Berkeley himself tells us how
+he was led to those views which he published in the "Essay towards the
+New Theory of Vision."
+
+    "It will be objected that we see things actually without, or
+    at a distance from us, and which consequently do not exist in
+    the mind; it being absurd that those things which are seen at
+    the distance of several miles, should be as near to us as our
+    own thoughts. In answer to this, I desire it may be considered
+    that in a dream we do oft perceive things as existing at a
+    great distance off, and yet, for all that, those things are
+    acknowledged to have their existence only in the mind.
+
+    "But for the fuller clearing of this point, it may be worth
+    while to consider how it is that we perceive distance and
+    things placed at a distance by sight. For that we should in
+    truth see external space and bodies actually existing in it,
+    some nearer, others further off, seems to carry with it some
+    opposition to what hath been said of their existing nowhere
+    without the mind. The consideration of this difficulty it
+    was that gave birth to my 'Essay towards the New Theory of
+    Vision,' which was published not long since, wherein it is
+    shown that distance, or outness, is neither immediately of
+    itself perceived by sight, nor yet apprehended, or judged
+    of, by lines and angles or anything that hath any necessary
+    connection with it; but that it is only suggested to our
+    thoughts by certain visible ideas and sensations attending
+    vision, which, in their own nature, have no manner of
+    similitude or relation either with distance, or with things
+    placed at a distance; but by a connection taught us by
+    experience, they come to signify and suggest them to us, after
+    the same manner that words of any language suggest the ideas
+    they are made to stand for; insomuch that a man born blind and
+    afterwards made to see, would not, at first sight, think the
+    things he saw to be without his mind or at any distance from
+    him."
+
+The key-note of the Essay to which Berkeley refers in this passage is
+to be found in an italicized paragraph of section 127:--
+
+    "_The extensions; figures, and motions perceived by sight are
+    specifically distinct from the ideas of touch called by the
+    same names; nor is there any such thing as an idea, or kind of
+    idea, common to both senses_."
+
+It will be observed that this proposition expressly declares that
+extension, figure, and motion, and consequently distance, are
+immediately perceived by sight as well as by touch; but that visual
+distance, extension, figure, and motion, are totally different in
+quality from the ideas of the same name obtained through the sense
+of touch. And other passages leave no doubt that such was Berkeley's
+meaning. Thus in the 112th section of the same Essay, he carefully
+defines the two kinds of distance, one visual, the other tangible:--
+
+    "By the distance between any two points nothing more is meant
+    than the number of intermediate points. If the given points
+    are visible, the distance between them is marked out by the
+    number of interjacent visible points; if they are tangible,
+    the distance between, them is a line consisting of tangible
+    points."
+
+Again, there are two sorts of magnitude or extension:--
+
+    "It has been shown that there are two sorts of objects
+    apprehended by sight, each whereof has its distinct magnitude
+    or extension: the one properly tangible, _i.e._ to be
+    perceived and measured by touch, and not immediately falling
+    under the sense of seeing; the other properly and immediately
+    visible, by mediation of which the former is brought into
+    view."--§ 55.
+
+But how are we to reconcile these passages with others which will be
+perfectly familiar to every reader of the "New Theory of Vision "? As,
+for example:--
+
+    "It is, I think, agreed by all, that distance of itself, and
+    immediately, cannot be seen."--§ 2.
+
+    "Space or distance, we have shown, is no otherwise the object
+    of sight than of hearing."--§ 130.
+
+    "Distance is in its own nature imperceptible, and yet it is
+    perceived by sight. It remains, therefore, that it is
+    brought into view by means of some other idea, that is itself
+    immediately perceived in the act of vision."--§ 11.
+
+    "Distance or external space."--§ 155.
+
+The explanation is quite simple, and lies in the fact that Berkeley
+uses the word "distance" in three senses. Sometimes he employs it to
+denote visible distance, and then he restricts it to distance in two
+dimensions, or simple extension. Sometimes he means tangible distance
+in two dimensions; but most commonly he intends to signify tangible
+distance in the third dimension. And it is in this sense that he
+employs "distance" as the equivalent of "space." Distance in two
+dimensions is, for Berkeley, not space, but extension. By taking a
+pencil and interpolating the words "visible" and "tangible" before
+"distance" wherever the context renders them necessary, Berkeley's
+statements may be made perfectly consistent; though he has not always
+extricated himself from the entanglement caused by his own loose
+phraseology, which rises to a climax in the last ten sections of
+the "Theory of Vision," in which he endeavours to prove that a pure
+intelligence able to see, but devoid of the sense of touch, could have
+no idea of a plane figure. Thus he says in section 156:--
+
+    "All that is properly perceived by the visual faculty amounts
+    to no more than colours with their variations and different
+    proportions of light and shade; but the perpetual mutability
+    and fleetingness of those immediate objects of sight
+    render them incapable of being managed after the manner of
+    geometrical figures, nor is it in any degree useful that they
+    should. It is true there be divers of them perceived at once,
+    and more of some and less of others; but accurately to compute
+    their magnitude, and assign precise determinate proportions
+    between things so variable and inconstant, if we suppose
+    it possible to be done, must yet be a very trifling and
+    insignificant labour."
+
+If, by this, Berkeley means that by vision alone, a straight line
+cannot be distinguished from a curved one, a circle from a square,
+a long line from a short one, a large angle from a small one, his
+position is surely absurd in itself and contradictory to his own
+previously cited admissions; if he only means, on the other hand, that
+his pure spirit could not get very far on in his geometry, it may be
+true or not; but it is in contradiction with his previous assertion,
+that such a pure spirit could never attain to know as much as the
+first elements of plane geometry.
+
+Another source of confusion, which arises out of Berkeley's
+insufficient exactness in the use of language, is to be found in what
+he says about solidity, in discussing Molyneux's problem, whether a
+man born blind and having learned to distinguish between a cube and a
+sphere, could, on receiving his sight, tell the one from the other
+by vision. Berkeley agrees with Locke that he could not, and adds the
+following reflection:--
+
+    "Cube, sphere, table, are words he has known applied to things
+    perceivable by touch, but to things perfectly intangible
+    he never knew them applied. Those words in their wonted
+    application always marked out to his mind bodies or solid
+    things which were perceived by the resistance they gave. But
+    there is no solidity, no resistance or protrusion perceived by
+    sight."
+
+Here "solidity" means resistance to pressure, which is apprehended by
+the muscular sense; but when in section 154 Berkeley says of his pure
+intelligence--
+
+    "It is certain that the aforesaid intelligence could have no
+    idea of a solid or quantity of three dimensions, which follows
+    from its not having any idea of distance "--
+
+he refers to that notion of solidity which may be obtained by the
+tactile sense, without the addition of any notion of resistance in the
+solid object; as, for example, when the finger passes lightly over the
+surface of a billiard ball.
+
+Yet another source of difficulty in clearly understanding Berkeley
+arises out of his use of the word "outness." In speaking of touch
+he seems to employ it indifferently, both for the localization of
+a tactile sensation in the sensory surface, which we really obtain
+through touch; and for the notion of corporeal separation, which is
+attained by the association of muscular and tactile sensations. In
+speaking of sight, on the other hand, Berkeley employs "outness" to
+denote corporeal separation.
+
+When due allowance is made for the occasional looseness and ambiguity
+of Berkeley's terminology, and the accessories are weeded out of the
+essential parts of his famous Essay, his views may, I believe, be
+fairly and accurately summed up in the following propositions:--
+
+1. The sense of touch gives rise to ideas of extension, figure,
+magnitude, and motion.
+
+2. The sense of touch gives rise to the idea of "outness," in the
+sense of localization.
+
+3. The sense of touch gives rise to the idea of resistance, and thence
+to that of solidity, in the sense of impenetrability.
+
+4. The sense of touch gives rise to the idea of "outness," in the
+sense of distance in the third dimension, and thence to that of space,
+or geometrical solidity.
+
+5. The sense of sight gives rise to ideas of extension, of figure,
+magnitude, and motion.
+
+6. The sense of sight does not give rise to the idea of "outness,"
+in the sense of distance in the third dimension, nor to that of
+geometrical solidity, no visual idea appearing to be without the mind,
+or at any distance off (§§ 43, 50).
+
+7. The sense of sight does not give rise to the idea of mechanical
+solidity.
+
+8. There is no likeness whatever between the tactile ideas called
+extension, figure, magnitude, and motion, and the visual ideas which
+go by the same names; nor are any ideas common to the two senses.
+
+9. When we think we see objects at a distance, what really happens
+is that the visual picture suggests that the object seen has tangible
+distance; we confound the strong belief in the tangible distance of
+the object with actual sight of its distance.
+
+10. Visual ideas, therefore, constitute a kind of language, by which
+we are informed of the tactile ideas which will, or may, arise in us.
+
+Taking these propositions into consideration _seriatim_, it may be
+assumed that everyone will assent to the first and second; and that
+for the third and fourth we have only to include the muscular sense
+tinder the name of sense of touch, as Berkeley did, in order to make
+it quite accurate. Nor is it intelligible to me that anyone should
+explicitly deny the truth of the fifth proposition, though some
+of Berkeley's supporters, less careful than himself, have done so.
+Indeed, it must be confessed that it is only grudgingly, and as it
+were against his will, that Berkeley admits that we obtain ideas of
+extension, figure, and magnitude by pure vision, and that he more than
+half retracts the admission; while he absolutely denies that sight
+gives us any notion of outness in either sense of the word, and even
+declares that "no proper visual idea appears to be without the mind,
+or at any distance off." By "proper visual ideas," Berkeley denotes
+colours, and light, and shade; and, therefore, he affirms that colours
+do not appear to be at any distance from us. I confess that this
+assertion appears to me to be utterly unaccountable. I have made
+endless experiments on this point, and by no effort of the imagination
+can I persuade myself, when looking at a colour, that the colour is
+in my mind, and not at a "distance off," though of course I know
+perfectly well, as a matter of reason, that colour is subjective. It
+is like looking at the sun setting, and trying to persuade oneself
+that the earth appears to move and not the sun, a feat I have never
+been able to accomplish. Even when the eyes are shut, the darkness
+of which one is conscious, carries with it the notion of outness. One
+looks, so to speak, into a dark space. Common language expresses the
+common experience of mankind in this matter. A man will say that a
+smell is in his nose, a taste in his mouth, a singing in his ears, a
+creeping or a warmth in his skin; but if he is jaundiced, he does not
+say that he has yellow in his eyes, but that everything looks yellow;
+and if he is troubled with _muscae volitantes_, he says, not that he
+has specks in his eyes, but that he sees specks dancing before his
+eyes. In fact, it appears to me that it is the special peculiarity
+of visual sensations, that they invariably give rise to the idea of
+remoteness, and that Berkeley's dictum ought to be reversed. For I
+think that anyone who interrogates his consciousness carefully will
+find that "every proper visual idea" appears to be without the mind
+and at a distance off.
+
+Not only does every _visibile_ appear to be remote, but it has a
+position in external space, just as a _tangibile_ appears to be
+superficial and to have a determinate position on the surface of
+the body. Every _visibile_, in fact, appears (approximately) to be
+situated upon a line drawn from it to the point of the retina on which
+its image falls. It is referred outwards, in the general direction of
+the pencil of light by which it is rendered visible, just as, in the
+experiment with the stick, the _tangibile_ is referred outwards to the
+end of the stick.
+
+It is for this reason that an object, viewed with both eyes, is seen
+single and not double. Two distinct images are formed, but each image
+is referred to that point at which the two optic axes intersect;
+consequently, the two images exactly cover one another, and appear as
+completely one as any other two exactly similar superimposed images
+would be. And it is for the same reason, that, if the ball of the
+eye is pressed upon at any point, a spot of light appears apparently
+outside the eye, and in a region exactly opposite to that in which the
+pressure is made.
+
+But while it seems to me that there is no reason to doubt that the
+extradition of sensation is more complete in the case of the eye than
+in that of the skin, and that corporeal distinctness, and hence space,
+are directly suggested by vision, it is another, and a much more
+difficult question, whether the notion of geometrical solidity is
+attainable by pure vision; that is to say, by a single eye, all the
+parts of which are immoveable. However this may be, for an absolutely
+fixed eye, I conceive there can be no doubt in the case of an eye that
+is moveable and capable of adjustment. For, with the moveable eye,
+the muscular sense comes into play in exactly the same way as with the
+moveable hand; and the notion of change of place, _plus_ the sense of
+effort, gives rise to a conception of visual space, which runs exactly
+parallel with that of tangible space. When two moveable eyes are
+present, the notion of space of three dimensions is obtained in the
+same way as it is by the two hands, but with, much greater precision.
+
+And if, to take a case similar to one already assumed, we suppose a
+man deprived of every sense except vision, and of all motion except
+that of his eyes, it surely cannot be doubted that he would have a
+perfect conception of space; and indeed a much more perfect conception
+than he who possessed touch alone without vision. But of course our
+touchless man would be devoid of any notion of resistance; and hence
+space, for him, would be altogether geometrical and devoid of body.
+
+And here another curious consideration arises, what likeness, if
+any, would there be between the visual space of the one man, and the
+tangible space of the other?
+
+Berkeley, as we have seen (in the eighth proposition), declares that
+there is no likeness between the ideas given by sight and those given
+by touch; and one cannot but agree with him, so long as the term ideas
+is restricted to mere sensations. Obviously, there is no more likeness
+between the feel of a surface and the colour of it, than there is
+between its colour and its smell. All simple sensations, derived
+from different senses, are incommensurable with one another, and only
+gradations of their own intensity are comparable. And thus so far as
+the primary facts of sensation go, visual figure and tactile figure,
+visual magnitude and tactile magnitude, visual motion and tactile
+motion, are truly unlike, and have no common term. But when Berkeley
+goes further than this, and declares that there are no "ideas" common
+to the "ideas" of touch and those of sight, it appears to me that he
+has fallen into a great error, and one which is the chief source of
+his paradoxes about geometry.
+
+Berkeley in fact employs the word "idea" in this instance to denote
+two totally different classes of feelings, or states of consciousness.
+For these may be divided into two groups: the primary feelings,
+which exist in themselves and without relation to any other, such as
+pleasure and pain, desire, and the simple sensations obtained through
+the sensory organs; and the secondary feelings, which express those
+relations of primary feelings which are perceived by the mind; and the
+existence of which, therefore, implies the pre-existence of at least
+two of the primary feelings. Such are likeness and unlikeness in
+quality, quantity, or form; succession and contemporaneity; contiguity
+and distance; cause and effect; motion and rest.
+
+Now it is quite true that there is no likeness between the primary
+feelings which are grouped under sight and touch; but it appears to me
+wholly untrue, and indeed absurd, to affirm that there is no likeness
+between the secondary feelings which express the relations of the
+primary ones.
+
+The relation of succession perceived between the visible taps of
+a hammer, is, to my mind, exactly like the relation of succession
+between the tangible taps; the unlikeness between red and blue is a
+mental phenomenon of the same order as the unlikeness between rough
+and smooth. Two points visibly distant are so, because one or more
+units of visible length _(minima visibilia_) are interposed between
+them; and as two points tangibly distant are so, because one or more
+units of tangible length _(minima tangibilia_) are interposed between
+them, it is clear that the notion of interposition of units of
+sensibility, or _minima sensibilia_, is an idea common to the two. And
+whether I see a point move across the field of vision towards another
+point, or feel the like motion, the idea of the gradual diminution of
+the number of sensible units between the two points appears to me to
+be common to both kinds of motion.
+
+Hence, I conceive, that though it be true that there is no likeness
+between the primary feelings given by sight and those given by touch,
+yet there is a complete likeness between the secondary feelings
+aroused by each sense.
+
+Indeed, if it were not so, how could Logic, which deals with those
+forms of thought which are applicable to every kind of subject-matter,
+be possible? How could numerical proportion be as true of _visibilia_,
+as of _tangibilia_, unless there were some ideas common to the two?
+And to come directly to the heart of the matter, is there any more
+difference between the relations between tangible sensations which we
+call place and direction, and those between visible sensations which
+go by the same name, than there is between those relations of tangible
+and visible sensations which we call succession? And if there be
+none, why is Geometry not just as much a matter of _visibilia_ as of
+_tangibilia_?
+
+Moreover, as a matter of fact, it is certain that the muscular sense
+is so closely connected with both the visual and the tactile senses,
+that, by the ordinary laws of association, the ideas which it suggests
+must needs be common to both.
+
+From what has been said it will follow that the ninth proposition
+falls to the ground; and that vision, combined with the muscular
+sensations produced by the movement of the eyes, gives us as complete
+a notion of corporeal separation and of distance in the third
+dimension of space, as touch, combined with the muscular sensations
+produced by the movements of the hand, does. The tenth proposition
+seems to contain a perfectly true statement, but it is only half
+the truth. It is no doubt true that our visual ideas are a kind of
+language by which we are informed of the tactile ideas which may or
+will arise in us; but this is true, more or less, of every sense in
+regard to every other. If I put my hand in my pocket, the tactile
+ideas which I receive prophesy quite accurately what I shall
+see--whether a bunch of keys or half-a-crown--when I pull it out
+again; and the tactile ideas are, in this case, the language which
+informs me of the visual ideas which will arise. So with the other
+senses: olfactory ideas tell me I shall find the tactile and visual
+phenomena called violets, if I look for them; taste tells me that
+what I am tasting will, if I look at it, have the form of a clove; and
+hearing warns me of what I shall, or may, see and touch every minute
+of my life.
+
+But while the "New Theory of Vision" cannot be considered to possess
+much value in relation to the immediate object its author had in view,
+it had a vastly important influence in directing attention to the real
+complexity of many of those phenomena of sensation, which appear at
+first to be simple. And even if Berkeley was, as I imagine he was,
+quite wrong in supposing that we do not see space, the contrary
+doctrine makes quite as strongly for his general view, that space can
+be conceived only as something thought by a mind.
+
+The last of Locke's "primary qualities" which remain to be considered
+is mechanical solidity, or impenetrability. But our conception of this
+is derived from the sense of resistance to our own effort, or active
+force, which we meet with in association with sundry tactile or visual
+phenomena; and, undoubtedly, active force is inconceivable except as a
+state of consciousness. This may sound paradoxical; but let anyone try
+to realize what he means by the mutual attraction of two particles,
+and I think he will find, either, that he conceives them simply as
+moving towards one another at a certain rate, in which case he only
+pictures motion to himself, and leaves force aside; or, that he
+conceives each particle to be animated by something like his own
+volition, and to be pulling as he would pull. And I suppose that this
+difficulty of thinking of force except as something comparable to
+volition, lies at the bottom of Leibnitz's doctrine of monads, to say
+nothing of Schopenhauer's "Welt als Wille und Vorstellung;" while the
+opposite difficulty of conceiving force to be anything like volition,
+drives another school of thinkers into the denial of any connection,
+save that of succession, between cause and effect.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+To sum up. If the materialist affirms that the universe and all its
+phenomena are resolvable into matter and motion, Berkeley replies,
+True; but what you call matter and motion are known to us only as
+forms of consciousness; their being is to be conceived or known; and
+the existence of a state of consciousness, apart from a thinking mind,
+is a contradiction in terms.
+
+I conceive that this reasoning is irrefragable. And therefore, if
+I were obliged to choose between absolute materialism and absolute
+idealism, I should feel compelled to accept the latter alternative.
+Indeed, upon this point Locke does, practically, go as far in the
+direction of idealism, as Berkeley, when he admits that "the simple
+ideas we receive from sensation and reflection are the boundaries of
+our thoughts, beyond which the mind, whatever efforts it would make,
+is not able to advance one jot."--Book II. chap, xxiii. § 29.
+
+But Locke adds, "Nor can it make any discoveries when it would pry
+into the nature and hidden causes of these ideas."
+
+Now, from this proposition, the thorough materialists dissent as much,
+on the one hand, as Berkeley does, upon the other hand.
+
+The thorough materialist asserts that there is a something which he
+calls the "substance" of matter; that this something is the cause of
+all phenomena, whether material or mental; that it is self-existent
+and eternal, and so forth.
+
+Berkeley, on the contrary, asserts with equal confidence that there is
+no substance of matter, but only a substance of mind, which he terms
+spirit; that there are two kinds of spiritual substance, the one
+eternal and uncreated, the substance of the Deity, the other created,
+and, once created, naturally eternal; that the universe, as known
+to created spirits, has no being in itself, but is the result of
+the action of the substance of the Deity on the substance of those
+spirits.
+
+In contradiction to which bold assertion, Locke affirms that we simply
+know nothing about substance of any kind.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Berkeley virtually makes the same confession of
+ignorance, when he admits that we can have no idea or notion of a
+spirit ("Principles of Human Knowledge," § 138); and the way in which
+he tries to escape the consequences of this admission, is a splendid
+example of the floundering of a mired logician.]
+
+    "So that if anyone will examine himself concerning his notion
+    of pure substance in general, he will find he has no other
+    idea of it at all, but only a supposition of he knows not
+    what support of such qualities, which are capable of producing
+    simple ideas in us, which qualities are commonly called
+    accidents.
+
+    "If anyone should be asked, what is the subject wherein colour
+    or weight inheres? he would have nothing to say but the
+    solid extended parts; and if he were demanded what is it that
+    solidity and extension inhere in? he would not be in much
+    better case than the Indian before mentioned, who, urging that
+    the world was supported by a great elephant, was asked what
+    the elephant rested on? to which his answer was, a great
+    tortoise. But being again pressed to know what gave support
+    to the broad-backed tortoise I replied, something, he knew not
+    what. And thus here, as in all other cases when we use
+    words without having clear and distinct ideas, we talk like
+    children, who, being questioned what such a thing is, readily
+    give this satisfactory answer, that it is something; which in
+    truth signifies no more when so used, either by children or
+    men, but that they know not what, and that the thing they
+    pretend to talk and know of is what they have no distinct idea
+    of at all, and are, so, perfectly ignorant of it and in the
+    dark. The idea, then, we have, to which we give the general
+    name substance, being nothing but the supposed but unknown
+    support of those qualities we find existing, which we imagine
+    cannot exist _sine re substante_, without something to support
+    them, we call that support _substantia_, which, according to
+    the true import of the word, is, in plain English, standing
+    under or upholding."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Locke, "Human Understanding," Book II. chap, xiii. § 2.]
+
+I cannot but believe that the judgment of Locke is that which
+Philosophy will accept as her final decision.
+
+Suppose that a piano were conscious of sound, and of nothing else. It
+would become acquainted with a system of nature entirely composed
+of sounds, and the laws of nature would be the laws of melody and of
+harmony. It might acquire endless ideas of likeness and unlikeness, of
+succession, of similarity and dissimilarity, but it could attain to no
+conception of space, of distance, or of resistance; or of figure, or
+of motion.
+
+The piano might then reason thus: All my knowledge consists of sounds
+and the perception of the relations of sounds; now the being of sound
+is to be heard; and it is inconceivable that the existence of the
+sounds I know, should depend upon any other existence than that of the
+mind of a hearing being.
+
+This would be quite as good reasoning as Berkeley's, and very sound
+and useful, so far as it defines the limits of the piano's faculties.
+But for all that, pianos have an existence quite apart from sounds,
+and the auditory consciousness of our speculative piano would be
+dependent, in the first place, on the existence of a "substance" of
+brass, wood, and iron, and, in the second, on that of a musician. But
+of neither of these conditions of the existence of his consciousness
+would the phenomena of that consciousness afford him the slightest
+hint.
+
+So that while it is the summit of human wisdom to learn the limit of
+our faculties, it may be wise to recollect that we have no more right
+to make denials, than to put forth affirmatives, about what lies
+beyond that limit. Whether either mind, or matter, has a "substance"
+or not, is a problem which we are incompetent to discuss; and it is
+just as likely that the common notions upon the subject should be
+correct as any others. Indeed, Berkeley himself makes Philonous wind
+up his discussions with Hylas, in a couple of sentences which aptly
+express this conclusion:--
+
+    "You see, Hylas, the water of yonder fountain, how it is
+    forced upwards in a round column to a certain height, at which
+    it breaks and falls back into the basin from whence it rose;
+    its ascent as well as its descent proceeding from the same
+    uniform law or principle of gravitation. Just so, the same
+    principles which, at first view, lead to scepticism, pursued
+    to a certain point, bring men back to common sense."
+
+THE END.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Critiques and Addresses, by Thomas Henry Huxley
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+=CRITIQUES AND ADDRESSES.=
+
+BY
+
+THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY, LL.D., F.R.S.
+
+1873.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+The "Critiques and Addresses" gathered together in this volume, like
+the "Lay Sermons, Addresses, and Reviews," published three years ago,
+deal chiefly with educational, scientific, and philosophical subjects;
+and, in fact, indicate the high-water mark of the various tides of
+occupation by which I have been carried along since the beginning of
+the year 1870.
+
+In the end of that year, a confidence in my powers of work, which,
+unfortunately, has not been justified by events, led me to allow
+myself to be brought forward as a candidate for a seat on the London
+School Board. Thanks to the energy of my supporters I was elected, and
+took my share in the work of that body during the critical first year
+of its existence. Then my health gave way, and I was obliged to resign
+my place among colleagues whose large practical knowledge of the
+business of primary education, and whose self-sacrificing zeal in the
+discharge of the onerous and thankless duties thrown upon them by
+the Legislature, made it a pleasure to work with them, even though my
+position was usually that of a member of the minority.
+
+I mention these circumstances in order to account for (I had almost
+said to apologize for) the existence of the two papers which head
+the present series, and which are more or less political, both in the
+lower and in the higher senses of that word.
+
+The question of the expediency of any form of State Education is, in
+fact, a question of those higher politics which lie above the region
+in which Tories, Whigs, and Radicals "delight to bark and bite." In
+discussing it in my address on "Administrative Nihilism," I found
+myself, to my profound regret, led to diverge very widely (though even
+more perhaps in seeming than in reality) from the opinions of a man of
+genius to whom I am bound by the twofold tie of the respect due to a
+profound philosopher and the affection given to a very old friend. But
+had I no other means of knowing the fact, the kindly geniality of Mr.
+Herbert Spencer's reply[1] assures me that the tie to which I refer
+will bear a much heavier strain than I have put, or ever intend to
+put, upon it, and I rather rejoice that I have been the means of
+calling forth so vigorous a piece of argumentative writing. Nor is
+this disinterested joy at an attack upon myself diminished by the
+circumstance, that, in all humility, but in all sincerity, I think it
+may be repulsed.
+
+[Footnote 1: "Specialized Administration;" _Fortnightly Review_,
+December 1871.]
+
+Mr. Spencer complains that I have first misinterpreted, and then
+miscalled, the doctrine of which he is so able an expositor. It would
+grieve me very much if I were really open to this charge. But what are
+the facts? I define this doctrine as follows:--
+
+    "Those who hold these views support them by two lines of
+    argument. They enforce them deductively by arguing from an
+    assumed axiom, that the State has no right to do anything but
+    protect its subjects from aggression. The State is simply a
+    policeman, and its duty, neither more nor less than to prevent
+    robbery and murder and enforce contracts. It is not to promote
+    good, nor even to do anything to prevent evil, except by the
+    enforcement of penalties upon those who have been guilty
+    of obvious and tangible assaults upon purse or person. And,
+    according to this view, the proper form of government is
+    neither a monarchy, an aristocracy, nor a democracy, but an
+    _astynomocracy_, or police government. On the other hand,
+    these views are supported _à posteriori_ by an induction from
+    observation, which professes to show that whatever is done by
+    a Government beyond these negative limits, is not only sure
+    to be done badly, but to be done much worse than private
+    enterprise would have done the same thing."
+
+I was filled with surprised regret when I learned from the conclusion
+of the article on "Specialized Administration," that this statement is
+held by Mr. Spencer to be a misinterpretation of his views. Perhaps
+I ought to be still more sorry to be obliged to declare myself, even
+now, unable to discover where my misinterpretation lies, or in what
+respect my presentation of Mr. Spencer's views differs from his own
+most recent version of them. As the passage cited above shows I have
+carefully defined the sense in which I use the terms which I employ,
+and, therefore, I am not greatly concerned to defend the abstract
+appropriateness of the terms themselves. And when Mr. Spencer
+maintains the only proper functions of Government to be those which
+are comprehensible under the description of "Negatively regulative
+control," I may suggest that the difference between such "Negative
+Administration" and "Administrative Nihilism," in the sense defined by
+me, is not easily discernible.
+
+Having, as I hope, relieved myself from the suspicion of having
+misunderstood or misrepresented Mr. Spencer's views, I might, if I
+could forget that I am writing a preface, proceed to the discussion
+of the parallel which he elaborates, with much knowledge and power,
+between the physiological and the social organisms. But this is not
+the place for a controversy involving so many technicalities, and
+I content myself with one remark, namely, that the whole course of
+modern physiological discovery tends to show, with more and more
+clearness, that the vascular system, or apparatus for distributing
+commodities in the animal organism, is eminently under the control of
+the cerebro-spinal nervous centres--a fact which, unless I am again
+mistaken, is contrary to one of Mr. Spencer's fundamental assumptions.
+In the animal organism, Government does meddle with trade, and even
+goes so far as to tamper a good deal with the currency.
+
+In the same number of the _Fortnightly Review_ as that which contains
+Mr. Spencer's essay, Miss Helen Taylor assails me--though, I am bound
+to admit, more in sorrow than in anger--for what she terms, my
+"New Attack on Toleration." It is I, this time, who may complain of
+misinterpretation, if the greater part of Miss Taylor's article
+(with which I entirely sympathise) is supposed to be applicable to
+my "intolerance." Let us have full-toleration, by all means, upon
+all questions in which there is room for doubt, or which cannot be
+distinctly proved to affect the welfare of mankind. But when Miss
+Taylor has shown what basis exists for criminal legislation, except
+the clear right of mankind not to tolerate that which is demonstrably
+contrary to the welfare of society, I will admit that such
+demonstration ought only to be believed in by the "curates and
+old women" to whom she refers. Recent events have not weakened the
+conviction I expressed in a much-abused speech at the London School
+Board, that Ultramontanism is demonstrably the enemy of society; and
+must be met with resistance, merely passive if possible, but active if
+necessary, by "the whole power of the State."
+
+Next in order, it seems proper that I should briefly refer to my
+friend Mr. Mivart's onslaught upon my criticism of Mr. Darwin's
+critics, himself among the number, which will be found in this
+volume. In "Evolution and its Consequences"[1] I am accused of
+misrepresentation, misquotation, misunderstanding, and numerous other
+negative and positive literary and scientific sins; and much subtle
+ingenuity is expended by Mr. Mivart in attempting to extricate himself
+from the position in which my exposition of the real opinions of
+Father Suarez has placed him. So much more, in fact, has Mr. Mivart's
+ingenuity impressed me than any other feature of his reply, that I
+shall take the liberty of re-stating the main issue between us; and,
+for the present, leaving that issue alone to the judgment of the
+public.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Contemporary Review_, January 1872.]
+
+In his book on the "Genesis of Species" Mr. Mivart, after discussing
+the opinions of sundry Catholic writers of authority, among whom he
+especially includes St. Augustin, St. Thomas Aquinas, and the Jesuit
+Suarez, proceeds to say: "It is then evident that ancient and most
+venerable theological authorities distinctly assert _derivative_
+creation, and thus their teachings harmonize with all that modern
+science can possibly require."[1] By the "derivative creation" of
+organic forms, Mr. Mivart understands, "that God created them by
+conferring on the material world the power to evolve them under
+suitable conditions."
+
+[Footnote 1: Bunsen's "Outlines of the Philosophy of Universal
+History," vol. i.p. 349. 1854.]
+
+On the contrary, I proved by evidence, which Mr. Mivart does not
+venture to impugn, that Suarez, in his "Tractatus de Opere sex
+Dierum," expressly rejects St. Augustin's and St. Thomas' views; that
+he vehemently advocates the literal interpretation of the account of
+the creation given in the Book of Genesis; and that he treats with
+utter scorn the notion that the Almighty could have used the language
+of that Book, unless He meant it to be taken literally.
+
+Mr. Mivart, therefore, either has read Suarez and has totally
+misrepresented him--a hypothesis which, I hope I need hardly say, I do
+not for a moment entertain: or, he has got his information at second
+hand, and has himself been deceived. But in that case, it is surely
+an imprudence on his part, to reproach me with having "read Suarez _ad
+hoc_, and evidently without the guidance of anyone familiar with
+that author." No doubt, in the matter of guidance, Mr. Mivart has the
+advantage of me. Nevertheless, the guides who supplied him with his
+references to Suarez' "Metaphysica," while they left him in ignorance
+of the existence of the "Tractatus," are guides with whose services
+it might be better to dispense; leaders who wilfully shut their eyes,
+being even more liable to lodge one in a ditch, than blind leaders.
+
+At the time when the essay on "Methods and Results of Ethnology" was
+written, I had not met with a passage in Professor Max Müller's "Last
+Results of Turanian Researches"[1] which shows so appositely, that
+the profoundest study of philology leads to conclusions respecting the
+relation of Ethnology with Philology, similar to those at which I had
+arrived in approaching the question from the Anatomist's side, that I
+cannot refrain from quoting it:
+
+[Footnote 1: LONDON, _April_ 1873.]
+
+    "Nor should we, in our phonological studies, either expect or
+    desire more than general hints from physical ethnology. The
+    proper and rational connection between the two sciences is
+    that of mutual advice and suggestion, but nothing more. Much
+    of the confusion of terms and indistinctness of principles,
+    both in Ethnology and Phonology, are due to the combined
+    study of these heterogeneous sciences. Ethnological race
+    and phonological race are not commensurate, except in
+    ante-historical times, or perhaps at the very dawn of history.
+    With the migration of tribes, their wars, their colonies,
+    their conquests and alliances, which, if we may judge from
+    their effects, must have been much more violent in the
+    ethnic, than even in the political, period of history, it is
+    impossible to imagine that race and language should continue
+    to run parallel. The physiologist should pursue his own
+    science unconcerned about language."
+
+It is further desirable to remark that the statements in this Essay
+respecting the forms of Native American crania need rectification. On
+this point, I refer the reader who is interested in the subject to
+my paper "On the Form of the Cranium among the Patagonians and the
+Fuegians" published in the _Journal of Anatomy and Physiology_ for
+1868.
+
+If the problem discussed in my address to the British Association
+in 1870 has not yet received its solution, it is not because the
+champions of Abiogenesis have been idle, or wanting in confidence. But
+every new assertion on their side has been met by a counter assertion;
+and though the public may have been led to believe that so much noise
+must indicate rapid progress, one way or the other, an impartial
+critic will admit, with sorrow, that the question has been "marking
+time" rather than marching. In mere sound, these two processes are not
+so very different.
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+I.
+
+ADMINISTRATIVE NIHILISM. (An Address delivered to the Members of
+the Midland Institute, on the 9th of October, 1871, and subsequently
+published in the _Fortnightly Review_)
+
+
+II.
+
+THE SCHOOL BOARDS: WHAT THEY CAN DO, AND WHAT THEY MAY DO. (The
+_Contemporary Review_, 1870)
+
+
+III.
+
+ON MEDICAL EDUCATION. (An Address to the Students of the Faculty of
+Medicine in University College, London, 1870)
+
+
+IV.
+
+YEAST. (The _Contemporary Review_, 1871)
+
+
+V.
+
+ON THE FORMATION OF COAL. (A Lecture delivered before the Members of
+the Bradford Philosophical Institution, and subsequently published in
+the _Contemporary Review_)
+
+
+VI.
+
+ON CORAL AND CORAL REEFS. (_Good Words_, 1870)
+
+
+VII.
+
+ON THE METHODS AND RESULTS OF ETHNOLOGY. (The _Fortnightly Review_,
+1865)
+
+
+VIII.
+
+ON SOME FIXED POINTS IN BRITISH ETHNOLOGY. (The _Contemporary Review_,
+1871)
+
+
+IX.
+
+PALAEONTOLOGY AND THE DOCTRINE OF EVOLUTION. (The Presidential Address
+to the Geological Society, 1870)
+
+
+X.
+
+MR. DARWIN'S CRITICS. (The _Contemporary Review_, 1871)
+
+
+XI.
+
+THE GENEALOGY OF ANIMALS. (A Review of Haeckel's "Natürliche
+Schöpfungs-Geschichte." The _Academy_, 1869)
+
+
+XII.
+
+BISHOP BERKELEY ON THE METAPHYSICS OF SENSATION. _(Macmillan's
+Magazine_, 1871)
+
+
+
+
+CRITIQUES AND ADDRESSES.
+
+
+
+
+I.
+
+ADMINISTRATIVE NIHILISM.
+
+(AN ADDRESS TO THE MEMBERS OF THE MIDLAND INSTITUTE, OCTOBER 9TH,
+1871.)
+
+
+To me, and, as I trust, to the great majority of those whom I address,
+the great attempt to educate the people of England which has just been
+set afoot, is one of the most satisfactory and hopeful events in our
+modern history. But it is impossible, even if it were desirable,
+to shut our eyes to the fact, that there is a minority, not
+inconsiderable in numbers, nor deficient in supporters of weight and
+authority, in whose judgment all this legislation is a step in the
+wrong direction, false in principle, and consequently sure to produce
+evil in practice.
+
+The arguments employed by these objectors are of two kinds. The first
+is what I will venture to term the caste argument; for, if logically
+carried out, it would end in the separation of the people of this
+country into castes, as permanent and as sharply defined, if not as
+numerous, as those of India. It is maintained that the whole fabric
+of society will be destroyed if the poor, as well as the rich, are
+educated; that anything like sound and good education will only make
+them discontented with their station and raise hopes which, in the
+great majority of cases, will be bitterly disappointed. It is said:
+There must be hewers of wood and drawers of water, scavengers and
+coalheavers, day labourers and domestic servants, or the work of
+society will come to a standstill. But, if you educate and refine
+everybody, nobody will be content to assume these functions, and all
+the world will want to be gentlemen and ladies.
+
+One hears this argument most frequently from the representatives of
+the well-to-do middle class; and, coming from them, it strikes me as
+peculiarly inconsistent, as the one thing they admire, strive after,
+and advise their own children to do, is to get on in the world, and,
+if possible, rise out of the class in which they were born into that
+above them. Society needs grocers and merchants as much as it needs
+coalheavers; but if a merchant accumulates wealth and works his way to
+a baronetcy, or if the son of a greengrocer becomes a lord chancellor,
+or an archbishop, or, as a successful soldier, wins a peerage, all the
+world admires them; and looks with pride upon the social system which
+renders such achievements possible. Nobody suggests that there is
+anything wrong in _their_ being discontented with _their_ station; or
+that, in _their_ cases society suffers by men of ability reaching the
+positions for which nature has fitted them.
+
+But there are better replies than those of the _tu quoque_ sort to the
+caste argument. In the first place, it is not true that education,
+as such, unfits men for rough and laborious, or even disgusting,
+occupations. The life of a sailor is rougher and harder than that of
+nine landsmen out of ten, and yet, as every ship's captain knows, no
+sailor was ever the worse for possessing a trained intelligence. The
+life of a medical practitioner, especially in the country, is harder
+and more laborious than that of most artisans, and he is constantly
+obliged to do things which, in point of pleasantness, cannot be ranked
+above scavengering--yet he always ought to be, and he frequently is,
+a highly educated man. In the second place, though it may be granted
+that the words of the catechism, which require a man to do his duty in
+the station to which it has pleased God to call him, give an admirable
+definition of our obligation to ourselves and to society; yet the
+question remains, how is any given person to find out what is the
+particular station to which it has pleased God to call him? A new-born
+infant does not come into the world labelled scavenger, shopkeeper,
+bishop, or duke. One mass of red pulp is just like another to all
+outward appearance. And it is only by finding out what his faculties
+are good for, and seeking, not for the sake of gratifying a paltry
+vanity, but as the highest duty to himself and to his fellow-men,
+to put himself into the position in which they can attain their full
+development, that the man discovers his true station. That which is to
+be lamented, I fancy, is not that society should do its utmost to help
+capacity to ascend from the lower strata to the higher, but that it
+has no machinery by which to facilitate the descent of incapacity from
+the higher strata to the lower. In that noble romance, the "Republic"
+(which is now, thanks to the Master of Balliol, as intelligible to
+us all, as if it had been written in our mother tongue), Plato makes
+Socrates say that he should like to inculcate upon the citizens of his
+ideal state just one "royal lie."
+
+    "'Citizens,' we shall say to them in our tale--'You are
+    brothers, yet God has framed you differently. Some of you
+    have the power of command, and these he has composed of
+    gold, wherefore also they have the greatest honour; others
+    of silver, to be auxiliaries; others again, who are to be
+    husbandmen and craftsmen, he has made of brass and iron; and
+    the species will generally be preserved in the children. But
+    as you are of the same original family, a golden parent will
+    sometimes have a silver son, or a silver parent a golden son.
+    And God proclaims to the rulers, as a first principle, that
+    before all they should watch over their offspring, and see
+    what elements mingle with their nature; for if the son of a
+    golden or silver parent has an admixture of brass and iron,
+    then nature orders a transposition of ranks, and the eye of
+    the ruler must not be pitiful towards his child because he has
+    to descend in the scale and become a husbandman or artisan;
+    just as there may be others sprung from the artisan class, who
+    are raised to honour, and become guardians and auxiliaries.
+    For an oracle says that when a man of brass or iron guards the
+    State, it will then be destroyed.'"[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "The Dialogues of Plato." Translated into English, with
+Analysis and Introduction, by B. Jowett, M.A. Vol. ii. p. 243.]
+
+Time, whose tooth gnaws away everything else, is powerless against
+truth; and the lapse of more than two thousand years has not weakened
+the force of these wise words. Nor is it necessary that, as Plato
+suggests, society should provide functionaries expressly charged with
+the performance of the difficult duty of picking out the men of brass
+from those of silver and gold. Educate, and the latter will certainly
+rise to the top; remove all those artificial props by which the brass
+and iron folk are kept at the top, and, by a law as sure as that of
+gravitation, they will gradually sink to the bottom. We have all
+known noble lords who would have been coachmen, or gamekeepers, or
+billiard-markers, if they had not been kept afloat by our social
+corks; we have all known men among the lowest ranks, of whom everyone
+has said, "What might not that man have become, if he had only had a
+little education?"
+
+And who that attends, even in the most superficial way, to the
+conditions upon which the stability of modern society--and especially
+of a society like ours, in which recent legislation has placed
+sovereign authority in the hands of the masses, whenever they are
+united enough to wield their power--can doubt that every man of high
+natural ability, who is both ignorant and miserable, is as great a
+danger to society as a rocket without a stick is to the people
+who fire it? Misery is a match that never goes out; genius, as an
+explosive power, beats gunpowder hollow; and if knowledge, which
+should give that power guidance, is wanting, the chances are not small
+that the rocket will simply run a-muck among friends and foes. What
+gives force to the socialistic movement which is now stirring
+European society to its depths, but a determination on the part of the
+naturally able men among the proletariat, to put an end, somehow or
+other, to the misery and degradation in which a large proportion of
+their fellows are steeped? The question, whether the means by which
+they purpose to achieve this end are adequate or not, is at this
+moment the most important of all political questions--and it is beside
+my present purpose to discuss it. All I desire to point out is, that
+if the chance of the controversy being decided calmly and rationally,
+and not by passion and force, looks miserably small to an impartial
+bystander, the reason is that not one in ten thousand of those who
+constitute the ultimate court of appeal, by which questions of the
+utmost difficulty, as well as of the most momentous gravity, will have
+to be decided, is prepared by education to comprehend the real nature
+of the suit brought before their tribunal.
+
+Finally, as to the ladies and gentlemen question, all I can say is,
+would that every woman-child born into this world were trained to be
+a lady, and every man-child a gentleman! But then I do not use those
+much-abused words by way of distinguishing people who wear fine
+clothes, and live in fine houses, and talk aristocratic slang, from
+those who go about in fustian, and live in back slums, and talk gutter
+slang. Some inborn plebeian blindness, in fact, prevents me from
+understanding what advantage the former have over the latter. I have
+never even been able to understand why pigeon-shooting at Hurlingham
+should be refined and polite, while a rat-killing match in Whitechapel
+is low; or why "What a lark" should be coarse, when one hears "How
+awfully jolly" drop from the most refined lips twenty times in an
+evening.
+
+Thoughtfulness for others, generosity, modesty, and self-respect, are
+the qualities which make a real gentleman, or lady, as distinguished
+from the veneered article which commonly goes by that name. I by no
+means wish to express any sentimental preference for Lazarus against
+Dives, but, on the face of the matter, one does not see why the
+practice of these virtues should be more difficult in one state of
+life than another; and any one who has had a wide experience among all
+sorts and conditions of men, will, I think, agree with me that they
+are as common in the lower ranks of life as in the higher.
+
+Leaving the caste argument aside then, as inconsistent with the
+practice of those who employ it, as devoid of any justification in
+theory, and as utterly mischievous if its logical consequences were
+carried out, let us turn to the other class of objectors. To these
+opponents, the Education Act is only one of a number of pieces of
+legislation to which they object on principle; and they include under
+like condemnation the Vaccination Act, the Contagious Diseases Act,
+and all other sanitary Acts; all attempts on the part of the State to
+prevent adulteration, or to regulate injurious trades; all legislative
+interference with anything that bears directly or indirectly on
+commerce, such as shipping, harbours, railways, roads, cab-fares, and
+the carriage of letters; and all attempts to promote the spread of
+knowledge by the establishment of teaching bodies, examining
+bodies, libraries, or museums, or by the sending out of scientific
+expeditions; all endeavours to advance art by the establishment of
+schools of design, or picture galleries; or by spending money upon
+an architectural public building when a brick box would answer the
+purpose. According to their views, not a shilling of public money must
+be bestowed upon a public park or pleasure-ground; not sixpence upon
+the relief of starvation, or the cure of disease. Those who hold
+these views support them by two lines of argument. They enforce them
+deductively by arguing from an assumed axiom, that the State has no
+right to do anything but protect its subjects from aggression. The
+State is simply a policeman, and its duty is neither more nor less
+than to prevent robbery and murder and enforce contracts. It is not to
+promote good, nor even to do anything to prevent evil, except by the
+enforcement of penalties upon those who have been guilty of obvious
+and tangible assaults upon purses or persons. And, according to
+this view, the proper form of government is neither a monarchy,
+an aristocracy, nor a democracy, but an _astynomocracy_, or
+police government. On the other hand, these views are supported _à
+posteriori_, by an induction from observation, which professes to show
+that whatever is done by a Government beyond these negative limits, is
+not only sure to be done badly, but to be done much worse than private
+enterprise would have done the same thing.
+
+I am by no means clear as to the truth of the latter proposition. It
+is generally supported by statements which prove clearly enough that
+the State does a great many things very badly. But this is really
+beside the question. The State lives in a glass house; we see what it
+tries to do, and all its failures, partial or total, are made the most
+of. But private enterprise is sheltered under good opaque bricks and
+mortar. The public rarely knows what it tries to do, and only hears
+of failures when they are gross and patent to all the world. Who is
+to say how private enterprise would come out if it tried its hand
+at State work? Those who have had most experience of joint-stock
+companies and their management, will probably be least inclined to
+believe in the innate superiority of private enterprise over State
+management. If continental bureaucracy and centralization be fraught
+with multitudinous evils, surely English beadleocracy and parochial
+obstruction are not altogether lovely. If it be said that, as a matter
+of political experience, it is found to be for the best interests,
+including the healthy and free development, of a people, that the
+State should restrict itself to what is absolutely necessary, and
+should leave to the voluntary efforts of individuals as much as
+voluntary effort can be got to do, nothing can be more just. But, on
+the other hand, it seems to me that nothing can be less justifiable
+than the dogmatic assertion that State interference, beyond the limits
+of home and foreign police, must, under all circumstances, do harm.
+
+Suppose, however, for the sake of argument, that we accept the
+proposition that the functions of the State may be properly summed up
+in the one great negative commandment,--"Thou shalt not allow any man
+to interfere with the liberty of any other man,"--I am unable to see
+that the logical consequence is any such restriction of the power of
+Government, as its supporters imply. If my next-door neighbour
+chooses to have his drains in such a state as to create a poisonous
+atmosphere, which I breathe at the risk of typhus and diphtheria, he
+restricts my just freedom to live just as much as if he went about
+with a pistol, threatening my life; if he is to be allowed to let
+his children go unvaccinated, he might as well be allowed to leave
+strychnine lozenges about in the way of mine; and if he brings them up
+untaught and untrained, to earn their living, he is doing his best
+to restrict my freedom, by increasing the burden of taxation for the
+support of gaols and workhouses, which I have to pay.
+
+The higher the state of civilization, the more completely do the
+actions of one member of the social body influence all the rest, and
+the less possible is it for any one man to do a wrong thing
+without interfering, more or less, with the freedom of all his
+fellow-citizens. So that, even upon the narrowest view of the
+functions of the State, it must be admitted to have wider powers than
+the advocates of the police theory are disposed to admit.
+
+It is urged, I am aware, that if the right of the State to step beyond
+the assigned limits is admitted at all, there is no stopping; and that
+the principle which justifies the State in enforcing vaccination or
+education, will also justify it in prescribing my religious belief,
+or my mode of carrying on my trade or profession; in determining the
+number of courses I have for dinner, or the pattern of my waistcoat.
+
+But surely the answer is obvious that, on similar grounds, the right
+of a man to eat when he is hungry might be disputed, because if you
+once allow that he may eat at all, there is no stopping him until he
+gorges himself, and suffers all the ills of a surfeit. In practice,
+the man leaves off when reason tells him he has had enough; and, in
+a properly organized State, the Government, being nothing but the
+corporate reason of the community, will soon find out when State
+interference has been carried far enough. And, so far as my
+acquaintance with those who carry on the business of Government goes,
+I must say that I find them far less eager to interfere with the
+people, than the people are to be interfered with. And the reason is
+obvious. The people are keenly sensible of particular evils, and, like
+a man suffering from pain, desire an immediate remedy. The statesman,
+on the other hand, is like the physician, who knows that he can stop
+the pain at once by an opiate; but who also knows that the opiate may
+do more harm than good in the long run. In three cases out of four the
+wisest thing he can do is to wait, and leave the case to nature. But
+in the fourth case, in which the symptoms are unmistakable, and the
+cause of the disease distinctly known, prompt remedy saves a life.
+Is the fact that a wise physician will give as little medicine as
+possible any argument for his abstaining from giving any at all?
+
+But the argument may be met directly. It may be granted that the
+State, or corporate authority of the people, might with perfect
+propriety order my religion, or my waistcoat, if as good grounds
+could be assigned for such an order as for the command to educate my
+children. And this leads us to the question which lies at the root of
+the whole discussion--the question, namely, upon what foundation
+does the authority of the State rest, and how are the limits of that
+authority to be determined?
+
+One of the oldest and profoundest of English philosophers, Hobbes of
+Malmesbury, writes thus:--
+
+    "The office of the sovereign, be it monarch or an assembly,
+    consisteth in the end for which he was entrusted with the
+    sovereign power, namely, the procuration of _the safety_ of
+    the people: to which he is obliged by the law of nature, and
+    to render an account thereof to God, the author of that law,
+    and to none but Him. But by safety, here, is not meant a bare
+    preservation, but also all other contentments of life, which
+    every man by lawful industry, without danger or hurt to the
+    commonwealth, shall acquire to himself."
+
+At first sight this may appear to be a statement of the police-theory
+of government, pure and simple; but it is not so. For Hobbes goes on
+to say:--
+
+    "And this is intended should be done, not by care applied to
+    individuals, further than their protection from injuries, when
+    they shall complain; but by a general providence contained in
+    public instruction both of doctrine and example; and in the
+    making and executing of good laws to which individual persons
+    may apply their own cases."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "Leviathan," Molesworth's ed. p. 322.]
+
+To a witness of the civil war between Charles I. and the Parliament,
+it is not wonderful that the dissolution of the bonds of society which
+is involved in such strife should appear to be "the greatest evil that
+can happen in this life;" and all who have read the "Leviathan" know
+to what length Hobbes's anxiety for the preservation of the authority
+of the representative of the sovereign power, whatever its shape,
+leads him. But the justice of his conception of the duties of the
+sovereign power does not seem to me to be invalidated by his monstrous
+doctrines respecting the sacredness of that power.
+
+To Hobbes, who lived during the break-up of the sovereign power by
+popular force, society appeared to be threatened by everything which
+weakened that power: but, to John Locke, who witnessed the evils which
+flow from the attempt of the sovereign power to destroy the rights
+of the people by fraud and violence, the danger lay in the other
+direction.
+
+The safety of the representative of the sovereign power itself is to
+Locke a matter of very small moment, and he contemplates its abolition
+when it ceases to do its duty, and its replacement by another, as a
+matter of course. The great champion of the revolution of 1688 could
+do no less. Nor is it otherwise than natural that he should seek to
+limit, rather than to enlarge, the powers of the State, though in
+substance he entirely agrees with Hobbes's view of its duties:--
+
+    "But though men," says he, "when they enter into society, give
+    up the equality, liberty, and executive power they had in the
+    state of nature, into the hands of the society, to be so far
+    disposed of by the Legislature as the good of society shall
+    require; yet it being only with an intention in every one the
+    better to preserve himself, his liberty and property (for no
+    rational creature can be supposed to change his condition
+    with an intention to be worse), the power of the society,
+    or legislation, constituted by them can never be supposed to
+    extend further than the common good, but is obliged to secure
+    every one's property by providing against those three defects
+    above mentioned, that made the state of nature so unsafe and
+    uneasy. And so, whoever has the legislative or supreme
+    power of any commonwealth, is bound to govern by established
+    standing laws, promulgated and known to the people, and not
+    by extemporary decrees; by indifferent and upright judges, who
+    are to decide controversies by those laws: and to employ the
+    force of the community at home only in the execution of such
+    laws; or abroad, to prevent or redress foreign injuries, and
+    secure the community from inroads and invasion. And all this
+    to be directed to no other end than the peace, safety, and
+    public good of the people."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Locke's Essay, "Of Civil Government," § 131.]
+
+Just as in the case of Hobbes, so in that of Locke, it may at first
+sight appear from this passage that the latter philosopher's views of
+the functions of Government incline to the negative, rather than the
+positive, side. But a further study of Locke's writings will at
+once remove this misconception. In the famous "Letter concerning
+Toleration," Locke says:--
+
+    "The commonwealth seems to me to be a society of men
+    constituted only for the procuring, preserving, and
+    _advancing_ their own civil interests.
+
+    "Civil interests I call life, liberty, health, and indolency
+    of body; and the possession of outward things, such as money,
+    lands, houses, furniture, and the like.
+
+    "It is the duty of the civil magistrate, by the impartial
+    execution of equal laws, to secure unto all the people in
+    general, and to every one of his subjects in particular, the
+    just possession of those things belonging to this life.
+
+    "... The whole jurisdiction of the magistrate reaches only
+    to these civil concernments.... All civil power, right,
+    and dominion, is bounded and confined to the only care of
+    promoting these things."
+
+Elsewhere in the same "Letter," Locke lays down the proposition that
+if the magistrate understand washing a child "to be profitable to the
+curing or preventing any disease that children are subject unto, and
+esteem the matter weighty enough to be taken care of by a law, in that
+case he may order it to be done."
+
+Locke seems to differ most widely from Hobbes by his strong advocacy
+of a certain measure of toleration in religious matters. But the
+reason why the civil magistrate ought to leave religion alone is,
+according to Locke, simply this, that "true and saving religion
+consists in the inward persuasion of the mind." And since "such is the
+nature of the understanding that it cannot be compelled to the belief
+of anything by outward force," it is absurd to attempt to make men
+religious by compulsion. I cannot discover that Locke fathers the pet
+doctrine of modern Liberalism, that the toleration of error is a good
+thing in itself, and to be reckoned among the cardinal virtues; on
+the contrary, in this very "Letter on Toleration" he states in the
+clearest language that "No opinion contrary to human society, or to
+those moral rules which are necessary to the preservation of civil
+society, are to be tolerated by the magistrate." And the practical
+corollary which he draws from this proposition is that there ought to
+be no toleration for either Papists or Atheists.
+
+After Locke's time the negative view of the functions of Government
+gradually grew in strength, until it obtained systematic and able
+expression in Wilhelm von Humboldt's "Ideen,"[1] the essence of which
+is the denial that the State has a right to be anything more than
+chief policeman. And, of late years, the belief in the efficacy of
+doing nothing, thus formulated, has acquired considerable popularity
+for several reasons. In the first place, men's speculative convictions
+have become less and less real; their tolerance is large because their
+belief is small; they know that the State had better leave things
+alone unless it has a clear knowledge about them; and, with reason,
+they suspect that the knowledge of the governing power may stand no
+higher than the very low watermark of their own.
+
+[Footnote 1: An English translation has been published under the title
+of "Essay on the Sphere and Duties of Government."]
+
+In the second place, men have become largely absorbed in the mere
+accumulation of wealth; and as this is a matter in which the plainest
+and strongest form of self-interest is intensely concerned, science
+(in the shape of Political Economy) has readily demonstrated that
+self-interest may be safely left to find the best way of attaining
+its ends. Rapidity and certainty of intercourse between different
+countries, the enormous development of the powers of machinery, and
+general peace (however interrupted by brief periods of warfare), have
+changed the face of commerce as completely as modern artillery has
+changed that of war. The merchant found himself as much burdened by
+ancient protective measures as the soldier by his armour--and negative
+legislation has been of as much use to the one as the stripping off
+of breast-plates, greaves, and buff-coat to the other. But because the
+soldier is better without his armour it does not exactly follow that
+it is desirable that our defenders should strip themselves stark
+naked; and it is not more apparent why _laissez-faire_--great and
+beneficial as it may be in all that relates to the accumulation of
+wealth--should be the one great commandment which the State is to
+obey in all other matters; and especially in those in which the
+justification of _laissez-faire_, namely, the keen insight given by
+the strong stimulus of direct personal interest, in matters clearly
+understood, is entirely absent.
+
+Thirdly, to the indifference generated by the absence of fixed
+beliefs, and to the confidence in the efficacy of _laissez-faire_,
+apparently justified by experience of the value of that principle when
+applied to the pursuit of wealth, there must be added that nobler and
+better reason for a profound distrust of legislative interference,
+which animates Von Humboldt and shines forth in the pages of Mr.
+Mill's famous Essay on Liberty--I mean the just fear lest the end
+should be sacrificed to the means; lest freedom and variety should be
+drilled and disciplined out of human life in order that the great mill
+of the State should grind smoothly.
+
+One of the profoundest of living English philosophers, who is at the
+same time the most thoroughgoing and consistent of the champions of
+astynomocracy, has devoted a very able and ingenious essay[1] to the
+drawing out of a comparison between the process by which men have
+advanced from the savage state to the highest civilization, and that
+by which an animal passes from the condition of an almost shapeless
+and structureless germ, to that in which it exhibits a highly
+complicated structure and a corresponding diversity of powers. Mr.
+Spencer says with great justice--
+
+[Footnote 1: "The Social Organism:" Essays. Second Series.]
+
+    "That they gradually increase in mass; that they become,
+    little by little, more complex; that, at the same time, their
+    parts grow more mutually dependent; and that they continue to
+    live and grow as wholes, while successive generations of their
+    units appear and disappear,--are broad peculiarities which
+    bodies politic display, in common with all living bodies, and
+    in which they and living bodies differ from everything else."
+
+In a very striking passage of this essay Mr. Spencer shows with what
+singular closeness a parallel between the development of a nervous
+system, which is the governing power of the body in the series of
+animal organisms, and that of government, in the series of social
+organisms, can be drawn:--
+
+    "Strange as the assertion, will be thought," says Mr. Spencer,
+    "our Houses of Parliament discharge in the social economy
+    functions that are, in sundry respects, comparable to those
+    discharged by the cerebral masses in a vertebrate animal....
+    The cerebrum co-ordinates the countless heterogeneous
+    considerations which affect the present and future welfare of
+    the individual as a whole; and the Legislature co-ordinates
+    the countless heterogeneous considerations which affect the
+    immediate and remote welfare of the whole community. We may
+    describe the office of the brain as that of _averaging_ the
+    interests of life, physical, intellectual, moral, social; and
+    a good brain is one in which the desires answering to their
+    respective interests are so balanced, that the conduct they
+    jointly dictate sacrifice none of them. Similarly we may
+    describe the office of Parliament as that of _averaging_ the
+    interests of the various classes in a community; and a good
+    Parliament is one in which the parties answering to these
+    respective interests are so balanced, that their united
+    legislation concedes to each class as much as consists with
+    the claims of the rest."
+
+All this appears to be very just. But if the resemblances between the
+body physiological and the body politic are any indication, not only
+of what the latter is, and how it has become what it is, but of what
+it ought to be, and what it is tending to become, I cannot but think
+that the real force of the analogy is totally opposed to the negative
+view of State function.
+
+Suppose that, in accordance with this view, each muscle were to
+maintain that the nervous system had no right to interfere with its
+contraction, except to prevent it from hindering the contraction of
+another muscle; or each gland, that it had a right to secrete, so long
+as its secretion interfered with no other; suppose every separate cell
+left free to follow its own "interests," and _laissez-faire_ lord of
+all, what would become of the body physiological?
+
+The fact is that the sovereign power of the body thinks for the
+physiological organism, acts for it, and rules the individual
+components with a rod of iron. Even the blood-corpuscles can't hold a
+public meeting without being accused of "congestion"--and the brain,
+like other despots whom we have known, calls out at once for the
+use of sharp steel against them. As in Hobbes's "Leviathan," the
+representative of the sovereign authority in the living organism,
+though he derives all his powers from the mass which he rules, is
+above the law. The questioning of his authority involves death, or
+that partial death which we call paralysis. Hence, if the analogy of
+the body politic with the body physiological counts for anything, it
+seems to me to be in favour of a much larger amount of governmental
+interference than exists at present, or than I, for one, at all desire
+to see. But, tempting as the opportunity is, I am not disposed to
+build up any argument in favour of my own case upon this analogy,
+curious, interesting, and in many respects close, as it is, for it
+takes no cognizance of certain profound and essential differences
+between the physiological and the political bodies.
+
+Much as the notion of a "social contract" has been ridiculed, it
+nevertheless seems to be clear enough, that all social organization
+whatever depends upon what is substantially a contract, whether
+expressed or implied, between the members of the society. No society
+ever was, or ever can be, really held together by force. It may seem
+a paradox to say that a slaveholder does not make his slaves work
+by force, but by agreement. And yet it is true. There is a contract
+between the two which, if it were written out, would run in these
+terms:--"I undertake to feed, clothe, house, and not to kill, flog,
+or otherwise maltreat you, Quashie, if you perform a certain amount of
+work." Quashie, seeing no better terms to be had, accepts the bargain,
+and goes to work accordingly. A highwayman who garottes me, and then
+clears out my pockets, robs me by force in the strict sense of the
+words; but if he puts a pistol to my head and demands my money or
+my life, and I, preferring the latter, hand over my purse, we have
+virtually made a contract, and I perform one of the terms of that
+contract. If, nevertheless, the highwayman subsequently shoots me,
+everybody will see that, in addition to the crimes of murder and
+theft, he has been guilty of a breach of contract.
+
+A despotic Government, therefore, though often a mere combination
+of slaveholding and highway robbery, nevertheless implies a contract
+between governor and governed, with voluntary submission on the part
+of the latter; and _à fortiori_, all other forms of government are in
+like case.
+
+Now a contract between any two men implies a restriction of the
+freedom of each in certain particulars. The highwayman gives up his
+freedom to shoot me, on condition of my giving up my freedom to do
+as I like with my money: I give up my freedom to kill Quashie, on
+condition of Quashie's giving up his freedom to be idle. And the
+essence and foundation of every social organization, whether simple
+or complex, is the fact that each member of the society voluntarily
+renounces his freedom in certain directions, in return for the
+advantages which he expects from association with the other members
+of that society. Nor are constitutions, laws, or manners, in ultimate
+analysis, anything but so many expressed or implied contracts between
+the members of a society to do this, or abstain from that.
+
+It appears to me that this feature constitutes the difference
+between the social and the physiological organism. Among the higher
+physiological organisms, there is none which is developed by the
+conjunction of a number of primitively independent existences into
+a complex whole. The process of social organization appears to be
+comparable, not so much to the process of organic development, as
+to the synthesis of the chemist, by which independent elements are
+gradually built up into complex aggregations--in which each element
+retains an independent individuality, though held in subordination to
+the whole. The atoms of carbon and hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, which
+enter into a complex molecule, do not lose the powers originally
+inherent in them, when they unite to form that molecule, the
+properties of which express those forces of the whole aggregation
+which are not neutralized and balanced by one another. Each atom has
+given up something, in order that the atomic society, or molecule, may
+subsist. And as soon as any one or more of the atoms thus associated
+resumes the freedom which it has renounced, and follows some external
+attraction, the molecule is broken up, and all the peculiar properties
+which depended upon its constitution vanish.
+
+Every society, great or small, resembles such a complex molecule,
+in which the atoms are represented by men, possessed of all those
+multifarious attractions and repulsions which are manifested in their
+desires and volitions, the unlimited power of satisfying which, we
+call freedom. The social molecule exists in virtue of the renunciation
+of more or less of this freedom by every individual. It is decomposed,
+when the attraction of desire leads to the resumption of that freedom,
+the suppression of which is essential to the existence of the social
+molecule. And the great problem of that social chemistry we call
+politics, is to discover what desires of mankind may be gratified, and
+what must be suppressed, if the highly complex compound, society,
+is to avoid decomposition. That the gratification of some of
+men's desires shall be renounced is essential to order; that the
+satisfaction of others shall be permitted is no less essential to
+progress; and the business of the sovereign authority--which is, or
+ought-to be, simply a delegation of the people appointed to act for
+its good--appears to me to be, not only to enforce the renunciation of
+the anti-social desires, but, wherever it may be necessary, to promote
+the satisfaction of those which are conducive to progress.
+
+The great metaphysician, Immanuel Kant, who is at his greatest when
+he discusses questions which are not metaphysical, wrote, nearly a
+century ago, a wonderfully instructive essay entitled "A Conception of
+Universal History in relation to Universal Citizenship,"[1] from which
+I will borrow a few pregnant sentences:--
+
+[Footnote 1: "Idee zu einer allgemeinen Geschichte in weltbürgerlichen
+Absicht," 1784. This paper has been translated by De Quincey, and
+attention has been recently drawn to its "signal merits" by the Editor
+of the _Fortnightly Review_ in his Essay on Condorcet. (_Fortnightly
+Review_, No. xxxviii. N.S. pp. 136, 137.)]
+
+    "The means of which Nature has availed herself, in order to
+    bring about the development of all the capacities of man, is
+    the antagonism of those capacities to social organization,
+    so far as the latter does in the long run necessitate their
+    definite correlation. By antagonism, I here mean the unsocial
+    sociability of mankind--that is, the combination in them of
+    an impulse to enter into society, with a thorough spirit
+    of opposition which constantly threatens to break up this
+    society. The ground of this lies in human nature. Man has an
+    inclination to enter into society, because in that state he
+    feels that he becomes more a man, or, in other words, that his
+    natural faculties develop. But he has also a great tendency to
+    isolate himself, because he is, at the same time, aware of the
+    unsocial peculiarity of desiring to have everything his own
+    way; and thus, being conscious of an inclination to oppose
+    others, he is naturally led to expect opposition from them.
+
+    "Now it is this opposition which awakens all the dormant
+    powers of men, stimulates them to overcome their inclination
+    to be idle, and, spurred by the love of honour, or power, or
+    wealth, to make themselves a place among their fellows, whom
+    they can neither do with, nor do without.
+
+    "Thus they make the first steps from brutishness towards
+    culture, of which the social value of man is the measure. Thus
+    all talents become gradually developed, taste is formed,
+    and by continual enlightenment the foundations of a way of
+    thinking are laid, which gradually changes the mere rude
+    capacity of moral perception into determinate practical
+    principles; and thus society, which is originated by a sort
+    of pathological compulsion, becomes metamorphosed into a moral
+    unity." (_Loc. cit_. p. 147.)
+
+    "All the culture and art which adorn humanity, the most
+    refined social order, are produced by that unsociability which
+    is compelled by its own existence to discipline itself, and
+    so by enforced art to bring the seeds implanted by nature into
+    full flower." (_Loc. cit_. p. 148.)
+
+In these passages, as in others of this remarkable tract, Kant
+anticipates the application of the "struggle for existence" to
+politics, and indicates the manner in which the evolution of society
+has resulted from the constant attempt of individuals to strain its
+bonds. If individuality has no play, society does not advance; if
+individuality breaks out of all bounds, society perishes.
+
+But when men living in society once become aware that their welfare
+depends upon, two opposing tendencies of equal importance--the one
+restraining, the other encouraging, individual freedom--the
+question "What are the functions of Government?" is translated into
+another--namely, What ought we men, in our corporate capacity, to do,
+not only in the way of restraining that free individuality which is
+inconsistent with the existence of society, but in encouraging that
+free individuality which is essential to the evolution of the
+social organization? The formula which truly defines the function of
+Government must contain the solution of both the problems involved,
+and not merely of one of them.
+
+Locke has furnished us with such a formula, in the noblest, and at the
+same time briefest, statement of the purpose of Government known to
+me:--
+
+"THE END OF GOVERNMENT IS THE GOOD OF MANKIND."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "Of Civil Government," § 229.]
+
+But the good of mankind is not a something which is absolute and
+fixed for all men, whatever their capacities or state of civilization.
+Doubtless it is possible to imagine a true "Civitas Dei," in which
+every man's moral faculty shall be such as leads him to control all
+those desires which run counter to the good of mankind, and to cherish
+only those which conduce to the welfare of society; and in which every
+man's native intellect shall be sufficiently strong, and his culture
+sufficiently extensive, to enable him to know what he ought to do and
+to seek after. And, in that blessed State, police will be as much a
+superfluity as every other kind of government.
+
+But the eye of man has not beheld that State, and is not likely to
+behold it for some time to come. What we do see, in fact, is that
+States are made up of a considerable number of the ignorant and
+foolish, a small proportion of genuine knaves, and a sprinkling of
+capable and honest men, by whose efforts the former are kept in a
+reasonable state of guidance, and the latter of repression. And, such
+being the case, I do not see how any limit whatever can be laid down
+as to the extent to which, under some circumstances, the action of
+Government may be rightfully carried.
+
+Was our own Government wrong in suppressing Thuggee in India? If not,
+would it be wrong in putting down any enthusiast who attempted to set
+up the worship of Astarte in the Haymarket? Has the State no right to
+put a stop to gross and open violations of common decency? And if
+the State has, as I believe it has, a perfect right to do all these
+things, are we not bound to admit, with Locke, that it may have a
+right to interfere with "Popery" and "Atheism," if it be really true
+that the practical consequences of such beliefs con be proved to
+be injurious to civil society? The question where to draw the line
+between those things with which the State ought, and those with which
+it ought not, to interfere, then, is one which must be left to be
+decided separately for each individual case. The difficulty which
+meets the statesman is the same as that which meets us all in
+individual life, in which our abstract rights are generally clear
+enough, though it is frequently extremely hard to say at what point it
+is wise to cease our attempts to enforce them.
+
+The notion that the social body should be organized in such a manner
+as to advance the welfare of its members, is as old as political
+thought; and the schemes of Plato, More, Robert Owen, St. Simon,
+Comte, and the modern socialists, bear witness that, in every age, men
+whose capacity is of no mean order, and whose desire to benefit
+their fellows has rarely been excelled, have been strongly, nay,
+enthusiastically, convinced that Government may attain its end--the
+good of the people--by some more effectual process than the very
+simple and easy one of putting its hands in its pockets, and letting
+them alone.
+
+It may be, that all the schemes of social organization which have
+hitherto been propounded are impracticable follies. But if this be so,
+the fact proves, not that the idea which underlies them is worthless,
+but only that the science of politics is in a very rudimentary and
+imperfect state. Politics, as a science, is not older than astronomy;
+but though the subject-matter of the latter is vastly less complex
+than that of the former, the theory of the moon's motions is not quite
+settled yet.
+
+Perhaps it may help us a little way towards getting clearer notions of
+what the State may and what it may not do, if, assuming the truth of
+Locke's maxim that "the end of Government is the good of mankind," we
+consider a little what the good, of mankind is.
+
+I take it that the good of mankind means the attainment, by every
+man, of all the happiness which he can enjoy without diminishing the
+happiness of his fellow-men.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "Hie est itaque finis ad quem tendo, talem scilicet
+Naturam acquirere, et ut multi mecum eam acquirant, conari hoc est
+de mea felicitate etiam operam dare, ut alii multi idem atque ego
+intelligant, ut eorum intellectus et cupiditas prorsus cum meo
+intellectu et cupiditate convenient: atque hoc fiat, necesse est
+tantum de Natura intelligere, quantum sufficit ad talem naturam
+acquirendam; deinde formare talem societatem qualis est desideranda,
+ut quam plurimi quam facillime et secure eo perveniant."--B. SPINOZA,
+_De Intellectus Emendatione Tractatus._]
+
+If we inquire what kinds of happiness come under this definition, we
+find those derived from the sense of security or peace; from
+wealth, or commodity, obtained by commerce; from Art--whether it
+be architecture, sculpture, painting, music, or literature; from
+knowledge, or science; and, finally, from sympathy or friendship. No
+man is injured, but the contrary, by peace. No man is any the worse
+off because another acquires wealth by trade, or by the exercise of
+a profession; on the contrary, he cannot have acquired his wealth,
+except by benefiting others to the full extent of what they considered
+to be its value; and his wealth is no more than fairy gold if he does
+not go on benefiting others in the same way. A thousand men may enjoy
+the pleasure derived from a picture, a symphony, or a poem, without
+lessening the happiness of the most devoted connoisseur. The
+investigation of nature is an infinite pasture-ground, where all
+may graze, and where the more bite, the longer the grass grows, the
+sweeter is its flavour, and the more it nourishes. If I love a friend,
+it is no damage to me, but rather a pleasure, if all the world also
+love him and think of him as highly as I do.
+
+It appears to be universally agreed, for the reasons already
+mentioned, that it is unnecessary and undesirable for the State
+to attempt to promote the acquisition of wealth by any direct
+interference with commerce. But there is no such agreement as to the
+further question whether the State may not promote the acquisition of
+wealth by indirect means. For example, may the State make a road, or
+build a harbour, when it is quite clear that by so doing it will open
+up a productive district, and thereby add enormously to the total
+wealth of the community? And if so, may the State, acting for the
+general good, take charge of the means of communication between its
+members, or of the postal and telegraph services? I have not yet met
+with any valid, argument against the propriety of the State doing
+what our Government does in this matter; except the assumption, which
+remains to be proved, that Government will manage these things worse
+than private enterprise would do. Nor is there any agreement upon the
+still more important question whether the State ought, or ought not,
+to regulate the distribution of wealth. If it ought not, then all
+legislation which regulates inheritance--the statute of Mortmain, and
+the like--is wrong in principle; and, when a rich man dies, we
+ought to return to the state of nature, and have a scramble for
+his property. If, on the other hand, the authority of the State is
+legitimately employed in regulating these matters, then it is an open
+question, to be decided entirely by evidence as to what tends to
+the highest good of the people, whether we keep our present laws,
+or whether we modify them. At present the State protects men in the
+possession and enjoyment of their property, and defines what that
+property is. The justification for its so doing is that its action
+promotes the good of the people. If it can be clearly proved that the
+abolition of property would tend still, more to promote the good of
+the people, the State will have the same justification for abolishing
+property that it now has for maintaining it.
+
+Again, I suppose it is universally agreed that it would be useless
+and absurd for the State to attempt to promote friendship and sympathy
+between man and man directly. But I see no reason why, if it be
+otherwise expedient, the State may not do something towards that
+end indirectly. For example, I can conceive the existence of an
+Established Church which should be a blessing to the community. A
+Church in which, week by week, services should be devoted, not to the
+iteration of abstract propositions in theology, but to the setting
+before men's minds of an ideal of true, just, and pure living; a place
+in which those who are weary of the burden of daily cares, should
+find a moment's rest in the contemplation of the higher life which is
+possible for all, though attained by so few; a place in which the man
+of strife and of business should have time to think how small, after
+all, are the rewards he covets compared with peace and charity. Depend
+upon it, if such a Church existed, no one would seek to disestablish
+it.
+
+Whatever the State may not do, however, it is universally agreed that
+it may take charge of the maintenance of internal and external peace.
+Even the strongest advocate of administrative nihilism admits that
+Government may prevent aggression of one man on another. But this
+implies the maintenance of an army and navy, as much as of a body of
+police; it implies a diplomatic as well as a detective force; and it
+implies, further, that the State, as a corporate whole, shall have
+distinct and definite views as to its wants, powers, and obligations.
+
+For independent States stand in the same relation to one another as
+men in a state of nature, or unlimited freedom. Each endeavours to
+get all it can, until the inconvenience of the state of war suggests
+either the formation of those express contracts we call treaties,
+or mutual consent to those implied contracts which are expressed by
+international law. The moral rights of a State rest upon the same
+basis as those of an individual. If any number of States agree to
+observe a common set of international laws, they have, in fact, set up
+a sovereign authority or supra-national government, the end of
+which, like that of all governments, is the good of mankind; and the
+possession of as much freedom by each State, as is consistent with
+the attainment of that end. But there is this difference: that the
+government thus set up over nations is ideal, and has no concrete
+representative of the sovereign power; whence the only way of settling
+any dispute finally is to fight it out. Thus the supra-national
+society is continually in danger of returning to the state of nature,
+in which contracts are void; and the possibility of this contingency
+justifies a government in restricting the liberty of its subjects in
+many ways that would otherwise be unjustifiable.
+
+Finally, with respect to the advancement of science and art. I have
+never yet had the good fortune to hear any valid reason alleged why
+that corporation of individuals we call the State may not do what
+voluntary effort fails in doing, either from want of intelligence or
+lack of will. And here it cannot be alleged that the action of the
+State is always hurtful. On the contrary, in every country in Europe,
+universities, public libraries, picture galleries, museums, and
+laboratories, have been established by the State, and have done
+infinite service to the intellectual and moral progress and the
+refinement of mankind.
+
+A few days ago I received from one of the most eminent members of the
+Institut of France a pamphlet entitled "Pourquoi la France n'a
+pas trouvé d'hommes supérieurs au moment du péril." The writer, M.
+Pasteur, has no doubt that the cause of the astounding collapse of
+his countrymen is to be sought in the miserable neglect of the higher
+branches of culture, which has been one of the many disgraces of the
+Second Empire, if not of its predecessors.
+
+    "Au point où nous sommes arrivés de ce qu'on appelle la
+    _civilisation moderne_, la culture des sciences dans leur
+    expression la plus élevée est peut-être plus nécessaire encore
+    à l'état moral d'une nation qu'à sa prospérité materielle.
+
+    "Les grandes découvertes, les méditations de la pensée dans
+    les arts, dans les sciences et dans les lettres, en un mot les
+    travaux désintéresses de l'esprit dans tous les genres,
+    les centres d'enseignement propres à les faire connaître,
+    introduisent dans le corps social tout entier l'esprit
+    philosophique ou scientifique, cet esprit de discernement qui
+    soumet tout à une raison sévère, condamne l'ignorance,
+    dissipe les préjugés et les erreurs. Ils élèvent le niveau
+    intellectuel, le sentiment moral; par eux, l'idée divine
+    elle-même se répand et s'exalte.... Si, au moment du péril
+    suprême, la France n'a pas trouvé des hommes supérieurs pour
+    mettre en oeuvre ses ressources et le courage de ses enfants,
+    il faut l'attribuer, j'en ai la conviction, à ce que la France
+    EST désintéressée, depuis un demi-siècle, des grands travaux
+    de la pensée, particuliérement dans les sciences exactes."
+
+Individually, I have no love for academies on the continental model,
+and still less for the system of decorating men of distinction in
+science, letters, or art, with orders and titles, or enriching them
+with sinecures. What men of science want is only a fair day's wages
+for more than a fair day's work; and most of us, I suspect, would be
+well content if, for our days and nights of unremitting toil, we could
+secure the pay which a first-class Treasury clerk earns without any
+obviously trying strain upon his faculties. The sole order of nobility
+which, in my judgment, becomes a philosopher, is that rank which
+he holds in the estimation of his fellow-workers, who are the only
+competent judges in such matters. Newton and Cuvier lowered themselves
+when the one accepted an idle knighthood, and the other became a
+baron of the empire. The great men who went to their graves as Michael
+Faraday and George Grote seem to me to have understood the dignity of
+knowledge better when they declined all such meretricious trappings.
+
+But it is one thing for the State to appeal to the vanity and ambition
+which are to be found in philosophical as in other breasts, and
+another to offer men who desire to do the hardest of work for the most
+modest of tangible rewards, the means of making themselves useful to
+their age and generation. And this is just what the State does when it
+founds a public library or museum, or provides the means of scientific
+research by such grants of money as that administered by the Royal
+Society.
+
+It is one thing, again, for the State to take all the higher education
+of the nation into its own hands; it is another to stimulate and to
+aid, while they are yet young and weak, local efforts to the same
+end. The Midland Institute, Owens College in Manchester, the newly
+instituted Science College in Newcastle, are all noble products of
+local energy and munificence. But the good they are doing is not
+local--the commonwealth, to its uttermost limits, shares in the
+benefits they confer; and I am at a loss to understand upon what
+principle of equity the State, which admits the principle of payment
+on results, refuses to give a fair equivalent for these benefits; or
+on what principle of justice the State, which admits the obligation
+of sharing the duty of primary education with a locality, denies the
+existence of that obligation when the higher education is in question.
+
+To sum up: If the positive advancement of the peace, wealth, and the
+intellectual and moral development of its members, are objects which
+the Government, as the representative of the corporate authority of
+society, may justly strive after, in fulfilment of its end--the good
+of mankind; then it is clear that the Government may undertake to
+educate the people. For education promotes peace by teaching men the
+realities of life and the obligations which are involved in the very
+existence of society; it promotes intellectual development, not only
+by training the individual intellect, but by sifting out from the
+masses of ordinary or inferior capacities, those who are competent
+to increase the general welfare by occupying higher positions; and,
+lastly, it promotes morality and refinement, by teaching men to
+discipline themselves, and by leading them to see that the highest, as
+it is the only permanent, content is to be attained, not by grovelling
+in the rank and steaming valleys of sense, but by continual striving
+towards those high peaks, where, resting in eternal calm, reason
+discerns the undefined but bright ideal of the highest Good--"a cloud
+by day, a pillar of fire by night."
+
+
+
+
+II.
+
+THE SCHOOL BOARDS: WHAT THEY CAN DO, AND WHAT THEY MAY DO.
+
+
+An electioneering manifesto would be out of place in the pages of this
+Review; but any suspicion that may arise in the mind of the reader
+that the following pages partake of that nature, will be dispelled,
+if he reflect that they cannot be published[1] until after the day
+on which the ratepayers of the metropolis will have decided which
+candidates for seats upon the Metropolitan School Board they will
+take, and which they will leave.
+
+[Footnote 1: Notwithstanding Mr. Huxley's intentions, the Editor took
+upon himself, in what seemed to him to be the public interest, to send
+an extract from this article to the newspapers--before the day of the
+election of the School Board.--EDITOR of the _Contemporary Review_.]
+
+As one of those candidates, I may be permitted to say, that I feel
+much in the frame of mind of the Irish bricklayer's labourer, who bet
+another that he could not carry him to the top of the ladder in his
+hod. The challenged hodman won his wager, but as the stakes were
+handed over, the challenger wistfully remarked, "I'd great hopes of
+falling at the third round from the top." And, in view of the work
+and the worry which awaits the members of the School Boards, I must
+confess to an occasional ungrateful hope that the friends who are
+toiling upwards with me in their hod, may, when they reach "the third
+round from the top," let me fall back into peace and quietness.
+
+But whether fortune befriend me in this rough method, or not, I should
+like to submit to those of whom I am a potential, but of whom I may
+not be an actual, colleague, and to others who may be interested in
+this most important problem--how to get the Education Act to work
+efficiently--some considerations as to what are the duties of the
+members of the School Boards, and what are the limits of their power.
+
+I suppose no one will be disposed to dispute the proposition, that
+the prime duty of every member of such a Board is to endeavour to
+administer the Act honestly; or in accordance, not only with its
+letter, but with its spirit. And if so, it would seem that the first
+step towards this very desirable end is, to obtain a clear notion of
+what that letter signifies, and what that spirit implies; or, in
+other words, what the clauses of the Act are intended to enjoin and to
+forbid. So that it is really not admissible, except for factious and
+abusive purposes, to assume that any one who endeavours to get at
+this clear meaning is desirous only of raising quibbles and making
+difficulties.
+
+Reading the Act with this desire to understand it, I find that its
+provisions may be classified, as might naturally be expected, under
+two heads: the one set relating to the subject-matter of education;
+the other to the establishment, maintenance, and administration of the
+schools in which that education is to be conducted.
+
+Now it is a most important circumstance, that all the sections of the
+Act, except four, belong to the latter division; that is, they refer
+to mere matters of administration. The four sections in question are
+the seventh, the fourteenth, the sixteenth, and the ninety-seventh. Of
+these, the seventh, the fourteenth, and the ninety-seventh deal with
+the subject-matter of education, while the sixteenth defines the
+nature of the relations which are to exist between the "Education
+Department" (an euphemism for the future Minister of Education)
+and the School Boards. It is the sixteenth clause which is the most
+important, and, in some respects, the most remarkable of all. It runs
+thus:--
+
+    "If the School Board do, or permit, any act in contravention
+    of, or fail to comply with, the regulations, according to
+    which a school provided by them is required by this Act to
+    be conducted, the Education Department may declare the School
+    Board to be, and such Board shall accordingly be deemed to be,
+    a Board in default, and the Education Department may proceed
+    accordingly; and every act, or omission, of any member of
+    the School Board, or manager appointed by them, or any
+    person under the control of the Board, shall be deemed to be
+    _permitted_ by the Board, unless the contrary be proved.
+
+    "If any dispute arises as to whether the School Board have
+    done, or permitted, any act in contravention of, or have
+    failed to comply with, the said regulations, _the matter
+    shall be referred to the Education Department, whose decision
+    thereon shall be final_."
+
+It will be observed that this clause gives the Minister of Education
+absolute power over the doings of the School Boards. He is not
+only the administrator of the Act, but he is its interpreter. I
+had imagined that on the occurrence of a dispute, not as regards a
+question of pure administration, but as to the meaning of a clause of
+the Act, a case might be taken and referred to a court of justice. But
+I am led to believe that the Legislature has, in the present instance,
+deliberately taken this power out of the hands of the judges and
+lodged it in those of the Minister of Education, who, in accordance
+with our method of making Ministers, will necessarily be a political
+partisan, and who may be a strong theological sectary into the
+bargain. And I am informed by members of Parliament who watched the
+progress of the Act, that the responsibility for this unusual state of
+things rests, not with the Government, but with the Legislature, which
+exhibited a singular disposition to accumulate power in the hands of
+the future Minister of Education, and to evade the more troublesome
+difficulties of the education question by leaving them to be settled
+between that Minister and the School Boards.
+
+I express no opinion whether it is, or is not, desirable that such
+powers of controlling all the School Boards in the country should be
+possessed by a person who may be, like Mr. Forster, eminently likely
+to use these powers justly and wisely, but who also may be quite the
+reverse. I merely wish to draw attention to the fact that such powers
+are given to the Minister, whether he be fit or unfit. The extent
+of these powers becomes apparent when the other sections of the Act
+referred to are considered. The fourth clause of the seventh section
+says:--
+
+    "The school shall be conducted in accordance with the
+    conditions required to be fulfilled by an elementary school in
+    order to obtain an annual Parliamentary grant."
+
+What these conditions are appears from the following clauses of the
+ninety-seventh section:--
+
+    "The conditions required to be fulfilled by an elementary
+    school in order to obtain an annual Parliamentary grant shall
+    be those contained in the minutes of the Education Department
+    in force for the time being.... Provided that no such minute
+    of the Education Department, not in force at the time of the
+    passing of this Act, shall be deemed to be in force until
+    it has lain for not less than one month on the table of both
+    Houses of Parliament."
+
+Let us consider how this will work in practice. A school established
+by a School Board may receive support from three sources--from the
+rates, the school fees, and the Parliamentary grant. The latter may be
+as great as the two former taken together; and as it may be assumed,
+without much risk of error, that a constant pressure will be exerted
+by the ratepayers on the members who represent them, to get as much
+out of the Government, and as little out of the rates, as possible,
+the School Boards will have a very strong motive for shaping the
+education they give, as nearly as may be, on the model which the
+Education Minister offers for their imitation, and for the copying of
+which he is prepared to pay.
+
+The Revised Code did not compel any schoolmaster to leave off teaching
+anything; but, by the very simple process of refusing to pay for many
+kinds of teaching, it has practically put an end to them. Mr. Forster
+is said to be engaged in revising the Revised Code; a successor of
+his may re-revise it--and there will be no sort of check upon
+these revisions and counter-revisions, except the possibility of a
+Parliamentary debate, when the revised, or added, minutes are laid
+upon the table. What chance is there that any such debate will take
+place on a matter of detail relating to elementary education--a
+subject with which members of the Legislature, having been, for the
+most part, sent to our public schools thirty years ago, have not the
+least practical acquaintance, and for which they care nothing, unless
+it derives a political value from its connection with sectarian
+politics?
+
+I cannot but think, then, that the School Boards will have the
+appearance, but not the reality, of freedom of action, in regard to
+the subject-matter of what is commonly called "secular" education.
+
+As respects what is commonly called "religious" education, the power
+of the Minister of Education is even more despotic. An interest,
+almost amounting to pathos, attaches itself, in my mind, to the
+frantic exertions which are at present going on in almost every school
+division, to elect certain candidates whose names have never before
+been heard of in connection with education, and who are either
+sectarian partisans, or nothing. In my own particular division, a body
+organized _ad hoc_ is moving heaven and earth to get the seven seats
+filled by seven gentlemen, four of whom are good Churchmen, and three
+no less good Dissenters. But why should this seven times heated fiery
+furnace of theological zeal be so desirous to shed its genial warmth
+over the London School Board? Can it be that these zealous sectaries
+mean to evade the solemn pledge given in the Act?
+
+    "No religious catechism or religious formulary which is
+    distinctive of any particular denomination shall be taught in
+    the school."
+
+I confess I should have thought it my duty to reject any such
+suggestion, as dishonouring to a number of worthy persons, if it had
+not been for a leading article and some correspondence which appeared
+in the _Guardian_ of November 9th, 1870.
+
+The _Guardian_ is, as everybody knows, one of the best of the
+"religious" newspapers; and, personally. I have every reason to speak
+highly of the fairness, and indeed kindness, with which the editor
+is good enough to deal with a writer who must, in many ways, be so
+objectionable to him as myself. I quote the following passages from a
+leading article on a letter of mine, therefore, with all respect, and
+with a genuine conviction that the course of conduct advocated by the
+writer must appear to him in a very different light from that under
+which I see it:--
+
+    "The first of these points is the interpretation which
+    Professor Huxley puts on the 'Cowper-Temple clause.' It is,
+    in fact, that which we foretold some time ago as likely to be
+    forced upon it by those who think with him. The clause itself
+    was one of those compromises which it is very difficult to
+    define or to maintain logically. On the one side was the
+    simple freedom to School Boards to establish what schools they
+    pleased, which Mr. Forster originally gave, but against
+    which the Nonconformists lifted up their voices, because they
+    conceived it likely to give too much power to the Church. On
+    the other side there was the proposition to make the schools
+    secular--intelligible enough, but in the consideration of
+    public opinion simply impossible--and there was the vague
+    impracticable idea, which Mr. Gladstone thoroughly tore to
+    pieces, of enacting that the teaching of all schoolmasters
+    in the new schools should be strictly 'undenominational.' The
+    Cowper-Temple clause was, we repeat, proposed simply to tide
+    over the difficulty. It was to satisfy the Nonconformists and
+    the 'unsectarian,' as distinct from the secular party of
+    the League, by forbidding all distinctive 'catechisms and
+    formularies,' which might have the effect of openly assigning
+    the schools to this or that religious body. It refused, at the
+    same time, to attempt the impossible task of defining what
+    was undenominational; and its author even contended, if
+    we understood him correctly, that it would in no way, even
+    indirectly, interfere with the substantial teaching of any
+    master in any school. This assertion we always believed to be
+    untenable; we could not see how, in the face of this clause,
+    a distinctly denominational tone could be honestly given to
+    schools nominally general. But beyond this mere suggestion of
+    an attempt at a general tone of comprehensiveness in religious
+    teaching it was not intended to go, and only because such was
+    its limitation was it accepted by the Government and by the
+    House.
+
+    "But now we are told that it is to be construed as doing
+    precisely that which it refused to do. A 'formulary,' it
+    seems, is a collection of formulas, and formulas are simply
+    propositions of whatever kind touching religious faith. All
+    such propositions, if they cannot be accepted by all
+    Christian denominations, are to be proscribed; and it is added
+    significantly that the Jews also are a denomination, and so
+    that any teaching distinctively Christian is perhaps to be
+    excluded, lest it should interfere with their freedom and
+    rights. Are we then to fall back on the simple reading of
+    the letter of the Bible? No! this, it is granted, would be
+    an 'unworthy pretence.' The teacher is to give 'grammatical,
+    geographical, or historical explanations;' but he is to keep
+    clear of 'theology proper,' because, as Professor Huxley takes
+    great pains to prove, there is no theological teaching which
+    is not opposed by some sect or other, from Roman Catholicism
+    on the one hand to Unitarianism on the other. It was not,
+    perhaps, hard to see that this difficulty would be started;
+    and to those who, like Professor Huxley, look at it
+    theoretically, without much practical experience of schools,
+    it may appear serious or unanswerable. But there is very
+    little in it practically; when it is faced determinately and
+    handled firmly, it will soon shrink into its true
+    dimensions. The class who are least frightened at it are the
+    school-teachers, simply because they know most about it. It is
+    quite clear that the school-managers must be cautioned against
+    allowing their schools to be made places of proselytism:
+    but when this is done, the case is simple enough. Leave the
+    masters under this general understanding to teach freely; if
+    there is ground of complaint, let it be made, but leave the
+    _onus pro-bandi_ on the objectors. For extreme peculiarities
+    of belief or unbelief there is the Conscience Clause; as
+    to the mass of parents, they will be more anxious to have
+    religion taught than afraid of its assuming this or that
+    particular shade. They will trust the school-managers
+    and teachers till they have reason to distrust them, and
+    experience has shown that they may trust them safely enough.
+    Any attempt to throw the burden of making the teaching
+    undenominational upon the managers must be sternly resisted:
+    it is simply evading the intentions of the Act in an elaborate
+    attempt to carry them out. We thank Professor Huxley for the
+    warning. To be forewarned is to be forearmed."
+
+A good deal of light seems to me to be thrown on the practical
+significance of the opinions expressed in the foregoing extract by the
+following interesting letter, which appeared in the same paper:--
+
+    "Sir,--I venture to send to you the substance of a
+    correspondence with the Education Department upon the question
+    of the lawfulness of religious teaching in rate schools under
+    section 14 (2) of the Act. I asked whether the words 'which
+    is distinctive,' &c., taken grammatically as limiting the
+    prohibition of any religious formulary, might be construed
+    as allowing (subject, however, to the other provisions of the
+    Act) any religious formulary common to any two denominations
+    anywhere in England to be taught in such schools; and if
+    practically the limit could not be so extended, but would have
+    to be fixed according to the special circumstances of each
+    district, then what degree of general acceptance in a district
+    would exempt such a formulary from the prohibition? The answer
+    to this was as follows:--'It was understood, when clause 14 of
+    the Education Act was discussed in the House of Commons,
+    that, according to a well-known rule of interpreting Acts
+    of Parliament, "denomination" must be held to include
+    "denominations." When any dispute is referred to the Education
+    Department under the last paragraph of section 16, it will be
+    dealt with according to the circumstances of the case.'
+
+    "Upon my asking further if I might hence infer that the
+    lawfulness of teaching any religious formulary in a rate
+    school would thus depend _exclusively_ on local circumstances,
+    and would accordingly be so decided by the Education
+    Department in case of dispute, I was informed in explanation
+    that 'their lordships'' letter was intended to convey to
+    me that no general rule, beyond that stated in the first
+    paragraph of their letter, could at present be laid down by
+    them; and that their decision in each particular case must
+    depend on the special circumstances accompanying it.
+
+    "I think it would appear from this that it may yet be in many
+    cases both lawful and expedient to teach religious formularies
+    in rate schools.
+
+    "H.I. Steyning, _November_ 5, 1870."
+
+Of course I do not mean to suggest that the editor of the _Guardian_
+is bound by the opinions of his correspondent; but I cannot help
+thinking that I do not misrepresent him, when I say that he also
+thinks "that it may yet be, in many cases, both lawful and
+expedient to teach religious formularies in rate schools under these
+circumstances."
+
+It is not uncharitable, therefore, to assume that, the express words
+of the Act of Parliament notwithstanding, all the sectaries who are
+toiling so hard for seats in the London School Board have the lively
+hope of the gentleman from Steyning, that it may be "both lawful and
+expedient to teach religious formularies in rate schools;" and
+that they mean to do their utmost to bring this happy consummation
+about.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: A passage in an article on the "Working of the Education
+Act," in the _Saturday Review_ for Nov. 19, 1870, completely justifies
+this anticipation of the line of action which the sectaries mean to
+take. After commending the Liverpool compromise, the writer goes on to
+say:--
+
+"If this plan is fairly adopted in Liverpool, the fourteenth clause
+of the Act will in effect be restored to its original form, and the
+majority of the ratepayers in each district be permitted to decide to
+what denomination the school shall belong."
+
+In a previous paragraph the writer speaks of a possible "mistrust"
+of one another by the members of the Board, and seems to anticipate
+"accusations of dishonesty." If any of the members of the Board adopt
+his views, I think it highly probable that he may turn out to be a
+true prophet.]
+
+Now the pathetic emotion to which I have referred, as accompanying my
+contemplations of the violent struggles of so many excellent persons,
+is caused by the circumstance that, so far as I can judge, their
+labour is in vain.
+
+Supposing that the London School Board contains, as it probably will
+do, a majority of sectaries; and that they carry over the heads of a
+minority, a resolution that certain theological formulas, about which
+they all happen to agree,--say, for example, the doctrine of the
+Trinity,--shall be taught in the schools. Do they fondly imagine that
+the minority will not at once dispute their interpretation of the Act,
+and appeal to the Education Department to settle that dispute? And if
+so, do they suppose that any Minister of Education, who wants to keep
+his place, will tighten boundaries which the Legislature has left
+loose; and will give a "final decision" which shall be offensive to
+every Unitarian and to every Jew in the House of Commons, besides
+creating a precedent which will afterwards be used to the injury of
+every Nonconformist? The editor of the _Guardian_ tells his friends
+sternly to resist every attempt to throw the burden of making the
+teaching undenominational on the managers, and thanks me for the
+warning I have given him. I return the thanks, with interest, for
+_his_ warning, as to the course the party he represents intends
+to pursue, and for enabling me thus to draw public attention to a
+perfectly constitutional and effectual mode of checkmating them.
+
+And, in truth, it is wonderful to note the surprising entanglement
+into which our able editor gets himself in the struggle between his
+native honesty and judgment and the necessities of his party. "We
+could not see," says he, "in the face of this clause how a distinct
+denominational tone could be honestly given to schools nominally
+general." There speaks the honest and clearheaded man. "Any attempt
+to throw the burden of making the teaching undenominational must be
+sternly resisted." There speaks the advocate holding a brief for his
+party. "Verily," as Trinculo says, "the monster hath two mouths:" the
+one, the forward mouth, tells us very justly that the teaching cannot
+"honestly" be "distinctly denominational;" but the other, the
+backward mouth, asserts that it must by no manner of means be
+"undenominational." Putting the two utterances together, I can only
+interpret them to mean that the teaching is to be "indistinctly
+denominational." If the editor of the _Guardian_ had not shown signs
+of anger at my use of the term "theological fog," I should have been
+tempted to suppose it must have been what he had in his mind, under
+the name of "indistinct denominationalism." But this reading being
+plainly inadmissible, I can only imagine that he inculcates the
+teaching of formulas common to a number of denominations.
+
+But the Education Department has already told the gentleman from
+Steyning that any such proceeding will be illegal. "According to a
+well-known rule of interpreting Acts of Parliament, 'denomination'
+would be held to include 'denominations.'" In other words, we must
+read the Act thus:--
+
+"No religious catechism or religious formulary which is distinctive of
+any particular _denominations_ shall be taught."
+
+Thus we are really very much indebted to the editor of the _Guardian_
+and his correspondent. The one has shown us that the sectaries mean
+to try to get as much denominational teaching as they can agree upon
+among themselves, forced into the elementary schools; while the other
+has obtained a formal declaration from the Education Department that
+any such attempt will contravene the Act of Parliament, and that,
+therefore, the unsectarian, law-abiding members of the School Boards
+may safely reckon upon, bringing down upon their opponents the heavy
+hand of the Minister of Education.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Since this paragraph was written, Mr. Forster, in
+speaking at the Birkbeck Institution, has removed all doubt as to
+what his "final decision" will be in the case of such disputes being
+referred to him:--"I have the fullest confidence that in the reading
+and explaining of the Bible, what the children will be taught will be
+the great truths of Christian life and conduct, which all of us desire
+they should know, and that no effort will be made to cram into their
+poor little minds, theological dogmas which their tender age prevents
+them from understanding."]
+
+So much for the powers of the School Boards. Limited as they seem to
+be, it by no means follows that such Boards, if they are composed of
+intelligent and practical men, really more in earnest about education
+than about sectarian squabbles, may not exert a very great amount of
+influence. And, from many circumstances, this is especially likely to
+be the case with the London School Board, which, if it conducts itself
+wisely, may become a true educational parliament, as subordinate
+in authority to the Minister of Education, theoretically, as the
+Legislature is to the Crown, and yet, like the Legislature, possessed
+of great practical authority. And I suppose that no Minister
+of Education would be other than glad to have the aid of the
+deliberations of such a body, or fail to pay careful attention to its
+recommendations.
+
+What, then, ought to be the nature and scope of the education which
+a School Board should endeavour to give to every child under its
+influence, and for which it should try to obtain the aid of the
+Parliamentary grants? In my judgment it should include at least the
+following kinds of instruction and of discipline:--
+
+1. Physical training and drill, as part of the regular business of the
+school.
+
+It is impossible to insist too much on the importance of this part
+of education for the children of the poor of great towns. All
+the conditions of their lives are unfavourable to their physical
+well-being. They are badly lodged, badly housed, badly fed, and live
+from one year's end to another in bad air, without chance of a change.
+They have no play-grounds; they amuse themselves with marbles and
+chuck-farthing, instead of cricket or hare-and-hounds; and if it were
+not for the wonderful instinct which leads all poor children of tender
+years to run under the feet of cab-horses whenever they can, I know
+not how they would learn to use their limbs with agility.
+
+Now there is no real difficulty about teaching drill and the simpler
+kinds of gymnastics. It is done admirably well, for example, in the
+North Surrey Union schools; and a year or two ago, when I had an
+opportunity of inspecting these schools, I was greatly struck with
+the effect of such training upon the poor little waifs and strays of
+humanity, mostly picked out of the gutter, who are being made into
+cleanly, healthy, and useful members of society in that excellent
+institution.
+
+Whatever doubts people may entertain about the efficacy of natural
+selection, there can be none about artificial selection; and the
+breeder who should attempt to make, or keep up, a fine stock of pigs,
+or sheep, under the conditions to which the children of the poor
+are exposed, would be the laughing-stock even of the bucolic mind.
+Parliament has already done something in this direction, by declining
+to be an accomplice in the asphyxiation of school children. It refuses
+to make any grant to a school in which the cubical contents of the
+school-room are inadequate to allow of proper respiration. I should
+like to see it make another step in the same direction, and either
+refuse to give a grant to a school in which physical training is not
+a part of the programme, or, at any rate, offer to pay upon such
+training. If something of the kind is not done, the English physique,
+which has been, and is still, on the whole, a grand one, will become
+as extinct as the dodo, in the great towns.
+
+And then the moral and intellectual effect of drill, as an
+introduction to, and aid of, all other sorts of training, must not be
+overlooked. If you want to break in a colt, surely the first thing to
+do is to catch him and get him quietly to face his trainer; to know
+his voice and bear his hand; to learn that colts have something else
+to do with their heels than to kick them up whenever they feel so
+inclined; and to discover that the dreadful human figure has no desire
+to devour, or even to beat him, but that, in case of attention and
+obedience, he may hope for patting and even a sieve of oats.
+
+But, your "street Arabs," and other neglected poor children, are
+rather worse and wilder than colts; for the reason that the horse-colt
+has only his animal instincts in him, and his mother, the mare, has
+been always tender over him, and never came home drunk and kicked him
+in her life; while the man-colt is inspired by that very real devil,
+perverted manhood, and _his_ mother may have done all that and more.
+So, on the whole, it may probably be even more expedient to begin your
+attempt to get at the higher nature of the child, than at that of the
+colt, from the physical side.
+
+2. Next in order to physical training I put the instruction of
+children, and especially of girls, in the elements of household work
+and of domestic economy; in the first place for their own sakes, and
+in the second for that of their future employers.
+
+Everyone who knows anything of the life of the English poor is aware
+of the misery and waste caused by their want of knowledge of domestic
+economy, and by their lack of habits of frugality and method. I
+suppose it is no exaggeration to say that a poor Frenchwoman would
+make the money which the wife of a poor Englishman spends in food
+go twice as far, and at the same time turn out twice as palatable a
+dinner. Why Englishmen, who are so notoriously fond of good living,
+should be so helplessly incompetent in the art of cookery, is one of
+the great mysteries of nature; but from the varied abominations of
+the railway refreshment-rooms to the monotonous dinners of the poor,
+English feeding is either wasteful or nasty, or both.
+
+And as to domestic service, the groans of the housewives of England
+ascend to heaven! In five cases out of six, the girl who takes a
+"place" has to be trained by her mistress in the first rudiments of
+decency and order; and it is a mercy if she does not turn up her
+nose at anything like the mention of an honest and proper economy.
+Thousands of young girls are said to starve, or worse, yearly in
+London; and at the same time thousands of mistresses of households
+are ready to pay high wages for a decent housemaid, or cook, or a fair
+workwoman; and can by no means get what they want.
+
+Surely, if the elementary schools are worth anything, they may put an
+end to a state of things which is demoralizing the poor, while it is
+wasting the lives of those better off in small worries and annoyances.
+
+3. But the boys and girls for whose education the School Boards have
+to provide, have not merely to discharge domestic duties, but each
+of them is a member of a social and political organization of
+great complexity, and has, in future life, to fit himself into that
+organization, or be crushed by it. To this end it is surely needful,
+not only that they should be made acquainted with the elementary laws
+of conduct, but that their affections should be trained, so as to love
+with all their hearts that conduct which tends to the attainment of
+the highest good for themselves and their fellow-men, and to hate with
+all their hearts that opposite course of action which is fraught with
+evil.
+
+So far as the laws of conduct are determined by the intellect, I
+apprehend that they belong to science, and to that part of science
+which is called morality. But the engagement of the affections in
+favour of that particular kind of conduct which we call good, seems to
+me to be something quite beyond mere science. And I cannot but think
+that it, together with the awe and reverence, which have no kinship
+with base fear, but arise whenever one tries to pierce below the
+surface of things, whether they be material or spiritual, constitutes
+all that has any unchangeable reality in religion.
+
+And just as I think it would, be a mistake to confound the science,
+morality, with the affection, religion; so do I conceive it to be a
+most lamentable and mischievous error, that the science, theology,
+is so confounded in the minds of many--indeed, I might say, of the
+majority of men.
+
+I do not express any opinion as to whether theology is a true science,
+or whether it does not come under the apostolic definition of "science
+falsely so called;" though I may be permitted to express the belief
+that if the Apostle to whom that much misapplied phrase is due
+could make the acquaintance of much of modern theology, he would not
+hesitate a moment in declaring that it is exactly what he meant the
+words to denote.
+
+But it is at any rate conceivable, that the nature of the Deity, and
+His relations to the universe, and more especially to mankind, are
+capable of being ascertained, either inductively or deductively, or
+by both processes. And, if they have been ascertained, then a body of
+science has been formed which is very properly called theology.
+
+Further, there can be no doubt that affection for the Being thus
+defined and described by theologic science would be properly termed
+religion; but it would not be the whole of religion. The affection for
+the ethical ideal defined by moral science would claim equal if not
+superior rights. For suppose theology established the existence of an
+evil deity--and some theologies, even Christian ones, have come very
+near this,--is the religious affection to be transferred from the
+ethical ideal to any such omnipotent demon? I trow not. Better
+a thousand times that the human race should perish under his
+thunderbolts than it should say, "Evil, be thou my good."
+
+There is nothing new, that I know of, in this statement of the
+relations of religion with the science of morality on the one hand and
+that of theology on the other. But I believe it to be altogether
+true, and very needful, at this time, to be clearly and emphatically
+recognized as such, by those who have to deal with the education
+question.
+
+We are divided into two parties--the advocates of so-called
+"religious" teaching on the one hand, and those of so-called "secular"
+teaching on the other. And both parties seem to me to be not only
+hopelessly wrong, but in such a position that if either succeeded
+completely, it would discover, before many years were over, that
+it had made a great mistake and done serious evil to the cause of
+education.
+
+For, leaving aside the more far-seeing minority on each side, what the
+"religious" party is crying for is mere theology, under the name
+of religion; while the "secularists" have unwisely and wrongfully
+admitted the assumption of their opponents, and demand the abolition
+of all "religious" teaching, when they only want to be free of
+theology--Burning your ship to get rid of the cockroaches!
+
+But my belief is, that no human being, and no society composed of
+human beings, ever did, or ever will, come to much, unless their
+conduct was governed and guided by the love of some ethical ideal.
+Undoubtedly, your gutter child may be converted by mere intellectual
+drill into "the subtlest of all the beasts of the field;" but we know
+what has become of the original of that description, and there is
+no need to increase the number of those who imitate him successfully
+without being aided by the rates. And if I were compelled to choose
+for one of my own children, between a school in which real religious
+instruction is given, and one without it, I should prefer the former,
+even though the child might have to take a good deal of theology with
+it. Nine-tenths of a dose of bark is mere half-rotten wood; but one
+swallows it for the sake of the particles of quinine, the beneficial
+effect of which may be weakened, but is not destroyed, by the wooden
+dilution, unless in a few cases of exceptionally tender stomachs.
+
+Hence, when the great mass of the English people declare that they
+want to have the children in the elementary schools taught the Bible,
+and when it is plain from the terms of the Act, the debates in and
+out of Parliament, and especially the emphatic declarations of
+the Vice-President of the Council, that it was intended that such
+Bible-reading should be permitted, unless good cause for prohibiting
+it could be shown, I do not see what reason there is for opposing that
+wish. Certainly, I, individually, could with no shadow of consistency
+oppose the teaching of the children of other people to do that which
+my own children are taught to do. And, even if the reading the Bible
+were not, as I think it is, consonant with political reason and
+justice, and with a desire to act in the spirit of the education
+measure, I am disposed to think it might still be well to read that
+book in the elementary schools.
+
+I have always been strongly in favour of secular education, in the
+sense of education without theology; but I must confess I have been
+no less seriously perplexed to know by what practical measures the
+religious feeling, which is the essential basis of conduct, was to
+be kept up, in the present utterly chaotic state of opinion on these
+matters, without the use of the Bible. The Pagan moralists lack life
+and colour, and even the noble Stoic, Marcus Antoninus, is too high
+and refined for an ordinary child. Take the Bible as a whole; make the
+severest deductions which fair criticism can dictate for shortcomings
+and positive errors; eliminate, as a sensible lay-teacher would do, if
+left to himself, all that it is not desirable for children to occupy
+themselves with; and there still remains in this old literature a vast
+residuum of moral beauty and grandeur. And then consider the great
+historical fact that, for three centuries, this book has been woven
+into the life of all that is best and noblest in English history;
+that it has become the national epic of Britain, and is as familiar to
+noble and simple, from John-o'-Groat's House to Land's End, as Dante
+and Tasso once were to the Italians; that it is written in the noblest
+and purest English, and abounds in exquisite beauties of mere literary
+form; and, finally, that it forbids the veriest hind who never left
+his village to be ignorant of the existence of other countries and
+other civilizations, and of a great past, stretching back to the
+furthest limits of the oldest nations in the world. By the study of
+what other book could children be so much humanized and made to
+feel that each figure in that vast historical procession fills,
+like themselves, but a momentary space in the interval between
+two eternities; and earns the blessings or the curses of all time,
+according to its effort to do good and hate evil, even as they also
+are earning their payment for their work?
+
+On the whole, then, I am in favour of reading the Bible, with
+such grammatical, geographical, and historical explanations by a
+lay-teacher as may be needful, with rigid exclusion of any further
+theological teaching than that contained in the Bible itself. And in
+stating what this is, the teacher would do well not to go beyond the
+precise words of the Bible; for if he does, he will, in the first
+place, undertake a task beyond his strength, seeing that all the
+Jewish and Christian sects have been at work upon that subject for
+more than two thousand years, and have not yet arrived, and are not in
+the least likely to arrive, at an agreement; and, in the second
+place, he will certainly begin to teach something distinctively
+denominational, and thereby come into violent collision with the Act
+of Parliament.
+
+4. The intellectual training to be given in the elementary schools
+must of course, in the first place, consist in learning to use the
+means of acquiring knowledge, or reading, writing, and arithmetic; and
+it will be a great matter to teach reading so completely that the act
+shall have become easy and pleasant. If reading remains "hard," that
+accomplishment will not be much resorted to for instruction, and still
+less for amusement--which last is one of its most valuable uses to
+hard-worked people.
+
+But along with a due proficiency in the use of the means of learning,
+a certain amount of knowledge, of intellectual discipline, and of
+artistic training should be conveyed in the elementary schools; and in
+this direction--for reasons which I am afraid to repeat, having
+urged them so often--I can conceive no subject-matter of education
+so appropriate and so important as the rudiments of physical science,
+with drawing, modelling, and singing. Not only would such teaching
+afford the best possible preparation for the technical schools about
+which so much is now said, but the organization for carrying it into
+effect already exists. The Science and Art Department, the operations
+of which have already attained considerable magnitude, not only offers
+to examine and pay the results of such examination in elementary
+science and art, but it provides what is still more important, viz.
+a means of giving children of high natural ability, who are just as
+abundant among the poor as among the rich, a helping hand. A good old
+proverb tells us that "One should not take a razor to cut a block:"
+the razor is soon spoiled, and the block is not so well cut as it
+would be with a hatchet. But it is worse economy to prevent a possible
+Watt from being anything but a stoker, or to give a possible Faraday
+no chance of doing anything but to bind books. Indeed, the loss in
+such cases of mistaken vocation has no measure; it is absolutely
+infinite and irreparable. And among the arguments in favour of the
+interference of the State in education, none seems to be stronger
+than this--that it is the interest of every one that ability should be
+neither wasted, nor misapplied, by any one; and, therefore, that every
+one's representative, the State, is necessarily fulfilling the wishes
+of its constituents when it is helping the capacities to reach their
+proper places.
+
+It may be said that the scheme of education here sketched is too large
+to be effected in the time during which the children will remain at
+school; and, secondly, that even if this objection did not exist, it
+would cost too much.
+
+I attach no importance whatever to the first objection until the
+experiment has been fairly tried. Considering how much catechism,
+lists of the kings of Israel, geography of Palestine, and the like,
+children are made to swallow now, I cannot believe there will be any
+difficulty in inducing them to go through the physical training, which
+is more than half play; or the instruction in household work, or in
+those duties to one another and to themselves, which have a daily and
+hourly practical interest. That children take kindly to elementary
+science and art no one can doubt who has tried the experiment
+properly. And if Bible-reading is not accompanied by constraint and
+solemnity, as if it were a sacramental operation, I do not believe
+there is anything in which children take more pleasure. At least I
+know that some of the pleasantest recollections of my childhood are
+connected with the voluntary study of an ancient Bible which belonged
+to my grandmother. There were splendid pictures in it, to be sure; but
+I recollect little or nothing about them save a portrait of the
+high priest in his vestments. What come vividly back on my mind are
+remembrances of my delight in the histories of Joseph and of David;
+and of my keen appreciation of the chivalrous kindness of Abraham in
+his dealings with Lot. Like a sudden flash there returns back upon
+me, my utter scorn of the pettifogging meanness of Jacob, and my
+sympathetic grief over the heartbreaking lamentation of the cheated
+Esau, "Hast thou not a blessing for me also, O my father?" And I see,
+as in a cloud, pictures of the grand phantasmagoria of the Book of
+Revelation.
+
+I enumerate, as they issue, the childish impressions which come
+crowding out of the pigeon-holes in my brain, in which they have lain
+almost undisturbed for forty years. I prize them as an evidence that a
+child of five or six years old, left to his own devices, may be deeply
+interested in the Bible, and draw sound moral sustenance from it. And
+I rejoice that I was left to deal with the Bible alone; for if I had
+had some theological "explainer" at my side, he might have tried,
+as such do, to lessen my indignation against Jacob, and thereby have
+warped my moral sense for ever; while the great apocalyptic spectacle
+of the ultimate triumph of right and justice might have been turned to
+the base purposes of a pious lampooner of the Papacy.
+
+And as to the second objection--costliness--the reply is, first, that
+the rate and the Parliamentary grant together ought to be enough,
+considering that science and art teaching is already provided
+for; and, secondly, that if they are not, it may be well for the
+educational parliament to consider what has become of those endowments
+which were originally intended to be devoted, more or less largely, to
+the education of the poor.
+
+When the monasteries were spoiled, some of their endowments were
+applied to the foundation of cathedrals; and in all such cases it was
+ordered that a certain portion of the endowment should be applied to
+the purposes of education. How much is so applied? Is that which may
+be so applied given to help the poor, who cannot pay for education, or
+does it virtually subsidize the comparatively rich, who can? How
+are Christ's Hospital and Alleyn's foundation securing their right
+purposes, or how far are they perverted into contrivances for
+affording relief to the classes who can afford to pay for education?
+How--But this paper is already too long, and, if I begin, I may find
+it hard to stop asking questions of this kind, which after all are
+worthy only of the lowest of Radicals.
+
+
+
+
+III.
+
+ON MEDICAL EDUCATION.
+
+(AN ADDRESS TO THE STUDENTS OF THE FACULTY OF MEDICINE IN UNIVERSITY
+COLLEGE, LONDON, MAY 18, 1870, ON THE OCCASION OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF
+PRIZES FOR THE SESSION.)
+
+
+It has given me sincere pleasure to be here to-day, at the desire of
+your highly respected President and the Council of the College. In
+looking back upon my own past, I am sorry to say that I have found
+that it is a quarter of a century since I took part in those hopes and
+in those fears by which you have all recently been agitated, and which
+now are at an end. But, although so long a time has elapsed since
+I was moved by the same feelings, I beg leave to assure you that my
+sympathy with both victors and vanquished remains fresh--so fresh,
+indeed, that I could almost try to persuade myself that, after all, it
+cannot be so very long ago. My business during the last hour, however,
+has been to show that sympathy with one side only, and I assure you
+I have done my best to play my part heartily, and to rejoice in the
+success of those who have succeeded. Still, I should like to remind
+you at the end of it all, that success on an occasion of this kind,
+valuable and important as it is, is in reality only putting the foot
+upon one rung of the ladder which leads upwards; and that the rung of
+a ladder was never meant to rest upon, but only to hold a man's foot
+long enough to enable him to put the other somewhat higher. I trust
+that you will all regard these successes as simply reminders that your
+next business is, having enjoyed the success of the day, no longer to
+look at that success, but to look forward to the next difficulty
+that is to be conquered. And now, having had so much to say to the
+successful candidates, you must forgive me if I add that a sort of
+undercurrent of sympathy has been going on in my mind all the time for
+those who have not been successful, for those valiant knights who have
+been overthrown in your tourney, and have not made their appearance in
+public. I trust that, in accordance with old custom, they, wounded and
+bleeding, have been carried off to their tents, to be carefully tended
+by the fairest of maidens; and in these days, when the chances are
+that every one of such maidens will be a qualified practitioner,
+I have no doubt that all the splinters will have been carefully
+extracted, and that they are now physically healed. But there may
+remain some little fragment of moral or intellectual discouragement,
+and therefore I will take the liberty to remark that your chairman
+to-day, if he occupied his proper place, would be among them. Your
+chairman, in virtue of his position, and for the brief hour that he
+occupies that position, is a person of importance; and it may be some
+consolation to those who have failed if I say, that the quarter of a
+century which I have been speaking of, takes me back to the time
+when I was up at the University of London, a candidate for honours in
+anatomy and physiology, and when I was exceedingly well beaten by my
+excellent friend Dr. Ransom, of Nottingham. There is a person here
+who recollects that circumstance very well. I refer to your venerated
+teacher and mine, Dr. Sharpey. He was at that time one of the
+examiners in anatomy and physiology, and you may be quite sure that,
+as he was one of the examiners, there remained not the smallest doubt
+in my mind of the propriety of his judgment, and I accepted my defeat
+with the most comfortable assurance that I had thoroughly well earned
+it. But, gentlemen, the competitor having been a worthy one, and
+the examination, a fair one, I cannot say that I found in that
+circumstance anything very discouraging. I said to myself, "Never
+mind; what's the next thing to be done?" And I found that policy of
+"never minding" and going on to the next thing to be done, to be the
+most important of all policies in the conduct of practical life. It
+does not matter how many tumbles you have in this life, so long as you
+do not get dirty when you tumble; it is only the people who have to
+stop to be washed and made clean, who must necessarily lose the race.
+And I can assure you that there is the greatest practical benefit
+in making a few failures early in life. You learn that which is of
+inestimable importance--that there are a great many people in the
+world who are just as clever as you are. You learn to put your trust,
+by and by, in an economy and frugality of the exercise of your powers,
+both moral and intellectual; and you very soon find out, if you have
+not found it out before, that patience and tenacity of purpose are
+worth more than twice their weight of cleverness. In fact, if I were
+to go on discoursing on this subject, I should become almost eloquent
+in praise of non-success; but, lest so doing should seem, in any way,
+to wither well-earned laurels, I will turn from that topic, and ask
+you to accompany me in some considerations touching another subject
+which has a very profound interest for me, and which I think ought to
+have an equally profound interest for you.
+
+I presume that the great majority of those whom I address propose to
+devote themselves to the profession of medicine; and I do not doubt,
+from the evidences of ability which have been given to-day, that
+I have before me a number of men who will rise to eminence in that
+profession, and who will exert a great and deserved influence upon
+its future. That in which I am interested, and about which I wish to
+speak, is the subject of medical education, and I venture to speak
+about it for the purpose, if I can, of influencing you, who may have
+the power of influencing the medical education of the future. You may
+ask, by what authority do I venture, being a person not concerned in
+the practice of medicine, to meddle with that subject? I can only tell
+you it is a fact, of which a number of you I dare say are aware by
+experience (and I trust the experience has no painful associations),
+that I have been for a considerable number of years (twelve or
+thirteen years to the best of my recollection) one of the examiners in
+the University of London. You are further aware that the men who
+come up to the University of London are the picked men of the medical
+schools of London, and therefore such observations as I may have
+to make upon the state of knowledge of these gentlemen, if they be
+justified, in regard to any faults I may have to find, cannot be held
+to indicate defects in the capacity, or in the power of application of
+those gentlemen, but must be laid, more or less, to the account of the
+prevalent system of medical education. I will tell you what has struck
+me--but in speaking in this frank way, as one always does about the
+defects of one's friends, I must beg you to disabuse your minds of
+the notion that I am alluding to any particular school, or to any
+particular college, or to any particular person; and to believe that
+if I am silent when I should be glad to speak with high praise, it is
+because that praise would come too close to this locality. What has
+struck me, then, in this long experience of the men best instructed in
+physiology from the medical schools of London, is (with the many and
+brilliant exceptions to which I have referred), taking it as a whole,
+and broadly, the singular unreality of their knowledge of physiology.
+Now, I use that word "unreality" advisedly: I do not say "scanty;" on
+the contrary, there is plenty of it--a great deal too much of it--but
+it is the quality, the nature of the knowledge, which I quarrel with.
+I know I used to have--I don't know whether I have now, but I had once
+upon a time--a bad reputation among students for setting up a very
+high standard of acquirement, and I dare say you may think that the
+standard of this old examiner, who happily is now very nearly an
+extinct examiner, has been pitched too high. Nothing of the kind, I
+assure you. The defects I have noticed, and the faults I have to find,
+arise entirely from the circumstance that my standard is pitched too
+low. This is no paradox, gentlemen, but quite simply the fact.
+The knowledge I have looked for was a real, precise, thorough, and
+practical knowledge of fundamentals; whereas that which the best of
+the candidates, in a large proportion of cases, have had to give me
+was a large, extensive, and inaccurate knowledge of superstructure;
+and that is what I mean by saying that my demands went too low,
+and not too high. What I have had to complain of is, that a large
+proportion of the gentlemen who come up for physiology to the
+University of London do not know it as they know their anatomy, and
+have not been taught it as they have been taught their anatomy. Now, I
+should not wonder at all if I heard a great many "No, noes" here; but
+I am not talking about University College; as I have told you before,
+I am talking about the average education of medical schools. What I
+have found, and found so much reason to lament, is, that while anatomy
+has been taught as a science ought to be taught, as a matter of
+autopsy, and observation, and strict discipline; in a very large
+number of cases, physiology has been taught as if it were a mere
+matter of books and of hearsay. I declare to you, gentlemen, that
+I have often expected to be told, when I have been asked a question
+about the circulation of the blood, that Professor Breitkopf is
+of opinion that it circulates, but that the whole thing is an open
+question. I assure you that I am hardly exaggerating the state of mind
+on matters of fundamental importance which I have found over and over
+again to obtain, among gentlemen coming up to that picked examination
+of the University of London. Now, I do not think that is a desirable
+state of things. I cannot understand why physiology should not be
+taught--in fact, you have here abundant evidence that it can be
+taught--with the same definiteness and the same precision as anatomy
+is taught. And you may depend upon this, that the only physiology
+which is to be of any good whatever in medical practice, or in its
+application to the study of medicine, is that physiology which a man
+knows of his own knowledge; just as the only anatomy which would be
+of any good to the surgeon is the anatomy which he knows of his own
+knowledge. Another peculiarity I have found in the physiology which
+has been current, and that is, that in the minds of a great many
+gentlemen it has been supplanted by histology. They have learnt a
+great deal of histology, and they have fancied that histology and
+physiology are the same things. I have asked for some knowledge of the
+physics and the mechanics and the chemistry of the human body, and I
+have been met by talk about cells. I declare to you I believe it will
+take me two years, at least, of absolute rest from the business of
+an examiner to hear the word "cell," "germinal matter," or "carmine,"
+without a sort of inward shudder.
+
+Well, now, gentlemen, I am sure my colleagues in this examination will
+bear me out in saying that I have not been exaggerating the evils and
+defects which are current--have been current--in a large quantity
+of the physiological teaching, the results of which come before
+examiners. And it becomes a very interesting question to know how all
+this comes about, and in what way it can be remedied. How it comes
+about will be perfectly obvious to any one who has considered the
+growth of medicine. I suppose that medicine and surgery first began
+by some savage, more intelligent than the rest, discovering that a
+certain herb was good for a certain pain, and that a certain pull,
+somehow or other, set a dislocated joint right. I suppose all things
+had their humble beginnings, and medicine and surgery were in the same
+condition. People who wear watches know nothing about watchmaking. A
+watch goes wrong and it stops; you see the owner giving it a shake,
+or, if he is very bold, he opens the case, and gives the balance-wheel
+a turn. Gentlemen, that is empirical practice, and you know what are
+the results upon the watch. I should think you can divine what are the
+results of analogous operations upon the human body. And because men
+of sense very soon found that such were the effects of meddling with
+very complicated machinery they did not understand, I suppose the
+first thing, as being the easiest, was to study the nature of the
+works of the human watch, and the next thing was to study the way the
+parts worked together, and the way the watch worked. Thus, by degrees,
+we have had growing up our body of anatomists, or knowers of the
+construction of the human watch, and our physiologists, who know how
+the machine works. And just as any sensible man, who has a valuable
+watch, does not meddle with it himself, but goes to some one who has
+studied watchmaking, and understands what the effect of doing this
+or that may be; so, I suppose, the man who, having charge of that
+valuable machine, his own body, wants to have it kept in good order,
+comes to a professor of the medical art for the purpose of having it
+set right, believing that, by deduction from the facts of structure
+and from the facts of function, the physician will divine what may be
+the matter with his bodily watch at that particular time, and what may
+be the best means of setting it right. If that may be taken as a
+just representation of the relation of the theoretical branches of
+medicine--what we may call the institutes of medicine, to use an old
+term--to the practical branches, I think it will be obvious to you
+that they are of prime and fundamental importance. Whatever tends to
+affect the teaching of them injuriously must tend to destroy and
+to disorganize the whole fabric of the medical art. I think every
+sensible man has seen this long ago; but the difficulties in the way
+of attaining good teaching in the different branches of the theory, or
+institutes, of medicine are very serious. It is a comparatively
+easy matter--pray mark that I use the word "comparatively"--it is a
+comparatively easy matter to learn anatomy and to teach it; it is a
+very difficult matter to learn physiology and to teach it. It is a
+very difficult matter to know and to teach those branches of physics
+and those branches of chemistry which bear directly upon physiology;
+and hence it is that, as a matter of fact, the teaching of physiology,
+and the teaching of the physics and the chemistry which bear upon it,
+must necessarily be in a state of relative imperfection; and there is
+nothing to be grumbled at in the fact that this relative imperfection
+exists. But is the relative imperfection which exists only such as
+is necessary, or is it made worse by our practical arrangements? I
+believe--and if I did not so believe I should not have troubled you
+with these observations--I believe it is made infinitely worse by
+our practical arrangements, or rather, I ought to say, our very
+unpractical arrangements. Some very wise man long ago affirmed that
+every question, in the long run, was a question of finance; and there
+is a good deal to be said for that view. Most assuredly the question
+of medical teaching is, in a very large and broad sense, a question of
+finance. What I mean is this: that in London the arrangements of the
+medical schools, and the number of them, are such as to render it
+almost impossible that men who confine themselves to the teaching
+of the theoretical branches of the profession should be able to make
+their bread by that operation; and, you know, if a man cannot make his
+bread, he cannot teach--at least his teaching comes to a speedy end.
+That is a matter of physiology. Anatomy is fairly well taught, because
+it lies in the direction of practice, and a man is all the better
+surgeon for being a good anatomist. It does not absolutely interfere
+with the pursuits of a practical surgeon if he should hold a Chair
+of Anatomy--though I do not for one moment say that he would not be a
+better teacher if he did not devote himself to practice. (Applause.)
+Yes, I know exactly what that cheer means, but I am keeping as
+carefully as possible from any sort of allusion to Professor Ellis.
+But the fact is, that even human anatomy has now grown to be so large
+a matter, that it takes the whole devotion of a man's life to put the
+great mass of knowledge upon that subject into such a shape that it
+can be teachable to the mind of the ordinary student. What the student
+wants in a professor is a man who shall stand between him and the
+infinite diversity and variety of human knowledge, and who shall
+gather all that together, and extract from it that which is capable
+of being assimilated by the mind. That function is a vast and an
+important one, and unless, in such subjects as anatomy, a man is
+wholly free from other cares, it is almost impossible that he can
+perform it thoroughly and well. But if it be hardly possible for a man
+to pursue anatomy without actually breaking with his profession, how
+is it possible for him to pursue physiology?
+
+I get every year those very elaborate reports of Henle and
+Meissner--volumes of, I suppose, 400 pages altogether--and they
+consist merely of abstracts of the memoirs and works which have been
+written on Anatomy and Physiology--only abstracts of them! How is
+a man to keep up his acquaintance with all that is doing in the
+physiological world--in a world advancing with enormous strides every
+day and every hour--if he has to be distracted with the cares of
+practice? You know very well it must be impracticable to do so. Our
+men of ability join our medical schools with an eye to the future.
+They take the Chairs of Anatomy or of Physiology; and by and by they
+leave those Chairs for the more profitable pursuits into which they
+have drifted by professional success, and so they become clothed,
+and physiology is bare. The result is, that in those schools in which
+physiology is thus left to the benevolence, so to speak, of those
+who have no time to look to it, the effect of such teaching comes
+out obviously, and is made manifest in what I spoke of just now--the
+unreality, the bookishness of the knowledge of the taught. And if this
+is the case in physiology, still more must it be the case in those
+branches of physics which are the foundation of physiology; although
+it may be less the case in chemistry, because for an able chemist a
+certain honourable and independent career lies in the direction of
+his work, and he is able, like the anatomist, to look upon what he
+may teach to the student as not absolutely taking him away from his
+bread-winning pursuits.
+
+But it is of no use to grumble about this state of things unless
+one is prepared to indicate some sort of practical remedy. And I
+believe--and I venture to make the statement because I am wholly
+independent of all sorts of medical schools, and may, therefore, say
+what I believe without being supposed to be affected by any personal
+interest--but I say I believe that the remedy for this state of
+things, for that imperfection of our theoretical knowledge which keeps
+down the ability of England at the present time in medical matters,
+is a mere affair of mechanical arrangement; that so long as you have
+a dozen medical schools scattered about in different parts of the
+metropolis, and dividing the students among them, so long, in all the
+smaller schools at any rate, it is impossible that any other state of
+things than that which I have been depicting should obtain. Professors
+must live; to live they must occupy themselves with practice, and
+if they occupy themselves with practice, the pursuit of the abstract
+branches of science must go to the wall. All this is a plain and
+obvious matter of common-sense reasoning. I believe you will never
+alter this state of things until, either by consent or by _force
+majeure_--and I should be very sorry to see the latter applied--but
+until there is some new arrangement, and until all the theoretical
+branches of the profession, the institutes of medicine, are taught in
+London in not more than one or two, or at the outside three, central
+institutions, no good will be effected. If that large body of men, the
+medical students of London, were obliged in the first place to get a
+knowledge of the theoretical branches of their profession in two or
+three central schools, there would be abundant means for maintaining
+able professors--not, indeed, for enriching them, as they would be
+able to enrich themselves by practice--but for enabling them to make
+that choice which such men are so willing to make; namely, the choice
+between wealth and a modest competency, when that modest competency
+is to be combined with a scientific career, and the means of advancing
+knowledge. I do not believe that all the talking about, and tinkering
+of, medical education will do the slightest good until the fact
+is clearly recognized, that men must be thoroughly grounded in the
+theoretical branches of their profession, and that to this end the
+teaching of those theoretical branches must be confined to two or
+three centres.
+
+Now let me add one other word, and that is, that if I were a despot, I
+would cut down these branches to a very considerable extent. The next
+thing to be done beyond that which I mentioned just now, is to go
+back to primary education. The great step towards a thorough medical
+education is to insist upon the teaching of the elements of the
+physical sciences in all schools, so that medical students shall not
+go up to the medical colleges utterly ignorant of that with which they
+have to deal; to insist on the elements of chemistry, the elements of
+botany, and the elements of physics being taught in our ordinary
+and common schools, so that there shall be some preparation for
+the discipline of medical colleges. And, if this reform were once
+effected, you might confine the "Institutes of Medicine" to physics
+as applied to physiology--to chemistry as applied to physiology--to
+physiology itself, and to anatomy. Afterwards, the student, thoroughly
+grounded in these matters, might go to any hospital he pleased for
+the purpose of studying the practical branches of his profession. The
+practical teaching might be made as local as you like; and you
+might use to advantage the opportunities afforded by all these
+local institutions for acquiring a knowledge of the practice of the
+profession. But you may say: "This is abolishing a great deal; you are
+getting rid of botany and zoology to begin with." I have not a doubt
+that they ought to be got rid of, as branches of special medical
+education; they ought to be put back to an earlier stage, and made
+branches of general education. Let me say, by way of self-denying
+ordinance, for which you will, I am sure, give me credit, that I
+believe that comparative anatomy ought to be absolutely abolished.
+I say so, not without a certain fear of the Vice-Chancellor of the
+University of London who sits upon my left. But I do not think the
+charter gives him very much power over me; moreover, I shall soon come
+to an end of my examinership, and therefore I am not afraid, but shall
+go on to say what I was going to say, and that is, that in my belief
+it is a downright cruelty--I have no other word for it--to require
+from gentlemen who are engaged in medical studies, the pretence--for
+it is nothing else, and can be nothing else, than a pretence--of a
+knowledge of comparative anatomy as part of their medical curriculum.
+Make it part of their Arts teaching if you like, make it part of their
+general education if you like, make it part of their qualification for
+the scientific degree by all means--that is its proper place; but to
+require that gentlemen whose whole faculties should be bent upon
+the acquirement of a real knowledge of human physiology should
+worry themselves with getting up hearsay about the alternation of
+generations in the Salpae is really monstrous. I cannot characterize
+it in any other way. And having sacrificed my own pursuit, I am sure I
+may sacrifice other people's; and I make this remark with all the
+more willingness because I discovered, on reading the name-of your
+Professors just now, that the Professor of Materia Medica is not
+present. I must confess, if I had my way I should abolish Materia
+Medica[1] altogether. I recollect, when I was first under examination
+at the University of London, Dr. Pereira was the examiner, and you
+know that "Pereira's Materia Medica" was a book _de omnibus rebus_. I
+recollect my struggles with that book late at night and early in the
+morning (I worked very hard in those days), and I do believe that I
+got that book into my head somehow or other, but then I will undertake
+to say that I forgot it all a week afterwards. Not one trace of a
+knowledge of drugs has remained in my memory from that time to this;
+and really, as a matter of common sense, I cannot understand the
+arguments for obliging a medical man to know all about drugs and
+where they come from. Why not make him belong to the Iron and Steel
+Institute, and learn something about cutlery, because he uses knives?
+
+[Footnote 1: It will, I hope, be understood that I do not include
+Therapeutics under this head.]
+
+But do not suppose that, after all these deductions, there would not
+be ample room for your activity. Let us count up what we have left. I
+suppose all the time for medical education that can be hoped for is,
+at the outside, about four years. Well, what have you to master in
+those four years upon my supposition? Physics applied to physiology;
+chemistry applied to physiology; physiology; anatomy; surgery;
+medicine (including therapeutics); obstetrics; hygiene; and medical
+jurisprudence--nine subjects for four years! And when you consider
+what those subjects are, and that the acquisition of anything beyond
+the rudiments of any one of them may tax the energies of a lifetime,
+I think that even those energies which you young gentlemen have
+been displaying for the last hour or two might be taxed to keep you
+thoroughly up to what is wanted for your medical career.
+
+I entertain a very strong conviction that any one who adds to medical
+education one iota or tittle beyond what is absolutely necessary, is
+guilty of a very grave offence. Gentlemen, it will depend upon the
+knowledge that you happen to possess,--upon your means of applying it
+within your own field of action,--whether the bills of mortality of
+your district are increased or diminished; and that, gentlemen, is a
+very serious consideration indeed. And, under those circumstances, the
+subjects with which you have to deal being so difficult, their extent
+so enormous, and the time at your disposal so limited, I could not
+feel my conscience easy if I did not, on such an occasion as this,
+raise a protest against employing your energies upon the acquisition
+of any knowledge which may not be absolutely needed in your future
+career.
+
+
+
+
+IV.
+
+YEAST.
+
+
+IT has been known, from time immemorial, that the sweet liquids which
+may be obtained by expressing the juices of the fruits and stems
+of various plants, or by steeping malted barley in hot water, or
+by mixing honey with water--are liable to undergo a series of very
+singular changes, if freely exposed to the air and left to themselves,
+in warm weather. However clear and pellucid the liquid may have been
+when first prepared, however carefully it may have been freed, by
+straining and filtration, from even the finest visible impurities, it
+will not remain clear. After a time it will become cloudy and turbid;
+little bubbles will be seen rising to the surface, and their abundance
+will increase until the liquid hisses as if it were simmering on
+the fire. By degrees, some of the solid particles which produce the
+turbidity of the liquid collect at its surface into a scum, which
+is blown up by the emerging air-bubbles into a thick, foamy froth.
+Another moiety sinks to the bottom, and accumulates as a muddy
+sediment, or "lees."
+
+When this action has continued, with more or less violence, for
+a certain time, it gradually moderates. The evolution of bubbles
+slackens, and finally comes to an end; scum and lees alike settle at
+the bottom, and the fluid is once more clear and transparent. But
+it has acquired properties of which no trace existed in the original
+liquid. Instead of being a mere sweet fluid, mainly composed of sugar
+and water, the sugar has more or less completely disappeared, and it
+has acquired that peculiar smell and taste which we call "spirituous."
+Instead of being devoid of any obvious effect upon the animal economy,
+it has become possessed of a very wonderful influence on the nervous
+system; so that in small doses it exhilarates, while in larger it
+stupefies, and may even destroy life.
+
+Moreover, if the original fluid is put into a still, and heated for a
+while, the first and last product of its distillation is simple water;
+while, when the altered fluid is subjected to the same process, the
+matter which is first condensed in the receiver is found to be a
+clear, volatile substance, which is lighter than water, has a pungent
+taste and smell, possesses the intoxicating powers of the fluid in
+an eminent degree, and takes fire the moment it is brought in contact
+with a flame. The alchemists called this volatile liquid, which
+they obtained from wine, "spirits of wine," just as they called
+hydrochloric acid "spirits of salt," and as we, to this day, call
+refined turpentine "spirits of turpentine." As the "spiritus," or
+breath, of a man was thought to be the most refined and subtle part
+of him, the intelligent essence of man was also conceived as a sort
+of breath, or spirit; and, by analogy, the most refined essence of
+anything was called its "spirit." And thus it has come about that we
+use the same word for the soul of man and for a glass of gin.
+
+At the present day, however, we even more commonly use another name
+for this peculiar liquid--namely, "alcohol," and its origin is not
+less singular. The Dutch physician, Van Helmont, lived in the latter
+part of the sixteenth and the beginning of the seventeenth century--in
+the transition period between alchemy and chemistry--and was rather
+more alchemist than chemist. Appended to his "Opera Omnia," published
+in 1707, there is a very needful "Clavis ad obscuriorum sensum
+referandum," in which the following passage occurs:--
+
+    "ALCOHOL.--Chymicis est liquor aut pulvis summè subtilisatus,
+    vocabulo Orientalibus quoque, cum primis Habessinis,
+    familiari, quibus _cohol_ speciatim pulverem impalpabilem ex
+    antimonio pro oculis tin-gendis denotat ... Hodie autem, ob
+    analogiam, quivis pulvis teuerior, ut pulvis oculorum cancri
+    summe subtilisatus _alcohol_ audit, hand aliter ac spiritus
+    rectificatissimi _alcolisati_ dicuntur."
+
+Similarly, Robert Boyle speaks of a fine powder as "alcohol;" and,
+so late as the middle of the last century, the English lexicographer,
+Nathan Bailey, defines "alcohol" as "the pure substance of anything
+separated from the more gross, a very fine and impalpable powder, or a
+very pure, well-rectified spirit." But, by the time of the publication
+of Lavoisier's "Traité Élémentaire de Chimie," in 1789, the term
+"alcohol," "alkohol," or "alkool" (for it is spelt in all three ways),
+which Van Helmont had applied primarily to a fine powder, and
+only secondarily to spirits of wine, had lost its primary meaning
+altogether; and, from the end of the last century until now, it has,
+I believe, been used exclusively as the denotation of spirits of wine,
+and bodies chemically allied to that substance.
+
+The process which gives rise to alcohol in a saccharine fluid is known
+to us as "fermentation;" a term based upon the apparent boiling up or
+"effervescence" of the fermenting liquid, and of Latin origin.
+
+Our Teutonic cousins call the same process "gähren," "gäsen,"
+"göschen," and "gischen;" but, oddly enough, we do not seem to have
+retained their verb or their substantive denoting the action itself,
+though we do use names identical with, or plainly derived from, theirs
+for the scum and lees. These are called, in Low German, "gäscht"
+and "gischt;" in Anglo-Saxon, "gest," "gist," and "yst," whence our
+"yeast." Again, in Low German and in Anglo-Saxon, there is another
+name for yeast, having the form "barm," or "beorm;" and, in the
+Midland Counties, "barm" is the name by which yeast is still best
+known. In High German, there is a third name for yeast, "hefe," which
+is not represented in English, so far as I know.
+
+All these words are said by philologers to be derived from roots
+expressive of the intestine motion of a fermenting substance. Thus
+"hefe" is derived from "heben," to raise; "barm" from "beren" or
+"bären," to bear up; "yeast," "yst," and "gist," have all to do with
+seething and foam, with "yeasty waves," and "gusty" breezes.
+
+The same reference to the swelling up of the fermenting substance is
+seen in the Gallo-Latin terms "levure" and "leaven."
+
+It is highly creditable to the ingenuity of our ancestors that the
+peculiar property of fermented liquids, in virtue of which they "make
+glad the heart of man," seems to have been known in the remotest
+periods of which we have any record. All savages take to alcoholic
+fluids as if they were to the manner born. Our Vedic forefathers
+intoxicated themselves with the juice of the "soma;" Noah, by a not
+unnatural reaction against a superfluity of water, appears to have
+taken the earliest practicable opportunity of qualifying that which
+he was obliged to drink; and the ghosts of the ancient Egyptians were
+solaced by pictures of banquets in which the winecup passes round,
+graven on the walls of their tombs. A knowledge of the process of
+fermentation, therefore, was in all probability possessed by the
+prehistoric populations of the globe; and it must have become a matter
+of great interest even to primaeval wine-bibbers to study the methods
+by which fermented liquids could be surely manufactured. No doubt,
+therefore, it was soon discovered that the most certain, as well as
+the most expeditious, way of making a sweet juice ferment was to add
+to it a little of the scum, or lees, of another fermenting juice.
+And it can hardly be questioned that this singular excitation of
+fermentation in one fluid, by a sort of infection, or inoculation,
+of a little ferment taken from some other fluid, together with the
+strange swelling, foaming, and hissing of the fermented substance,
+must have always attracted attention from the more thoughtful.
+Nevertheless, the commencement of the scientific analysis of the
+phenomena dates from a period not earlier than the first half of the
+seventeenth century.
+
+At this time, Van Helmont made a first step, by pointing out that the
+peculiar hissing and bubbling of a fermented liquid is due, not to the
+evolution of common air (which he, as the inventor of the term "gas,"
+calls "gas ventosum"), but to that of a peculiar kind of air such
+as is occasionally met with in caves, mines, and wells, and which he
+calls "gas sylvestre."
+
+But a century elapsed before the nature of this "gas sylvestre," or,
+as it was afterwards called, "fixed air," was clearly determined, and
+it was found to be identical with that deadly "choke-damp" by which
+the lives of those who descend into old wells, or mines, or brewers'
+vats, are sometimes suddenly ended; and with the poisonous aëriform
+fluid which is produced by the combustion of charcoal, and now goes by
+the name of carbonic acid gas.
+
+During the same time it gradually became clear that the presence of
+sugar was essential to the production of alcohol and the evolution of
+carbonic acid gas, which are the two great and conspicuous products of
+fermentation. And finally, in 1787, the Italian chemist, Fabroni, made
+the capital discovery that the yeast ferment, the presence of which
+is necessary to fermentation, is what he termed a "vegeto-animal"
+substance--or is a body which gives off ammoniacal salts when it is
+burned, and is, in other ways, similar to the gluten of plants and the
+albumen and casein of animals.
+
+These discoveries prepared the way for the illustrious Frenchman,
+Lavoisier, who first approached the problem of fermentation with a
+complete conception of the nature of the work to be done. The words
+in which he expresses this conception, in the treatise on elementary
+chemistry to which reference has already been made, mark the year 1789
+as the commencement of a revolution of not less moment in the world of
+science than that which simultaneously burst over the political world,
+and soon engulfed Lavoisier himself in one of its mad eddies.
+
+"We may lay it down as an incontestable axiom that, in all the
+operations of art and nature, nothing is created; an equal quantity
+of matter exists both before and after the experiment: the quality and
+quantity of the elements remain precisely the same, and nothing takes
+place beyond changes and modifications in the combinations of these
+elements. Upon this principle, the whole art of performing chemical
+experiments depends; we must always suppose an exact equality between
+the elements of the body examined and those of the products of its
+analysis.
+
+"Hence, since from must of grapes we procure alcohol and carbonic
+acid, I have an undoubted right to suppose that must consists of
+carbonic acid and alcohol. From these premisses we have two modes
+of ascertaining what passes during vinous fermentation: either
+by determining the nature of, and the elements which compose, the
+fermentable substances; or by accurately examining the products
+resulting from fermentation; and it is evident that the knowledge
+of either of these must lead to accurate conclusions concerning the
+nature and composition of the other. From these considerations it
+became necessary accurately to determine the constituent elements of
+the fermentable substances; and for this purpose I did not make use
+of the compound juices of fruits, the rigorous analysis of which
+is perhaps impossible, but made choice of sugar, which is easily
+analysed, and the nature of which I have already explained. This
+substance is a true vegetable oxyd, with two bases, composed of
+hydrogen and carbon, brought to the state of an oxyd by means of a
+certain proportion of oxygen; and these three elements are combined
+in such a way that a very slight force is sufficient to destroy the
+equilibrium of their connection."
+
+After giving the details of his analysis of sugar and of the products
+of fermentation, Lavoisier continues:--
+
+"The effect of the vinous fermentation upon sugar is thus reduced to
+the mere separation of its elements into two portions; one part is
+oxygenated at the expense of the other, so as to form carbonic acid;
+while the other part, being disoxygenated in favour of the latter, is
+converted into the combustible substance called alkohol; therefore,
+if it were possible to re-unite alkohol and carbonic acid together, we
+ought to form sugar."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "Elements of Chemistry." By M. Lavoisier. Translated by
+Robert Kerr. Second Edition, 1793 (pp. 186--196).]
+
+Thus Lavoisier thought he had demonstrated that the carbonic acid and
+the alcohol which are produced by the process of fermentation, are
+equal in weight to the sugar which disappears; but the application of
+the more refined methods of modern chemistry to the investigation of
+the products of fermentation by Pasteur, in 1860, proved that this is
+not exactly true, and that there is a deficit of from 5 to 7 per cent.
+of the sugar which is not covered by the alcohol and carbonic acid
+evolved. The greater part of this deficit is accounted for by the
+discovery of two substances, glycerine and succinic acid, of the
+existence of which Lavoisier was unaware, in the fermented liquid.
+But about 1-1/2 per cent. still remains to be made good. According to
+Pasteur, it has been appropriated by the yeast, but the fact that such
+appropriation takes place cannot be said to be actually proved.
+
+However this may be, there can be no doubt that the constituent
+elements of fully 98 per cent. of the sugar which has vanished during
+fermentation have simply undergone rearrangement; like the soldiers
+of a brigade, who at the word of command divide themselves into the
+independent regiments to which they belong. The brigade is sugar, the
+regiments are carbonic acid, succinic acid, alcohol, and glycerine.
+
+From the time of Fabroni, onwards, it has been admitted that the agent
+by which this surprising rearrangement of the particles of the sugar
+is effected is the yeast. But the first thoroughly conclusive evidence
+of the necessity of yeast for the fermentation of sugar was furnished
+by Appert, whose method of preserving perishable articles of food
+excited so much attention in France at the beginning of this century.
+Gay-Lussac, in his "Mémoire sur la Fermentation,"[1] alludes to
+Appert's method of preserving beer-wort unfermented for an indefinite
+time, by simply boiling the wort and closing the vessel in which the
+boiling fluid is contained, in such a way as thoroughly to exclude
+air; and he shows that, if a little yeast be introduced into such
+wort, after it has cooled, the wort at once begins to ferment, even
+though every precaution be taken to exclude air. And this statement
+has since received full confirmation from Pasteur.
+
+[Footnote 1: "Annales de Chimie," 1810.]
+
+On the other hand, Schwann, Schroeder and Dusch, and Pasteur, have
+amply proved that air may be allowed to have free access to beer-wort,
+without exciting fermentation, if only efficient precautions are taken
+to prevent the entry of particles of yeast along with the air.
+
+Thus, the truth that the fermentation of a simple solution of sugar in
+water depends upon the presence of yeast, rests upon an unassailable
+foundation; and the inquiry into the exact nature of the substance
+which possesses such a wonderful chemical influence becomes profoundly
+interesting.
+
+The first step towards the solution of this problem was made two
+centuries ago by the patient and painstaking Dutch naturalist,
+Leeuwenhoek, who in the year 1680 wrote thus:--
+
+    "Saepissimo examinavi fermentum cerevisiae, semperque hoc ex
+    globulis per materiam pellucidam fluitantibus, quam cerevisiam
+    esse censui, constare observavi: vidi etiam evidentissime,
+    unumquemque hujus fermenti globulum denuo ex sex distinctis
+    globullis constare, accurate eidem quantitate et formae, cui
+    globulis sanguinis nostri, respondentibus.
+
+    "Verum talis mini de horum origine et formatione conceptus
+    formabam; globulis nempe ex quibus farina Tritici, Hordei,
+    Avenae, Fagotritici, se constat aquae calore dissolvi et aquae
+    commisceri; hac, vero aqua, quam cerevisiam vocare licet,
+    refrigescente, multos ex minimis particulis in cerevisia
+    coadunari, et hoc pacto efficere particulam sive globulum,
+    quae sexta pars est globuli faecis, et iterum sex ex hisce
+    globulis conjungi."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Leeuwenhoek, "Arcana Naturae Detecta." Ed. Nov., 1721.]
+
+Thus Leeuwenhoek discovered that yeast consists of globules floating
+in a fluid; but he thought that they were merely the starchy particles
+of the grain from which the wort was made, re-arranged. He discovered
+the fact that yeast had a definite structure, but not the meaning of
+the fact. A century and a half elapsed, and the investigation of
+yeast was recommenced almost simultaneously by Cagniard de la Tour in
+France, and by Schwann and Kützing in Germany. The French observer
+was the first to publish his results; and the subject received at his
+hands and at those of his colleague, the botanist Turpin, full and
+satisfactory investigation.
+
+The main conclusions at which they arrived are these. The globular,
+or oval, corpuscles which float so thickly in the yeast as to make it
+muddy, though the largest are not more than one two-thousandth of
+an inch in diameter, and the smallest may measure less than one
+seven-thousandth of an inch, are living organisms. They multiply with
+great rapidity, by giving off minute buds, which soon attain the size
+of their parent, and then either become detached or remain united,
+forming the compound globules of which Leeuwenhoek speaks, though the
+constancy of their arrangement in sixes existed only in the worthy
+Dutchman's imagination.
+
+It was very soon made out that these yeast organisms, to which Turpin
+gave the name of _Torula cerevisiae_, were more nearly allied to the
+lower Fungi than to anything else. Indeed Turpin, and subsequently
+Berkeley and Hoffmann, believed that they had traced the development
+of the _Torula_ into the well-known and very common mould--the
+_Penicillium glaucum_. Other observers have not succeeded in verifying
+these statements; and my own observations lead me to believe, that
+while the connection between _Torula_ and the moulds is a very close
+one, it is of a different nature from that which has been supposed. I
+have never been able to trace the development of _Torula_ into a true
+mould; but it is quite easy to prove that species of true mould,
+such as _Penicillium_, when sown in an appropriate nidus, such as
+a solution of tartrate of ammonia and yeast-ash, in water, with or
+without sugar, give rise to _Torulae_, similar in all respects to _T.
+cerevisiae_, except that they are, on the average, smaller. Moreover,
+Bail has observed the development of a _Torula_ larger than _T.
+cerevisiae_, from a _Mucor_, a mould allied to _Penicillium_.
+
+It follows, therefore, that the _Torulae_, or organisms of yeast,
+are veritable plants; and conclusive experiments have proved that the
+power which causes the rearrangement of the molecules of the sugar is
+intimately connected with the life and growth of the plant. In fact,
+whatever arrests the vital activity of the plant also prevents it from
+exciting fermentation.
+
+Such being the facts with regard to the nature of yeast, and the
+changes which it effects in sugar, how are they to be accounted for?
+Before modern chemistry had come into existence, Stahl, stumbling,
+with the stride of genius, upon the conception which lies at the
+bottom of all modern views of the process, put forward the notion that
+the ferment, being in a state of internal motion, communicated
+that motion to the sugar, and thus caused its resolution into new
+substances. And Lavoisier, as we have seen, adopts substantially the
+same view, (But Fabroni, full of the then novel conception of acids
+and bases and double decompositions, propounded the hypothesis that
+sugar is an oxide with two bases, and the ferment a carbonate with two
+bases; that the carbon of the ferment unites with the oxygen of the
+sugar, and gives rise to carbonic acid; while the sugar, uniting with
+the nitrogen of the ferment, produces a new substance analogous to
+opium. This is decomposed by distillation, and gives rise to alcohol.)
+Next, in 1803, Thénard propounded a hypothesis which partakes somewhat
+of the nature of both Stahl's and Fabroni's views. "I do not believe
+with Lavoisier," he says, "that all the carbonic acid formed proceeds
+from the sugar. How, in that case, could we conceive the action of the
+ferment on it? I think that the first portions of the acid are due
+to a combination of the carbon of the ferment with the oxygen of the
+sugar, and that it is by carrying off a portion of oxygen from
+the last that the ferment causes the fermentation to commence--the
+equilibrium between the principles of the sugar being disturbed, they
+combine afresh to form carbonic acid and alcohol."
+
+The three views here before us may be familiarly exemplified by
+supposing the sugar to be a card-house. According to Stahl, the
+ferment is somebody who knocks the table, and shakes the card-house
+down; according to Fabroni, the ferment takes out some cards, but puts
+others in their places; according to Thénard, the ferment simply takes
+a card out of the bottom story, the result of which is that all the
+others fall.
+
+As chemistry advanced, facts came to light which put a new face upon
+Stahl's hypothesis, and gave it a safer foundation than it previously
+possessed. The general nature of these phenomena may be thus
+stated:--A body, A, without giving to, or taking from, another
+body, B, any material particles, causes B to decompose into other
+substances, C, D, E, the sum of the weights of which is equal to the
+weight of B, which decomposes.
+
+Thus, bitter almonds contain two substances, amygdalin and synaptase,
+which can be extracted, in a separate state, from the bitter almonds.
+The amygdalin thus obtained, if dissolved in water, undergoes no
+change; but if a little synaptase be added to the solution, the
+amygdalin splits up into bitter almond oil, prussic acid, and a kind
+of sugar.
+
+A short time after Cagniard de la Tour discovered the yeast plant,
+Liebig, struck with the similarity between this and other such
+processes and the fermentation of sugar, put forward the hypothesis
+that yeast contains a substance which acts upon sugar, as synaptase
+acts upon amygdalin. And as the synaptase is certainly neither
+organized nor alive, but a mere chemical substance, Liebig treated
+Cagniard de la Tour's discovery with no small contempt, and, from
+that time to the present, has steadily repudiated the notion that the
+decomposition of the sugar is, in any sense, the result of the vital
+activity of the _Torula_. But, though the notion that the _Torula_ is
+a creature which eats sugar and excretes carbonic acid and alcohol,
+which is not unjustly ridiculed in the most surprising paper that
+ever made its appearance in a grave scientific journal[1], may be
+untenable, the fact that the _Torulae_ are alive, and that yeast does
+not excite fermentation unless it contains living _Torulae_, stands
+fast. Moreover, of late years, the essential participation of living
+organisms in fermentation other than the alcoholic, has been clearly
+made out by Pasteur and other chemists.
+
+[Footnote 1: "Das enträthselte Geheimniss der geistigen Gährung
+(Vorläufige briefliche Mittheilung)" is the title of an anonymous
+contribution, to Wöhler and Liebig's "Annalen der Pharmacie" for
+1839, in which a somewhat Rabelaisian imaginary description of the
+organization of the "yeast animals" and of the manner in which their
+functions are performed, is given with a circumstantiality worthy
+of the author of Gulliver's Travels. As a specimen of the writer's
+humour, his account of what happens when fermentation comes to an end
+may suffice. "Sobald nämlich die Thiere keinen Zucker mehr vorfinden,
+so fressen sie sich gegenseitig selbst auf, was durch eine eigene
+Manipulation geschicht; alles wird verdaut bis auf die Eier, welche
+unverändert durch den Darmkanal hineingehen; man hat zuletzt wieder
+gährungsfähige Hefe, nämlich den Saamen der Thiere, der übrig
+bleibt."]
+
+However, it may be asked, is there any necessary opposition between
+the so-called "vital" and the strictly physico-chemical views of
+fermentation? It is quite possible that the living _Torula_ may excite
+fermentation in sugar, because it constantly produces, as an essential
+part of its vital manifestations, some substance which acts upon the
+sugar, just as the synaptase acts upon the amygdalin. Or it may
+be, that, without the formation of any such special substance,
+the physical condition of the living tissue of the yeast plant is
+sufficient to effect that small disturbance of the equilibrium of the
+particles of the sugar, which Lavoisier thought sufficient to effect
+its decomposition.
+
+Platinum in a very fine state of division--known as platinum black, or
+_noir de platine_--has the very singular property of causing alcohol
+to change into acetic acid with great rapidity. The vinegar plant,
+which is closely allied to the yeast plant, has a similar effect upon
+dilute alcohol, causing it to absorb the oxygen of the air, and become
+converted into vinegar; and Liebig's eminent opponent, Pasteur, who
+has done so much for the theory and the practice of vinegar-making,
+himself suggests that in this case--
+
+    "La cause du phénomène physique qui accompagne la vie de la
+    plante réside dans un état physique propre, analogue à celui
+    du noir de platine. Mais il est essentiel de remarquer que cet
+    état physique de la plante est étroitement lié avec la vie de
+    cette plante."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "Etudes sur les Mycodermes," Comptes-Rendus, liv., 1862.]
+
+Now, if the vinegar plant gives rise to the oxidation of alcohol,
+on account of its merely physical constitution, it is at any rate
+possible that the physical constitution of the yeast plant may exert a
+decomposing influence on sugar.
+
+But, without presuming to discuss a question which leads us into the
+very arcana of chemistry, the present state of speculation upon the
+_modus operandi_ of the yeast plant in producing fermentation is
+represented, on the one hand, by the Stahlian doctrine, supported by
+Liebig, according to which the atoms of the sugar are shaken into new
+combinations, either directly by the _Torulae_, or indirectly, by some
+substance formed by them; and, on the other hand, by the Thénardian
+doctrine, supported by Pasteur, according to which the yeast plant
+assimilates part of the sugar, and, in so doing, disturbs the rest,
+and determines its resolution into the products of fermentation.
+Perhaps the two views are not so much opposed as they seem at first
+sight to be.
+
+
+But the interest which attaches to the influence of the yeast plants
+upon the medium in which they live and grow does not arise solely
+from its bearing upon the theory of fermentation. So long ago as 1838,
+Turpin compared the _Torulae_ to the ultimate elements of the tissues
+of animals and plants--"Les organes élémentaires de leurs tissus,
+comparables aux petits végétaux des levures ordinaires, sont aussi les
+décompositeurs des substances qui les environnent."
+
+Almost at the same time, and, probably, equally guided by his study of
+yeast, Schwann was engaged in those remarkable investigations into
+the form and development of the ultimate structural elements of the
+tissues of animals, which led him to recognize their fundamental
+identity with the ultimate structural elements of vegetable organisms.
+
+The yeast plant is a mere sac, or "cell," containing a semi-fluid
+matter, and Schwann's microscopic analysis resolved all living
+organisms, in the long run, into an aggregation of such sacs or cells,
+variously modified; and tended to show, that all, whatever their
+ultimate complication, begin their existence in the condition of such
+simple cells.
+
+In his famous "Mikroskopische Untersuchungen," Schwann speaks of
+_Torula_ as a "cell;" and, in a remarkable note to the passage in
+which he refers to the yeast plant, Schwann says:--
+
+    "I have been unable to avoid mentioning fermentation, because
+    it is the most fully and exactly known operation of cells,
+    and represents, in the simplest fashion, the process which is
+    repeated by every cell of the living body."
+
+In other words, Schwann conceives that every cell of the living body
+exerts an influence on the matter which surrounds and permeates it,
+analogous to that which a _Torula_ exerts on the saccharine solution
+by which it is bathed. A wonderfully suggestive thought, opening up
+views of the nature of the chemical processes of the living body,
+which have hardly yet received all the development of which they are
+capable.
+
+Kant defined the special peculiarity of the living body to be that the
+parts exist for the sake of the whole and the whole for the sake of
+the parts. But when Turpin and Schwann resolved the living body into
+an aggregation of quasi-independent cells, each, like a _Torula_,
+leading its own life and having its own laws of growth and
+development, the aggregation being dominated and kept working towards
+a definite end only by a certain harmony among these units, or by the
+superaddition of a controlling apparatus, such as a nervous system,
+this conception ceased to be tenable. The cell lives for its own sake,
+as well as for the sake of the whole organism; and the cells, which
+float in the blood, live at its expense, and profoundly modify it, are
+almost as much independent organisms as the _Torulae_ which float in
+beer-wort.
+
+Schwann burdened his enunciation of the "cell theory" with two false
+suppositions; the one, that the structures he called "nucleus" and
+"cell-wall" are essential to a cell; the other, that cells are usually
+formed independently of other cells; but, in 1839, it was a vast and
+clear gain to arrive at the conception, that the vital functions of
+all the higher animals and plants are the resultant of the forces
+inherent in the innumerable minute cells of which they are composed,
+and that each of them is, itself, an equivalent of one of the lowest
+and simplest of independent living beings--the _Torula._
+
+From purely morphological investigations, Turpin and Schwann, as we
+have seen, arrived at the notion of the fundamental unity of structure
+of living beings. And, before long, the researches of chemists
+gradually led up to the conception of the fundamental unity of their
+composition.
+
+So far back as 1803, Thénard pointed out, in most distinct terms, the
+important fact that yeast contains a nitrogenous "animal" substance;
+and that such a substance is contained in all ferments. Before him,
+Fabroni and Fourcroy speak of the "vegeto-animal" matter of yeast.
+In 1844 Mulder endeavoured to demonstrate that a peculiar substance,
+which he called "protein," was essentially characteristic of living
+matter. In 1846, Payen writes:--
+
+    "Enfin, une loi sans exception me semble apparaître dans les
+    faits nombreux que j'ai observés et conduire à envisager sous
+    un nouveau jour la vie végétale; si je ne m'abuse, tout ce
+    que dans les tissus végétaux la vue directe où amplifiée nous
+    permet de discerner sous la forme de cellules et de vaisseaux,
+    ne représente autre chose que les enveloppes protectrices,
+    les réservoirs et les conduits, à l'aide desquels les corps
+    animés qui les secrètent et les façonnent, se logent, puisent
+    et charriant leurs aliments, déposent et isolent les matières
+    excrétées."
+
+And again:--
+
+    "A fin de complêter aujourd'hui l'énoncé du fait général, je
+    rappellerai que les corps, doué des fonctions accomplies
+    dans les tissus des plantes, sont formés des éléments qui
+    constituent, en proportion peu variable, les organismes
+    animaux; qu'ainsi l'on est conduit à reconnaître une immense
+    unité de composition élémentaire dans tous les corps vivants
+    de la nature."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "Mém. sur les Développements des Végétaux," &c.--"Mém.
+Présentées." ix. 1846.]
+
+In the year (1846) in which these remarkable passages were published,
+the eminent German botanist, Von Mohl, invented the word "protoplasm,"
+as a name for one portion of those nitrogenous contents of the cells
+of living plants, the close chemical resemblance of which to the
+essential constituents of living animals is so strongly indicated by
+Payen. And through the twenty-five years that have passed, since the
+matter of life was first called protoplasm, a host of investigators,
+among whom Cohn, Max Schulze, and Kühne must be named as leaders, have
+accumulated evidence, morphological, physiological, and chemical, in
+favour of that "immense unité de composition élémentaire dans tous les
+corps vivants de la nature," into which Payen had, so early, a clear
+insight.
+
+As far back as 1850, Cohn wrote, apparently without any knowledge of
+what Payen had said before him:--
+
+    "The protoplasm of the botanist, and the contractile substance
+    and sarcode of the zoologist, must be, if not identical, yet
+    in a high degree analogous substances. Hence, from this point
+    of view, the difference between animals and plants consists
+    in this; that, in the latter, the contractile substance, as
+    a primordial utricle, is enclosed within an inert cellulose
+    membrane, which permits it only to exhibit an internal motion,
+    expressed by the phenomena of rotation and circulation, while,
+    in the former, it is not so enclosed. The protoplasm in the
+    form of the primordial utricle is, as it were, the animal
+    element in the plant, but which is imprisoned, and only
+    becomes free in the animal; _or_, to strip off the metaphor
+    which obscures simple thought, the energy of organic vitality
+    which is manifested in movement is especially exhibited by a
+    nitrogenous contractile substance, which in plants is limited
+    and fettered by an inert membrane, in animals not so."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Cohn, "Ueber Protococcus pluvialis," in the "Nova Acta"
+for 1850.]
+
+In 1868, thinking that an untechnical statement of the views current
+among the leaders of biological science might be interesting to the
+general public, I gave a lecture embodying them in Edinburgh. Those
+who have not made the mistake of attempting to approach biology,
+either by the high _à priori_ road of mere philosophical speculation,
+or by the mere low _à posteriori_ lane offered by the tube of a
+microscope, but have taken the trouble to become acquainted with
+well-ascertained facts and with their history, will not need to be
+told that in what I had to say "as regards protoplasm" in my lecture
+"On the Physical Basis of Life," there was nothing new; and, as I
+hope, nothing that the present state of knowledge does not justify us
+in believing to be true. Under these circumstances, my surprise may be
+imagined, when I found, that the mere statement of facts and of views,
+long familiar to me as part of the common scientific property of
+continental workers, raised a sort of storm in this country, not only
+by exciting the wrath of unscientific persons whose pet prejudices
+they seemed to touch, but by giving rise to quite superfluous
+explosions on the part of some who should have been better informed.
+
+Dr. Stirling, for example, made my essay the subject of a special
+critical lecture[1], which I have read with much interest, though, I
+confess, the meaning of much of it remains as dark to me as does the
+"Secret of Hegel" after Dr. Stirling's elaborate revelation of it.
+Dr. Stirling's method of dealing with the subject is peculiar.
+"Protoplasm" is a question of history, so far as it is a name; of
+fact, so far as it is a thing. Dr. Stirling has not taken the trouble
+to refer to the original authorities for his history, which is
+consequently a travesty; and still less has he concerned himself with
+looking at the facts, but contents himself with taking them also at
+secondhand. A most amusing example of this fashion of dealing with
+scientific statements is furnished by Dr. Stirling's remarks upon my
+account of the protoplasm of the nettle hair. That account was drawn
+up from careful and often-repeated observation of the facts. Dr.
+Stirling thinks he is offering a valid criticism, when he says that my
+valued friend Professor Stricker gives a somewhat different statement
+about protoplasm. But why in the world did not this distinguished
+Hegelian look at a nettle hair for himself, before venturing to
+speak about the matter at all? Why trouble himself about what either
+Stricker or I say, when any tyro can see the facts for himself, if he
+is provided with those not rare articles, a nettle and a microscope?
+But I suppose this would have been "_Aufklärung_"--a recurrence to the
+base common-sense philosophy of the eighteenth century, which liked
+to see before it believed, and to understand before it criticised. Dr.
+Stirling winds up his paper with the following paragraph:--
+
+[Footnote 1: Subsequently published under the title of "As regards
+Protoplasm."]
+
+    "In short, the whole position of Mr. Huxley, (1) that all
+    organisms consist alike of the same life-matter, (2) which
+    life-matter is, for its part, due only to chemistry, must be
+    pronounced untenable--nor less untenable (3) the materialism
+    he would found on it."
+
+The paragraph contains three distinct assertions concerning my views,
+and just the same number of utter misrepresentations of them. That
+which I have numbered (1) turns on the ambiguity of the word "same,"
+for a discussion of which I would refer Dr. Stirling to a great hero
+of "_Aufklärung_", Archbishop Whately; statement number (2) is, in my
+judgment, absurd, and certainly I have never said anything resembling
+it; while, as to number (3), one great object of my essay was to show
+that what is called "materialism," has no sound philosophical basis!
+
+As we have seen, the study of yeast has led investigators face to face
+with problems of immense interest in pure chemistry, and in animal and
+vegetable morphology. Its physiology is not less rich in subjects for
+inquiry. Take, for example, the singular fact that yeast will increase
+indefinitely when grown in the dark, in water containing only tartrate
+of ammonia, a small percentage of mineral salts, and sugar. Out of
+these materials the _Torulae_ will manufacture nitrogenous protoplasm,
+cellulose, and fatty matters, in any quantity, although they are
+wholly deprived of those rays of the sun, the influence of which is
+essential to the growth of ordinary plants. There has been a great
+deal of speculation lately, as to how the living organisms buried
+beneath two or three thousand fathoms of water, and therefore in all
+probability almost deprived of light, live.
+
+If any of them possess the same powers as yeast (and the same capacity
+for living without light is exhibited by some other fungi) there would
+seem to be no difficulty about the matter.
+
+Of the pathological bearings of the study of yeast, and other such
+organisms, I have spoken elsewhere. It is certain that, in
+some animals, devastating epidemics are caused by fungi of low
+order--similar to those of which _Torula_ is a sort of offshoot. It is
+certain that such diseases are propagated by contagion and infection,
+in just the same way as ordinary contagious and infectious diseases
+are propagated. Of course, it does not follow from this, that all
+contagious and infectious diseases are caused by organisms of as
+definite and independent a character as the _Torula_; but, I think,
+it does follow that it is prudent and wise to satisfy oneself in each
+particular case, that the "germ theory" cannot and will not explain
+the facts, before having recourse to hypotheses which have no equal
+support from analogy.
+
+
+
+
+V.
+
+ON THE FORMATION OF COAL.
+
+
+The lumps of coal in a coal-scuttle very often have a roughly cubical
+form. If one of them be picked out and examined with a little care, it
+will be found that its six sides are not exactly alike. Two opposite
+sides are comparatively smooth and shining, while the other four are
+much rougher, and are marked by lines which run parallel with the
+smooth sides. The coal readily splits along these lines, and the split
+surfaces thus formed are parallel with the smooth faces. In other
+words, there is a sort of rough and incomplete stratification in the
+lump of coal, as if it were a book, the leaves of which had stuck
+together very closely.
+
+Sometimes the faces along which the coal splits are not smooth, but
+exhibit a thin layer of dull, charred-looking substance, which is
+known as "mineral charcoal."
+
+Occasionally one of the faces of a lump of coal will present
+impressions, which are obviously those of the stem, or leaves, of a
+plant; but though hard mineral masses of pyrites, and even fine mud,
+may occur here and there, neither sand nor pebbles are met with.
+
+When the coal burns, the chief ultimate products of its combustion
+are carbonic acid, water, and ammoniacal products, which escape up the
+chimney; and a greater or less amount of residual earthy salts, which
+take the form of ash. These products are, to a great extent, such as
+would result from the burning of so much wood.
+
+These properties of coal may be made out without any very refined
+appliances, but the microscope reveals something more. Black and
+opaque as ordinary coal is, slices of it become transparent if they
+are cemented in Canada balsam, and rubbed down very thin, in the
+ordinary way of making thin sections of non-transparent bodies. But
+as the thin slices, made in this way, are very apt to crack and break
+into fragments, it is better to employ marine glue as the cementing
+material. By the use of this substance, slices of considerable size
+and of extreme thinness and transparency may be obtained.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: My assistant in the Museum of Practical Geology, Mr.
+Newton, invented this excellent method of obtaining thin slices of
+coal.]
+
+Now let us suppose two such slices to be prepared from our lump of
+coal--one parallel with the bedding, the other perpendicular to it;
+and let us call the one the horizontal, and the other the vertical,
+section. The horizontal section will present more or less rounded
+yellow patches and streaks, scattered irregularly through the dark
+brown, or blackish, ground substance; while the vertical section will
+exhibit more elongated bars and granules of the same yellow materials,
+disposed in lines which correspond, roughly, with the general
+direction of the bedding of the coal.
+
+This is the microscopic structure of an ordinary piece of coal. But if
+a great series of coals, from different localities and seams, or even
+from different parts of the same seam, be examined, this structure
+will be found to vary in two directions. In the anthracitic, or
+stone-coals, which burn like coke, the yellow matter diminishes, and
+the ground substance becomes more predominant, and blacker, and more
+opaque, until it becomes impossible to grind a section thin enough to
+be translucent; while, on the other hand, in such as the "Better-Bed"
+coal of the neighbourhood of Bradford, which burns with much flame,
+the coal is of a far lighter colour, and transparent sections are very
+easily obtained. In the browner parts of this coal, sharp eyes will
+readily detect multitudes of curious little coin-shaped bodies, of a
+yellowish brown colour, embedded in the dark brown ground substance.
+On the average, these little brown bodies may have a diameter of about
+one-twentieth of an inch. They lie with their flat surfaces nearly
+parallel with the two smooth faces of the block in which they are
+contained; and, on one side of each, there may be discerned a figure,
+consisting of three straight linear marks, which radiate from the
+centre of the disk, but do not quite reach its circumference. In the
+horizontal section these disks are often converted into more or less
+complete rings; while in the vertical sections they appear like thick
+hoops, the sides of which have been pressed together. The disks are,
+therefore, flattened bags; and favourable sections show that the
+three-rayed marking is the expression of three clefts, which penetrate
+one wall of the bag.
+
+The sides of the bags are sometimes closely approximated; but, when
+the bags are less flattened, their cavities are, usually, filled with
+numerous, irregularly rounded, hollow bodies, having the same kind of
+wall as the large ones, but not more than one seven-hundredth of an
+inch in diameter.
+
+In favourable specimens, again, almost the whole ground substance
+appears to be made up of similar bodies--more or less carbonized
+or blackened--and, in these, there can be no doubt that, with the
+exception of patches of mineral charcoal, here and there, the whole
+mass of the coal is made up of an accumulation of the larger and of
+the smaller sacs.
+
+But, in one and the same slice, every transition can be observed from
+this structure to that which has been described as characteristic of
+ordinary coal. The latter appears to rise out of the former, by the
+breaking-up and increasing carbonization of the larger and the smaller
+sacs. And, in the anthracitic coals, this process appears to have gone
+to such a length, as to destroy the original structure altogether, and
+to replace it by a completely carbonized substance.
+
+Thus coal may be said, speaking broadly, to be composed of two
+constituents: firstly, mineral charcoal; and, secondly, coal proper.
+The nature of the mineral charcoal has long since been determined. Its
+structure shows it to consist of the remains of the stems and leaves
+of plants, reduced to little more than their carbon. Again, some of
+the coal is made up of the crushed and flattened bark, or outer coat,
+of the stems of plants, the inner wood of which has completely decayed
+away. But what I may term the "saccular matter" of the coal, which,
+either in its primary or in its degraded form, constitutes by far the
+greater part of all the bituminous coals I have examined, is certainly
+not mineral charcoal; nor is its structure that of any stem or leaf.
+Hence its real nature is, at first, by no means apparent, and has been
+the subject of much discussion.
+
+The first person who threw any light upon the problem, as far as I
+have been able to discover, was the well-known geologist, Professor
+Morris. It is now thirty-four years since he carefully described and
+figured the coin-shaped bodies, or larger sacs, as I have called
+them, in a note appended to the famous paper "On the Coal-brookdale
+Coal-Field," published at that time, by the present President of
+the Geological Society, Mr. Prestwich. With much sagacity, Professor
+Morris divined the real nature of these bodies, and boldly
+affirmed them to be the spore-cases of a plant allied to the living
+club-mosses.
+
+But discovery sometimes makes a long halt; and it is only a few
+years since Mr. Carruthers determined the plant (or rather one of the
+plants) which produces these spore-cases, by finding the discoidal
+sacs still adherent to the leaves of the fossilized cone which
+produced them. He gave the name of _Flemingites gracilis_ to the plant
+of which the cones form a part. The branches and stem of this plant
+are not yet certainly known, but there is no sort of doubt that it was
+closely allied to the _Lepidodendron_, the remains of which abound in
+the coal formation. The _Lepidodendra_ were shrubs and trees which put
+one more in mind of an _Araucaria_ than of any other familiar plant;
+and the ends of the fruiting branches were terminated by cones, or
+catkins, somewhat like the bodies so named in a fir, or a willow.
+These conical fruits, however, did not produce seeds; but the leaves
+of which they were composed bore upon their surfaces sacs full of
+spores or sporangia, such as those one sees on the under surface of a
+bracken leaf. Now, it is these sporangia of the Lepidodendroid plant
+_Flemingites_ which were identified by Mr. Carruthers with the free
+sporangia described by Professor Morris, which are the same as the
+large sacs of which I have spoken. And, more than this, there is
+no doubt that the small sacs are the spores, which were originally
+contained in the sporangia.
+
+The living club-mosses are, for the most part, insignificant and
+creeping herbs, which, superficially, very closely resemble true
+mosses, and none of them reach more than two or three feet in height.
+But, in their essential structure, they very closely resemble the
+earliest Lepidodendroid trees of the coal: their stems and leaves are
+similar; so are their cones; and no less like are the sporangia and
+spores; while even in their size, the spores of the _Lepidodendron_
+and those of the existing _Lycopodium_, or club-moss, very closely
+approach one another.
+
+Thus, the singular conclusion is forced upon us, that the greater and
+the smaller sacs of the "Better-Bed" and other coals, in which the
+primitive structure is well preserved, are simply the sporangia and
+spores of certain plants, many of which were closely allied to the
+existing club-mosses. And if, as I believe, it can be demonstrated
+that ordinary coal is nothing but "saccular" coal which has undergone
+a certain amount of that alteration which, if continued, would convert
+it into anthracite; then, the conclusion is obvious, that the great
+mass of the coal we burn is the result of the accumulation of the
+spores and spore-cases of plants, other parts of which have furnished
+the carbonized stems and the mineral charcoal, or have left their
+impressions on the surfaces of the layer.
+
+Of the multitudinous speculations which, at various times, have been
+entertained respecting the origin and mode of formation of coal,
+several appear to be negatived, and put out of court, by the
+structural facts the significance of which I have endeavoured to
+explain. These facts, for example, do not permit us to suppose that
+coal is an accumulation of peaty matter, as some have held.
+
+Again, the late Professor Quekett was one of the first observers
+who gave a correct description of what I have termed the "saccular"
+structure of coal; and, rightly perceiving that this structure was
+something quite different from that of any known plant, he imagined
+that it proceeded from some extinct vegetable organism which was
+peculiarly abundant amongst the coal-forming plants. But this
+explanation is at once shown to be untenable when the smaller and the
+larger sacs are proved to be spores or sporangia.
+
+Some, once more, have imagined that coal was of submarine origin; and
+though the notion is amply and easily refuted by other considerations,
+it may be worth while to remark, that it is impossible to comprehend
+how a mass of light and resinous spores should have reached the bottom
+of the sea, or should have stopped in that position if they had got
+there.
+
+At the same time, it is proper to remark that I do not presume to
+suggest that all coal must needs have the same structure; or that
+there may not be coals in which the proportions of wood and spores, or
+spore-cases, are very different from those which I have examined. All
+I repeat is, that none of the coals which have come under my notice
+have enabled me to observe such a difference. But, according to
+Principal Dawson, who has so sedulously examined the fossil remains of
+plants in North America, it is otherwise with the vast accumulations
+of coal in that country.
+
+    "The true coal," says Dr. Dawson, "consists principally of
+    the flattened bark of Sigillarioid and other trees, intermixed
+    with leaves of Ferns and _Cordaites_, and other herbaceous
+    _débris_, and with fragments of decayed wood, constituting
+    'mineral charcoal,' all these materials having manifestly
+    alike grown and accumulated where we find them."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "Acadian Geology," 2nd edition, p. 138.]
+
+When I had the pleasure of seeing Principal Dawson in London last
+summer, I showed him my sections of coal, and begged him to re-examine
+some of the American coals on his return to Canada, with an eye to the
+presence of spores and sporangia, such as I was able to show him in
+our English and Scotch coals. He has been good enough to do so; and in
+a letter dated September 26th, 1870, he informs me that--
+
+    "Indications of spore-cases are rare, except in certain coarse
+    shaly coals and portions of coals, and in the roofs of the
+    seams. The most marked case I have yet met with is the shaly
+    coal referred to as containing _Sporangites_ in my paper
+    on the conditions of accumulation of coal (_Journal of the
+    Geological Society_, vol. xxii. pp. 115, 139, and 165). The
+    purer coals certainly consist principally of cubical tissues
+    with some true woody matter, and the spore-cases, &c.,
+    are chiefly in the coarse and shaly layers. This is my old
+    doctrine in my two papers in the _Journal of the Geological
+    Society_, and I see nothing to modify it. Your observations,
+    however, make it probable that the frequent _clear spots_ in
+    the cannels are spore-cases."
+
+Dr. Dawson's results are the more remarkable, as the numerous
+specimens of British coal, from various localities, which I have
+examined, tell one tale as to the predominance of the spore and
+sporangium element in their composition; and as it is exactly in the
+finest and purest coals, such as the "Better-Bed" coal of Lowmoor,
+that the spores and sporangia obviously constitute almost the entire
+mass of the deposit.
+
+Coal, such as that which has been described, is always found in
+sheets, or "seams," varying from a fraction of an inch to many feet
+in thickness, enclosed in the substance of the earth at very various
+depths, between beds of rock of different kinds. As a rule, every seam
+of coal rests upon a thicker, or thinner, bed of clay, which is known
+as "under-clay." These alternations of beds of coal, clay, and rock
+may be repeated many times, and are known as the "coal-measures;"
+and in some regions, as in South Wales and in Nova Scotia, the
+coal-measures attain a thickness of twelve or fourteen thousand
+feet, and enclose eighty or a hundred seams of coal, each with its
+under-clay, and separated from those above and below by beds of
+sandstone and shale.
+
+The position of the beds which constitute the coal-measures is
+infinitely diverse. Sometimes they are tilted up vertically, sometimes
+they are horizontal, sometimes curved into great basins; sometimes
+they come to the surface, sometimes they are covered up by thousands
+of feet of rock. But, whatever their present position, there is
+abundant and conclusive evidence that every under-clay was once a
+surface soil. Not only do carbonized root-fibres frequently abound in
+these under-clays; but the stools of trees, the trunks of which are
+broken off and confounded with the bed of coal, have been repeatedly
+found passing into radiating roots, still embedded in the under-clay.
+On many parts of the coast of England, what are commonly known as
+"submarine forests" are to be seen at low water. They consist, for the
+most part, of short stools of oak, beech, and fir trees, still fixed
+by their long roots in the bed of blue clay in which they originally
+grew. If one of these submarine forest beds should be gradually
+depressed and covered up by new deposits, it would present just the
+same characters as an under-clay of the coal, if the _Sigillaria_ and
+_Lepidodendron_ of the ancient world were substituted for the oak, or
+the beech, of our own times.
+
+In a tropical forest, at the present day, the trunks of fallen trees,
+and the stools of such trees as may have been broken by the violence
+of storms, remain entire for but a short time. Contrary to what might
+be expected, the dense wood of the tree decays, and suffers from the
+ravages of insects, more swiftly than the bark. And the traveller,
+setting his foot on a prostrate trunk, finds that it is a mere shell,
+which breaks under his weight, and lands his foot amidst the insects,
+or the reptiles, which have sought food or refuge within.
+
+The trees of the coal forests present parallel conditions. When the
+fallen trunks which have entered into the composition of the bed of
+coal are identifiable, they are mere double shells of bark, flattened
+together in consequence of the destruction of the woody core; and Sir
+Charles Lyell and Principal Dawson discovered, in the hollow stools
+of coal trees of Nova Scotia, the remains of snails, millipedes,
+and salamander-like creatures, embedded in a deposit of a different
+character from that which surrounded the exterior of the trees. Thus,
+in endeavouring to comprehend the formation of a seam of coal, we must
+try to picture to ourselves a thick forest, formed for the most part
+of trees like gigantic club-mosses, mares-tails, and tree ferns, with
+here and there some that had more resemblance to our existing yews and
+fir-trees. We must suppose that, as the seasons rolled by, the plants
+grew and developed their spores and seeds; that they shed these in
+enormous quantities, which accumulated on the ground beneath; and
+that, every now and then, they added a dead frond or leaf; or, at
+longer intervals, a rotten branch, or a dead trunk, to the mass.
+
+A certain proportion of the spores and seeds no doubt fulfilled their
+obvious function, and, carried by the wind to unoccupied regions,
+extended the limits of the forest; many might be washed away by rain
+into streams, and be lost; but a large portion must have remained, to
+accumulate like beech-mast, or acorns, beneath the trees of a modern
+forest.
+
+But, in this case, it may be asked, why does not our English coal
+consist of stems and leaves to a much greater extent than it does?
+What is the reason of the predominance of the spores and spore-cases
+in it?
+
+A ready answer to this question is afforded by the study of a living
+full-grown club-moss. Shake it upon a piece of paper, and it emits a
+cloud of fine dust, which falls over the paper, and is the well-known
+Lycopodium powder. Now this powder used to be, and I believe still
+is, employed for two objects, which seem at first sight to have no
+particular connection with one another. It is, or was, employed in
+making lightning, and in making pills. The coats of the spores contain
+so much resinous matter, that a pinch of Lycopodium powder, thrown
+through the flame of a candle, burns with an instantaneous flash,
+which has long done duty for lightning on the stage. And the same
+character makes it a capital coating for pills; for the resinous
+powder prevents the drug from being wetted by the saliva, and thus
+bars the nauseous flavour from the sensitive papillae of the tongue.
+
+But this resinous matter, which lies in the walls of the spores and
+sporangia, is a substance not easily altered by air and water,
+and hence tends to preserve these bodies, just as the bituminized
+cerecloth preserves an Egyptian mummy; while, on the other hand, the
+merely woody stem and leaves tend to rot, as fast as the wood of the
+mummy's coffin has rotted. Thus the mixed heap of spores, leaves,
+and stems in the coal-forest would be persistently searched by the
+long-continued action of air and rain; the leaves and stems would
+gradually be reduced to little but their carbon, or, in other words,
+to the condition of mineral charcoal in which we find them; while the
+spores and sporangia remained as a comparatively unaltered and compact
+residuum.
+
+There is, indeed, tolerably clear evidence that the coal must, under
+some circumstances, have been converted into a substance hard enough
+to be rolled into pebbles, while it yet lay at the surface of the
+earth; for in some seams of coal, the courses of rivulets, which must
+have been living water, while the stratum in which their remains are
+found was still at the surface, have been observed to contain rolled
+pebbles of the very coal through which the stream has cut its way.
+
+The structural facts are such as to leave no alternative but to adopt
+the view of the origin of such coal as I have described, which has
+just been stated; but, happily, the process is not without analogy at
+the present day. I possess a specimen of what is called "white coal"
+from Australia. It is an inflammable material, burning with a bright
+flame, and having much the consistence and appearance of oat-cake,
+which, I am informed, covers a considerable area. It consists, almost
+entirely, of a compacted mass of spores and spore-cases. But the fine
+particles of blown sand which are scattered through it, show that it
+must have accumulated, subaërially, upon the surface of a soil covered
+by a forest of cryptogamous plants, probably tree-ferns.
+
+As regards this important point of the subaërial region of coal, I am
+glad to find myself in entire accordance with Principal Dawson,
+who bases his conclusions upon other, but no less forcible,
+considerations. In a passage, which is the continuation of that
+already cited, he writes:--
+
+    "(3) The microscopical structure and chemical composition of
+    the beds of cannel coal and earthy bitumen, and of the more
+    highly bituminous and carbonaeceous shale, show them to have
+    been of the nature of the fine vegetable mud which accumulates
+    in the ponds and shallow lakes of modern swamps. When such
+    fine vegetable sediment is mixed, as is often the case, with
+    clay, it becomes similar to the bituminous limestone and
+    calcareo-bituminous shales of the coal-measures. (4) A few of
+    the under-clays, which support beds of coal, are of the nature
+    of the vegetable mud above referred to; but the greater part
+    are argillo-arenaceous in composition, with little vegetable
+    matter, and bleached by the drainage from them of water
+    containing the products of vegetable decay. They are, in
+    short, loamy or clay soils, and must have been sufficiently
+    above water to admit of drainage. The absence of sulphurets,
+    and the occurrence of carbonate of iron in connection with
+    them, prove that, when they existed as soils, rain-water, and
+    not sea-water, percolated them. (5) The coal and the fossil
+    forests present many evidences of subaërial conditions. Most
+    of the erect and prostrate trees had become hollow shells of
+    bark before they were finally embedded, and their wood had
+    broken into cubical pieces of mineral charcoal. Land-snails
+    and galley-worms _Xylobius_ crept into them, and they became
+    dens, or traps, for reptiles. Large quantities of mineral
+    charcoal occur on the surface of all the large beds of
+    coal. None of these appearances could have been produced by
+    subaqueous action. (6) Though the roots of the _Sigillaria_
+    bear more resemblance to the rhizomes of certain aquatic
+    plants; yet, structurally, they are absolutely identical with
+    the roots of Cycads, which the stems also resemble. Further,
+    the _Sigillariae_ grew on the same soils which supported
+    Conifers, _Lepidodendra, Cordaites_, and Ferns--plants which
+    could not have grown in water. Again, with the exception
+    perhaps of some _Pinnulariae_ and _Asterophyllites_, there
+    is a remarkable absence from the coal measures of any form of
+    properly aquatic vegetation. (7) The occurrence of marine, or
+    brackish-water animals, in the roofs of coal-beds, or even
+    in the coal itself, affords no evidence of subaqueous
+    accumulation, since the same thing occurs in the case of
+    modern submarine forests. For these and other reasons, some of
+    which are more fully stated in the papers already referred
+    to, while I admit that the areas of coal accumulation were
+    frequently submerged, I must maintain that the true coal is a
+    subaërial accumulation by vegetable growth on soils, wet and
+    swampy it is true, but not submerged."
+
+I am almost disposed to doubt whether it is necessary to make the
+concession of "wet and swampy;" otherwise, there is nothing that I
+know of to be said against this excellent conspectus of the reasons
+for believing in the subaërial origin of coal.
+
+But the coal accumulated upon the area covered by one of the great
+forests of the carboniferous epoch would, in course of time, have
+been wasted away by the small, but constant, wear and tear of rain and
+streams, had the land which supported it remained at the same level,
+or been gradually raised to a greater elevation. And, no doubt, as
+much coal as now exists has been destroyed, after its formation, in
+this way. What are now known as coal districts owe their importance to
+the fact that they were areas of slow depression, during a greater or
+less portion of the carboniferous epoch; and that, in virtue of this
+circumstance, Mother Earth was enabled to cover up her vegetable
+treasures, and preserve them from destruction.
+
+Wherever a coal-field now exists, there must formerly have been free
+access for a great river, or for a shallow sea, bearing sediment in
+the shape of sand and mud. When the coal-forest area became slowly
+depressed, the waters must have spread over it, and have deposited
+their burden upon the surface of the bed of coal, in the form of
+layers, which are now converted into shale, or sandstone. Then
+followed a period of rest, in which the superincumbent shallow waters
+became completely filled up, and finally replaced, by fine mud, which
+settled down into a new under-clay, and furnished the soil for a fresh
+forest growth. This flourished, and heaped up its spores and wood into
+coal, until the stage of slow depression recommenced. And, in some
+localities, as I have mentioned, the process was repeated until the
+first of the alternating beds had sunk to near three miles below its
+original level at the surface of the earth.
+
+In reflecting on the statement, thus briefly made, of the main facts
+connected with the origin of the coal formed during the carboniferous
+epoch, two or three considerations suggest themselves.
+
+In the first place, the great phantom of geological time rises before
+the student of this, as of all other, fragments of the history of our
+earth--springing irrepressibly out of the facts, like the Djin from
+the jar which the fisherman so incautiously opened; and like the Djin
+again, being vaporous, shifting, and indefinable, but unmistakably
+gigantic. However modest the bases of one's calculation may be,
+the minimum of time assignable to the coal period remains something
+stupendous.
+
+Principal Dawson is the last person likely to be guilty of
+exaggeration in this matter, and it will be well to consider what he
+has to say about it:--
+
+    "The rate of accumulation of coal was very slow. The climate
+    of the period, in the northern temperate zone, was of such
+    a character that the true conifers show rings of growth, not
+    larger, nor much less distinct, than those of many of their
+    modern congeners. The _Sigillariae_ and _Calamites_ were not,
+    as often supposed, composed wholly, or even principally, of
+    lax and soft tissues, or necessarily short-lived. The former
+    had, it is true, a very thick inner bark; but their dense
+    woody axis, their thick and nearly imperishable outer bark,
+    and their scanty and rigid foliage, would indicate no very
+    rapid growth or decay. In the case of the _Sigillariae_, the
+    variations in the leaf-scars in different parts of the trunk,
+    the intercalation of new ridges at the surface representing
+    that of new woody wedges in the axis, the transverse marks
+    left by the stages of upward growth, all indicate that several
+    years must have been required for the growth of stems of
+    moderate size. The enormous roots of these trees, and the
+    condition of the coal-swamps, must have exempted them from the
+    danger of being overthrown by violence. They probably fell in
+    successive generations from natural decay; and making every
+    allowance for other materials, we may safely assert that every
+    foot of thickness of pure bituminous coal implies the
+    quiet growth and fall of at least fifty generations of
+    _Sigillariae_, and therefore an undisturbed condition of
+    forest growth enduring through many centuries. Further, there
+    is evidence that an immense amount of loose parenchymatous
+    tissue, and even of wood, perished by decay, and we do not
+    know to what extent even the most durable tissues may have
+    disappeared in this way; so that, in many coal-seams, we may
+    have only a very small part of the vegetable matter produced."
+
+Undoubtedly the force of these reflections is not diminished when the
+bituminous coal, as in Britain, consists of accumulated spores and
+spore-cases, rather than of stems. But, suppose we adopt Principal
+Dawson's assumption, that one foot of coal represents fifty
+generations of coal plants; and, further, make the moderate
+supposition that each generation of coal plants took ten years to come
+to maturity--then, each foot-thickness of coal represents five hundred
+years. The superimposed beds of coal in one coal-field may amount to
+a thickness of fifty or sixty feet, and therefore the coal alone, in
+that field, represents 500 x 50 = 25,000 years. But the actual coal is
+but an insignificant portion of the total deposit, which, as has been
+seen, may amount to between two and three miles of vertical thickness.
+Suppose it be 12,000 feet--which is 240 times the thickness of the
+actual coal--is there any reason why we should believe it may not have
+taken 240 times as long to form? I know of none. But, in this case,
+the time which the coal-field represents would be 25,000 x 240
+=6,000,000 years. As affording a definite chronology, of course such
+calculations as these are of no value; but they have much use in
+fixing one's attention upon a possible minimum. A man may be puzzled
+if he is asked how long Rome took a-building; but he is proverbially
+safe if he affirms it not to have been built in a day; and our
+geological calculations are all, at present, pretty much on that
+footing.
+
+A second consideration which the study of the coal brings prominently
+before the mind of anyone who is familiar with palaeontology is, that
+the coal Flora, viewed in relation to the enormous period of time
+which it lasted, and to the still vaster period which has elapsed
+since it flourished, underwent little change while it endured, and in
+its peculiar characters, differs strangely little from that which at
+present exists.
+
+The same species of plants are to be met with throughout the whole
+thickness of a coal-field, and the youngest are not sensibly different
+from the oldest. But more than this. Notwithstanding that the
+carboniferous period is separated from us by more than the whole time
+represented by the secondary and tertiary formations, the great types
+of vegetation were as distinct then as now. The structure of the
+modern club-moss furnishes a complete explanation of the fossil
+remains of the _Lepidodendra_, and the fronds of some of the ancient
+ferns are hard to distinguish from existing ones. At the same time,
+it must be remembered, that there is nowhere in the world, at present,
+any _forest_ which bears more than a rough analogy with a coal-forest.
+The types may remain, but the details of their form, their relative
+proportions, their associates, are all altered. And the tree-fern
+forest of Tasmania, or New Zealand, gives one only a faint and remote
+image of the vegetation of the ancient world.
+
+Once more, an invariably-recurring lesson of geological history,
+at whatever point its study is taken up: the lesson of the almost
+infinite slowness of the modification of living forms. The lines of
+the pedigrees of living things break off almost before they begin to
+converge.
+
+Finally, yet another curious consideration. Let us suppose that one of
+the stupid, salamander-like Labyrinthodonts, which pottered, with
+much belly and little leg, like Falstaff in his old age, among the
+coal-forests, could have had thinking power enough in his small brain
+to reflect upon the showers of spores which kept on falling through
+years and centuries, while perhaps not one in ten million fulfilled
+its apparent purpose, and reproduced the organism which gave it birth:
+surely he might have been excused for moralizing upon the thoughtless
+and wanton extravagance which Nature displayed in her operations.
+
+But we have the advantage over our shovel-headed predecessor--or
+possibly ancestor--and can perceive that a certain vein of thrift runs
+through this apparent prodigality. Nature is never in a hurry, and
+seems to have had always before her eyes the adage, "Keep a thing long
+enough, and you will find a use for it." She has kept her beds of coal
+many millions of years without being able to find much use for them;
+she has sent them down beneath the sea, and the sea-beasts could make
+nothing of them; she has raised them up into dry land, and laid the
+black veins bare, and still, for ages and ages, there was no living
+thing on the face of the earth that could see any sort of value in
+them; and it was only the other day, so to speak, that she turned a
+new creature out of her workshop, who by degrees acquired sufficient
+wits to make a fire, and then to discover that the black rock would
+burn.
+
+I suppose that nineteen hundred years ago, when Julius Caesar was good
+enough to deal with Britain as we have dealt with New Zealand, the
+primaeval Briton, blue with cold and woad, may have known that the
+strange black stone, of which he found lumps here and there in his
+wanderings, would burn, and so help to warm his body and cook his
+food. Saxon, Dane, and Norman swarmed into the land. The English
+people grew into a powerful nation, and Nature still waited for a full
+return of the capital she had invested in the ancient club-mosses. The
+eighteenth century arrived, and with it James Watt. The brain of that
+man was the spore out of which was developed the steam-engine, and all
+the prodigious trees and branches of modern industry which have grown
+out of this. But coal is as much an essential condition of this growth
+and development as carbonic acid is for that of a club-moss. Wanting
+coal, we could not have smelted the iron needed to make our engines,
+nor have worked our engines when we had got them. But take away the
+engines, and the great towns of Yorkshire and Lancashire vanish like a
+dream. Manufactures give place to agriculture and pasture, and not ten
+men can live where now ten thousand are amply supported.
+
+Thus, all this abundant wealth of money and of vivid life is Nature's
+interest upon her investment in club-mosses, and the like, so long
+ago. But what becomes of the coal which is burnt in yielding this
+interest? Heat comes out of it, light comes out of it, and if we could
+gather together all that goes up the chimney; and all that remains in
+the grate of a thoroughly-burnt coal-fire, we should find ourselves in
+possession of a quantity of carbonic acid, water, ammonia, and mineral
+matters, exactly equal in weight to the coal. But these are the very
+matters with which Nature supplied the club-mosses which made the
+coal. She is paid back principal and interest at the same time; and
+she straightway invests the carbonic acid, the water, and the ammonia
+in new forms of life, feeding with them the plants that now live.
+Thrifty Nature! Surely no prodigal, but most notable of housekeepers!
+
+
+
+
+VI.
+
+ON CORAL AND CORAL REEFS.
+
+
+The marine productions which are commonly known by the names of
+"Corals" and "Corallines," were thought by the ancients to be
+sea-weeds, which had the singular property of becoming hard and
+solid, when they were fished up from their native depths and came into
+contact with the air.
+
+    "Sic et curalium, quo primum contigit auras Tempore durescit:
+    mollis fuit herba sub undis,"
+
+says Ovid (Metam. xv.); and it was not until the seventeenth century
+that Boccone was emboldened, by personal experience of the facts, to
+declare that the holders of this belief were no better than "idiots,"
+who had been misled by the softness of the outer coat of the living
+red coral to imagine that it was soft all through.
+
+Messer Boccone's strong epithet is probably undeserved, as the
+notion he controverts, in all likelihood, arose merely from the
+misinterpretation of the strictly true statement which any coral
+fisherman would make to a curious inquirer; namely, that the outside
+coat of the red coral is quite soft when it is taken out of the sea.
+At any rate, he did good service by eliminating this much error from
+the current notions about coral. But the belief that corals are plants
+remained, not only in the popular, but in the scientific mind; and
+it received what appeared to be a striking confirmation from the
+researches of Marsigli in 1706. For this naturalist, having the
+opportunity of observing freshly-taken red coral, saw that its
+branches were beset with what looked like delicate and beautiful
+flowers, each having eight petals. It was true that these "flowers"
+could protrude and retract themselves, but their motions were hardly
+more extensive, or more varied, than those of the leaves of the
+sensitive plant; and therefore they could not be held to militate
+against the conclusion so strongly suggested by their form and their
+grouping upon the branches of a tree-like structure.
+
+Twenty years later, a pupil of Marsigli, the young Marseilles
+physician, Peyssonel, conceived the desire to study these singular
+sea-plants, and was sent by the French Government on a mission to the
+Mediterranean for that purpose. The pupil undertook the investigation
+full of confidence in the ideas of his master, but being able to see
+and think for himself, he soon discovered that those ideas by no means
+altogether corresponded with reality. In an essay entitled "Traité du
+Corail," which was communicated to the French Academy of Science, but
+which has never been published, Peyssonel writes:--
+
+    "Je fis fleurir le corail dans des vases pleins d'eau de mer,
+    et j'observai que ce que nous croyons être la fleur de cette
+    prétendue plante n'était au vrai, qu'un insecte semblable à
+    une petite Ortie ou Poulpe. J'avais le plaisir de voir remuer
+    les pattes, ou pieds, de cette Ortie, et ayant mis le vase
+    plein d'eau où le corail était à une douce chaleur auprès
+    du feu, tous les petites insectes s'épanouirent ... L'Ortie
+    sortie étend les pieds, et forme ce que M. de Marsigli et moi
+    avions pris pour les pétales de la fleur. Le calice de cette
+    prétendue fleur est le corps même de l'animal avancé et sorti
+    hors de la cellule."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: This extract from Peysonnel's manuscript is given by
+M. Lacaze Duthiers in his valuable "Histoire Naturelle du Corail"
+(1866).]
+
+The comparison of the flowers of the coral to a "petite ortie" or
+"little nettle" is perfectly just, but needs explanation. "Ortie de
+mer," or "sea-nettle," is, in fact, the French appellation for our
+"sea-anemone," a creature with which everybody, since the great
+aquarium mania, must have become familiar, even to the limits of
+boredom. In 1710, the great naturalist, Réaumur, had written a memoir
+for the express purpose of demonstrating that these "orties" are
+animals; and with this important paper Peyssonel must necessarily have
+been familiar. Therefore, when he declared the "flowers" of the red
+coral to be little "orties," it was the same thing as saying that
+they were animals of the same general nature as sea-anemones. But
+to Peyssonel's contemporaries this was an extremely startling
+announcement. It was hard to imagine the existence of such a thing
+as an association of animals into a structure with stem and branches
+altogether like a plant, and fixed to the soil as a plant is fixed;
+and the naturalists of that day preferred not to imagine it. Even
+Réaumur could not bring himself to accept the notion, and France being
+blessed with Academicians, whose great function (as the late Bishop
+Wilson and an eminent modern writer have so well shown) is to cause
+sweetness and light to prevail, and to prevent such unmannerly fellows
+as Peyssonel from blurting out unedifying truths, they suppressed him;
+and, as aforesaid, his great work remained in manuscript, and may
+at this day be consulted by the curious in that state, in the
+"Bibliothèque du Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle." Peyssonel, who
+evidently was a person of savage and untameable disposition, so far
+from appreciating the kindness of the Academicians in giving him time
+to reflect upon the unreasonableness, not to say rudeness, of making
+public statements in opposition to the views of some of the most
+distinguished of their body, seems bitterly to have resented the
+treatment he met with. For he sent all further communications to the
+Royal Society of London, which never had, and it is to be hoped never
+will have, anything of an academic constitution; and finally took
+himself off to Guadaloupe, and became lost to science altogether.
+
+Fifteen or sixteen years after the date of Peyssonel's suppressed
+paper, the Abbé Trembley published his wonderful researches upon the
+fresh-water _Hydra_. Bernard de Jussieu and Guettard followed them
+up by like inquiries upon the marine sea-anemones and corallines;
+Réaumur, convinced against his will of the entire justice of
+Peyssonel's views, adopted them, and made him a half-and-half apology
+in the preface to the next published volume of the "Mémoires pour
+servir à l'Histoire des Insectes;" and, from this time forth,
+Peyssonel's doctrine that corals are the work of animal organisms has
+been part of the body of established scientific truth.
+
+Peyssonel, in the extract from his memoir already cited, compares the
+flower-like animal of the coral to a "poulpe," which is the French
+form of the name "polypus,"--"the many-footed,"--which the ancient
+naturalists gave to the soft-bodied cuttle-fishes, which, like the
+coral animal, have eight arms, or tentacles, disposed around a central
+mouth. Réaumur, admitting the analogy indicated by Peyssonel, gave the
+name of _polypes_, not only to the sea-anemone, the coral animal, and
+the fresh-water _Hydra_, but to what are now known as the _Polyzoa_,
+and he termed the skeleton which they fabricate a "_polypier_" or
+"polypidom."
+
+The progress of discovery, since Réaumur's time, has made us very
+completely acquainted with the structure and habits of all these
+polypes. We know that, among the sea-anemones and coral-forming
+animals, each polype has a mouth leading to a stomach, which is open
+at its inner end, and thus communicates freely with the general cavity
+of the body; that the tentacles placed round the mouth are hollow, and
+that they perform the part of arms in seizing and capturing prey. It
+is known that many of these creatures are capable of being multiplied
+by artificial division, the divided halves growing, after a time, into
+complete and separate animals; and that many are able to perform a
+very similar process naturally, in such a manner that one polype may,
+by repeated incomplete divisions, give rise to a sort of sheet,
+or turf, formed by innumerable connected, and yet independent,
+descendants. Or, what is still more common, a polype may throw out
+buds, which are converted into polypes, or branches bearing polypes,
+until a tree-like mass, sometimes of very considerable size, is
+formed.
+
+This is what happens in the case of the red coral of commerce. A
+minute polype, fixed to the rocky bottom of the deep sea, grows up
+into a branched trunk. The end of every branch and twig is terminated
+by a polype; and all the polypes are connected together by a fleshy
+substance, traversed by innumerable canals which place each polype in
+communication with every other, and carry nourishment to the substance
+of the supporting stem. It is a sort of natural co-operative store,
+every polype helping the whole, at the same time as it helps itself.
+The interior of the stem, like that of the branches, is solidified
+by the deposition of carbonate of lime in its tissue, somewhat in the
+same fashion as our own bones are formed of animal matter impregnated
+with lime salts; and it is this dense skeleton (usually turned
+deep red by a peculiar colouring matter) cleared of the soft animal
+investment, as the heart-wood of a tree might be stripped of its bark,
+which is the red coral.
+
+In the case of the red coral, the hard skeleton belongs to the
+interior of the stem and branches only; but in the commoner white
+corals, each polype has a complete skeleton of its own. These
+polypes ate sometimes solitary, in which case the whole skeleton is
+represented by a single cup, with partitions radiating from its centre
+to its circumference. When the polypes formed by budding or division
+remain associated, the polypidom is sometimes made up of nothing but
+an aggregation of these cups, while at other times the cups are at
+once separated and held together, by an intermediate substance, which
+represents the branches of the red coral. The red coral polype
+again is a comparatively rare animal, inhabiting a limited area, the
+skeleton of which has but a very insignificant mass; while the white
+corals are very common, occur in almost all seas, and form skeletons
+which are sometimes extremely massive.
+
+With a very few exceptions, both the red and the white coral polypes
+are, in their adult state, firmly adherent to the sea-bottom; nor do
+their buds naturally become detached and locomotive. But, in addition
+to budding and division, these creatures possess the more ordinary
+methods of multiplication; and, at particular seasons, they give
+rise to numerous eggs of minute size. Within these eggs the young are
+formed, and they leave the egg in a condition which has no sort of
+resemblance to the perfect animal. It is, in fact, a minute oval body,
+many hundred times smaller than the full-grown creature, and it
+swims about with great activity by the help of multitudes of little
+hair-like filaments, called cilia, with which its body is covered.
+These cilia all lash the water in one direction, and so drive the
+little body along as if it were propelled by thousands of extremely
+minute paddles. After enjoying its freedom for a longer or shorter
+time, and being carried either by the force of its own cilia, or by
+currents which bear it along, the embryo coral settles down to the
+bottom, loses its cilia, and becomes fixed to the rock, gradually
+assuming the polype form and growing up to the size of its parent.
+As the infant polypes of the coral may retain this free and active
+condition for many hours, or even days, and as a tidal or other
+current in the sea may easily flow at the speed of two or even
+more miles in an hour, it is clear that the embryo must often be
+transported to very considerable distances from the parent. And it
+is easily understood how a single polype, which may give rise to
+hundreds, or perhaps thousands, of embryos, may, by this process of
+partly active and partly passive migration, cover an immense surface
+with its offspring. The masses of coral which may be formed by the
+assemblages of polypes which spring by budding, or by dividing, from a
+single polype, occasionally attain very considerable dimensions. Such
+skeletons are sometimes great plates, many feet long and several feet
+in thickness; or they may form huge half globes, like the brainstone
+corals, or may reach the magnitude of stout shrubs, or even small
+trees. There is reason to believe that such masses as these take a
+long time to form, and hence that the age a polype tree, or polype
+turf, may attain, may be considerable. But, sooner or later, the coral
+polypes, like all other things, die; the soft flesh decays, while the
+skeleton is left as a stony mass at the bottom of the sea, where it
+retains its integrity for a longer or a shorter time, according as its
+position affords it more or less protection from the wear and tear of
+the waves.
+
+The polypes which give rise to the white coral are found, as has been
+said, in the seas of all parts of the world; but in the temperate and
+cold oceans they are scattered and comparatively small in size,
+so that the skeletons of those which die do not accumulate in any
+considerable quantity. But it is otherwise in the greater part of the
+ocean which lies in the warmer parts of the world, comprised within a
+distance of about 1,800 miles on each side of the equator. Within the
+zone thus bounded, by far the greater part of the ocean is inhabited
+by coral polypes, which not only form very strong and large skeletons,
+but associate together into great masses, like the thickets and the
+meadow turf, or, better still, the accumulations of peat, to which
+plants give rise on the dry land. These masses of stony matter, heaped
+up beneath the waters of the ocean, become as dangerous to mariners
+as so much ordinary rock, and to these, as to common rock ridges, the
+seaman gives the name of "reefs."
+
+Such coral reefs cover many thousand square miles in the Pacific and
+in the Indian Oceans. There is one reef, or rather great series of
+reefs, called the Barrier Reef, which stretches, almost continuously,
+for more than 1,100 miles off the east coast of Australia. Multitudes
+of the island in the Pacific are either reefs themselves, or are
+surrounded by reefs. The Red Sea is in many parts almost a maze of
+such reefs; and they abound no less in the West Indies, along the
+coast of Florida, and even as far north as the Bahama Islands. But it
+is a very remarkable circumstance that, within the area of what we may
+call the "coral zone," there are no coral reefs upon the west coast of
+America, nor upon the west coast of Africa; and it is a general fact
+that the reefs are interrupted, or absent, opposite the mouths of
+great rivers. The causes of this apparent caprice in the distribution
+of coral reefs are not far to seek. The polypes which fabricate them
+require for their vigorous growth a temperature which must not fall
+below 68 degrees Fahrenheit all the year round, and this temperature
+is only to be found within the distance on each side of the equator
+which has been mentioned, or thereabouts. But even within the coral
+zone this degree of warmth is not everywhere to be had. On the west
+coast of America, and on the corresponding coast of Africa, currents
+of cold water from the icy regions which surround the South Pole set
+northward, and it appears to be due to their cooling influence that
+the sea in these regions is free from the reef builders. Again, the
+coral polypes cannot live in water which is rendered brackish by
+floods from the land, or which is perturbed by mud from the same
+source, and hence it is that they cease to exist opposite the mouths
+of rivers, which damage them in both these ways.
+
+Such is the general distribution of the reef-building corals, but
+there are some very interesting and singular circumstances to be
+observed in the conformation of the reefs, when we consider them
+individually. The reefs, in fact, are of three different kinds; some
+of them stretch out from the shore, almost like a prolongation of the
+beach, covered only by shallow water, and in the case of an island,
+surrounding it like a fringe of no considerable breadth. These are
+termed "fringing reefs." Others are separated by a channel which may
+attain a width of many miles, and a depth of twenty or thirty fathoms
+or more, from the nearest land; and when this land is an island, the
+reef surrounds it like a low wall, and the sea between the reef and
+the land is, as it were, a moat inside this wall. Such reefs as these
+are called "encircling" when they surround an island; and "barrier"
+reefs, when they stretch parallel with the coast of a continent.
+In both these cases there is ordinary dry land inside the reef, and
+separated from it only by a narrower or a wider, a shallower or a
+deeper, space of sea, which is called a "lagoon," or "inner passage."
+But there is a third kind of reef, of very common occurrence in the
+Pacific and Indian Oceans, which goes by the name of an "Atoll." This
+is, to all intents and purposes, an encircling reef, without anything
+to encircle; or, in other words, without an island in the middle
+of its lagoon. The atoll has exactly the appearance of a vast,
+irregularly oval, or circular, breakwater, enclosing smooth water in
+its midst. The depth of the water in the lagoon rarely exceeds twenty
+or thirty fathoms, but, outside the reef, it deepens with great
+rapidity to 200 or 300 fathoms. The depth immediately outside the
+barrier, or encircling, reefs, may also be very considerable; but, at
+the outer edge of a fringing reef, it does not amount usually to more
+than twenty or twenty-five fathoms; in other words, from 120 to 150
+feet.
+
+Thus, if the water of the ocean could be suddenly drained away, we
+should see the atolls rising from the sea-bed like vast truncated
+cones, and resembling so many volcanic craters, except that their
+sides would be steeper than those of an ordinary volcano. In the case
+of the encircling reefs, the cone, with the enclosed island, would
+look like Vesuvius with Monte Nuovo within the old crater of Somma;
+while, finally, the island with a fringing reef would have the
+appearance of an ordinary hill, or mountain, girded by a vast parapet,
+within which would lie a shallow moat. And the dry bed of the Pacific
+might afford grounds for an inhabitant of the moon to speculate
+upon the extraordinary subterranean activity to which these vast and
+numerous "craters" bore witness!
+
+When the structure of a fringing reef is investigated, the bottom of
+the lagoon is found to be covered with fine whitish mud, which results
+from the breaking up of the dead corals. Upon this muddy floor there
+lie, here and there, growing corals, or occasionally great blocks of
+dead coral, which have been torn by storms from the outer edge of
+the reef, and washed into the lagoon. Shell-fish and worms of various
+kinds abound; and fish, some of which prey upon the coral, sport in
+the deeper pools. But the corals which are to be seen growing in the
+shallow waters of the lagoon are of a different kind from those which
+abound on the outer edge of the reef, and of which the reef is built
+up. Close to the seaward edge of the reef, over which, even in calm
+weather, a surf almost always breaks, the coral rock is encrusted with
+a thick coat of a singular vegetable organism, which contains a great
+deal of lime--the so-called _Nullipora_. Beyond this, in the part of
+the edge of the reef which is always covered by the breaking waves,
+the living, true, reef--polypes make their appearance; and, in
+different forms, coat the steep seaward face of the reef to a depth of
+100 or even 150 feet. Beyond this depth the sounding-lead rests, not
+upon the wall-like face of the reef, but on the ordinary shelving
+sea-bottom. And the distance to which a fringing reef extends from the
+land corresponds with that at which the sea has a depth of twenty or
+five-and-twenty fathoms.
+
+If, as we have supposed, the sea could be suddenly withdrawn from
+around an island provided with a fringing reef, such as the Mauritius,
+the reef would present the aspect of a terrace, its seaward face,
+100 feet or more high, blooming with the animal flowers of the coral,
+while its surface would be hollowed out into a shallow and irregular
+moat-like excavation.
+
+The coral mud, which occupies the bottom of the lagoon, and with which
+all the interstices of the coral skeletons which accumulate to form
+the reef are filled up, does not proceed from the washing action of
+the waves alone; innumerable fishes, and other creatures which prey
+upon the coral, add a very important contribution of finely-triturated
+calcareous matter; and the corals and mud becoming incorporated
+together, gradually harden and give rise to a sort of limestone rock,
+which may vary a good deal in texture. Sometimes it remains friable
+and chalky, but, more often, the infiltration of water, charged with
+carbonic acid, dissolves some of the calcareous matter, and deposits
+it elsewhere in the interstices of the nascent rock, thus glueing
+and cementing the particles together into a hard mass; or it may even
+dissolve the carbonate of lime more extensively, and re-deposit it in
+a crystalline form. On the beach of the lagoon, where the coral sand
+is washed into layers by the action of the waves, its grains become
+thus fused together into strata of a limestone, so hard that they
+ring when struck with a hammer, and inclined at a gentle angle,
+corresponding with that of the surface of the beach. The hard parts
+of the many animals which live upon the reef become imbedded in this
+coral limestone, so that a block may be full of shells of bivalves and
+univalves, or of sea-urchins; and even sometimes encloses the eggs of
+turtles in a state of petrifaction. The active and vigorous growth of
+the reef goes on only at the seaward margins, where the polypes are
+exposed to the wash of the surf, and are thereby provided with an
+abundant supply of air and of food. The interior portion of the reef
+may be regarded as almost wholly an accumulation of dead skeletons.
+Where a river comes down from the land there is a break in the reef,
+for the reasons which have been already mentioned.
+
+The origin and mode of formation of a fringing reef, such as that just
+described, are plain enough. The embryos of the coral polypes have
+fixed themselves upon the submerged shore of the island, as far out as
+they could live, namely, to a depth of twenty or twenty-five fathoms.
+One generation has succeeded another, building itself up upon the dead
+skeletons of its predecessor. The mass has been consolidated by
+the infiltration of coral mud, and hardened by partial solution and
+redeposition, until a great rampart of coral rock 100 or 150 feet high
+on its seaward face has been formed all round the island, with only
+such gaps as result from the outflow of rivers, in the place of
+sally-ports.
+
+The structure of the rocky accumulation in the encircling reefs and
+in the atolls is essentially the same as in the fringing reef. But, in
+addition to the differences of depth inside and out, they present
+some other peculiarities. These reefs, and especially the atolls, are
+usually interrupted at one part of their circumference, and this part
+is always situated on the leeward side of the reef, or that which is
+the more sheltered side. Now, as all these reefs are situated within
+the region in which the trade-winds prevail, it follows that, on the
+north side of the equator, where the trade-wind is a north-easterly
+wind, the opening of the reef is on the south-west side: while in the
+southern hemisphere, where the trade-winds blow from the south-east,
+the opening lies to the north-west. The curious practical result
+follows from this structure, that the lagoons of these reefs really
+form admirable harbours, if a ship can only get inside them. But the
+main difference between the encircling reefs and the atolls, on the
+one hand, and the fringing reefs on the other, lies in the fact of the
+much greater depth of water on the seaward faces of the former. As a
+consequence of this fact, the whole of this face is not, as it is in
+the case of the fringing reef, covered with living coral polypes. For,
+as we have seen, these polypes cannot live at a greater depth than
+about twenty-five fathoms; and actual observation has shown that
+while, down to this depth, the sounding-lead will bring up branches of
+live coral from the outer wall of such a reef, at a greater depth it
+fetches to the surface nothing but dead coral and coral sand. We must,
+therefore, picture to ourselves an atoll, or an encircling reef, as
+fringed for 100 feet, or more, from its summit, with coral polypes
+busily engaged in fabricating coral; while, below this comparatively
+narrow belt, its surface is a bare and smooth expanse of coral sand,
+supported upon and within a core of coral limestone. Thus, if the bed
+of the Pacific were suddenly laid bare, as was just now supposed, the
+appearance of the reef-mountains would be exactly the reverse of that
+presented by many high mountains on land. For these are white with
+snow at the top, while their bases are clothed with an abundant and
+gaudily-coloured vegetation. But the coral cones would look grey and
+barren below, while their summits would be gay with a richly-coloured
+parterre of flower-like coral polypes.
+
+The practical difficulties of sounding upon, and of bringing up
+portions of, the seaward face of an atoll or of an encircling reef,
+are so great, in consequence of the constant and dangerous swell which
+sets towards it, that no exact information concerning the depth to
+which the reefs are composed of coral has yet been obtained. There is
+no reason to doubt, however, that the reef-cone has the same structure
+from its summit to its base, and that its sea-wall is throughout
+mainly composed of dead coral.
+
+And now arises a serious difficulty. If the coral polypes cannot live
+at a greater depth than 100 or 150 feet, how can they have built up
+the base of the reef-cone, which may be 2,000 feet, or more, below the
+surface of the sea?
+
+In order to get over this objection, it was at one time supposed that
+the reef-building polypes had settled upon the summits of a chain
+of submarine mountains. But what is there in physical geography
+to justify the assumption of the existence of a chain of mountains
+stretching for 1,000 miles or more, and so nearly of the same height,
+that none should rise above the level of the sea, nor fall 150 feet
+below that level?
+
+How again, on this hypothesis, are atolls to be accounted for, unless,
+as some have done, we take refuge in the wild supposition that every
+atoll corresponds with the crater of a submarine volcano? And what
+explanation does it afford of the fact that, in some parts of the
+ocean, only atolls and encircling reefs occur, while others present
+none but fringing reefs?
+
+These and other puzzling facts remained insoluble until the
+publication, in the year 1840, of Mr. Darwin's famous work on
+coral reefs; in which a key was given to all the difficult problems
+connected with the subject, and every difficulty was shown to be
+capable of solution by deductive reasoning from a happy combination of
+certain well-established geological and biological truths. Mr.
+Darwin, in fact, showed, that so long as the level of the sea remains
+unaltered in any area in which coral reefs are being formed, or if the
+level of the sea relatively to that of the land is falling, the
+only reefs which can be formed are fringing reefs. While if, on the
+contrary, the level of the sea is rising relatively to that of the
+land, at a rate not faster than that at which the upward growth of
+the coral can keep pace with it, the reef will gradually pass from the
+condition of a fringing, into that of an encircling or barrier reef.
+And, finally, that if the relative level of the sea rise so much that
+the encircled land is completely submerged, the reef must necessarily
+pass into the condition of an atoll.
+
+For, suppose the relative level of the sea to remain stationary, after
+a fringing reef has reached that distance from the land at which
+the depth of water amounts to 150 feet. Then the reef cannot extend
+seaward by the migration of coral germs, because these coral germs
+would find the bottom of the sea to be too deep for them to live in.
+And the only manner in which the reef could extend outwards, would
+be by the gradual accumulation, at the foot of its seaward face, of a
+talus of coral fragments torn off by the violence of the waves, which
+talus might, in course of time, become high enough to bring its upper
+surface within the limits of coral growth, and in that manner provide
+a sort of factitious sea-bottom upon which the coral embryos might
+perch. If, on the other hand, the level of the sea were slowly and
+gradually lowered, it is clear that the parts of its bottom originally
+beyond the limit of coral growth, would gradually be brought within
+the required distance of the surface, and thus the reef might be
+indefinitely extended. But this process would give rise neither to an
+encircling reef nor to an atoll, but to a broad belt of upheaved
+coral rock, increasing the dimensions of the dry land, and continuous
+seawards with the fresh fringing reef.
+
+Suppose, however, that the sea-level rose instead of falling, at the
+same slow and gradual rate at which we know it to be rising in some
+parts of the world--not more, in fact, than a few inches, or, at
+most, a foot or two, in a hundred years. Then, while the reef would
+be unable to extend itself seaward, the sea-bottom outside it being
+gradually more and more removed from the depth at which the life of
+the coral polypes is possible, it would be able to grow upwards
+as fast as the sea rose. But the growth would take place almost
+exclusively around the circumference of the reef, this being the only
+region in which the coral polypes would find the conditions favourable
+for their existence. The bottom of the lagoon would be raised, in the
+main, only by the coral _débris_ and coral mud, formed in the manner
+already described; consequently, the margins of the reef would
+rise faster than the bottom, or, in other words, the lagoon would
+constantly become deeper. And, at the same time, it would gradually
+increase in breadth; as the rising sea, covering more and more of the
+land, would occupy a wider space between the edge of the reef and what
+remained of the land. Thus the rising sea would eventually convert a
+large island with a fringing reef, into a small island surrounded by
+an encircling reef. And it will be obvious that when the rising of the
+sea has gone so far as completely to cover the highest points of the
+island, the reef will have passed into the condition of an atoll.
+
+But how is it possible that the relative level of the land and sea
+should be altered to this extent? Clearly, only in one of two ways:
+either the sea must have risen over those areas which are now covered
+by atolls and encircling reefs; or, the land upon which the sea rests
+must have been depressed to a corresponding extent.
+
+If the sea has risen, its rise must have taken place over the whole
+world simultaneously, and it must have risen to the same height over
+all parts of the coral zone. Grounds have been shown for the belief
+that the general level of the sea may have been different at different
+times; it has been suggested, for example, that the accumulation of
+ice about the poles during one of the cold periods of the earth's
+history, necessarily implies a diminution in the volume of the sea
+proportioned to the amount of its water thus permanently locked up in
+the Arctic and Antarctic ice-cellars; while, in the warm periods,
+the greater or less disappearance of the polar ice-cap implies a
+corresponding addition of water to the ocean. And no doubt this
+reasoning must be admitted to be sound in principle; though it is very
+hard to say what practical effect the additions and subtractions thus
+made have had on the level of the ocean; inasmuch as such additions
+and subtractions might be either intensified or nullified, by
+contemporaneous changes in the level of the land. And no one has yet
+shown that any such great melting of polar ice, and consequent raising
+of the level of the water of the ocean, has taken place since the
+existing atolls began to be formed.
+
+In the absence of any evidence that the sea has ever risen to the
+extent required to give rise to the encircling reefs and the atolls,
+Mr. Darwin adopted the opposite hypothesis, viz. that the land has
+undergone extensive and slow depression in those localities in which
+these structures exist.
+
+It seems, at first, a startling paradox, to suppose that the land
+is less fixed than the sea; but that such is the case is the uniform
+testimony of geology. Beds of sandstone or limestone, thousands of
+feet thick, and all full of marine remains, occur in various parts of
+the earth's surface, and prove, beyond a doubt, that when these beds
+were formed, that portion of the sea-bottom which they then occupied
+underwent a slow and gradual depression to a distance which cannot
+have been less than the thickness of those beds, and may have been
+very much greater. In supposing, therefore, that the great areas of
+the Pacific and of the Indian Ocean, over which atolls and encircling
+reefs are found scattered, have undergone a depression of some
+hundreds, or, it may be, thousands of feet, Mr. Darwin made a
+supposition which had nothing forced or improbable, but was entirely
+in accordance with what we know to have taken place over similarly
+extensive areas, in other periods of the world's history. But Mr.
+Darwin subjected his hypothesis to an ingenious indirect test. If
+his view be correct, it is clear that neither atolls, nor encircling
+reefs, should be found in those portions of the ocean in which we have
+reason to believe, on independent grounds, that the sea-bottom has
+long been either stationary, or slowly rising. Now it is known that,
+as a general rule, the level of the land is either stationary, or is
+undergoing a slow upheaval, in the neighbourhood of active volcanoes;
+and, therefore, neither atolls nor encircling reefs ought to be found
+in regions in which volcanoes are numerous and active. And this turns
+out to be the case. Appended to Mr. Darwin's great work on coral
+reefs, there is a map on which atolls and encircling reefs are
+indicated by one colour, fringing reefs by another, and active
+volcanoes by a third. And it is at once obvious that the lines of
+active volcanoes lie around the margins of the areas occupied by the
+atolls and the encircling reefs. It is exactly as if the upheaving
+volcanic agencies had lifted up the edges of these great areas, while
+their centres had undergone a corresponding depression. An atoll area
+may, in short, be pictured as a kind of basin, the margins of which
+have been pushed up by the subterranean forces, to which the craters
+of the volcanoes have, at intervals, given vent.
+
+Thus we must imagine the area of the Pacific now covered by the
+Polynesian Archipelago, as having been, at some former time,
+occupied by large islands, or, may be, by a great continent, with the
+ordinarily diversified surface of plain, and hill, and mountain chain.
+The shores of this great land were doubtless fringed by coral reefs;
+and, as it slowly underwent depression, the hilly regions, converted
+into islands, became, at first, surrounded by fringing reefs, and
+then, as depression went on, these became converted into encircling
+reefs, and these, finally, into atolls, until a maze of reefs and
+coral-girdled islets took the place of the original land masses.
+
+Thus the atolls and the encircling reefs furnish us with clear, though
+indirect, evidence of changes in the physical geography of large parts
+of the earth's surface; and even, as my lamented friend, the late
+Professor Jukes, has suggested, give us indications of the manner in
+which some of the most puzzling facts connected with the distribution
+of animals have been brought about. For example, Australia and New
+Guinea are separated by Torres Straits, a broad belt of sea 100 or
+120 miles wide. Nevertheless, there is in many respects a curious
+resemblance between the land animals which inhabit New Guinea and
+the land animals which inhabit Australia. But, at the same time, the
+marine shell-fish which are found in the shallow waters of the shores
+of New Guinea, are quite different from those which are met with upon
+the coasts of Australia. Now, the eastern end of Torres Straits is
+full of atolls, which, in fact, form the northern termination of the
+Great Barrier Reef which skirts the eastern coast of Australia. It
+follows, therefore, that the eastern end of Torres Straits is an area
+of depression, and it is very possible, and on many grounds highly
+probable, that, in former times, Australia and New Guinea were
+directly connected together, and that Torres Straits did not exist.
+If this were the case, the existence of cassowaries and of marsupial
+quadrupeds, both in New Guinea and in Australia, becomes intelligible;
+while the difference between the littoral molluscs of the north and
+the south shores of Torres Straits is readily explained by the great
+probability that, when the depression in question took place, and
+what was, at first, an arm of the sea became converted into a strait
+separating Australia from New Guinea, the northern shore of this new
+sea became tenanted with marine animals from the north, while the
+southern shore was peopled by immigrants from the already existing
+marine Australian fauna.
+
+Inasmuch as the growth of the reef depends upon that of successive
+generations of coral polypes, and as each generation takes a certain
+time to grow to its full size, and can only separate its calcareous
+skeleton from the water in which it lives at a certain rate, it is
+clear that the reefs are records not only of changes in physical
+geography, but of the lapse of time. It is by no means easy, however,
+to estimate the exact value of reef-chronology, and the attempts which
+have been made to determine the rate at which a reef grows vertically,
+have yielded anything but precise results. A cautious writer, Mr.
+Dana, whose extensive study of corals and coral reefs makes him an
+eminently competent judge, states his conclusion in the following
+terms:--
+
+    "The rate of growth of the common branching madrepore is not
+    over one and a half inches a year. As the branches are open,
+    this would not be equivalent to more than half an inch in
+    height of solid coral for the whole surface covered by
+    the madrepore; and, as they are also porous, to not over
+    three-eighths of an inch of solid limestone. But a coral
+    plantation has large bare patches without corals, and the
+    coral sands are widely distributed by currents, part of them
+    to depths over one hundred feet where there are no living
+    corals; not more than one-sixth of the surface of a reef
+    region is, in fact, covered with growing species. This reduces
+    the three-eighths to _one-sixteenth_. Shells and other organic
+    relics may contribute one-fourth as much as corals. At the
+    outside, the average upward increase of the whole reef-ground
+    per year would not exceed _one-eighth_ of an inch.
+
+    "Now some reefs are at least two thousand feet thick, which at
+    one-eighth of an inch a year, corresponds to one hundred and
+    ninety-two thousand years."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Dana, "Manual of Geology," p. 591.]
+
+Halve, or quarter, this estimate if you will, in order to be certain
+of erring upon the right side, and still there remains a prodigious
+period during which the ancestors of the existing coral polypes have
+been undisturbedly at work; and during which, therefore, the climatal
+conditions over the coral area must have been much what they are now.
+
+And all this lapse of time has occurred within the most recent period
+of the history of the earth. The remains of reefs formed by coral
+polypes of different kinds from those which exist now, enter largely
+into the composition of the limestones of the Jurassic period; and
+still more widely different coral polypes have contributed their quota
+to the vast thickness of the carboniferous and Devonian strata. Then
+as regards the latter group of rocks in America, the high authority
+already quoted tells us:--
+
+    "The Upper Helderberg period is eminently the coral reef
+    period of the palaeozoic ages. Many of the rocks abound in
+    coral, and are as truly coral reefs as the modern reefs of the
+    Pacific. The corals are sometimes standing on the rocks in the
+    position they had when growing: others are lying in fragments,
+    as they were broken and heaped by the waves; and others were
+    reduced to a compact limestone by the finer trituration before
+    consolidation into rock. This compact variety is the most
+    common kind among the coral reef rocks of the present seas;
+    and it often contains but few distinct fossils, although
+    formed in water that abounded in life. At the fall of the
+    Ohio, near Louisville, there is a magnificent display of
+    the old reef. Hemispherical _Favosites_, five or six feet
+    in diameter, lie there nearly as perfect as when they were
+    covered by their flower-like polypes; and besides these,
+    there are various branching corals, and a profusion of
+    _Cyathophiyllia_, or cup-corals."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Dana, "Manual of Geology," p. 272.]
+
+Thus, in all the great periods of the earth's history of which we
+know anything, a part of the then living matter has had the form of
+polypes, competent to separate from the water of the sea the carbonate
+of lime necessary for their own skeletons. Grain by grain, and
+particle by particle, they have built up vast masses of rock, the
+thickness of which is measured by hundreds of feet, and their area by
+thousands of square miles. The slow oscillations of the crust of the
+earth, producing great changes in the distribution of land and water,
+have often obliged the living matter of the coral-builders to shift
+the locality of its operations; and, by variation and adaptation to
+these modifications of condition, its forms have as often changed. The
+work it has done in the past is, for the most part, swept away, but
+fragments remain; and, if there were no other evidence, suffice to
+prove the general constancy of the operations of Nature in this world,
+through periods of almost inconceivable duration.
+
+
+
+
+VII.
+
+ON THE METHODS AND RESULTS OF ETHNOLOGY.
+
+
+Ethonology is the science which determines the distinctive characters
+of the persistent modifications of mankind; which ascertains the
+distribution of those modifications in present and past times, and
+seeks to discover the causes, or conditions of existence, both of
+the modifications and of their distribution. I say "persistent"
+modifications, because, unless incidentally, ethnology has nothing to
+do with chance and transitory peculiarities of human structure. And
+I speak of "persistent modifications" or "stocks" rather than of
+"varieties," or "races," or "species," because each of these last
+well-known terms implies, on the part of its employer, a preconceived
+opinion touching one of those problems, the solution of which is the
+ultimate object of the science; and in regard to which, therefore,
+ethnologists are especially bound to keep their minds open and their
+judgments freely balanced.
+
+Ethnology, as thus defined, is a branch of anthropology, the great
+science which unravels the complexities of human structure; traces out
+the relations of man to other animals; studies all that is especially
+human in the mode in which man's complex functions are performed; and
+searches after the conditions which have determined his presence in
+the world. And anthropology is a section of zoology, which again is
+the animal half of biology--the science of life and living things.
+
+Such is the position of ethnology, such are the objects of the
+ethnologist. The paths or methods, by following which he may hope to
+reach his goal, are diverse. He may work at man from the point of
+view of the pure zoologist, and investigate the anatomical and
+physiological peculiarities of Negroes, Australians, or Mongolians,
+just as he would inquire into those of pointers, terriers, and
+turnspits,--"persistent modifications" of man's almost universal
+companion. Or he may seek aid from researches into the most human
+manifestation of humanity--language; and assuming that what is true of
+speech is true of the speaker--a hypothesis as questionable in science
+as it is in ordinary life--he may apply to mankind themselves the
+conclusions drawn from a searching analysis of their words and
+grammatical forms.
+
+Or, the ethnologist may turn to the study of the practical life
+of men; and relying upon the inherent conservatism and small
+inventiveness of untutored mankind, he may hope to discover in manners
+and customs, or in weapons, dwellings, and other handiwork, a clue to
+the origin of the resemblances and differences of nations. Or, he may
+resort to that kind of evidence which is yielded by history proper,
+and consists of the beliefs of men concerning past events, embodied
+in traditional, or in written, testimony. Or, when that thread breaks,
+archaeology, which is the interpretation of the unrecorded remains of
+man's works, belonging to the epoch since the world has reached its
+present condition, may still guide him. And, when even the dim light
+of archaeology fades, there yet remains paleontology, which, in these
+latter years, has brought to daylight once more the exuvia of ancient
+populations, whose world was not our world, who have been buried in
+river beds immemorially dry, or carried by the rush of waters into
+caves, inaccessible to inundation since the dawn of tradition.
+
+Along each, or all, of these paths the ethnologist may press towards
+his goal; but they are not equally straight, or sure, or easy to
+tread. The way of palaeontology has but just been laid open to us.
+Archaeological and historical investigations are of great value for
+all those peoples whose ancient state has differed widely from their
+present condition, and who have the good or evil fortune to possess a
+history. But on taking a broad survey of the world, it is astonishing
+how few nations present either condition. Respecting five-sixths of
+the persistent modifications of mankind, history and archaeology are
+absolutely silent. For half the rest, they might as well be silent for
+anything that is to be made of their testimony. And, finally, when the
+question arises as to what was the condition of mankind more than a
+paltry two or three thousand years ago, history and archaeology are,
+for the most part, mere dumb dogs. What light does either of these
+branches of knowledge throw on the past of the man of the New World,
+if we except the Central Americans and the Peruvians; on that of the
+Africans, save those of the valley of the Nile and a fringe of the
+Mediterranean; on that of all the Polynesian, Australian, and central
+Asiatic peoples, the former of whom probably, and the last certainly,
+were, at the dawn of history, substantially what they are now? While
+thankfully accepting what history has to give him, therefore, the
+ethnologist must not look for too much from her.
+
+Is more to be expected from inquiries into the customs and handicrafts
+of men? It is to be feared not. In reasoning from identity of custom
+to identity of stock the difficulty always obtrudes itself, that
+the minds of men being everywhere similar, differing in quality and
+quantity but not in kind of faculty, like circumstances must tend to
+produce like contrivances; at any rate, so long as the need to be
+met and conquered is of a very simple kind. That two nations use
+calabashes or shells for drinking-vessels, or that they employ
+spears, or clubs, or swords and axes of stone and metal as weapons and
+implements, cannot be regarded as evidence that these two nations
+had a common origin, or even that intercommunication ever took place
+between them; seeing that the convenience of using calabashes or
+shells for such purposes, and the advantage of poking an enemy with a
+sharp stick, or hitting him with a heavy one, must be early forced
+by nature upon the mind of even the stupidest savage. And when he had
+found out the use of a stick, he would need no prompting to discover
+the value of a chipped or wetted stone, or an angular piece of native
+metal, for the same object. On the other hand, it may be doubted
+whether the chances are not greatly against independent peoples
+arriving at the manufacture of a boomerang, or of a bow; which last,
+if one comes to think of it, is a rather complicated apparatus; and
+the tracing of the distribution of inventions as complex as these,
+and of such strange customs as betel-chewing and tobacco-smoking, may
+afford valuable ethnological hints.
+
+Since the time of Leibnitz, and guided by such men as Humboldt, Abel
+Remusat, and Klaproth, Philology has taken far higher ground. Thus
+Prichard affirms that "the history of nations, termed Ethnology, must
+be mainly founded on the relations of their languages."
+
+An eminent living philologer, August Schleicher, in a recent essay,
+puts forward the claims of his science still more forcibly:--
+
+    "If, however, language is the human [Greek: kat ezochhên], the
+    suggestion arises whether it should not form the basis of
+    any scientific systematic arrangement of mankind; whether the
+    foundation of the natural classification of the genus Homo has
+    not been discovered in it.
+
+    "How little constant are cranial peculiarities and other
+    so-called race characters! Language, on the other hand,
+    is always a perfectly constant diagnostic. A German may
+    occasionally compete in hair and prognathism with a negro,
+    but a negro language will never be his mother tongue. Of how
+    little importance for mankind the so-called race characters
+    are, is shown by the fact that speakers of languages belonging
+    to one and the same linguistic family may exhibit the
+    peculiarities of various races. Thus the settled Osmanli Turk
+    exhibits Caucasian characters, while other so-called Tartaric
+    Turks exemplify the Mongol type. On the other hand, the
+    Magyar and the Basque do not depart in any essential physical
+    peculiarity from the Indo-Germans, whilst the Magyar, Basque,
+    and Indo-Germanic tongues are widely different. Apart from
+    their inconstancy, again, the so-called race characters can
+    hardly yield a scientifically natural system. Languages, on
+    the other hand, readily fall into a natural arrangement, like
+    that of which other vital products are susceptible, especially
+    when viewed from their morphological side.... The externally
+    visible structure of the cerebral and facial skeletons, and
+    of the body generally, is less important than that no less
+    material but infinitely more delicate corporeal structure, the
+    function of which is speech. I conceive, therefore, that
+    the natural classification of languages is also the natural
+    classification of mankind. With language, moreover, all the
+    higher manifestations of man's vital activity are closely
+    interwoven, so that these receive due recognition in and by
+    that of speech."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: August Schleicher. Ueber die Bedeutung der Sprache für
+die Naturgeschichte des Menschen, pp. 16-18. Weimar, 1858.]
+
+Without the least desire to depreciate the value of philology as
+an adjuvant to ethnology, I must venture to doubt, with Rudolphi,
+Desmoulins, Crawfurd, and others, its title to the leading position
+claimed for it by the writers whom I have just quoted. On the
+contrary, it seems to me obvious that, though, in the absence of any
+evidence to the contrary, unity of languages may afford a certain
+presumption in favour of the unity of stock of the peoples speaking
+those languages, it cannot be held to prove that unity of stock,
+unless philologers are prepared to demonstrate, that no nation can
+lose its language and acquire that of a distinct nation, without a
+change of blood corresponding with the change of language. Desmoulins
+long ago put this argument exceedingly well:--
+
+    "Let us imagine the recurrence of one of those slow, or
+    sudden, political revolutions, or say of those secular changes
+    which among different people and at different epochs have
+    annihilated historical monuments and even extinguished
+    tradition. In that case, the evidence, now so clear, that the
+    negroes of Hayti were slaves imported by a French colony, who,
+    by the very effect of the subordination involved in slavery,
+    lost their own diverse languages and adopted that of their
+    masters, would vanish. And metaphysical philosophers,
+    observing the identity of Haytian French with that spoken on
+    the shores of the Seine and the Loire, would argue that the
+    men of St. Domingo with woolly heads, black and oily skins,
+    small calves, and slightly bent knees, are of the same race,
+    descended from the same parental stock, as the Frenchmen with
+    silky brown, chestnut, or fair hair, and white skins. For they
+    would say, their languages are more similar than French is to
+    German or Spanish."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Desmoulins, "Histoire Naturelle des Races Humaines," p.
+345. 1826.]
+
+It must not be imagined that the case put by Desmoulins is a merely
+hypothetical one. Events precisely similar to the transport of a body
+of Africans to the West India Islands, indeed, cannot have happened
+among uncivilized races, but similar results have followed the
+importation of bodies of conquerors among an enslaved people over and
+over again. There is hardly a country in Europe in which two or more
+nations speaking widely different tongues have not become intermixed;
+and there is hardly a language of Europe of which we have any right
+to think that its structure affords a just indication of the amount of
+that intermixture.
+
+As Dr. Latham has well said:--
+
+    "It is certain that the language of England is of Anglo-Saxon
+    origin, and that the remains of the original Keltic are
+    unimportant. It is by no means so certain that the blood of
+    Englishmen is equally Germanic. A vast amount of Kelticism,
+    not found in our tongue, very probably exists in our
+    pedigrees. The ethnology of France is still more complicated.
+    Many writers make the Parisian a Roman on the strength of his
+    language; whilst others make him a Kelt on the strength of
+    certain moral characteristics, combined with the previous
+    Kelticism of the original Gauls. Spanish and Portuguese, as
+    languages, are derivations from the Latin; Spain and Portugal,
+    as countries, are Iberic, Latin, Gothic, and Arab, in
+    different proportions. Italian is modern Latin all the world
+    over; yet surely there must be much Keltic blood in Lombardy,
+    and much Etruscan intermixture in Tuscany.
+
+    "In the ninth century every man between the Elbe and the
+    Niemen spoke some Slavonic dialect; they now nearly all speak
+    German. Surely the blood is less exclusively Gothic than the
+    speech."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Latham, "Man and his Migrations," p. 171.]
+
+In other words, what philologer, if he had nothing but the vocabulary
+and grammar of the French and English languages to guide him, would
+dream of the real causes of the unlikeness of a Norman to a Provençal,
+of an Orcadian to a Cornishman? How readily might he be led to suppose
+that the different climatal conditions to which these speakers of
+one tongue have so long been exposed, have caused their physical
+differences; and how little would he suspect that these are due (as we
+happen to know they are) to wide differences of blood.
+
+Few take duly into account the evidence which exists as to the
+ease with which unlettered savages gain or lose a language. Captain
+Erskine, in his interesting "Journal of a Cruise among the Islands of
+the Western Pacific," especially remarks upon the "avidity with
+which the inhabitants of the polyglot islands of Melanesia, from New
+Caledonia to the Solomon Islands, adopt the improvements of a more
+perfect language than their own, which different causes and accidental
+communication still continue to bring to them;" and he adds that
+"among the Melanesian islands scarcely one was found by us which did
+not possess, in some cases still imperfectly, the decimal system of
+numeration in addition to their own, in which they reckon only to
+five."
+
+Yet how much philological reasoning in favour of the affinity
+or diversity of two distinct peoples has been based on the mere
+comparison of numerals!
+
+But the most instructive example of the fallacy which may attach to
+merely philological reasonings, is that afforded by the Feejeans, who
+are, physically, so intimately connected with the adjacent Negritos of
+New Caledonia, &c., that no one can doubt to what stock they belong,
+and who yet, in the form and substance of their language, are
+Polynesian. The case is as remarkable as if the Canary Islands should
+have been found to be inhabited by negroes speaking Arabic, or some
+other clearly Semitic dialect, as their mother tongue. As it happens,
+the physical peculiarities of the Feejeans are so striking, and
+the conditions under which they live are so similar to those of the
+Polynesians, that no one has ventured to suggest that they are merely
+modified Polynesians--a suggestion which could otherwise certainly
+have been made. But if languages may be thus transferred from one
+stock to another, without any corresponding intermixture of blood,
+what ethnological value has philology?--what security does unity of
+language afford us that the speakers of that language may not have
+sprung from two, or three, or a dozen, distinct sources?
+
+Thus we come, at last, to the purely zoological method, from which
+it is not unnatural to expect more than from any other, seeing that,
+after all, the problems of ethnology are simply those which are
+presented to the zoologist by every widely distributed animal he
+studies. The father of modern zoology seems to have had no doubt upon
+this point. At the twenty-eighth page of the standard twelfth edition
+of the "Systema Naturae," in fact, we find:--
+
+
+
+I. PRIMATES.
+
+
+_Dentes primores incisores: superiores IV. paralleli, mammae
+pectorales II._
+
+1. HOMO.        Nosce te ipsum.
+Sapiens.        1. H. diurnus: _varians cultura, loco._
+_Ferus_.   Tetrapus, mutus, hirsutus.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Americanus_ [Greek: a].  Rufus, cholericus, rectus--_Pilis_
+                               nigris, rectis, crassis--_Naribus_
+                               patulis--_Facie_ ephelitica:
+                               _Mento_ subimberbi.
+                               _Pertinax_, contentus, liber. _Pingit_
+                               se lineis daedaleis rubris.
+                               _Regitur_ Consuetudine.
+
+_Europaeus_ [Greek: b].   Albus sauguineus torosus. _Pilis_
+                               flavescentibus, prolixis.
+                               _Oculis_ caeruleis.
+                               _Levis_, argutus, inventor.
+                               _Tegitur_ Vestimentis arctis.
+                               _Regitur_ Ritibus.
+
+_Asiaticus_ [Greek: g].   Luridus, melancholicus, rigidus.
+                               _Pilis_ nigricantibus. _Oculis_
+                               fuscis.  _Severus_, fastuosus, avarus.
+                               _Tegitur_ Indumentis laxis.
+                               _Regitur_ Opinionibus.
+
+_Afer_ [Greek: d].        Niger, phlegmaticus, laxus. _Pilis_
+                               atris, contortuplicatis. _Cute_ holosericea.
+                               _Naso_ simo.  _Labiis_ tumidis.
+                               _Feminis_ sinus pudoris.
+                               _Mammae_ lactantes prolixae.
+                               _Vafer_, segnis, negligens. _Ungit_ se
+                               pingui. _Regitur_ Arbitrio.
+
+_Monstrosus_ [Greek: e].  Solo (a) et arte (b c) variat.:
+                            a. _Alpini_ parvi, agiles, timidi.
+                               _Patagonici_ magni, segnes.
+                            b. _Monorchides_ ut minus fertiles:
+                               Hottentotti.
+                               _Junceae_ puellae, abdomine attenuato:
+                               Europoeae.
+                            c. _Macrocephali_ capiti conico: Chinenses.
+                               _Plagiocephali_ capite antice compresso:
+                               Canadenses.
+
+Turn a few pages further on in the same volume, and there appears,
+with a fine impartiality in the distribution of capitals and
+sub-divisional headings:--
+
+III. FERAE.
+
+
+_Dentes primores superiores sex, acutiusculi. Canini solitarii._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+12. CANIS.           _Dentes primores_ superiores VI.: laterales
+                     longiores distantes: intermedii lobati.
+                     Inferiores VI.: laterales lobati.
+                     _Laniarii_ solitarii, incurvati.
+                     Molares VI. s. VII. (pluresve quam in reliquis).
+
+_familiaris_ [Greek: i].  C. cauda (sinistrorsum) recurvata....
+
+_domesticus_ [Greek: a].  auriculis erectis, cauda subtus lanata.
+
+_sagax_ [Greek: b].       auriculis pendulis, digito spurio ad
+                          tibias posticas.
+
+_grajus_ [Greek: g].      magnitudine lupi, trunco curvato, rostro
+                          attenuato, &c. &c.
+
+Linnaeus' definition of what he considers to be mere varieties of
+the species Man are, it will be observed, as completely free from
+any allusion to linguistic peculiarities as those brief and pregnant
+sentences in which he sketches the characters of the varieties of
+the species Dog. "Pilis nigris, naribus patulis" may be set against
+"auriculis erectis, cauda subtus lanata;" while the remarks on the
+morals and manners of the human subject seem as if they were thrown in
+merely by way of makeweight.
+
+Buffon, Blumenbach (the founder of ethnology as a special science),
+Rudolphi, Bory de St. Vincent, Desmoulins, Cuvier, Retzius, indeed I
+may say all the naturalists proper, have dealt with man from a no
+less completely zoological point of view; while, as might have been
+expected, those who have been least naturalists, and most linguists,
+have most neglected the zoological method, the neglect culminating in
+those who have been altogether devoid of acquaintance with anatomy.
+
+Prichard's proposition, that language is more persistent than physical
+characters, is one which has never been proved, and indeed admits of
+no proof, seeing that the records of language do not extend so far
+as those of physical characters. But, until the superior tenacity
+of linguistic over physical peculiarities is shown, and until the
+abundant evidence which exists, that the language of a people may
+change without corresponding physical change in that people, is shown
+to be valueless, it is plain that the zoological court of appeal
+is the highest for the ethnologist, and that no evidence can be set
+against that derived from physical characters.
+
+What, then, will a new survey of mankind from the Linnaean point of
+view teach us?
+
+The great antipodal block of land we call Australia has, speaking
+roughly, the form of a vast quadrangle, 2,000 miles on the side, and
+extends from the hottest tropical, to the middle of the temperate,
+zone. Setting aside the foreign colonists introduced within the
+last century, it is inhabited by people no less remarkable for the
+uniformity, than for the singularity, of their physical characters and
+social state. For the most part of fair stature, erect and well built,
+except for an unusual slenderness of the lower limbs, the AUSTRALIANS
+have dark, usually chocolate-coloured skins; fine dark wavy hair; dark
+eyes, overhung by beetle brows; coarse, projecting jaws; broad and
+dilated, but not especially flattened, noses; and lips which, though
+prominent, are eminently flexible.
+
+The skulls of these people are always long and narrow, with a smaller
+development of the frontal sinuses than usually corresponds with such
+largely developed brow ridges. An Australian skull of a round form,
+or one the transverse diameter of which exceeds eight-tenths of its
+length, has never been seen. These people, in a word, are eminently
+"dolichocephalic," or long-headed; but, with this one limitation,
+their crania present considerable variations, some being comparatively
+high and arched, while others are more remarkably depressed than
+almost any other human skulls.
+
+The female pelvis differs comparatively little from the European;
+but in the pelves of male Australians which I have examined, the
+antero-posterior and transverse diameters approach equality more
+nearly than is the case in Europeans.
+
+No Australian tribe has ever been known to cultivate the ground,
+to use metals, pottery, or any kind of textile fabric. They rarely
+construct huts. Their means of navigation are limited to rafts or
+canoes, made of sheets of bark. Clothing, except skin cloaks for
+protection from cold, is a superfluity with which they dispense; and
+though they have some singular weapons, almost peculiar to themselves,
+they are wholly unacquainted with bows and arrows.
+
+It is but a step, as it were, across Bass's Straits to Tasmania.
+Neither climate nor the characteristic forms of vegetable or animal
+life change largely on the south side of the Straits, but the early
+voyagers found Man singularly different from him on the north side.
+The skin of the Tasmanian was dark, though he lived between parallels
+of latitude corresponding with those of middle Europe in our own
+hemisphere; his jaws projected, his head was long and narrow; his
+civilization was about on a footing with that of the Australian, if
+not lower, for I cannot discover that the Tasmanian understood the
+use of the throwing-stick. But he differed from the Australian in his
+woolly, negro-like hair, whence the name of NEGRITO, which has been
+applied to him and his congeners.
+
+Such Negritos--differing more or less from the Tasmanian, but agreeing
+with him in dark skin and woolly hair--occupy New Caledonia, the New
+Hebrides, the Louisiade Archipelago; and stretching to the Papuan
+Islands, and for a doubtful extent beyond them to the north and
+west, form a sort of belt, or zone, of Negrito population, interposed
+between the Australians on the west and the inhabitants of the great
+majority of the Pacific islands on the east.
+
+The cranial characters of the Negritos vary considerably more than
+those of their skin and hair, the most notable circumstance being
+the strong Australian aspect which distinguishes many Negrito skulls,
+while others tend rather towards forms common in the Polynesian
+islands.
+
+In civilization, New Caledonia exhibits an advance upon Tasmania, and,
+farther north, there is a still greater improvement. But the bows
+and arrows, the perched houses, the outrigger canoes, the habits of
+betel-chewing and of kawa-drinking, which abound more or less among
+the northern Negritos, are probably to be regarded not as the products
+of an indigenous civilization, but merely as indications of the extent
+to which foreign influences have modified the primitive social state
+of these people.
+
+From Tasmania or New Caledonia, to New Zealand or Tongataboo, is again
+but a brief voyage; but it brings about a still more notable change
+in the aspect of the indigenous population than that effected by the
+passage of Bass's Straits. Instead of being chocolate-coloured people,
+the Maories and Tongans are light brown; instead of woolly, they have
+straight, or wavy, black hair. And if from New Zealand, we travel
+some 5,000 miles east to Easter Island; and from Easter Island, for as
+great a distance north-west, to the Sandwich Islands; and thence 7,000
+miles, westward and southward, to Sumatra; and even across the Indian
+Ocean, into the interior of Madagascar, we shall everywhere meet with
+people whose hair is straight or wavy, and whose skins exhibit various
+shades of brown. These are the Polynesians, Micronesians, Indonesians,
+whom Latham has grouped together under the common title of
+AMPHINESIANS.
+
+The cranial characters of these people, as of the Negritos, are less
+constant than those of their skin and hair. The Maori has a long
+skull; the Sandwich Islander a broad skull. Some, like these, have
+strong brow ridges; others, like the Dayaks and many Polynesians, have
+hardly any nasal indentation.
+
+It is only in the westernmost parts of their area that the Amphinesian
+nations know anything about bows and arrows as weapons, or are
+acquainted with the use of metals or with pottery. Everywhere they
+cultivate the ground, construct houses, and skilfully build and manage
+outrigger, or double, canoes; while, almost everywhere, they use some
+kind of fabric for clothing.
+
+Between Easter Island, or the Sandwich Islands, and any part of the
+American coast is a much wider interval than that between Tasmania and
+New Zealand, but the ethnological interval between the American and
+the Polynesian is less than that between either of the previously
+named stocks.
+
+The typical AMERICAN has straight black hair and dark eyes, his skin
+exhibiting various shades of reddish or yellowish brown, sometimes
+inclining to olive. The face is broad and scantily bearded; the skull
+wide and high. Such people extend from Patagonia to Mexico, and much
+farther north along the west coast. In the main a race of hunters,
+they had nevertheless, at the time of the discovery of the Americas,
+attained a remarkable degree of civilization in some localities. They
+had domesticated ruminants, and not only practised agriculture,
+but had learned the value of irrigation. They manufactured textile
+fabrics, were masters of the potter's art, and knew how to erect
+massive buildings of stone. They understood the working of the
+precious, though not of the useful, metals; and had even attained to a
+rude kind of hieroglyphic, or picture, writing.
+
+The Americans not only employ the bow and arrow, but, like some
+Amphinesians, the blow-pipe, as offensive weapons: but I am not aware
+that the outrigger canoe has ever been observed among them.
+
+I have reason to suspect that some of the Fuegian tribes differ
+cranially from the typical Americans; and the Northern and Eastern
+American tribes have longer skulls than their Southern compatriots.
+But the ESQUIMAUX, who roam on the desolate and ice-bound coasts of
+Arctic America, certainly present us with a new stock. The Esquimaux
+(among whom the Greenlanders are included), in fact, though they
+share the straight black hair of the proper Americans, are a duller
+complexioned, shorter, and more squat people, and they have still
+more prominent cheek-bones. But the circumstance which most completely
+separates them from the typical Americans, is the form of their
+skulls, which instead of being broad, high, and truncated behind, are
+eminently long, usually low, and prolonged backwards.
+
+These Hyperborean people clothe themselves in skins, know nothing of
+pottery, and hardly anything of metals. Dependent for existence upon
+the produce of the chase, the seal and the whale are to them what
+the cocoa-nut tree and the plantain are to the savages of more genial
+climates. Not only are those animals meat and raiment, but they are
+canoes, sledges, weapons, tools, windows, and fire; while they support
+the dog, who is the indispensable ally and beast of burden of the
+Esquimaux.
+
+It is admitted that the Tchuktchi, on the eastern side of Behring's
+Straits, are, in all essential respects, Esquimaux; and I do not know
+that there is any satisfactory evidence to show that the Tunguses and
+Samoiedes do not essentially share the physical characters of the same
+people. Southward, there are indications of Esquimaux characters among
+the Japanese, and it is possible that their influence may be traced
+yet further.
+
+However this may be, Eastern Asia, from Mantchouria to Siam, Thibet,
+and Northern Hindostan, is continuously inhabited by men, usually of
+short stature, with skins varying in colour from yellow to olive; with
+broad cheek-bones and faces that, owing to the insignificance of the
+nose, are exceedingly flat; and with small, obliquely-set, black eyes
+and straight black hair, which sometimes attains a very great length
+upon the scalp, but is always scanty upon the face and body. The
+skull is never much elongated, and is, generally, remarkably broad
+and rounded, with hardly any nasal depression, and but slight, if any,
+projection of the jaws.
+
+Many of these people, for whom the old name of MONGOLIANS may be
+retained, are nomades; others, as the Chinese, have attained a
+remarkable and apparently indigenous civilization, only surpassed by
+that of Europe.
+
+At the north-western extremity of Europe the Lapps repeat the
+characters of the Eastern Asiatics. Between these extreme points, the
+Mongolian stock is not continuous, but is represented by a chain of
+more or less isolated tribes, who pass under the name of Calmucks and
+Tartars, and form Mongolian islands, as it were, in the midst of an
+ocean of other people.
+
+The waves of this ocean are the nations for whom, in order
+to avoid the endless confusion produced by our present
+half-physical, half-philological classification, I shall use a new
+name--XANTHOCHROI--indicating that they are "yellow" haired and "pale"
+in complexion. The Chinese historians of the Han dynasty, writing
+in the third century before our era, describe, with much minuteness,
+certain numerous and powerful barbarians with "yellow hair, green
+eyes, and prominent noses," who, the black-haired, skew-eyed, and
+flat-nosed annalists remark in passing, are "just like the apes from
+whom they are descended." These people held, in force, the upper
+waters of the Yenisei, and thence under various names stretched
+southward to Thibet and Kashgar. Fair-haired and blue-eyed northern
+enemies were no less known to the ancient Hindoos, to the Persians,
+and to the Egyptians, on the south of the great central Asiatic area;
+while the testimony of all European antiquity is to the effect that,
+before and since the period in question, there lay beyond the Danube,
+the Rhine, and the Seine, a vast and dangerous yellow or red haired,
+fair-skinned, blue-eyed population. Whether the disturbers of the
+marches of the Roman Empire were called Gauls or Germans, Goths,
+Alans, or Scythians, one thing seems certain, that until the invasion
+of the Huns, they were tall, fair, blue-eyed men.
+
+If any one should think fit to assume that in the year 100 B.C.,
+there was one continuous Xanthochroic population from the Rhine to the
+Yenisei, and from the Ural mountains to the Hindoo Koosh, I know not
+that any evidence exists by which that position could be upset, while
+the existing state of things is rather in its favour than otherwise.
+For the Scandinavians, wholly, the Germans to a great extent, the
+Slavonian and the Finnish tribes, some of the inhabitants of Greece,
+many Turks, some Kirghis, and some Mantchous, the Ossetes in the
+Caucasus, the Siahposh, the Rohillas, are at the present day fair,
+yellow or red haired, and blue-eyed; and the interpolation of tribes
+of Mongolian hair and complexion, as far west as the Caspian Steppes
+and the Crimea, might justly be accounted for by those subsequent
+westward irruptions of the Mongolian stock, of which history furnishes
+abundant testimony.
+
+The furthermost limit of the Xanthochroi north-westward is Iceland
+and the British Isles; south-westward, they are traceable at intervals
+through the Berber country, and end in the Canary Islands.
+
+The cranial characters of the Xanthochroi are not, at present,
+strictly definable. The Scandinavians are certainly long-headed; but
+many Germans, the Swiss so far as they are Germanized, the Slavonians,
+the Fins, and the Turks, are short-headed. What were the cranial
+characters of the ancient "U-suns" and "Ting-lings" of the valley of
+the Yenisei is unknown.
+
+West of the area occupied by the chief mass of the Xanthochroi, and
+north of the Sahara, is a broad belt of land, shaped like a =Y=.
+Between the forks of the =Y= lies the Mediterranean; the stem of it
+is Arabia. The stem is bathed by the Indian Ocean, the western ends of
+the forks by the Atlantic. The people inhabiting the area thus roughly
+sketched have, like the Xanthochroi, prominent noses, pale skins and
+wavy hair, with abundant beards; but, unlike them, the hair is black
+or dark, and the eyes usually so. They may thence be called the
+MELANOCHROI. Such people are found in the British Islands, in Western
+and Southern Gaul, in Spain, in Italy south of the Po, in parts of
+Greece, in Syria and Arabia, stretching as far northward and eastward
+as the Caucasus and Persia. They are the chief inhabitants of Africa
+north of the Sahara, and, like the Xanthochroi, they end in the
+Canary Islands. They are known as Kelts, Iberians, Etruscans, Romans,
+Pelasgians, Berbers, Semites. The majority of them are long-headed,
+and of smaller stature than the Xanthochroi.
+
+It is needless to remark upon the civilization of these two great
+stocks. With them has originated everything that is highest in
+science, in art, in law, in politics, and in mechanical inventions.
+In their hands, at the present moment, lies the order of the social
+world, and to them its progress is committed.
+
+South of the Atlas, and of the Great Desert, Middle Africa exhibits
+a new type of humanity in the NEGRO, with his dark skin, woolly hair,
+projecting jaws, and thick lips. As a rule, the skull of the Negro
+is remarkably long; it rarely approaches the broad type, and never
+exhibits the roundness of the Mongolian. A cultivator of the ground,
+and dwelling in villages; a maker of pottery, and a worker in the
+useful as well as the ornamental metals; employing the bow and arrow
+as well as the spear, the typical negro stands high in point of
+civilization above the Australian.
+
+Resembling the Negroes in cranial characters, the BUSHMEN of South
+Africa differ from them in their yellowish brown skins, their tufted
+hair, their remarkably small stature, and their tendency to fatty and
+other integumentary outgrowths; nor is the wonderful click with which
+their speech is interspersed to be overlooked in enumerating the
+physical characteristics of this strange people.
+
+The so-called "Drawidian" populations of Southern Hindostan lead us
+back, physically as well as geographically, towards the Australians;
+while the diminutive MINCOPIES of the Andaman Islands lie midway
+between the Negro and Negrito races, and, as Mr. Busk has pointed
+out, occasionally present the rare combination of Brachycephaly, or
+short-headedness, with woolly hair.
+
+In the preceding progress along the outskirts of the habitable world,
+eleven readily distinguishable stocks, or persistent modifications, of
+mankind, have been recognized. I have purposely omitted such people as
+the Abyssinians and the Hindoos, who there is every reason to believe
+result from the intermixture of distinct stocks. Perhaps I ought, for
+like reasons, to have ignored the Mincopies. But I do not pretend that
+my enumeration is complete or, in any sense, perfect. It is enough for
+my purpose if it be admitted (and I think it cannot be denied) that
+those which I have mentioned exist, are well marked, and occupy the
+greater part of the habitable globe.
+
+In attempting to classify these persistent modifications after the
+manner of naturalists, the first circumstance that attracts one's
+attention is the broad contrast between the people with straight and
+wavy hair, and those with crisp, woolly, or tufted hair. Bory de
+St. Vincent, noting this fundamental distinction, divided mankind
+accordingly into the two primary groups of _Leiotrichi_ and
+_Ulotrichi_,--terms which are open to criticism, but which I adopt in
+the accompanying table, because they have been used. It is better for
+science to accept a faulty name which has the merit of existence, than
+to burthen it with a faultless newly invented one.
+
+Under each of these divisions are two columns, one for the
+Brachycephali, or short heads, and one for the Dolichocephali[1], or
+long heads. Again, each column is subdivided transversely into four
+compartments, one for the "leucous," people with fair complexions and
+yellow or red hair; one for the "leucomelanous," with dark hair and
+pale skins; one for the "xanthomelanous," with black hair and yellow,
+brown, or olive skins; and one for the "melanous," with black hair and
+dark brown or blackish skins.
+
+[Footnote 1: Skulls, the transverse diameter of which is more than
+eight-tenths the long diameter, are short; those which have the
+transverse diameter less than eight-tenths the longitudinal, are
+long.]
+
+             LEIOTRICHI.                       ULOTRICHI.
+   ______________________________     ____________________________
+  /                              \   /                            \
+    Dolichocephali. Brachycephali.   Dolichocephali. Brachycephali.
+Leucous.
+        .... Xanthochroi ....
+Leucomelanous.
+        .... Melanochroi ....
+Xanthomelanous.
+  _Esquimaux_.    Mongolians.   _Bushmen_.
+         _Amphinesians_.
+          _Americans_.
+Melanous.
+  _Australians_.                 Negroes.            _Mincopies_(?)
+                                   _Negritos_
+
+NOTE: _The names of the stocks known only since the fifteenth century
+are put into italics. If the "Skrälings" of the Norse discoverers of
+America were Esquimaux, Europeans became acquainted with the latter
+six or seven centuries earlier_.
+
+It is curious to observe that almost all the woolly-headed people are
+also long-headed; while among the straight-haired nations broad heads
+preponderate, and only two stocks, the Esquimaux and the Australians,
+are exclusively long-headed.
+
+One of the acutest and most original of ethnologists, Desmoulins,
+originated the idea, which has subsequently been fully developed by
+Agassiz, that the distribution of the persistent modifications of man
+is governed by the same laws as that of other animals, and that both
+fall into the same great distributional provinces. Thus, Australia;
+America, south of Mexico; the Arctic regions; Europe, Syria,
+Arabia, and North Africa, taken together, are each regions eminently
+characterized by the nature of their animal and vegetable populations,
+and each, as we have seen, has its peculiar and characteristic form of
+man. But it may be doubted whether the parallel thus drawn will hold
+good strictly, and in all cases. The Tasmanian Fauna and Flora are
+essentially Australian, and the like is true to a less extent of many,
+if not of all, the Papuan islands; but the Negritos who inhabit these
+islands are strikingly different from the Australians. Again, the
+differences between the Mongolians and the Xanthochroi are out of all
+proportion greater than those between the Faunae and Florae of Central
+and Eastern Asia. But whatever the difficulties in the way of the
+detailed application of this comparison of the distribution of men
+with that of animals, it is well worthy of being borne in mind, and
+carried as far as it will go.
+
+Apart from all speculation, a very curious fact regarding the
+distribution of the persistent modifications of mankind becomes
+apparent on inspecting an Ethnological chart, projected in such
+a manner that the Pacific Ocean occupies its centre. Such a chart
+exhibits an Australian area occupied by dark smooth-haired people,
+separated by an incomplete inner zone of dark woolly-haired
+Negritos and Negroes, from an outer zone of comparatively pale and
+smooth-haired men, occupying the Americas, and nearly all Asia and
+North Africa.
+
+Such is a brief sketch of the characters and distribution of the
+persistent modifications, or stocks, of mankind at the present day.
+If we seek for direct evidence of how long this state of things
+has lasted, we shall find little enough, and that little far from
+satisfactory. Of the eleven different stocks enumerated, seven have
+been known to us for less than 400 years; and of these seven not
+one possessed a fragment of written history at the time it came into
+contact with European civilization. The other four--the Negroes,
+Mongolians, Xanthochroi, and Melanochroi--have always existed in some
+of the localities in which they are now found, nor do the negroes ever
+seem to have voluntarily travelled beyond the limits of their present
+area. But ancient history is in a great measure the record of the
+mutual encroachments of the other three stocks.
+
+On the whole, however, it is wonderful how little change has been
+effected by these mutual invasions and intermixtures. As at the
+present time, so at the dawn of history, the Melanochroi fringed
+the Atlantic and the Mediterranean; the Xanthochroi occupied most
+of Central and Eastern Europe, and much of Western and Central Asia;
+while Mongolians held the extreme east of the Old World. So far as
+history teaches us, the populations of Europe, Asia, and Africa were,
+twenty centuries ago, just what they are now, in their broad features
+and general distribution.
+
+The evidence yielded by Archaeology is not very definite, but, so
+far as it goes, it is to much the same effect. The mound builders of
+Central America seem to have had the characteristic short and broad
+head of the modern inhabitants of that continent. The tumuli and tombs
+of Ancient Scandinavia, of pre-Roman Britain, of Gaul, of Switzerland,
+reveal two types of skull--a broad and a long--of which, in
+Scandinavia, the broad seems to have belonged to the older stock,
+while the reverse was probably the case in Britain, and certainly
+in Switzerland. It has been assumed that the broad-skulled people of
+ancient Scandinavia were Lapps; but there is no proof of the fact,
+and they may have been, like the broad-skulled Swiss and Germans,
+Xanthochroi. One of the greatest of ethnological difficulties is to
+know where the modern Swedes, Norsemen, and Saxons got their long
+heads, as all their neighbours, Fins, Lapps, Slavonians, and
+South Germans, are broad-headed. Again, who were the small-handed,
+long-headed people of the "bronze epoch," and what has become of the
+infusion of their blood among the Xanthochroi?
+
+At present Palaeontology yields no safe data to the ethnologist. We
+know absolutely nothing of the ethnological characters of the men of
+Abbeville and Hoxne; but must be content with the demonstration, in
+itself of immense value, that Man existed in Western Europe when its
+physical condition was widely different from what it is now, and
+when animals existed, which, though they belong to what is, properly
+speaking, the present order of things, have long been extinct. Beyond
+the limits of a fraction of Europe, Palaeontology tells us nothing of
+man or of his works.
+
+To sum up our knowledge of the ethnological past of man: so far as the
+light is bright, it shows him substantially as he is now; and, when it
+grows dim, it permits us to see no sign that he was other than he is
+now.
+
+It is a general belief that men of different stocks differ as much
+physiologically as they do morphologically; but it is very hard
+to prove, in any particular case, how much of a supposed national
+characteristic is due to inherent physiological peculiarities, and
+how much to the influence of circumstances. There is much evidence to
+show, however, that some stocks enjoy a partial or complete immunity
+from diseases which destroy, or decimate, others. Thus there seems
+good ground for the belief that Negroes are remarkably exempt from
+yellow fever; and that, among Europeans, the melanochrous people are
+less obnoxious to its ravages than the xanthochrous. But many writers,
+not content with physiological differences of this kind, undertake to
+prove the existence of others of far greater moment; and, indeed, to
+show that certain stocks of mankind exhibit, more or less distinctly,
+the physiological characters of true species. Unions between these
+stocks, and still more between the half-breeds arising from their
+mixture, are affirmed to be either infertile, or less fertile than
+those which take place between males and females of either stock under
+the same circumstances. Some go so far as to assert that no mixed
+breeds of mankind can maintain themselves without the assistance of
+one or other of the parent stocks, and that, consequently, they must
+inevitably be obliterated in the long run.
+
+Here, again, it is exceedingly difficult to obtain trustworthy
+evidence, and to free the effects of the pure physiological experiment
+from adventitious influences. The only trial which, by a strange
+chance, was kept clear of all such influences--the only instance in
+which two distinct stocks of mankind were crossed, and their progeny
+intermarried without any admixture from without--is the famous case
+of the Pitcairn Islanders, who were the progeny of Bligh's English
+sailors by Tahitian women. The results of this experiment, as
+everybody knows, are dead against those who maintain the doctrine of
+human hybridity, seeing that the Pitcairn Islanders, even though they
+necessarily contracted consanguineous marriages, throve and multiplied
+exceedingly.
+
+But those who are disposed to believe in this doctrine should study
+the evidence brought forward in its support by M. Broca, its latest
+and ablest advocate, and compare this evidence with that which the
+botanists, as represented by a Gaertner, or by a Darwin, think it
+indispensable to obtain before they will admit the infertility of
+crosses between two allied kinds of plants. They will then, I think,
+be satisfied that the doctrine in question rests upon a very unsafe
+foundation; that the facts adduced in its support are capable of many
+other interpretations; and, indeed, that from the very nature of
+the case, demonstrative evidence one way or the other is almost
+unattainable. _A priori_, I should be disposed to expect a certain
+amount of infertility between some of the extreme modifications of
+mankind; and still more between the offsprings of their intermixture.
+_A posteriori_, I cannot discover any satisfactory proof that such
+infertility exists.
+
+From the facts of ethnology I now turn to the theories and
+speculations of ethnologists, which have been devised to explain
+these facts, and to furnish satisfactory answers to the inquiry--what
+conditions have determined the existence of the persistent
+modifications of mankind, and have caused their distribution to be
+what it is?
+
+These speculations may be grouped under three heads: firstly, the
+Monogenist hypotheses; secondly, those of the Polygenists; and
+thirdly, that which would result from a simple application of
+Darwinian principles to mankind.
+
+According to the Monogenists, all mankind have sprung from a single
+pair, whose multitudinous progeny spread themselves over the world,
+such as it now is, and became modified into the forms we meet with in
+the various regions of the earth, by the effect of the climatal and
+other conditions to which they were subjected.
+
+The advocates of this hypothesis are divisible into several schools.
+There are those who represent the most numerous, respectable,
+and would-be orthodox of the public, and are what may be called
+"Adamites," pure and simple. They believe that Adam was made out of
+earth somewhere in Asia, about six thousand years ago; that Eve was
+modelled from one of his ribs; and that the progeny of these two
+having been reduced to the eight persons who were landed on the summit
+of Mount Ararat after an universal deluge, all the nations of the
+earth have proceeded from these last, have migrated to their present
+localities, and have become converted into Negroes, Australians,
+Mongolians, &c., within that time. Five-sixths of the public are
+taught this Adamitic Monogenism, as if it were an established truth,
+and believe it. I do not; and I am not acquainted with any man of
+science, or duly instructed person, who does.
+
+A second school of monogenists, not worthy of much attention, attempts
+to hold a place midway between the Adamites and a third division, who
+take up a purely scientific position, and require to be dealt with
+accordingly. This third division, in fact, numbers in its ranks
+Linnaeus, Buffon, Blumenbach, Cuvier, Prichard, and many distinguished
+living ethnologists.
+
+These "Rational Monogenists," or, at any rate, the more modern among
+them, hold, firstly, that the present condition of the earth has
+existed for untold ages; secondly, that, at a remote period, beyond
+the ken of Archbishop Usher, man was created, somewhere between the
+Caucasus and the Hindoo Koosh; thirdly, that he might have migrated
+thence to all parts of the inhabited world, seeing that none of them
+are unattainable from some other inhabited part, by men provided with
+only such means of transport as savages are known to possess and
+must have invented; fourthly, that the operation of the existing
+diversities of climate and other conditions upon people so migrating,
+is sufficient to account for all the diversities of mankind.
+
+Of the truth of the first of these propositions no competent judge now
+entertains any doubt. The second is more open to discussion, for in
+these latter days many question the special creation of man: and even
+if his special creation be granted, there is not a shadow of a reason
+why he should have been created in Asia rather than anywhere else.
+Of all the odd myths that have arisen in the scientific world, the
+"Caucasian mystery," invented quite innocently by Blumenbach, is the
+oddest. A Georgian woman's skull was the handsomest in his collection.
+Hence it became his model exemplar of human skulls, from which all
+others might be regarded as deviations; and out of this, by some
+strange intellectual hocus-pocus, grew up the notion that the
+Caucasian man is the prototypic "Adamic" man, and his country the
+primitive centre of our kind. Perhaps the most curious thing of all
+is, that the said Georgian skull, after all, is not a skull of average
+form, but distinctly belongs to the brachycephalic group.
+
+With the third proposition I am quite disposed to agree, though
+it must be recollected that it is one thing to allow that a given
+migration is possible, and another to admit there is good reason to
+believe it has really taken place.
+
+But I can find no sufficient ground for accepting the fourth
+proposition; and I doubt if it would ever have obtained its general
+currency except for the circumstance that fair Europeans are very
+readily tanned and embrowned by the sun. But I am not aware that there
+is a particle of proof that the cutaneous change thus effected can
+become hereditary, any more than that the enlarged livers, which
+plague our countrymen in India, can be transmitted;--while there is
+very strong evidence to the contrary. Not only, in fact, are there
+such cases as those of the English families in Barbadoes, who have
+remained for six generations unaltered in complexion, but which are
+open to the objection that they may have received infusions of
+fresh European blood; but there is the broad fact, that not a single
+indigenous Negro exists either in the great alluvial plains of
+tropical South America, or in the exposed islands of the Polynesian
+Archipelago, or among the populations of equatorial Borneo or Sumatra.
+No satisfactory explanation of these obvious difficulties has been
+offered by the advocates of the direct influence of conditions. And as
+for the more important modifications observed in the structure of the
+brain, and in the form of the skull, no one has ever pretended to show
+in what way they can be effected directly by climate.
+
+It is here, in fact, that the strength of the Polygenists, or those
+who maintain that men primitively arose, not from one, but from many
+stocks, lies. Show us, they say to the Monogenists, a single case in
+which the characters of a human stock have been essentially modified
+without its being demonstrable, or, at least, highly probable, that
+there has been intermixture of blood with some foreign stock. Bring
+forward any instance in which a part of the world, formerly inhabited
+by one stock, is now the dwelling-place of another, and we will prove
+the change to be the result of migration, or of intermixture, and not
+of modification of character by climatic influences. Finally, prove
+to us that the evidence in favour of the specific distinctness of many
+animals, admitted to be distinct species by all zoologists, is a whit
+better than that upon which we maintain the specific distinctness of
+men.
+
+If presenting unanswerable objections to your adversary were the same
+thing as proving your own case, the Polygenists would be in a fair way
+towards victory; but, unfortunately, as I have already observed, they
+have as yet completely failed to adduce satisfactory positive proof
+of the specific diversity of mankind. Like the Monogenists, the
+Polygenists are of several sects; some imagine that their assumed
+species of mankind were created where we find them--the African in
+Africa, and the Australian in Australia, along with the other animals
+of their distributional province; others conceive that each species of
+man has resulted from the modification of some antecedent species of
+ape--the American from the broad-nosed Simians of the New World, the
+African from the Troglodytic stock, the Mongolian from the Orangs.
+
+The first hypothesis is hardly likely to win much favour. The whole
+tendency of modern science is to thrust the origination of things
+further and further into the background; and the chief philosophical
+objection to Adam being, not his oneness, but the hypothesis of his
+special creation; the multiplication of that objection tenfold is,
+whatever it may look, an increase, instead of a diminution, of the
+difficulties of the case. And, as to the second alternative, it may
+safely be affirmed that, even if the differences between men are
+specific, they are so small, that the assumption of more than one
+primitive stock for all is altogether superfluous. Surely no one can
+now be found to assert that any two stocks of mankind differ as much
+as a chimpanzee and an orang do; still less that they are as unlike as
+either of these is to any New World Simian!
+
+Lastly, the granting of the Polygenist premises does not, in the
+slightest degree, necessitate the Polygenist conclusion. Admit that
+Negroes and Australians, Negritos and Mongols are distinct species,
+or distinct genera, if you will, and you may yet, with perfect
+consistency, be the strictest of Monogenists, and even believe in Adam
+and Eve as the primaeval parents of all mankind.
+
+It is to Mr. Darwin we owe this discovery: it is he who, coming
+forward in the guise of an eclectic philosopher, presents his doctrine
+as the key to ethnology, and as reconciling and combining all that is
+good in the Monogenistic and Polygenistic schools.
+
+It is true that Mr. Darwin has not, in so many words, applied his
+views to ethnology; but even he who "runs and reads" the "Origin of
+Species" can hardly fail to do so; and, furthermore, Mr. Wallace and
+M. Pouchet have recently treated of ethnological questions from this
+point of view. Let me, in conclusion, add my own contribution to the
+same store.
+
+I assume Man to have arisen in the manner which I have discussed
+elsewhere, and probably, though by no means necessarily, in one
+locality. Whether he arose singly, or a number of examples appeared
+contemporaneously, is also an open question for the believer in the
+production of species by the gradual modification of pre-existing
+ones. At what epoch of the world's history this took place, again, we
+have no evidence whatever. It may have been in the older tertiary,
+or earlier, but what is most important to remember is, that the
+discoveries of late years have proved that man inhabited Western
+Europe, at any rate, before the occurrence of those great physical
+changes which have given Europe its present aspect. And as the same
+evidence shows that man was the contemporary of animals which are now
+extinct, it is not too much to assume that his existence dates back
+at least as far as that of our present Fauna and Flora, or before the
+epoch of the drift.
+
+But if this be true, it is somewhat startling to reflect upon the
+prodigious changes which have taken place in the physical geography of
+this planet since man has been an occupant of it.
+
+During that period the greater part of the British islands, of Central
+Europe, of Northern Asia, have been submerged beneath the sea and
+raised up again. So has the great desert of Sahara, which occupies the
+major part of Northern Africa. The Caspian and the Aral seas have been
+one, and their united waters have probably communicated with both the
+Arctic and the Mediterranean oceans. The greater part of North America
+has been under water, and has emerged. It is highly probable that
+a large part of the Malayan Archipelago has sunk, and its primitive
+continuity with Asia has been destroyed. Over the great Polynesian
+area subsidence has taken place to the extent of many thousands of
+feet--subsidence of so vast a character, in fact, that if a continent
+like Asia had once occupied the area of the Pacific, the peaks of its
+mountains would now show not more numerous than the islands of the
+Polynesian Archipelago.
+
+What lands may have been thickly populated for untold ages, and
+subsequently have disappeared and left no sign above the waters, it
+is of course impossible for us to say; but unless we are to make the
+wholly unjustifiable assumption that no dry land rose elsewhere when
+our present dry land sank, there must be half-a-dozen Atlantises
+beneath the waves of the various oceans of the world. But if the
+regions which have undergone these slow and gradual, but immense
+alterations, were wholly or in part inhabited before the changes I
+have indicated began--and it is more probable that they were, than
+that they were not--what a wonderfully efficient "Emigration Board"
+must have been at work all over the world long before canoes, or even
+rafts, were invented; and before men were impelled to wander by any
+desire nobler or stronger than hunger. And as these rude and primitive
+families were thrust, in the course of long series of generations,
+from land to land, impelled by encroachments of sea or of marsh, or
+by severity of summer heat or winter cold, to change their positions,
+what opportunities must have been offered for the play of natural
+selection, in preserving one family variation and destroying another!
+
+Suppose, for example, that some families of a horde which had reached
+a land charged with the seeds of yellow fever, varied in the direction
+of woolliness of hair and darkness of skin. Then, if it be true that
+these physical characters are accompanied by comparative or absolute
+exemptions from that scourge, the inevitable tendency would be to the
+preservation and multiplication of the darker and woollier families,
+and the elimination of the whiter and smoother-haired. In fact, by the
+operation of causes precisely similar to those which, in the famous
+instance cited by Mr. Darwin, have given rise to a race of black pigs
+in the forests of Louisiana, a negro stock would eventually people the
+region.
+
+Again, how often, by such physical changes, must a stock have been
+isolated from all others for innumerable generations, and have found
+ample time for the hereditary hardening of its special peculiarities
+into the enduring characters of a persistent modification.
+
+Nor, if it be true that the physiological difference of species may be
+produced by variation and natural selection, as Mr. Darwin supposes,
+would it be at all astonishing if, in some of these separated stocks,
+the process of differentiation should have gone so far as to give
+rise to the phenomena of hybridity. In the face of the overwhelming
+evidence in favour of the unity of the origin of mankind afforded by
+anatomical considerations, satisfactory proof of the existence of any
+degree of sterility in the unions of members of two of the "persistent
+modifications" of mankind, might well be appealed to by Mr. Darwin
+as crucial evidence of the truth of his views regarding the origin of
+species in general.
+
+
+
+
+VIII.
+
+ON SOME FIXED POINTS IN BRITISH ETHNOLOGY.
+
+
+In view of the many discussions to which the complicated problems
+offered by the ethnology of the British Islands have given rise, it
+may be useful to attempt to pick out, from amidst the confused masses
+of assertion and of inference, those propositions which appear to rest
+upon a secure foundation, and to state the evidence by which they are
+supported. Such is the purpose of the present paper.
+
+Some of these well-based propositions relate to the physical
+characters of the people of Britain and their neighbours; while others
+concern the languages which they spoke. I shall deal, in the first
+place, with the physical questions.
+
+I. _Eighteen hundred years ago the population of Britain comprised
+people of two types of complexion--the one fair, and the other dark.
+The dark people resembled the Aquitani and the Iberians; the fair
+people were like the Belgic Gauls._
+
+The chief direct evidence of the truth of this proposition is the
+well-known passage of Tacitus:--
+
+    "Ceterum Britanniam qui mortales initio coluerint, indigenae
+    an advecti, ut inter barbaros, parum compertum. Habitus
+    corporum varii: atque ex eo argumenta: nam rutilae Caledoniam
+    habitantium comae, magni artus Germanicam originem asseverant.
+    Silurum colorati vultus et torti plerumque crines, et posita
+    contra Hispaniam, Iberos veteres trajecisse, easque sedes
+    occupasse, fidem faciunt. Proximi Gallis et similes sunt; seu
+    durante originis vi, seu procurrentibus in diversa terris,
+    positio coeli corporibus habitum dedit. In universum tamen
+    aestimanti, Gallos vicinum solum occupasse, credibile est;
+    eorum sacra deprehendas, superstitionum persuasione; sermo
+    haud multum diversus."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Taciti Agricola, c. 11.]
+
+This passage, it will be observed, contains statements as to facts,
+and certain conclusions deduced from these facts. The matters of fact
+asserted are: firstly, that the inhabitants of Britain exhibit much
+diversity in their physical characters; secondly, that the Caledonians
+are red-haired and large-limbed, like the Germans; thirdly, that
+the Silures have curly hair and dark complexions, like the people of
+Spain; fourthly, that the British people nearest Gaul resemble the
+"Galli."
+
+Tacitus, therefore, states positively what the Caledonians and Silures
+were like; but the interpretation of what he says about the other
+Britons must depend upon what we learn from other sources as to the
+characters of these "Galli." Here the testimony of "divus Julius"
+comes in with great force and appropriateness. Caesar writes:--
+
+    "Britanniae pars interior ab iis incolitur, quos natos in
+    insula ipsi memoria proditum dicunt: marituma pars ab iis,
+    qui predae ac belli inferendi causa ex Belgio transierant; qui
+    omnes fere iis nominibus civitatum appellantur quibus orti ex
+    civitatibus eo pervenerunt, et bello inlato ibi permanserunt
+    atque agros colere coeperunt."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: De Bello Gallico, v. 12.]
+
+From these passages it is obvious that in the opinion of Caesar
+and Tacitus, the southern Britons resembled the northern Gauls, and
+especially the Belgae; and the evidence of Strabo is decisive as to
+the characters in which the two people resembled one another: "The men
+(of Britain) are taller than the Kelts, with hair less yellow; they
+are slighter in their persons."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "The Geography of Strabo." Translated by Hamilton and
+Falconer; v. 5.]
+
+The evidence adduced appears to leave no reasonable ground for
+doubting that, at the time of the Roman conquest, Britain contained
+people of two types, the one dark and the other fair complexioned, and
+that there was a certain difference between the latter in the north
+and in the south of Britain: the northern folk being, in the judgment
+of Tacitus, or, more properly, according to the information he had
+received from Agricola and others, more similar to the Germans than
+the latter. As to the distribution of these stocks, all that is clear
+is, that the dark people were predominant in certain parts of the west
+of the southern half of Britain, while the fair stock appears to have
+furnished the chief elements of the population elsewhere.
+
+No ancient writer troubled himself with measuring skulls, and
+therefore there is no direct evidence as to the cranial characters
+of the fair and the dark stocks. The indirect evidence is not very
+satisfactory. The tumuli of Britain of pre-Roman date have yielded two
+extremely different forms of skull, the one broad and the other long;
+and the same variety has been observed in the skulls of the ancient
+Gauls[1]. The suggestion is obvious that the one form of skull may
+have been associated with the fair, and the other with the dark,
+complexion. But any conclusion of this kind is at once checked by the
+reflection that the extremes of long and short-headedness are to be
+met with among the fair inhabitants of Germany and of Scandinavia
+at the present day--the south-western Germans and the Swiss being
+markedly broad-headed, while the Scandinavians are as predominantly
+long-headed.
+
+[Footnote 1: See Dr. Thurnam "On the Two principal Forms of Ancient
+British and Gaulish Skulls."]
+
+What the natives of Ireland were like at the time of the Roman
+conquest of Britain, and for centuries afterwards, we have no certain
+knowledge; but the earliest trustworthy records prove the existence,
+side by side with one another, of a fair and a dark stock, in Ireland
+as in Britain. The long form of skull is predominant among the
+ancient, as among modern, Irish.
+
+II. _The people termed Gauls, and those called Germans, by the Romans,
+did not differ in any important physical character._
+
+The terms in which the ancient writers describe both Gauls and Germans
+are identical. They are always tall people, with massive limbs, fair
+skins, fierce blue eyes, and hair the colour of which ranges from
+red to yellow. Zeuss, the great authority on these matters, affirms
+broadly that no distinction in bodily feature is to be found between
+the Gauls, the Germans, and the Wends, so far as their characters are
+recorded by the old historians; and he proves his case by citations
+from a cloud of witnesses.
+
+An attempt has been made to show that the colour of the hair of the
+Gauls must have differed very much from that which obtained among the
+Germans, on the strength of the story told by Suetonius (Caligula, 4),
+that Caligula tried to pass off Gauls for Germans by picking out the
+tallest, and making them "rutilare et summittere comam."
+
+The Baron de Belloguet remarks upon this passage:--
+
+    "It was in the very north of Gaul, and near the sea, that
+    Caligula got up this military comedy. And the fact proves
+    that the Belgae were already sensibly different from their
+    ancestors, whom Strabo had found almost identical with their
+    _brothers_ on the other side of the Rhine."
+
+But the fact recorded by Suetonius, if fact it be, proves nothing;
+for the Germans themselves were in the habit of reddening their hair.
+Ammianus Marcellinus[1] tells how, in the year 367 A.D., the Roman
+commander, Jovinus, surprised a body of Alemanni near the town now
+called Charpeigne, in the valley of the Moselle; and how the Roman
+soldiers, as, concealed by the thick wood, they stole upon their
+unsuspecting enemies, saw that some were bathing and others "comas
+rutilantes ex more." More than two centuries earlier Pliny gives
+indirect evidence to the same effect when he says of soap:--
+
+[Footnote 1: Res Gestae, xxvii.]
+
+    "Galliarum hoc inventum rutilandis capillis ... apud Germanos
+    majore in usu viris quam foeminis."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Historia Naturalis, xxviii. 51.]
+
+Here we have a writer who flourished only a short time after the date
+of the Caligula story, telling us that the Gauls invented soap for the
+purpose of doing that which, according to Suetonius, Caligula forced
+them to do. And, further, the combined and independent testimony of
+Pliny and Ammianus assures us that the Germans were as much in the
+habit of reddening their hair as the Gauls. As to De Belloguet's
+supposition that, even in Caligula's time, the Gauls had become darker
+than their ancestors were, it is directly contradicted by Ammianus
+Marcellinus, who knew the Gauls well. "Celsioris staturae et candidi
+poene Galli sunt onions, et rutili, luminumque torvitate terribiles,"
+is his description; and it would fit the Gauls who sacked Rome.
+
+III. _In none of the invasions of Britain which have taken place since
+the Roman dominion, has any other type of man been introduced than one
+or other of the two which existed during that dominion_.
+
+
+
+The North Germans, who effected what is commonly called the Saxon
+conquest of Britain, were, most assuredly, a fair, yellow, or
+red-haired, blue eyed, long-skulled people. So were the Danes and the
+Norsemen who followed them; though it is very possible that the active
+slave trade which went on, and the intercourse with Ireland, may have
+introduced a certain admixture of the dark stock into both Denmark and
+Norway. The Norman conquest brought in new ethnological elements, the
+precise value of which cannot be estimated with exactness; but as to
+their quality, there can be no question, inasmuch as even the wide
+area from which William drew his followers could yield him nothing but
+the fair and the dark types of men, already present in Britain. But
+whether the Norman settlers, on the whole, strengthened the fair or
+the dark element, is a problem, the elements of the solution of which
+are not attainable.
+
+I am unable to discover any grounds for believing that a Lapp element
+has ever entered into the population of these islands. So far as the
+physical evidence goes, it is perfectly consistent with the hypothesis
+that the only constituent stocks of that population, now, or at any
+other period about which we have evidence, are the dark whites, whom
+I have proposed to call "_Melanochroi_" and the fair whites, or
+"_Xanthochroi._"
+
+IV. _The Xanthochroi and the Melanochroi of Britain are, speaking
+broadly, distributed, at present, as they were in the time of Tacitus;
+and their representatives on the continent of Europe have the same
+general distribution as at the earliest period of which we have any
+record._
+
+At the present day, and notwithstanding the extensive intermixture
+effected by the movements consequent on civilization and on political
+changes, there is a predominance of dark men in the west, and of fair
+men in the east and north, of Britain. At the present day, as from
+the earliest times, the predominant constituents of the riverain
+population of the North Sea and the eastern half of the British
+Channel, are fair men. The fair stock continues in force through
+Central Europe, until it is lost in Central Asia. Offshoots of this
+stock extend into Spain, Italy, and Northern India, and by way of
+Syria and North Africa, to the Canary Islands. They were known in
+very early times to the Chinese, and in still earlier to the ancient
+Egyptians, as frontier tribes. The Thracians were notorious for their
+fair hair and blue eyes many centuries before our era.
+
+On the other hand, the dark stock predominates in Southern and
+Western France, in Spain, along the Ligurian shore, and in Western and
+Southern Italy; in Greece, Asia, Syria, and North Africa; in Arabia,
+Persia, Afghanistan, and Hindostan, shading gradually, through all
+stages of darkening, into the type of the modern Egyptian, or of the
+wild Hill-man of the Dekkan. Nor is there any record of the existence
+of a different population in all these countries.
+
+The extreme north of Europe, and the northern part of Western Asia,
+are at present occupied by a Mongoloid stock, and, in the absence of
+evidence to the contrary, may be assumed to have been so peopled from
+a very remote epoch. But, as I have said, I can find no evidence that
+this stock ever took part in peopling Britain. Of the three great
+stocks of mankind which extend from the western coast of the
+great Eurasiatic continent to its southern and eastern shores, the
+Mongoloids occupy a vast triangle, the base of which is the whole of
+Eastern Asia, while its apex lies in Lapland. The Melanochroi, on the
+other hand, may be represented as a broad band stretching from Ireland
+to Hindostan; while the Xanthochroic area lies between the two, thins
+out, so to speak, at either end, and mingles, at its margins, with
+both its neighbours.
+
+Such is a brief and summary statement of what I believe to be the
+chief facts relating to the physical ethnology of the people of
+Britain. The conclusions which I draw from these and other facts are
+(1) That the Melanochroi and the Xanthochroi are two separate races in
+the biological sense of the word race; (2) That they have had the same
+general distribution as at present from the earliest times of which
+any record exists on the continent of Europe; (3) That the population
+of the British Islands is derived from them, and from them only.
+
+The people of Europe, however, owe their national names, not to
+their physical characteristics, but to their languages, or to their
+political relations; which, it is plain, need not have the slightest
+relation to these characteristics.
+
+Thus, it is quite certain that, in Caesar's time, Gaul was divided
+politically into three nationalities--the Belgae, the Celtae, and
+the Aquitani; and that the last were very widely different, both in
+language and in physical characteristics, from the two former. The
+Belgae and the Celtae, on the other hand, differed comparatively
+little either in physique or in language. On the former point there is
+the distinct testimony of Strabo; as to the latter, St. Jerome states
+that the "Galatians had almost the same language as the Treviri." Now,
+the Galatians were emigrant Volcae Tectosages, and therefore Celtae;
+while the Treviri were Belgae.
+
+At the present day, the physical characters of the people of
+Belgic Gaul remain distinct from those of the people of Aquitaine,
+notwithstanding the immense changes which have taken place since
+Caesar's time; but Belgae, Celtae, and Aquitani (all but a mere
+fraction of the last two, represented by the Basques and the Britons)
+are fused into one nationality, "le peuple Français." But they have
+adopted the language of one set of invaders, and the name of another;
+their original names and languages having almost disappeared.
+Suppose that the French language remained as the sole evidence of
+the existence of the population of Gaul, would the keenest philologer
+arrive at any other conclusion than that this population was
+essentially and fundamentally a "Latin" race, which had had some
+communication with Celts and Teutons? Would he so much as suspect the
+former existence of the Aquitani?
+
+Community of language testifies to close contact between the people
+who speak the language, but to nothing else; philology has absolutely
+nothing to do with ethnology, except so far as it suggests the
+existence or the absence of such contact. The contrary assumption,
+that language is a test of race, has introduced the utmost confusion
+into ethnological speculation, and has nowhere worked greater
+scientific and practical mischief than in the ethnology of the British
+Islands.
+
+What is known, for certain, about the languages spoken in these
+islands and their affinities may, I believe, be summed up as
+follows:--
+
+I. _At the time of the Roman conquest, one language, the Celtic, under
+two principal dialectical divisions, the Cymric and the Gaelic, was
+spoken throughout the British Islands. Cymric was spoken in Britain,
+Gaelic in Ireland._
+
+If a language allied to Basque had in earlier times been spoken in
+the British Islands, there is no evidence that any Euskarian-speaking
+people remained at the time of the Roman conquest. The dark and the
+fair population of Britain alike spoke Celtic tongues, and therefore
+the name "Celt" is as applicable to the one as to the other.
+
+What was spoken in Ireland can only be surmised by reasoning from the
+knowledge of later times; but there seems to be no doubt that it was
+Gaelic; and that the Gaelic dialect was introduced into the Western
+Highlands by Irish invaders.
+
+II. _The Belgae and the Celtae, with the offshoots of the latter in
+Asia Minor, spoke dialects of the Cymric division of Celtic_.
+
+The evidence of this proposition lies in the statement of St. Jerome
+before cited; in the similarity of the names of places in Belgic Gaul
+and in Britain; and in the direct comparison of sundry ancient Gaulish
+and Belgic words which have been preserved, with the existing Cymric
+dialects, for which I must refer to the learned work of Brandes.
+
+Formerly, as at the present day, the Cymric dialects of Celtic were
+spoken by both the fair and the dark stocks.
+
+III. _There is no record of Gaelic being spoken anywhere save in
+Ireland, Scotland, and the Isle of Man_.
+
+This appears to be the final result of the long discussions which have
+taken place on this much-debated question. As is the case with the
+Cymric dialects, Gaelic is now spoken by both dark and fair stocks.
+
+IV. _When the Teutonic languages first became known, they were spoken
+only Xanthochroi, that is to say, by the Germans, the Scandinavians,
+and Goths. And they were imported by Xanthochroi into Gaul and into
+Britain._
+
+In Gaul the imported Teutonic dialect has been completely overpowered
+by the more or less modified Latin, which it found already in
+possession; and what Teutonic blood there may be in modern Frenchmen
+is not adequately represented in their language. In Britain, on the
+contrary, the Teutonic dialects have overpowered the pre-existing
+forms of speech, and the people are vastly less "Teutonic" than
+their language. Whatever may have been the extent to which the
+Celtic-speaking population of the eastern half of Britain was trodden
+out and supplanted by the Teutonic-speaking Saxons and Danes, it is
+quite certain that no considerable displacement of the Celtic-speaking
+people occurred in Cornwall, Wales, or the Highlands of Scotland; and
+that nothing approaching to the extinction of that people took place
+in Devonshire, Somerset, or the western moiety of Britain generally.
+Nevertheless, the fundamentally Teutonic English language is now
+spoken throughout Britain, except by an insignificant fraction of the
+population in Wales and the Western Highlands. But it is obvious
+that this fact affords not the slightest justification for the common
+practice of speaking of the present inhabitants of Britain as an
+"Anglo-Saxon" people. It is, in fact, just as absurd as the habit of
+talking of the French people as a "Latin" race, because they speak a
+language which is, in the main, derived from Latin. And the absurdity
+becomes the more patent when those who have no hesitation in calling
+a Devonshire man, or a Cornish man, an "Anglo-Saxon," would think it
+ridiculous to call a Tipperary man by the same title, though he and
+his forefathers may have spoken English for as long a time as the
+Cornish man.
+
+Ireland, at the earliest period of which we have any knowledge,
+contained like Britain, a dark and a fair stock, which, there is every
+reason to believe, were identical with the dark and the fair stocks
+of Britain. When the Irish first became known they spoke a Gaelic
+dialect, and though, for many centuries, Scandinavians made continual
+incursions upon, and settlements among them, the Teutonic languages
+made no more way among the Irish than they did among the French. How
+much Scandinavian blood was introduced there is no evidence to show.
+But after the conquest of Ireland by Henry II., the English people,
+consisting in part of the descendants of Cymric speakers, and in part
+of the descendants of Teutonic speakers, made good their footing in
+the eastern half of the island, as the Saxons and Danes made good
+theirs in England; and did their best to complete the parallel by
+attempting the extirpation of the Gaelic-speaking Irish. And they
+succeeded to a considerable extent; a large part of Eastern Ireland is
+now peopled by men who are substantially English by descent, and the
+English language has spread over the land far beyond the limits of
+English blood.
+
+Ethnologically, the Irish people were originally, like the people of
+Britain, a mixture of Melanochroi and Xanthochroi. They resembled the
+Britons in speaking a Celtic tongue; but it was a Gaelic and not a
+Cymric form of the Celtic language. Ireland was untouched by the Roman
+conquest, nor do the Saxons seem to have had any influence upon
+her destinies, but the Danes and Norsemen poured in a contingent of
+Teutonism, which has been largely supplemented by English and Scotch
+efforts.
+
+What, then, is the value of the ethnological difference between the
+Englishman of the western half of England and the Irishman of the
+eastern half of Ireland? For what reason does the one deserve the
+name of a "Celt," and not the other? And further, if we turn to
+the inhabitants of the western half of Ireland, why should the term
+"Celts" be applied to them more than to the inhabitants of Cornwall?
+And if the name is applicable to the one as justly as to the other,
+why should not intelligence, perseverance, thrift, industry, sobriety,
+respect for law, be admitted to be Celtic virtues? And why should we
+not seek for the cause of their absence in something else than the
+idle pretext of "Celtic blood?"
+
+I have been unable to meet with any answers to these questions.
+
+V. _The Celtic and the Teutonic dialects are members of the same
+great Aryan family of languages; but there is evidence to show that a
+non-Aryan language was at one time spoken over a large extent of the
+area occupied by Melanochroi in Europe_.
+
+The non-Aryan language here referred to is the Euskarian, now spoken
+only by the Basques, but which seems in earlier times to have been
+the language of the Aquitanians and Spaniards, and may possibly have
+extended much further to the East. Whether it has any connection with
+the Ligurian and Oscan dialects are questions upon which, of course,
+I do not presume to offer any opinion. But it is important to remark
+that it is a language the area of which has gradually diminished
+without any corresponding extirpation of the people who primitively
+spoke it; so that the people of Spain and of Aquitaine at the present
+day must be largely "Euskarian" by descent in just the same sense as
+the Cornish men are "Celtic" by descent.
+
+Such seem to me to be the main facts respecting the ethnology of the
+British islands and of Western Europe, which may be said to be fairly
+established. The hypothesis by which I think (with De Belloguet and
+Thurnam) the facts may best be explained is this: In very remote times
+Western Europe and the British islands were inhabited by the dark
+stock, or the Melanochroi, alone, and these Melanochroi spoke dialects
+allied to the Euskarian. The Xanthochroi, spreading over the great
+Eurasiatic plains westward, and speaking Aryan dialects, gradually
+invaded the territories of the Melanochroi. The Xanthochroi, who
+thus came into contact with the Western Melanochroi, spoke a Celtic
+language; and that Celtic language, whether Cymric or Gaelic, spread
+over the Melanochroi far beyond the limits of intermixture of blood,
+supplanting Euskarian, just as English and French, have supplanted
+Celtic. Even as early as Caesar's time, I suppose that the Euskarian
+was everywhere, except in Spain and in Aquitaine, replaced by Celtic,
+and thus the Celtic speakers were no longer of one ethnological stock,
+but of two. Both in Western Europe and in England a third wave of
+language--in the one case Latin, in the other Teutonic--has spread
+over the same area. In Western Europe, it has left a fragment of the
+primary Euskarian in one corner of the country, and a fragment of the
+secondary Celtic in another. In the British islands, only outlying
+pools of the secondary linguistic wave remain in Wales, the Highlands,
+Ireland, and the Isle of Man. If this hypothesis is a sound one, it
+follows that the name of Celtic is not properly applicable to the
+Melanochroic or dark stock of Europe. They are merely, so to speak,
+secondary Celts. The primary and aboriginal Celtic-speaking people are
+Xanthochroi--the typical Gauls of the ancient writers, and the close
+allies by blood, customs, and language, of the Germans.
+
+
+
+
+IX.
+
+PALAEONTOLOGY AND THE DOCTRINE OF EVOLUTION.
+
+(THE ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS TO THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY, FOR 1870.)
+
+
+It is now eight years since, in the absence of the late Mr. Leonard
+Homer, who then presided over us, it fell to my lot, as one of the
+Secretaries of this Society, to draw up the customary Annual Address.
+I availed myself of the opportunity to endeavour to "take stock"
+of that portion of the science of biology which is commonly called
+"palaeontology," as it then existed; and, discussing one after another
+the doctrines held by palaeontologists, I put before you the results
+of my attempts to sift the well-established from the hypothetical or
+the doubtful. Permit me briefly to recall to your minds what those
+results were:--
+
+1. The living population of all parts of the earth's surface which
+have yet been examined has undergone a succession of changes which,
+upon the whole, have been of a slow and gradual character.
+
+2. When the fossil remains which are the evidences of these successive
+changes, as they have occurred in any two more or less distant parts
+of the surface of the earth, are compared, they exhibit a certain
+broad and general parallelism. In other words, certain forms of life
+in one locality occur in the same general order of succession as, or
+are _homotaxial_ with, similar forms in the other locality.
+
+3. Homotaxis is not to be held identical with synchronism without
+independent evidence. It is possible that similar, or even identical,
+faunae and florae in two different localities may be of extremely
+different ages, if the term "age" is used in its proper chronological
+sense. I stated that "geographical provinces, or zones, may have been
+as distinctly marked in the Palaeozoic epoch as at present; and those
+seemingly sudden appearances of new genera and species, which we
+ascribe to new creation, may be simple results of migration."
+
+4. The opinion that the oldest known fossils are the earliest forms of
+life has no solid foundation.
+
+5. If we confine ourselves to positively ascertained facts, the total
+amount of change in the forms of animal and vegetable life, since the
+existence of such forms is recorded, is small. When compared with the
+lapse of time since the first appearance of these forms, the amount
+of change is wonderfully small. Moreover, in each great group of the
+animal and vegetable kingdoms, there are certain forms which I termed
+PERSISTENT TYPES, which have remained, with but very little apparent
+change, from their first appearance to the present time.
+
+6. In answer to the question "What, then, does an impartial survey of
+the positively ascertained truths of palaeontology testify in relation
+to the common doctrines of progressive modification, which suppose
+that modification to have taken place by a necessary progress from
+more to less embryonic forms, from more to less generalized types,
+within, the limits of the period represented by the fossiliferous
+rocks?" I reply, "It negatives these doctrines; for it either shows us
+no evidence of such modification, or demonstrates such modification as
+has occurred to have been very slight; and, as to the nature of
+that modification, it yields no evidence whatsoever that the earlier
+members of any long-continued group were more generalized in structure
+than the later ones."
+
+I think that I cannot employ my last opportunity of addressing you,
+officially, more properly--I may say more dutifully--than in
+revising these old judgments with such help as further knowledge and
+reflection, and an extreme desire to get at the truth, may afford me.
+
+1. With respect to the first proposition, I may remark that
+whatever may be the case among the physical geologists, catastrophic
+palaeontologists are practically extinct. It is now no part of
+recognized geological doctrine that the species of one formation all
+died out and were replaced by a brand-new set in the next formation.
+On the contrary, it is generally, if not universally, agreed that
+the succession of life has been, the result of a slow and gradual
+replacement of species by species; and that all appearances of
+abruptness of change are due to breaks in the series of deposits, or
+other changes in physical conditions. The continuity of living forms
+has been unbroken from the earliest times to the present day.
+
+2, 3. The use of the word "homotaxis" instead of "synchronism" has
+not, so far as I know, found much favour in the eyes of geologists.
+I hope, therefore, that it is a love for scientific caution, and not
+mere personal affection for a bantling of my own, which leads me still
+to think that the change of phrase is of importance, and that the
+sooner it is made, the sooner shall we get rid of a number of pitfalls
+which beset the reasoner upon the facts and theories of geology.
+
+One of the latest pieces of foreign intelligence which has reached
+us is the information that the Austrian geologists have, at last,
+succumbed to the weighty evidence which M. Barrande has accumulated,
+and have admitted the doctrine of colonies. But the admission of the
+doctrine of colonies implies the further admission that even identity
+of organic remains is no proof of the synchronism of the deposits
+which contain them.
+
+4. The discussions touching the _Eozoon_, which commenced in 1864,
+have abundantly justified the fourth proposition. In 1862, the oldest
+record of life was in the Cambrian rocks; but if the _Eozoon_ be,
+as Principal Dawson and Dr. Carpenter have shown so much reason for
+believing, the remains of a living being, the discovery of its true
+nature carried life back to a period which, as Sir William Logan has
+observed, is as remote from that during which the Cambrian rocks were
+deposited, as the Cambrian epoch itself is from the tertiaries. In
+other words, the ascertained duration of life upon the globe was
+nearly doubled at a stroke.
+
+5. The significance of persistent types, and of the small amount of
+change which has taken place even in those forms which can be shown to
+have been modified, becomes greater and greater in my eyes, the longer
+I occupy myself with the biology of the past.
+
+Consider how long a time has elapsed since the Miocene epoch. Yet, at
+that time, there is reason to believe that every important group in
+every order of the _Mammalia_ was represented. Even the comparatively
+scanty Eocene fauna yields examples of the orders _Cheiroptera,
+Insectivora, Rodentia_, and _Perissodactyla_; of _Artiodactyla_
+under both the Ruminant and the Porcine modifications; of _Carnivora,
+Cetacea_, and _Marsupialia_.
+
+Or, if we go back to the older half of the Mesozoic epoch, how truly
+surprising it is to find every order of the _Reptilia_, except
+the _Ophidia_, represented; while some groups, such as the
+_Ornithoscelida_ and the _Pterosauria_, more specialized than any
+which now exist, abounded.
+
+There is one division of the _Amphibia_ which offers especially
+important evidence upon this point, inasmuch as it bridges over the
+gap between the Mesozoic and the Palaeozoic formations (often supposed
+to be of such prodigious magnitude), extending, as it does, from the
+bottom of the Carboniferous series to the top of the Trias, if not
+into the Lias. I refer to the Labyrinthodonts. As the address of 1862
+was passing through the press, I was able to mention, in a note, the
+discovery of a large Labyrinthodont, with well-ossified vertebrae, in
+the Edinburgh coal-field. Since that time eight or ten distinct genera
+of Labyrinthodonts have been discovered in the Carboniferous rocks
+of England, Scotland, and Ireland, not to mention the American forms
+described by Principal Dawson and Professor Cope. So that, at the
+present time, the Labyrinthodont Fauna of the Carboniferous rocks is
+more extensive and diversified than that of the Trias, while its chief
+types, so far as osteology enables us to judge, are quite as highly
+organized. Thus it is certain that a comparatively highly organized
+vertebrate type, such as that of the Labyrinthodonts, is capable
+of persisting, with no considerable change, through the period
+represented by the vast deposits which constitute the Carboniferous,
+the Permian, and the Triassic formations.
+
+The very remarkable results which have been brought to light by the
+sounding and dredging operations, which have been carried on with
+such remarkable success by the expeditions sent out by our own, the
+American, and the Swedish Governments, under the supervision of
+able naturalists, have a bearing in the same direction. These
+investigations have demonstrated the existence, at great depths in the
+ocean, of living animals in some cases identical with, in others very
+similar to, those which are found fossilized in the white chalk. The
+_Globigerinae_, Cyatholiths, Coccospheres, Discoliths in the one are
+absolutely identical with those in the other; there are identical, or
+closely analogous, species of Sponges, Echinoderms, and Brachiopods.
+Off the coast of Portugal, there now lives a species of _Beryx_,
+which, doubtless, leaves its bones and scales here and there in the
+Atlantic ooze, as its predecessor left its spoils in the mud of the
+sea of the Cretaceous epoch.
+
+Many years ago[1] I ventured to speak of the Atlantic mud as "modern
+chalk," and I know of no fact inconsistent with the view which
+Professor Wyville Thomson has advocated, that the modern chalk is not
+only the lineal descendant of the ancient chalk, but that it remains,
+so to speak, in the possession of the ancestral estate; and that from
+the Cretaceous period (if not much earlier) to the present day, the
+deep sea has covered a large part of what is now the area of the
+Atlantic. But if _Globigerinae_, and _Terebratula caput-serpentis_
+and _Beryx_, not to mention other forms of animals and of plants, thus
+bridge over the interval between the present and the Mesozoic periods,
+is it possible that the majority of other living things underwent a
+"sea-change into something new and strange" all at once?
+
+[Footnote 1: See an article in the _Saturday Review_, for 1858, on
+"Chalk, Ancient and Modern."]
+
+6. Thus far I have endeavoured to expand and to enforce by fresh
+arguments, but not to modify in any important respect, the ideas
+submitted to you on a former occasion. But when I come to the
+propositions touching progressive modification, it appears to me, with
+the help of the new light which has broken from various quarters, that
+there is much ground for softening the somewhat Brutus-like severity
+with which, in 1862, I dealt with a doctrine, for the truth of which I
+should have been glad enough to be able to find a good foundation.
+So far, indeed, as the _Invertebrata_, and the lower _Vertebrata_ are
+concerned, the facts and the conclusions which are to be drawn from
+them appear to me to remain what they were. For anything that, as yet,
+appears to the contrary, the earliest known Marsupials may have been
+as highly organized as their living congeners; the Permian lizards
+show no signs of inferiority to those of the present day; the
+Labyrinthodonts cannot be placed below the living Salamander and
+Triton; the Devonian Ganoids are closely related to _Polypterus_ and
+to _Lepidosiren_.
+
+But when we turn to the higher _Vertebrata_, the results of recent
+investigations, however we may sift and criticise them, seem to me to
+leave a clear balance in favour of the doctrine of the evolution
+of living forms one from another. Nevertheless, in discussing this
+question, it is very necessary to discriminate carefully between the
+different kinds of evidence from fossil remains which are brought
+forward in favour of evolution.
+
+Every fossil which takes an intermediate place between forms of
+life already known, may be said, so far as it is intermediate, to be
+evidence in favour of evolution, inasmuch as it shows a possible road
+by which evolution may have taken place. But the mere discovery of
+such a form does not, in itself, prove that evolution took place by
+and through it, nor does it constitute more than presumptive evidence
+in favour of evolution in general. Suppose A, B, C to be three
+forms, while B is intermediate in structure between A and C. Then the
+doctrine of evolution offers four possible alternatives. A may have
+become C by way of B; or C may have become A by way of B; or A and
+C may be independent modifications of B; or A, B, and C may be
+independent modifications of some unknown D. Take the case of the
+Pigs, the _Anoplotheridae_, and the Ruminants. The _Anoplotheridae_
+are intermediate between the first and the last; but this does not
+tell us whether the Ruminants have come from the Pigs, or the Pigs
+from Ruminants, or both from _Anoplotheridae_, or whether Pigs,
+Ruminants, and _Anoplotheridae_ alike may not have diverged from some
+common stock.
+
+But if it can be shown that A, B, and C exhibit successive stages in
+the degree of modification, or specialization, of the same type; and
+if, further, it can be proved that they occur in successively
+newer deposits. A being in the oldest and C in the newest, then the
+intermediate character of B has quite another importance, and I should
+accept it, without hesitation, as a link in the genealogy of C. I
+should consider the burden of proof to be thrown upon anyone who
+denied C to have been derived from A by way of B, or in some closely
+analogous fashion; for it is always probable that one may not hit upon
+the exact line of filiation, and, in dealing with fossils, may mistake
+uncles and nephews for fathers and sons.
+
+I think it necessary to distinguish between the former and the latter
+classes of intermediate forms, as _intercalary types_ and _linear
+types_. When I apply the former term, I merely mean to say that as
+a matter of fact, the form B, so named, is intermediate between the
+others, in the sense in which the _Anoplotherium_ is intermediate
+between the Pigs and the Ruminants--without either affirming, or
+denying, any direct genetic relation between the three forms involved.
+When I apply the latter term, on the other hand, I mean to express the
+opinion that the forms A, B, and C constitute a line of descent, and
+that B is thus part of the lineage of C.
+
+From the time when Cuvier's wonderful researches upon the extinct
+Mammals of the Paris gypsum first made intercalary types known, and
+caused them to be recognized as such, the number of such forms has
+steadily increased among the higher _Mammalia_. Not only do we now
+know numerous intercalary forms of _Ungulata_, but M. Gaudry's great
+monograph upon the fossils of Pikermi (which strikes me as one of the
+most perfect pieces of palaeontological work I have seen for a long
+time) shows us, among the _Primates, Mesopithecus_ as an intercalary
+form between the _Semnopitheci_ and the _Macaci_; and among the
+_Carnivora, Hyaenictis_ and _Ictitherium_ as intercalary, or, perhaps,
+linear types between the _Viverridae_ and the _Hyaenidae_.
+
+Hardly any order of the higher _Mammalia_ stands so apparently
+separate and isolated from the rest as that of the _Cetacea_; though
+a careful consideration of the structure of the pinnipede _Carnivora_,
+or Seals, shows, in them, many an approximation towards the still more
+completely marine mammals. The extinct _Zeuglodon_, however, presents
+us with an intercalary form between the type of the Seals and that of
+the Whales. The skull of this great Eocene sea-monster, in fact, shows
+by the narrow and prolonged interorbital region; the extensive union
+of the parietal bones in a sagittal suture; the well-developed nasal
+bones; the distinct and large incisors implanted in premaxillary
+bones, which take a full share in bounding the fore part of the gape;
+the two-fanged molar teeth with triangular and serrated crowns,
+not exceeding five on each side in each jaw; and the existence of a
+deciduous dentition--its close relation with the Seals. While, on
+the other hand, the produced rostral form of the snout, the
+long symphysis, and the low coronary process of the mandible are
+approximations to the cetacean form of those parts.
+
+The scapula resembles that of the cetacean _Hyperoodon_, but the
+supra-spinous fossa is larger and more seal-like; as is the humerus,
+which differs from that of the _Cetacea_ in presenting true articular
+surfaces for the free jointing of the bones of the fore-arm. In the
+apparently complete absence of hinder limbs, and in the characters of
+the vertebral column, the _Zeuglodon_ lies on the cetacean side of the
+boundary line; so that, upon the whole, the Zeuglodonts, transitional
+as they are, are conveniently retained in the cetacean order. And the
+publication, in 1864, of M. Van Beneden's memoir on the Miocene and
+Pliocene _Squalodon_, furnished much better means than anatomists
+previously possessed of fitting in another link of the chain which
+connects the existing _Cetacea_ with _Zeuglodon_. The teeth are much
+more numerous, although the molars exhibit the zeuglodont double fang;
+the nasal bones are very short, and the upper surface of the rostrum
+presents the groove, filled up during life by the prolongation of the
+ethmoidal cartilage, which is so characteristic of the majority of the
+_Cetacea_.
+
+It appears to me that, just as among the existing _Carnivora_,
+the walruses and the eared seals are intercalary forms between the
+fissipede Carnivora and the ordinary seals, so the Zeuglodonts are
+intercalary between the _Carnivora_, as a whole, and the _Cetacea_.
+Whether the Zeuglodonts are also linear types in their relation to
+these two groups cannot be ascertained, until we have more definite
+knowledge than we possess at present, respecting the relations in time
+of the _Carnivora_ and _Cetacea_.
+
+Thus far we have been concerned with the intercalary types which
+occupy the intervals between Families or Orders of the same class; but
+the investigations which have been carried on by Professor Gegenbaur,
+Professor Cope, and myself into the structure and relations of the
+extinct reptilian forms of the _Ornithoscelida_ (or _Dinosauria_ and
+_Compsognatha_) have brought to light the existence of intercalary
+forms between what have hitherto been always regarded as very distinct
+classes of the vertebrate sub-kingdom, namely _Reptilia_ and _Aves_.
+Whatever inferences may, or may not, be drawn from the fact, it is now
+an established truth that, in many of these _Ornithoscelida_, the hind
+limbs and the pelvis are much more similar to those of Birds than
+they are to those of Reptiles, and that these Bird-reptiles, or
+Reptile-birds, were more or less completely bipedal.
+
+When I addressed you in 1862, I should have been bold indeed had I
+suggested that palaeontology would before long show us the possibility
+of a direct transition from the type of the lizard to that of the
+ostrich. At the present moment we have, in the _Ornithoscelida_, the
+intercalary type, which proves that transition to be something more
+than a possibility; but it is very doubtful whether any of the genera
+of _Ornithoscelida_ with which we are at present acquainted are the
+actual linear types by which the transition from the lizard to the
+bird was effected. These, very probably, are still hidden from us in
+the older formations.
+
+Let us now endeavour to find some cases of true linear types, or forms
+which are intermediate between others because they stand in a direct
+genetic relation to them. It is no easy matter to find clear and
+unmistakable evidence of filiation among fossil animals; for, in order
+that such evidence should be quite satisfactory, it is necessary that
+we should be acquainted with all the most important features of the
+organization of the animals which are supposed to be thus related, and
+not merely with the fragments upon which the genera and species of the
+palaeontologist are so often based. M. Gaudry has arranged the species
+of _Hyaenidae, Proboscidea, Rhinocerotidae_, and _Equidae_ in their
+order of filiation from their earliest appearance in the Miocene epoch
+to the present time, and Professor Rütimeyer has drawn up similar
+schemes for the Oxen and other _Ungulata_--with what, I am disposed
+to think, is a fair and probable approximation to the order of nature.
+But, as no one is better aware than these two learned, acute, and
+philosophical biologists, all such arrangements must be regarded as
+provisional, except in those cases in which, by a fortunate accident,
+large series of remains are obtainable from a thick and wide-spread
+series of deposits. It is easy to accumulate probabilities--hard
+to make out some particular case in such a way that it will stand
+rigorous criticism.
+
+After much search, however, I think that such a case is to be made out
+in favour of the pedigree of the Horses.
+
+The genus _Equus_ is represented as far back as the latter part of the
+Miocene epoch; but in deposits belonging to the middle of that
+epoch its place is taken by two other genera, _Hipparion_ and
+_Anchitherium_[1]; and, in the lowest Miocene and upper Eocene, only
+the last genus occurs. A species of _Anchitherium_ was referred by
+Cuvier to the _Palaeotheria_ under the name of _P. aurelianense_. The
+grinding-teeth are in fact very similar in shape and in pattern, and
+in the absence of any thick layer of cement, to those of some species
+of _Palaeotherium_, especially Cuvier's _Palaeotherium minus_, which
+has been formed into a separate genus, _Plagiolophus_, by Pomel. But
+in the fact that there are only six full-sized grinders in the lower
+jaw, the first premolar being very small; that the anterior grinders
+are as large as, or rather larger than, the posterior ones; that the
+second premolar has an anterior prolongation; and that the posterior
+molar of the lower jaw has, as Cuvier pointed out, a posterior lobe of
+much smaller size and different form, the dentition of _Anchitherium_
+departs from the type of the _Palaeotherium_, and approaches that of
+the Horse.
+
+[Footnote 1: Hermann von Meyer gave the name of _Anchitherium_ to _A.
+Ezguerrae_; and in his paper on the subject he takes great pains
+to distinguish the latter as the type of a new genus, from Cuvier's
+_Palaeotherium d'Orléans._ But it is precisely the _Palaeotherium
+d'Orléans_ which is the type of Christol's genus _Hipparitherium_; and
+thus, though _Hipparitherium_ is of later date than _Anchitherium_,
+it seemed to me to have a sort of equitable right to recognition
+when this address was written. On the whole, however, it seems most
+convenient to adopt _Anchitherium_.]
+
+Again, the skeleton of _Anchitherium_ is extremely equine. M. Christol
+goes so far as to say that the description of the bones of the
+horse, or the ass, current in veterinary works, would fit those of
+_Anchitherium._ And, in a general way, this may be true enough; but
+there are some most important differences, which, indeed, are justly
+indicated by the same careful observer. Thus the ulna is complete
+throughout, and its shaft is not a mere rudiment, fused into one bone
+with the radius. There are three toes, one large in the middle and one
+small on each side. The femur is quite like that of a horse, and has
+the characteristic fossa above the external condyle. In the British
+Museum there is a most instructive specimen of the leg-bones, showing
+that the fibula was represented by the external malleolus and by a
+flat tongue of bone, which extends up from it on the outer side of the
+tibia, and is closely ankylosed with the latter bone.[1] The hind toes
+are three, like those of the fore leg; and the middle metatarsal bone
+is much less compressed from side to side than that of the horse.
+
+[Footnote 1: I am indebted to M. Gervais for a specimen which
+indicates that the fibula was complete, at any rate, in some cases;
+and for a very interesting ramus of a mandible, which shows that, as
+in the _Palaeotheria_, the hindermost milk-molar of the lower jaw
+was devoid of the posterior lobe which exists in the hindermost true
+molar.]
+
+In the _Hipparion_ the teeth nearly resemble those of the Horses,
+though the crowns of the grinders are not so long; like those of the
+Horses, they are abundantly coated with cement. The shaft of the
+ulna is reduced to a mere style ankylosed throughout nearly its whole
+length with the radius, and appearing to be little more than a ridge
+on the surface of the latter bone until it is carefully examined. The
+front toes are still three, but the outer ones are more slender than
+in _Anchitherium_, and their hoofs smaller in proportion to that of
+the middle toe: they are, in fact, reduced to mere dew-claws, and do
+not touch the ground. In the leg, the distal end of the fibula is so
+completely united with the tibia that it appears to be a mere process
+of the latter bone, as in the Horses.
+
+In _Equus_, finally, the crowns of the grinding-teeth become longer,
+and their patterns are slightly modified; the middle of the shaft of
+the ulna usually vanishes, and its proximal and distal ends ankylose
+with the radius. The phalanges of the two outer toes in each foot
+disappear, their metacarpal and metatarsal bones being left as the
+"splints."
+
+The _Hipparion_ has large depressions on the face in front of the
+orbits, like those for the "larmiers" of many ruminants; but traces
+of these are to be seen in some of the fossil horses from the Sewalik
+Hills; and, as Leidy's recent researches show, they are preserved in
+_Anchitherium_.
+
+When we consider these facts, and the further circumstance that
+the Hipparions, the remains of which have been collected in immense
+numbers, were subject, as M. Gaudry and others have pointed out, to
+a great range of variation, it appears to me impossible to resist the
+conclusion that the types of the _Anchitherium_, of the _Hipparion_,
+and of the ancient Horses constitute the lineage of the modern Horses,
+the _Hipparion_ being the intermediate stage between the other two,
+and answering; to B in my former illustration.
+
+The process by which the _Anchitherium_ has been converted into
+_Equus_ is one of specialization, or of more and more complete
+deviation from what might be called the average form of an ungulate
+mammal. In the Horses, the reduction of some parts of the limbs,
+together with the special modification of those which are left, is
+carried to a greater extent than in any other hoofed mammals. The
+reduction is less and the specialization is less in the _Hipparion_,
+and still less in the _Anchitherium_; but yet, as compared with
+other mammals, the reduction and specialization of parts in the
+_Anchitherium_ remain great.
+
+Is it not probable then, that, just as in the Miocene epoch, we find
+an ancestral equine form less modified than _Equus_, so, if we go
+back to the Eocene epoch, we shall find some quadruped related to the
+_Anchitherium_, as _Hipparion_ is related to _Equus_, and consequently
+departing less from the average form?
+
+I think that this desideratum is very nearly, if not quite, supplied
+by _Plagiolophus_, remains of which occur abundantly in some parts
+of the Upper and Middle Eocene formations. The patterns of
+the grinding-teeth of _Plagiolophus_ are similar to those of
+_Anchitherium_, and their crowns are as thinly covered with cement;
+but the grinders diminish in size forwards, and the last lower molar
+has a large hind lobe, convex outwards and concave inwards, as in
+_Palceotherium_. The ulna is complete and much larger than in any
+of the _Equidae_, while it is more slender than in most of the true
+_Palaeotheria_; it is fixedly united, but not ankylosed, with the
+radius. There are three toes in the fore limb, the outer ones being
+slender, but less attenuated than in the _Equidae_. The femur is more
+like that of the _Palaeotheria_ than that of the horse, and has only
+a small depression above its outer condyle in the place of the great
+fossa which is so obvious in the _Equidae_. The fibula is distinct,
+but very slender, and its distal end is ankylosed with the tibia.
+There are three toes on the hind foot having similar proportions to
+those on the fore foot. The principal metacarpal and metatarsal bones
+are flatter than they are in any of the _Equidae_; and the metacarpal
+bones are longer than the metatarsals, as in the _Palaeotheria_.
+
+In its general form, _Plagiolophus_ resembles a very small and slender
+horse[1], and is totally unlike the reluctant, pig-like creature
+depicted in Cuvier's restoration of his _Palaeotherium minus_ in the
+"Os semens Fossils."
+
+[Footnote 1: Such, at least, is the conclusion suggested by the
+proportions of the skeleton figured by Cuvier and De Blainville; but
+perhaps something between a Horse and an Agouti would be nearest the
+mark.]
+
+It would be hazardous to say that _Plagiolophus_ is the exact radical
+form of the Equine quadrupeds; but I do not think there can be any
+reasonable doubt that the latter animals have resulted from the
+modification of some quadruped similar to _Plagiolophus_.
+
+We have thus arrived at the Middle Eocene formation, and yet
+have traced back the Horses only to a three-toed stock; but these
+three-toed forms, no less than the Equine quadrupeds themselves,
+present rudiments of the two other toes which appertain to what I
+have termed the "average" quadruped. If the expectation raised by
+the splints of the Horses that, in some ancestor of the Horses, these
+splints would be found to be complete digits, has been verified,
+we are furnished with very strong reasons for looking for a no
+less complete verification of the expectation that the three-toed.
+_Plagiolophus_-like "avus" of the horse must have had a five-toed
+"atavus" at some earlier period.
+
+No such five-toed "atavus," however, has yet made its appearance among
+the few middle and older Eocene _Mammalia_ which are known.
+
+Another series of closely affiliated forms, though the evidence they
+afford is perhaps less complete than that of the Equine series,
+is presented to us by the _Dichobune_ of the Eocene epoch, the
+_Cainotherium_ of the Miocene, and the _Tragulidae_, or so-called
+"Musk-deer," of the present day.
+
+The _Tragulidae_ have no incisors in the upper jaw, and only six
+grinding-teeth on each side of each jaw; while the canine is moved up
+to the outer incisor, and there is a diastema, in the lower jaw. There
+are four complete toes on the hind foot, but the middle metatarsals
+usually become, sooner or later, ankylosed into a cannon bone. The
+navicular and the cuboid unite, and the distal end of the fibula is
+ankylosed with the tibia.
+
+In _Cainotherium_ and _Dichobune_ the upper incisors are fully
+developed. There are seven grinders; the teeth form a continuous
+series without a diastema. The metatarsals, the navicular and cuboid,
+and the distal end of the fibula, remain free. In the _Cainotherium_,
+also, the second metacarpal is developed, but is much shorter than the
+third, while the fifth is absent or rudimentary. In this respect it
+resembles _Anoplotherium secundarium_. This circumstance, and the
+peculiar pattern of the upper molars in _Cainotherium_, lead me
+to hesitate in considering it as the actual ancestor of the modern
+_Tragulidae_. If _Dichobune_ has a four-toed fore foot (though I am
+inclined to suspect that it resembles _Cainotherium_), it will be a
+better representative of the oldest forms of the Traguline series; but
+_Dichobune_ occurs in the Middle-Eocene, and is, in fact, the oldest
+known artiodactyle mammal. Where, then, must we look for its five-toed
+ancestor?
+
+If we follow down other lines of recent and tertiary _Ungulata_, the
+same question presents itself. The Pigs are traceable back through
+the Miocene epoch to the Upper Eocene, where they appear in the
+two well-marked forms of _Hyopotamus_ and _Chaeropotamus_; but
+_Hyopotamus_ appears to have had only two toes.
+
+Again, all the great groups of the Ruminants, the _Bovidae,
+Antilopidae, Camelopardalidae_, and _Cervidae_, are represented in
+the Miocene epoch, and so are the Camels. The Upper Eocene
+_Anoplotherium_, which is intercalary between the Pigs and the
+_Tragulidae_, has only two or, at most, three toes. Among the scanty
+mammals of the Lower Eocene formation we have the perissodactyle
+_Ungulata_ represented by _Coryphodon, Hyra-cotherium_, and
+_Pliolophus_. Suppose for a moment, for the sake of following out
+the argument, that _Pliolophus_ represents the primary stock of the
+Perissodactyles, and _Dichobune_ that of the Artiodactyles (though
+I am far from saying that such is the case), then we find, in the
+earliest fauna of the Eocene epoch to which our investigations carry
+us, the two divisions of the _Ungulata_ completely differentiated, and
+no trace of any common stock of both, or of five-toed predecessors to
+either. With the case of the Horses before us, justifying a belief in
+the production of new animal forms by modification of old ones, I see
+no escape from the necessity of seeking for these ancestors of the
+_Ungulata_ beyond the limits of the Tertiary formations.
+
+I could as soon admit special creation, at once, as suppose that the
+Perissodactyles and Artiodactyles had no five-toed ancestors. And when
+we consider how large a portion of the Tertiary period elapsed before
+_Anchitherium_ was converted into _Equus_, it is difficult to escape
+the conclusion that a large proportion of time anterior to the
+Tertiary period must have been expended in converting the common stock
+of the _Ungulata_ into Perissodactyles and Artiodactyles.
+
+The same moral is inculcated by the study of every other order of
+Tertiary monodelphous _Mammalia_. Each of these orders is represented
+in the Miocene epoch: the Eocene formation, as I have already said,
+contains _Cheiroptera, Insectivora, Rodentia, Ungulata, Carnivora,_
+and _Cetacea_. But the _Cheiroptera_ are extreme modifications of the
+_Insectivora_, just as the _Cetacea_ are extreme modifications of
+the Carnivorous type; and therefore it is to my mind incredible
+that monodelphous _Insectivora_ and _Carnivora_ should not have been
+abundantly developed, along with _Ungulata_, in the Mesozoic epoch.
+But if this be the case, how much further back must we go to find the
+common stock of the monodelphous _Mammalia_? As to the _Didelphia_,
+if we may trust the evidence which seems to be afforded by their
+very scanty remains, a Hypsiprymnoid form existed at the epoch of the
+Trias, contemporaneously with a Carnivorous form. At the epoch of the
+Trias, therefore, the _Marsupialia_ must have, already existed long
+enough to have become differentiated into carnivorous and herbivorous
+forms. But the _Monotremata_ are lower forms than the _Didelphia,_
+which last are intercalary between the _Ornithodelphia_ and the
+_Monodelphia_. To what point of the Palaeozoic epoch, then, must we,
+upon any rational estimate, relegate the origin of the _Monotremata_?
+
+The investigation of the occurrence of the classes and of the orders
+of the _Sauropsida_ in time points in exactly the same direction.
+If, as there is great reason to believe, true Birds existed in the
+Triassic epoch, the ornithoscelidous forms by which Reptiles passed
+into Birds must have preceded them. In fact there is, even at present,
+considerable ground for suspecting the existence of _Dinosauria_ in
+the Permian formations; but, in that case, lizards must be of still
+earlier date. And if the very small differences which are observable
+between the _Crocodilia_ of the older Mesozoic formations and those of
+the present day furnish any sort of approximation towards an estimate
+of the average rate of change among the _Sauropsida_, it is almost
+appalling to reflect how far back in Palaeozoic times we must go,
+before we can hope to arrive at that common stock from which the
+_Crocodilia, Lacertilia, Ornithoscelida_, and _Plesiosauria_, which
+had attained so great a development in the Triassic epoch, must have
+been derived.
+
+The _Amphibia_ and _Pisces_ tell the same story. There is not a
+single class of vertebrated animals which, when it first appears,
+is represented by analogues of the lowest known members of the same
+class. Therefore, if there is any truth in the doctrine of evolution,
+every class must be vastly older than the first record of its
+appearance upon the surface of the globe. But if considerations of
+this kind compel us to place the origin of vertebrated animals at
+a period sufficiently distant from the Upper Silurian, in which the
+first Elasmobranchs and Ganoids occur, to allow of the evolution of
+such fishes as these from a Vertebrate as simple as the _Amphioxus_,
+I can only repeat that it is appalling to speculate upon the extent to
+which that origin must have preceded the epoch of the first recorded
+appearance of vertebrate life.
+
+Such is the further commentary which I have to offer upon the
+statement of the chief results of palaeontology which I formerly
+ventured to lay before you.
+
+But the growth of knowledge in the interval makes me conscious of
+an omission of considerable moment in that statement, inasmuch as it
+contains no reference to the bearings of palaeontology upon the theory
+of the distribution of life; nor takes note of the remarkable manner
+in which the facts of distribution, in present and past times, accord
+with the doctrine of evolution, especially in regard to land animals.
+
+That connection between palaeontology and geology and the present
+distribution of terrestrial animals, which so strikingly impressed
+Mr. Darwin, thirty years ago, as to lead him to speak of a "law of
+succession of types," and of the wonderful relationship on the same
+continent between the dead and the living, has recently received much
+elucidation from the researches of Gaudry, of Rütimeyer, of Leidy,
+and of Alphonse Milne-Edwards, taken in connection with the
+earlier labours of our lamented colleague Falconer; and it has been
+instructively discussed in the thoughtful and ingenious work of Mr.
+Andrew Murray "On the Geographical Distribution of Mammals."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: The paper "On the Form and Distribution of the
+Land-tracts during the Secondary and Tertiary Periods respectively;
+and on the Effect upon Animal Life which great Changes in Geographical
+Configuration have probably produced," by Mr. Searles V. Wood, jun.,
+which was published in the _Philosophical Magazine_, in 1862, was
+unknown to me when this Address was written. It is well worthy of the
+most careful study.]
+
+I propose to lay before you, as briefly as I can, the ideas to which a
+long consideration of the subject has given rise in my own mind.
+
+If the doctrine of evolution is sound, one of its immediate
+consequences clearly is, that the present distribution of life
+upon the globe is the product of two factors, the one being the
+distribution which obtained in the immediately preceding epoch, and
+the other the character and the extent of the changes which have taken
+place in physical geography between the one epoch and the other; or,
+to put the matter in another way, the Fauna and Flora of any given
+area, in any given epoch, can consist only of such forms of life as
+are directly descended from those which constituted the Fauna and
+Flora of the same area in the immediately preceding epoch, unless the
+physical geography (under which I include climatal conditions) of
+the area has been so altered as to give rise to immigration of living
+forms from some other area.
+
+The evolutionist, therefore, is bound to grapple with the following
+problem whenever it is clearly put before him:--Here are the Faunae of
+the same area during successive epochs. Show good cause for believing
+either that these Faunae have been derived from one another by gradual
+modification, or that the Faunae have reached the area in question
+by migration from some area in which they have undergone their
+development.
+
+I propose to attempt to deal with this problem, so far as it is
+exemplified by the distribution of the terrestrial _Vertebrata_, and I
+shall endeavour to show you that it is capable of solution in a sense
+entirely favourable to the doctrine of evolution.
+
+I have elsewhere[1] stated at length the reasons which lead me to
+recognize four primary distributional provinces for the terrestrial
+_Vertebrata_ in the present world, namely,--first, the _Novozelanian_,
+or New-Zealand province; secondly, the _Australian_ province,
+including Australia, Tasmania, and the Negrito Islands; thirdly,
+_Austro-Columbia_, or South America _plus_ North America as far as
+Mexico; and fourthly, the rest of the world, or _Arctogaea_, in which
+province America north of Mexico constitutes one sub-province, Africa
+south of the Sahara a second, Hindostan a third, and the remainder of
+the Old World, a fourth.
+
+[Footnote 1: "On the Classification and Distribution of the
+Alectoromorphae;" Proceedings of the Zoological Society, 1868.]
+
+Now the truth which Mr. Darwin perceived and promulgated as "the law
+of the succession of types" is, that, in all these provinces, the
+animals found in Pliocene or later deposits are closely affined to
+those which now inhabit the same provinces; and that, conversely, the
+forms characteristic of other provinces are absent. North and South
+America, perhaps, present one or two exceptions to the last rule, but
+they are readily susceptible of explanation. Thus, in Australia, the
+later Tertiary mammals are marsupials (possibly with exception of the
+Dog and a Rodent or two, as at present). In Austro-Columbia the later
+Tertiary fauna exhibits numerous and varied forms of Platyrrhine
+Apes, Rodents, Cats, Dogs, Stags, _Edentata_, and Opossums; but, as
+at present, no Catarrhine Apes, no Lemurs, no _Insectivora_, Oxen,
+Antelopes, Rhinoceroses, nor _Didelphia_ other than Opossums. And in
+the wide-spread Arctogaeal province, the Pliocene and later mammals
+belong to the same groups as those which now exist in the province.
+The law of succession of types, therefore, holds good for the present
+epoch as compared with its predecessor. Does it equally well apply to
+the Pliocene fauna when we compare it with that of the Miocene epoch?
+By great good fortune, an extensive mammalian fauna of the latter
+epoch has now become known, in four very distant portions of the
+Arctogaeal province which do not differ greatly in latitude. Thus
+Falconer and Cautley have made known the fauna of the sub-Himalayas
+and the Perim Islands; Gaudry that of Attica; many observers that of
+Central Europe and France; and Leidy that of Nebraska, on the eastern
+flank of the Rocky Mountains. The results are very striking. The total
+Miocene fauna comprises many genera, and species of Catarrhine Apes,
+of Bats, of _Insectivora_; of Arctogaeal types of _Rodentia_; of
+_Proboscidea_; of equine, rhinocerotic, and tapirine quadrupeds; of
+cameline, bovine, antilopine, cervine, and traguline Ruminants; of
+Pigs and Hippopotamuses; of _Viverridae_ and _Hyaenidae_ among other
+_Carnivora_; with _Edentata_ allied to the Arctogaeal _Orycteropus_
+and _Manis_, and not to the Austro-Columbian Edentates. The only type
+present in the Miocene, but absent in the existing, fauna of Eastern
+Arctogaea, is that of the _Didelphidae_, which, however, remains in
+North America.
+
+But it is very remarkable that while the Miocene fauna of the
+Arctogaeal province, as a whole, is of the same character as the
+existing fauna of the same province, as a whole, the component
+elements of the fauna were differently associated. In the Miocene
+epoch, North America possessed Elephants, Horses, Rhinoceroses, and
+a great number and variety of Ruminants and Pigs, which are absent
+in the present indigenous fauna; Europe had its Apes, Elephants,
+Rhinoceroses, Tapirs, Musk-deer, Giraffes, Hyaenas, great Cats,
+Edentates, and Opossum-like Marsupials, which have equally vanished
+from its present fauna; and in Northern India, the African types of
+Hippopotamuses, Giraffes, and Elephants were mixed up with what
+are now the Asiatic types of the latter, and with Camels, and
+Semnopithecine and Pithecine Apes of no less distinctly Asiatic forms.
+
+In fact the Miocene mammalian fauna of Europe and the Himalayan
+regions contains, associated together, the types which are at present
+separately located in the South-African and Indian sub-provinces of
+Arctogaea. Now there is every reason to believe, on other grounds,
+that both Hindostan, south of the Ganges, and Africa, south of the
+Sahara, were separated by a wide sea from Europe and North Asia during
+the Middle and Upper Eocene epochs. Hence it becomes highly probable
+that the well-known similarities, and no less remarkable differences,
+between the present Faunae of India and South Africa have arisen
+in some such fashion as the following. Some time during the Miocene
+epoch, possibly when the Himalayan chain was elevated, the bottom of
+the nummulitic sea was upheaved and converted into dry land, in the
+direction of a line extending from Abyssinia to the mouth of the
+Ganges. By this means, the Dekhan on the one hand, and South Africa
+on the other, became connected with the Miocene dry land and with one
+another. The Miocene mammals spread gradually over this intermediate
+dry land; and if the condition of its eastern and western ends offered
+as wide contrasts as the valleys of the Ganges and Arabia do now, many
+forms which made their way into Africa must have been different from
+those which reached the Dekhan, while others might pass into both
+these sub-provinces.
+
+That there was a continuity of dry land between Europe and North
+America during the Miocene epoch, appears to me to be a necessary
+consequence of the fact that many genera of terrestrial mammals, such
+as _Castor_, _Hystrix_, _Elephas_, _Mastodon_, _Equus_, _Hipparion_,
+_Anchitherium_, _Rhinoceros_, _Cervus_, _Amphicyon_, _Hyaenarctos_,
+and _Machairodus_, are common to the Miocene formations of the two
+areas, and have as yet been found (except perhaps _Anchitherium_) in
+no deposit of earlier age. Whether this connection took place by the
+east, or by the west, or by both sides of the Old World, there is at
+present no certain evidence, and the question is immaterial to the
+present argument; but, as there are good grounds for the belief that
+the Australian province and the Indian and South-African sub-provinces
+were separated by sea from the rest of Arctogaea before the Miocene
+epoch, so it has been rendered no less probable, by the investigations
+of Mr. Carrick Moore and Professor Duncan, that Austro-Columbia was
+separated by sea from North America during a large part of the Miocene
+epoch.
+
+It is unfortunate that we have no knowledge of the Miocene mammalian
+fauna of the Australian and Austro-Columbian provinces; but, seeing
+that not a trace of a Platyrrhine Ape, of a Procyonine Carnivore, of a
+characteristically South-American Rodent, of a Sloth, an Armadillo,
+or an Ant-eater has yet been found in Miocene deposits of Arctogaea, I
+cannot doubt that they already existed in the Miocene Austro-Columbian
+province.
+
+Nor is it less probable that the characteristic types of Australian
+Mammalia were already developed in that region in Miocene times.
+
+But Austro-Columbia presents difficulties from which Australia is
+free; _Camelidae_ and _Tapiridae_ are now indigenous in South America
+as they are in Arctogaea; and, among the Pliocene Austro-Columbian
+mammals, the Austro-Columbian genera _Equus_, _Mastodon_, and
+_Machairodus_ are numbered. Are these Postmiocene immigrants, or
+Praemiocene natives?
+
+Still more perplexing are the strange and interesting forms _Toxodon_,
+_Macrauchenia_, _Typotherium_, and a new Anoplotherioid mammal
+(_Homalodotherium_) which Dr. Cunningham sent over to me some time ago
+from Patagonia. I confess I am strongly inclined to surmise that these
+last, at any rate, are remnants of the population of Austro-Columbia
+before the Miocene epoch, and were not derived from Arctogaea by way
+of the north and east.
+
+The fact that this immense fauna of Miocene Arctogaea is now fully
+and richly represented only in India and in South Africa, while it
+is shrunk and depauperized in North Asia, Europe, and North America,
+becomes at once intelligible, if we suppose that India and South
+Africa had but a scanty mammalian population before the Miocene
+immigration, while the conditions were highly favourable to the new
+comers. It is to be supposed that these new regions offered themselves
+to the Miocene Ungulates, as South America and Australia offered
+themselves to the cattle, sheep, and horses of modern colonists. But,
+after these great areas were thus peopled, came the Glacial epoch,
+during which the excessive cold, to say nothing of depression and
+ice-covering, must have almost depopulated all the northern parts of
+Arctogaea, destroying all the higher mammalian forms, except those
+which, like the Elephant and Rhinoceros, could adjust their coats to
+the altered conditions. Even these must have been driven away from the
+greater part of the area; only those Miocene mammals which had passed
+into Hindostan and into South Africa would escape decimation by such
+changes in the physical geography of Arctogaea. And when the northern
+hemisphere passed into its present condition, these lost tribes of the
+Miocene Fauna were hemmed by the Himalayas, the Sahara, the Red Sea,
+and the Arabian deserts, within their present boundaries. Now, on the
+hypothesis of evolution, there is no sort of difficulty in admitting
+that the differences between the Miocene forms of the mammalian
+Fauna and those which exist at present are the results of gradual
+modification; and, since such differences in distribution as obtain
+are readily explained by the changes which have taken place in the
+physical geography of the world since the Miocene epoch, it is clear
+that the result of the comparison of the Miocene and present Fauna is
+distinctly in favour of evolution. Indeed I may go further. I may
+say that the hypothesis of evolution explains the facts of Miocene,
+Pliocene, and Recent distribution, and that no other supposition even
+pretends to account for them. It is, indeed, a conceivable supposition
+that every species of Rhinoceros and every species of Hyaena, in the
+long succession of forms between the Miocene and the present species,
+was separately constructed out of dust, or out of nothing, by
+supernatural power; but until I receive distinct evidence of the fact,
+I refuse to run the risk of insulting any sane man by supposing that
+he seriously holds such a notion.
+
+Let us now take a step further back in time, and inquire into the
+relations between the Miocene Fauna and its predecessor of the Upper
+Eocene formation.
+
+Here it is to be regretted that our materials for forming a judgment
+are nothing to be compared in point of extent or variety with those
+which are yielded by the Miocene strata. However, what we do know
+of this Upper Eocene Fauna of Europe gives sufficient positive
+information to enable us to draw some tolerably safe inferences. It
+has yielded representatives of _Insectivora_, of _Cheiroptera_,
+of _Rodentia_, of _Carnivora_, of artiodactyle and perissodactyle
+_Ungulata_, and of opossum-like Marsupials. No Australian type of
+Marsupial has been discovered in the Upper Eocene strata, nor any
+Edentate mammal. The genera (except perhaps in the case of some of the
+_Insectivora_, _Cheiroptera_, and _Rodentia_) are different from those
+of the Miocene epoch, but present a remarkable general similarity to
+the Miocene and recent genera. In several cases, as I have already
+shown, it has now been clearly made out that the relation between
+the Eocene and Miocene forms is such that the Eocene form is the less
+specialized; while its Miocene ally is more so, and the specialization
+reaches its maximum in the recent forms of the same type.
+
+So far as the Upper Eocene and the Miocene Mammalian Faunae are
+comparable, their relations are such as in no way to oppose the
+hypothesis that the older are the progenitors of the more recent
+forms, while, in some cases, they distinctly favour that hypothesis.
+The period in time and the changes in physical geography represented
+by the nummulitic deposits are undoubtedly very great, while the
+remains of Middle Eocene and Older Eocene Mammals are comparatively
+few. The general facies of the Middle Eocene Fauna, however, is quite
+that of the Upper. The Older Eocene pre-nummulitic mammalian Fauna
+contains Bats, two genera of _Carnivora_, three genera of _Ungulata_
+(probably all perissodactyle), and a didelphid Marsupial; all these
+forms, except perhaps the Bat and the Opossum, belong to genera
+which are not known to occur out of the Lower Eocene formation. The
+_Coryphodon_ appears to have been allied to the Miocene and later
+Tapirs, while _Pliolophus_, in its skull and dentition, curiously
+partakes of both artiodactyle and perissodactyle characters; the third
+trochanter upon its femur, and its three-toed hind foot, however,
+appear definitely to fix its position in the latter division.
+
+There is nothing, then, in what is known of the older Eocene mammals
+of the Arctogaeal province to forbid the supposition that they stood
+in an ancestral relation to those of the Calcaire Grossier and the
+Gypsum of the Paris basin, and that our present fauna, therefore, is
+directly derived from that which already existed in Arctogaea at the
+commencement of the Tertiary period. But if we now cross the frontier
+between the Cainozoic and the Mesozoic faunae, as they are preserved
+within the Arctogaeal area, we meet with an astounding change, and
+what appears to be a complete and unmistakable break in the line of
+biological continuity.
+
+Among the twelve or fourteen species of _Mammalia_ which are said to
+have been found in the Purbecks, not one is a member of the orders
+_Cheiroptera_, _Rodentia_, _Ungulata_, or _Carnivora_, which are so
+well represented in the Tertiaries. No _Insectivora_ are certainly
+known, nor any opossum-like Marsupials. Thus there is a vast negative
+difference between the Cainozoic and the Mesozoic mammalian faunae
+of Europe. But there is a still more important positive difference,
+inasmuch as all these Mammalia appear to be Marsupials belonging to
+Australian groups, and thus appertaining to a different distributional
+province from the Eocene and Miocene marsupials, which are
+Austro-Columbian. So far as the imperfect materials which exist enable
+a judgment to be formed, the same law appears to have held good for
+all the earlier Mesozoic _Mammalia_. Of the Stonesfield slate mammals,
+one, _Amphitherium_, has a definitely Australian character; one,
+_Phascolotherium_, may be either Dasyurid or Didelphine; of a third,
+_Stereognathus_, nothing can at present be said. The two mammals of
+the Trias, also, appear to belong to Australian groups.
+
+Every one is aware of the many curious points of resemblance between
+the marine fauna of the European Mesozoic rocks and that which now
+exists in Australia. But if there was this Australian facies about
+both the terrestrial and the marine faunae of Mesozoic Europe, and
+if there is this unaccountable and immense break between the fauna
+of Mesozoic and that of Tertiary Europe, is it not a very obvious
+suggestion that, in the Mesozoic epoch, the Australian province
+included Europe, and that the Arctogaeal province was contained within
+other limits? The Arctogaeal province is at present enormous, while
+the Australian is relatively small. Why should not these proportions
+have been different during the Mesozoic epoch?
+
+Thus I am led to think that by far the simplest and most rational
+mode of accounting for the great change which took place in the living
+inhabitants of the European area at the end of the Mesozoic epoch, is
+the supposition that it arose from a vast alteration of the physical
+geography of the globe; whereby an area long tenanted by Cainozoic
+forms was brought into such relations with the European area that
+migration from the one to the other became possible, and took place on
+a great scale.
+
+This supposition relieves us, at once, from the difficulty in which we
+were left, some time ago, by the arguments which I used to demonstrate
+the necessity of the existence of all the great types of the Eocene
+epoch in some antecedent period.
+
+It is this Mesozoic continent (which may well have lain in the
+neighbourhood of what are now the shores of the North Pacific Ocean)
+which I suppose to have been occupied by the Mesozoic _Monodelphia_;
+and it is in this region that I conceive they must have gone through
+the long series of changes by which they were specialized into the
+forms which we refer to different orders. I think it very probable
+that what is now South America may have received the characteristic
+elements of its mammalian fauna during the Mesozoic epoch; and there
+can be little doubt that the general nature of the change which took
+place at the end of the Mesozoic epoch in Europe was the upheaval of
+the eastern and northern regions of the Mesozoic sea-bottom into a
+westward extension of the Mesozoic continent, over which the mammalian
+fauna, by which it was already peopled, gradually spread. This
+invasion of the land was prefaced by a previous invasion of the
+Cretaceous sea by modern forms of mollusca and fish.
+
+It is easy to imagine how an analogous change might come about in the
+existing world. There is, at present, a great difference between the
+fauna of the Polynesian Islands and that of the west coast of America.
+The animals which are leaving their spoils in the deposits now forming
+in these localities are widely different. Hence, if a gradual
+shifting of the deep sea, which at present bars migration between the
+easternmost of these islands and America, took place to the westward,
+while the American side of the sea-bottom was gradually upheaved,
+the palaeontologist of the future would find, over the Pacific area,
+exactly such a change as I am supposing to have occurred in the
+North-Atlantic area at the close of the Mesozoic period. An Australian
+fauna would be found underlying an American fauna, and the transition
+from the one to the other would be as abrupt as that between the Chalk
+and lower Tertiaries; and as the drainage-area of the newly formed
+extension of the American continent gave rise to rivers and lakes, the
+mammals mired in their mud would differ from those of like deposits on
+the Australian side, just as the Eocene mammals differ from those of
+the Purbecks.
+
+How do similar reasonings apply to the other great change of
+life--that which took place at the end of the Palaeozoic period?
+
+In the Triassic epoch, the distribution of the dry land and of
+terrestrial vertebrate life appears to have been, generally, similar
+to that which existed in the Mesozoic epoch; so that the Triassic
+continents and their faunae seem to be related to the Mesozoic lands
+and their faunae, just as those of the Miocene epoch are related to
+those of the present day. In fact, as I have recently endeavoured
+to prove to the Society, there was an Arctogaeal continent and an
+Arctogaeal province of distribution in Triassic times as there is now;
+and the _Sauropsida_ and _Marsupialia_ which constituted that
+fauna were, I doubt not, the progenitors of the _Sauropsida_ and
+_Marsupialia_ of the whole Mesozoic epoch.
+
+Looking at the present terrestrial fauna of Australia, it appears to
+me to be very probable that it is essentially a remnant of the
+fauna of the Triassic, or even of an earlier, age[1]; in which
+case Australia must at that time have been in continuity with the
+Arctogaeal continent.
+
+[Footnote 1: Since this Address was read, Mr. Krefft has sent us
+news of the discovery in Australia of a fresh-water fish of strangely
+Palaeozoic aspect, and apparently a Ganoid intermediate between
+_Dipterus_ and _Lepidosiren_.]
+
+But now comes the further inquiry. Where was the highly differentiated
+Sauropsidan fauna of the Trias in Palaeozoic times? The supposition
+that the Dinosaurian, Crocodilian, Dicynodontian, and Plesiosaurian
+types were suddenly created at the end of the Permian epoch may
+be dismissed, without further consideration, as a monstrous and
+unwarranted assumption. The supposition that all these types were
+rapidly differentiated out of _Lacertilia_, in the time represented by
+the passage from the Palaeozoic to the Mesozoic formation, appears to
+me to be hardly more credible, to say nothing of the indications of
+the existence of Dinosaurian forms in the Permian rocks which have
+already been obtained.
+
+For my part, I entertain no sort of doubt that the Reptiles, Birds,
+and Mammals of the Trias are the direct descendants of Reptiles,
+Birds, and Mammals which existed in the latter part of the Palaeozoic
+epoch, but not in any area of the present dry land which has yet been
+explored by the geologist.
+
+This may seem a bold assumption, but it will not appear unwarrantable
+to those who reflect upon the very small extent of the earth's surface
+which has hitherto exhibited the remains of the great Mammalian fauna
+of the Eocene times. In this respect, the Permian land Vertebrate
+fauna appears to me to be related to the Triassic much as the Eocene
+is to the Miocene. Terrestrial reptiles have been found in Permian
+rocks only in three localities; in some spots of France, and recently
+of England, and over a more extensive area in Germany. Who can suppose
+that the few fossils yet found in these regions give any sufficient
+representation of the Permian fauna?
+
+It may be said that the Carboniferous formations demonstrate the
+existence of a vast extent of dry land in the present dry-land area,
+and that the supposed terrestrial Palaeozoic Vertebrate Fauna ought to
+have left its remains in the Coal-measures, especially as there is now
+reason to believe that much of the coal was formed by the accumulation
+of spores and sporangia on dry land. But if we consider the matter
+more closely, I think that this apparent objection loses its force. It
+is clear that, during the Carboniferous epoch, the vast area of land
+which is now covered by Coal-measures must have been undergoing a
+gradual depression. The dry land thus depressed must, therefore, have
+existed, as such, before the Carboniferous epoch--in other words, in
+Devonian times--and its terrestrial population may never have been
+other than such as existed during the Devonian, or some previous
+epoch, although much higher forms may have been developed elsewhere.
+
+Again, let me say that I am making no gratuitous assumption of
+inconceivable changes. It is clear that the enormous area of Polynesia
+is, on the whole, an area over which depression has taken place to
+an immense extent; consequently a great continent, or assemblage of
+subcontinental masses of land, must have existed at some former time,
+and that at a recent period, geologically speaking, in the area of
+the Pacific. But if that continent had contained Mammals, some of
+them must have remained to tell the tale; and as it is well known that
+these islands have no indigenous _Mammalia_, it is safe to assume that
+none existed. Thus, midway between Australia and South America, each
+of which possesses an abundant and diversified mammalian fauna, a mass
+of land, which may have been as large as both put together, must have
+existed without a mammalian inhabitant. Suppose that the shores of
+this great land were fringed, as those of tropical Australia are now,
+with belts of mangroves, which would extend landwards on the one
+side, and be buried beneath littoral deposits on the other side,
+as depression went on; and great beds of mangrove lignite might
+accumulate over the sinking land. Let upheaval of the whole now take
+place, in such a manner as to bring the emerging land into continuity
+with the South-American or Australian continent, and, in course of
+time, it would be peopled by an extension of the fauna of one of these
+two regions--just as I imagine the European Permian dry land to have
+been peopled.
+
+I see nothing whatever against the supposition that distributional
+provinces of terrestrial life existed in the Devonian epoch, inasmuch
+as M. Barrande has proved that they existed much earlier. I am aware
+of no reason for doubting that, as regards the grades of terrestrial
+life contained in them, one of these may have been related to another
+as New Zealand is to Australia, or as Australia is to India, at the
+present day. Analogy seems to me to be rather in favour of, than
+against, the supposition that while only Ganoid fishes inhabited the
+fresh waters of our Devonian land, _Amphibia_ and _Reptilia_, or even
+higher forms, may have existed, though we have not yet found them. The
+earliest Carboniferous _Amphibia_ now known, such as _Anthracosaurus_,
+are so highly specialized that I can by no means conceive that they
+have been developed out of piscine forms in the interval between the
+Devonian and the Carboniferous periods, considerable as that is. And I
+take refuge in one of two alternatives: either they existed in our own
+area during the Devonian epoch and we have simply not yet found them;
+or they formed part of the population of some other distributional
+province of that day, and only entered our area by migration at the
+end of the Devonian epoch. Whether _Reptilia_ and _Mammalia_ existed
+along with them is to me, at present, a perfectly open question, which
+is just as likely to receive an affirmative as a negative answer from
+future inquirers.
+
+Let me now gather together the threads of my argumentation into the
+form of a connected hypothetical view of the manner in which the
+distribution of living and extinct animals has been brought about.
+
+I conceive that distinct provinces of the distribution of terrestrial
+life have existed since the earliest period at which that life is
+recorded, and possibly much earlier; and I suppose, with Mr. Darwin,
+that the progress of modification of terrestrial forms is more rapid
+in areas of elevation than in areas of depression. I take it to be
+certain that Labyrinthodont _Amphibia_ existed in the distributional
+province which included the dry land depressed during the
+Carboniferous epoch; and I conceive that, in some other distributional
+provinces of that day, which remained in the condition of stationary
+or of increasing dry land, the various types of the terrestrial
+_Sauropsida_ and of the _Mammalia_ were gradually developing.
+
+The Permian epoch marks the commencement of a new movement of upheaval
+in our area, which attained its maximum in the Triassic epoch, when
+dry land existed in North America, Europe, Asia, and Africa, as it
+does now. Into this great new continental area the Mammals, Birds, and
+Reptiles developed during the Palaeozoic epoch spread, and formed the
+great Triassic Arctogaeal province. But, at the end of the Triassic
+period, the movement of depression recommenced in our area, though
+it was doubtless balanced by elevation elsewhere; modification and
+development, checked in the one province, went on in that "elsewhere;"
+and the chief forms of Mammals, Birds, and Reptiles, as we know them,
+were evolved and peopled the Mesozoic continent. I conceive Australia
+to have become separated from the continent as early as the end of
+the Triassic epoch, or not much later. The Mesozoic continent must, I
+conceive, have lain to the east, about the shores of the North Pacific
+and Indian Oceans; and I am inclined to believe that it continued
+along the eastern side of the Pacific area to what is now the province
+of Austro-Columbia, the characteristic fauna of which is probably a
+remnant of the population of the latter part of this period.
+
+Towards the latter part of the Mesozoic period the movement of
+upheaval around the shores of the Atlantic once more recommenced,
+and was very probably accompanied by a depression around those of the
+Pacific. The Vertebrate fauna elaborated in the Mesozoic continent
+moved westward and took possession of the new lands, which gradually
+increased in extent up to, and in some directions after, the Miocene
+epoch.
+
+It is in favour of this hypothesis, I think, that it is consistent
+with the persistence of a general uniformity in the positions of the
+great masses of land and water. From the Devonian period, or earlier,
+to the present day, the four great oceans, Atlantic, Pacific, Arctic,
+and Antarctic, may have occupied their present positions, and only
+their coasts and channels of communication have undergone an incessant
+alteration. And, finally, the hypothesis I have put before you
+requires no supposition that the rate of change in organic life has
+been either greater or less in ancient times than it is now; nor
+any assumption, either physical or biological, which has not its
+justification in analogous phenomena of existing nature.
+
+I have now only to discharge the last duty of my office, which is
+to thank you, not only for the patient attention with which you have
+listened to me so long to-day, but also for the uniform kindness with
+which, for the past two years, you have rendered my endeavours
+to perform the important, and often laborious, functions of your
+President a pleasure instead of a burden.
+
+
+
+
+X.
+
+MR. DARWIN'S CRITICS.[1]
+
+
+The gradual lapse of time has now separated us by more than a decade
+from the date of the publication of the "Origin of Species"--and
+whatever may be thought or said about Mr. Darwin's doctrines, or the
+manner in which he has propounded them, this much is certain, that,
+in a dozen years, the "Origin of Species" has worked as complete
+a revolution in biological science as the "Principia" did in
+astronomy--and it has done so, because, in the words of Helmholtz, it
+contains "an essentially new creative thought."[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: 1. "Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection."
+By A.R. Wallace. 1870.--2. "The Genesis of Species." By St. George
+Mivart, F.R.S. Second Edition. 1871.--3. "Darwin's Descent of Man."
+_Quarterly Review_, July 1871.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Helmholtz: "Ueber das Ziel und die Fortschritte der
+Naturwissenschaft." Eröffnungsrede für die Naturforscherversammlung zu
+Innsbruck. 1869.]
+
+And as time has slipped by, a happy change has come over Mr. Darwin's
+critics. The mixture of ignorance and insolence which, at first,
+characterized a large proportion of the attacks with which he
+was assailed, is no longer the sad distinction of anti-Darwinian
+criticism. Instead of abusive nonsense, which merely discredited its
+writers, we read essays, which are, at worst, more or less intelligent
+and appreciative; while, sometimes, like that which appeared in the
+_North British Review_ for 1867, they have a real and permanent value.
+
+The several publications of Mr. Wallace and Mr. Mivart contain
+discussions of some of Mr. Darwin's views, which are worthy of
+particular attention, not only on account of the acknowledged
+scientific competence of these writers, but because they exhibit an
+attention to those philosophical questions which underlie all physical
+science, which is as rare as it is needful. And the same may be said
+of an article in the _Quarterly Review_ for July 1871, the comparison
+of which with an article in the same Review for July 1860, is perhaps
+the best evidence which can be brought forward of the change which has
+taken place in public opinion on "Darwinism."
+
+The Quarterly Reviewer admits "the certainty of the action of natural
+selection" (p. 49); and further allows that there is an _à priori_
+probability in favour of the evolution of man from some lower animal
+form, if these lower animal forms themselves have arisen by evolution.
+
+Mr. Wallace and Mr. Mivart go much further than this. They are as
+stout believers in evolution as Mr. Darwin himself; but Mr. Wallace
+denies that man can have been evolved from a lower animal by that
+process of natural selection which he, with Mr. Darwin, holds to have
+been sufficient for the evolution of all animals below man; while
+Mr. Mivart, admitting that natural selection has been one of the
+conditions of the evolution of the animals below man, maintains that
+natural selection must, even in their case, have been supplemented by
+"some other cause"--of the nature of which, unfortunately, he does
+not give us any idea. Thus Mr. Mivart is less of a Darwinian than Mr.
+Wallace, for he has less faith in the power of natural selection. But
+he is more of an evolutionist than Mr. Wallace, because Mr. Wallace
+thinks it necessary to call in an intelligent agent--a sort of
+supernatural Sir John Sebright--to produce even the animal frame of
+man; while Mr. Mivart requires no Divine assistance till he comes to
+man's soul.
+
+Thus there is a considerable divergence between Mr. Wallace and Mr.
+Mivart. On the other hand, there are some curious similarities between
+Mr. Mivart and the Quarterly Reviewer, and these are sometimes so
+close, that, if Mr. Mivart thought it worth while, I think he
+might make out a good case of plagiarism against the Reviewer, who
+studiously abstains from quoting him.
+
+Both the Reviewer and Mr. Mivart reproach Mr. Darwin with being, "like
+so many other physicists," entangled in a radically false metaphysical
+system, and with setting at nought the first principles of both
+philosophy and religion. Both enlarge upon the necessity of a sound
+philosophical basis, and both, I venture to add, make a conspicuous
+exhibition of its absence. The Quarterly Reviewer believes that man
+"differs more from an elephant or a gorilla than do these from the
+dust of the earth on which they tread," and Mr. Mivart has expressed
+the opinion that there is more difference between man and an ape than
+there is between an ape and a piece of granite.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: See the _Tablet_ for March 11, 1871.]
+
+And even when Mr. Mivart (p. 86) trips in a matter of anatomy, and
+creates a difficulty for Mr. Darwin out of a supposed close similarity
+between the eyes of fishes and cephalopods, which (as Gegenbaur and
+others have clearly shown) does not exist, the Quarterly Reviewer
+adopts the argument without hesitation (p. 66).
+
+There is another important point, however, in which it is hard to say
+whether Mr. Mivart diverges from the Quarterly Reviewer or not.
+
+The Reviewer declares that Mr. Darwin has, "with needless opposition,
+set at nought the first principles of both philosophy and religion"
+(p. 90).
+
+It looks, at first, as if this meant, that Mr. Darwin's views being
+false, the opposition to "religion" which flows from them must be
+needless. But I suspect this is not the right view of the meaning of
+the passage, as Mr. Mivart, from whom the Quarterly Reviewer plainly
+draws so much inspiration, tells us that "the consequences which have
+been drawn from evolution, whether exclusively Darwinian or not, to
+the prejudice of religion, by no means follow from it, and are in fact
+illegitimate" (p. 5).
+
+I may assume, then, that the Quarterly Reviewer and Mr. Mivart admit
+that there is no necessary opposition between "evolution, whether
+exclusively Darwinian or not," and religion. But then, what do they
+mean by this last much-abused term? On this point the Quarterly
+Reviewer is silent. Mr. Mivart, on the contrary, is perfectly
+explicit, and the whole tenor of his remarks leaves no doubt that by
+"religion" he means theology; and by theology, that particular variety
+of the great Proteus, which is expounded by the doctors of the Roman
+Catholic Church, and held by the members of that religious community
+to be the sole form of absolute truth and of saving faith.
+
+According to Mr. Mivart, the greatest and most orthodox authorities
+upon matters of Catholic doctrine agree in distinctly asserting
+"derivative creation" or evolution; "and thus their teachings
+harmonize with all that modern science can possibly require" (p. 305).
+
+I confess that this bold assertion interested me more than anything
+else in Mr. Mivart's book. What little knowledge I possessed of
+Catholic doctrine, and of the influence exerted by Catholic authority
+in former times, had not led me to expect that modern science was
+likely to find a warm welcome within the pale of the greatest and most
+consistent of theological organizations.
+
+And my astonishment reached its climax when I found Mr. Mivart citing
+Father Suarez as his chief witness in favour of the scientific freedom
+enjoyed by Catholics--the popular repute of that learned theologian
+and subtle casuist not being such as to make his works a likely place
+of refuge for liberality of thought. But in these days, when Judas
+Iscariot and Robespierre, Henry VIII. and Catiline, have all been
+shown to be men of admirable virtue, far in advance of their age,
+and consequently the victims of vulgar prejudice, it was obviously
+possible that Jesuit Suarez might be in like case. And, spurred by Mr.
+Mivart's unhesitating declaration, I hastened to acquaint myself
+with such of the works of the great Catholic divine as bore upon
+the question, hoping, not merely to acquaint myself with the true
+teachings of the infallible Church, and free myself of an unjust
+prejudice; but, haply, to enable myself, at a pinch, to put some
+Protestant bibliolater to shame, by the bright example of Catholic
+freedom from the trammels of verbal inspiration.
+
+I regret to say that my anticipations have been cruelly disappointed.
+But the extent to which my hopes have been crushed can only be fully
+appreciated by citing, in the first place, those passages of Mr.
+Mivart's work by which they were excited. In his introductory chapter
+I find the following passages:--
+
+"The prevalence of this theory [of evolution] need alarm no one, for
+it is, without any doubt, perfectly consistent with the strictest and
+most orthodox Christian[1] theology" (p. 5).
+
+[Footnote 1: It should be observed that Mr. Mivart employs the term
+"Christian" as if it were the equivalent of "Catholic."]
+
+"Mr. Darwin and others may perhaps be excused if they have not devoted
+much time to the study of Christian philosophy; but they have no right
+to assume or accept without careful examination, as an unquestioned
+fact, that in that philosophy there is a necessary antagonism between
+the two ideas 'creation' and 'evolution,' as applied to organic forms.
+
+"It is notorious and patent to all who choose to seek, that many
+distinguished Christian thinkers have accepted, and do accept, both
+ideas, i.e. both 'creation' and 'evolution.'
+
+"As much as ten years ago an eminently Christian writer observed: 'The
+creationist theory does not necessitate the perpetual search after
+manifestations of miraculous power and perpetual "catastrophes."
+Creation is not a miraculous interference with the laws of nature, but
+the very institution of those laws. Law and regularity, not arbitrary
+intervention, was the patristic ideal of creation. With this notion
+they admitted, without difficulty, the most surprising origin of
+living creatures, provided it took place by _law_. They held that
+when God said, "Let the waters produce," "Let the earth produce," He
+conferred forces on the elements of earth and water, which enabled
+them naturally to produce the various species of organic beings. This
+power, they thought, remains attached to the elements throughout all
+time.' The same writer quotes St. Augustin and St. Thomas Aquinas,
+to the effect that, 'in the institution of nature, we do not look for
+miracles, but for the laws of nature,' And, again, St. Basil speaks
+of the continued operation of natural laws in the production of all
+organisms.
+
+"So much for the writers of early and mediaeval times. As to the
+present day, the author can confidently affirm that there are many
+as well versed in theology as Mr. Darwin is in his own department
+of natural knowledge, who would not be disturbed by the thorough
+demonstration of his theory. Nay, they would not even be in the least
+painfully affected at witnessing the generation of animals of complex
+organization by the skilful artificial arrangement of natural forces,
+and the production, in the future, of a fish by means analogous to
+those by which we now produce urea.
+
+"And this because they know that the possibility of such phenomena,
+though by no means actually foreseen, has yet been fully provided
+for in the old philosophy centuries before Darwin, or even centuries
+before Bacon, and that their place in the system can be at once
+assigned them without even disturbing its order or marring its
+harmony.
+
+"Moreover, the old tradition in this respect has never been abandoned,
+however much it may have been ignored or neglected by some modern
+writers. In proof of this, it may be observed that perhaps no
+post-mediaeval theologian has a wider reception amongst Christians
+throughout the world than Suarez, who has a separate section[1] in
+opposition to those who maintain the distinct creation of the various
+kinds--or substantial forms--of organic life" (pp. 19-21).
+
+[Footnote 1: Suarez; Metaphysica. Edition Vivés. Paris, 1868, vol. i.
+Disput. xv. § 2.]
+
+Still more distinctly does Mr. Mivart express himself, in the same
+sense, in his last chapter, entitled "Theology and Evolution" (pp.
+302-5).
+
+"It appears, then, that Christian thinkers are perfectly free to
+accept the general evolution theory. But are there any theological
+authorities to justify this view of the matter?
+
+"Now, considering how extremely recent are these biological
+speculations, it might hardly be expected _à priori_ that writers of
+earlier ages should have given expression to doctrines harmonizing
+in any degree with such very modern views; nevertheless, this is
+certainly the case, and it would be easy to give numerous examples.
+It will be better, however, to cite one or two authorities of weight.
+Perhaps no writer of the earlier Christian ages could be quoted whose
+authority is more generally recognized than that of St. Augustin. The
+same may be said of the mediaeval period for St. Thomas Aquinas: and
+since the movement of Luther, Suarez may be taken as an authority,
+widely venerated, and one whose orthodoxy has never been questioned.
+
+"It must be borne in mind that for a considerable time even after
+the last of these writers no one had disputed the generally received
+belief as to the small age of the world, or at least of the kinds of
+animals and plants inhabiting it. It becomes, therefore, much more
+striking if views formed under such a condition of opinion are found
+to harmonize with modern ideas concerning 'Creation' and organic Life.
+
+"Now St. Augustin insists in a very remarkable manner on the merely
+derivative sense in which God's creation of organic forms is to
+be understood; that is, that God created them by conferring on the
+material world the power to evolve them under suitable conditions."
+
+Mr. Mivart then cites certain passages from St. Augustin, St. Thomas
+Aquinas, and Cornelius à Lapide, and finally adds:--
+
+    "As to Suarez, it will be enough to refer to Disp. xv. sec.
+    2, No. 9, p. 508, t.i. edition Vivés, Paris; also Nos. 13--15.
+    Many other references to the same effect could easily be
+    given, but these may suffice.
+
+    "It is then evident that ancient and most venerable
+    theological authorities distinctly assert _derivative_
+    creation, and thus their teachings harmonize with all that
+    modern science can possibly require."
+
+It will be observed that Mr. Mivart refers solely to Suarez's
+fifteenth Disputation, though he adds, "Many other references to the
+same effect could easily be given." I shall look anxiously for these
+references in the third edition of the "Genesis of Species." For the
+present, all I can say is, that I have sought in vain, either in
+the fifteenth Disputation, or elsewhere, for any passage in Suarez's
+writings which, in the slightest degree, bears out Mr. Mivart's views
+as to his opinions.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: The edition of Suarez's "Disputationes" from which the
+following citations are given, is Birckmann's, in two volumes folio,
+and is dated 1630.]
+
+The title of this fifteenth Disputation is "De causa formali
+substantiali," and the second section of that Disputation (to which
+Mr. Mivart refers) is headed, "Quomodo possit forma substantialis
+fieri in materia et ex materia?"
+
+The problem which Suarez discusses in this place may be popularly
+stated thus: According to the scholastic philosophy every natural body
+has two components--the one its "matter" (_materia prima_), the other
+its "substantial form" (_forma substantialis_). Of these the matter
+is everywhere the same, the matter of one body being indistinguishable
+from the matter of any other body. That which differentiates any one
+natural body from all others is its substantial form, which inheres
+in the matter of that body, as the human soul inheres in the matter
+of the frame of man, and is the source of all the activities and other
+properties of the body.
+
+Thus, says Suarez, if water is heated, and the source of heat is then
+removed, it cools again. The reason of this is that there is a certain
+"_intimius principium_" in the water, which brings it back to the
+cool condition when the external impediment to the existence of that
+condition is removed. This _intimius principium_, is the "substantial
+form" of the water. And the substantial form of the water is not only
+the cause (_radix_) of the coolness of the water, but also of its
+moisture, of its density, and of all its other properties.
+
+It will thus be seen that "substantial forms" play nearly the same
+part in the scholastic philosophy as "forces" do in modern science;
+the general tendency of modern thought being to conceive all bodies as
+resolvable into material particles and forces, in virtue of which last
+these particles assume those dispositions and exercise those powers
+which are characteristic of each particular kind of matter.
+
+But the Schoolmen distinguished two kinds of substantial forms,
+the one spiritual and the other material. The former division is
+represented by the human soul, the _anima rationalis_; and they affirm
+as a matter, not merely of reason, but of faith, that every human soul
+is created out of nothing, and by this act of creation is endowed with
+the power of existing for all eternity, apart from the _materia
+prima_ of which the corporeal frame of man is composed. And the _anima
+rationalis_, once united with the _materia prima_ of the body,
+becomes its substantial form, and is the source of all the powers and
+faculties of man--of all the vital and sensitive phenomena which he
+exhibits--just as the substantial form of water is the source of all
+its qualities.
+
+The "material substantial forms" are those which inform all other
+natural bodies except that of man; and the object of Suarez in the
+present Disputation, is to show that the axiom "_ex nihilo nihil
+fit_," though not true of the substantial form of man, is true of the
+substantial forms of all other bodies, the endless mutations of which
+constitute the ordinary course of nature. The origin of the difficulty
+which he discusses is easily comprehensible. Suppose a piece of bright
+iron to be exposed to the air. The existence of the iron depends on
+the presence within it of a substantial form, which is the cause of
+its properties, e.g. brightness, hardness, weight. But, by degrees,
+the iron becomes converted into a mass of rust, which is dull, and
+soft, and light, and, in all other respects, is quite different from
+the iron. As, in the scholastic view, this difference is due to the
+rust being informed by a new substantial form, the grave problem
+arises, how did this new substantial form come into being? Has it been
+created? or has it arisen by the power of natural causation? If the
+former hypothesis is correct, then the axiom, "_ex nihilo nihil fit_,"
+is false, even in relation to the ordinary course of nature, seeing
+that such mutations of matter as imply the continual origin of new
+substantial forms are occurring every moment. But the harmonization of
+Aristotle with theology was as dear to the Schoolmen, as the smoothing
+down the differences between Moses and science is to our Broad
+Churchmen, and they were proportionably unwilling to contradict one
+of Aristotle's fundamental propositions. Nor was their objection to
+flying in the face of the Stagirite likely to be lessened by the fact
+that such flight landed them in flat Pantheism.
+
+So Father Suarez fights stoutly for the second hypothesis; and I quote
+the principal part of his argumentation as an exquisite specimen of
+that speech which is a "darkening of counsel."
+
+    "13. Secundo de omnibus aliis formis substantialibus (sc.
+    materialibus) dicendum est non fieri proprie ex nihilo, sed
+    ex potentia praejacentis materiae educi: ideoque in effectione
+    harum formarum nil fieri contra illud axioma, _Ex nihila
+    nihil fit_, si recte intelligatur. Haec assertio sumitur ex
+    Aristotele 1. Physicorum per totum et libro 7. Metaphyss.
+    et ex aliis authoribus, quos statim referam. Et declaratur
+    breviter, nam fieri ex nihilo duo dicit, unum est fieri
+    absolute et simpliciter, aliud est quod talis effectio fit ex
+    nihilo. Primum propriè dicitur de re subsistente, quia ejus
+    est fieri, cujus est esse: id autem proprie quod subsistit et
+    habet esse; nam quod alteri adjacet, potius est quo aliud est.
+    Ex hac ergo parte, formae substantiales materiales non fiunt
+    ex nihilo, quia proprie non fiunt. Atque hanc rationem reddit
+    Divus Thomas I parte, quaestione 45, articulo 8, et quaestione
+    90, articulo 2, et ex dicendis magis explicabitur. Sumendo
+    ergo ipsum _fieri_ in hac proprietate et rigore, sic fieri
+    ex nihilo est fieri secundum se totum, id est nulla sui parte
+    praesupposita, ex quo fiat. Et hac ratione res naturales
+    dum de novo fiunt, non fiunt ex nihilo, quia fiunt ex
+    praesupposita materia, ex qua componuntur, et ita non fiunt,
+    secundum se totae, sed secundum aliquid sui. Formae autem
+    harum rerum, quamvis revera totam suam entitatem de novo
+    accipiant, quam antea non habebant, quia vero ipsae non fiunt,
+    ut dictum est, ideo neque ex nihilo fiunt. Attamen, quia
+    latiori modo sumendo verbum illud _fieri_ negari non potest:
+    quia forma facta sit, eo modo quo nunc est, et antea non erat,
+    ut etiam probat ratio dubitandi posita in principio sectionis,
+    ideo addendum est, sumpto _fieri_ in hac amplitudine, fieri
+    ex nihilo non tamen negare habitudinem materialis causea
+    intrinsecè componentis id quod fit, sed etiam habitudinem
+    causae materialis per se causantis et sustentantis formam quae
+    fit, seu confit. Diximus enim in superioribus materiam et esse
+    causam compositi et formae dependentis ab ilia: ut res ergo
+    dicatur ex nihilo fieri uterque modus causalitatis negari
+    debet; et eodem sensu accipiendum est illud axioma, ut
+    sit verum: _Ex nihilo nihil fit_, scilicet virtute agentis
+    naturalis et finiti nihil fieri, nisi ex praesupposito
+    subjecto per se concurrente, et ad compositum et ad formam,
+    si utrumque suo modo ab eodem agente fiat. Ex his ergo rectè
+    concluditur, formas substantiales materiales non fieri ex
+    nihilo, quia fiunt ex materia, quae in suo genere per se
+    concurrit, et influit ad esse, et fieri talium formarum;
+    quia, sicut esse non possunt nisi affixae materiae, a qua
+    sustententur in esse: ita nec fieri possunt, nisi earum
+    effectio et penetratio in eadem materia sustentetur. Et haec
+    est propria et per se differentia inter effectionem ex nihilo,
+    et ex aliquo, propter quam, ut infra ostendemus, prior modus
+    effciendi superat vim finitam naturaliam agentium, non vero
+    posterior.
+
+    "14. Ex his etiam constat, proprie de his formis dici non
+    creari, sed educi de potentia materiae."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Suarez, _loc. cit_. Disput. xv. § ii.]
+
+If I may venture to interpret these hard sayings, Suarez conceives
+that the evolution of substantial forms in the ordinary course of
+nature, is conditioned not only by the existence of the _materia
+prima_, but also by a certain "concurrence and influence" which
+that _materia_ exerts; and every new substantial form being thus
+conditioned, and in part, at any rate, caused, by a pre-existing
+something, cannot be said to be created out of nothing.
+
+But as the whole tenor of the context shows, Suarez applies this
+argumentation merely to the evolution of material substantial forms
+in the ordinary course of nature. How the substantial forms of animals
+and plants primarily originated, is a question to which, so far as
+I am able to discover, he does not so much as allude in his
+"Metaphysical Disputations." Nor was there any necessity that he
+should do so, inasmuch as he has devoted a separate treatise of
+considerable bulk to the discussion of all the problems which arise
+out of the account of the Creation which is given in the Book of
+Genesis. And it is a matter of wonderment to me that Mr. Mivart, who
+somewhat sharply reproves "Mr. Darwin and others" for not acquainting
+themselves with the true teachings of his Church, should allow
+himself to be indebted to a heretic like myself for a knowledge of
+the existence of that "Tractatus de opere sex Dierum," I in which
+the learned Father, of whom he justly speaks, as "an authority widely
+venerated, and whose orthodoxy has never been questioned," directly
+opposes all those opinions, for which Mr. Mivart claims the shelter of
+his authority.
+
+In the tenth and eleventh chapters of the first book of this treatise,
+Suarez inquires in what sense the word "day," as employed in the first
+chapter of Genesis, is to be taken. He discusses the views of Philo
+and of Augustin on this question, and rejects them. He suggests that
+the approval of their allegorizing interpretations by St. Thomas
+Aquinas, merely arose out of St. Thomas's modesty, and his desire not
+to seem openly to controvert St. Augustin--"voluisse Divus Thomas pro
+sua modestia subterfugere vim argumenti potius quam aperte Augustinum
+inconstantiae arguere."
+
+Finally, Suarez decides that the writer of Genesis meant that the
+term "day" should be taken in its natural sense; and he winds up
+the discussion with the very just and natural remark that "it is
+not probable that God, in inspiring Moses to write a history of the
+Creation which was to be believed by ordinary people, would have made
+him use language, the true meaning of which it is hard to discover,
+and still harder to believe."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "Tractatus de opere sex Dierum, seu de Universi
+Creatione, quatenus sex diebus perfecta esse, in libro Genesis cap. i.
+refertur, et praesertim de productioue hominis in statu innocentiae."
+Ed. Birckmann, 1622.]
+
+And in chapter xii. 3, Suarez further observes:--
+
+    "Ratio enim retinendi veram significationem diei naturalis est
+    illa communis, quod verba Scripturae non sunt ad metaphoras
+    transferenda, nisi vel necessitas cogit, vel ex ipsa scriptura
+    constet, et maximè in historica narratione et ad instructionem
+    fidei pertinente: sed haec ratio non minus cogit ad
+    intelligendum propriè dierum numerum, quam diei qualitatem,
+    QUIA NON MINUS UNO MODO QUAM ALIO DESTRUITUR SINCERITAS,
+    IMO ET VERITAS HISTORIAE. Secundo hoc valde confirmant alia
+    Scripturae loca, in quibus hi sex dies tanquam veri, et inter
+    se distincti commemorantur, ut Exod. 20 dicitur, _Sex diebus
+    operabis et facies omnia opera tua, septimo autem die Sabbatum
+    Domini Dei tui est_. Et infra: _Sex enim diebus fecit Dominus
+    caelum et terram et mare et omnia quae in eis sunt_, et idem
+    repetitur in cap. 31. In quibus locis sermonis proprietas
+    colligi potest tum ex aequiparatione, nam cum dicitur: _sex
+    diebus operabis_, propriissimè intelligitur: tum quia non est
+    verisimile, potuisse populum intelligere verba illa in alio
+    sensu, et è contrario incredibile est, Deum in suis praeceptis
+    tradendis illis verbis ad populum fuisse loquutum, quibus
+    deciperetur, falsum sensum concipiendo, si Deus non per sex
+    veros dies opera sua fecisset."
+
+These passages leave no doubt that this great doctor of the Catholic
+Church, of unchallenged authority and unspotted orthodoxy, not only
+declares it to be Catholic doctrine that the work of creation took
+place in the space of six natural days; but that he warmly repudiates,
+as inconsistent with our knowledge of the Divine attributes, the
+supposition that the language which Catholic faith requires the
+believer to hold that God inspired, was used in any other sense than
+that which He knew it would convey to the minds of those to whom it
+was addressed.
+
+And I think that in this repudiation Father Suarez will have the
+sympathy of every man of common uprightness, to whom it is certainly
+"incredible" that the Almighty should have acted in a manner which He
+would esteem dishonest and base in a man.
+
+But the belief that the universe was created in six natural days is
+hopelessly inconsistent with the doctrine of evolution, in so far as
+it applies to the stars and planetary bodies; and it can be made to
+agree with a belief in the evolution of living beings only by the
+supposition that the plants and animals, which are said to have been
+created on the third, fifth, and six days, were merely the primordial
+forms, or rudiments, out of which existing plants and animals have
+been evolved; so that, on these days, plants and animals were not
+created actually, but only potentially.
+
+The latter view is that held by Mr. Mivart, who follows St. Augustin,
+and implies that he has the sanction of Suarez. But, in point of fact,
+the latter great light of orthodoxy takes no small pains to give the
+most explicit and direct contradiction to all such imaginations, as
+the following passages prove. In the first place, as regards plants,
+Suarez discusses the problem:--
+
+    "_Quomodo herba virens et caetera vegetabilia hoc [tertio] die
+    fuerint producta._[1]
+
+    [Footnote 1: "Propter haec ergo sententia illa Augustini et
+    propter nimiam obscuritatem et subtilitatem ejus difficilis
+    creditu est: quia verisimile non est Deum inspirasse Moysi,
+    ut historiam de creatione mundi ad fidem totius populi adeo
+    necessariam per nomina dierum explicaret, quorum significatio
+    vix inveniri et difficillime ab aliquo credi posset." _(Loc.
+    cit._ Lib. I. cap. xi. 42.)]
+
+    "Praecipua enim difficultas hîc est, quam attingit Div. Thomas
+    I, par. qu. 69, art. 2, an haec productio plantarum hoc die
+    facta intelligenda sit de productione ipsarum in proprio esse
+    actuali et formali (ut sic rem explicerem) vel de productione
+    tantum in semine et in potentia. Nam Divus Augustinus libro
+    quinto Genes, ad liter, cap. 4 et 5 et libro 8, cap. 3,
+    posteriorem partem tradit, dicens, terram in hoc die accepisse
+    virtutem germinandi omnia vegetabilia quasi concepto omnium
+    illorum semine, non tamen statim vegetabilia omnia produxisse.
+    Quod primo suadet verbis illis capitis secundi. _In die quo
+    fecit Deus coelum et terram et omne virgultum agri priusquam,
+    germinaret_. Quomodo enim potuerunt virgulta fieri antequam
+    terra germinaret nisi quia causaliter prius et quasi in
+    radice, seu in semine facta sunt, et postea in actu producta?
+    Secundo confirmari potest, quia verbum illud _germinet terra_
+    optimè exponitur potestativè ut sic dicam, id est, accipiat
+    terra vim germinandi. Sicut in eodem capite dicitur _crescite
+    et multiplicamini_. Tertio potest confirmari, quia actualis
+    productio vegetabilium non tarn ad opus creationis, quam ad
+    opus propagationis pertinet, quod postea factum est. Et hanc
+    sententiam sequitur Eucherius lib. 1, in Gen. cap. 11, et illi
+    faveat Glossa, interli. Hugo. et Lyran. dum verbum _germinet_
+    dicto modo exponunt. NIHILOMINUS CONTRARIA SENTENTIA TENENDA
+    EST: SCILICET, PRODUXISSE DEUM HOC DIE HERBAM, ARBORES, ET
+    ALIA VEGETABILIA ACTU IN PROPRIA SPECIE ET NATURA. Haec est
+    communis sententia Patrum.--Basil, homil. 5; Exaemer. Ambros.
+    lib. 3; Exaemer. cap. 8,11, et 16; Chrysost, homil. 5 in Gen.
+    Damascene, lib. 2 de Fid. cap. 10; Theodor. Cyrilli. Bedae,
+    Glossae ordinariae et aliorum in Gen. Et idem sentit Divus
+    Thomas, _supra_, solvens argumenta Augustini, quamvis propter
+    reverentiam ejus quasi problematicè semper procedat. Denique
+    idem sentiunt omnes qui in his operibus veram successionem et
+    temporalem distinctionem agnoscant."
+
+Secondly, with respect to animals, Suarez is no less decided:--
+
+    _De animalium ratione carentium productione quinto et sexto
+    die facta._[1]
+
+    "32. Primo ergo nobis certum sit haec animantia non in virtute
+    tantum aut in semine, sed actu, et in seipsis, facta fuisse
+    his diebus in quibus facta narrantur. Quanquam Augustinus
+    lib. 3, Gen. ad liter, cap. 5 in sua persistens sententia
+    contrarium sentire videatur."
+
+[Footnote 1: _Loc. cit._ Lib. II. cap. vii. et viii. 1, 32, 35.]
+
+But Suarez proceeds to refute Augustin's opinions at great length, and
+his final judgment may be gathered from the following passage:--
+
+    "35. Tertio dicendum est, haec animalia omnia his diebus
+    producta esse, IN PERFECTO STATU, IN SINGULIS INDIVIDUIS, SEU
+    SPECIEBUS SUIS, JUXTA UNIUSCUJUSQUE NATURAM.... ITAQUE FUERUNT
+    OMNIA CREATA INTEGRA ET OMNIBUS SUIS MEMBRIS PERFECTA."
+
+As regards the creation of animals and plants, therefore, it is clear
+that Suarez, so far from "distinctly asserting derivative creation,"
+denies it as distinctly and positively as he can; that he is at much
+pains to refute St. Augustin's opinions; that he does not hesitate to
+regard the faint acquiescence of St. Thomas Aquinas in the views of
+his brother saint as a kindly subterfuge on the part of Divus Thomas;
+and that he affirms his own view to be that which is supported by the
+authority of the Fathers of the Church. So that, when Mr. Mivart tells
+us that Catholic theology is in harmony with all that modern science
+can possibly require; that "to the general theory of evolution, and
+to the special Darwinian form of it, no exception ... need be taken on
+the ground of orthodoxy;" and that "law and regularity, not arbitrary
+intervention, was the Patristic ideal of creation," we have to choose
+between his dictum, as a theologian, and that of a great light of
+his Church, whom he himself declares to be "widely venerated as an
+authority, and whose orthodoxy has never been questioned."
+
+But Mr. Mivart does not hesitate to push his attempt to harmonize
+science with Catholic orthodoxy to its utmost limit; and, while
+assuming that the soul of man "arises from immediate and direct
+creation," he supposes that his body was "formed at first (as now
+in each separate individual) by derivative, or secondary creation,
+through natural laws" (p. 331).
+
+This means, I presume, that an animal, having the corporeal form and
+bodily powers of man, may have been developed out of some lower form
+of life by a process of evolution; and that, after this anthropoid
+animal had existed for a longer or shorter time, God made a soul by
+direct creation, and put it into the manlike body, which, heretofore,
+had been devoid of that _anima rationalis_, which is supposed to be
+man's distinctive character.
+
+This hypothesis is incapable of either proof or disproof, and
+therefore may be true; but if Suarez is any authority, it is not
+Catholic doctrine. "Nulla est in homine forma educta de potentia
+materiae,"[1] is a dictum which is absolutely inconsistent with the
+doctrine of the natural evolution of any vital manifestation of the
+human body.
+
+[Footnote 1: Disput. xv. § x. No. 27.]
+
+Moreover, if man existed as an animal before he was provided with a
+rational soul, he must, in accordance with the elementary requirements
+of the philosophy in which Mr. Mivart delights, have possessed a
+distinct sensitive and vegetative soul, or souls. Hence, when the
+"breath of life" was breathed into the manlike animal's nostrils,
+he must have already been a living and feeling creature. But Suarez
+particularly discusses this point, and not only rejects Mr. Mivart's
+view, but adopts language of very theological strength regarding it.
+
+    "Possent praeterea his adjungi argumenta theologica, ut est
+    illud quod sumitur ex illis verbis Genes. 2. _Formavit Deus
+    hominem ex limo terrae et inspiravit in faciem ejus spiraculum
+    vitae et factus est homo in animam viventem_: ille enim
+    spiritus, quam Deus spiravit, anima rationalis fuit, et PER
+    EADEM FACTUS EST HOMO VIVENS, ET CONSEQUENTER, ETIAM SENTIENS.
+
+    "Aliud est ex VIII. Synodo Generali quae est
+    Constantinopolitana IV. can. 11, qui sic habet. _Apparet
+    quosdam in tantum impietatis venisse ut homines duas animas
+    habere dogmatizent: talis igitur impietatis inventores et
+    similes sapientes, cum Vetus et Novum Testamentum_ _omnesque
+    Ecclesiae patres unam animam rationalem hominem habere
+    asseverent, Sancta et universalis Synodus anathematizat_."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Disput. xv. "De causa formali substantiali," § x. No.
+24.]
+
+Moreover, if the animal nature of man was the result of evolution, so
+must that of woman have been. But the Catholic doctrine, according to
+Suarez, is that woman was, in the strictest and most literal sense of
+the words, made out of the rib of man.
+
+    "Nihilominus sententia Catholica est, verba illa Scripturae
+    esse ad literam intelligenda. AC PROINDE VERE, AC REALITER,
+    TULISSE DEUM COSTAM ADAE, ET, EX ILLA, CORPUS EVAE
+    FORMASSE."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "Tractatus de Opere," Lib. III. "De hominis creatione,"
+cap. ii. No. 3.]
+
+Nor is there any escape in the supposition that some woman existed
+before Eve, after the fashion of the Lilith of the rabbis;
+since Suarez qualifies that notion, along with some other Judaic
+imaginations, as simply "damnabilis."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Ibid. Lib. III. cap. iv. Nos. 8 and 9.]
+
+After the perusal of the "Tractatus de Opere" it is, in fact,
+impossible to admit that Suarez held any opinion respecting the origin
+of species, except such as is consistent with the strictest and most
+literal interpretation of the words of Genesis. For Suarez, it is
+Catholic doctrine, that the world was made in six natural days. On the
+first of these days the _materia prima_ was made out of nothing, to
+receive afterwards those "substantial forms" which moulded it into
+the universe of things; on the third day, the ancestors of all living
+plants suddenly came into being, full-grown, perfect, and possessed of
+all the properties which now distinguish them; while, on the fifth
+and sixth days, the ancestors of all existing animals were similarly
+caused to exist in their complete and perfect state, by the infusion
+of their appropriate material substantial forms into the matter
+which had already been created. Finally on the sixth day, the _anima
+rationalis_--that rational and immortal substantial form which is
+peculiar to man--was created out of nothing, and "breathed into" a
+mass of matter which, till then, was mere dust of the earth, and so
+man arose. But the species man was represented by a solitary male
+individual, until the Creator took out one of his ribs and fashioned
+it into a female.
+
+This is the view of the "Genesis of Species," held by Suarez to be the
+only one consistent with Catholic faith: it is because he holds this
+view to be Catholic that he does not hesitate to declare St. Augustin
+unsound, and St. Thomas Aquinas guilty of weakness, when the one
+swerved from this view and the other tolerated the deviation. And,
+until responsible Catholic authority--say, for example, the Archbishop
+of Westminster--formally declares that Suarez was wrong, and that
+Catholic priests are free to teach their flocks that the world was
+_not_ made in six natural days, and that plants and animals were _not_
+created in their perfect and complete state, but have been evolved by
+natural processes through long ages from certain germs in which they
+were potentially contained, I, for one, shall feel bound to believe
+that the doctrines of Suarez are the only ones which are sanctioned
+by Infallible Authority, as represented by the Holy Father and the
+Catholic Church.
+
+I need hardly add that they are as absolutely denied and repudiated by
+Scientific Authority, as represented by Reason and Fact. The question
+whether the earth and the immediate progenitors of its present living
+population were made in six natural days or not, is no longer one upon
+which two opinions can be held.
+
+The fact that it did not so come into being stands upon as sound a
+basis as any fact of history whatever. It is not true that existing
+plants and animals came into being within three days of the creation
+of the earth out of nothing, for it is certain that innumerable
+generations of other plants and animals lived upon the earth before
+its present population. And when, Sunday after Sunday, men who profess
+to be our instructors in righteousness read out the statement, "In
+six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that in them
+is," in innumerable churches, they are either propagating what they
+may easily know, and, therefore, are bound to know, to be falsities;
+or, if they use the words in some non-natural sense, they fall below
+the moral standard of the much-abused Jesuit.
+
+Thus far the contradiction between Catholic verity and Scientific
+verity is complete and absolute, quite independently of the truth or
+falsehood of the doctrine of evolution. But, for those who hold the
+doctrine of evolution, all the Catholic verities about the creation of
+living beings must be no less false. For them, the assertion that
+the progenitors of all existing plants were made on the third day, of
+animals on the fifth and sixth days, in the forms they now present, is
+simply false. Nor can they admit that man was made suddenly out of the
+dust of the earth; while it would be an insult to ask an evolutionist
+whether he credits the preposterous fable respecting the fabrication
+of woman to which Suarez pins his faith. If Suarez has rightly stated
+Catholic doctrine, then is evolution utter heresy. And such I believe
+it to be. In addition to the truth of the doctrine of evolution,
+indeed, one of its greatest merits in my eyes, is the fact that it
+occupies a position of complete and irreconcilable antagonism to that
+vigorous and consistent enemy of the highest intellectual, moral, and
+social life of mankind--the Catholic Church. No doubt, Mr. Mivart,
+like other putters of new wine into old bottles, is actuated by
+motives which are worthy of respect, and even of sympathy; but his
+attempt has met with the fate which the Scripture prophesies for all
+such.
+
+Catholic theology, like all theologies which are based upon the
+assumption of the truth of the account of the origin of things given
+in the Book of Genesis, being utterly irreconcilable with the doctrine
+of evolution, the student of science, who is satisfied that the
+evidence upon which the doctrine of evolution rests, is incomparably
+stronger and better than that upon which the supposed authority of
+the Book of Genesis rests, will not trouble himself further with these
+theologies, but will confine his attention to such arguments against
+the view he holds as are based upon purely scientific data--and
+by scientific data I do not merely mean the truths of physical,
+mathematical, or logical science, but those of moral and metaphysical
+science. For, by science, I understand all knowledge which rests upon
+evidence and reasoning of a like character to that which claims our
+assent to ordinary scientific propositions. And if any one is able to
+make good the assertion that his theology rests upon valid evidence
+and sound reasoning, then it appears to me that such theology will
+take its place as a part of science.
+
+The present antagonism between theology and science does not arise
+from any assumption by the men of science that all theology must
+necessarily be excluded from science; but simply because they are
+unable to allow that reason and morality have two weights and two
+measures; and that the belief in a proposition, because authority
+tells you it is true, or because you wish to believe it, which is a
+high crime and misdemeanour when the subject matter of reasoning is
+of one kind, becomes under the _alias_ of "faith" the greatest of all
+virtues, when the subject matter of reasoning is of another kind.
+
+The Bishop of Brechin said well the other day:--"Liberality in
+religion--I do not mean tender and generous allowances for the
+mistakes of others--is only unfaithfulness to truth."[1] And, with
+the same qualification, I venture to paraphrase the Bishop's dictum:
+"Ecclesiasticism in science is only unfaithfulness to truth."
+
+[Footnote 1: Charge at the Diocesan Synod of Brechin. _Scotsman_,
+Sept. 14, 1871.]
+
+Elijah's great question, "Will you serve God or Baal? Choose ye," is
+uttered audibly enough in the ears of every one of us as we come to
+manhood. Let every man who tries to answer it seriously, ask himself
+whether he can be satisfied with the Baal of authority, and with all
+the good things his worshippers are promised in this world and the
+next. If he can, let him, if he be so inclined, amuse himself with
+such scientific implements as authority tells him are safe and will
+not cut his fingers; but let him not imagine he is, or can be, both a
+true son of the Church and a loyal soldier of science.
+
+And, on the other hand, if the blind acceptance of authority appears
+to him in its true colours, as mere private judgment _in excelsis_,
+and if he have the courage to stand alone, face to face with the abyss
+of the Eternal and Unknowable, let him be content, once for all, not
+only to renounce the good things promised by "Infallibility," but even
+to bear the bad things which it prophesies; content to follow reason
+and fact in singleness and honesty of purpose, wherever they may lead,
+in the sure faith that a hell of honest men will, to him, be more
+endurable than a paradise full of angelic shams.
+
+Mr. Mivart asserts that "without a belief in a personal God, there is
+no religion worthy of the name." This is a matter of opinion. But
+it may be asserted, with less reason to fear contradiction, that the
+worship of a personal God, who, on Mr. Mivart's hypothesis, must
+have used language studiously calculated to deceive His creatures and
+worshippers, is "no religion worthy of the name." "Incredibile est,
+Deum illis verbis ad populum fuisse locutum quibus deciperetur," is a
+verdict in which, for once, Jesuit casuistry concurs with the healthy
+moral sense of all mankind.
+
+Having happily got quit of the theological aspect of evolution, the
+supporter of that great truth who turns to the scientific objections
+which are brought against it by recent criticism, finds, to his
+relief, that the work before him is greatly lightened by the
+spontaneous retreat of the enemy from nine-tenths of the territory
+which he occupied ten years ago. Even the Quarterly Reviewer not only
+abstains from venturing to deny that evolution has taken place, but he
+openly admits that Mr. Darwin has forced on men's minds "a recognition
+of the probability, if not more, of evolution, and of the certainty of
+the action of natural selection" (p. 49).
+
+I do not quite see, myself, how, if the action of natural selection is
+_certain_, the occurrence of evolution is only _probable_; inasmuch as
+the development of a new species by natural selection is, so far as
+it goes, evolution. However, it is not worth while to quarrel with
+the precise terms of a sentence which shows that the high watermark of
+intelligence among those most respectable of Britons, the readers of
+the _Quarterly Review_, has now reached such a level that the next
+tide may lift them easily and pleasantly on the once-dreaded shore of
+evolution. Nor, having got there, do they seem likely to stop, until
+they have reached the inmost heart of that great region, and accepted
+the ape ancestry of, at any rate, the body of man. For the Reviewer
+admits that Mr. Darwin can be said to have established:
+
+    "That if the various kinds of lower animals have been evolved
+    one from the other by a process of natural generation or
+    evolution, then it becomes highly probable, _à priori_, that
+    man's body has been similarly evolved; but this, in such a
+    case, becomes equally probable from the admitted fact that he
+    is an animal at all" (p. 65).
+
+From the principles laid down in the last sentence, it would follow
+that if man were constructed upon a plan as different from that of any
+other animal as that of a sea-urchin is from that of a whale, it
+would be "equally probable" that he had been developed from some other
+animal as it is now, when we know that for every bone, muscle, tooth,
+and even pattern of tooth, in man, there is a corresponding bone,
+muscle, tooth, and pattern of tooth, in an ape. And this shows one
+of two things--either that the Quarterly Reviewer's notions of
+probability are peculiar to himself; or, that he has such an
+overpowering faith in the truth of evolution, that no extent of
+structural break between one animal and another is sufficient to
+destroy his conviction that evolution has taken place.
+
+But this by the way. The importance of the admission that there is
+nothing in man's physical structure to interfere with his having been
+evolved from an ape, is not lessened because it is grudgingly made and
+inconsistently qualified. And instead of jubilating over the extent of
+the enemy's retreat, it will be more worth while to lay siege to his
+last stronghold--the position that there is a distinction in kind
+between the mental faculties of man and those of brutes; and that, in
+consequence of this distinction in kind, no gradual progress from
+the mental faculties of the one to those of the other can have taken
+place.
+
+The Quarterly Reviewer entrenches himself within formidable-looking
+psychological outworks, and there is no getting at him without
+attacking them one by one.
+
+He begins by laying down the following proposition: "'Sensation' is
+not 'thought,' and no amount of the former would constitute the most
+rudimentary condition of the latter, though sensations supply the
+conditions for the existence of 'thought' or 'knowledge'" (p. 67).
+
+This proposition is true, or not, according to the sense in which the
+word "thought" is employed. Thought is not uncommonly used in a sense
+co-extensive with consciousness, and, especially, with those states
+of consciousness we call memory. If I recall the impression made by a
+colour or an odour, and distinctly remember blueness or muskiness, I
+may say with perfect propriety that I "think of" blue or musk; and,
+so long as the thought lasts, it is simply a faint reproduction of the
+state of consciousness to which I gave the name in question, when it
+first became known to me as a sensation.
+
+Now, if that faint reproduction of a sensation, which we call the
+memory of it, is properly termed a thought, it seems to me to be
+a somewhat forced, proceeding to draw a hard and fast line of
+demarcation between thoughts and sensations. If sensations are
+not rudimentary thoughts, it may be said that some thoughts are
+rudimentary sensations. No amount of sound constitutes an echo, but
+for all that no one would pretend that an echo is something of totally
+different nature from a sound. Again, nothing can be looser, or more
+inaccurate, than the assertion that "sensations supply the conditions
+for the existence of thought or knowledge." If this implies that
+sensations supply the conditions for the existence of our memory of
+sensations or of our thoughts about sensations, it is a truism which
+it is hardly worth while to state so solemnly. If it implies that
+sensations supply anything else, it is obviously erroneous. And if it
+means, as the context would seem to show it does, that sensations are
+the subject-matter of all thought or knowledge, then it is no less
+contrary to fact, inasmuch as our emotions, which constitute a
+large part of the subject-matter of thought or of knowledge, are not
+sensations.
+
+More eccentric still is the Quarterly Reviewer's next piece of
+psychology.
+
+    "Altogether, we may clearly distinguish at least six kinds of
+    action to which the nervous system ministers:--
+
+    "I. That in which impressions received result in appropriate
+    movements without the intervention of sensation or thought, as
+    in the cases of injury above given.--This is the reflex action
+    of the nervous system.
+
+    "II. That in which stimuli from without result in sensations
+    through the agency of which their due effects are wrought
+    out--Sensation.
+
+    "III. That in which impressions received result in
+    sensations which give rise to the observation of sensible
+    objects.--Sensible perception.
+
+    "IV. That in which sensations and perceptions continue to
+    coalesce, agglutinate, and combine in more or less complex
+    aggregations, according to the laws of the association of
+    sensible perceptions.--Association.
+
+    "The above four groups contain only indeliberate operations,
+    consisting, as they do at the best, but of mere _presentative_
+    sensible ideas in no way implying any reflective or
+    _representative_ faculty. Such actions minister to and form
+    _Instinct_. Besides these, we may distinguish two other kinds
+    of mental action, namely:--
+
+    "V. That in which sensations and sensible perceptions are
+    reflected on by thought, and recognized as our own, and
+    we ourselves recognized by ourselves as affected and
+    perceiving.--Self-consciousness.
+
+    "VI. That in which we reflect upon our sensations or
+    perceptions, and ask what they are, and why they are.--Reason.
+
+    "These two latter kinds of action are deliberate operations,
+    performed, as they are, by means of representative ideas
+    implying the use of a _reflective representative_ faculty.
+    Such actions distinguish the _intellect_ or rational faculty.
+    Now, we assert that possession in perfection of all the first
+    four _(presentative)_ kinds of action by no means implies
+    the possession of the last two _(representative)_ kinds.
+    All persons, we think, must admit the truth of the following
+    proposition:--
+
+    "Two faculties are distinct, not in degree but _in kind_,
+    if we may possess the one in perfection without that fact
+    implying that we possess the other also. Still more will
+    this be the case if the two faculties tend to increase in
+    an inverse ratio. Yet this is the distinction between the
+    _instinctive_ and the _intellectual_ parts of man's nature.
+
+    "As to animals, we fully admit that they may possess all the
+    first four groups of actions--that they may have, so to speak,
+    mental images of sensible objects combined in all degrees of
+    complexity, as governed by the laws of association. We deny to
+    them, on the other hand, the possession of the last two
+    kinds of mental action. We deny them, that is, the power of
+    reflecting on their own existence, or of inquiring into the
+    nature of objects and their causes. We deny that they know
+    that they know or know themselves in knowing. In other words,
+    we deny them _reason_. The possession of the presentative
+    faculty, as above explained, in no way implies that of the
+    reflective faculty; nor does any amount of direct operation
+    imply the power of asking the reflective question before
+    mentioned, as to 'what' and 'why.'" _(Loc. cit_. pp. 67, 68.)
+
+Sundry points are worthy of notice in this remarkable account of the
+intellectual powers. In the first place the Reviewer ignores emotion
+and volition, though they are no inconsiderable "kinds of action to
+which the nervous system ministers," and memory has a place in his
+classification only by implication. Secondly, we are told that the
+second "kind of action to which the nervous system ministers" is "that
+in which stimuli from without result in sensations through the agency
+of which their due effects are wrought out.--Sensation." Does this
+really mean that, in the writer's opinion, "sensation" is the "agent"
+by which the "due effect" of the stimulus, which gives rise to
+sensation, is "wrought out"? Suppose somebody runs a pin into me. The
+"due effect" of that particular stimulus will probably be threefold;
+namely, a sensation of pain, a start, and an interjectional expletive.
+Does the Quarterly Reviewer really think that the "sensation" is the
+"agent" by which the other two phenomena are wrought out?
+
+But these matters are of little moment to anyone but the Reviewer
+and those persons who may incautiously take their physiology, or
+psychology, from him. The really interesting point is this, that when
+he fully admits that animals "may possess all the first four groups
+of actions," he grants all that is necessary for the purposes of
+the evolutionist. For he hereby admits that in animals "impressions
+received result in sensations which give rise to the observation
+of sensible objects," and that they have what he calls "sensible
+perception." Nor was it possible to help the admission; for we have
+as much reason to ascribe to animals, as we have to attribute to our
+fellow-men, the power, not only of perceiving external objects as
+external, and thus practically recognizing the difference between the
+self and the not-self; but that of distinguishing between like
+and unlike, and between simultaneous and successive things. When a
+gamekeeper goes out coursing with a greyhound in leash, and a hare
+crosses the field of vision, he becomes the subject of those states
+of consciousness we call visual sensation, and that is all he receives
+from without. Sensation, as such, tells him nothing whatever about
+the cause of these states of consciousness; but the thinking faculty
+instantly goes to work upon the raw material of sensation furnished to
+it through the eye, and gives rise to a train of thoughts. First comes
+the thought that there is an object at a certain distance; then arises
+another thought--the perception of the likeness between the states of
+consciousness awakened by this object to those presented by memory,
+as, on some former occasion, called up by a hare; this is succeeded
+by another thought of the nature of an emotion--namely, the desire
+to possess the hare; then follows a longer or shorter train of other
+thoughts, which end in a volition and an act--the loosing of the
+greyhound from the leash. These several thoughts are the concomitants
+of a process which goes on in the nervous system of the man. Unless
+the nerve-elements of the retina, of the optic nerve, of the brain, of
+the spinal chord, and of the nerves of the arms went through certain
+physical changes in due order and correlation, the various states
+of consciousness which have been enumerated would not make their
+appearance. So that in this, as in all other intellectual operations,
+we have to distinguish two sets of successive changes--one in the
+physical basis of consciousness, and the other in consciousness
+itself; one set which may, and doubtless will, in course of time,
+be followed through all their complexities by the anatomist and the
+physicist, and one of which only the man himself can have immediate
+knowledge.
+
+As it is very necessary to keep up a clear distinction between
+these two processes, let the one be called _neurosis_, and the other
+_psychosis_. When the gamekeeper was first trained to his work, every
+step in the process of neurosis was accompanied by a corresponding
+step in that of psychosis, or nearly so. He was conscious of seeing
+something, conscious of making sure it was a hare, conscious of
+desiring to catch it, and therefore to loose the greyhound at the
+right time, conscious of the acts by which he let the dog out of the
+leash. But with practice, though the various steps of the neurosis
+remain--for otherwise the impression on the retina would not result
+in the loosing of the dog--the great majority of the steps of the
+psychosis vanish, and the loosing of the dog follows unconsciously, or
+as we say, without thinking about it, upon the sight of the hare.
+No one will deny that the series of acts which originally intervened
+between the sensation and the letting go of the dog were, in the
+strictest sense, intellectual and rational operations. Do they cease
+to be so when the man ceases to be conscious of them? That depends
+upon what is the essence and what the accident of those operations,
+which, taken together, constitute ratiocination.
+
+Now ratiocination is resolvable into predication, and predication
+consists in marking, in some way, the existence, the co-existence,
+the succession, the likeness and unlikeness, of things or their ideas.
+Whatever does this, reasons; and if a machine produces the effects of
+reason, I see no more ground for denying to it the reasoning power,
+because it is unconscious, than I see for refusing to Mr. Babbage's
+engine the title of a calculating machine on the same grounds.
+
+Thus it seems to me that a gamekeeper reasons, whether he is conscious
+or unconscious, whether his reasoning is carried on by neurosis alone,
+or whether it involves more or less psychosis. And if this is true
+of the gamekeeper, it is also true of the greyhound. The essential
+resemblances in all points of structure and function, so far as they
+can be studied, between the nervous system of the man and that of the
+dog, leave no reasonable doubt that the processes which go on in the
+one are just like those which take place in the other. In the dog,
+there can be no doubt that the nervous matter which lies between
+the retina and the muscles undergoes a series of changes, precisely
+analogous to those which, in the man, give rise to sensation, a train
+of thought, and volition.
+
+Whether this neurosis is accompanied by such psychosis as ours, it is
+impossible to say; but those who deny that the nervous changes, which,
+in the dog, correspond with those which underlie thought in a man, are
+accompanied by consciousness, are equally bound to maintain that those
+nervous changes in the dog, which correspond with those which underlie
+sensation in a man, are also unaccompanied by consciousness. In other
+words, if there is no ground for believing that a dog thinks, neither
+is there any for believing that he feels.
+
+As is well known, Descartes boldly faced this dilemma, and
+maintained that all animals were mere machines and entirely devoid of
+consciousness. But he did not deny, nor can anyone deny, that in this
+case they are reasoning machines, capable of performing all those
+operations which are performed by the nervous system of man when he
+reasons. For even supposing that in man, and in man only, psychosis is
+superadded to neurosis--the neurosis which is common to both man
+and animal gives their reasoning processes a fundamental unity.
+But Descartes's position is open to very serious objections, if the
+evidence that animals feel is insufficient to prove that they really
+do so. What is the value of the evidence which leads one to believe
+that one's fellow-man feels? The only evidence in this argument of
+analogy, is the similarity of his structure and of his actions to
+one's own. And if that is good enough to prove that one's fellow-man
+feels, surely it is good enough to prove that an ape feels. For the
+differences of structure and function between men and apes are utterly
+insufficient to warrant the assumption, that while men have those
+states of consciousness we call sensations, apes have nothing of the
+kind. Moreover, we have as good evidence that apes are capable of
+emotion and volition as we have that men other than ourselves are. But
+if apes possess three out of the four kinds of states of consciousness
+which we discover in ourselves, what possible reason is there for
+denying them the fourth? If they are capable of sensation, emotion,
+and volition, why are they to be denied thought (in the sense of
+predication)?
+
+No answer has ever been given to these questions. And as the law of
+continuity is as much opposed, as is the common sense of mankind, to
+the notion that all animals are unconscious machines, it may safely be
+assumed that no sufficient answer ever will be given to them.
+
+There is every reason to believe that consciousness is a function
+of nervous matter, when, that nervous matter has attained a certain
+degree of organization, just as we know the other "actions to which
+the nervous system ministers," such as reflex action and the like, to
+be. As I have ventured to state my view of the matter elsewhere, "our
+thoughts are the expression of molecular changes in that matter of
+life which is the source of our other vital phenomena."
+
+Mr. Wallace objects to this statement in the following terms:--
+
+    "Not having been able to find any clue in Professor Huxley's
+    writings to the steps by which he passes from those vital
+    phenomena, which consist only, in their last analysis, of
+    movements by particles of matter, to those other phenomena
+    which we term thought, sensation, or consciousness; but,
+    knowing that so positive an expression of opinion from him
+    will have great weight with many persons, I shall endeavour
+    to show, with as much brevity as is compatible with clearness,
+    that this theory is not only incapable of proof, but is also,
+    as it appears to me, inconsistent with accurate conceptions of
+    molecular physics."
+
+With all respect for Mr. Wallace, it appears to me that his remarks
+are entirely beside the question. I really know nothing whatever, and
+never hope to know anything, of the steps by which the passage from
+molecular movement to states of consciousness is effected; and I
+entirely agree with the sense of the passage which he quotes from
+Professor Tyndall, apparently imagining that it is in opposition to
+the view I hold.
+
+All that I have to say is, that, in my belief, consciousness and
+molecular action are capable of being expressed by one another, just
+as heat and mechanical action are capable of being expressed in terms
+of one another. Whether we shall ever be able to express consciousness
+in foot-pounds, or not, is more than I will venture to say; but
+that there is evidence of the existence of some correlation between
+mechanical motion and consciousness, is as plain as anything can be.
+Suppose the poles of an electric battery to be connected by a platinum
+wire. A certain intensity of the current gives rise in the mind of a
+bystander to that state of consciousness we call a "dull red light"--a
+little greater intensity to another which we call a "bright red
+light;" increase the intensity, and the light becomes white; and,
+finally, it dazzles, and a new state of consciousness arises, which we
+term pain. Given the same wire and the same nervous apparatus, and the
+amount of electric force required to give rise to these several states
+of consciousness will be the same, however often the experiment
+is repeated. And as the electric force, the light-waves, and the
+nerve-vibrations caused by the impact of the light-waves on the
+retina, are all expressions of the molecular changes which are taking
+place in the elements of the battery; so consciousness is, in the same
+sense, an expression of the molecular changes which take place in that
+nervous matter, which is the organ of consciousness.
+
+And, since this, and any number of similar examples that may be
+required, prove that one form of consciousness, at any rate, is, in
+the strictest sense, the expression of molecular change, it really
+is not worth while to pursue the inquiry, whether a fact so easily
+established is consistent with any particular system of molecular
+physics or not.
+
+Mr. Wallace, in fact, appears to me to have mixed up two very distinct
+propositions: the one, the indisputable truth that consciousness is
+correlated with molecular changes in the organ of consciousness;
+the other, that the nature of that correlation is known, or can be
+conceived, which is quite another matter. Mr. Wallace, presumably,
+believes in that correlation of phenomena which we call cause and
+effect as firmly as I do. But if he has ever been able to form the
+faintest notion how a cause gives rise to its effect, all I can say is
+that I envy him. Take the simplest case imaginable--suppose a ball in
+motion to impinge upon another ball at rest. I know very well, as a
+matter of fact, that the ball in motion will communicate some of its
+motion to the ball at rest, and that the motion of the two balls after
+collision is precisely correlated with the masses of both balls and
+the amount of motion of the first. But how does this come about? In
+what manner can we conceive that the _vis viva_ of the first ball
+passes into the second? I confess I can no more form any conception
+of what happens in this case, than I can of what takes place when the
+motion of particles of my nervous matter, caused by the impact of a
+similar ball, gives rise to the state of consciousness I call pain. In
+ultimate analysis everything is incomprehensible, and the whole object
+of science is simply to reduce the fundamental incomprehensibilities
+to the smallest possible number.
+
+But to return to the Quarterly Reviewer. He admits that animals
+have "mental images of sensible objects, combined in all degrees of
+complexity, as governed by the laws of association." Presumably, by
+this confused and imperfect statement the Reviewer means to admit
+more than the words imply. For mental images of sensible objects,
+even though "combined in all degrees of complexity," are, and can be,
+nothing more than mental images of sensible objects. But judgments,
+emotions, and volitions cannot by any possibility be included under
+the head of "mental images of sensible objects."
+
+If the greyhound had no better mental endowment than the Reviewer
+allows him, he might have the "mental image" of the "sensible
+object"--the hare--and that might be combined with the mental images
+of other sensible objects, to any degree of complexity, but he would
+have no power of judging it to be at a certain distance from him; no
+power of perceiving its similarity to his memory of a hare; and no
+desire to get at it. Consequently he would stand stock still, and the
+noble art of coursing would have no existence. On the other hand,
+as that art is largely practised, it follows that greyhounds alone
+possess a number of mental powers, the existence of which, in any
+animal, is absolutely denied by the Quarterly Reviewer.
+
+Finally, what are the mental powers which he reserves as the especial
+prerogative of man? They are two. First, the recognition of "ourselves
+by ourselves as affected and perceiving.--Self-consciousness."
+
+Secondly. "The reflection upon our sensations and perceptions, and
+asking what they are and why they are.--Reason."
+
+To the faculty defined in the last sentence, the Reviewer, without
+assigning the least ground for thus departing from both common usage
+and technical propriety, applies the name of reason. But if man is not
+to be considered a reasoning being, unless he asks what his sensations
+and perceptions are, and why they are, what is a Hottentot, or an
+Australian black fellow; or what the "swinked hedger" of an ordinary
+agricultural district? Nay, what becomes of an average country squire
+or parson? How many of these worthy persons who, as their wont is,
+read the _Quarterly Review_, would do other than stand agape, if you
+asked them whether they had ever reflected what their sensations and
+perceptions are, and why they are?
+
+So that if the Reviewer's new definition of reason be correct, the
+majority of men, even among the most civilized nations, are devoid of
+that supreme characteristic of manhood. And if it be as absurd as I
+believe it to be, then, as reason is certainly not self-consciousness,
+and as it, as certainly, is one of the "actions to which the nervous
+system ministers," we must, if the Reviewer's classification is to be
+adopted, seek it among those four faculties which he allows animals
+to possess. And thus, for the second time, he really surrenders, while
+seeming to defend, his position.
+
+The Quarterly Reviewer, as we have seen, lectures the evolutionists
+upon their want of knowledge of philosophy altogether. Mr. Mivart
+is not less pained at Mr. Darwin's ignorance of moral science. It is
+grievous to him that Mr. Darwin (and _nous autres_) should not
+have grasped the elementary distinction between material and formal
+morality; and he lays down as an axiom, of which no tyro ought to be
+ignorant, the position that "acts, unaccompanied by mental acts
+of conscious will directed towards the fulfilment of duty," are
+"absolutely destitute of the most incipient degree of real or formal
+goodness."
+
+Now this may be Mr. Mivart's opinion, but it is a proposition which,
+really, does not stand on the footing of an undisputed axiom. Mr. Mill
+denies it in his work on Utilitarianism. The most influential writer
+of a totally opposed school, Mr. Carlyle, is never weary of denying
+it, and upholding the merit of that virtue which is unconscious; nay,
+it is, to my understanding, extremely hard to reconcile Mr. Mivart's
+dictum with that noble summary of the whole duty of man--"Thou shalt
+love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and
+with all thy strength; and thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself."
+According to Mr. Mivart's definition, the man who loves God and his
+neighbour, and, out of sheer love and affection for both, does all he
+can to please them, is, nevertheless, destitute of a particle of real
+goodness.
+
+And it further happens that Mr. Darwin, who is charged by Mr. Mivart
+with being ignorant of the distinction between material and formal
+goodness, discusses the very question at issue, in a passage which
+is well worth reading (vol. i.p. 87), and also comes to a conclusion
+opposed to Mr. Mivart's axiom. A proposition which has been so much
+disputed and repudiated, should, under no circumstances, have been
+thus confidently assumed to be true. For myself, I utterly reject
+it, inasmuch as the logical consequence of the adoption of any such
+principle is the denial of all moral value to sympathy and affection.
+According to Mr. Mivart's axiom, the man who, seeing another
+struggling in the water, leaps in at the risk of his own life to save
+him, does that which is "destitute of the most incipient degree of
+real goodness," unless, as he strips off his coat, he says to himself,
+"Now mind, I am going to do this because it is my duty and for no
+other reason;" and the most beautiful character to which humanity
+can attain, that of the man who does good without thinking about it,
+because he loves justice and mercy and is repelled by evil, has no
+claim on our moral approbation. The denial that a man acts morally
+because he does not think whether he does so or not, may be put upon
+the same footing as the denial of the title of an arithmetician to the
+calculating boy, because he did not know how he worked his sums. If
+mankind ever generally accept and act upon Mr. Mivart's axiom, they
+will simply become a set of most unendurable prigs; but they never
+have accepted it, and I venture to hope that evolution has nothing so
+terrible in store for the human race.
+
+But, if an action, the motive of which is nothing out affection or
+sympathy, may be deserving of moral approbation and really good, who
+that has ever had a dog of his own will deny that animals are capable
+of such actions? Mr. Mivart indeed says:--"It may be safely affirmed,
+however, that there is no trace in brutes of any actions simulating
+morality which are not explicable by the fear of punishment, by the
+hope of pleasure, or by personal affection" (p. 221). But it may
+be affirmed, with equal truth, that there is no trace in men of any
+actions which are not traceable to the same motives. If a man does
+anything, he does it either because he fears to be punished if he
+does not do it, or because he hopes to obtain pleasure by doing it, or
+because he gratifies his affections[1] by doing it.
+
+[Footnote 1: In separating pleasure and the gratification of
+affection, I simply follow Mr. Mivart without admitting the justice of
+the separation.]
+
+Assuming the position of the absolute moralists, let it be granted
+that there is a perception of right and wrong innate in every man.
+This means, simply, that when certain ideas are presented to his
+mind, the feeling of approbation arises; and when certain others, the
+feeling of disapprobation. To do your duty is to earn the approbation
+of your conscience, or moral sense; to fail in your duty is to feel
+its disapprobation, as we all say. Now, is approbation a pleasure or
+a pain? Surely a pleasure. And is disapprobation a pleasure or a pain?
+Surely a pain. Consequently all that is really meant by the absolute
+moralists is that there is, in the very nature of man, something which
+enables him to be conscious of these particular pleasures and pains.
+And when they talk of immutable and eternal principles of morality,
+the only intelligible sense which I can put upon the words, is that
+the nature of man being what it is, he always has been, and always
+will be, capable of feeling these particular pleasures and pains. _A
+priori_, I have nothing to say against this proposition. Admitting its
+truth, I do not see how the moral faculty is on a different footing
+from any of the other faculties of man. If I choose to say that it is
+an immutable and eternal law of human nature that "ginger is hot
+in the mouth," the assertion has as much foundation of truth as the
+other, though I think it would be expressed in needlessly pompous
+language. I must confess that I have never been able to understand why
+there should be such a bitter quarrel between the intuitionists and
+the utilitarians. The intuitionist is, after all, only a utilitarian
+who believes that a particular class of pleasures and pains has an
+especial importance, by reason of its foundation in the nature of man,
+and its inseparable connection with his very existence as a thinking
+being. And as regards the motive of personal affection: Love, as
+Spinoza profoundly says, is the association of pleasure with that
+which is loved.[1] Or, to put it to the common sense of mankind,
+is the gratification of affection a pleasure or a pain? Surely a
+pleasure. So that whether the motive which leads us to perform
+an action is the love of our neighbour, or the love of God, it is
+undeniable that pleasure enters into that motive.
+
+[Footnote 1: "Nempe, Amor nihil aliud est, quam Laetitia, concomitante
+idea causae externae."--_Ethices_ III. xiii.]
+
+Thus much in reply to Mr. Mivart's arguments. I cannot but think
+that it is to be regretted that he ekes them out by ascribing to the
+doctrines of the philosophers with whom he does not agree, logical
+consequences which have been over and over again proved not to flow
+from them: and when reason fails him, tries the effect of an injurious
+nickname. According to the views of Mr. Spencer, Mr. Mill, and Mr.
+Darwin, Mr. Mivart tells us, "_virtue is a mere kind of retrieving;"
+_ and, that we may not miss the point of the joke, he puts it in
+italics. But what if it is? Does that make it less virtue? Suppose I
+say that sculpture is a "mere way" of stone-cutting, and painting
+a "mere way" of daubing canvas, and music a "mere way" of making a
+noise, the statements are quite true; but they only show that I see no
+other method of depreciating some of the noblest aspects of humanity,
+than that of using language in an inadequate and misleading sense
+about them. And the peculiar in appropriateness of this particular
+nickname to the views in question, arises from the circumstance which
+Mr. Mivart would doubtless have recollected, if his wish to ridicule
+had not for the moment obscured his judgment--that whether the law
+of evolution applies to man or not, that of hereditary transmission
+certainly does. Mr. Mivart will hardly deny that a man owes a large
+share of the moral tendencies which he exhibits to his ancestors;
+and the man who inherits a desire to steal from a kleptomaniac, or a
+tendency to benevolence from a Howard, is, so far as he illustrates
+hereditary transmission, comparable to the dog who inherits the desire
+to fetch a duck out of the water from his retrieving sire. So that,
+evolution, or no evolution, moral qualities are comparable to a "kind
+of retrieving;" though the comparison, if meant for the purposes of
+casting obloquy on evolution, does not say much for the fairness of
+those who make it.
+
+The Quarterly Reviewer and Mr. Mivart base their objections to the
+evolution of the mental faculties of man from those of some lower
+animal form, upon what they maintain to be a difference in kind
+between the mental and moral faculties of men and brutes; and I
+have endeavoured to show, by exposing the utter unsoundness of their
+philosophical basis, that these objections are devoid of importance.
+
+The objections which Mr. Wallace brings forward to the doctrine of
+the evolution of the mental faculties of man from those of brutes
+by natural causes, are of a different order, and require separate
+consideration.
+
+If I understand him rightly, he by no means doubts that both the
+bodily and the mental faculties of man have been evolved from those of
+some lower animal; but he is of opinion, that some agency beyond that
+which has been concerned in the evolution of ordinary animals, has
+been operative in the case of man. "A superior intelligence has guided
+the development of man in a definite direction and for a special
+purpose, just as man guides the development of many animal and
+vegetable forms."[1] I understand this to mean that, just as the
+rock-pigeon has been produced by natural causes, while the
+evolution of the tumbler from the blue rock has required the special
+intervention of the intelligence of man, so some anthropoid form may
+have been evolved by variation and natural selection; but it could
+never have given rise to man, unless some superior intelligence had
+played the part of the pigeon-fancier.
+
+[Footnote 1: The limits of Natural Selection as applied to Man _(loc.
+cit_. p. 359).]
+
+According to Mr. Wallace, "whether we compare the savage with the
+higher developments of man, or with the brutes around him, we are
+alike driven to the conclusion, that, in his large and well-developed
+brain, he possesses an organ quite disproportioned to his
+requirements" (p. 343); and he asks, "What is there in the life of the
+savage but the satisfying of the cravings of appetite in the simplest
+and easiest way? What thoughts, idea, or actions are there that raise
+him many grades above the elephant or the ape?" (p. 342). I answer Mr.
+Wallace by citing a remarkable passage which occurs in his instructive
+paper on "Instinct in Man and Animals."
+
+    "Savages make long journeys in many directions, and, their
+    whole faculties being directed to the subject, they gain a
+    wide and accurate knowledge of the topography, not only
+    of their own district, but of all the regions round about.
+    Everyone who has travelled in a new direction communicates his
+    knowledge to those who have travelled less, and descriptions
+    of routes and localities, and minute incidents of travel, form
+    one of the main staples of conversation around the evening
+    fire. Every wanderer or captive from another tribe adds to
+    the store of information, and, as the very existence of
+    individuals and of whole families and tribes depends upon
+    the completeness of this knowledge, all the acute perceptive
+    faculties of the adult savage are directed to acquiring and
+    perfecting it. The good hunter or warrior thus comes to know
+    the bearing of every hill and mountain range, the directions
+    and junctions of all the streams, the situation of each tract
+    characterized by peculiar vegetation, not only within the
+    area he has himself traversed, but perhaps for a hundred miles
+    around it. His acute observation enables him to detect the
+    slightest undulations of the surface, the various changes of
+    subsoil and alterations in the character of the vegetation
+    that would be quite imperceptible to a stranger. His eye is
+    always open to the direction in which he is going; the mossy
+    side of trees, the presence of certain plants under the shade
+    of rocks, the morning and evening flight of birds, are to
+    him indications of direction almost as sure as the sun in the
+    heavens" (pp. 207-8).
+
+I have seen enough of savages to be able to declare that nothing can
+be more admirable than this description of what a savage has to learn.
+But it is incomplete. Add to all this the knowledge which a savage
+is obliged to gain of the properties of plants, of the characters and
+habits of animals, and of the minute indications by which their course
+is discoverable: consider that even an Australian can make excellent
+baskets and nets, and neatly fitted and beautifully balanced spears;
+that he learns to use these so as to be able to transfix a quartern
+loaf at sixty yards; and that very often, as in the case of the
+American Indians, the language of a savage exhibits complexities which
+a well-trained European finds it difficult to master: consider that
+every time a savage tracks his game, he employs a minuteness of
+observation, and an accuracy of inductive and deductive reasoning
+which, applied to other matters, would assure some reputation to a man
+of science, and I think we need ask no further why he possesses such a
+fair supply of brains. In complexity and difficulty, I should say that
+the intellectual labour of a "good hunter or warrior" considerably
+exceeds that of an ordinary Englishman. The Civil Service Examiners
+are held in great terror by young Englishmen; but even their ferocity
+never tempted them to require a candidate to possess such a knowledge
+of a parish, as Mr. Wallace justly points out savages may possess of
+an area a hundred miles, or more, in diameter.
+
+But suppose, for the sake of argument, that a savage has more brains
+than seems proportioned to his wants, all that can be said is that
+the objection to natural selection, if it be one, applies quite
+as strongly to the lower animals. The brain of a porpoise is quite
+wonderful for its mass, and for the development of the cerebral
+convolutions. And yet since we have ceased to credit the story of
+Arion, it is hard to believe that porpoises are much troubled with
+intellect: and still more difficult is it to imagine that their big
+brains are only a preparation for the advent of some accomplished
+cetacean of the future. Surely, again, a wolf must have too much
+brains, or else how is it that a dog, with only the same quantity and
+form of brain, is able to develop such singular intelligence? The wolf
+stands to the dog in the same relation as the savage to the man; and,
+therefore, if Mr. Wallace's doctrine holds good, a higher power must
+have superintended the breeding up of wolves from some inferior stock,
+in order to prepare them to become dogs.
+
+Mr. Wallace further maintains that the origin of some of man's mental
+faculties by the preservation of useful variations is not possible.
+Such, for example, are "the capacity to form ideal conceptions of
+space and time, of eternity and infinity; the capacity for intense
+artistic feelings of pleasure in form, colour, and composition; and
+for those abstract notions of form and number which render geometry
+and arithmetic possible." "How," he asks, "were all or any of these
+faculties first developed, when they could have been of no possible
+use to man in his early stages of barbarism?"
+
+Surely the answer is not far to seek. The lowest savages are as
+devoid of any such conceptions as the brutes themselves. What sort of
+conceptions of space and time, of form and number, can be possessed by
+a savage who has not got so far as to be able to count beyond five or
+six, who does not know how to draw a triangle or a circle, and has not
+the remotest notion of separating the particular quality we call
+form, from the other qualities of bodies? None of these capacities
+are exhibited by men, unless they form part of a tolerably advanced
+society. And, in such a society, there are abundant conditions by
+which a selective influence is exerted in favour of those persons who
+exhibit an approximation towards the possession of these capacities.
+
+The savage who can amuse his fellows by telling a good story over the
+nightly fire, is held by them in esteem and rewarded, in one way or
+another, for so doing in other words, it is an advantage to him to
+possess this power. He who can carve a paddle, or the figure-head of
+a canoe better, similarly profits beyond his duller neighbour. He
+who counts a little better than others, gets most yams when barter
+is going on, and forms the shrewdest estimate of the numbers of an
+opposing tribe. The experience of daily life shows that the conditions
+of our present social existence exercise the most extraordinarily
+powerful selective influence in favour of novelists, artists, and
+strong intellects of all kinds; and it seems unquestionable that
+all forms of social existence must have had the same tendency, if we
+consider the indisputable facts that even animals possess the power of
+distinguishing form and number, and that they are capable of deriving
+pleasure from particular forms and sounds. If we admit, as Mr. Wallace
+does, that the lowest savages are not raised "many grades above the
+elephant and the ape;" and if we further admit, as I contend must be
+admitted, that the conditions of social life tend, powerfully, to
+give an advantage to those individuals who vary in the direction of
+intellectual or aesthetic excellence, what is there to interfere
+with the belief that these higher faculties, like the rest, owe their
+development to natural selection?
+
+Finally, with respect to the development of the moral sense out of the
+simple feelings of pleasure and pain, liking and disliking, with which
+the lower animals are provided, I can find nothing in Mr. Wallace's
+reasonings which has not already been met by Mr. Mill, Mr. Spencer, or
+Mr. Darwin.
+
+I do not propose to follow the Quarterly Reviewer and Mr. Mivart
+through the long string of objections in matters of detail which they
+bring against Mr. Darwin's views. Everyone who has considered
+the matter carefully will be able to ferret out as many more
+"difficulties;" but he will also, I believe, fail as completely as
+they appear to me to have done, in bringing forward any fact which is
+really contradictory of Mr. Darwin's views. Occasionally, too, their
+objections and criticisms are based upon errors of their own. As, for
+example, when Mr. Mivart and the Quarterly Reviewer insist upon the
+resemblances between the eyes of _Cephalopoda_ and _Vertebrata_,
+quite forgetting that there are striking and altogether fundamental
+differences between them; or when the Quarterly Reviewer corrects Mr.
+Darwin for saying that the gibbons, "without having been taught,
+can walk or run upright with tolerable quickness, though they move
+awkwardly, and much less securely than man." The Quarterly Reviewer
+says, "This is a little misleading, inasmuch as it is not stated that
+this upright progression is effected by placing the enormously long
+arms behind the head, or holding them out backwards as a balance in
+progression."
+
+Now, before carping at a small statement like this, the Quarterly
+Reviewer should have made sure that he was quite right. But he happens
+to be quite wrong. I suspect he got his notion of the manner in which
+a gibbon walks from a citation in "Man's Place in Nature." But at
+that time I had not seen a gibbon walk. Since then I have, and I can
+testify that nothing can be more precise than Mr. Darwin's statement.
+The gibbon I saw walked without either putting his arms behind his
+head or holding them out backwards. All he did was to touch the ground
+with the outstretched fingers of his long arms now and then, just as
+one sees a man who carries a stick, but does not need one, touch the
+ground with it as he walks along.
+
+Again, a large number of the objections brought forward by Mr. Mivart
+and the Quarterly Reviewer apply to evolution in general, quite as
+much as to the particular form of that doctrine advocated by Mr.
+Darwin; or, to their notions of Mr. Darwin's views and not to what
+they really are. An excellent example of this class of difficulties
+is to be found in Mr. Mivart's chapter on "Independent Similarities
+of Structure." Mr. Mivart says that these cannot be explained by
+an "absolute and pure Darwinian," but "that an innate power and
+evolutionary law, aided by the corrective action of natural selection,
+should have furnished like needs with like aids, is not at all
+improbable" (p. 82).
+
+I do not exactly know what Mr. Mivart means by an "absolute and
+pure Darwinian;" indeed Mr. Mivart makes that creature hold so many
+singular opinions that I doubt if I can ever have seen one alive. But
+I find nothing in his statement of the view which he imagines to
+be originated by himself, which is really inconsistent with what I
+understand to be Mr. Darwin's views.
+
+I apprehend that the foundation of the theory of natural selection is
+the fact that living bodies tend incessantly to vary. This variation
+is neither indefinite, nor fortuitous, nor does it take place in all
+directions, in the strict sense of these words.
+
+Accurately speaking, it is not indefinite, nor does it take place in
+all directions, because it is limited by the general characters of the
+type to which the organism exhibiting the variation belongs. A whale
+does not tend to vary in the direction of producing feathers, nor a
+bird in the direction of developing whalebone. In popular language
+there is no harm in saying that the waves which break upon the
+sea-shore are indefinite, fortuitous, and break in all directions.
+In scientific language, on the contrary, such a statement would be
+a gross error, inasmuch as every particle of foam is the result of
+perfectly definite forces, operating according to no less definite
+laws. In like manner, every variation of a living form, however
+minute, however apparently accidental, is inconceivable except as the
+expression of the operation of molecular forces or "powers" resident
+within the organism. And, as these forces certainly operate according
+to definite laws, their general result is, doubtless, in accordance
+with some general law which subsumes them all. And there appears to
+be no objection to call this an "evolutionary law." But nobody is the
+wiser for doing so, or has thereby contributed, in the least degree,
+to the advance of the doctrine of evolution, the great need of which
+is a theory of variation.
+
+When Mr. Mivart tells us that his "aim has been to support the
+doctrine that these species have been evolved by ordinary _natural
+laws_ (for the most part unknown), aided by the _subordinate_ action
+of 'natural selection'" (pp. 332-3), he seems to be of opinion that
+his enterprise has the merit of novelty. All I can say is that I have
+never had the slightest notion that Mr. Darwin's aim is in any way
+different from this. If I affirm that "species have been evolved by
+variation[1] (a natural process, the laws of which are for the most
+part unknown), aided by the subordinate action of natural selection,"
+it seems to me that I enunciate a proposition which constitutes the
+very pith and marrow of the first edition of the "Origin of Species."
+And what the evolutionist stands in need of just now, is not an
+iteration of the fundamental principle of Darwinism, but some light
+upon the questions, What are the limits of variation? and, If
+a variety has arisen, can that variety be perpetuated, or even
+intensified, when selective conditions are indifferent, or perhaps
+unfavourable, to its existence? I cannot find that Mr. Darwin has ever
+been very dogmatic in answering these questions. Formerly, he seems
+to have inclined to reply to them in the negative, while now his
+inclination is the other way. Leaving aside those broad questions of
+theology, philosophy, and ethics, by the discussion of which neither
+the Quarterly Reviewer nor Mr. Mivart can be said to have damaged
+Darwinism--whatever else they have injured--this is what their
+criticisms come to. They confound a struggle for some rifle-pits with
+an assault on the fortress.
+
+[Footnote 1: Including under this head hereditary transmission.]
+
+In some respects, finally, I can only characterize the Quarterly
+Reviewer's treatment of Mr. Darwin as alike unjust and unbecoming.
+Language of this strength requires justification, and on that ground I
+add the remarks which follow.
+
+The Quarterly Reviewer opens his essay by a careful enumeration of
+all those points upon which, during the course of thirteen years of
+incessant labour, Mr. Darwin has modified his opinions. It has often
+and justly been remarked, that what strikes a candid student of Mr.
+Darwin's works is not so much his industry, his knowledge, or even
+the surprising fertility of his inventive genius; but that unswerving
+truthfulness and honesty which never permit him to hide a weak place,
+or gloss over a difficulty, but lead him, on all occasions, to point
+out the weak places in his own armour, and even sometimes, it appears
+to me, to make admissions against himself which are quite unnecessary.
+A critic who desires to attack Mr. Darwin has only to read his works
+with a desire to observe, not their merits, but their defects, and
+he will find, ready to hand, more adverse suggestions than are likely
+ever to have suggested themselves to his own sharpness, without Mr.
+Darwin's self-denying aid.
+
+Now this quality of scientific candour is not so common that it needs
+to be discouraged; and it appears to me to deserve other treatment
+than that adopted by the Quarterly Reviewer, who deals with Mr. Darwin
+as an Old Bailey barrister deals with a man against whom he wishes
+to obtain a conviction, _per fas aut nefas_, and opens his case by
+endeavouring to create a prejudice against the prisoner in the minds
+of the jury. In his eagerness to carry out this laudable design, the
+Quarterly Reviewer cannot even state the history of the doctrine
+of natural selection without an oblique and entirely unjustifiable
+attempt to depreciate Mr. Darwin. "To Mr. Darwin," says he, "and
+(through Mr. Wallace's reticence) to Mr. Darwin alone, is due the
+credit of having first brought it prominently forward and demonstrated
+its truth." No one can less desire than I do, to throw a doubt upon
+Mr. Wallace's originality, or to question his claim to the honour of
+being one of the originators of the doctrine of natural selection; but
+the statement that Mr. Darwin has the sole credit of originating the
+doctrine because of Mr. Wallace's reticence is simply ridiculous. The
+proof of this is, in the first place, afforded by Mr. Wallace himself,
+whose noble freedom from petty jealousy in this matter, smaller folk
+would do well to imitate; and who writes thus:--"I have felt all my
+life, and I still feel, the most sincere satisfaction that Mr. Darwin
+had been at work long before me, and that it was not left for me to
+attempt to write the 'Origin of Species.' I have long since measured
+my own strength, and know well that it would be quite unequal to that
+task." So that if there was any reticence at all in the matter, it
+was Mr. Darwin's reticence during the long twenty years of study which
+intervened between the conception and the publication of his theory,
+which gave Mr. Wallace the chance of being an independent discoverer
+of the importance of natural selection. And, finally, if it be
+recollected that Mr. Darwin's and Mr. Wallace's essays were published
+simultaneously in the _Journal of the Linnaean Society_ for 1858, it
+follows that the Reviewer, while obliquely depreciating Mr. Darwin's
+deserts, has in reality awarded to him a priority which, in legal
+strictness, does not exist.
+
+Mr. Mivart, whose opinions so often concur with those of the Quarterly
+Reviewer, puts the case in a way, which I much regret to be obliged to
+say, is, in my judgment, quite as incorrect; though the injustice may
+be less glaring. He says that the theory of natural selection is,
+in general, exclusively associated with the name of Mr. Darwin, "on
+account of the noble self-abnegation of Mr. Wallace." As I have said,
+no one can honour Mr. Wallace more than I do, both for what he has
+done and for what he has not done, in his relation to Mr. Darwin. And
+perhaps nothing is more creditable to him than his frank declaration
+that he could not have written such a work as the "Origin of Species."
+But, by this declaration, the person most directly interested in the
+matter repudiates, by anticipation, Mr. Mivart's suggestion that Mr.
+Darwin's eminence is more or less due to Mr. Wallace's modesty.
+
+
+
+
+XI.
+
+THE GENEALOGY OF ANIMALS.[1]
+
+
+Considering that Germany now takes the lead of the world in scientific
+investigation, and particularly in biology, Mr. Darwin must be well
+pleased at the rapid spread of his views among some of the ablest and
+most laborious of German naturalists.
+
+[Footnote 1: "The Natural History of Creation." By Dr. Ernst Haeckel
+(_Natürliche Schöpfungs-Geschichte._--Von Dr. Ernst Haeckel, Professor
+an der Universität Jena.) Berlin, 1868.]
+
+Among those, Professor Haeckel, of Jena, is the Coryphaeus. I know of
+no more solid and important contributions to biology in the past seven
+years than Haeckel's work on the _Radiolaria_, and the researches of
+his distinguished colleague Gegenbaur, in vertebrate anatomy; while
+in Haeckel's _Generelle Morphologie_ there is all the force,
+suggestiveness, and, what I may term the systematizing power, of Oken,
+without his extravagance. The _Generelle Morphologie_ is, in fact, an
+attempt to put the doctrine of Evolution, so far as it applies to
+the living world, into a logical form; and to work out its practical
+applications to their final results. The work before us, again, may
+be said to be an exposition of the _Generelle Morphologie_ for an
+educated public, consisting, as it does, of the substance of a series
+of lectures delivered before a mixed audience at Jena, in the session
+1867-8.
+
+"The Natural History of Creation,"--or, as Professor Haeckel admits
+it would have been better to call his work, "The History of the
+Development or Evolution of Nature,"--deals, in the first six
+lectures, with the general and historical aspects of the question,
+and contains a very interesting and lucid account of the views of
+Linnaeus, Cuvier, Agassiz, Goethe, Oken, Kant, Lamarck, Lyell, and
+Darwin, and of the historical filiation of these philosophers.
+
+The next six lectures are occupied by a well-digested statement of Mr.
+Darwin's views. The thirteenth lecture discusses two topics which are
+not touched by Mr. Darwin, namely, the origin of the present form of
+the solar system, and that of living matter. Full justice is done to
+Kant, as the originator of that "cosmic gas theory," as the Germans
+somewhat quaintly call it, which is commonly ascribed to Laplace. With
+respect to spontaneous generation, while admitting that there is no
+experimental evidence in its favour, Professor Haeckel denies the
+possibility of disproving it, and points out that the assumption that
+it has occurred is a necessary part of the doctrine of Evolution. The
+fourteenth lecture, on "Schöpfungs-Perioden und Schöpfungs-Urkunden,"
+answers pretty much to the famous disquisition on the "Imperfection of
+the Geological Record" in the _Origin of Species_.
+
+The following five lectures contain the most original matter of any,
+being devoted to "Phylogeny," or the working out of the details of the
+process of Evolution in the animal and vegetable kingdoms, so as
+to prove the line of descent of each group of living beings, and to
+furnish it with its proper genealogical tree, or "phylum."
+
+The last lecture considers objections and sums up the evidence in
+favour of biological Evolution.
+
+I shall best testify to my sense of the value of the work thus briefly
+analysed if I now proceed to note down some of the more important
+criticisms which have been suggested to me by its perusal.
+
+I. In more than one place, Professor Haeckel enlarges upon the service
+which the _Origin of Species_ has done, in favouring what he terms
+the "causal or mechanical" view of living nature as opposed to the
+"teleological or vitalistic" view. And no doubt it is quite true that
+the doctrine of Evolution is the most formidable opponent of all
+the commoner and coarser forms of Teleology. But perhaps the most
+remarkable service to the philosophy of Biology rendered by Mr. Darwin
+is the reconciliation of Teleology and Morphology, and the explanation
+of the facts of both which his views offer.
+
+The Teleology which supposes that the eye, such as we see it in man
+or one of the higher _Vertebrata_, was made with the precise structure
+which it exhibits, for the purpose of enabling the animal which
+possesses it to see, has undoubtedly received its death-blow.
+Nevertheless it is necessary to remember that there is a wider
+Teleology, which is not touched by the doctrine of Evolution, but is
+actually based upon the fundamental proposition of Evolution. That
+proposition is, that the whole world, living and not living, is the
+result of the mutual interaction, according to definite laws, of the
+forces possessed by the molecules of which the primitive nebulosity of
+the universe was composed. If this be true, it is no less certain that
+the existing world lay, potentially, in the cosmic vapour; and that a
+sufficient intelligence could, from a knowledge of the properties of
+the molecules of that vapour, have predicted, say the state of the
+Fauna of Britain in 1869, with as much certainty as one can say what
+will happen to the vapour of the breath in a cold winter's day.
+
+Consider a kitchen clock, which ticks loudly, shows the hours,
+minutes, and seconds, strikes, cries "cuckoo!" and perhaps shows the
+phases of the moon. When the clock is wound up, all the phenomena
+which it exhibits are potentially contained in its mechanism, and a
+clever clockmaker could predict all it will do after an examination of
+its structure.
+
+If the evolution theory is correct, the molecular structure of the
+cosmic gas stands in the same relation to the phenomena of the world
+as the structure of the clock to its phenomena.
+
+Now let us suppose a death-watch, living in the clock-case, to be a
+learned and intelligent student of its works. He might say, "I find
+here nothing but matter and force and pure mechanism from beginning to
+end," and he would be quite right. But if he drew the conclusion that
+the clock was not contrived for a purpose, he would be quite wrong.
+On the other hand, imagine another death-watch of a different turn of
+mind. He, listening to the monotonous "tick! tick!" so exactly like
+his own, might arrive at the conclusion that the clock was itself a
+monstrous sort of death-watch, and that its final cause and purpose
+was to tick. How easy to point to the clear relation of the whole
+mechanism to the pendulum, to the fact that the one thing the clock
+did always and without intermission was to tick, and that all the rest
+of its phenomena were intermittent and subordinate to ticking! For
+all this, it is certain that kitchen clocks are not contrived for the
+purpose of making a ticking noise.
+
+Thus the teleological theorist would be as wrong as the mechanical
+theorist, among our death-watches; and, probably, the only death-watch
+who would be right would be the one who should maintain that the
+sole thing death-watches could be sure about was the nature of the
+clock-works and the way they move; and that the purpose of the clock
+lay wholly beyond the purview of beetle faculties.
+
+Substitute "cosmic vapour" for "clock," and "molecules" for "works,"
+and the application of the argument is obvious. The teleological
+and the mechanical views of nature are not, necessarily, mutually
+exclusive. On the contrary, the more purely a mechanist the speculator
+is, the more firmly does he assume a primordial molecular arrangement,
+of which all the phenomena of the universe are the consequences; and
+the more completely is he thereby at the mercy of the teleologist,
+who can always defy him to disprove that this primordial molecular
+arrangement was not intended to evolve the phenomena of the universe.
+On the other hand, if the teleologist assert that this, that, or
+the other result of the working of any part of the mechanism of the
+universe is its purpose and final cause, the mechanist can always
+inquire how he knows that it is more than an unessential incident--the
+mere ticking of the clock, which he mistakes for its function. And
+there seems to be no reply to this inquiry, any more than to the
+further, not irrational, question, why trouble oneself about matters
+which are out of reach, when the working of the mechanism itself,
+which is of infinite practical importance, affords scope for all our
+energies?
+
+Professor Haeckel has invented a new and convenient name,
+"Dysteleology," for the study of the "purposelessnesses" which are
+observable in living organisms--such as the multitudinous cases of
+rudimentary and apparently useless structures. I confess, however,
+that it has often appeared to me that the facts of Dysteleology cut
+two ways. If we are to assume, as evolutionists in general do,
+that useless organs atrophy, such cases as the existence of lateral
+rudiments of toes, in the foot of a horse, place us in a dilemma. For,
+either these rudiments are of no use to the animal, in which case,
+considering that the horse has existed in its present form since the
+Pliocene epoch, they surely ought to have disappeared; or they are of
+some use to the animal, in which case they are of no use as arguments
+against Teleology. A similar, but still stronger, argument may be
+based upon the existence of teats, and even functional mammary glands,
+in male mammals. Numerous cases of "Gynaecomasty," or functionally
+active breasts in men, are on record, though there is no mammalian
+species whatever in which the male normally suckles the young. Thus,
+there can be little doubt that the mammary gland was as apparently
+useless in the remotest male mammalian ancestor of man as in living
+men, and yet it has not disappeared. Is it then still profitable
+to the male organism to retain it? Possibly; but in that case its
+dysteleological value is gone.
+
+II. Professor Haeckel looks upon the causes which have led to the
+present diversity of living nature as twofold. Living matter, he tells
+us, is urged by two impulses: a centripetal, which tends to preserve
+and transmit the specific form, and which he identifies with heredity;
+and a centrifugal, which results from the tendency of external
+conditions to modify the organism and effect its adaptation to
+themselves. The internal impulse is conservative, and tends to the
+preservation of specific, or individual, form; the external impulse is
+metamorphic, and tends to the modification of specific, or individual,
+form.
+
+In developing his views upon this subject, Professor Haeckel
+introduces qualifications which disarm some of the criticisms I should
+have been disposed to offer; but I think that his method of stating
+the case has the inconvenience of tending to leave out of sight
+the important fact--which is a cardinal point in the Darwinian
+hypothesis--that the tendency to vary, in a given organism, may have
+nothing to do with the external conditions to which that individual
+organism is exposed, but may depend wholly upon internal conditions.
+No one, I imagine, would dream of seeking in the direct influence of
+the external conditions of his life for the cause of the development
+of the sixth finger and toe in the famous Maltese.
+
+I conceive that both hereditary transmission and adaptation need to be
+analysed into their constituent conditions by the further application
+of the doctrine of the Struggle for Existence. It is a probable
+hypothesis, that what the world is to organisms in general, each
+organism is to the molecules of which it is composed. Multitudes of
+these, having diverse tendencies, are competing with one another for
+opportunity to exist and multiply; and the organism, as a whole, is as
+much the product of the molecules which are victorious as the Fauna,
+or Flora, of a country is the product of the victorious organic beings
+in it.
+
+On this hypothesis, hereditary transmission is the result of the
+victory of particular molecules contained in the impregnated germ.
+Adaptation to conditions is the result of the favouring of the
+multiplication of those molecules whose organizing tendencies are
+most in harmony with such conditions. In this view of the matter,
+conditions are not actively productive, but are passively permissive;
+they do not cause variation in any given direction, but they permit
+and favour a tendency in that direction which already exists.
+
+It is true that, in the long run, the origin of the organic molecules
+themselves, and of their tendencies, is to be sought in the external
+world; but if we carry our inquiries as far back as this, the
+distinction between internal and external impulses vanishes. On the
+other hand, if we confine ourselves to the consideration of a single
+organism, I think it must be admitted that the existence of an
+internal metamorphic tendency must be as distinctly recognized as
+that of an internal conservative tendency; and that the influence of
+conditions is mainly, if not wholly, the result of the extent to which
+they favour the one, or the other, of these tendencies.
+
+III. There is only one point upon which I fundamentally and entirely
+disagree with Professor Haeckel, but that is the very important one
+of his conception of geological time, and of the meaning of the
+stratified rocks as records and indications of that time. Conceiving
+that the stratified rocks of an epoch indicate a period of depression,
+and that the intervals between the epochs correspond with periods
+of elevation of which we have no record, he intercalates between the
+different epochs, or periods, intervals which he terms "Ante-periods."
+Thus, instead of considering the Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous, and
+Eocene periods, as continuously successive, he interposes a
+period before each, as an "Antetrias-zeit," "Antejura-zeit,"
+"Antecreta-zeit," "Antecocen-zeit," &c. And he conceives that the
+abrupt changes between the Faunae of the different formations are due
+to the lapse of time, of which we have no organic record, during their
+"Ante-periods."
+
+The frequent occurrence of strata containing assemblages of organic
+forms which are intermediate between those of adjacent formations, is,
+to my mind, fatal to this view. In the well-known St. Cassian beds,
+for example, Palaeozoic and Mesozoic forms are commingled, and,
+between the Cretaceous and the Eocene formations, there are similar
+transitional beds. On the other hand, in the middle of the Silurian
+series, extensive unconformity of the strata indicates the lapse of
+vast intervals of time between the deposit of successive beds, without
+any corresponding change in the Fauna.
+
+Professor Haeckel will, I fear, think me unreasonable, if I say that
+he seems to be still overshadowed by geological superstitions; and
+that he will have to believe in the completeness of the geological
+record far less than he does at present. He assumes, for example, that
+there was no dry land, nor any terrestrial life, before the end of the
+Silurian epoch, simply because, up to the present time, no indications
+of fresh water, or terrestrial organisms, have been found in rocks of
+older date. And, in speculating upon the origin of a given group, he
+rarely goes further back than the "Ante-period," which precedes that
+in which the remains of animals belonging to that group are found.
+Thus, as fossil remains of the majority of the groups of _Reptilia_
+are first found in the Trias, they are assumed to have originated in
+the "Antetriassic" period, or between the Permian and Triassic epochs.
+
+I confess this is wholly incredible to me. The Permian and the
+Triassic deposits pass completely into one another; there is no sort
+of discontinuity answering to an unrecorded "Antetrias;" and, what
+is more, we have evidence of immensely extensive dry land during the
+formation of these deposits. We know that the dry land of the Trias
+absolutely teemed with reptiles of all groups except Pterodactyles,
+Snakes, and perhaps Tortoises; there is every probability that true
+Birds existed, and _Mammalia_ certainly did. Of the inhabitants of the
+Permian dry land, on the contrary, all that have left a record are a
+few lizards. Is it conceivable that these last should really
+represent the whole terrestrial population of that time, and that
+the development of Mammals, of Birds, and of the highest forms of
+Reptiles, should have been crowded into the time during which the
+Permian conditions quietly passed away, and the Triassic conditions
+began? Does not any such supposition become in the highest degree
+improbable, when, in the terrestrial or fresh-water Labyrinthodonts,
+which lived on the land of the Carboniferous epoch, as well as on
+that of the Trias, we have evidence that one form, of terrestrial life
+persisted, throughout all these ages, with no important modification?
+For my part, having regard to the small amount of modification (except
+in the way of extinction) which the Crocodilian, Lacertilian, and
+Chelonian _Reptilia_ have undergone, from the older Mesozoic times to
+the present day, I cannot but put the existence of the common stock
+from which they sprang far back in the Palaeozoic epoch; and I should
+apply a similar argumentation to all other groups of animals.
+
+IV. Professor Haeckel proposes a number of modifications in Taxonomy,
+all of which are well worthy of consideration. Thus he establishes a
+third primary division of the living world, distinct from both
+animals and plants, under the name of the _Protista_, to include the
+_Myxomycetes_, the _Diatomaceae_, and the _Labyrinthulae_, which are
+commonly regarded as plants, with the _Noctilucae_, the _Flagellata_,
+the _Rhizopoda_, the _Protoplasta_, and the _Monera_, which are most
+generally included within the animal world. A like attempt has been
+made, by other writers, to escape the inconvenience of calling these
+dubious organisms by the name of plant or animal; but I confess,
+it appears to me, that the inconvenience which is eluded in one
+direction, by this step, is met in two others. Professor Haeckel
+himself doubts whether the _Fungi_ ought not to be removed into his
+_Protista_. If they are not, indeed, the _Myxomycetes_ render the
+drawing of every line of demarcation between _Protista_ and Plants
+impossible. But if they are, who is to define the _Fungi_ from the
+_Algae_? Yet the sea-weeds are surely, in every respect, plants.
+On the other hand, Professor Haeckel puts the sponges among the
+_Coelenterata_ (or polypes and corals), with the double inconvenience,
+as it appears to me, of separating the sponges from their immediate
+kindred, the _Protoplasta_, and destroying the definition of the
+_Coelenterata_. So again, the _Infusoria_ possess all the characters
+of animality, but it can hardly be said that they are as clearly
+allied to the worms as they are to the _Noctilucae_.
+
+On the whole, it appears to me to be most convenient to adhere to
+the old plan of calling such of these low forms as are more animal in
+habit, _Protozoa_, and such as are more vegetal, _Protophyta_.
+
+Another considerable innovation is the proposition to divide the class
+Pisces into the four groups of _Leptocardia, Cyclostomata, Pisces_,
+and _Dipneusta_. As regards the establishment of a separate class for
+the Lancelet _(Amphioxus)_, I think there can be little doubt of the
+propriety of so doing, inasmuch as it is far more different from all
+other fishes than they are from one another. And there is much to
+be said in favour of the same promotion of the _Cyclostomata_, or
+Lampreys and Hags. But considering the close relation of the
+Mudfish with the _Ganoidei_, and the wide differences between the
+_Elasmobranchii_ and the _Teleostei_, I greatly doubt the propriety of
+separating the _Dipneusta_, as a class, from the other _Pisces_.
+
+Professor Haeckel proposes to break up the vertebrate sub-kingdom,
+first, into the two provinces of _Leptocardia_ and _Pachycardia;
+Amphioxus_ being in the former, and all other vertebrates in the
+latter division. The _Pachycardia_ are then divided into _Monorhina_,
+which contains the Cyclostome fishes, distinguished by their single
+nasal aperture; and _Amphirhina_, comprising the other _Vertebrata_,
+which have two nasal apertures. These are further subdivided into
+_Anamnia (Pisces, Dipneusta, Amphibia)_ and _Amniota (Reptilia, Aves,
+Mammalia)_. This classification undoubtedly expresses many of the most
+important facts in vertebrate structure in a clear and compendious
+way; whether it is the best that can he adopted remains to be seen.
+
+With much reason the Lemurs are removed altogether from the
+_Primates_, under the name of _Prosimiae_. But I am surprised to
+find the _Sirenia_ left in one group with the _Cetacea_, and the
+_Plesiosauria_ with the _Ichthyosauria_; the ordinal distinctness of
+these having, to my mind, been long since fully established.
+
+V. In Professor Haeckel's speculations on Phylogeny, or the genealogy
+of animal forms, there is much that is profoundly interesting, and
+his suggestions are always supported by sound knowledge and great
+ingenuity. Whether one agrees or disagrees with him, one feels that
+he has forced the mind into lines of thought in which it is more
+profitable to go wrong than to stand still.
+
+To put his views into a few words, he conceives that all forms of life
+originally commenced as _Monera_, or simple particles of protoplasm;
+and that these _Monera_ originated from not-living matter. Some of the
+_Monera_ acquired tendencies towards the Protistic, others towards the
+Vegetal, and others towards the Animal modes of life. The last became
+animal _Monera_. Some of the animal _Monera_ acquired a nucleus, and
+became amoeba-like creatures; and, out of certain of these, ciliated
+infusorium-like animals were developed. These became modified into two
+stirpes: A, that of the worms; and B, that of the sponges. The latter
+by progressive modification gave rise to all the _Coelenterata_; the
+former to all other animals. But A soon broke up into two principal
+stirpes, of which one, _a_, became the root of the _Annelida,
+Echinodermata_, and _Arthropoda_, while the other, _b_, gave rise to
+the _Polyzoa_ and _Ascidioida_, and produced the two remaining stirpes
+of the _Vertebrata_ and the _Mollusca_.
+
+Perhaps the most startling proposition of all those which Professor
+Haeckel puts before us is that which he bases upon Kowalewsky's
+researches into the development of _Amphioxus_ and of the
+_Ascidioida_, that the origin of the _Vertebrata_ is to be sought
+in an Ascidioid form. Goodsir long ago insisted upon the resemblance
+between _Amphioxus_ and the Ascidians; but the notion of a genetic
+connection between the two, and especially the identification of the
+notochord of the _Vertebrate_ with the axis of the caudal appendage of
+the larva of the Ascidian, is a novelty which, at first, takes one's
+breath away. I must confess, however, that the more I have pondered
+over it, the more grounds appear in its favour, though I am not
+convinced that there is any real parallelism between the mode
+of development of the ganglion of the _Ascidian_ and that of the
+_Vertebrate_ cerebro-spinal axis.
+
+The hardly less startling hypothesis that the _Echinoderms_ are
+coalesced worms, on the other hand, appears to be open to serious
+objection. As a matter of anatomy, it does not seem to me to
+correspond with fact; for there is no worm with a calcareous skeleton,
+nor any which has a band-like ventral nerve, superficial to which lies
+an ambulacral vessel. And, as a question of development, the formation
+of the radiate _Echinoderm_ within its vermiform larva seems to me
+to be analogous to the formation of a radiate Medusa upon a Hydrozoic
+stock. But a Medusa is surely not the result of the coalescence of as
+many organisms as it presents morphological segments.
+
+Professor Haeckel adduces the fossil _Crossopodia_ and _Phyllodocites_
+as examples of the Annelidan forms, by the coalescence of which
+the Echinoderms may have been produced; but, even supposing the
+resemblance of these worms to detached starfish arms to be perfect,
+it is possible that they may be the extreme term, and not the
+commencement, of Echinoderm development. A pentacrinoid Echinoderm,
+with a complete jointed stalk, is developed within the larva of
+_Antedon_. Is it not possible that the larva of _Crossopodia_ may have
+developed a vermiform Echinoderm?
+
+With respect to the Phylogeny of the _Arthropoda_, I find myself
+disposed to take a somewhat different view from that of Professor
+Haeckel. He assumes that the primary stock of the whole group was
+a crustacean, having that _Nauplius_ form in which Fritz Müller
+has shown that so many _Crustacea_ commence their lives. All the
+_Entomostraca_ arose by the modification of some one or other of these
+Naupliform "_Archicarida_." Other _Archicarida_ underwent a further
+metamorphosis into a _Zoaea_-form. From some of these "_Zoeopoda_"
+arose all the remaining Malacostracous _Crustacea_; while, from
+others, was developed some form analogous to the existing _Galeodes_,
+out of which proceeded, by gradual differentiation, all the
+_Myriapoda, Arachnida,_ and _Insecta_.
+
+I should, be disposed to interpret the facts of the embryological
+history and of the anatomy of the _Arthropoda_ in a different manner.
+The _Copepoda_, the _Ostracoda_, and the _Branchiopoda_ are
+the _Crustacea_ which have departed least from the embryonic or
+_Nauplius_-forms; and, of these, I imagine that the _Copepoda_
+represent the hypothetical _Archicarida_ most closely. _Apus_ and
+_Sapphirina_ indicate the relations of these Archaeocarids with the
+_Trilobita_, and the _Eurypterida_ connect the _Trilobita_ and the
+_Copepoda_ with the _Xiphosura_. But the _Xiphosura_ have such close
+morphological relations with the _Arachnida_, and especially with the
+oldest known Arachnidan, _Scorpio_, that I cannot doubt the existence
+of a genetic connection between the two groups. On the other hand, the
+_Branchiopoda_ do, even at the present day, almost pass into the
+true _Podophthalmia_, by _Nebalia_. By the _Trilobita_, again, the
+_Archicarida_ are connected with such _Edriophthalmia_ as _Serolis_.
+The _Stomapoda_ are extremely modified _Edriophthalmia_ of the
+amphipod type. On the other side, the _Isopoda_ lead to the
+_Myriapoda_, and the latter to the _Insecta_. Thus the Arthropod
+phylum, which suggests itself to me, is that the branches of the
+_Podophthalmia_, of the _Insecta_ (with the _Myriapoda_), and of the
+_Arachnida_, spring separately and distinctly from the Archaeocarid
+root--and that the _Zoaea_-forms occur only at the origin of the
+Podophthalmous branch.
+
+The phylum of the _Vertebrata_ is the most interesting of all, and is
+admirably discussed by Professor Haeckel. I can note only a few points
+which seem to me to be open to discussion. The _Monorhina_, having
+been developed out of the _Leptocardia_, gave rise, according to
+Professor Haeckel, to a shark-like form, which was the common stock
+of all the _Amphirhina_. From this "Protamphirhine" were developed, in
+divergent lines, the true Sharks, Rays, and _Chimaerae_; the Ganoids,
+and the _Dipneusta_. The _Teleostei_ are modified _Ganoidei_. The
+_Dipneusta_ gave rise to the _Amphibia_, which are the root of all
+other _Vertebrata_, inasmuch as out of them were developed the first
+_Vertebrata_ provided with an amnion, or the _Protamniota_. The
+_Protamniota_ split up into two stems, one that of the _Mammalia_, the
+other common to _Reptilia_ and _Aves_.
+
+The only modification which it occurs to me to suggest in this
+general view of the Phylogeny of the _Vertebrata_ is, that the
+"Protamphirhine" was possibly more ganoid than shark-like. So far as
+our present information goes the Ganoids are as old as the Sharks;
+and it is very interesting to observe that the remains of the oldest
+Ganoids, _Cephalaspis_ and _Pteraspis_, have as yet displayed no trace
+of jaws. It is just possible that they may connect the _Monorhina_,
+with the Sturgeons among the _Amphirhina_. On the other hand,
+the Crossopterygian Ganoids exhibit the closest connection with
+_Lepidosiren_, and thereby with the _Amphibia_. It should not be
+forgotten that the development of the Lampreys exhibits curious points
+of resemblance with that of the _Amphibia_, which are absent in
+the Sharks and Rays. Of the development of the _Ganoidei_ we have
+unfortunately no knowledge, but their brains and their reproductive
+organs are more amphibian than are those of the Sharks.
+
+On the whole, I am disposed to think that the direct stem of ascent
+from the _Monorhina_ to the _Amphibia_ is formed by the Ganoids and
+the Mudfishes; while the Osseous fishes and the Sharks are branches in
+different directions from this stem.
+
+What the _Protamniota_ were like, I do not suppose any one is in a
+position to say, but I cannot think that the thoroughly Lacertian
+_Protorosaurus_ had anything to do with them. The reptiles which are
+most amphibian in their characters, and therefore, probably, most
+nearly approach the _Protamniota_, are the _Ichthyosauria_ and the
+_Chelonia_.
+
+That the _Didelphia_ were developed out of some ornithodelphous form,
+as Professor Haeckel supposes, seems to be unquestionable; but the
+existing Opossums and Kangaroos are certainly extremely modified and
+remote from their ancestors the "_Prodidelphia_," of which we have
+not, at present the slightest knowledge. The mode of origin of the
+_Monodelphia_ from these is a very difficult problem, for the most
+part left open by Professor Haeckel. He considers the _Prosimiae_, or
+Lemurs, to be the common stock of the _Deciduata_, and the _Cetacea_
+(with which he includes the _Sirenia_) to be modified _Ungulata_. As
+regards the latter question, I have little doubt that the _Sirenia_
+connect the _Ungulata_ with the _Proboscidea_; and none, that the
+_Cetacea_ are extremely modified _Carnivora_. The passage between the
+Seals and the _Cetacea_ by _Zeuglodon_ is complete. I also think
+that there is much to be said for the opinion, that the _Insectivora_
+represent the common stock of the _Primates_ (which passed into
+them by the _Prosimiae_), the _Cheiroptera_, the _Rodentia_, and the
+_Carnivora_. And I am greatly disposed to look for the common root
+of all the _Ungulata_, as well, in some ancient non-deciduate Mammals
+which were more like _Insectivora_ than anything else. On the other
+hand, the _Edentata_ appear to form a series by themselves.
+
+The latter part of this notice of the _Natürliche
+Schöpfungs-Geschichte_, brings so strongly into prominence the points
+of difference between its able author and myself, that I do not like
+to conclude without reminding the reader of my entire concurrence with
+the general tenor and spirit of the work, and of my high estimate of
+its value.
+
+
+
+
+XII.
+
+BISHOP BERKELEY ON THE METAPHYSICS OF SENSATION.[1]
+
+
+Professor Fraser has earned the thanks of all students of philosophy
+for the conscientious labour which he has bestowed upon his new
+edition of the works of Berkeley; in which, for the first time, we
+find collected together every thought which can be traced to the
+subtle and penetrating mind of the famous Bishop of Cloyne; while the
+"Life and Letters" will rejoice those who care less for the idealist
+and the prophet of tar-water, than for the man who stands out as one
+of the noblest and purest figures of his time: that Berkeley from whom
+the jealousy of Pope did not withhold a single one of all "the virtues
+under heaven;" nor the cynicism of Swift, the dignity of "one of the
+first men of the kingdom for learning and virtue;" the man whom the
+pious Atterbury could compare to nothing less than an angel; and whose
+personal influence and eloquence filled the Scriblerus Club and the
+House of Commons with enthusiasm for the evangelization of the North
+American Indians; and even led Sir Robert Walpole to assent to the
+appropriation of public money to a scheme which was neither business
+nor bribery.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: "The Works of George Berkeley, D.D., formerly Bishop
+of Cloyne, including many of his Works hitherto unpublished, with
+Preface, Annotations, his Life and Letters, and an Account of his
+Philosophy." By A.C. Fraser. Four vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
+1871.]
+
+[Footnote 2: In justice to Sir Robert, however, it is proper to remark
+that he declared afterwards, that he gave his assent to Berkeley's
+scheme for the Bermuda University only because he thought the House of
+Commons was sure to throw it out.]
+
+Hardly any epoch in the intellectual history of England is more
+remarkable in itself, or possesses a greater interest for us in these
+latter days, than that which coincides broadly with the conclusion of
+the seventeenth and the opening of the eighteenth century.
+
+The political fermentation of the preceding age was gradually working
+itself out; domestic peace gave men time to think; and the toleration
+won by the party of which Locke was the spokesman, permitted a freedom
+of speech and of writing such as has rarely been exceeded in later
+times.
+
+Fostered by these circumstances, the great faculty for physical and
+metaphysical inquiry, with which the people of our race are naturally
+endowed, developed itself vigorously; and at least two of its products
+have had a profound and a permanent influence upon the subsequent
+course of thought in the world. The one of these was English
+Freethinking; the other, the Theory of Gravitation.
+
+Looking back to the origin of the intellectual impulses of which these
+were the results, we are led to Herbert, to Hobbes, to Bacon; and to
+one who stands in advance of all these, as the most typical man of his
+time--Descartes. It is the Cartesian doubt--the maxim that assent may
+properly be given to no propositions but such as are perfectly
+clear and distinct--which, becoming incarnate, so to speak, in the
+Englishmen, Anthony Collins, Toland, Tindal, Woolston, and in the
+wonderful Frenchman, Pierre Bayle, reached its final term in Hume.
+
+And, on the other hand, although the theory of Gravitation set
+aside the Cartesian vortices--yet the spirit of the "Principes de
+Philosophie" attained its apotheosis when Newton demonstrated all the
+host of heaven to be but the elements of a vast mechanism, regulated
+by the same laws as those which govern the falling of a stone to the
+ground. There is a passage in the preface to the first edition of the
+"Principia" which shows that Newton was penetrated, as completely
+as Descartes, with the belief that all the phenomena of nature are
+expressible in terms of matter and motion.
+
+"Would that the rest of the phenomena of nature could be deduced by
+a like kind of reasoning from mechanical principles. For many
+circumstances lead me to suspect that all these phenomena may depend
+upon certain forces, in virtue of which the particles of bodies, by
+causes not yet known, are either mutually impelled against one another
+and cohere into regular figures, or repel and recede from one another;
+which forces being unknown, philosophers have as yet explored nature
+in vain. But I hope that, either by this method of philosophizing, or
+by some other and better, the principles here laid down may throw some
+light upon the matter."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "Utinam caetera naturae phaenomena ex principiis
+mechanicis, eodem argumentandi genere, derivare licet. Nam multa me
+movent, ut nonnihil suspicer ca omnia ex viribus quibusdam pendere
+posse, quibus corporum particulae, per causas nondum cognitas, vel in
+se mutuo impelluntur et secundum figuras regulares cohaerent vel ab
+invicem fugantur et reced ent: quibus viribus ignotis, Philosophi
+hactenus Naturam frustra tentarunt. Spero autem quod vel huic
+philosophandi modo, vel veriori, alicui, principia hic posita lucem
+aliquam praebebunt."--Preface to First Edition of _Principia_, May 8,
+1686.]
+
+But the doctrine that all the phenomena of nature are resolvable into
+mechanism is what people have agreed to call "materialism;" and when
+Locke and Collins maintained that matter may possibly be able
+to think, and Newton himself could compare infinite space to the
+sensorium of the Deity, it was not wonderful that the English
+philosophers should be attacked as they were by Leibnitz in the famous
+letter to the Princess of Wales, which gave rise to his correspondence
+with Clarke.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "Collection of Papers which passed between the late
+learned Mr. Leibnitz and Dr. Clarke."--1717.]
+
+"1. Natural religion itself seems to decay [in England] very much.
+Many will have human souls to be material; others make God Himself a
+corporeal Being.
+
+"2. Mr. Locke and his followers are uncertain, at least, whether the
+soul be not material and naturally perishable.
+
+"3. Sir Isaac Newton says that space is an organ which God makes use
+of to perceive things by. But if God stands in need of any organ to
+perceive things by, it will follow that they do not depend altogether
+upon Him, nor were produced by Him.
+
+"4. Sir Isaac Newton and his followers have also a very odd opinion
+concerning the work of God. According to their doctrine, God Almighty
+wants to wind up His watch from time to time; otherwise it would cease
+to move.[1] He had not, it seems, sufficient foresight to make it a
+perpetual motion. Nay, the machine of God's making is so imperfect,
+according to these gentlemen, that He is obliged to clean it now
+and then by an extraordinary concourse, and even to mend it as a
+clockmaker mends his work."
+
+[Footnote 1: Goethe seems to have had this saying of Leibnitz in his
+mind when he wrote his famous lines--
+
+"Was wär' ein Gott der nur von aussen stiesse Im Kreis das All am
+Finger laufen liesse."]
+
+It is beside the mark, at present, to inquire how far Leibnitz paints
+a true picture, and how far he is guilty of a spiteful caricature of
+Newton's views in these passages; and whether the beliefs which Locke
+is known to have entertained are consistent with the conclusions which
+may logically be drawn from some parts of his works. It is undeniable
+that English philosophy in Leibnitz's time had the general character
+which he ascribes to it. The phenomena of nature were held to be
+resolvable into the attractions and the repulsions of particles
+of matter; all knowledge was attained through the senses; the mind
+antecedent to experience was a _tabula rasa_. In other words, at the
+commencement of the eighteenth century, the character of speculative
+thought in England was essentially sceptical, critical, and
+materialistic. Why "materialism" should be more inconsistent with the
+existence of a Deity, the freedom of the will, or the immortality
+of the soul, or with any actual or possible system of theology, than
+"idealism," I must declare myself at a loss to divine. But in the
+year 1700 all the world appears to have been agreed, Tertullian
+notwithstanding, that materialism necessarily leads to very dreadful
+consequences. And it was thought that it conduced to the interests of
+religion and morality to attack the materialists with all the weapons
+that came to hand. Perhaps the most interesting controversy which
+arose out of these questions is the wonderful triangular duel between
+Dodwell, Clarke, and Anthony Collins, concerning the materiality of
+the soul, and--what all the disputants considered to be the necessary
+consequence of its materiality--its natural mortality. I do not think
+that anyone can read the letters which passed between Clarke and
+Collins, without admitting that Collins, who writes with wonderful
+power and closeness of reasoning, has by far the best of the argument,
+so far as the possible materiality of the soul goes; and that, in this
+battle, the Goliath of Freethinking overcame the champion of what was
+considered Orthodoxy.
+
+But in Dublin, all this while, there was a little David practising
+his youthful strength upon the intellectual lions and bears of Trinity
+College. This was George Berkeley, who was destined to give the same
+kind of development to the idealistic side of Descartes' philosophy,
+that the Freethinkers had given to its sceptical side, and the
+Newtonians to its mechanical side.
+
+Berkeley faced the problem boldly. He said to the materialists: "You
+tell me that all the phenomena of nature are resolvable into matter
+and its affections. I assent to your statement, and now I put to you
+the further question, 'What is matter?' In answering this question you
+shall be bound by your own conditions; and I demand, in the terms of
+the Cartesian axiom, that in turn you give your assent only to such
+conclusions as are perfectly clear and obvious."
+
+It is this great argument which is worked out in the "Treatise
+concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge," and in those "Dialogues
+between Hylas and Philonous," which rank among the most exquisite
+examples of English style, as well as among the subtlest of
+metaphysical writings; and the final conclusion of which is summed
+up in a passage remarkable alike for literary beauty and for calm
+audacity of statement.
+
+    "Some truths there are so near and obvious to the mind that
+    a man need only open his eyes to see them. Such I take this
+    important one to be, viz., that all the choir of heaven and
+    furniture of the earth--in a word, all those bodies which
+    compose the mighty frame of the world--have not any substance
+    without a mind; that their being is to be perceived or known;
+    that consequently, so long as they are not actually perceived
+    by me, or do not exist in my mind or that of any other created
+    spirit, they must either have no existence at all or else
+    subsist in the mind of some eternal spirit; it being
+    perfectly unintelligible, and involving all the absurdity
+    of abstraction, to attribute to any single part of them an
+    existence independent of a spirit."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "Treatise concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge,"
+Part I. § 6.]
+
+Doubtless this passage sounds like the acme of metaphysical paradox,
+and we all know that "coxcombs vanquished Berkeley with a grin;" while
+common-sense folk refuted him by stamping on the ground, or some such
+other irrelevant proceeding. But the key to all philosophy lies in the
+clear apprehension of Berkeley's problem--which is neither more nor
+less than one of the shapes of the greatest of all questions, "What
+are the limits of our faculties?" And it is worth any amount of
+trouble to comprehend the exact nature of the argument by which
+Berkeley arrived at his results, and to know by one's own knowledge
+the great truth which he discovered--that the honest and rigorous
+following up of the argument which leads us to materialism, inevitably
+carries us beyond it.
+
+Suppose that I accidentally prick my finger with a pin. I immediately
+become aware of a condition of my consciousness--a feeling which I
+term pain. I have no doubt whatever that the feeling is in myself
+alone; and if anyone were to say that the pain I feel is something
+which inheres in the needle, as one of the qualities of the
+substance of the needle, we should all laugh at the absurdity of the
+phraseology. In fact, it is utterly impossible to conceive pain except
+as a state of consciousness.
+
+Hence, so far as pain is concerned, it is sufficiently obvious
+that Berkeley's phraseology is strictly applicable to our power of
+conceiving its existence--"its being is to be perceived or known," and
+"so long as it is not actually perceived by me, or does not exist in
+my mind, or that of any other created spirit, it must either have no
+existence at all, or else subsist in the mind of some eternal spirit."
+
+So much for pain. Now let us consider an ordinary sensation. Let the
+point of the pin be gently rested upon the skin, and I become aware
+of a feeling or condition of consciousness quite different from the
+former--the sensation of what I call "touch." Nevertheless this touch
+is plainly just as much in myself as the pain was. I cannot for a
+moment conceive this something which I call touch as existing apart
+from myself, or a being capable of the same feelings as myself. And
+the same reasoning applies to all the other simple sensations. A
+moment's reflection is sufficient to convince one that the smell, and
+the taste, and the yellowness, of which we become aware when an
+orange is smelt, tasted, and seen, are as completely states of our
+consciousness as is the pain which arises if the orange happens to
+be too sour. Nor is it less clear that every sound is a state of the
+consciousness of him who hears it. If the universe contained only
+blind and deaf beings, it is impossible for us to imagine but that
+darkness and silence should reign everywhere.
+
+It is undoubtedly true, then, of all the simple sensations that,
+as Berkeley says, their "_esse_ is _percipi_"--their being is to be
+"perceived or known." But that which perceives, or knows, is mind
+or spirit; and therefore that knowledge which the senses give us is,
+after all, a knowledge of spiritual phenomena.
+
+All this was explicitly or implicitly admitted, and, indeed, insisted
+upon, by Berkeley's contemporaries, and by no one more strongly than
+by Locke, who terms smells, tastes, colours, sounds, and the like,
+"secondary qualities," and observes, with respect to these "secondary
+qualities," that "whatever reality we by mistake attribute to them
+[they] are in truth nothing in the objects themselves."
+
+And again: "Flame is denominated hot and light; snow, white and cold;
+and manna, white and sweet, from the ideas they produce in us; which
+qualities are commonly thought to be the same in these bodies; that
+those ideas are in us, the one the perfect resemblance of the other
+as they are in a mirror; and it would by most men be judged very
+extravagant if one should say otherwise. And yet he that will consider
+that the same fire that at one distance produces in us the sensation
+of warmth, does at a nearer approach produce in us the far different
+sensation of pain, ought to bethink himself what reason he has to say
+that his idea of warmth, which was produced in him by the fire,
+is actually in the fire; and his idea of pain which the same fire
+produced in him in the same way, is not in the fire. Why are whiteness
+and coldness in snow, and pain not, when it produces the one and the
+other idea in us; and can do neither but by the bulk, figure, number,
+and motion of its solid parts?"[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Locke, "Human Understanding," Book II. chap. viii. §§ 14,
+15.]
+
+Thus far then materialists and idealists are agreed. Locke and
+Berkeley, and all logical thinkers who have succeeded them, are of
+one mind about secondary qualities--their being is to be perceived or
+known--their materiality is, in strictness, a spirituality.
+
+But Locke draws a great distinction between the secondary qualities of
+matter, and certain others which he terms "primary qualities." These
+are extension, figure, solidity, motion and rest, and number; and he
+is as clear that these primary qualities exist independently of the
+mind, as he is that the secondary qualities have no such existence.
+
+    "The particular bulk, number, figure, and motion of the parts
+    of fire and snow are really in them, whether anyone's senses
+    perceive them or not, and therefore they may be called real
+    qualities, because they really exist in those bodies; but
+    light, heat, whiteness, or coldness, are no more really in
+    them, than sickness, or pain, is in manna. Take away the
+    sensation of them; let not the eyes see light or colours, nor
+    the ears hear sounds; let the palate not taste, nor the nose
+    smell; and all colours, tastes, odours and sounds, as they are
+    such particular ideas, vanish and cease, and are reduced to
+    their causes, i.e. bulk, figure, and motion of parts.
+
+    "18. A piece of manna of sensible bulk is able to produce in
+    us the idea of a round or square figure; and, by being removed
+    from one place to another, the idea of motion. This idea of
+    motion represents it as it really is in the manna moving; a
+    circle and square are the same, whether in idea or existence,
+    in the mind or in the manna; and thus both motion and figure
+    are really in the manna, whether we take notice of them or no:
+    this everybody is ready to agree to."
+
+So far as primary qualities are concerned, then, Locke is as
+thoroughgoing a realist as St. Anselm. In Berkeley, on the other
+hand, we have as complete a representative of the nominalists and
+conceptualists--an intellectual descendant of Roscellinus and of
+Abelard. And by a curious irony of fate, it is the nominalist who is,
+this time, the champion of orthodoxy, and the realist that of heresy.
+
+Once more let us try to work out Berkeley's principles for ourselves,
+and inquire what foundation there is for the assertion that extension,
+form, solidity, and the other "primary qualities," have an existence
+apart from mind. And for this purpose let us recur to our experiment
+with the pin.
+
+It has been seen that when the finger is pricked with a pin, a state
+of consciousness arises which we call pain; and it is admitted that
+this pain is not a something which inheres in the pin, but a something
+which exists only in the mind, and has no similitude elsewhere.
+
+But a little attention will show that this state of consciousness is
+accompanied by another, which can by no effort be got rid of. I not
+only have the feeling, but the feeling is localized. I am just as
+certain that the pain is in my finger, as I am that I have it at all.
+Nor will any effort of the imagination enable me to believe that the
+pain is not in my finger.
+
+And yet nothing is more certain than that it is not, and cannot be, in
+the spot in which I feel it, nor within a couple of feet of that spot.
+For the skin of the finger is connected by a bundle of fine nervous
+fibres, which run up the whole length of the arm, with the spinal
+marrow and brain, and we know that the feeling of pain caused by the
+prick of a pin is dependent on the integrity of those fibres. After
+they have been cut through close to the spinal cord, no pain will be
+felt, whatever injury is done to the finger; and if the ends which
+remain in connection with the cord be pricked, the pain which arises
+will appear to have its seat in the finger just as distinctly as
+before. Nay, if the whole arm be cut off, the pain which arises from
+pricking the nerve stump will appear to be seated in the fingers, just
+as if they were still connected with the body.
+
+It is perfectly obvious, therefore, that the localization of the
+pain at the surface of the body is an act of the mind. It is an
+_extradition_ of that consciousness, which has its seat in the
+brain, to a definite point of the body--which takes place without our
+volition, and may give rise to ideas which are contrary to fact. We
+might call this extradition of consciousness a reflex feeling, just
+as we speak of a movement which is excited apart from, or contrary to,
+our volition, as a reflex motion. Locality is no more in the pin than
+pain is; of the former, as of the latter, it is true that "its being
+is to be perceived," and that its existence apart from a thinking mind
+is not conceivable.
+
+The foregoing reasoning will be in no way affected, if, instead of
+pricking the finger, the point of the pin rests gently against it, so
+as to give rise merely to a tactile sensation. The tactile sensation
+is referred outwards to the point touched, and seems to exist there.
+But it is certain that it is not and cannot be there really, because
+the brain is the sole seat of consciousness; and, further, because
+evidence, as strong as that in favour of the sensation being in the
+finger, can be brought forward in support of propositions which are
+manifestly absurd.
+
+For example, the hairs and nails are utterly devoid of sensibility,
+as everyone knows. Nevertheless, if the ends of the nails or hairs
+are touched, ever so lightly, we feel that they are touched, and the
+sensation seems to be situated in the nails or hairs. Nay more, if a
+walking-stick a yard long is held firmly by the handle and the other
+end is touched, the tactile sensation, which is a state of our own
+consciousness, is unhesitatingly referred to the end of the stick; and
+yet no one will say that it _is_ there.
+
+Let us now suppose that, instead of one pin's point resting against
+the end of my finger, there are two. Each of these can be known to
+me, as we have seen, only as a state of a thinking mind, referred
+outwards, or localized. But the existence of these two states, somehow
+or other, generates in my mind a host of new ideas, which did not make
+their appearance when only one state was present.
+
+For example, I get the ideas of co-existence, of number, of distance,
+and of relative place or direction. But all these ideas are ideas of
+relations, and imply the existence of something which perceives those
+relations. If a tactile sensation is a state of the mind, and if
+the localization of that sensation is an act of the mind, how is it
+conceivable that a relation between two localized sensations should
+exist apart from the mind? It is, I confess, quite as easy for me to
+imagine that redness may exist apart from a visual sense, as it is to
+suppose that co-existence, number, and distance can have any existence
+apart from the mind of which they are ideas.
+
+Thus it seems clear that the existence of some, at any rate, of
+Locke's primary qualities of matter, such as number and extension,
+apart from mind, is as utterly unthinkable as the existence of colour
+and sound under like circumstances.
+
+Will the others--namely, figure, motion and rest, and
+solidity--withstand a similar criticism? I think not. For all these,
+like the foregoing, are perceptions by the mind of the relations
+of two or more sensations to one another. If distance and place are
+inconceivable, in the absence of the mind, of which they are ideas,
+the independent existence of figure, which is the limitation of
+distance, and of motion, which is change of place, must be equally
+inconceivable. Solidity requires more particular consideration, as it
+is a term applied to two very different things, the one of which is
+solidity of form, or geometrical solidity; while the other is solidity
+of substance, or mechanical solidity.
+
+If those motor nerves of a man by which volitions are converted into
+motion were all paralysed, and if sensation remained only in the palm
+of his hand (which is a conceivable case), he would still be able to
+attain to clear notions of extension, figure, number, and motion, by
+attending to the states of consciousness which might be aroused by the
+contact of bodies with the sensory surface of the palm. But it does
+not appear that such a person could arrive at any conception of
+geometrical solidity. For that which does not come in contact with the
+sensory surface is non-existent for the sense of touch; and a solid
+body, impressed upon the palm of the hand, gives rise only to the
+notion of the extension of that particular part of the solid which is
+in contact with the skin.
+
+Nor is it possible that the idea of outness (in the sense of
+discontinuity with the sentient body) could be attained by such a
+person; for, as we have seen, every tactile sensation is referred to
+a point either of the natural sensory surface itself, or of some
+solid in continuity with that surface. Hence it would appear that the
+conception of the difference between the Ego and the non-Ego could
+not be attained by a man thus situated. His feelings would be his
+universe, and his tactile sensations his "moenia mundi." Time would
+exist for him as for us, but space would have only two dimensions.
+
+But now remove the paralysis from the motor apparatus, and give the
+palm of the hand of our imaginary man perfect freedom to move, so as
+to be able to glide in all directions over the bodies with which it is
+in contact. Then with the consciousness of that mobility, the notion
+of space of three dimensions--which is "_Raum_" or "room" to move with
+perfect freedom--is at once given. But the notion that the tactile
+surface itself moves, cannot be given by touch alone, which is
+competent to testify only to the fact of change of place, not to its
+cause. The idea of the motion of the tactile surface could not, in
+fact, be attained, unless the idea of change of place were accompanied
+by some state of consciousness, which does not exist when the tactile
+surface is immoveable. This state of consciousness is what is termed
+the muscular sense, and its existence is very easily demonstrable.
+
+Suppose the back of my hand to rest upon a table, and a sovereign to
+rest upon the upturned palm, I at once acquire a notion of extension,
+and of the limit of that extension. The impression made by the
+circular piece of gold is quite different from that which would be
+made by a triangular, or a square, piece of the same size, and thereby
+I arrive at the notion of figure. Moreover, if the sovereign slides
+over the palm, I acquire a distinct conception of change of place
+or motion, and of the direction of that motion. For as the sovereign
+slides, it affects new nerve-endings, and gives rise to new states of
+consciousness. Each of them is definitely and separately localized by
+a reflex act of the mind, which, at the same time, becomes aware of
+the difference between two successive localizations; and therefore of
+change of place, which is motion.
+
+If, while the sovereign lies on the hand, the latter being kept quite
+steady, the fore-arm is gradually and slowly raised; the tactile
+sensations, with all their accompaniments, remain exactly as they
+were. But, at the same time, something new is introduced; namely, the
+sense of effort. If I try to discover where this sense of effort seems
+to be, I find myself somewhat perplexed at first; but, if I hold the
+fore-arm in position long enough, I become aware of an obscure sense
+of fatigue, which is apparently seated either in the muscles of the
+arm, or in the integument directly over them. The fatigue seems to be
+related to the sense of effort, in much the same way as the pain which
+supervenes upon the original sense of contact, when a pin is slowly
+pressed against the skin, is related to touch.
+
+A little attention will show that this sense of effort accompanies
+every muscular contraction by which the limbs, or other parts of the
+body, are moved. By its agency the fact of their movement is known;
+while the direction of the motion is given by the accompanying tactile
+sensations. And, in consequence of the incessant association of the
+muscular and the tactile sensations, they become so fused together
+that they are often confounded tinder the same name.
+
+If freedom to move in all directions is the very essence of that
+conception of space of three dimensions which we obtain by the sense
+of touch; and if that freedom to move is really another name for the
+feeling of unopposed effort, accompanied by that of change of place,
+it is surely impossible to conceive of such space as having existence
+apart from that which is conscious of effort.
+
+But it may be said that we derive our conception of space of three
+dimensions not only from touch, but from vision; that if we do not
+feel things actually outside us, at any rate we see them. And it was
+exactly this difficulty which presented itself to Berkeley at the
+outset of his speculations. He met it, with characteristic boldness,
+by denying that we do see things outside us; and, with no less
+characteristic ingenuity, by devising that "New Theory of Vision"
+which has met with wider acceptance than any of his views, though it
+has been the subject of continual controversies.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: I have not specifically alluded to the writings of
+Bailey, Mill, Abbott, and others, on this vexed question, not because
+I have failed to study them carefully, but because this is not a
+convenient occasion for controversial discussion. Those who are
+acquainted with the subject, however, will observe that the view I
+have taken agrees substantially with that of Mr. Barley.]
+
+In the "Principles of Human Knowledge," Berkeley himself tells us how
+he was led to those views which he published in the "Essay towards the
+New Theory of Vision."
+
+    "It will be objected that we see things actually without, or
+    at a distance from us, and which consequently do not exist in
+    the mind; it being absurd that those things which are seen at
+    the distance of several miles, should be as near to us as our
+    own thoughts. In answer to this, I desire it may be considered
+    that in a dream we do oft perceive things as existing at a
+    great distance off, and yet, for all that, those things are
+    acknowledged to have their existence only in the mind.
+
+    "But for the fuller clearing of this point, it may be worth
+    while to consider how it is that we perceive distance and
+    things placed at a distance by sight. For that we should in
+    truth see external space and bodies actually existing in it,
+    some nearer, others further off, seems to carry with it some
+    opposition to what hath been said of their existing nowhere
+    without the mind. The consideration of this difficulty it
+    was that gave birth to my 'Essay towards the New Theory of
+    Vision,' which was published not long since, wherein it is
+    shown that distance, or outness, is neither immediately of
+    itself perceived by sight, nor yet apprehended, or judged
+    of, by lines and angles or anything that hath any necessary
+    connection with it; but that it is only suggested to our
+    thoughts by certain visible ideas and sensations attending
+    vision, which, in their own nature, have no manner of
+    similitude or relation either with distance, or with things
+    placed at a distance; but by a connection taught us by
+    experience, they come to signify and suggest them to us, after
+    the same manner that words of any language suggest the ideas
+    they are made to stand for; insomuch that a man born blind and
+    afterwards made to see, would not, at first sight, think the
+    things he saw to be without his mind or at any distance from
+    him."
+
+The key-note of the Essay to which Berkeley refers in this passage is
+to be found in an italicized paragraph of section 127:--
+
+    "_The extensions; figures, and motions perceived by sight are
+    specifically distinct from the ideas of touch called by the
+    same names; nor is there any such thing as an idea, or kind of
+    idea, common to both senses_."
+
+It will be observed that this proposition expressly declares that
+extension, figure, and motion, and consequently distance, are
+immediately perceived by sight as well as by touch; but that visual
+distance, extension, figure, and motion, are totally different in
+quality from the ideas of the same name obtained through the sense
+of touch. And other passages leave no doubt that such was Berkeley's
+meaning. Thus in the 112th section of the same Essay, he carefully
+defines the two kinds of distance, one visual, the other tangible:--
+
+    "By the distance between any two points nothing more is meant
+    than the number of intermediate points. If the given points
+    are visible, the distance between them is marked out by the
+    number of interjacent visible points; if they are tangible,
+    the distance between, them is a line consisting of tangible
+    points."
+
+Again, there are two sorts of magnitude or extension:--
+
+    "It has been shown that there are two sorts of objects
+    apprehended by sight, each whereof has its distinct magnitude
+    or extension: the one properly tangible, _i.e._ to be
+    perceived and measured by touch, and not immediately falling
+    under the sense of seeing; the other properly and immediately
+    visible, by mediation of which the former is brought into
+    view."--§ 55.
+
+But how are we to reconcile these passages with others which will be
+perfectly familiar to every reader of the "New Theory of Vision "? As,
+for example:--
+
+    "It is, I think, agreed by all, that distance of itself, and
+    immediately, cannot be seen."--§ 2.
+
+    "Space or distance, we have shown, is no otherwise the object
+    of sight than of hearing."--§ 130.
+
+    "Distance is in its own nature imperceptible, and yet it is
+    perceived by sight. It remains, therefore, that it is
+    brought into view by means of some other idea, that is itself
+    immediately perceived in the act of vision."--§ 11.
+
+    "Distance or external space."--§ 155.
+
+The explanation is quite simple, and lies in the fact that Berkeley
+uses the word "distance" in three senses. Sometimes he employs it to
+denote visible distance, and then he restricts it to distance in two
+dimensions, or simple extension. Sometimes he means tangible distance
+in two dimensions; but most commonly he intends to signify tangible
+distance in the third dimension. And it is in this sense that he
+employs "distance" as the equivalent of "space." Distance in two
+dimensions is, for Berkeley, not space, but extension. By taking a
+pencil and interpolating the words "visible" and "tangible" before
+"distance" wherever the context renders them necessary, Berkeley's
+statements may be made perfectly consistent; though he has not always
+extricated himself from the entanglement caused by his own loose
+phraseology, which rises to a climax in the last ten sections of
+the "Theory of Vision," in which he endeavours to prove that a pure
+intelligence able to see, but devoid of the sense of touch, could have
+no idea of a plane figure. Thus he says in section 156:--
+
+    "All that is properly perceived by the visual faculty amounts
+    to no more than colours with their variations and different
+    proportions of light and shade; but the perpetual mutability
+    and fleetingness of those immediate objects of sight
+    render them incapable of being managed after the manner of
+    geometrical figures, nor is it in any degree useful that they
+    should. It is true there be divers of them perceived at once,
+    and more of some and less of others; but accurately to compute
+    their magnitude, and assign precise determinate proportions
+    between things so variable and inconstant, if we suppose
+    it possible to be done, must yet be a very trifling and
+    insignificant labour."
+
+If, by this, Berkeley means that by vision alone, a straight line
+cannot be distinguished from a curved one, a circle from a square,
+a long line from a short one, a large angle from a small one, his
+position is surely absurd in itself and contradictory to his own
+previously cited admissions; if he only means, on the other hand, that
+his pure spirit could not get very far on in his geometry, it may be
+true or not; but it is in contradiction with his previous assertion,
+that such a pure spirit could never attain to know as much as the
+first elements of plane geometry.
+
+Another source of confusion, which arises out of Berkeley's
+insufficient exactness in the use of language, is to be found in what
+he says about solidity, in discussing Molyneux's problem, whether a
+man born blind and having learned to distinguish between a cube and a
+sphere, could, on receiving his sight, tell the one from the other
+by vision. Berkeley agrees with Locke that he could not, and adds the
+following reflection:--
+
+    "Cube, sphere, table, are words he has known applied to things
+    perceivable by touch, but to things perfectly intangible
+    he never knew them applied. Those words in their wonted
+    application always marked out to his mind bodies or solid
+    things which were perceived by the resistance they gave. But
+    there is no solidity, no resistance or protrusion perceived by
+    sight."
+
+Here "solidity" means resistance to pressure, which is apprehended by
+the muscular sense; but when in section 154 Berkeley says of his pure
+intelligence--
+
+    "It is certain that the aforesaid intelligence could have no
+    idea of a solid or quantity of three dimensions, which follows
+    from its not having any idea of distance "--
+
+he refers to that notion of solidity which may be obtained by the
+tactile sense, without the addition of any notion of resistance in the
+solid object; as, for example, when the finger passes lightly over the
+surface of a billiard ball.
+
+Yet another source of difficulty in clearly understanding Berkeley
+arises out of his use of the word "outness." In speaking of touch
+he seems to employ it indifferently, both for the localization of
+a tactile sensation in the sensory surface, which we really obtain
+through touch; and for the notion of corporeal separation, which is
+attained by the association of muscular and tactile sensations. In
+speaking of sight, on the other hand, Berkeley employs "outness" to
+denote corporeal separation.
+
+When due allowance is made for the occasional looseness and ambiguity
+of Berkeley's terminology, and the accessories are weeded out of the
+essential parts of his famous Essay, his views may, I believe, be
+fairly and accurately summed up in the following propositions:--
+
+1. The sense of touch gives rise to ideas of extension, figure,
+magnitude, and motion.
+
+2. The sense of touch gives rise to the idea of "outness," in the
+sense of localization.
+
+3. The sense of touch gives rise to the idea of resistance, and thence
+to that of solidity, in the sense of impenetrability.
+
+4. The sense of touch gives rise to the idea of "outness," in the
+sense of distance in the third dimension, and thence to that of space,
+or geometrical solidity.
+
+5. The sense of sight gives rise to ideas of extension, of figure,
+magnitude, and motion.
+
+6. The sense of sight does not give rise to the idea of "outness,"
+in the sense of distance in the third dimension, nor to that of
+geometrical solidity, no visual idea appearing to be without the mind,
+or at any distance off (§§ 43, 50).
+
+7. The sense of sight does not give rise to the idea of mechanical
+solidity.
+
+8. There is no likeness whatever between the tactile ideas called
+extension, figure, magnitude, and motion, and the visual ideas which
+go by the same names; nor are any ideas common to the two senses.
+
+9. When we think we see objects at a distance, what really happens
+is that the visual picture suggests that the object seen has tangible
+distance; we confound the strong belief in the tangible distance of
+the object with actual sight of its distance.
+
+10. Visual ideas, therefore, constitute a kind of language, by which
+we are informed of the tactile ideas which will, or may, arise in us.
+
+Taking these propositions into consideration _seriatim_, it may be
+assumed that everyone will assent to the first and second; and that
+for the third and fourth we have only to include the muscular sense
+tinder the name of sense of touch, as Berkeley did, in order to make
+it quite accurate. Nor is it intelligible to me that anyone should
+explicitly deny the truth of the fifth proposition, though some
+of Berkeley's supporters, less careful than himself, have done so.
+Indeed, it must be confessed that it is only grudgingly, and as it
+were against his will, that Berkeley admits that we obtain ideas of
+extension, figure, and magnitude by pure vision, and that he more than
+half retracts the admission; while he absolutely denies that sight
+gives us any notion of outness in either sense of the word, and even
+declares that "no proper visual idea appears to be without the mind,
+or at any distance off." By "proper visual ideas," Berkeley denotes
+colours, and light, and shade; and, therefore, he affirms that colours
+do not appear to be at any distance from us. I confess that this
+assertion appears to me to be utterly unaccountable. I have made
+endless experiments on this point, and by no effort of the imagination
+can I persuade myself, when looking at a colour, that the colour is
+in my mind, and not at a "distance off," though of course I know
+perfectly well, as a matter of reason, that colour is subjective. It
+is like looking at the sun setting, and trying to persuade oneself
+that the earth appears to move and not the sun, a feat I have never
+been able to accomplish. Even when the eyes are shut, the darkness
+of which one is conscious, carries with it the notion of outness. One
+looks, so to speak, into a dark space. Common language expresses the
+common experience of mankind in this matter. A man will say that a
+smell is in his nose, a taste in his mouth, a singing in his ears, a
+creeping or a warmth in his skin; but if he is jaundiced, he does not
+say that he has yellow in his eyes, but that everything looks yellow;
+and if he is troubled with _muscae volitantes_, he says, not that he
+has specks in his eyes, but that he sees specks dancing before his
+eyes. In fact, it appears to me that it is the special peculiarity
+of visual sensations, that they invariably give rise to the idea of
+remoteness, and that Berkeley's dictum ought to be reversed. For I
+think that anyone who interrogates his consciousness carefully will
+find that "every proper visual idea" appears to be without the mind
+and at a distance off.
+
+Not only does every _visibile_ appear to be remote, but it has a
+position in external space, just as a _tangibile_ appears to be
+superficial and to have a determinate position on the surface of
+the body. Every _visibile_, in fact, appears (approximately) to be
+situated upon a line drawn from it to the point of the retina on which
+its image falls. It is referred outwards, in the general direction of
+the pencil of light by which it is rendered visible, just as, in the
+experiment with the stick, the _tangibile_ is referred outwards to the
+end of the stick.
+
+It is for this reason that an object, viewed with both eyes, is seen
+single and not double. Two distinct images are formed, but each image
+is referred to that point at which the two optic axes intersect;
+consequently, the two images exactly cover one another, and appear as
+completely one as any other two exactly similar superimposed images
+would be. And it is for the same reason, that, if the ball of the
+eye is pressed upon at any point, a spot of light appears apparently
+outside the eye, and in a region exactly opposite to that in which the
+pressure is made.
+
+But while it seems to me that there is no reason to doubt that the
+extradition of sensation is more complete in the case of the eye than
+in that of the skin, and that corporeal distinctness, and hence space,
+are directly suggested by vision, it is another, and a much more
+difficult question, whether the notion of geometrical solidity is
+attainable by pure vision; that is to say, by a single eye, all the
+parts of which are immoveable. However this may be, for an absolutely
+fixed eye, I conceive there can be no doubt in the case of an eye that
+is moveable and capable of adjustment. For, with the moveable eye,
+the muscular sense comes into play in exactly the same way as with the
+moveable hand; and the notion of change of place, _plus_ the sense of
+effort, gives rise to a conception of visual space, which runs exactly
+parallel with that of tangible space. When two moveable eyes are
+present, the notion of space of three dimensions is obtained in the
+same way as it is by the two hands, but with, much greater precision.
+
+And if, to take a case similar to one already assumed, we suppose a
+man deprived of every sense except vision, and of all motion except
+that of his eyes, it surely cannot be doubted that he would have a
+perfect conception of space; and indeed a much more perfect conception
+than he who possessed touch alone without vision. But of course our
+touchless man would be devoid of any notion of resistance; and hence
+space, for him, would be altogether geometrical and devoid of body.
+
+And here another curious consideration arises, what likeness, if
+any, would there be between the visual space of the one man, and the
+tangible space of the other?
+
+Berkeley, as we have seen (in the eighth proposition), declares that
+there is no likeness between the ideas given by sight and those given
+by touch; and one cannot but agree with him, so long as the term ideas
+is restricted to mere sensations. Obviously, there is no more likeness
+between the feel of a surface and the colour of it, than there is
+between its colour and its smell. All simple sensations, derived
+from different senses, are incommensurable with one another, and only
+gradations of their own intensity are comparable. And thus so far as
+the primary facts of sensation go, visual figure and tactile figure,
+visual magnitude and tactile magnitude, visual motion and tactile
+motion, are truly unlike, and have no common term. But when Berkeley
+goes further than this, and declares that there are no "ideas" common
+to the "ideas" of touch and those of sight, it appears to me that he
+has fallen into a great error, and one which is the chief source of
+his paradoxes about geometry.
+
+Berkeley in fact employs the word "idea" in this instance to denote
+two totally different classes of feelings, or states of consciousness.
+For these may be divided into two groups: the primary feelings,
+which exist in themselves and without relation to any other, such as
+pleasure and pain, desire, and the simple sensations obtained through
+the sensory organs; and the secondary feelings, which express those
+relations of primary feelings which are perceived by the mind; and the
+existence of which, therefore, implies the pre-existence of at least
+two of the primary feelings. Such are likeness and unlikeness in
+quality, quantity, or form; succession and contemporaneity; contiguity
+and distance; cause and effect; motion and rest.
+
+Now it is quite true that there is no likeness between the primary
+feelings which are grouped under sight and touch; but it appears to me
+wholly untrue, and indeed absurd, to affirm that there is no likeness
+between the secondary feelings which express the relations of the
+primary ones.
+
+The relation of succession perceived between the visible taps of
+a hammer, is, to my mind, exactly like the relation of succession
+between the tangible taps; the unlikeness between red and blue is a
+mental phenomenon of the same order as the unlikeness between rough
+and smooth. Two points visibly distant are so, because one or more
+units of visible length _(minima visibilia_) are interposed between
+them; and as two points tangibly distant are so, because one or more
+units of tangible length _(minima tangibilia_) are interposed between
+them, it is clear that the notion of interposition of units of
+sensibility, or _minima sensibilia_, is an idea common to the two. And
+whether I see a point move across the field of vision towards another
+point, or feel the like motion, the idea of the gradual diminution of
+the number of sensible units between the two points appears to me to
+be common to both kinds of motion.
+
+Hence, I conceive, that though it be true that there is no likeness
+between the primary feelings given by sight and those given by touch,
+yet there is a complete likeness between the secondary feelings
+aroused by each sense.
+
+Indeed, if it were not so, how could Logic, which deals with those
+forms of thought which are applicable to every kind of subject-matter,
+be possible? How could numerical proportion be as true of _visibilia_,
+as of _tangibilia_, unless there were some ideas common to the two?
+And to come directly to the heart of the matter, is there any more
+difference between the relations between tangible sensations which we
+call place and direction, and those between visible sensations which
+go by the same name, than there is between those relations of tangible
+and visible sensations which we call succession? And if there be
+none, why is Geometry not just as much a matter of _visibilia_ as of
+_tangibilia_?
+
+Moreover, as a matter of fact, it is certain that the muscular sense
+is so closely connected with both the visual and the tactile senses,
+that, by the ordinary laws of association, the ideas which it suggests
+must needs be common to both.
+
+From what has been said it will follow that the ninth proposition
+falls to the ground; and that vision, combined with the muscular
+sensations produced by the movement of the eyes, gives us as complete
+a notion of corporeal separation and of distance in the third
+dimension of space, as touch, combined with the muscular sensations
+produced by the movements of the hand, does. The tenth proposition
+seems to contain a perfectly true statement, but it is only half
+the truth. It is no doubt true that our visual ideas are a kind of
+language by which we are informed of the tactile ideas which may or
+will arise in us; but this is true, more or less, of every sense in
+regard to every other. If I put my hand in my pocket, the tactile
+ideas which I receive prophesy quite accurately what I shall
+see--whether a bunch of keys or half-a-crown--when I pull it out
+again; and the tactile ideas are, in this case, the language which
+informs me of the visual ideas which will arise. So with the other
+senses: olfactory ideas tell me I shall find the tactile and visual
+phenomena called violets, if I look for them; taste tells me that
+what I am tasting will, if I look at it, have the form of a clove; and
+hearing warns me of what I shall, or may, see and touch every minute
+of my life.
+
+But while the "New Theory of Vision" cannot be considered to possess
+much value in relation to the immediate object its author had in view,
+it had a vastly important influence in directing attention to the real
+complexity of many of those phenomena of sensation, which appear at
+first to be simple. And even if Berkeley was, as I imagine he was,
+quite wrong in supposing that we do not see space, the contrary
+doctrine makes quite as strongly for his general view, that space can
+be conceived only as something thought by a mind.
+
+The last of Locke's "primary qualities" which remain to be considered
+is mechanical solidity, or impenetrability. But our conception of this
+is derived from the sense of resistance to our own effort, or active
+force, which we meet with in association with sundry tactile or visual
+phenomena; and, undoubtedly, active force is inconceivable except as a
+state of consciousness. This may sound paradoxical; but let anyone try
+to realize what he means by the mutual attraction of two particles,
+and I think he will find, either, that he conceives them simply as
+moving towards one another at a certain rate, in which case he only
+pictures motion to himself, and leaves force aside; or, that he
+conceives each particle to be animated by something like his own
+volition, and to be pulling as he would pull. And I suppose that this
+difficulty of thinking of force except as something comparable to
+volition, lies at the bottom of Leibnitz's doctrine of monads, to say
+nothing of Schopenhauer's "Welt als Wille und Vorstellung;" while the
+opposite difficulty of conceiving force to be anything like volition,
+drives another school of thinkers into the denial of any connection,
+save that of succession, between cause and effect.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+To sum up. If the materialist affirms that the universe and all its
+phenomena are resolvable into matter and motion, Berkeley replies,
+True; but what you call matter and motion are known to us only as
+forms of consciousness; their being is to be conceived or known; and
+the existence of a state of consciousness, apart from a thinking mind,
+is a contradiction in terms.
+
+I conceive that this reasoning is irrefragable. And therefore, if
+I were obliged to choose between absolute materialism and absolute
+idealism, I should feel compelled to accept the latter alternative.
+Indeed, upon this point Locke does, practically, go as far in the
+direction of idealism, as Berkeley, when he admits that "the simple
+ideas we receive from sensation and reflection are the boundaries of
+our thoughts, beyond which the mind, whatever efforts it would make,
+is not able to advance one jot."--Book II. chap, xxiii. § 29.
+
+But Locke adds, "Nor can it make any discoveries when it would pry
+into the nature and hidden causes of these ideas."
+
+Now, from this proposition, the thorough materialists dissent as much,
+on the one hand, as Berkeley does, upon the other hand.
+
+The thorough materialist asserts that there is a something which he
+calls the "substance" of matter; that this something is the cause of
+all phenomena, whether material or mental; that it is self-existent
+and eternal, and so forth.
+
+Berkeley, on the contrary, asserts with equal confidence that there is
+no substance of matter, but only a substance of mind, which he terms
+spirit; that there are two kinds of spiritual substance, the one
+eternal and uncreated, the substance of the Deity, the other created,
+and, once created, naturally eternal; that the universe, as known
+to created spirits, has no being in itself, but is the result of
+the action of the substance of the Deity on the substance of those
+spirits.
+
+In contradiction to which bold assertion, Locke affirms that we simply
+know nothing about substance of any kind.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Berkeley virtually makes the same confession of
+ignorance, when he admits that we can have no idea or notion of a
+spirit ("Principles of Human Knowledge," § 138); and the way in which
+he tries to escape the consequences of this admission, is a splendid
+example of the floundering of a mired logician.]
+
+    "So that if anyone will examine himself concerning his notion
+    of pure substance in general, he will find he has no other
+    idea of it at all, but only a supposition of he knows not
+    what support of such qualities, which are capable of producing
+    simple ideas in us, which qualities are commonly called
+    accidents.
+
+    "If anyone should be asked, what is the subject wherein colour
+    or weight inheres? he would have nothing to say but the
+    solid extended parts; and if he were demanded what is it that
+    solidity and extension inhere in? he would not be in much
+    better case than the Indian before mentioned, who, urging that
+    the world was supported by a great elephant, was asked what
+    the elephant rested on? to which his answer was, a great
+    tortoise. But being again pressed to know what gave support
+    to the broad-backed tortoise I replied, something, he knew not
+    what. And thus here, as in all other cases when we use
+    words without having clear and distinct ideas, we talk like
+    children, who, being questioned what such a thing is, readily
+    give this satisfactory answer, that it is something; which in
+    truth signifies no more when so used, either by children or
+    men, but that they know not what, and that the thing they
+    pretend to talk and know of is what they have no distinct idea
+    of at all, and are, so, perfectly ignorant of it and in the
+    dark. The idea, then, we have, to which we give the general
+    name substance, being nothing but the supposed but unknown
+    support of those qualities we find existing, which we imagine
+    cannot exist _sine re substante_, without something to support
+    them, we call that support _substantia_, which, according to
+    the true import of the word, is, in plain English, standing
+    under or upholding."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Locke, "Human Understanding," Book II. chap, xiii. § 2.]
+
+I cannot but believe that the judgment of Locke is that which
+Philosophy will accept as her final decision.
+
+Suppose that a piano were conscious of sound, and of nothing else. It
+would become acquainted with a system of nature entirely composed
+of sounds, and the laws of nature would be the laws of melody and of
+harmony. It might acquire endless ideas of likeness and unlikeness, of
+succession, of similarity and dissimilarity, but it could attain to no
+conception of space, of distance, or of resistance; or of figure, or
+of motion.
+
+The piano might then reason thus: All my knowledge consists of sounds
+and the perception of the relations of sounds; now the being of sound
+is to be heard; and it is inconceivable that the existence of the
+sounds I know, should depend upon any other existence than that of the
+mind of a hearing being.
+
+This would be quite as good reasoning as Berkeley's, and very sound
+and useful, so far as it defines the limits of the piano's faculties.
+But for all that, pianos have an existence quite apart from sounds,
+and the auditory consciousness of our speculative piano would be
+dependent, in the first place, on the existence of a "substance" of
+brass, wood, and iron, and, in the second, on that of a musician. But
+of neither of these conditions of the existence of his consciousness
+would the phenomena of that consciousness afford him the slightest
+hint.
+
+So that while it is the summit of human wisdom to learn the limit of
+our faculties, it may be wise to recollect that we have no more right
+to make denials, than to put forth affirmatives, about what lies
+beyond that limit. Whether either mind, or matter, has a "substance"
+or not, is a problem which we are incompetent to discuss; and it is
+just as likely that the common notions upon the subject should be
+correct as any others. Indeed, Berkeley himself makes Philonous wind
+up his discussions with Hylas, in a couple of sentences which aptly
+express this conclusion:--
+
+    "You see, Hylas, the water of yonder fountain, how it is
+    forced upwards in a round column to a certain height, at which
+    it breaks and falls back into the basin from whence it rose;
+    its ascent as well as its descent proceeding from the same
+    uniform law or principle of gravitation. Just so, the same
+    principles which, at first view, lead to scepticism, pursued
+    to a certain point, bring men back to common sense."
+
+THE END.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Critiques and Addresses, by Thomas Henry Huxley
+
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+Project Gutenberg's Critiques and Addresses, by Thomas Henry Huxley
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Critiques and Addresses
+
+Author: Thomas Henry Huxley
+
+Release Date: June 3, 2004 [EBook #12506]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CRITIQUES AND ADDRESSES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Bill Hershey and PG Distributed Proofreaders
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+=CRITIQUES AND ADDRESSES.=
+
+BY
+
+THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY, LL.D., F.R.S.
+
+1873.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+The "Critiques and Addresses" gathered together in this volume, like
+the "Lay Sermons, Addresses, and Reviews," published three years ago,
+deal chiefly with educational, scientific, and philosophical subjects;
+and, in fact, indicate the high-water mark of the various tides of
+occupation by which I have been carried along since the beginning of
+the year 1870.
+
+In the end of that year, a confidence in my powers of work, which,
+unfortunately, has not been justified by events, led me to allow
+myself to be brought forward as a candidate for a seat on the London
+School Board. Thanks to the energy of my supporters I was elected, and
+took my share in the work of that body during the critical first year
+of its existence. Then my health gave way, and I was obliged to resign
+my place among colleagues whose large practical knowledge of the
+business of primary education, and whose self-sacrificing zeal in the
+discharge of the onerous and thankless duties thrown upon them by
+the Legislature, made it a pleasure to work with them, even though my
+position was usually that of a member of the minority.
+
+I mention these circumstances in order to account for (I had almost
+said to apologize for) the existence of the two papers which head
+the present series, and which are more or less political, both in the
+lower and in the higher senses of that word.
+
+The question of the expediency of any form of State Education is, in
+fact, a question of those higher politics which lie above the region
+in which Tories, Whigs, and Radicals "delight to bark and bite." In
+discussing it in my address on "Administrative Nihilism," I found
+myself, to my profound regret, led to diverge very widely (though even
+more perhaps in seeming than in reality) from the opinions of a man of
+genius to whom I am bound by the twofold tie of the respect due to a
+profound philosopher and the affection given to a very old friend. But
+had I no other means of knowing the fact, the kindly geniality of Mr.
+Herbert Spencer's reply[1] assures me that the tie to which I refer
+will bear a much heavier strain than I have put, or ever intend to
+put, upon it, and I rather rejoice that I have been the means of
+calling forth so vigorous a piece of argumentative writing. Nor is
+this disinterested joy at an attack upon myself diminished by the
+circumstance, that, in all humility, but in all sincerity, I think it
+may be repulsed.
+
+[Footnote 1: "Specialized Administration;" _Fortnightly Review_,
+December 1871.]
+
+Mr. Spencer complains that I have first misinterpreted, and then
+miscalled, the doctrine of which he is so able an expositor. It would
+grieve me very much if I were really open to this charge. But what are
+the facts? I define this doctrine as follows:--
+
+    "Those who hold these views support them by two lines of
+    argument. They enforce them deductively by arguing from an
+    assumed axiom, that the State has no right to do anything but
+    protect its subjects from aggression. The State is simply a
+    policeman, and its duty, neither more nor less than to prevent
+    robbery and murder and enforce contracts. It is not to promote
+    good, nor even to do anything to prevent evil, except by the
+    enforcement of penalties upon those who have been guilty
+    of obvious and tangible assaults upon purse or person. And,
+    according to this view, the proper form of government is
+    neither a monarchy, an aristocracy, nor a democracy, but an
+    _astynomocracy_, or police government. On the other hand,
+    these views are supported _a posteriori_ by an induction from
+    observation, which professes to show that whatever is done by
+    a Government beyond these negative limits, is not only sure
+    to be done badly, but to be done much worse than private
+    enterprise would have done the same thing."
+
+I was filled with surprised regret when I learned from the conclusion
+of the article on "Specialized Administration," that this statement is
+held by Mr. Spencer to be a misinterpretation of his views. Perhaps
+I ought to be still more sorry to be obliged to declare myself, even
+now, unable to discover where my misinterpretation lies, or in what
+respect my presentation of Mr. Spencer's views differs from his own
+most recent version of them. As the passage cited above shows I have
+carefully defined the sense in which I use the terms which I employ,
+and, therefore, I am not greatly concerned to defend the abstract
+appropriateness of the terms themselves. And when Mr. Spencer
+maintains the only proper functions of Government to be those which
+are comprehensible under the description of "Negatively regulative
+control," I may suggest that the difference between such "Negative
+Administration" and "Administrative Nihilism," in the sense defined by
+me, is not easily discernible.
+
+Having, as I hope, relieved myself from the suspicion of having
+misunderstood or misrepresented Mr. Spencer's views, I might, if I
+could forget that I am writing a preface, proceed to the discussion
+of the parallel which he elaborates, with much knowledge and power,
+between the physiological and the social organisms. But this is not
+the place for a controversy involving so many technicalities, and
+I content myself with one remark, namely, that the whole course of
+modern physiological discovery tends to show, with more and more
+clearness, that the vascular system, or apparatus for distributing
+commodities in the animal organism, is eminently under the control of
+the cerebro-spinal nervous centres--a fact which, unless I am again
+mistaken, is contrary to one of Mr. Spencer's fundamental assumptions.
+In the animal organism, Government does meddle with trade, and even
+goes so far as to tamper a good deal with the currency.
+
+In the same number of the _Fortnightly Review_ as that which contains
+Mr. Spencer's essay, Miss Helen Taylor assails me--though, I am bound
+to admit, more in sorrow than in anger--for what she terms, my
+"New Attack on Toleration." It is I, this time, who may complain of
+misinterpretation, if the greater part of Miss Taylor's article
+(with which I entirely sympathise) is supposed to be applicable to
+my "intolerance." Let us have full-toleration, by all means, upon
+all questions in which there is room for doubt, or which cannot be
+distinctly proved to affect the welfare of mankind. But when Miss
+Taylor has shown what basis exists for criminal legislation, except
+the clear right of mankind not to tolerate that which is demonstrably
+contrary to the welfare of society, I will admit that such
+demonstration ought only to be believed in by the "curates and
+old women" to whom she refers. Recent events have not weakened the
+conviction I expressed in a much-abused speech at the London School
+Board, that Ultramontanism is demonstrably the enemy of society; and
+must be met with resistance, merely passive if possible, but active if
+necessary, by "the whole power of the State."
+
+Next in order, it seems proper that I should briefly refer to my
+friend Mr. Mivart's onslaught upon my criticism of Mr. Darwin's
+critics, himself among the number, which will be found in this
+volume. In "Evolution and its Consequences"[1] I am accused of
+misrepresentation, misquotation, misunderstanding, and numerous other
+negative and positive literary and scientific sins; and much subtle
+ingenuity is expended by Mr. Mivart in attempting to extricate himself
+from the position in which my exposition of the real opinions of
+Father Suarez has placed him. So much more, in fact, has Mr. Mivart's
+ingenuity impressed me than any other feature of his reply, that I
+shall take the liberty of re-stating the main issue between us; and,
+for the present, leaving that issue alone to the judgment of the
+public.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Contemporary Review_, January 1872.]
+
+In his book on the "Genesis of Species" Mr. Mivart, after discussing
+the opinions of sundry Catholic writers of authority, among whom he
+especially includes St. Augustin, St. Thomas Aquinas, and the Jesuit
+Suarez, proceeds to say: "It is then evident that ancient and most
+venerable theological authorities distinctly assert _derivative_
+creation, and thus their teachings harmonize with all that modern
+science can possibly require."[1] By the "derivative creation" of
+organic forms, Mr. Mivart understands, "that God created them by
+conferring on the material world the power to evolve them under
+suitable conditions."
+
+[Footnote 1: Bunsen's "Outlines of the Philosophy of Universal
+History," vol. i.p. 349. 1854.]
+
+On the contrary, I proved by evidence, which Mr. Mivart does not
+venture to impugn, that Suarez, in his "Tractatus de Opere sex
+Dierum," expressly rejects St. Augustin's and St. Thomas' views; that
+he vehemently advocates the literal interpretation of the account of
+the creation given in the Book of Genesis; and that he treats with
+utter scorn the notion that the Almighty could have used the language
+of that Book, unless He meant it to be taken literally.
+
+Mr. Mivart, therefore, either has read Suarez and has totally
+misrepresented him--a hypothesis which, I hope I need hardly say, I do
+not for a moment entertain: or, he has got his information at second
+hand, and has himself been deceived. But in that case, it is surely
+an imprudence on his part, to reproach me with having "read Suarez _ad
+hoc_, and evidently without the guidance of anyone familiar with
+that author." No doubt, in the matter of guidance, Mr. Mivart has the
+advantage of me. Nevertheless, the guides who supplied him with his
+references to Suarez' "Metaphysica," while they left him in ignorance
+of the existence of the "Tractatus," are guides with whose services
+it might be better to dispense; leaders who wilfully shut their eyes,
+being even more liable to lodge one in a ditch, than blind leaders.
+
+At the time when the essay on "Methods and Results of Ethnology" was
+written, I had not met with a passage in Professor Max Mueller's "Last
+Results of Turanian Researches"[1] which shows so appositely, that
+the profoundest study of philology leads to conclusions respecting the
+relation of Ethnology with Philology, similar to those at which I had
+arrived in approaching the question from the Anatomist's side, that I
+cannot refrain from quoting it:
+
+[Footnote 1: LONDON, _April_ 1873.]
+
+    "Nor should we, in our phonological studies, either expect or
+    desire more than general hints from physical ethnology. The
+    proper and rational connection between the two sciences is
+    that of mutual advice and suggestion, but nothing more. Much
+    of the confusion of terms and indistinctness of principles,
+    both in Ethnology and Phonology, are due to the combined
+    study of these heterogeneous sciences. Ethnological race
+    and phonological race are not commensurate, except in
+    ante-historical times, or perhaps at the very dawn of history.
+    With the migration of tribes, their wars, their colonies,
+    their conquests and alliances, which, if we may judge from
+    their effects, must have been much more violent in the
+    ethnic, than even in the political, period of history, it is
+    impossible to imagine that race and language should continue
+    to run parallel. The physiologist should pursue his own
+    science unconcerned about language."
+
+It is further desirable to remark that the statements in this Essay
+respecting the forms of Native American crania need rectification. On
+this point, I refer the reader who is interested in the subject to
+my paper "On the Form of the Cranium among the Patagonians and the
+Fuegians" published in the _Journal of Anatomy and Physiology_ for
+1868.
+
+If the problem discussed in my address to the British Association
+in 1870 has not yet received its solution, it is not because the
+champions of Abiogenesis have been idle, or wanting in confidence. But
+every new assertion on their side has been met by a counter assertion;
+and though the public may have been led to believe that so much noise
+must indicate rapid progress, one way or the other, an impartial
+critic will admit, with sorrow, that the question has been "marking
+time" rather than marching. In mere sound, these two processes are not
+so very different.
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+I.
+
+ADMINISTRATIVE NIHILISM. (An Address delivered to the Members of
+the Midland Institute, on the 9th of October, 1871, and subsequently
+published in the _Fortnightly Review_)
+
+
+II.
+
+THE SCHOOL BOARDS: WHAT THEY CAN DO, AND WHAT THEY MAY DO. (The
+_Contemporary Review_, 1870)
+
+
+III.
+
+ON MEDICAL EDUCATION. (An Address to the Students of the Faculty of
+Medicine in University College, London, 1870)
+
+
+IV.
+
+YEAST. (The _Contemporary Review_, 1871)
+
+
+V.
+
+ON THE FORMATION OF COAL. (A Lecture delivered before the Members of
+the Bradford Philosophical Institution, and subsequently published in
+the _Contemporary Review_)
+
+
+VI.
+
+ON CORAL AND CORAL REEFS. (_Good Words_, 1870)
+
+
+VII.
+
+ON THE METHODS AND RESULTS OF ETHNOLOGY. (The _Fortnightly Review_,
+1865)
+
+
+VIII.
+
+ON SOME FIXED POINTS IN BRITISH ETHNOLOGY. (The _Contemporary Review_,
+1871)
+
+
+IX.
+
+PALAEONTOLOGY AND THE DOCTRINE OF EVOLUTION. (The Presidential Address
+to the Geological Society, 1870)
+
+
+X.
+
+MR. DARWIN'S CRITICS. (The _Contemporary Review_, 1871)
+
+
+XI.
+
+THE GENEALOGY OF ANIMALS. (A Review of Haeckel's "Natuerliche
+Schoepfungs-Geschichte." The _Academy_, 1869)
+
+
+XII.
+
+BISHOP BERKELEY ON THE METAPHYSICS OF SENSATION. _(Macmillan's
+Magazine_, 1871)
+
+
+
+
+CRITIQUES AND ADDRESSES.
+
+
+
+
+I.
+
+ADMINISTRATIVE NIHILISM.
+
+(AN ADDRESS TO THE MEMBERS OF THE MIDLAND INSTITUTE, OCTOBER 9TH,
+1871.)
+
+
+To me, and, as I trust, to the great majority of those whom I address,
+the great attempt to educate the people of England which has just been
+set afoot, is one of the most satisfactory and hopeful events in our
+modern history. But it is impossible, even if it were desirable,
+to shut our eyes to the fact, that there is a minority, not
+inconsiderable in numbers, nor deficient in supporters of weight and
+authority, in whose judgment all this legislation is a step in the
+wrong direction, false in principle, and consequently sure to produce
+evil in practice.
+
+The arguments employed by these objectors are of two kinds. The first
+is what I will venture to term the caste argument; for, if logically
+carried out, it would end in the separation of the people of this
+country into castes, as permanent and as sharply defined, if not as
+numerous, as those of India. It is maintained that the whole fabric
+of society will be destroyed if the poor, as well as the rich, are
+educated; that anything like sound and good education will only make
+them discontented with their station and raise hopes which, in the
+great majority of cases, will be bitterly disappointed. It is said:
+There must be hewers of wood and drawers of water, scavengers and
+coalheavers, day labourers and domestic servants, or the work of
+society will come to a standstill. But, if you educate and refine
+everybody, nobody will be content to assume these functions, and all
+the world will want to be gentlemen and ladies.
+
+One hears this argument most frequently from the representatives of
+the well-to-do middle class; and, coming from them, it strikes me as
+peculiarly inconsistent, as the one thing they admire, strive after,
+and advise their own children to do, is to get on in the world, and,
+if possible, rise out of the class in which they were born into that
+above them. Society needs grocers and merchants as much as it needs
+coalheavers; but if a merchant accumulates wealth and works his way to
+a baronetcy, or if the son of a greengrocer becomes a lord chancellor,
+or an archbishop, or, as a successful soldier, wins a peerage, all the
+world admires them; and looks with pride upon the social system which
+renders such achievements possible. Nobody suggests that there is
+anything wrong in _their_ being discontented with _their_ station; or
+that, in _their_ cases society suffers by men of ability reaching the
+positions for which nature has fitted them.
+
+But there are better replies than those of the _tu quoque_ sort to the
+caste argument. In the first place, it is not true that education,
+as such, unfits men for rough and laborious, or even disgusting,
+occupations. The life of a sailor is rougher and harder than that of
+nine landsmen out of ten, and yet, as every ship's captain knows, no
+sailor was ever the worse for possessing a trained intelligence. The
+life of a medical practitioner, especially in the country, is harder
+and more laborious than that of most artisans, and he is constantly
+obliged to do things which, in point of pleasantness, cannot be ranked
+above scavengering--yet he always ought to be, and he frequently is,
+a highly educated man. In the second place, though it may be granted
+that the words of the catechism, which require a man to do his duty in
+the station to which it has pleased God to call him, give an admirable
+definition of our obligation to ourselves and to society; yet the
+question remains, how is any given person to find out what is the
+particular station to which it has pleased God to call him? A new-born
+infant does not come into the world labelled scavenger, shopkeeper,
+bishop, or duke. One mass of red pulp is just like another to all
+outward appearance. And it is only by finding out what his faculties
+are good for, and seeking, not for the sake of gratifying a paltry
+vanity, but as the highest duty to himself and to his fellow-men,
+to put himself into the position in which they can attain their full
+development, that the man discovers his true station. That which is to
+be lamented, I fancy, is not that society should do its utmost to help
+capacity to ascend from the lower strata to the higher, but that it
+has no machinery by which to facilitate the descent of incapacity from
+the higher strata to the lower. In that noble romance, the "Republic"
+(which is now, thanks to the Master of Balliol, as intelligible to
+us all, as if it had been written in our mother tongue), Plato makes
+Socrates say that he should like to inculcate upon the citizens of his
+ideal state just one "royal lie."
+
+    "'Citizens,' we shall say to them in our tale--'You are
+    brothers, yet God has framed you differently. Some of you
+    have the power of command, and these he has composed of
+    gold, wherefore also they have the greatest honour; others
+    of silver, to be auxiliaries; others again, who are to be
+    husbandmen and craftsmen, he has made of brass and iron; and
+    the species will generally be preserved in the children. But
+    as you are of the same original family, a golden parent will
+    sometimes have a silver son, or a silver parent a golden son.
+    And God proclaims to the rulers, as a first principle, that
+    before all they should watch over their offspring, and see
+    what elements mingle with their nature; for if the son of a
+    golden or silver parent has an admixture of brass and iron,
+    then nature orders a transposition of ranks, and the eye of
+    the ruler must not be pitiful towards his child because he has
+    to descend in the scale and become a husbandman or artisan;
+    just as there may be others sprung from the artisan class, who
+    are raised to honour, and become guardians and auxiliaries.
+    For an oracle says that when a man of brass or iron guards the
+    State, it will then be destroyed.'"[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "The Dialogues of Plato." Translated into English, with
+Analysis and Introduction, by B. Jowett, M.A. Vol. ii. p. 243.]
+
+Time, whose tooth gnaws away everything else, is powerless against
+truth; and the lapse of more than two thousand years has not weakened
+the force of these wise words. Nor is it necessary that, as Plato
+suggests, society should provide functionaries expressly charged with
+the performance of the difficult duty of picking out the men of brass
+from those of silver and gold. Educate, and the latter will certainly
+rise to the top; remove all those artificial props by which the brass
+and iron folk are kept at the top, and, by a law as sure as that of
+gravitation, they will gradually sink to the bottom. We have all
+known noble lords who would have been coachmen, or gamekeepers, or
+billiard-markers, if they had not been kept afloat by our social
+corks; we have all known men among the lowest ranks, of whom everyone
+has said, "What might not that man have become, if he had only had a
+little education?"
+
+And who that attends, even in the most superficial way, to the
+conditions upon which the stability of modern society--and especially
+of a society like ours, in which recent legislation has placed
+sovereign authority in the hands of the masses, whenever they are
+united enough to wield their power--can doubt that every man of high
+natural ability, who is both ignorant and miserable, is as great a
+danger to society as a rocket without a stick is to the people
+who fire it? Misery is a match that never goes out; genius, as an
+explosive power, beats gunpowder hollow; and if knowledge, which
+should give that power guidance, is wanting, the chances are not small
+that the rocket will simply run a-muck among friends and foes. What
+gives force to the socialistic movement which is now stirring
+European society to its depths, but a determination on the part of the
+naturally able men among the proletariat, to put an end, somehow or
+other, to the misery and degradation in which a large proportion of
+their fellows are steeped? The question, whether the means by which
+they purpose to achieve this end are adequate or not, is at this
+moment the most important of all political questions--and it is beside
+my present purpose to discuss it. All I desire to point out is, that
+if the chance of the controversy being decided calmly and rationally,
+and not by passion and force, looks miserably small to an impartial
+bystander, the reason is that not one in ten thousand of those who
+constitute the ultimate court of appeal, by which questions of the
+utmost difficulty, as well as of the most momentous gravity, will have
+to be decided, is prepared by education to comprehend the real nature
+of the suit brought before their tribunal.
+
+Finally, as to the ladies and gentlemen question, all I can say is,
+would that every woman-child born into this world were trained to be
+a lady, and every man-child a gentleman! But then I do not use those
+much-abused words by way of distinguishing people who wear fine
+clothes, and live in fine houses, and talk aristocratic slang, from
+those who go about in fustian, and live in back slums, and talk gutter
+slang. Some inborn plebeian blindness, in fact, prevents me from
+understanding what advantage the former have over the latter. I have
+never even been able to understand why pigeon-shooting at Hurlingham
+should be refined and polite, while a rat-killing match in Whitechapel
+is low; or why "What a lark" should be coarse, when one hears "How
+awfully jolly" drop from the most refined lips twenty times in an
+evening.
+
+Thoughtfulness for others, generosity, modesty, and self-respect, are
+the qualities which make a real gentleman, or lady, as distinguished
+from the veneered article which commonly goes by that name. I by no
+means wish to express any sentimental preference for Lazarus against
+Dives, but, on the face of the matter, one does not see why the
+practice of these virtues should be more difficult in one state of
+life than another; and any one who has had a wide experience among all
+sorts and conditions of men, will, I think, agree with me that they
+are as common in the lower ranks of life as in the higher.
+
+Leaving the caste argument aside then, as inconsistent with the
+practice of those who employ it, as devoid of any justification in
+theory, and as utterly mischievous if its logical consequences were
+carried out, let us turn to the other class of objectors. To these
+opponents, the Education Act is only one of a number of pieces of
+legislation to which they object on principle; and they include under
+like condemnation the Vaccination Act, the Contagious Diseases Act,
+and all other sanitary Acts; all attempts on the part of the State to
+prevent adulteration, or to regulate injurious trades; all legislative
+interference with anything that bears directly or indirectly on
+commerce, such as shipping, harbours, railways, roads, cab-fares, and
+the carriage of letters; and all attempts to promote the spread of
+knowledge by the establishment of teaching bodies, examining
+bodies, libraries, or museums, or by the sending out of scientific
+expeditions; all endeavours to advance art by the establishment of
+schools of design, or picture galleries; or by spending money upon
+an architectural public building when a brick box would answer the
+purpose. According to their views, not a shilling of public money must
+be bestowed upon a public park or pleasure-ground; not sixpence upon
+the relief of starvation, or the cure of disease. Those who hold
+these views support them by two lines of argument. They enforce them
+deductively by arguing from an assumed axiom, that the State has no
+right to do anything but protect its subjects from aggression. The
+State is simply a policeman, and its duty is neither more nor less
+than to prevent robbery and murder and enforce contracts. It is not to
+promote good, nor even to do anything to prevent evil, except by the
+enforcement of penalties upon those who have been guilty of obvious
+and tangible assaults upon purses or persons. And, according to
+this view, the proper form of government is neither a monarchy,
+an aristocracy, nor a democracy, but an _astynomocracy_, or
+police government. On the other hand, these views are supported _a
+posteriori_, by an induction from observation, which professes to show
+that whatever is done by a Government beyond these negative limits, is
+not only sure to be done badly, but to be done much worse than private
+enterprise would have done the same thing.
+
+I am by no means clear as to the truth of the latter proposition. It
+is generally supported by statements which prove clearly enough that
+the State does a great many things very badly. But this is really
+beside the question. The State lives in a glass house; we see what it
+tries to do, and all its failures, partial or total, are made the most
+of. But private enterprise is sheltered under good opaque bricks and
+mortar. The public rarely knows what it tries to do, and only hears
+of failures when they are gross and patent to all the world. Who is
+to say how private enterprise would come out if it tried its hand
+at State work? Those who have had most experience of joint-stock
+companies and their management, will probably be least inclined to
+believe in the innate superiority of private enterprise over State
+management. If continental bureaucracy and centralization be fraught
+with multitudinous evils, surely English beadleocracy and parochial
+obstruction are not altogether lovely. If it be said that, as a matter
+of political experience, it is found to be for the best interests,
+including the healthy and free development, of a people, that the
+State should restrict itself to what is absolutely necessary, and
+should leave to the voluntary efforts of individuals as much as
+voluntary effort can be got to do, nothing can be more just. But, on
+the other hand, it seems to me that nothing can be less justifiable
+than the dogmatic assertion that State interference, beyond the limits
+of home and foreign police, must, under all circumstances, do harm.
+
+Suppose, however, for the sake of argument, that we accept the
+proposition that the functions of the State may be properly summed up
+in the one great negative commandment,--"Thou shalt not allow any man
+to interfere with the liberty of any other man,"--I am unable to see
+that the logical consequence is any such restriction of the power of
+Government, as its supporters imply. If my next-door neighbour
+chooses to have his drains in such a state as to create a poisonous
+atmosphere, which I breathe at the risk of typhus and diphtheria, he
+restricts my just freedom to live just as much as if he went about
+with a pistol, threatening my life; if he is to be allowed to let
+his children go unvaccinated, he might as well be allowed to leave
+strychnine lozenges about in the way of mine; and if he brings them up
+untaught and untrained, to earn their living, he is doing his best
+to restrict my freedom, by increasing the burden of taxation for the
+support of gaols and workhouses, which I have to pay.
+
+The higher the state of civilization, the more completely do the
+actions of one member of the social body influence all the rest, and
+the less possible is it for any one man to do a wrong thing
+without interfering, more or less, with the freedom of all his
+fellow-citizens. So that, even upon the narrowest view of the
+functions of the State, it must be admitted to have wider powers than
+the advocates of the police theory are disposed to admit.
+
+It is urged, I am aware, that if the right of the State to step beyond
+the assigned limits is admitted at all, there is no stopping; and that
+the principle which justifies the State in enforcing vaccination or
+education, will also justify it in prescribing my religious belief,
+or my mode of carrying on my trade or profession; in determining the
+number of courses I have for dinner, or the pattern of my waistcoat.
+
+But surely the answer is obvious that, on similar grounds, the right
+of a man to eat when he is hungry might be disputed, because if you
+once allow that he may eat at all, there is no stopping him until he
+gorges himself, and suffers all the ills of a surfeit. In practice,
+the man leaves off when reason tells him he has had enough; and, in
+a properly organized State, the Government, being nothing but the
+corporate reason of the community, will soon find out when State
+interference has been carried far enough. And, so far as my
+acquaintance with those who carry on the business of Government goes,
+I must say that I find them far less eager to interfere with the
+people, than the people are to be interfered with. And the reason is
+obvious. The people are keenly sensible of particular evils, and, like
+a man suffering from pain, desire an immediate remedy. The statesman,
+on the other hand, is like the physician, who knows that he can stop
+the pain at once by an opiate; but who also knows that the opiate may
+do more harm than good in the long run. In three cases out of four the
+wisest thing he can do is to wait, and leave the case to nature. But
+in the fourth case, in which the symptoms are unmistakable, and the
+cause of the disease distinctly known, prompt remedy saves a life.
+Is the fact that a wise physician will give as little medicine as
+possible any argument for his abstaining from giving any at all?
+
+But the argument may be met directly. It may be granted that the
+State, or corporate authority of the people, might with perfect
+propriety order my religion, or my waistcoat, if as good grounds
+could be assigned for such an order as for the command to educate my
+children. And this leads us to the question which lies at the root of
+the whole discussion--the question, namely, upon what foundation
+does the authority of the State rest, and how are the limits of that
+authority to be determined?
+
+One of the oldest and profoundest of English philosophers, Hobbes of
+Malmesbury, writes thus:--
+
+    "The office of the sovereign, be it monarch or an assembly,
+    consisteth in the end for which he was entrusted with the
+    sovereign power, namely, the procuration of _the safety_ of
+    the people: to which he is obliged by the law of nature, and
+    to render an account thereof to God, the author of that law,
+    and to none but Him. But by safety, here, is not meant a bare
+    preservation, but also all other contentments of life, which
+    every man by lawful industry, without danger or hurt to the
+    commonwealth, shall acquire to himself."
+
+At first sight this may appear to be a statement of the police-theory
+of government, pure and simple; but it is not so. For Hobbes goes on
+to say:--
+
+    "And this is intended should be done, not by care applied to
+    individuals, further than their protection from injuries, when
+    they shall complain; but by a general providence contained in
+    public instruction both of doctrine and example; and in the
+    making and executing of good laws to which individual persons
+    may apply their own cases."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "Leviathan," Molesworth's ed. p. 322.]
+
+To a witness of the civil war between Charles I. and the Parliament,
+it is not wonderful that the dissolution of the bonds of society which
+is involved in such strife should appear to be "the greatest evil that
+can happen in this life;" and all who have read the "Leviathan" know
+to what length Hobbes's anxiety for the preservation of the authority
+of the representative of the sovereign power, whatever its shape,
+leads him. But the justice of his conception of the duties of the
+sovereign power does not seem to me to be invalidated by his monstrous
+doctrines respecting the sacredness of that power.
+
+To Hobbes, who lived during the break-up of the sovereign power by
+popular force, society appeared to be threatened by everything which
+weakened that power: but, to John Locke, who witnessed the evils which
+flow from the attempt of the sovereign power to destroy the rights
+of the people by fraud and violence, the danger lay in the other
+direction.
+
+The safety of the representative of the sovereign power itself is to
+Locke a matter of very small moment, and he contemplates its abolition
+when it ceases to do its duty, and its replacement by another, as a
+matter of course. The great champion of the revolution of 1688 could
+do no less. Nor is it otherwise than natural that he should seek to
+limit, rather than to enlarge, the powers of the State, though in
+substance he entirely agrees with Hobbes's view of its duties:--
+
+    "But though men," says he, "when they enter into society, give
+    up the equality, liberty, and executive power they had in the
+    state of nature, into the hands of the society, to be so far
+    disposed of by the Legislature as the good of society shall
+    require; yet it being only with an intention in every one the
+    better to preserve himself, his liberty and property (for no
+    rational creature can be supposed to change his condition
+    with an intention to be worse), the power of the society,
+    or legislation, constituted by them can never be supposed to
+    extend further than the common good, but is obliged to secure
+    every one's property by providing against those three defects
+    above mentioned, that made the state of nature so unsafe and
+    uneasy. And so, whoever has the legislative or supreme
+    power of any commonwealth, is bound to govern by established
+    standing laws, promulgated and known to the people, and not
+    by extemporary decrees; by indifferent and upright judges, who
+    are to decide controversies by those laws: and to employ the
+    force of the community at home only in the execution of such
+    laws; or abroad, to prevent or redress foreign injuries, and
+    secure the community from inroads and invasion. And all this
+    to be directed to no other end than the peace, safety, and
+    public good of the people."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Locke's Essay, "Of Civil Government," Sec. 131.]
+
+Just as in the case of Hobbes, so in that of Locke, it may at first
+sight appear from this passage that the latter philosopher's views of
+the functions of Government incline to the negative, rather than the
+positive, side. But a further study of Locke's writings will at
+once remove this misconception. In the famous "Letter concerning
+Toleration," Locke says:--
+
+    "The commonwealth seems to me to be a society of men
+    constituted only for the procuring, preserving, and
+    _advancing_ their own civil interests.
+
+    "Civil interests I call life, liberty, health, and indolency
+    of body; and the possession of outward things, such as money,
+    lands, houses, furniture, and the like.
+
+    "It is the duty of the civil magistrate, by the impartial
+    execution of equal laws, to secure unto all the people in
+    general, and to every one of his subjects in particular, the
+    just possession of those things belonging to this life.
+
+    "... The whole jurisdiction of the magistrate reaches only
+    to these civil concernments.... All civil power, right,
+    and dominion, is bounded and confined to the only care of
+    promoting these things."
+
+Elsewhere in the same "Letter," Locke lays down the proposition that
+if the magistrate understand washing a child "to be profitable to the
+curing or preventing any disease that children are subject unto, and
+esteem the matter weighty enough to be taken care of by a law, in that
+case he may order it to be done."
+
+Locke seems to differ most widely from Hobbes by his strong advocacy
+of a certain measure of toleration in religious matters. But the
+reason why the civil magistrate ought to leave religion alone is,
+according to Locke, simply this, that "true and saving religion
+consists in the inward persuasion of the mind." And since "such is the
+nature of the understanding that it cannot be compelled to the belief
+of anything by outward force," it is absurd to attempt to make men
+religious by compulsion. I cannot discover that Locke fathers the pet
+doctrine of modern Liberalism, that the toleration of error is a good
+thing in itself, and to be reckoned among the cardinal virtues; on
+the contrary, in this very "Letter on Toleration" he states in the
+clearest language that "No opinion contrary to human society, or to
+those moral rules which are necessary to the preservation of civil
+society, are to be tolerated by the magistrate." And the practical
+corollary which he draws from this proposition is that there ought to
+be no toleration for either Papists or Atheists.
+
+After Locke's time the negative view of the functions of Government
+gradually grew in strength, until it obtained systematic and able
+expression in Wilhelm von Humboldt's "Ideen,"[1] the essence of which
+is the denial that the State has a right to be anything more than
+chief policeman. And, of late years, the belief in the efficacy of
+doing nothing, thus formulated, has acquired considerable popularity
+for several reasons. In the first place, men's speculative convictions
+have become less and less real; their tolerance is large because their
+belief is small; they know that the State had better leave things
+alone unless it has a clear knowledge about them; and, with reason,
+they suspect that the knowledge of the governing power may stand no
+higher than the very low watermark of their own.
+
+[Footnote 1: An English translation has been published under the title
+of "Essay on the Sphere and Duties of Government."]
+
+In the second place, men have become largely absorbed in the mere
+accumulation of wealth; and as this is a matter in which the plainest
+and strongest form of self-interest is intensely concerned, science
+(in the shape of Political Economy) has readily demonstrated that
+self-interest may be safely left to find the best way of attaining
+its ends. Rapidity and certainty of intercourse between different
+countries, the enormous development of the powers of machinery, and
+general peace (however interrupted by brief periods of warfare), have
+changed the face of commerce as completely as modern artillery has
+changed that of war. The merchant found himself as much burdened by
+ancient protective measures as the soldier by his armour--and negative
+legislation has been of as much use to the one as the stripping off
+of breast-plates, greaves, and buff-coat to the other. But because the
+soldier is better without his armour it does not exactly follow that
+it is desirable that our defenders should strip themselves stark
+naked; and it is not more apparent why _laissez-faire_--great and
+beneficial as it may be in all that relates to the accumulation of
+wealth--should be the one great commandment which the State is to
+obey in all other matters; and especially in those in which the
+justification of _laissez-faire_, namely, the keen insight given by
+the strong stimulus of direct personal interest, in matters clearly
+understood, is entirely absent.
+
+Thirdly, to the indifference generated by the absence of fixed
+beliefs, and to the confidence in the efficacy of _laissez-faire_,
+apparently justified by experience of the value of that principle when
+applied to the pursuit of wealth, there must be added that nobler and
+better reason for a profound distrust of legislative interference,
+which animates Von Humboldt and shines forth in the pages of Mr.
+Mill's famous Essay on Liberty--I mean the just fear lest the end
+should be sacrificed to the means; lest freedom and variety should be
+drilled and disciplined out of human life in order that the great mill
+of the State should grind smoothly.
+
+One of the profoundest of living English philosophers, who is at the
+same time the most thoroughgoing and consistent of the champions of
+astynomocracy, has devoted a very able and ingenious essay[1] to the
+drawing out of a comparison between the process by which men have
+advanced from the savage state to the highest civilization, and that
+by which an animal passes from the condition of an almost shapeless
+and structureless germ, to that in which it exhibits a highly
+complicated structure and a corresponding diversity of powers. Mr.
+Spencer says with great justice--
+
+[Footnote 1: "The Social Organism:" Essays. Second Series.]
+
+    "That they gradually increase in mass; that they become,
+    little by little, more complex; that, at the same time, their
+    parts grow more mutually dependent; and that they continue to
+    live and grow as wholes, while successive generations of their
+    units appear and disappear,--are broad peculiarities which
+    bodies politic display, in common with all living bodies, and
+    in which they and living bodies differ from everything else."
+
+In a very striking passage of this essay Mr. Spencer shows with what
+singular closeness a parallel between the development of a nervous
+system, which is the governing power of the body in the series of
+animal organisms, and that of government, in the series of social
+organisms, can be drawn:--
+
+    "Strange as the assertion, will be thought," says Mr. Spencer,
+    "our Houses of Parliament discharge in the social economy
+    functions that are, in sundry respects, comparable to those
+    discharged by the cerebral masses in a vertebrate animal....
+    The cerebrum co-ordinates the countless heterogeneous
+    considerations which affect the present and future welfare of
+    the individual as a whole; and the Legislature co-ordinates
+    the countless heterogeneous considerations which affect the
+    immediate and remote welfare of the whole community. We may
+    describe the office of the brain as that of _averaging_ the
+    interests of life, physical, intellectual, moral, social; and
+    a good brain is one in which the desires answering to their
+    respective interests are so balanced, that the conduct they
+    jointly dictate sacrifice none of them. Similarly we may
+    describe the office of Parliament as that of _averaging_ the
+    interests of the various classes in a community; and a good
+    Parliament is one in which the parties answering to these
+    respective interests are so balanced, that their united
+    legislation concedes to each class as much as consists with
+    the claims of the rest."
+
+All this appears to be very just. But if the resemblances between the
+body physiological and the body politic are any indication, not only
+of what the latter is, and how it has become what it is, but of what
+it ought to be, and what it is tending to become, I cannot but think
+that the real force of the analogy is totally opposed to the negative
+view of State function.
+
+Suppose that, in accordance with this view, each muscle were to
+maintain that the nervous system had no right to interfere with its
+contraction, except to prevent it from hindering the contraction of
+another muscle; or each gland, that it had a right to secrete, so long
+as its secretion interfered with no other; suppose every separate cell
+left free to follow its own "interests," and _laissez-faire_ lord of
+all, what would become of the body physiological?
+
+The fact is that the sovereign power of the body thinks for the
+physiological organism, acts for it, and rules the individual
+components with a rod of iron. Even the blood-corpuscles can't hold a
+public meeting without being accused of "congestion"--and the brain,
+like other despots whom we have known, calls out at once for the
+use of sharp steel against them. As in Hobbes's "Leviathan," the
+representative of the sovereign authority in the living organism,
+though he derives all his powers from the mass which he rules, is
+above the law. The questioning of his authority involves death, or
+that partial death which we call paralysis. Hence, if the analogy of
+the body politic with the body physiological counts for anything, it
+seems to me to be in favour of a much larger amount of governmental
+interference than exists at present, or than I, for one, at all desire
+to see. But, tempting as the opportunity is, I am not disposed to
+build up any argument in favour of my own case upon this analogy,
+curious, interesting, and in many respects close, as it is, for it
+takes no cognizance of certain profound and essential differences
+between the physiological and the political bodies.
+
+Much as the notion of a "social contract" has been ridiculed, it
+nevertheless seems to be clear enough, that all social organization
+whatever depends upon what is substantially a contract, whether
+expressed or implied, between the members of the society. No society
+ever was, or ever can be, really held together by force. It may seem
+a paradox to say that a slaveholder does not make his slaves work
+by force, but by agreement. And yet it is true. There is a contract
+between the two which, if it were written out, would run in these
+terms:--"I undertake to feed, clothe, house, and not to kill, flog,
+or otherwise maltreat you, Quashie, if you perform a certain amount of
+work." Quashie, seeing no better terms to be had, accepts the bargain,
+and goes to work accordingly. A highwayman who garottes me, and then
+clears out my pockets, robs me by force in the strict sense of the
+words; but if he puts a pistol to my head and demands my money or
+my life, and I, preferring the latter, hand over my purse, we have
+virtually made a contract, and I perform one of the terms of that
+contract. If, nevertheless, the highwayman subsequently shoots me,
+everybody will see that, in addition to the crimes of murder and
+theft, he has been guilty of a breach of contract.
+
+A despotic Government, therefore, though often a mere combination
+of slaveholding and highway robbery, nevertheless implies a contract
+between governor and governed, with voluntary submission on the part
+of the latter; and _a fortiori_, all other forms of government are in
+like case.
+
+Now a contract between any two men implies a restriction of the
+freedom of each in certain particulars. The highwayman gives up his
+freedom to shoot me, on condition of my giving up my freedom to do
+as I like with my money: I give up my freedom to kill Quashie, on
+condition of Quashie's giving up his freedom to be idle. And the
+essence and foundation of every social organization, whether simple
+or complex, is the fact that each member of the society voluntarily
+renounces his freedom in certain directions, in return for the
+advantages which he expects from association with the other members
+of that society. Nor are constitutions, laws, or manners, in ultimate
+analysis, anything but so many expressed or implied contracts between
+the members of a society to do this, or abstain from that.
+
+It appears to me that this feature constitutes the difference
+between the social and the physiological organism. Among the higher
+physiological organisms, there is none which is developed by the
+conjunction of a number of primitively independent existences into
+a complex whole. The process of social organization appears to be
+comparable, not so much to the process of organic development, as
+to the synthesis of the chemist, by which independent elements are
+gradually built up into complex aggregations--in which each element
+retains an independent individuality, though held in subordination to
+the whole. The atoms of carbon and hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, which
+enter into a complex molecule, do not lose the powers originally
+inherent in them, when they unite to form that molecule, the
+properties of which express those forces of the whole aggregation
+which are not neutralized and balanced by one another. Each atom has
+given up something, in order that the atomic society, or molecule, may
+subsist. And as soon as any one or more of the atoms thus associated
+resumes the freedom which it has renounced, and follows some external
+attraction, the molecule is broken up, and all the peculiar properties
+which depended upon its constitution vanish.
+
+Every society, great or small, resembles such a complex molecule,
+in which the atoms are represented by men, possessed of all those
+multifarious attractions and repulsions which are manifested in their
+desires and volitions, the unlimited power of satisfying which, we
+call freedom. The social molecule exists in virtue of the renunciation
+of more or less of this freedom by every individual. It is decomposed,
+when the attraction of desire leads to the resumption of that freedom,
+the suppression of which is essential to the existence of the social
+molecule. And the great problem of that social chemistry we call
+politics, is to discover what desires of mankind may be gratified, and
+what must be suppressed, if the highly complex compound, society,
+is to avoid decomposition. That the gratification of some of
+men's desires shall be renounced is essential to order; that the
+satisfaction of others shall be permitted is no less essential to
+progress; and the business of the sovereign authority--which is, or
+ought-to be, simply a delegation of the people appointed to act for
+its good--appears to me to be, not only to enforce the renunciation of
+the anti-social desires, but, wherever it may be necessary, to promote
+the satisfaction of those which are conducive to progress.
+
+The great metaphysician, Immanuel Kant, who is at his greatest when
+he discusses questions which are not metaphysical, wrote, nearly a
+century ago, a wonderfully instructive essay entitled "A Conception of
+Universal History in relation to Universal Citizenship,"[1] from which
+I will borrow a few pregnant sentences:--
+
+[Footnote 1: "Idee zu einer allgemeinen Geschichte in weltbuergerlichen
+Absicht," 1784. This paper has been translated by De Quincey, and
+attention has been recently drawn to its "signal merits" by the Editor
+of the _Fortnightly Review_ in his Essay on Condorcet. (_Fortnightly
+Review_, No. xxxviii. N.S. pp. 136, 137.)]
+
+    "The means of which Nature has availed herself, in order to
+    bring about the development of all the capacities of man, is
+    the antagonism of those capacities to social organization,
+    so far as the latter does in the long run necessitate their
+    definite correlation. By antagonism, I here mean the unsocial
+    sociability of mankind--that is, the combination in them of
+    an impulse to enter into society, with a thorough spirit
+    of opposition which constantly threatens to break up this
+    society. The ground of this lies in human nature. Man has an
+    inclination to enter into society, because in that state he
+    feels that he becomes more a man, or, in other words, that his
+    natural faculties develop. But he has also a great tendency to
+    isolate himself, because he is, at the same time, aware of the
+    unsocial peculiarity of desiring to have everything his own
+    way; and thus, being conscious of an inclination to oppose
+    others, he is naturally led to expect opposition from them.
+
+    "Now it is this opposition which awakens all the dormant
+    powers of men, stimulates them to overcome their inclination
+    to be idle, and, spurred by the love of honour, or power, or
+    wealth, to make themselves a place among their fellows, whom
+    they can neither do with, nor do without.
+
+    "Thus they make the first steps from brutishness towards
+    culture, of which the social value of man is the measure. Thus
+    all talents become gradually developed, taste is formed,
+    and by continual enlightenment the foundations of a way of
+    thinking are laid, which gradually changes the mere rude
+    capacity of moral perception into determinate practical
+    principles; and thus society, which is originated by a sort
+    of pathological compulsion, becomes metamorphosed into a moral
+    unity." (_Loc. cit_. p. 147.)
+
+    "All the culture and art which adorn humanity, the most
+    refined social order, are produced by that unsociability which
+    is compelled by its own existence to discipline itself, and
+    so by enforced art to bring the seeds implanted by nature into
+    full flower." (_Loc. cit_. p. 148.)
+
+In these passages, as in others of this remarkable tract, Kant
+anticipates the application of the "struggle for existence" to
+politics, and indicates the manner in which the evolution of society
+has resulted from the constant attempt of individuals to strain its
+bonds. If individuality has no play, society does not advance; if
+individuality breaks out of all bounds, society perishes.
+
+But when men living in society once become aware that their welfare
+depends upon, two opposing tendencies of equal importance--the one
+restraining, the other encouraging, individual freedom--the
+question "What are the functions of Government?" is translated into
+another--namely, What ought we men, in our corporate capacity, to do,
+not only in the way of restraining that free individuality which is
+inconsistent with the existence of society, but in encouraging that
+free individuality which is essential to the evolution of the
+social organization? The formula which truly defines the function of
+Government must contain the solution of both the problems involved,
+and not merely of one of them.
+
+Locke has furnished us with such a formula, in the noblest, and at the
+same time briefest, statement of the purpose of Government known to
+me:--
+
+"THE END OF GOVERNMENT IS THE GOOD OF MANKIND."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "Of Civil Government," Sec. 229.]
+
+But the good of mankind is not a something which is absolute and
+fixed for all men, whatever their capacities or state of civilization.
+Doubtless it is possible to imagine a true "Civitas Dei," in which
+every man's moral faculty shall be such as leads him to control all
+those desires which run counter to the good of mankind, and to cherish
+only those which conduce to the welfare of society; and in which every
+man's native intellect shall be sufficiently strong, and his culture
+sufficiently extensive, to enable him to know what he ought to do and
+to seek after. And, in that blessed State, police will be as much a
+superfluity as every other kind of government.
+
+But the eye of man has not beheld that State, and is not likely to
+behold it for some time to come. What we do see, in fact, is that
+States are made up of a considerable number of the ignorant and
+foolish, a small proportion of genuine knaves, and a sprinkling of
+capable and honest men, by whose efforts the former are kept in a
+reasonable state of guidance, and the latter of repression. And, such
+being the case, I do not see how any limit whatever can be laid down
+as to the extent to which, under some circumstances, the action of
+Government may be rightfully carried.
+
+Was our own Government wrong in suppressing Thuggee in India? If not,
+would it be wrong in putting down any enthusiast who attempted to set
+up the worship of Astarte in the Haymarket? Has the State no right to
+put a stop to gross and open violations of common decency? And if
+the State has, as I believe it has, a perfect right to do all these
+things, are we not bound to admit, with Locke, that it may have a
+right to interfere with "Popery" and "Atheism," if it be really true
+that the practical consequences of such beliefs con be proved to
+be injurious to civil society? The question where to draw the line
+between those things with which the State ought, and those with which
+it ought not, to interfere, then, is one which must be left to be
+decided separately for each individual case. The difficulty which
+meets the statesman is the same as that which meets us all in
+individual life, in which our abstract rights are generally clear
+enough, though it is frequently extremely hard to say at what point it
+is wise to cease our attempts to enforce them.
+
+The notion that the social body should be organized in such a manner
+as to advance the welfare of its members, is as old as political
+thought; and the schemes of Plato, More, Robert Owen, St. Simon,
+Comte, and the modern socialists, bear witness that, in every age, men
+whose capacity is of no mean order, and whose desire to benefit
+their fellows has rarely been excelled, have been strongly, nay,
+enthusiastically, convinced that Government may attain its end--the
+good of the people--by some more effectual process than the very
+simple and easy one of putting its hands in its pockets, and letting
+them alone.
+
+It may be, that all the schemes of social organization which have
+hitherto been propounded are impracticable follies. But if this be so,
+the fact proves, not that the idea which underlies them is worthless,
+but only that the science of politics is in a very rudimentary and
+imperfect state. Politics, as a science, is not older than astronomy;
+but though the subject-matter of the latter is vastly less complex
+than that of the former, the theory of the moon's motions is not quite
+settled yet.
+
+Perhaps it may help us a little way towards getting clearer notions of
+what the State may and what it may not do, if, assuming the truth of
+Locke's maxim that "the end of Government is the good of mankind," we
+consider a little what the good, of mankind is.
+
+I take it that the good of mankind means the attainment, by every
+man, of all the happiness which he can enjoy without diminishing the
+happiness of his fellow-men.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "Hie est itaque finis ad quem tendo, talem scilicet
+Naturam acquirere, et ut multi mecum eam acquirant, conari hoc est
+de mea felicitate etiam operam dare, ut alii multi idem atque ego
+intelligant, ut eorum intellectus et cupiditas prorsus cum meo
+intellectu et cupiditate convenient: atque hoc fiat, necesse est
+tantum de Natura intelligere, quantum sufficit ad talem naturam
+acquirendam; deinde formare talem societatem qualis est desideranda,
+ut quam plurimi quam facillime et secure eo perveniant."--B. SPINOZA,
+_De Intellectus Emendatione Tractatus._]
+
+If we inquire what kinds of happiness come under this definition, we
+find those derived from the sense of security or peace; from
+wealth, or commodity, obtained by commerce; from Art--whether it
+be architecture, sculpture, painting, music, or literature; from
+knowledge, or science; and, finally, from sympathy or friendship. No
+man is injured, but the contrary, by peace. No man is any the worse
+off because another acquires wealth by trade, or by the exercise of
+a profession; on the contrary, he cannot have acquired his wealth,
+except by benefiting others to the full extent of what they considered
+to be its value; and his wealth is no more than fairy gold if he does
+not go on benefiting others in the same way. A thousand men may enjoy
+the pleasure derived from a picture, a symphony, or a poem, without
+lessening the happiness of the most devoted connoisseur. The
+investigation of nature is an infinite pasture-ground, where all
+may graze, and where the more bite, the longer the grass grows, the
+sweeter is its flavour, and the more it nourishes. If I love a friend,
+it is no damage to me, but rather a pleasure, if all the world also
+love him and think of him as highly as I do.
+
+It appears to be universally agreed, for the reasons already
+mentioned, that it is unnecessary and undesirable for the State
+to attempt to promote the acquisition of wealth by any direct
+interference with commerce. But there is no such agreement as to the
+further question whether the State may not promote the acquisition of
+wealth by indirect means. For example, may the State make a road, or
+build a harbour, when it is quite clear that by so doing it will open
+up a productive district, and thereby add enormously to the total
+wealth of the community? And if so, may the State, acting for the
+general good, take charge of the means of communication between its
+members, or of the postal and telegraph services? I have not yet met
+with any valid, argument against the propriety of the State doing
+what our Government does in this matter; except the assumption, which
+remains to be proved, that Government will manage these things worse
+than private enterprise would do. Nor is there any agreement upon the
+still more important question whether the State ought, or ought not,
+to regulate the distribution of wealth. If it ought not, then all
+legislation which regulates inheritance--the statute of Mortmain, and
+the like--is wrong in principle; and, when a rich man dies, we
+ought to return to the state of nature, and have a scramble for
+his property. If, on the other hand, the authority of the State is
+legitimately employed in regulating these matters, then it is an open
+question, to be decided entirely by evidence as to what tends to
+the highest good of the people, whether we keep our present laws,
+or whether we modify them. At present the State protects men in the
+possession and enjoyment of their property, and defines what that
+property is. The justification for its so doing is that its action
+promotes the good of the people. If it can be clearly proved that the
+abolition of property would tend still, more to promote the good of
+the people, the State will have the same justification for abolishing
+property that it now has for maintaining it.
+
+Again, I suppose it is universally agreed that it would be useless
+and absurd for the State to attempt to promote friendship and sympathy
+between man and man directly. But I see no reason why, if it be
+otherwise expedient, the State may not do something towards that
+end indirectly. For example, I can conceive the existence of an
+Established Church which should be a blessing to the community. A
+Church in which, week by week, services should be devoted, not to the
+iteration of abstract propositions in theology, but to the setting
+before men's minds of an ideal of true, just, and pure living; a place
+in which those who are weary of the burden of daily cares, should
+find a moment's rest in the contemplation of the higher life which is
+possible for all, though attained by so few; a place in which the man
+of strife and of business should have time to think how small, after
+all, are the rewards he covets compared with peace and charity. Depend
+upon it, if such a Church existed, no one would seek to disestablish
+it.
+
+Whatever the State may not do, however, it is universally agreed that
+it may take charge of the maintenance of internal and external peace.
+Even the strongest advocate of administrative nihilism admits that
+Government may prevent aggression of one man on another. But this
+implies the maintenance of an army and navy, as much as of a body of
+police; it implies a diplomatic as well as a detective force; and it
+implies, further, that the State, as a corporate whole, shall have
+distinct and definite views as to its wants, powers, and obligations.
+
+For independent States stand in the same relation to one another as
+men in a state of nature, or unlimited freedom. Each endeavours to
+get all it can, until the inconvenience of the state of war suggests
+either the formation of those express contracts we call treaties,
+or mutual consent to those implied contracts which are expressed by
+international law. The moral rights of a State rest upon the same
+basis as those of an individual. If any number of States agree to
+observe a common set of international laws, they have, in fact, set up
+a sovereign authority or supra-national government, the end of
+which, like that of all governments, is the good of mankind; and the
+possession of as much freedom by each State, as is consistent with
+the attainment of that end. But there is this difference: that the
+government thus set up over nations is ideal, and has no concrete
+representative of the sovereign power; whence the only way of settling
+any dispute finally is to fight it out. Thus the supra-national
+society is continually in danger of returning to the state of nature,
+in which contracts are void; and the possibility of this contingency
+justifies a government in restricting the liberty of its subjects in
+many ways that would otherwise be unjustifiable.
+
+Finally, with respect to the advancement of science and art. I have
+never yet had the good fortune to hear any valid reason alleged why
+that corporation of individuals we call the State may not do what
+voluntary effort fails in doing, either from want of intelligence or
+lack of will. And here it cannot be alleged that the action of the
+State is always hurtful. On the contrary, in every country in Europe,
+universities, public libraries, picture galleries, museums, and
+laboratories, have been established by the State, and have done
+infinite service to the intellectual and moral progress and the
+refinement of mankind.
+
+A few days ago I received from one of the most eminent members of the
+Institut of France a pamphlet entitled "Pourquoi la France n'a
+pas trouve d'hommes superieurs au moment du peril." The writer, M.
+Pasteur, has no doubt that the cause of the astounding collapse of
+his countrymen is to be sought in the miserable neglect of the higher
+branches of culture, which has been one of the many disgraces of the
+Second Empire, if not of its predecessors.
+
+    "Au point ou nous sommes arrives de ce qu'on appelle la
+    _civilisation moderne_, la culture des sciences dans leur
+    expression la plus elevee est peut-etre plus necessaire encore
+    a l'etat moral d'une nation qu'a sa prosperite materielle.
+
+    "Les grandes decouvertes, les meditations de la pensee dans
+    les arts, dans les sciences et dans les lettres, en un mot les
+    travaux desinteresses de l'esprit dans tous les genres,
+    les centres d'enseignement propres a les faire connaitre,
+    introduisent dans le corps social tout entier l'esprit
+    philosophique ou scientifique, cet esprit de discernement qui
+    soumet tout a une raison severe, condamne l'ignorance,
+    dissipe les prejuges et les erreurs. Ils elevent le niveau
+    intellectuel, le sentiment moral; par eux, l'idee divine
+    elle-meme se repand et s'exalte.... Si, au moment du peril
+    supreme, la France n'a pas trouve des hommes superieurs pour
+    mettre en oeuvre ses ressources et le courage de ses enfants,
+    il faut l'attribuer, j'en ai la conviction, a ce que la France
+    EST desinteressee, depuis un demi-siecle, des grands travaux
+    de la pensee, particulierement dans les sciences exactes."
+
+Individually, I have no love for academies on the continental model,
+and still less for the system of decorating men of distinction in
+science, letters, or art, with orders and titles, or enriching them
+with sinecures. What men of science want is only a fair day's wages
+for more than a fair day's work; and most of us, I suspect, would be
+well content if, for our days and nights of unremitting toil, we could
+secure the pay which a first-class Treasury clerk earns without any
+obviously trying strain upon his faculties. The sole order of nobility
+which, in my judgment, becomes a philosopher, is that rank which
+he holds in the estimation of his fellow-workers, who are the only
+competent judges in such matters. Newton and Cuvier lowered themselves
+when the one accepted an idle knighthood, and the other became a
+baron of the empire. The great men who went to their graves as Michael
+Faraday and George Grote seem to me to have understood the dignity of
+knowledge better when they declined all such meretricious trappings.
+
+But it is one thing for the State to appeal to the vanity and ambition
+which are to be found in philosophical as in other breasts, and
+another to offer men who desire to do the hardest of work for the most
+modest of tangible rewards, the means of making themselves useful to
+their age and generation. And this is just what the State does when it
+founds a public library or museum, or provides the means of scientific
+research by such grants of money as that administered by the Royal
+Society.
+
+It is one thing, again, for the State to take all the higher education
+of the nation into its own hands; it is another to stimulate and to
+aid, while they are yet young and weak, local efforts to the same
+end. The Midland Institute, Owens College in Manchester, the newly
+instituted Science College in Newcastle, are all noble products of
+local energy and munificence. But the good they are doing is not
+local--the commonwealth, to its uttermost limits, shares in the
+benefits they confer; and I am at a loss to understand upon what
+principle of equity the State, which admits the principle of payment
+on results, refuses to give a fair equivalent for these benefits; or
+on what principle of justice the State, which admits the obligation
+of sharing the duty of primary education with a locality, denies the
+existence of that obligation when the higher education is in question.
+
+To sum up: If the positive advancement of the peace, wealth, and the
+intellectual and moral development of its members, are objects which
+the Government, as the representative of the corporate authority of
+society, may justly strive after, in fulfilment of its end--the good
+of mankind; then it is clear that the Government may undertake to
+educate the people. For education promotes peace by teaching men the
+realities of life and the obligations which are involved in the very
+existence of society; it promotes intellectual development, not only
+by training the individual intellect, but by sifting out from the
+masses of ordinary or inferior capacities, those who are competent
+to increase the general welfare by occupying higher positions; and,
+lastly, it promotes morality and refinement, by teaching men to
+discipline themselves, and by leading them to see that the highest, as
+it is the only permanent, content is to be attained, not by grovelling
+in the rank and steaming valleys of sense, but by continual striving
+towards those high peaks, where, resting in eternal calm, reason
+discerns the undefined but bright ideal of the highest Good--"a cloud
+by day, a pillar of fire by night."
+
+
+
+
+II.
+
+THE SCHOOL BOARDS: WHAT THEY CAN DO, AND WHAT THEY MAY DO.
+
+
+An electioneering manifesto would be out of place in the pages of this
+Review; but any suspicion that may arise in the mind of the reader
+that the following pages partake of that nature, will be dispelled,
+if he reflect that they cannot be published[1] until after the day
+on which the ratepayers of the metropolis will have decided which
+candidates for seats upon the Metropolitan School Board they will
+take, and which they will leave.
+
+[Footnote 1: Notwithstanding Mr. Huxley's intentions, the Editor took
+upon himself, in what seemed to him to be the public interest, to send
+an extract from this article to the newspapers--before the day of the
+election of the School Board.--EDITOR of the _Contemporary Review_.]
+
+As one of those candidates, I may be permitted to say, that I feel
+much in the frame of mind of the Irish bricklayer's labourer, who bet
+another that he could not carry him to the top of the ladder in his
+hod. The challenged hodman won his wager, but as the stakes were
+handed over, the challenger wistfully remarked, "I'd great hopes of
+falling at the third round from the top." And, in view of the work
+and the worry which awaits the members of the School Boards, I must
+confess to an occasional ungrateful hope that the friends who are
+toiling upwards with me in their hod, may, when they reach "the third
+round from the top," let me fall back into peace and quietness.
+
+But whether fortune befriend me in this rough method, or not, I should
+like to submit to those of whom I am a potential, but of whom I may
+not be an actual, colleague, and to others who may be interested in
+this most important problem--how to get the Education Act to work
+efficiently--some considerations as to what are the duties of the
+members of the School Boards, and what are the limits of their power.
+
+I suppose no one will be disposed to dispute the proposition, that
+the prime duty of every member of such a Board is to endeavour to
+administer the Act honestly; or in accordance, not only with its
+letter, but with its spirit. And if so, it would seem that the first
+step towards this very desirable end is, to obtain a clear notion of
+what that letter signifies, and what that spirit implies; or, in
+other words, what the clauses of the Act are intended to enjoin and to
+forbid. So that it is really not admissible, except for factious and
+abusive purposes, to assume that any one who endeavours to get at
+this clear meaning is desirous only of raising quibbles and making
+difficulties.
+
+Reading the Act with this desire to understand it, I find that its
+provisions may be classified, as might naturally be expected, under
+two heads: the one set relating to the subject-matter of education;
+the other to the establishment, maintenance, and administration of the
+schools in which that education is to be conducted.
+
+Now it is a most important circumstance, that all the sections of the
+Act, except four, belong to the latter division; that is, they refer
+to mere matters of administration. The four sections in question are
+the seventh, the fourteenth, the sixteenth, and the ninety-seventh. Of
+these, the seventh, the fourteenth, and the ninety-seventh deal with
+the subject-matter of education, while the sixteenth defines the
+nature of the relations which are to exist between the "Education
+Department" (an euphemism for the future Minister of Education)
+and the School Boards. It is the sixteenth clause which is the most
+important, and, in some respects, the most remarkable of all. It runs
+thus:--
+
+    "If the School Board do, or permit, any act in contravention
+    of, or fail to comply with, the regulations, according to
+    which a school provided by them is required by this Act to
+    be conducted, the Education Department may declare the School
+    Board to be, and such Board shall accordingly be deemed to be,
+    a Board in default, and the Education Department may proceed
+    accordingly; and every act, or omission, of any member of
+    the School Board, or manager appointed by them, or any
+    person under the control of the Board, shall be deemed to be
+    _permitted_ by the Board, unless the contrary be proved.
+
+    "If any dispute arises as to whether the School Board have
+    done, or permitted, any act in contravention of, or have
+    failed to comply with, the said regulations, _the matter
+    shall be referred to the Education Department, whose decision
+    thereon shall be final_."
+
+It will be observed that this clause gives the Minister of Education
+absolute power over the doings of the School Boards. He is not
+only the administrator of the Act, but he is its interpreter. I
+had imagined that on the occurrence of a dispute, not as regards a
+question of pure administration, but as to the meaning of a clause of
+the Act, a case might be taken and referred to a court of justice. But
+I am led to believe that the Legislature has, in the present instance,
+deliberately taken this power out of the hands of the judges and
+lodged it in those of the Minister of Education, who, in accordance
+with our method of making Ministers, will necessarily be a political
+partisan, and who may be a strong theological sectary into the
+bargain. And I am informed by members of Parliament who watched the
+progress of the Act, that the responsibility for this unusual state of
+things rests, not with the Government, but with the Legislature, which
+exhibited a singular disposition to accumulate power in the hands of
+the future Minister of Education, and to evade the more troublesome
+difficulties of the education question by leaving them to be settled
+between that Minister and the School Boards.
+
+I express no opinion whether it is, or is not, desirable that such
+powers of controlling all the School Boards in the country should be
+possessed by a person who may be, like Mr. Forster, eminently likely
+to use these powers justly and wisely, but who also may be quite the
+reverse. I merely wish to draw attention to the fact that such powers
+are given to the Minister, whether he be fit or unfit. The extent
+of these powers becomes apparent when the other sections of the Act
+referred to are considered. The fourth clause of the seventh section
+says:--
+
+    "The school shall be conducted in accordance with the
+    conditions required to be fulfilled by an elementary school in
+    order to obtain an annual Parliamentary grant."
+
+What these conditions are appears from the following clauses of the
+ninety-seventh section:--
+
+    "The conditions required to be fulfilled by an elementary
+    school in order to obtain an annual Parliamentary grant shall
+    be those contained in the minutes of the Education Department
+    in force for the time being.... Provided that no such minute
+    of the Education Department, not in force at the time of the
+    passing of this Act, shall be deemed to be in force until
+    it has lain for not less than one month on the table of both
+    Houses of Parliament."
+
+Let us consider how this will work in practice. A school established
+by a School Board may receive support from three sources--from the
+rates, the school fees, and the Parliamentary grant. The latter may be
+as great as the two former taken together; and as it may be assumed,
+without much risk of error, that a constant pressure will be exerted
+by the ratepayers on the members who represent them, to get as much
+out of the Government, and as little out of the rates, as possible,
+the School Boards will have a very strong motive for shaping the
+education they give, as nearly as may be, on the model which the
+Education Minister offers for their imitation, and for the copying of
+which he is prepared to pay.
+
+The Revised Code did not compel any schoolmaster to leave off teaching
+anything; but, by the very simple process of refusing to pay for many
+kinds of teaching, it has practically put an end to them. Mr. Forster
+is said to be engaged in revising the Revised Code; a successor of
+his may re-revise it--and there will be no sort of check upon
+these revisions and counter-revisions, except the possibility of a
+Parliamentary debate, when the revised, or added, minutes are laid
+upon the table. What chance is there that any such debate will take
+place on a matter of detail relating to elementary education--a
+subject with which members of the Legislature, having been, for the
+most part, sent to our public schools thirty years ago, have not the
+least practical acquaintance, and for which they care nothing, unless
+it derives a political value from its connection with sectarian
+politics?
+
+I cannot but think, then, that the School Boards will have the
+appearance, but not the reality, of freedom of action, in regard to
+the subject-matter of what is commonly called "secular" education.
+
+As respects what is commonly called "religious" education, the power
+of the Minister of Education is even more despotic. An interest,
+almost amounting to pathos, attaches itself, in my mind, to the
+frantic exertions which are at present going on in almost every school
+division, to elect certain candidates whose names have never before
+been heard of in connection with education, and who are either
+sectarian partisans, or nothing. In my own particular division, a body
+organized _ad hoc_ is moving heaven and earth to get the seven seats
+filled by seven gentlemen, four of whom are good Churchmen, and three
+no less good Dissenters. But why should this seven times heated fiery
+furnace of theological zeal be so desirous to shed its genial warmth
+over the London School Board? Can it be that these zealous sectaries
+mean to evade the solemn pledge given in the Act?
+
+    "No religious catechism or religious formulary which is
+    distinctive of any particular denomination shall be taught in
+    the school."
+
+I confess I should have thought it my duty to reject any such
+suggestion, as dishonouring to a number of worthy persons, if it had
+not been for a leading article and some correspondence which appeared
+in the _Guardian_ of November 9th, 1870.
+
+The _Guardian_ is, as everybody knows, one of the best of the
+"religious" newspapers; and, personally. I have every reason to speak
+highly of the fairness, and indeed kindness, with which the editor
+is good enough to deal with a writer who must, in many ways, be so
+objectionable to him as myself. I quote the following passages from a
+leading article on a letter of mine, therefore, with all respect, and
+with a genuine conviction that the course of conduct advocated by the
+writer must appear to him in a very different light from that under
+which I see it:--
+
+    "The first of these points is the interpretation which
+    Professor Huxley puts on the 'Cowper-Temple clause.' It is,
+    in fact, that which we foretold some time ago as likely to be
+    forced upon it by those who think with him. The clause itself
+    was one of those compromises which it is very difficult to
+    define or to maintain logically. On the one side was the
+    simple freedom to School Boards to establish what schools they
+    pleased, which Mr. Forster originally gave, but against
+    which the Nonconformists lifted up their voices, because they
+    conceived it likely to give too much power to the Church. On
+    the other side there was the proposition to make the schools
+    secular--intelligible enough, but in the consideration of
+    public opinion simply impossible--and there was the vague
+    impracticable idea, which Mr. Gladstone thoroughly tore to
+    pieces, of enacting that the teaching of all schoolmasters
+    in the new schools should be strictly 'undenominational.' The
+    Cowper-Temple clause was, we repeat, proposed simply to tide
+    over the difficulty. It was to satisfy the Nonconformists and
+    the 'unsectarian,' as distinct from the secular party of
+    the League, by forbidding all distinctive 'catechisms and
+    formularies,' which might have the effect of openly assigning
+    the schools to this or that religious body. It refused, at the
+    same time, to attempt the impossible task of defining what
+    was undenominational; and its author even contended, if
+    we understood him correctly, that it would in no way, even
+    indirectly, interfere with the substantial teaching of any
+    master in any school. This assertion we always believed to be
+    untenable; we could not see how, in the face of this clause,
+    a distinctly denominational tone could be honestly given to
+    schools nominally general. But beyond this mere suggestion of
+    an attempt at a general tone of comprehensiveness in religious
+    teaching it was not intended to go, and only because such was
+    its limitation was it accepted by the Government and by the
+    House.
+
+    "But now we are told that it is to be construed as doing
+    precisely that which it refused to do. A 'formulary,' it
+    seems, is a collection of formulas, and formulas are simply
+    propositions of whatever kind touching religious faith. All
+    such propositions, if they cannot be accepted by all
+    Christian denominations, are to be proscribed; and it is added
+    significantly that the Jews also are a denomination, and so
+    that any teaching distinctively Christian is perhaps to be
+    excluded, lest it should interfere with their freedom and
+    rights. Are we then to fall back on the simple reading of
+    the letter of the Bible? No! this, it is granted, would be
+    an 'unworthy pretence.' The teacher is to give 'grammatical,
+    geographical, or historical explanations;' but he is to keep
+    clear of 'theology proper,' because, as Professor Huxley takes
+    great pains to prove, there is no theological teaching which
+    is not opposed by some sect or other, from Roman Catholicism
+    on the one hand to Unitarianism on the other. It was not,
+    perhaps, hard to see that this difficulty would be started;
+    and to those who, like Professor Huxley, look at it
+    theoretically, without much practical experience of schools,
+    it may appear serious or unanswerable. But there is very
+    little in it practically; when it is faced determinately and
+    handled firmly, it will soon shrink into its true
+    dimensions. The class who are least frightened at it are the
+    school-teachers, simply because they know most about it. It is
+    quite clear that the school-managers must be cautioned against
+    allowing their schools to be made places of proselytism:
+    but when this is done, the case is simple enough. Leave the
+    masters under this general understanding to teach freely; if
+    there is ground of complaint, let it be made, but leave the
+    _onus pro-bandi_ on the objectors. For extreme peculiarities
+    of belief or unbelief there is the Conscience Clause; as
+    to the mass of parents, they will be more anxious to have
+    religion taught than afraid of its assuming this or that
+    particular shade. They will trust the school-managers
+    and teachers till they have reason to distrust them, and
+    experience has shown that they may trust them safely enough.
+    Any attempt to throw the burden of making the teaching
+    undenominational upon the managers must be sternly resisted:
+    it is simply evading the intentions of the Act in an elaborate
+    attempt to carry them out. We thank Professor Huxley for the
+    warning. To be forewarned is to be forearmed."
+
+A good deal of light seems to me to be thrown on the practical
+significance of the opinions expressed in the foregoing extract by the
+following interesting letter, which appeared in the same paper:--
+
+    "Sir,--I venture to send to you the substance of a
+    correspondence with the Education Department upon the question
+    of the lawfulness of religious teaching in rate schools under
+    section 14 (2) of the Act. I asked whether the words 'which
+    is distinctive,' &c., taken grammatically as limiting the
+    prohibition of any religious formulary, might be construed
+    as allowing (subject, however, to the other provisions of the
+    Act) any religious formulary common to any two denominations
+    anywhere in England to be taught in such schools; and if
+    practically the limit could not be so extended, but would have
+    to be fixed according to the special circumstances of each
+    district, then what degree of general acceptance in a district
+    would exempt such a formulary from the prohibition? The answer
+    to this was as follows:--'It was understood, when clause 14 of
+    the Education Act was discussed in the House of Commons,
+    that, according to a well-known rule of interpreting Acts
+    of Parliament, "denomination" must be held to include
+    "denominations." When any dispute is referred to the Education
+    Department under the last paragraph of section 16, it will be
+    dealt with according to the circumstances of the case.'
+
+    "Upon my asking further if I might hence infer that the
+    lawfulness of teaching any religious formulary in a rate
+    school would thus depend _exclusively_ on local circumstances,
+    and would accordingly be so decided by the Education
+    Department in case of dispute, I was informed in explanation
+    that 'their lordships'' letter was intended to convey to
+    me that no general rule, beyond that stated in the first
+    paragraph of their letter, could at present be laid down by
+    them; and that their decision in each particular case must
+    depend on the special circumstances accompanying it.
+
+    "I think it would appear from this that it may yet be in many
+    cases both lawful and expedient to teach religious formularies
+    in rate schools.
+
+    "H.I. Steyning, _November_ 5, 1870."
+
+Of course I do not mean to suggest that the editor of the _Guardian_
+is bound by the opinions of his correspondent; but I cannot help
+thinking that I do not misrepresent him, when I say that he also
+thinks "that it may yet be, in many cases, both lawful and
+expedient to teach religious formularies in rate schools under these
+circumstances."
+
+It is not uncharitable, therefore, to assume that, the express words
+of the Act of Parliament notwithstanding, all the sectaries who are
+toiling so hard for seats in the London School Board have the lively
+hope of the gentleman from Steyning, that it may be "both lawful and
+expedient to teach religious formularies in rate schools;" and
+that they mean to do their utmost to bring this happy consummation
+about.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: A passage in an article on the "Working of the Education
+Act," in the _Saturday Review_ for Nov. 19, 1870, completely justifies
+this anticipation of the line of action which the sectaries mean to
+take. After commending the Liverpool compromise, the writer goes on to
+say:--
+
+"If this plan is fairly adopted in Liverpool, the fourteenth clause
+of the Act will in effect be restored to its original form, and the
+majority of the ratepayers in each district be permitted to decide to
+what denomination the school shall belong."
+
+In a previous paragraph the writer speaks of a possible "mistrust"
+of one another by the members of the Board, and seems to anticipate
+"accusations of dishonesty." If any of the members of the Board adopt
+his views, I think it highly probable that he may turn out to be a
+true prophet.]
+
+Now the pathetic emotion to which I have referred, as accompanying my
+contemplations of the violent struggles of so many excellent persons,
+is caused by the circumstance that, so far as I can judge, their
+labour is in vain.
+
+Supposing that the London School Board contains, as it probably will
+do, a majority of sectaries; and that they carry over the heads of a
+minority, a resolution that certain theological formulas, about which
+they all happen to agree,--say, for example, the doctrine of the
+Trinity,--shall be taught in the schools. Do they fondly imagine that
+the minority will not at once dispute their interpretation of the Act,
+and appeal to the Education Department to settle that dispute? And if
+so, do they suppose that any Minister of Education, who wants to keep
+his place, will tighten boundaries which the Legislature has left
+loose; and will give a "final decision" which shall be offensive to
+every Unitarian and to every Jew in the House of Commons, besides
+creating a precedent which will afterwards be used to the injury of
+every Nonconformist? The editor of the _Guardian_ tells his friends
+sternly to resist every attempt to throw the burden of making the
+teaching undenominational on the managers, and thanks me for the
+warning I have given him. I return the thanks, with interest, for
+_his_ warning, as to the course the party he represents intends
+to pursue, and for enabling me thus to draw public attention to a
+perfectly constitutional and effectual mode of checkmating them.
+
+And, in truth, it is wonderful to note the surprising entanglement
+into which our able editor gets himself in the struggle between his
+native honesty and judgment and the necessities of his party. "We
+could not see," says he, "in the face of this clause how a distinct
+denominational tone could be honestly given to schools nominally
+general." There speaks the honest and clearheaded man. "Any attempt
+to throw the burden of making the teaching undenominational must be
+sternly resisted." There speaks the advocate holding a brief for his
+party. "Verily," as Trinculo says, "the monster hath two mouths:" the
+one, the forward mouth, tells us very justly that the teaching cannot
+"honestly" be "distinctly denominational;" but the other, the
+backward mouth, asserts that it must by no manner of means be
+"undenominational." Putting the two utterances together, I can only
+interpret them to mean that the teaching is to be "indistinctly
+denominational." If the editor of the _Guardian_ had not shown signs
+of anger at my use of the term "theological fog," I should have been
+tempted to suppose it must have been what he had in his mind, under
+the name of "indistinct denominationalism." But this reading being
+plainly inadmissible, I can only imagine that he inculcates the
+teaching of formulas common to a number of denominations.
+
+But the Education Department has already told the gentleman from
+Steyning that any such proceeding will be illegal. "According to a
+well-known rule of interpreting Acts of Parliament, 'denomination'
+would be held to include 'denominations.'" In other words, we must
+read the Act thus:--
+
+"No religious catechism or religious formulary which is distinctive of
+any particular _denominations_ shall be taught."
+
+Thus we are really very much indebted to the editor of the _Guardian_
+and his correspondent. The one has shown us that the sectaries mean
+to try to get as much denominational teaching as they can agree upon
+among themselves, forced into the elementary schools; while the other
+has obtained a formal declaration from the Education Department that
+any such attempt will contravene the Act of Parliament, and that,
+therefore, the unsectarian, law-abiding members of the School Boards
+may safely reckon upon, bringing down upon their opponents the heavy
+hand of the Minister of Education.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Since this paragraph was written, Mr. Forster, in
+speaking at the Birkbeck Institution, has removed all doubt as to
+what his "final decision" will be in the case of such disputes being
+referred to him:--"I have the fullest confidence that in the reading
+and explaining of the Bible, what the children will be taught will be
+the great truths of Christian life and conduct, which all of us desire
+they should know, and that no effort will be made to cram into their
+poor little minds, theological dogmas which their tender age prevents
+them from understanding."]
+
+So much for the powers of the School Boards. Limited as they seem to
+be, it by no means follows that such Boards, if they are composed of
+intelligent and practical men, really more in earnest about education
+than about sectarian squabbles, may not exert a very great amount of
+influence. And, from many circumstances, this is especially likely to
+be the case with the London School Board, which, if it conducts itself
+wisely, may become a true educational parliament, as subordinate
+in authority to the Minister of Education, theoretically, as the
+Legislature is to the Crown, and yet, like the Legislature, possessed
+of great practical authority. And I suppose that no Minister
+of Education would be other than glad to have the aid of the
+deliberations of such a body, or fail to pay careful attention to its
+recommendations.
+
+What, then, ought to be the nature and scope of the education which
+a School Board should endeavour to give to every child under its
+influence, and for which it should try to obtain the aid of the
+Parliamentary grants? In my judgment it should include at least the
+following kinds of instruction and of discipline:--
+
+1. Physical training and drill, as part of the regular business of the
+school.
+
+It is impossible to insist too much on the importance of this part
+of education for the children of the poor of great towns. All
+the conditions of their lives are unfavourable to their physical
+well-being. They are badly lodged, badly housed, badly fed, and live
+from one year's end to another in bad air, without chance of a change.
+They have no play-grounds; they amuse themselves with marbles and
+chuck-farthing, instead of cricket or hare-and-hounds; and if it were
+not for the wonderful instinct which leads all poor children of tender
+years to run under the feet of cab-horses whenever they can, I know
+not how they would learn to use their limbs with agility.
+
+Now there is no real difficulty about teaching drill and the simpler
+kinds of gymnastics. It is done admirably well, for example, in the
+North Surrey Union schools; and a year or two ago, when I had an
+opportunity of inspecting these schools, I was greatly struck with
+the effect of such training upon the poor little waifs and strays of
+humanity, mostly picked out of the gutter, who are being made into
+cleanly, healthy, and useful members of society in that excellent
+institution.
+
+Whatever doubts people may entertain about the efficacy of natural
+selection, there can be none about artificial selection; and the
+breeder who should attempt to make, or keep up, a fine stock of pigs,
+or sheep, under the conditions to which the children of the poor
+are exposed, would be the laughing-stock even of the bucolic mind.
+Parliament has already done something in this direction, by declining
+to be an accomplice in the asphyxiation of school children. It refuses
+to make any grant to a school in which the cubical contents of the
+school-room are inadequate to allow of proper respiration. I should
+like to see it make another step in the same direction, and either
+refuse to give a grant to a school in which physical training is not
+a part of the programme, or, at any rate, offer to pay upon such
+training. If something of the kind is not done, the English physique,
+which has been, and is still, on the whole, a grand one, will become
+as extinct as the dodo, in the great towns.
+
+And then the moral and intellectual effect of drill, as an
+introduction to, and aid of, all other sorts of training, must not be
+overlooked. If you want to break in a colt, surely the first thing to
+do is to catch him and get him quietly to face his trainer; to know
+his voice and bear his hand; to learn that colts have something else
+to do with their heels than to kick them up whenever they feel so
+inclined; and to discover that the dreadful human figure has no desire
+to devour, or even to beat him, but that, in case of attention and
+obedience, he may hope for patting and even a sieve of oats.
+
+But, your "street Arabs," and other neglected poor children, are
+rather worse and wilder than colts; for the reason that the horse-colt
+has only his animal instincts in him, and his mother, the mare, has
+been always tender over him, and never came home drunk and kicked him
+in her life; while the man-colt is inspired by that very real devil,
+perverted manhood, and _his_ mother may have done all that and more.
+So, on the whole, it may probably be even more expedient to begin your
+attempt to get at the higher nature of the child, than at that of the
+colt, from the physical side.
+
+2. Next in order to physical training I put the instruction of
+children, and especially of girls, in the elements of household work
+and of domestic economy; in the first place for their own sakes, and
+in the second for that of their future employers.
+
+Everyone who knows anything of the life of the English poor is aware
+of the misery and waste caused by their want of knowledge of domestic
+economy, and by their lack of habits of frugality and method. I
+suppose it is no exaggeration to say that a poor Frenchwoman would
+make the money which the wife of a poor Englishman spends in food
+go twice as far, and at the same time turn out twice as palatable a
+dinner. Why Englishmen, who are so notoriously fond of good living,
+should be so helplessly incompetent in the art of cookery, is one of
+the great mysteries of nature; but from the varied abominations of
+the railway refreshment-rooms to the monotonous dinners of the poor,
+English feeding is either wasteful or nasty, or both.
+
+And as to domestic service, the groans of the housewives of England
+ascend to heaven! In five cases out of six, the girl who takes a
+"place" has to be trained by her mistress in the first rudiments of
+decency and order; and it is a mercy if she does not turn up her
+nose at anything like the mention of an honest and proper economy.
+Thousands of young girls are said to starve, or worse, yearly in
+London; and at the same time thousands of mistresses of households
+are ready to pay high wages for a decent housemaid, or cook, or a fair
+workwoman; and can by no means get what they want.
+
+Surely, if the elementary schools are worth anything, they may put an
+end to a state of things which is demoralizing the poor, while it is
+wasting the lives of those better off in small worries and annoyances.
+
+3. But the boys and girls for whose education the School Boards have
+to provide, have not merely to discharge domestic duties, but each
+of them is a member of a social and political organization of
+great complexity, and has, in future life, to fit himself into that
+organization, or be crushed by it. To this end it is surely needful,
+not only that they should be made acquainted with the elementary laws
+of conduct, but that their affections should be trained, so as to love
+with all their hearts that conduct which tends to the attainment of
+the highest good for themselves and their fellow-men, and to hate with
+all their hearts that opposite course of action which is fraught with
+evil.
+
+So far as the laws of conduct are determined by the intellect, I
+apprehend that they belong to science, and to that part of science
+which is called morality. But the engagement of the affections in
+favour of that particular kind of conduct which we call good, seems to
+me to be something quite beyond mere science. And I cannot but think
+that it, together with the awe and reverence, which have no kinship
+with base fear, but arise whenever one tries to pierce below the
+surface of things, whether they be material or spiritual, constitutes
+all that has any unchangeable reality in religion.
+
+And just as I think it would, be a mistake to confound the science,
+morality, with the affection, religion; so do I conceive it to be a
+most lamentable and mischievous error, that the science, theology,
+is so confounded in the minds of many--indeed, I might say, of the
+majority of men.
+
+I do not express any opinion as to whether theology is a true science,
+or whether it does not come under the apostolic definition of "science
+falsely so called;" though I may be permitted to express the belief
+that if the Apostle to whom that much misapplied phrase is due
+could make the acquaintance of much of modern theology, he would not
+hesitate a moment in declaring that it is exactly what he meant the
+words to denote.
+
+But it is at any rate conceivable, that the nature of the Deity, and
+His relations to the universe, and more especially to mankind, are
+capable of being ascertained, either inductively or deductively, or
+by both processes. And, if they have been ascertained, then a body of
+science has been formed which is very properly called theology.
+
+Further, there can be no doubt that affection for the Being thus
+defined and described by theologic science would be properly termed
+religion; but it would not be the whole of religion. The affection for
+the ethical ideal defined by moral science would claim equal if not
+superior rights. For suppose theology established the existence of an
+evil deity--and some theologies, even Christian ones, have come very
+near this,--is the religious affection to be transferred from the
+ethical ideal to any such omnipotent demon? I trow not. Better
+a thousand times that the human race should perish under his
+thunderbolts than it should say, "Evil, be thou my good."
+
+There is nothing new, that I know of, in this statement of the
+relations of religion with the science of morality on the one hand and
+that of theology on the other. But I believe it to be altogether
+true, and very needful, at this time, to be clearly and emphatically
+recognized as such, by those who have to deal with the education
+question.
+
+We are divided into two parties--the advocates of so-called
+"religious" teaching on the one hand, and those of so-called "secular"
+teaching on the other. And both parties seem to me to be not only
+hopelessly wrong, but in such a position that if either succeeded
+completely, it would discover, before many years were over, that
+it had made a great mistake and done serious evil to the cause of
+education.
+
+For, leaving aside the more far-seeing minority on each side, what the
+"religious" party is crying for is mere theology, under the name
+of religion; while the "secularists" have unwisely and wrongfully
+admitted the assumption of their opponents, and demand the abolition
+of all "religious" teaching, when they only want to be free of
+theology--Burning your ship to get rid of the cockroaches!
+
+But my belief is, that no human being, and no society composed of
+human beings, ever did, or ever will, come to much, unless their
+conduct was governed and guided by the love of some ethical ideal.
+Undoubtedly, your gutter child may be converted by mere intellectual
+drill into "the subtlest of all the beasts of the field;" but we know
+what has become of the original of that description, and there is
+no need to increase the number of those who imitate him successfully
+without being aided by the rates. And if I were compelled to choose
+for one of my own children, between a school in which real religious
+instruction is given, and one without it, I should prefer the former,
+even though the child might have to take a good deal of theology with
+it. Nine-tenths of a dose of bark is mere half-rotten wood; but one
+swallows it for the sake of the particles of quinine, the beneficial
+effect of which may be weakened, but is not destroyed, by the wooden
+dilution, unless in a few cases of exceptionally tender stomachs.
+
+Hence, when the great mass of the English people declare that they
+want to have the children in the elementary schools taught the Bible,
+and when it is plain from the terms of the Act, the debates in and
+out of Parliament, and especially the emphatic declarations of
+the Vice-President of the Council, that it was intended that such
+Bible-reading should be permitted, unless good cause for prohibiting
+it could be shown, I do not see what reason there is for opposing that
+wish. Certainly, I, individually, could with no shadow of consistency
+oppose the teaching of the children of other people to do that which
+my own children are taught to do. And, even if the reading the Bible
+were not, as I think it is, consonant with political reason and
+justice, and with a desire to act in the spirit of the education
+measure, I am disposed to think it might still be well to read that
+book in the elementary schools.
+
+I have always been strongly in favour of secular education, in the
+sense of education without theology; but I must confess I have been
+no less seriously perplexed to know by what practical measures the
+religious feeling, which is the essential basis of conduct, was to
+be kept up, in the present utterly chaotic state of opinion on these
+matters, without the use of the Bible. The Pagan moralists lack life
+and colour, and even the noble Stoic, Marcus Antoninus, is too high
+and refined for an ordinary child. Take the Bible as a whole; make the
+severest deductions which fair criticism can dictate for shortcomings
+and positive errors; eliminate, as a sensible lay-teacher would do, if
+left to himself, all that it is not desirable for children to occupy
+themselves with; and there still remains in this old literature a vast
+residuum of moral beauty and grandeur. And then consider the great
+historical fact that, for three centuries, this book has been woven
+into the life of all that is best and noblest in English history;
+that it has become the national epic of Britain, and is as familiar to
+noble and simple, from John-o'-Groat's House to Land's End, as Dante
+and Tasso once were to the Italians; that it is written in the noblest
+and purest English, and abounds in exquisite beauties of mere literary
+form; and, finally, that it forbids the veriest hind who never left
+his village to be ignorant of the existence of other countries and
+other civilizations, and of a great past, stretching back to the
+furthest limits of the oldest nations in the world. By the study of
+what other book could children be so much humanized and made to
+feel that each figure in that vast historical procession fills,
+like themselves, but a momentary space in the interval between
+two eternities; and earns the blessings or the curses of all time,
+according to its effort to do good and hate evil, even as they also
+are earning their payment for their work?
+
+On the whole, then, I am in favour of reading the Bible, with
+such grammatical, geographical, and historical explanations by a
+lay-teacher as may be needful, with rigid exclusion of any further
+theological teaching than that contained in the Bible itself. And in
+stating what this is, the teacher would do well not to go beyond the
+precise words of the Bible; for if he does, he will, in the first
+place, undertake a task beyond his strength, seeing that all the
+Jewish and Christian sects have been at work upon that subject for
+more than two thousand years, and have not yet arrived, and are not in
+the least likely to arrive, at an agreement; and, in the second
+place, he will certainly begin to teach something distinctively
+denominational, and thereby come into violent collision with the Act
+of Parliament.
+
+4. The intellectual training to be given in the elementary schools
+must of course, in the first place, consist in learning to use the
+means of acquiring knowledge, or reading, writing, and arithmetic; and
+it will be a great matter to teach reading so completely that the act
+shall have become easy and pleasant. If reading remains "hard," that
+accomplishment will not be much resorted to for instruction, and still
+less for amusement--which last is one of its most valuable uses to
+hard-worked people.
+
+But along with a due proficiency in the use of the means of learning,
+a certain amount of knowledge, of intellectual discipline, and of
+artistic training should be conveyed in the elementary schools; and in
+this direction--for reasons which I am afraid to repeat, having
+urged them so often--I can conceive no subject-matter of education
+so appropriate and so important as the rudiments of physical science,
+with drawing, modelling, and singing. Not only would such teaching
+afford the best possible preparation for the technical schools about
+which so much is now said, but the organization for carrying it into
+effect already exists. The Science and Art Department, the operations
+of which have already attained considerable magnitude, not only offers
+to examine and pay the results of such examination in elementary
+science and art, but it provides what is still more important, viz.
+a means of giving children of high natural ability, who are just as
+abundant among the poor as among the rich, a helping hand. A good old
+proverb tells us that "One should not take a razor to cut a block:"
+the razor is soon spoiled, and the block is not so well cut as it
+would be with a hatchet. But it is worse economy to prevent a possible
+Watt from being anything but a stoker, or to give a possible Faraday
+no chance of doing anything but to bind books. Indeed, the loss in
+such cases of mistaken vocation has no measure; it is absolutely
+infinite and irreparable. And among the arguments in favour of the
+interference of the State in education, none seems to be stronger
+than this--that it is the interest of every one that ability should be
+neither wasted, nor misapplied, by any one; and, therefore, that every
+one's representative, the State, is necessarily fulfilling the wishes
+of its constituents when it is helping the capacities to reach their
+proper places.
+
+It may be said that the scheme of education here sketched is too large
+to be effected in the time during which the children will remain at
+school; and, secondly, that even if this objection did not exist, it
+would cost too much.
+
+I attach no importance whatever to the first objection until the
+experiment has been fairly tried. Considering how much catechism,
+lists of the kings of Israel, geography of Palestine, and the like,
+children are made to swallow now, I cannot believe there will be any
+difficulty in inducing them to go through the physical training, which
+is more than half play; or the instruction in household work, or in
+those duties to one another and to themselves, which have a daily and
+hourly practical interest. That children take kindly to elementary
+science and art no one can doubt who has tried the experiment
+properly. And if Bible-reading is not accompanied by constraint and
+solemnity, as if it were a sacramental operation, I do not believe
+there is anything in which children take more pleasure. At least I
+know that some of the pleasantest recollections of my childhood are
+connected with the voluntary study of an ancient Bible which belonged
+to my grandmother. There were splendid pictures in it, to be sure; but
+I recollect little or nothing about them save a portrait of the
+high priest in his vestments. What come vividly back on my mind are
+remembrances of my delight in the histories of Joseph and of David;
+and of my keen appreciation of the chivalrous kindness of Abraham in
+his dealings with Lot. Like a sudden flash there returns back upon
+me, my utter scorn of the pettifogging meanness of Jacob, and my
+sympathetic grief over the heartbreaking lamentation of the cheated
+Esau, "Hast thou not a blessing for me also, O my father?" And I see,
+as in a cloud, pictures of the grand phantasmagoria of the Book of
+Revelation.
+
+I enumerate, as they issue, the childish impressions which come
+crowding out of the pigeon-holes in my brain, in which they have lain
+almost undisturbed for forty years. I prize them as an evidence that a
+child of five or six years old, left to his own devices, may be deeply
+interested in the Bible, and draw sound moral sustenance from it. And
+I rejoice that I was left to deal with the Bible alone; for if I had
+had some theological "explainer" at my side, he might have tried,
+as such do, to lessen my indignation against Jacob, and thereby have
+warped my moral sense for ever; while the great apocalyptic spectacle
+of the ultimate triumph of right and justice might have been turned to
+the base purposes of a pious lampooner of the Papacy.
+
+And as to the second objection--costliness--the reply is, first, that
+the rate and the Parliamentary grant together ought to be enough,
+considering that science and art teaching is already provided
+for; and, secondly, that if they are not, it may be well for the
+educational parliament to consider what has become of those endowments
+which were originally intended to be devoted, more or less largely, to
+the education of the poor.
+
+When the monasteries were spoiled, some of their endowments were
+applied to the foundation of cathedrals; and in all such cases it was
+ordered that a certain portion of the endowment should be applied to
+the purposes of education. How much is so applied? Is that which may
+be so applied given to help the poor, who cannot pay for education, or
+does it virtually subsidize the comparatively rich, who can? How
+are Christ's Hospital and Alleyn's foundation securing their right
+purposes, or how far are they perverted into contrivances for
+affording relief to the classes who can afford to pay for education?
+How--But this paper is already too long, and, if I begin, I may find
+it hard to stop asking questions of this kind, which after all are
+worthy only of the lowest of Radicals.
+
+
+
+
+III.
+
+ON MEDICAL EDUCATION.
+
+(AN ADDRESS TO THE STUDENTS OF THE FACULTY OF MEDICINE IN UNIVERSITY
+COLLEGE, LONDON, MAY 18, 1870, ON THE OCCASION OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF
+PRIZES FOR THE SESSION.)
+
+
+It has given me sincere pleasure to be here to-day, at the desire of
+your highly respected President and the Council of the College. In
+looking back upon my own past, I am sorry to say that I have found
+that it is a quarter of a century since I took part in those hopes and
+in those fears by which you have all recently been agitated, and which
+now are at an end. But, although so long a time has elapsed since
+I was moved by the same feelings, I beg leave to assure you that my
+sympathy with both victors and vanquished remains fresh--so fresh,
+indeed, that I could almost try to persuade myself that, after all, it
+cannot be so very long ago. My business during the last hour, however,
+has been to show that sympathy with one side only, and I assure you
+I have done my best to play my part heartily, and to rejoice in the
+success of those who have succeeded. Still, I should like to remind
+you at the end of it all, that success on an occasion of this kind,
+valuable and important as it is, is in reality only putting the foot
+upon one rung of the ladder which leads upwards; and that the rung of
+a ladder was never meant to rest upon, but only to hold a man's foot
+long enough to enable him to put the other somewhat higher. I trust
+that you will all regard these successes as simply reminders that your
+next business is, having enjoyed the success of the day, no longer to
+look at that success, but to look forward to the next difficulty
+that is to be conquered. And now, having had so much to say to the
+successful candidates, you must forgive me if I add that a sort of
+undercurrent of sympathy has been going on in my mind all the time for
+those who have not been successful, for those valiant knights who have
+been overthrown in your tourney, and have not made their appearance in
+public. I trust that, in accordance with old custom, they, wounded and
+bleeding, have been carried off to their tents, to be carefully tended
+by the fairest of maidens; and in these days, when the chances are
+that every one of such maidens will be a qualified practitioner,
+I have no doubt that all the splinters will have been carefully
+extracted, and that they are now physically healed. But there may
+remain some little fragment of moral or intellectual discouragement,
+and therefore I will take the liberty to remark that your chairman
+to-day, if he occupied his proper place, would be among them. Your
+chairman, in virtue of his position, and for the brief hour that he
+occupies that position, is a person of importance; and it may be some
+consolation to those who have failed if I say, that the quarter of a
+century which I have been speaking of, takes me back to the time
+when I was up at the University of London, a candidate for honours in
+anatomy and physiology, and when I was exceedingly well beaten by my
+excellent friend Dr. Ransom, of Nottingham. There is a person here
+who recollects that circumstance very well. I refer to your venerated
+teacher and mine, Dr. Sharpey. He was at that time one of the
+examiners in anatomy and physiology, and you may be quite sure that,
+as he was one of the examiners, there remained not the smallest doubt
+in my mind of the propriety of his judgment, and I accepted my defeat
+with the most comfortable assurance that I had thoroughly well earned
+it. But, gentlemen, the competitor having been a worthy one, and
+the examination, a fair one, I cannot say that I found in that
+circumstance anything very discouraging. I said to myself, "Never
+mind; what's the next thing to be done?" And I found that policy of
+"never minding" and going on to the next thing to be done, to be the
+most important of all policies in the conduct of practical life. It
+does not matter how many tumbles you have in this life, so long as you
+do not get dirty when you tumble; it is only the people who have to
+stop to be washed and made clean, who must necessarily lose the race.
+And I can assure you that there is the greatest practical benefit
+in making a few failures early in life. You learn that which is of
+inestimable importance--that there are a great many people in the
+world who are just as clever as you are. You learn to put your trust,
+by and by, in an economy and frugality of the exercise of your powers,
+both moral and intellectual; and you very soon find out, if you have
+not found it out before, that patience and tenacity of purpose are
+worth more than twice their weight of cleverness. In fact, if I were
+to go on discoursing on this subject, I should become almost eloquent
+in praise of non-success; but, lest so doing should seem, in any way,
+to wither well-earned laurels, I will turn from that topic, and ask
+you to accompany me in some considerations touching another subject
+which has a very profound interest for me, and which I think ought to
+have an equally profound interest for you.
+
+I presume that the great majority of those whom I address propose to
+devote themselves to the profession of medicine; and I do not doubt,
+from the evidences of ability which have been given to-day, that
+I have before me a number of men who will rise to eminence in that
+profession, and who will exert a great and deserved influence upon
+its future. That in which I am interested, and about which I wish to
+speak, is the subject of medical education, and I venture to speak
+about it for the purpose, if I can, of influencing you, who may have
+the power of influencing the medical education of the future. You may
+ask, by what authority do I venture, being a person not concerned in
+the practice of medicine, to meddle with that subject? I can only tell
+you it is a fact, of which a number of you I dare say are aware by
+experience (and I trust the experience has no painful associations),
+that I have been for a considerable number of years (twelve or
+thirteen years to the best of my recollection) one of the examiners in
+the University of London. You are further aware that the men who
+come up to the University of London are the picked men of the medical
+schools of London, and therefore such observations as I may have
+to make upon the state of knowledge of these gentlemen, if they be
+justified, in regard to any faults I may have to find, cannot be held
+to indicate defects in the capacity, or in the power of application of
+those gentlemen, but must be laid, more or less, to the account of the
+prevalent system of medical education. I will tell you what has struck
+me--but in speaking in this frank way, as one always does about the
+defects of one's friends, I must beg you to disabuse your minds of
+the notion that I am alluding to any particular school, or to any
+particular college, or to any particular person; and to believe that
+if I am silent when I should be glad to speak with high praise, it is
+because that praise would come too close to this locality. What has
+struck me, then, in this long experience of the men best instructed in
+physiology from the medical schools of London, is (with the many and
+brilliant exceptions to which I have referred), taking it as a whole,
+and broadly, the singular unreality of their knowledge of physiology.
+Now, I use that word "unreality" advisedly: I do not say "scanty;" on
+the contrary, there is plenty of it--a great deal too much of it--but
+it is the quality, the nature of the knowledge, which I quarrel with.
+I know I used to have--I don't know whether I have now, but I had once
+upon a time--a bad reputation among students for setting up a very
+high standard of acquirement, and I dare say you may think that the
+standard of this old examiner, who happily is now very nearly an
+extinct examiner, has been pitched too high. Nothing of the kind, I
+assure you. The defects I have noticed, and the faults I have to find,
+arise entirely from the circumstance that my standard is pitched too
+low. This is no paradox, gentlemen, but quite simply the fact.
+The knowledge I have looked for was a real, precise, thorough, and
+practical knowledge of fundamentals; whereas that which the best of
+the candidates, in a large proportion of cases, have had to give me
+was a large, extensive, and inaccurate knowledge of superstructure;
+and that is what I mean by saying that my demands went too low,
+and not too high. What I have had to complain of is, that a large
+proportion of the gentlemen who come up for physiology to the
+University of London do not know it as they know their anatomy, and
+have not been taught it as they have been taught their anatomy. Now, I
+should not wonder at all if I heard a great many "No, noes" here; but
+I am not talking about University College; as I have told you before,
+I am talking about the average education of medical schools. What I
+have found, and found so much reason to lament, is, that while anatomy
+has been taught as a science ought to be taught, as a matter of
+autopsy, and observation, and strict discipline; in a very large
+number of cases, physiology has been taught as if it were a mere
+matter of books and of hearsay. I declare to you, gentlemen, that
+I have often expected to be told, when I have been asked a question
+about the circulation of the blood, that Professor Breitkopf is
+of opinion that it circulates, but that the whole thing is an open
+question. I assure you that I am hardly exaggerating the state of mind
+on matters of fundamental importance which I have found over and over
+again to obtain, among gentlemen coming up to that picked examination
+of the University of London. Now, I do not think that is a desirable
+state of things. I cannot understand why physiology should not be
+taught--in fact, you have here abundant evidence that it can be
+taught--with the same definiteness and the same precision as anatomy
+is taught. And you may depend upon this, that the only physiology
+which is to be of any good whatever in medical practice, or in its
+application to the study of medicine, is that physiology which a man
+knows of his own knowledge; just as the only anatomy which would be
+of any good to the surgeon is the anatomy which he knows of his own
+knowledge. Another peculiarity I have found in the physiology which
+has been current, and that is, that in the minds of a great many
+gentlemen it has been supplanted by histology. They have learnt a
+great deal of histology, and they have fancied that histology and
+physiology are the same things. I have asked for some knowledge of the
+physics and the mechanics and the chemistry of the human body, and I
+have been met by talk about cells. I declare to you I believe it will
+take me two years, at least, of absolute rest from the business of
+an examiner to hear the word "cell," "germinal matter," or "carmine,"
+without a sort of inward shudder.
+
+Well, now, gentlemen, I am sure my colleagues in this examination will
+bear me out in saying that I have not been exaggerating the evils and
+defects which are current--have been current--in a large quantity
+of the physiological teaching, the results of which come before
+examiners. And it becomes a very interesting question to know how all
+this comes about, and in what way it can be remedied. How it comes
+about will be perfectly obvious to any one who has considered the
+growth of medicine. I suppose that medicine and surgery first began
+by some savage, more intelligent than the rest, discovering that a
+certain herb was good for a certain pain, and that a certain pull,
+somehow or other, set a dislocated joint right. I suppose all things
+had their humble beginnings, and medicine and surgery were in the same
+condition. People who wear watches know nothing about watchmaking. A
+watch goes wrong and it stops; you see the owner giving it a shake,
+or, if he is very bold, he opens the case, and gives the balance-wheel
+a turn. Gentlemen, that is empirical practice, and you know what are
+the results upon the watch. I should think you can divine what are the
+results of analogous operations upon the human body. And because men
+of sense very soon found that such were the effects of meddling with
+very complicated machinery they did not understand, I suppose the
+first thing, as being the easiest, was to study the nature of the
+works of the human watch, and the next thing was to study the way the
+parts worked together, and the way the watch worked. Thus, by degrees,
+we have had growing up our body of anatomists, or knowers of the
+construction of the human watch, and our physiologists, who know how
+the machine works. And just as any sensible man, who has a valuable
+watch, does not meddle with it himself, but goes to some one who has
+studied watchmaking, and understands what the effect of doing this
+or that may be; so, I suppose, the man who, having charge of that
+valuable machine, his own body, wants to have it kept in good order,
+comes to a professor of the medical art for the purpose of having it
+set right, believing that, by deduction from the facts of structure
+and from the facts of function, the physician will divine what may be
+the matter with his bodily watch at that particular time, and what may
+be the best means of setting it right. If that may be taken as a
+just representation of the relation of the theoretical branches of
+medicine--what we may call the institutes of medicine, to use an old
+term--to the practical branches, I think it will be obvious to you
+that they are of prime and fundamental importance. Whatever tends to
+affect the teaching of them injuriously must tend to destroy and
+to disorganize the whole fabric of the medical art. I think every
+sensible man has seen this long ago; but the difficulties in the way
+of attaining good teaching in the different branches of the theory, or
+institutes, of medicine are very serious. It is a comparatively
+easy matter--pray mark that I use the word "comparatively"--it is a
+comparatively easy matter to learn anatomy and to teach it; it is a
+very difficult matter to learn physiology and to teach it. It is a
+very difficult matter to know and to teach those branches of physics
+and those branches of chemistry which bear directly upon physiology;
+and hence it is that, as a matter of fact, the teaching of physiology,
+and the teaching of the physics and the chemistry which bear upon it,
+must necessarily be in a state of relative imperfection; and there is
+nothing to be grumbled at in the fact that this relative imperfection
+exists. But is the relative imperfection which exists only such as
+is necessary, or is it made worse by our practical arrangements? I
+believe--and if I did not so believe I should not have troubled you
+with these observations--I believe it is made infinitely worse by
+our practical arrangements, or rather, I ought to say, our very
+unpractical arrangements. Some very wise man long ago affirmed that
+every question, in the long run, was a question of finance; and there
+is a good deal to be said for that view. Most assuredly the question
+of medical teaching is, in a very large and broad sense, a question of
+finance. What I mean is this: that in London the arrangements of the
+medical schools, and the number of them, are such as to render it
+almost impossible that men who confine themselves to the teaching
+of the theoretical branches of the profession should be able to make
+their bread by that operation; and, you know, if a man cannot make his
+bread, he cannot teach--at least his teaching comes to a speedy end.
+That is a matter of physiology. Anatomy is fairly well taught, because
+it lies in the direction of practice, and a man is all the better
+surgeon for being a good anatomist. It does not absolutely interfere
+with the pursuits of a practical surgeon if he should hold a Chair
+of Anatomy--though I do not for one moment say that he would not be a
+better teacher if he did not devote himself to practice. (Applause.)
+Yes, I know exactly what that cheer means, but I am keeping as
+carefully as possible from any sort of allusion to Professor Ellis.
+But the fact is, that even human anatomy has now grown to be so large
+a matter, that it takes the whole devotion of a man's life to put the
+great mass of knowledge upon that subject into such a shape that it
+can be teachable to the mind of the ordinary student. What the student
+wants in a professor is a man who shall stand between him and the
+infinite diversity and variety of human knowledge, and who shall
+gather all that together, and extract from it that which is capable
+of being assimilated by the mind. That function is a vast and an
+important one, and unless, in such subjects as anatomy, a man is
+wholly free from other cares, it is almost impossible that he can
+perform it thoroughly and well. But if it be hardly possible for a man
+to pursue anatomy without actually breaking with his profession, how
+is it possible for him to pursue physiology?
+
+I get every year those very elaborate reports of Henle and
+Meissner--volumes of, I suppose, 400 pages altogether--and they
+consist merely of abstracts of the memoirs and works which have been
+written on Anatomy and Physiology--only abstracts of them! How is
+a man to keep up his acquaintance with all that is doing in the
+physiological world--in a world advancing with enormous strides every
+day and every hour--if he has to be distracted with the cares of
+practice? You know very well it must be impracticable to do so. Our
+men of ability join our medical schools with an eye to the future.
+They take the Chairs of Anatomy or of Physiology; and by and by they
+leave those Chairs for the more profitable pursuits into which they
+have drifted by professional success, and so they become clothed,
+and physiology is bare. The result is, that in those schools in which
+physiology is thus left to the benevolence, so to speak, of those
+who have no time to look to it, the effect of such teaching comes
+out obviously, and is made manifest in what I spoke of just now--the
+unreality, the bookishness of the knowledge of the taught. And if this
+is the case in physiology, still more must it be the case in those
+branches of physics which are the foundation of physiology; although
+it may be less the case in chemistry, because for an able chemist a
+certain honourable and independent career lies in the direction of
+his work, and he is able, like the anatomist, to look upon what he
+may teach to the student as not absolutely taking him away from his
+bread-winning pursuits.
+
+But it is of no use to grumble about this state of things unless
+one is prepared to indicate some sort of practical remedy. And I
+believe--and I venture to make the statement because I am wholly
+independent of all sorts of medical schools, and may, therefore, say
+what I believe without being supposed to be affected by any personal
+interest--but I say I believe that the remedy for this state of
+things, for that imperfection of our theoretical knowledge which keeps
+down the ability of England at the present time in medical matters,
+is a mere affair of mechanical arrangement; that so long as you have
+a dozen medical schools scattered about in different parts of the
+metropolis, and dividing the students among them, so long, in all the
+smaller schools at any rate, it is impossible that any other state of
+things than that which I have been depicting should obtain. Professors
+must live; to live they must occupy themselves with practice, and
+if they occupy themselves with practice, the pursuit of the abstract
+branches of science must go to the wall. All this is a plain and
+obvious matter of common-sense reasoning. I believe you will never
+alter this state of things until, either by consent or by _force
+majeure_--and I should be very sorry to see the latter applied--but
+until there is some new arrangement, and until all the theoretical
+branches of the profession, the institutes of medicine, are taught in
+London in not more than one or two, or at the outside three, central
+institutions, no good will be effected. If that large body of men, the
+medical students of London, were obliged in the first place to get a
+knowledge of the theoretical branches of their profession in two or
+three central schools, there would be abundant means for maintaining
+able professors--not, indeed, for enriching them, as they would be
+able to enrich themselves by practice--but for enabling them to make
+that choice which such men are so willing to make; namely, the choice
+between wealth and a modest competency, when that modest competency
+is to be combined with a scientific career, and the means of advancing
+knowledge. I do not believe that all the talking about, and tinkering
+of, medical education will do the slightest good until the fact
+is clearly recognized, that men must be thoroughly grounded in the
+theoretical branches of their profession, and that to this end the
+teaching of those theoretical branches must be confined to two or
+three centres.
+
+Now let me add one other word, and that is, that if I were a despot, I
+would cut down these branches to a very considerable extent. The next
+thing to be done beyond that which I mentioned just now, is to go
+back to primary education. The great step towards a thorough medical
+education is to insist upon the teaching of the elements of the
+physical sciences in all schools, so that medical students shall not
+go up to the medical colleges utterly ignorant of that with which they
+have to deal; to insist on the elements of chemistry, the elements of
+botany, and the elements of physics being taught in our ordinary
+and common schools, so that there shall be some preparation for
+the discipline of medical colleges. And, if this reform were once
+effected, you might confine the "Institutes of Medicine" to physics
+as applied to physiology--to chemistry as applied to physiology--to
+physiology itself, and to anatomy. Afterwards, the student, thoroughly
+grounded in these matters, might go to any hospital he pleased for
+the purpose of studying the practical branches of his profession. The
+practical teaching might be made as local as you like; and you
+might use to advantage the opportunities afforded by all these
+local institutions for acquiring a knowledge of the practice of the
+profession. But you may say: "This is abolishing a great deal; you are
+getting rid of botany and zoology to begin with." I have not a doubt
+that they ought to be got rid of, as branches of special medical
+education; they ought to be put back to an earlier stage, and made
+branches of general education. Let me say, by way of self-denying
+ordinance, for which you will, I am sure, give me credit, that I
+believe that comparative anatomy ought to be absolutely abolished.
+I say so, not without a certain fear of the Vice-Chancellor of the
+University of London who sits upon my left. But I do not think the
+charter gives him very much power over me; moreover, I shall soon come
+to an end of my examinership, and therefore I am not afraid, but shall
+go on to say what I was going to say, and that is, that in my belief
+it is a downright cruelty--I have no other word for it--to require
+from gentlemen who are engaged in medical studies, the pretence--for
+it is nothing else, and can be nothing else, than a pretence--of a
+knowledge of comparative anatomy as part of their medical curriculum.
+Make it part of their Arts teaching if you like, make it part of their
+general education if you like, make it part of their qualification for
+the scientific degree by all means--that is its proper place; but to
+require that gentlemen whose whole faculties should be bent upon
+the acquirement of a real knowledge of human physiology should
+worry themselves with getting up hearsay about the alternation of
+generations in the Salpae is really monstrous. I cannot characterize
+it in any other way. And having sacrificed my own pursuit, I am sure I
+may sacrifice other people's; and I make this remark with all the
+more willingness because I discovered, on reading the name-of your
+Professors just now, that the Professor of Materia Medica is not
+present. I must confess, if I had my way I should abolish Materia
+Medica[1] altogether. I recollect, when I was first under examination
+at the University of London, Dr. Pereira was the examiner, and you
+know that "Pereira's Materia Medica" was a book _de omnibus rebus_. I
+recollect my struggles with that book late at night and early in the
+morning (I worked very hard in those days), and I do believe that I
+got that book into my head somehow or other, but then I will undertake
+to say that I forgot it all a week afterwards. Not one trace of a
+knowledge of drugs has remained in my memory from that time to this;
+and really, as a matter of common sense, I cannot understand the
+arguments for obliging a medical man to know all about drugs and
+where they come from. Why not make him belong to the Iron and Steel
+Institute, and learn something about cutlery, because he uses knives?
+
+[Footnote 1: It will, I hope, be understood that I do not include
+Therapeutics under this head.]
+
+But do not suppose that, after all these deductions, there would not
+be ample room for your activity. Let us count up what we have left. I
+suppose all the time for medical education that can be hoped for is,
+at the outside, about four years. Well, what have you to master in
+those four years upon my supposition? Physics applied to physiology;
+chemistry applied to physiology; physiology; anatomy; surgery;
+medicine (including therapeutics); obstetrics; hygiene; and medical
+jurisprudence--nine subjects for four years! And when you consider
+what those subjects are, and that the acquisition of anything beyond
+the rudiments of any one of them may tax the energies of a lifetime,
+I think that even those energies which you young gentlemen have
+been displaying for the last hour or two might be taxed to keep you
+thoroughly up to what is wanted for your medical career.
+
+I entertain a very strong conviction that any one who adds to medical
+education one iota or tittle beyond what is absolutely necessary, is
+guilty of a very grave offence. Gentlemen, it will depend upon the
+knowledge that you happen to possess,--upon your means of applying it
+within your own field of action,--whether the bills of mortality of
+your district are increased or diminished; and that, gentlemen, is a
+very serious consideration indeed. And, under those circumstances, the
+subjects with which you have to deal being so difficult, their extent
+so enormous, and the time at your disposal so limited, I could not
+feel my conscience easy if I did not, on such an occasion as this,
+raise a protest against employing your energies upon the acquisition
+of any knowledge which may not be absolutely needed in your future
+career.
+
+
+
+
+IV.
+
+YEAST.
+
+
+IT has been known, from time immemorial, that the sweet liquids which
+may be obtained by expressing the juices of the fruits and stems
+of various plants, or by steeping malted barley in hot water, or
+by mixing honey with water--are liable to undergo a series of very
+singular changes, if freely exposed to the air and left to themselves,
+in warm weather. However clear and pellucid the liquid may have been
+when first prepared, however carefully it may have been freed, by
+straining and filtration, from even the finest visible impurities, it
+will not remain clear. After a time it will become cloudy and turbid;
+little bubbles will be seen rising to the surface, and their abundance
+will increase until the liquid hisses as if it were simmering on
+the fire. By degrees, some of the solid particles which produce the
+turbidity of the liquid collect at its surface into a scum, which
+is blown up by the emerging air-bubbles into a thick, foamy froth.
+Another moiety sinks to the bottom, and accumulates as a muddy
+sediment, or "lees."
+
+When this action has continued, with more or less violence, for
+a certain time, it gradually moderates. The evolution of bubbles
+slackens, and finally comes to an end; scum and lees alike settle at
+the bottom, and the fluid is once more clear and transparent. But
+it has acquired properties of which no trace existed in the original
+liquid. Instead of being a mere sweet fluid, mainly composed of sugar
+and water, the sugar has more or less completely disappeared, and it
+has acquired that peculiar smell and taste which we call "spirituous."
+Instead of being devoid of any obvious effect upon the animal economy,
+it has become possessed of a very wonderful influence on the nervous
+system; so that in small doses it exhilarates, while in larger it
+stupefies, and may even destroy life.
+
+Moreover, if the original fluid is put into a still, and heated for a
+while, the first and last product of its distillation is simple water;
+while, when the altered fluid is subjected to the same process, the
+matter which is first condensed in the receiver is found to be a
+clear, volatile substance, which is lighter than water, has a pungent
+taste and smell, possesses the intoxicating powers of the fluid in
+an eminent degree, and takes fire the moment it is brought in contact
+with a flame. The alchemists called this volatile liquid, which
+they obtained from wine, "spirits of wine," just as they called
+hydrochloric acid "spirits of salt," and as we, to this day, call
+refined turpentine "spirits of turpentine." As the "spiritus," or
+breath, of a man was thought to be the most refined and subtle part
+of him, the intelligent essence of man was also conceived as a sort
+of breath, or spirit; and, by analogy, the most refined essence of
+anything was called its "spirit." And thus it has come about that we
+use the same word for the soul of man and for a glass of gin.
+
+At the present day, however, we even more commonly use another name
+for this peculiar liquid--namely, "alcohol," and its origin is not
+less singular. The Dutch physician, Van Helmont, lived in the latter
+part of the sixteenth and the beginning of the seventeenth century--in
+the transition period between alchemy and chemistry--and was rather
+more alchemist than chemist. Appended to his "Opera Omnia," published
+in 1707, there is a very needful "Clavis ad obscuriorum sensum
+referandum," in which the following passage occurs:--
+
+    "ALCOHOL.--Chymicis est liquor aut pulvis summe subtilisatus,
+    vocabulo Orientalibus quoque, cum primis Habessinis,
+    familiari, quibus _cohol_ speciatim pulverem impalpabilem ex
+    antimonio pro oculis tin-gendis denotat ... Hodie autem, ob
+    analogiam, quivis pulvis teuerior, ut pulvis oculorum cancri
+    summe subtilisatus _alcohol_ audit, hand aliter ac spiritus
+    rectificatissimi _alcolisati_ dicuntur."
+
+Similarly, Robert Boyle speaks of a fine powder as "alcohol;" and,
+so late as the middle of the last century, the English lexicographer,
+Nathan Bailey, defines "alcohol" as "the pure substance of anything
+separated from the more gross, a very fine and impalpable powder, or a
+very pure, well-rectified spirit." But, by the time of the publication
+of Lavoisier's "Traite Elementaire de Chimie," in 1789, the term
+"alcohol," "alkohol," or "alkool" (for it is spelt in all three ways),
+which Van Helmont had applied primarily to a fine powder, and
+only secondarily to spirits of wine, had lost its primary meaning
+altogether; and, from the end of the last century until now, it has,
+I believe, been used exclusively as the denotation of spirits of wine,
+and bodies chemically allied to that substance.
+
+The process which gives rise to alcohol in a saccharine fluid is known
+to us as "fermentation;" a term based upon the apparent boiling up or
+"effervescence" of the fermenting liquid, and of Latin origin.
+
+Our Teutonic cousins call the same process "gaehren," "gaesen,"
+"goeschen," and "gischen;" but, oddly enough, we do not seem to have
+retained their verb or their substantive denoting the action itself,
+though we do use names identical with, or plainly derived from, theirs
+for the scum and lees. These are called, in Low German, "gaescht"
+and "gischt;" in Anglo-Saxon, "gest," "gist," and "yst," whence our
+"yeast." Again, in Low German and in Anglo-Saxon, there is another
+name for yeast, having the form "barm," or "beorm;" and, in the
+Midland Counties, "barm" is the name by which yeast is still best
+known. In High German, there is a third name for yeast, "hefe," which
+is not represented in English, so far as I know.
+
+All these words are said by philologers to be derived from roots
+expressive of the intestine motion of a fermenting substance. Thus
+"hefe" is derived from "heben," to raise; "barm" from "beren" or
+"baeren," to bear up; "yeast," "yst," and "gist," have all to do with
+seething and foam, with "yeasty waves," and "gusty" breezes.
+
+The same reference to the swelling up of the fermenting substance is
+seen in the Gallo-Latin terms "levure" and "leaven."
+
+It is highly creditable to the ingenuity of our ancestors that the
+peculiar property of fermented liquids, in virtue of which they "make
+glad the heart of man," seems to have been known in the remotest
+periods of which we have any record. All savages take to alcoholic
+fluids as if they were to the manner born. Our Vedic forefathers
+intoxicated themselves with the juice of the "soma;" Noah, by a not
+unnatural reaction against a superfluity of water, appears to have
+taken the earliest practicable opportunity of qualifying that which
+he was obliged to drink; and the ghosts of the ancient Egyptians were
+solaced by pictures of banquets in which the winecup passes round,
+graven on the walls of their tombs. A knowledge of the process of
+fermentation, therefore, was in all probability possessed by the
+prehistoric populations of the globe; and it must have become a matter
+of great interest even to primaeval wine-bibbers to study the methods
+by which fermented liquids could be surely manufactured. No doubt,
+therefore, it was soon discovered that the most certain, as well as
+the most expeditious, way of making a sweet juice ferment was to add
+to it a little of the scum, or lees, of another fermenting juice.
+And it can hardly be questioned that this singular excitation of
+fermentation in one fluid, by a sort of infection, or inoculation,
+of a little ferment taken from some other fluid, together with the
+strange swelling, foaming, and hissing of the fermented substance,
+must have always attracted attention from the more thoughtful.
+Nevertheless, the commencement of the scientific analysis of the
+phenomena dates from a period not earlier than the first half of the
+seventeenth century.
+
+At this time, Van Helmont made a first step, by pointing out that the
+peculiar hissing and bubbling of a fermented liquid is due, not to the
+evolution of common air (which he, as the inventor of the term "gas,"
+calls "gas ventosum"), but to that of a peculiar kind of air such
+as is occasionally met with in caves, mines, and wells, and which he
+calls "gas sylvestre."
+
+But a century elapsed before the nature of this "gas sylvestre," or,
+as it was afterwards called, "fixed air," was clearly determined, and
+it was found to be identical with that deadly "choke-damp" by which
+the lives of those who descend into old wells, or mines, or brewers'
+vats, are sometimes suddenly ended; and with the poisonous aeriform
+fluid which is produced by the combustion of charcoal, and now goes by
+the name of carbonic acid gas.
+
+During the same time it gradually became clear that the presence of
+sugar was essential to the production of alcohol and the evolution of
+carbonic acid gas, which are the two great and conspicuous products of
+fermentation. And finally, in 1787, the Italian chemist, Fabroni, made
+the capital discovery that the yeast ferment, the presence of which
+is necessary to fermentation, is what he termed a "vegeto-animal"
+substance--or is a body which gives off ammoniacal salts when it is
+burned, and is, in other ways, similar to the gluten of plants and the
+albumen and casein of animals.
+
+These discoveries prepared the way for the illustrious Frenchman,
+Lavoisier, who first approached the problem of fermentation with a
+complete conception of the nature of the work to be done. The words
+in which he expresses this conception, in the treatise on elementary
+chemistry to which reference has already been made, mark the year 1789
+as the commencement of a revolution of not less moment in the world of
+science than that which simultaneously burst over the political world,
+and soon engulfed Lavoisier himself in one of its mad eddies.
+
+"We may lay it down as an incontestable axiom that, in all the
+operations of art and nature, nothing is created; an equal quantity
+of matter exists both before and after the experiment: the quality and
+quantity of the elements remain precisely the same, and nothing takes
+place beyond changes and modifications in the combinations of these
+elements. Upon this principle, the whole art of performing chemical
+experiments depends; we must always suppose an exact equality between
+the elements of the body examined and those of the products of its
+analysis.
+
+"Hence, since from must of grapes we procure alcohol and carbonic
+acid, I have an undoubted right to suppose that must consists of
+carbonic acid and alcohol. From these premisses we have two modes
+of ascertaining what passes during vinous fermentation: either
+by determining the nature of, and the elements which compose, the
+fermentable substances; or by accurately examining the products
+resulting from fermentation; and it is evident that the knowledge
+of either of these must lead to accurate conclusions concerning the
+nature and composition of the other. From these considerations it
+became necessary accurately to determine the constituent elements of
+the fermentable substances; and for this purpose I did not make use
+of the compound juices of fruits, the rigorous analysis of which
+is perhaps impossible, but made choice of sugar, which is easily
+analysed, and the nature of which I have already explained. This
+substance is a true vegetable oxyd, with two bases, composed of
+hydrogen and carbon, brought to the state of an oxyd by means of a
+certain proportion of oxygen; and these three elements are combined
+in such a way that a very slight force is sufficient to destroy the
+equilibrium of their connection."
+
+After giving the details of his analysis of sugar and of the products
+of fermentation, Lavoisier continues:--
+
+"The effect of the vinous fermentation upon sugar is thus reduced to
+the mere separation of its elements into two portions; one part is
+oxygenated at the expense of the other, so as to form carbonic acid;
+while the other part, being disoxygenated in favour of the latter, is
+converted into the combustible substance called alkohol; therefore,
+if it were possible to re-unite alkohol and carbonic acid together, we
+ought to form sugar."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "Elements of Chemistry." By M. Lavoisier. Translated by
+Robert Kerr. Second Edition, 1793 (pp. 186--196).]
+
+Thus Lavoisier thought he had demonstrated that the carbonic acid and
+the alcohol which are produced by the process of fermentation, are
+equal in weight to the sugar which disappears; but the application of
+the more refined methods of modern chemistry to the investigation of
+the products of fermentation by Pasteur, in 1860, proved that this is
+not exactly true, and that there is a deficit of from 5 to 7 per cent.
+of the sugar which is not covered by the alcohol and carbonic acid
+evolved. The greater part of this deficit is accounted for by the
+discovery of two substances, glycerine and succinic acid, of the
+existence of which Lavoisier was unaware, in the fermented liquid.
+But about 1-1/2 per cent. still remains to be made good. According to
+Pasteur, it has been appropriated by the yeast, but the fact that such
+appropriation takes place cannot be said to be actually proved.
+
+However this may be, there can be no doubt that the constituent
+elements of fully 98 per cent. of the sugar which has vanished during
+fermentation have simply undergone rearrangement; like the soldiers
+of a brigade, who at the word of command divide themselves into the
+independent regiments to which they belong. The brigade is sugar, the
+regiments are carbonic acid, succinic acid, alcohol, and glycerine.
+
+From the time of Fabroni, onwards, it has been admitted that the agent
+by which this surprising rearrangement of the particles of the sugar
+is effected is the yeast. But the first thoroughly conclusive evidence
+of the necessity of yeast for the fermentation of sugar was furnished
+by Appert, whose method of preserving perishable articles of food
+excited so much attention in France at the beginning of this century.
+Gay-Lussac, in his "Memoire sur la Fermentation,"[1] alludes to
+Appert's method of preserving beer-wort unfermented for an indefinite
+time, by simply boiling the wort and closing the vessel in which the
+boiling fluid is contained, in such a way as thoroughly to exclude
+air; and he shows that, if a little yeast be introduced into such
+wort, after it has cooled, the wort at once begins to ferment, even
+though every precaution be taken to exclude air. And this statement
+has since received full confirmation from Pasteur.
+
+[Footnote 1: "Annales de Chimie," 1810.]
+
+On the other hand, Schwann, Schroeder and Dusch, and Pasteur, have
+amply proved that air may be allowed to have free access to beer-wort,
+without exciting fermentation, if only efficient precautions are taken
+to prevent the entry of particles of yeast along with the air.
+
+Thus, the truth that the fermentation of a simple solution of sugar in
+water depends upon the presence of yeast, rests upon an unassailable
+foundation; and the inquiry into the exact nature of the substance
+which possesses such a wonderful chemical influence becomes profoundly
+interesting.
+
+The first step towards the solution of this problem was made two
+centuries ago by the patient and painstaking Dutch naturalist,
+Leeuwenhoek, who in the year 1680 wrote thus:--
+
+    "Saepissimo examinavi fermentum cerevisiae, semperque hoc ex
+    globulis per materiam pellucidam fluitantibus, quam cerevisiam
+    esse censui, constare observavi: vidi etiam evidentissime,
+    unumquemque hujus fermenti globulum denuo ex sex distinctis
+    globullis constare, accurate eidem quantitate et formae, cui
+    globulis sanguinis nostri, respondentibus.
+
+    "Verum talis mini de horum origine et formatione conceptus
+    formabam; globulis nempe ex quibus farina Tritici, Hordei,
+    Avenae, Fagotritici, se constat aquae calore dissolvi et aquae
+    commisceri; hac, vero aqua, quam cerevisiam vocare licet,
+    refrigescente, multos ex minimis particulis in cerevisia
+    coadunari, et hoc pacto efficere particulam sive globulum,
+    quae sexta pars est globuli faecis, et iterum sex ex hisce
+    globulis conjungi."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Leeuwenhoek, "Arcana Naturae Detecta." Ed. Nov., 1721.]
+
+Thus Leeuwenhoek discovered that yeast consists of globules floating
+in a fluid; but he thought that they were merely the starchy particles
+of the grain from which the wort was made, re-arranged. He discovered
+the fact that yeast had a definite structure, but not the meaning of
+the fact. A century and a half elapsed, and the investigation of
+yeast was recommenced almost simultaneously by Cagniard de la Tour in
+France, and by Schwann and Kuetzing in Germany. The French observer
+was the first to publish his results; and the subject received at his
+hands and at those of his colleague, the botanist Turpin, full and
+satisfactory investigation.
+
+The main conclusions at which they arrived are these. The globular,
+or oval, corpuscles which float so thickly in the yeast as to make it
+muddy, though the largest are not more than one two-thousandth of
+an inch in diameter, and the smallest may measure less than one
+seven-thousandth of an inch, are living organisms. They multiply with
+great rapidity, by giving off minute buds, which soon attain the size
+of their parent, and then either become detached or remain united,
+forming the compound globules of which Leeuwenhoek speaks, though the
+constancy of their arrangement in sixes existed only in the worthy
+Dutchman's imagination.
+
+It was very soon made out that these yeast organisms, to which Turpin
+gave the name of _Torula cerevisiae_, were more nearly allied to the
+lower Fungi than to anything else. Indeed Turpin, and subsequently
+Berkeley and Hoffmann, believed that they had traced the development
+of the _Torula_ into the well-known and very common mould--the
+_Penicillium glaucum_. Other observers have not succeeded in verifying
+these statements; and my own observations lead me to believe, that
+while the connection between _Torula_ and the moulds is a very close
+one, it is of a different nature from that which has been supposed. I
+have never been able to trace the development of _Torula_ into a true
+mould; but it is quite easy to prove that species of true mould,
+such as _Penicillium_, when sown in an appropriate nidus, such as
+a solution of tartrate of ammonia and yeast-ash, in water, with or
+without sugar, give rise to _Torulae_, similar in all respects to _T.
+cerevisiae_, except that they are, on the average, smaller. Moreover,
+Bail has observed the development of a _Torula_ larger than _T.
+cerevisiae_, from a _Mucor_, a mould allied to _Penicillium_.
+
+It follows, therefore, that the _Torulae_, or organisms of yeast,
+are veritable plants; and conclusive experiments have proved that the
+power which causes the rearrangement of the molecules of the sugar is
+intimately connected with the life and growth of the plant. In fact,
+whatever arrests the vital activity of the plant also prevents it from
+exciting fermentation.
+
+Such being the facts with regard to the nature of yeast, and the
+changes which it effects in sugar, how are they to be accounted for?
+Before modern chemistry had come into existence, Stahl, stumbling,
+with the stride of genius, upon the conception which lies at the
+bottom of all modern views of the process, put forward the notion that
+the ferment, being in a state of internal motion, communicated
+that motion to the sugar, and thus caused its resolution into new
+substances. And Lavoisier, as we have seen, adopts substantially the
+same view, (But Fabroni, full of the then novel conception of acids
+and bases and double decompositions, propounded the hypothesis that
+sugar is an oxide with two bases, and the ferment a carbonate with two
+bases; that the carbon of the ferment unites with the oxygen of the
+sugar, and gives rise to carbonic acid; while the sugar, uniting with
+the nitrogen of the ferment, produces a new substance analogous to
+opium. This is decomposed by distillation, and gives rise to alcohol.)
+Next, in 1803, Thenard propounded a hypothesis which partakes somewhat
+of the nature of both Stahl's and Fabroni's views. "I do not believe
+with Lavoisier," he says, "that all the carbonic acid formed proceeds
+from the sugar. How, in that case, could we conceive the action of the
+ferment on it? I think that the first portions of the acid are due
+to a combination of the carbon of the ferment with the oxygen of the
+sugar, and that it is by carrying off a portion of oxygen from
+the last that the ferment causes the fermentation to commence--the
+equilibrium between the principles of the sugar being disturbed, they
+combine afresh to form carbonic acid and alcohol."
+
+The three views here before us may be familiarly exemplified by
+supposing the sugar to be a card-house. According to Stahl, the
+ferment is somebody who knocks the table, and shakes the card-house
+down; according to Fabroni, the ferment takes out some cards, but puts
+others in their places; according to Thenard, the ferment simply takes
+a card out of the bottom story, the result of which is that all the
+others fall.
+
+As chemistry advanced, facts came to light which put a new face upon
+Stahl's hypothesis, and gave it a safer foundation than it previously
+possessed. The general nature of these phenomena may be thus
+stated:--A body, A, without giving to, or taking from, another
+body, B, any material particles, causes B to decompose into other
+substances, C, D, E, the sum of the weights of which is equal to the
+weight of B, which decomposes.
+
+Thus, bitter almonds contain two substances, amygdalin and synaptase,
+which can be extracted, in a separate state, from the bitter almonds.
+The amygdalin thus obtained, if dissolved in water, undergoes no
+change; but if a little synaptase be added to the solution, the
+amygdalin splits up into bitter almond oil, prussic acid, and a kind
+of sugar.
+
+A short time after Cagniard de la Tour discovered the yeast plant,
+Liebig, struck with the similarity between this and other such
+processes and the fermentation of sugar, put forward the hypothesis
+that yeast contains a substance which acts upon sugar, as synaptase
+acts upon amygdalin. And as the synaptase is certainly neither
+organized nor alive, but a mere chemical substance, Liebig treated
+Cagniard de la Tour's discovery with no small contempt, and, from
+that time to the present, has steadily repudiated the notion that the
+decomposition of the sugar is, in any sense, the result of the vital
+activity of the _Torula_. But, though the notion that the _Torula_ is
+a creature which eats sugar and excretes carbonic acid and alcohol,
+which is not unjustly ridiculed in the most surprising paper that
+ever made its appearance in a grave scientific journal[1], may be
+untenable, the fact that the _Torulae_ are alive, and that yeast does
+not excite fermentation unless it contains living _Torulae_, stands
+fast. Moreover, of late years, the essential participation of living
+organisms in fermentation other than the alcoholic, has been clearly
+made out by Pasteur and other chemists.
+
+[Footnote 1: "Das entraethselte Geheimniss der geistigen Gaehrung
+(Vorlaeufige briefliche Mittheilung)" is the title of an anonymous
+contribution, to Woehler and Liebig's "Annalen der Pharmacie" for
+1839, in which a somewhat Rabelaisian imaginary description of the
+organization of the "yeast animals" and of the manner in which their
+functions are performed, is given with a circumstantiality worthy
+of the author of Gulliver's Travels. As a specimen of the writer's
+humour, his account of what happens when fermentation comes to an end
+may suffice. "Sobald naemlich die Thiere keinen Zucker mehr vorfinden,
+so fressen sie sich gegenseitig selbst auf, was durch eine eigene
+Manipulation geschicht; alles wird verdaut bis auf die Eier, welche
+unveraendert durch den Darmkanal hineingehen; man hat zuletzt wieder
+gaehrungsfaehige Hefe, naemlich den Saamen der Thiere, der uebrig
+bleibt."]
+
+However, it may be asked, is there any necessary opposition between
+the so-called "vital" and the strictly physico-chemical views of
+fermentation? It is quite possible that the living _Torula_ may excite
+fermentation in sugar, because it constantly produces, as an essential
+part of its vital manifestations, some substance which acts upon the
+sugar, just as the synaptase acts upon the amygdalin. Or it may
+be, that, without the formation of any such special substance,
+the physical condition of the living tissue of the yeast plant is
+sufficient to effect that small disturbance of the equilibrium of the
+particles of the sugar, which Lavoisier thought sufficient to effect
+its decomposition.
+
+Platinum in a very fine state of division--known as platinum black, or
+_noir de platine_--has the very singular property of causing alcohol
+to change into acetic acid with great rapidity. The vinegar plant,
+which is closely allied to the yeast plant, has a similar effect upon
+dilute alcohol, causing it to absorb the oxygen of the air, and become
+converted into vinegar; and Liebig's eminent opponent, Pasteur, who
+has done so much for the theory and the practice of vinegar-making,
+himself suggests that in this case--
+
+    "La cause du phenomene physique qui accompagne la vie de la
+    plante reside dans un etat physique propre, analogue a celui
+    du noir de platine. Mais il est essentiel de remarquer que cet
+    etat physique de la plante est etroitement lie avec la vie de
+    cette plante."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "Etudes sur les Mycodermes," Comptes-Rendus, liv., 1862.]
+
+Now, if the vinegar plant gives rise to the oxidation of alcohol,
+on account of its merely physical constitution, it is at any rate
+possible that the physical constitution of the yeast plant may exert a
+decomposing influence on sugar.
+
+But, without presuming to discuss a question which leads us into the
+very arcana of chemistry, the present state of speculation upon the
+_modus operandi_ of the yeast plant in producing fermentation is
+represented, on the one hand, by the Stahlian doctrine, supported by
+Liebig, according to which the atoms of the sugar are shaken into new
+combinations, either directly by the _Torulae_, or indirectly, by some
+substance formed by them; and, on the other hand, by the Thenardian
+doctrine, supported by Pasteur, according to which the yeast plant
+assimilates part of the sugar, and, in so doing, disturbs the rest,
+and determines its resolution into the products of fermentation.
+Perhaps the two views are not so much opposed as they seem at first
+sight to be.
+
+
+But the interest which attaches to the influence of the yeast plants
+upon the medium in which they live and grow does not arise solely
+from its bearing upon the theory of fermentation. So long ago as 1838,
+Turpin compared the _Torulae_ to the ultimate elements of the tissues
+of animals and plants--"Les organes elementaires de leurs tissus,
+comparables aux petits vegetaux des levures ordinaires, sont aussi les
+decompositeurs des substances qui les environnent."
+
+Almost at the same time, and, probably, equally guided by his study of
+yeast, Schwann was engaged in those remarkable investigations into
+the form and development of the ultimate structural elements of the
+tissues of animals, which led him to recognize their fundamental
+identity with the ultimate structural elements of vegetable organisms.
+
+The yeast plant is a mere sac, or "cell," containing a semi-fluid
+matter, and Schwann's microscopic analysis resolved all living
+organisms, in the long run, into an aggregation of such sacs or cells,
+variously modified; and tended to show, that all, whatever their
+ultimate complication, begin their existence in the condition of such
+simple cells.
+
+In his famous "Mikroskopische Untersuchungen," Schwann speaks of
+_Torula_ as a "cell;" and, in a remarkable note to the passage in
+which he refers to the yeast plant, Schwann says:--
+
+    "I have been unable to avoid mentioning fermentation, because
+    it is the most fully and exactly known operation of cells,
+    and represents, in the simplest fashion, the process which is
+    repeated by every cell of the living body."
+
+In other words, Schwann conceives that every cell of the living body
+exerts an influence on the matter which surrounds and permeates it,
+analogous to that which a _Torula_ exerts on the saccharine solution
+by which it is bathed. A wonderfully suggestive thought, opening up
+views of the nature of the chemical processes of the living body,
+which have hardly yet received all the development of which they are
+capable.
+
+Kant defined the special peculiarity of the living body to be that the
+parts exist for the sake of the whole and the whole for the sake of
+the parts. But when Turpin and Schwann resolved the living body into
+an aggregation of quasi-independent cells, each, like a _Torula_,
+leading its own life and having its own laws of growth and
+development, the aggregation being dominated and kept working towards
+a definite end only by a certain harmony among these units, or by the
+superaddition of a controlling apparatus, such as a nervous system,
+this conception ceased to be tenable. The cell lives for its own sake,
+as well as for the sake of the whole organism; and the cells, which
+float in the blood, live at its expense, and profoundly modify it, are
+almost as much independent organisms as the _Torulae_ which float in
+beer-wort.
+
+Schwann burdened his enunciation of the "cell theory" with two false
+suppositions; the one, that the structures he called "nucleus" and
+"cell-wall" are essential to a cell; the other, that cells are usually
+formed independently of other cells; but, in 1839, it was a vast and
+clear gain to arrive at the conception, that the vital functions of
+all the higher animals and plants are the resultant of the forces
+inherent in the innumerable minute cells of which they are composed,
+and that each of them is, itself, an equivalent of one of the lowest
+and simplest of independent living beings--the _Torula._
+
+From purely morphological investigations, Turpin and Schwann, as we
+have seen, arrived at the notion of the fundamental unity of structure
+of living beings. And, before long, the researches of chemists
+gradually led up to the conception of the fundamental unity of their
+composition.
+
+So far back as 1803, Thenard pointed out, in most distinct terms, the
+important fact that yeast contains a nitrogenous "animal" substance;
+and that such a substance is contained in all ferments. Before him,
+Fabroni and Fourcroy speak of the "vegeto-animal" matter of yeast.
+In 1844 Mulder endeavoured to demonstrate that a peculiar substance,
+which he called "protein," was essentially characteristic of living
+matter. In 1846, Payen writes:--
+
+    "Enfin, une loi sans exception me semble apparaitre dans les
+    faits nombreux que j'ai observes et conduire a envisager sous
+    un nouveau jour la vie vegetale; si je ne m'abuse, tout ce
+    que dans les tissus vegetaux la vue directe ou amplifiee nous
+    permet de discerner sous la forme de cellules et de vaisseaux,
+    ne represente autre chose que les enveloppes protectrices,
+    les reservoirs et les conduits, a l'aide desquels les corps
+    animes qui les secretent et les faconnent, se logent, puisent
+    et charriant leurs aliments, deposent et isolent les matieres
+    excretees."
+
+And again:--
+
+    "A fin de completer aujourd'hui l'enonce du fait general, je
+    rappellerai que les corps, doue des fonctions accomplies
+    dans les tissus des plantes, sont formes des elements qui
+    constituent, en proportion peu variable, les organismes
+    animaux; qu'ainsi l'on est conduit a reconnaitre une immense
+    unite de composition elementaire dans tous les corps vivants
+    de la nature."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "Mem. sur les Developpements des Vegetaux," &c.--"Mem.
+Presentees." ix. 1846.]
+
+In the year (1846) in which these remarkable passages were published,
+the eminent German botanist, Von Mohl, invented the word "protoplasm,"
+as a name for one portion of those nitrogenous contents of the cells
+of living plants, the close chemical resemblance of which to the
+essential constituents of living animals is so strongly indicated by
+Payen. And through the twenty-five years that have passed, since the
+matter of life was first called protoplasm, a host of investigators,
+among whom Cohn, Max Schulze, and Kuehne must be named as leaders, have
+accumulated evidence, morphological, physiological, and chemical, in
+favour of that "immense unite de composition elementaire dans tous les
+corps vivants de la nature," into which Payen had, so early, a clear
+insight.
+
+As far back as 1850, Cohn wrote, apparently without any knowledge of
+what Payen had said before him:--
+
+    "The protoplasm of the botanist, and the contractile substance
+    and sarcode of the zoologist, must be, if not identical, yet
+    in a high degree analogous substances. Hence, from this point
+    of view, the difference between animals and plants consists
+    in this; that, in the latter, the contractile substance, as
+    a primordial utricle, is enclosed within an inert cellulose
+    membrane, which permits it only to exhibit an internal motion,
+    expressed by the phenomena of rotation and circulation, while,
+    in the former, it is not so enclosed. The protoplasm in the
+    form of the primordial utricle is, as it were, the animal
+    element in the plant, but which is imprisoned, and only
+    becomes free in the animal; _or_, to strip off the metaphor
+    which obscures simple thought, the energy of organic vitality
+    which is manifested in movement is especially exhibited by a
+    nitrogenous contractile substance, which in plants is limited
+    and fettered by an inert membrane, in animals not so."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Cohn, "Ueber Protococcus pluvialis," in the "Nova Acta"
+for 1850.]
+
+In 1868, thinking that an untechnical statement of the views current
+among the leaders of biological science might be interesting to the
+general public, I gave a lecture embodying them in Edinburgh. Those
+who have not made the mistake of attempting to approach biology,
+either by the high _a priori_ road of mere philosophical speculation,
+or by the mere low _a posteriori_ lane offered by the tube of a
+microscope, but have taken the trouble to become acquainted with
+well-ascertained facts and with their history, will not need to be
+told that in what I had to say "as regards protoplasm" in my lecture
+"On the Physical Basis of Life," there was nothing new; and, as I
+hope, nothing that the present state of knowledge does not justify us
+in believing to be true. Under these circumstances, my surprise may be
+imagined, when I found, that the mere statement of facts and of views,
+long familiar to me as part of the common scientific property of
+continental workers, raised a sort of storm in this country, not only
+by exciting the wrath of unscientific persons whose pet prejudices
+they seemed to touch, but by giving rise to quite superfluous
+explosions on the part of some who should have been better informed.
+
+Dr. Stirling, for example, made my essay the subject of a special
+critical lecture[1], which I have read with much interest, though, I
+confess, the meaning of much of it remains as dark to me as does the
+"Secret of Hegel" after Dr. Stirling's elaborate revelation of it.
+Dr. Stirling's method of dealing with the subject is peculiar.
+"Protoplasm" is a question of history, so far as it is a name; of
+fact, so far as it is a thing. Dr. Stirling has not taken the trouble
+to refer to the original authorities for his history, which is
+consequently a travesty; and still less has he concerned himself with
+looking at the facts, but contents himself with taking them also at
+secondhand. A most amusing example of this fashion of dealing with
+scientific statements is furnished by Dr. Stirling's remarks upon my
+account of the protoplasm of the nettle hair. That account was drawn
+up from careful and often-repeated observation of the facts. Dr.
+Stirling thinks he is offering a valid criticism, when he says that my
+valued friend Professor Stricker gives a somewhat different statement
+about protoplasm. But why in the world did not this distinguished
+Hegelian look at a nettle hair for himself, before venturing to
+speak about the matter at all? Why trouble himself about what either
+Stricker or I say, when any tyro can see the facts for himself, if he
+is provided with those not rare articles, a nettle and a microscope?
+But I suppose this would have been "_Aufklaerung_"--a recurrence to the
+base common-sense philosophy of the eighteenth century, which liked
+to see before it believed, and to understand before it criticised. Dr.
+Stirling winds up his paper with the following paragraph:--
+
+[Footnote 1: Subsequently published under the title of "As regards
+Protoplasm."]
+
+    "In short, the whole position of Mr. Huxley, (1) that all
+    organisms consist alike of the same life-matter, (2) which
+    life-matter is, for its part, due only to chemistry, must be
+    pronounced untenable--nor less untenable (3) the materialism
+    he would found on it."
+
+The paragraph contains three distinct assertions concerning my views,
+and just the same number of utter misrepresentations of them. That
+which I have numbered (1) turns on the ambiguity of the word "same,"
+for a discussion of which I would refer Dr. Stirling to a great hero
+of "_Aufklaerung_", Archbishop Whately; statement number (2) is, in my
+judgment, absurd, and certainly I have never said anything resembling
+it; while, as to number (3), one great object of my essay was to show
+that what is called "materialism," has no sound philosophical basis!
+
+As we have seen, the study of yeast has led investigators face to face
+with problems of immense interest in pure chemistry, and in animal and
+vegetable morphology. Its physiology is not less rich in subjects for
+inquiry. Take, for example, the singular fact that yeast will increase
+indefinitely when grown in the dark, in water containing only tartrate
+of ammonia, a small percentage of mineral salts, and sugar. Out of
+these materials the _Torulae_ will manufacture nitrogenous protoplasm,
+cellulose, and fatty matters, in any quantity, although they are
+wholly deprived of those rays of the sun, the influence of which is
+essential to the growth of ordinary plants. There has been a great
+deal of speculation lately, as to how the living organisms buried
+beneath two or three thousand fathoms of water, and therefore in all
+probability almost deprived of light, live.
+
+If any of them possess the same powers as yeast (and the same capacity
+for living without light is exhibited by some other fungi) there would
+seem to be no difficulty about the matter.
+
+Of the pathological bearings of the study of yeast, and other such
+organisms, I have spoken elsewhere. It is certain that, in
+some animals, devastating epidemics are caused by fungi of low
+order--similar to those of which _Torula_ is a sort of offshoot. It is
+certain that such diseases are propagated by contagion and infection,
+in just the same way as ordinary contagious and infectious diseases
+are propagated. Of course, it does not follow from this, that all
+contagious and infectious diseases are caused by organisms of as
+definite and independent a character as the _Torula_; but, I think,
+it does follow that it is prudent and wise to satisfy oneself in each
+particular case, that the "germ theory" cannot and will not explain
+the facts, before having recourse to hypotheses which have no equal
+support from analogy.
+
+
+
+
+V.
+
+ON THE FORMATION OF COAL.
+
+
+The lumps of coal in a coal-scuttle very often have a roughly cubical
+form. If one of them be picked out and examined with a little care, it
+will be found that its six sides are not exactly alike. Two opposite
+sides are comparatively smooth and shining, while the other four are
+much rougher, and are marked by lines which run parallel with the
+smooth sides. The coal readily splits along these lines, and the split
+surfaces thus formed are parallel with the smooth faces. In other
+words, there is a sort of rough and incomplete stratification in the
+lump of coal, as if it were a book, the leaves of which had stuck
+together very closely.
+
+Sometimes the faces along which the coal splits are not smooth, but
+exhibit a thin layer of dull, charred-looking substance, which is
+known as "mineral charcoal."
+
+Occasionally one of the faces of a lump of coal will present
+impressions, which are obviously those of the stem, or leaves, of a
+plant; but though hard mineral masses of pyrites, and even fine mud,
+may occur here and there, neither sand nor pebbles are met with.
+
+When the coal burns, the chief ultimate products of its combustion
+are carbonic acid, water, and ammoniacal products, which escape up the
+chimney; and a greater or less amount of residual earthy salts, which
+take the form of ash. These products are, to a great extent, such as
+would result from the burning of so much wood.
+
+These properties of coal may be made out without any very refined
+appliances, but the microscope reveals something more. Black and
+opaque as ordinary coal is, slices of it become transparent if they
+are cemented in Canada balsam, and rubbed down very thin, in the
+ordinary way of making thin sections of non-transparent bodies. But
+as the thin slices, made in this way, are very apt to crack and break
+into fragments, it is better to employ marine glue as the cementing
+material. By the use of this substance, slices of considerable size
+and of extreme thinness and transparency may be obtained.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: My assistant in the Museum of Practical Geology, Mr.
+Newton, invented this excellent method of obtaining thin slices of
+coal.]
+
+Now let us suppose two such slices to be prepared from our lump of
+coal--one parallel with the bedding, the other perpendicular to it;
+and let us call the one the horizontal, and the other the vertical,
+section. The horizontal section will present more or less rounded
+yellow patches and streaks, scattered irregularly through the dark
+brown, or blackish, ground substance; while the vertical section will
+exhibit more elongated bars and granules of the same yellow materials,
+disposed in lines which correspond, roughly, with the general
+direction of the bedding of the coal.
+
+This is the microscopic structure of an ordinary piece of coal. But if
+a great series of coals, from different localities and seams, or even
+from different parts of the same seam, be examined, this structure
+will be found to vary in two directions. In the anthracitic, or
+stone-coals, which burn like coke, the yellow matter diminishes, and
+the ground substance becomes more predominant, and blacker, and more
+opaque, until it becomes impossible to grind a section thin enough to
+be translucent; while, on the other hand, in such as the "Better-Bed"
+coal of the neighbourhood of Bradford, which burns with much flame,
+the coal is of a far lighter colour, and transparent sections are very
+easily obtained. In the browner parts of this coal, sharp eyes will
+readily detect multitudes of curious little coin-shaped bodies, of a
+yellowish brown colour, embedded in the dark brown ground substance.
+On the average, these little brown bodies may have a diameter of about
+one-twentieth of an inch. They lie with their flat surfaces nearly
+parallel with the two smooth faces of the block in which they are
+contained; and, on one side of each, there may be discerned a figure,
+consisting of three straight linear marks, which radiate from the
+centre of the disk, but do not quite reach its circumference. In the
+horizontal section these disks are often converted into more or less
+complete rings; while in the vertical sections they appear like thick
+hoops, the sides of which have been pressed together. The disks are,
+therefore, flattened bags; and favourable sections show that the
+three-rayed marking is the expression of three clefts, which penetrate
+one wall of the bag.
+
+The sides of the bags are sometimes closely approximated; but, when
+the bags are less flattened, their cavities are, usually, filled with
+numerous, irregularly rounded, hollow bodies, having the same kind of
+wall as the large ones, but not more than one seven-hundredth of an
+inch in diameter.
+
+In favourable specimens, again, almost the whole ground substance
+appears to be made up of similar bodies--more or less carbonized
+or blackened--and, in these, there can be no doubt that, with the
+exception of patches of mineral charcoal, here and there, the whole
+mass of the coal is made up of an accumulation of the larger and of
+the smaller sacs.
+
+But, in one and the same slice, every transition can be observed from
+this structure to that which has been described as characteristic of
+ordinary coal. The latter appears to rise out of the former, by the
+breaking-up and increasing carbonization of the larger and the smaller
+sacs. And, in the anthracitic coals, this process appears to have gone
+to such a length, as to destroy the original structure altogether, and
+to replace it by a completely carbonized substance.
+
+Thus coal may be said, speaking broadly, to be composed of two
+constituents: firstly, mineral charcoal; and, secondly, coal proper.
+The nature of the mineral charcoal has long since been determined. Its
+structure shows it to consist of the remains of the stems and leaves
+of plants, reduced to little more than their carbon. Again, some of
+the coal is made up of the crushed and flattened bark, or outer coat,
+of the stems of plants, the inner wood of which has completely decayed
+away. But what I may term the "saccular matter" of the coal, which,
+either in its primary or in its degraded form, constitutes by far the
+greater part of all the bituminous coals I have examined, is certainly
+not mineral charcoal; nor is its structure that of any stem or leaf.
+Hence its real nature is, at first, by no means apparent, and has been
+the subject of much discussion.
+
+The first person who threw any light upon the problem, as far as I
+have been able to discover, was the well-known geologist, Professor
+Morris. It is now thirty-four years since he carefully described and
+figured the coin-shaped bodies, or larger sacs, as I have called
+them, in a note appended to the famous paper "On the Coal-brookdale
+Coal-Field," published at that time, by the present President of
+the Geological Society, Mr. Prestwich. With much sagacity, Professor
+Morris divined the real nature of these bodies, and boldly
+affirmed them to be the spore-cases of a plant allied to the living
+club-mosses.
+
+But discovery sometimes makes a long halt; and it is only a few
+years since Mr. Carruthers determined the plant (or rather one of the
+plants) which produces these spore-cases, by finding the discoidal
+sacs still adherent to the leaves of the fossilized cone which
+produced them. He gave the name of _Flemingites gracilis_ to the plant
+of which the cones form a part. The branches and stem of this plant
+are not yet certainly known, but there is no sort of doubt that it was
+closely allied to the _Lepidodendron_, the remains of which abound in
+the coal formation. The _Lepidodendra_ were shrubs and trees which put
+one more in mind of an _Araucaria_ than of any other familiar plant;
+and the ends of the fruiting branches were terminated by cones, or
+catkins, somewhat like the bodies so named in a fir, or a willow.
+These conical fruits, however, did not produce seeds; but the leaves
+of which they were composed bore upon their surfaces sacs full of
+spores or sporangia, such as those one sees on the under surface of a
+bracken leaf. Now, it is these sporangia of the Lepidodendroid plant
+_Flemingites_ which were identified by Mr. Carruthers with the free
+sporangia described by Professor Morris, which are the same as the
+large sacs of which I have spoken. And, more than this, there is
+no doubt that the small sacs are the spores, which were originally
+contained in the sporangia.
+
+The living club-mosses are, for the most part, insignificant and
+creeping herbs, which, superficially, very closely resemble true
+mosses, and none of them reach more than two or three feet in height.
+But, in their essential structure, they very closely resemble the
+earliest Lepidodendroid trees of the coal: their stems and leaves are
+similar; so are their cones; and no less like are the sporangia and
+spores; while even in their size, the spores of the _Lepidodendron_
+and those of the existing _Lycopodium_, or club-moss, very closely
+approach one another.
+
+Thus, the singular conclusion is forced upon us, that the greater and
+the smaller sacs of the "Better-Bed" and other coals, in which the
+primitive structure is well preserved, are simply the sporangia and
+spores of certain plants, many of which were closely allied to the
+existing club-mosses. And if, as I believe, it can be demonstrated
+that ordinary coal is nothing but "saccular" coal which has undergone
+a certain amount of that alteration which, if continued, would convert
+it into anthracite; then, the conclusion is obvious, that the great
+mass of the coal we burn is the result of the accumulation of the
+spores and spore-cases of plants, other parts of which have furnished
+the carbonized stems and the mineral charcoal, or have left their
+impressions on the surfaces of the layer.
+
+Of the multitudinous speculations which, at various times, have been
+entertained respecting the origin and mode of formation of coal,
+several appear to be negatived, and put out of court, by the
+structural facts the significance of which I have endeavoured to
+explain. These facts, for example, do not permit us to suppose that
+coal is an accumulation of peaty matter, as some have held.
+
+Again, the late Professor Quekett was one of the first observers
+who gave a correct description of what I have termed the "saccular"
+structure of coal; and, rightly perceiving that this structure was
+something quite different from that of any known plant, he imagined
+that it proceeded from some extinct vegetable organism which was
+peculiarly abundant amongst the coal-forming plants. But this
+explanation is at once shown to be untenable when the smaller and the
+larger sacs are proved to be spores or sporangia.
+
+Some, once more, have imagined that coal was of submarine origin; and
+though the notion is amply and easily refuted by other considerations,
+it may be worth while to remark, that it is impossible to comprehend
+how a mass of light and resinous spores should have reached the bottom
+of the sea, or should have stopped in that position if they had got
+there.
+
+At the same time, it is proper to remark that I do not presume to
+suggest that all coal must needs have the same structure; or that
+there may not be coals in which the proportions of wood and spores, or
+spore-cases, are very different from those which I have examined. All
+I repeat is, that none of the coals which have come under my notice
+have enabled me to observe such a difference. But, according to
+Principal Dawson, who has so sedulously examined the fossil remains of
+plants in North America, it is otherwise with the vast accumulations
+of coal in that country.
+
+    "The true coal," says Dr. Dawson, "consists principally of
+    the flattened bark of Sigillarioid and other trees, intermixed
+    with leaves of Ferns and _Cordaites_, and other herbaceous
+    _debris_, and with fragments of decayed wood, constituting
+    'mineral charcoal,' all these materials having manifestly
+    alike grown and accumulated where we find them."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "Acadian Geology," 2nd edition, p. 138.]
+
+When I had the pleasure of seeing Principal Dawson in London last
+summer, I showed him my sections of coal, and begged him to re-examine
+some of the American coals on his return to Canada, with an eye to the
+presence of spores and sporangia, such as I was able to show him in
+our English and Scotch coals. He has been good enough to do so; and in
+a letter dated September 26th, 1870, he informs me that--
+
+    "Indications of spore-cases are rare, except in certain coarse
+    shaly coals and portions of coals, and in the roofs of the
+    seams. The most marked case I have yet met with is the shaly
+    coal referred to as containing _Sporangites_ in my paper
+    on the conditions of accumulation of coal (_Journal of the
+    Geological Society_, vol. xxii. pp. 115, 139, and 165). The
+    purer coals certainly consist principally of cubical tissues
+    with some true woody matter, and the spore-cases, &c.,
+    are chiefly in the coarse and shaly layers. This is my old
+    doctrine in my two papers in the _Journal of the Geological
+    Society_, and I see nothing to modify it. Your observations,
+    however, make it probable that the frequent _clear spots_ in
+    the cannels are spore-cases."
+
+Dr. Dawson's results are the more remarkable, as the numerous
+specimens of British coal, from various localities, which I have
+examined, tell one tale as to the predominance of the spore and
+sporangium element in their composition; and as it is exactly in the
+finest and purest coals, such as the "Better-Bed" coal of Lowmoor,
+that the spores and sporangia obviously constitute almost the entire
+mass of the deposit.
+
+Coal, such as that which has been described, is always found in
+sheets, or "seams," varying from a fraction of an inch to many feet
+in thickness, enclosed in the substance of the earth at very various
+depths, between beds of rock of different kinds. As a rule, every seam
+of coal rests upon a thicker, or thinner, bed of clay, which is known
+as "under-clay." These alternations of beds of coal, clay, and rock
+may be repeated many times, and are known as the "coal-measures;"
+and in some regions, as in South Wales and in Nova Scotia, the
+coal-measures attain a thickness of twelve or fourteen thousand
+feet, and enclose eighty or a hundred seams of coal, each with its
+under-clay, and separated from those above and below by beds of
+sandstone and shale.
+
+The position of the beds which constitute the coal-measures is
+infinitely diverse. Sometimes they are tilted up vertically, sometimes
+they are horizontal, sometimes curved into great basins; sometimes
+they come to the surface, sometimes they are covered up by thousands
+of feet of rock. But, whatever their present position, there is
+abundant and conclusive evidence that every under-clay was once a
+surface soil. Not only do carbonized root-fibres frequently abound in
+these under-clays; but the stools of trees, the trunks of which are
+broken off and confounded with the bed of coal, have been repeatedly
+found passing into radiating roots, still embedded in the under-clay.
+On many parts of the coast of England, what are commonly known as
+"submarine forests" are to be seen at low water. They consist, for the
+most part, of short stools of oak, beech, and fir trees, still fixed
+by their long roots in the bed of blue clay in which they originally
+grew. If one of these submarine forest beds should be gradually
+depressed and covered up by new deposits, it would present just the
+same characters as an under-clay of the coal, if the _Sigillaria_ and
+_Lepidodendron_ of the ancient world were substituted for the oak, or
+the beech, of our own times.
+
+In a tropical forest, at the present day, the trunks of fallen trees,
+and the stools of such trees as may have been broken by the violence
+of storms, remain entire for but a short time. Contrary to what might
+be expected, the dense wood of the tree decays, and suffers from the
+ravages of insects, more swiftly than the bark. And the traveller,
+setting his foot on a prostrate trunk, finds that it is a mere shell,
+which breaks under his weight, and lands his foot amidst the insects,
+or the reptiles, which have sought food or refuge within.
+
+The trees of the coal forests present parallel conditions. When the
+fallen trunks which have entered into the composition of the bed of
+coal are identifiable, they are mere double shells of bark, flattened
+together in consequence of the destruction of the woody core; and Sir
+Charles Lyell and Principal Dawson discovered, in the hollow stools
+of coal trees of Nova Scotia, the remains of snails, millipedes,
+and salamander-like creatures, embedded in a deposit of a different
+character from that which surrounded the exterior of the trees. Thus,
+in endeavouring to comprehend the formation of a seam of coal, we must
+try to picture to ourselves a thick forest, formed for the most part
+of trees like gigantic club-mosses, mares-tails, and tree ferns, with
+here and there some that had more resemblance to our existing yews and
+fir-trees. We must suppose that, as the seasons rolled by, the plants
+grew and developed their spores and seeds; that they shed these in
+enormous quantities, which accumulated on the ground beneath; and
+that, every now and then, they added a dead frond or leaf; or, at
+longer intervals, a rotten branch, or a dead trunk, to the mass.
+
+A certain proportion of the spores and seeds no doubt fulfilled their
+obvious function, and, carried by the wind to unoccupied regions,
+extended the limits of the forest; many might be washed away by rain
+into streams, and be lost; but a large portion must have remained, to
+accumulate like beech-mast, or acorns, beneath the trees of a modern
+forest.
+
+But, in this case, it may be asked, why does not our English coal
+consist of stems and leaves to a much greater extent than it does?
+What is the reason of the predominance of the spores and spore-cases
+in it?
+
+A ready answer to this question is afforded by the study of a living
+full-grown club-moss. Shake it upon a piece of paper, and it emits a
+cloud of fine dust, which falls over the paper, and is the well-known
+Lycopodium powder. Now this powder used to be, and I believe still
+is, employed for two objects, which seem at first sight to have no
+particular connection with one another. It is, or was, employed in
+making lightning, and in making pills. The coats of the spores contain
+so much resinous matter, that a pinch of Lycopodium powder, thrown
+through the flame of a candle, burns with an instantaneous flash,
+which has long done duty for lightning on the stage. And the same
+character makes it a capital coating for pills; for the resinous
+powder prevents the drug from being wetted by the saliva, and thus
+bars the nauseous flavour from the sensitive papillae of the tongue.
+
+But this resinous matter, which lies in the walls of the spores and
+sporangia, is a substance not easily altered by air and water,
+and hence tends to preserve these bodies, just as the bituminized
+cerecloth preserves an Egyptian mummy; while, on the other hand, the
+merely woody stem and leaves tend to rot, as fast as the wood of the
+mummy's coffin has rotted. Thus the mixed heap of spores, leaves,
+and stems in the coal-forest would be persistently searched by the
+long-continued action of air and rain; the leaves and stems would
+gradually be reduced to little but their carbon, or, in other words,
+to the condition of mineral charcoal in which we find them; while the
+spores and sporangia remained as a comparatively unaltered and compact
+residuum.
+
+There is, indeed, tolerably clear evidence that the coal must, under
+some circumstances, have been converted into a substance hard enough
+to be rolled into pebbles, while it yet lay at the surface of the
+earth; for in some seams of coal, the courses of rivulets, which must
+have been living water, while the stratum in which their remains are
+found was still at the surface, have been observed to contain rolled
+pebbles of the very coal through which the stream has cut its way.
+
+The structural facts are such as to leave no alternative but to adopt
+the view of the origin of such coal as I have described, which has
+just been stated; but, happily, the process is not without analogy at
+the present day. I possess a specimen of what is called "white coal"
+from Australia. It is an inflammable material, burning with a bright
+flame, and having much the consistence and appearance of oat-cake,
+which, I am informed, covers a considerable area. It consists, almost
+entirely, of a compacted mass of spores and spore-cases. But the fine
+particles of blown sand which are scattered through it, show that it
+must have accumulated, subaerially, upon the surface of a soil covered
+by a forest of cryptogamous plants, probably tree-ferns.
+
+As regards this important point of the subaerial region of coal, I am
+glad to find myself in entire accordance with Principal Dawson,
+who bases his conclusions upon other, but no less forcible,
+considerations. In a passage, which is the continuation of that
+already cited, he writes:--
+
+    "(3) The microscopical structure and chemical composition of
+    the beds of cannel coal and earthy bitumen, and of the more
+    highly bituminous and carbonaeceous shale, show them to have
+    been of the nature of the fine vegetable mud which accumulates
+    in the ponds and shallow lakes of modern swamps. When such
+    fine vegetable sediment is mixed, as is often the case, with
+    clay, it becomes similar to the bituminous limestone and
+    calcareo-bituminous shales of the coal-measures. (4) A few of
+    the under-clays, which support beds of coal, are of the nature
+    of the vegetable mud above referred to; but the greater part
+    are argillo-arenaceous in composition, with little vegetable
+    matter, and bleached by the drainage from them of water
+    containing the products of vegetable decay. They are, in
+    short, loamy or clay soils, and must have been sufficiently
+    above water to admit of drainage. The absence of sulphurets,
+    and the occurrence of carbonate of iron in connection with
+    them, prove that, when they existed as soils, rain-water, and
+    not sea-water, percolated them. (5) The coal and the fossil
+    forests present many evidences of subaerial conditions. Most
+    of the erect and prostrate trees had become hollow shells of
+    bark before they were finally embedded, and their wood had
+    broken into cubical pieces of mineral charcoal. Land-snails
+    and galley-worms _Xylobius_ crept into them, and they became
+    dens, or traps, for reptiles. Large quantities of mineral
+    charcoal occur on the surface of all the large beds of
+    coal. None of these appearances could have been produced by
+    subaqueous action. (6) Though the roots of the _Sigillaria_
+    bear more resemblance to the rhizomes of certain aquatic
+    plants; yet, structurally, they are absolutely identical with
+    the roots of Cycads, which the stems also resemble. Further,
+    the _Sigillariae_ grew on the same soils which supported
+    Conifers, _Lepidodendra, Cordaites_, and Ferns--plants which
+    could not have grown in water. Again, with the exception
+    perhaps of some _Pinnulariae_ and _Asterophyllites_, there
+    is a remarkable absence from the coal measures of any form of
+    properly aquatic vegetation. (7) The occurrence of marine, or
+    brackish-water animals, in the roofs of coal-beds, or even
+    in the coal itself, affords no evidence of subaqueous
+    accumulation, since the same thing occurs in the case of
+    modern submarine forests. For these and other reasons, some of
+    which are more fully stated in the papers already referred
+    to, while I admit that the areas of coal accumulation were
+    frequently submerged, I must maintain that the true coal is a
+    subaerial accumulation by vegetable growth on soils, wet and
+    swampy it is true, but not submerged."
+
+I am almost disposed to doubt whether it is necessary to make the
+concession of "wet and swampy;" otherwise, there is nothing that I
+know of to be said against this excellent conspectus of the reasons
+for believing in the subaerial origin of coal.
+
+But the coal accumulated upon the area covered by one of the great
+forests of the carboniferous epoch would, in course of time, have
+been wasted away by the small, but constant, wear and tear of rain and
+streams, had the land which supported it remained at the same level,
+or been gradually raised to a greater elevation. And, no doubt, as
+much coal as now exists has been destroyed, after its formation, in
+this way. What are now known as coal districts owe their importance to
+the fact that they were areas of slow depression, during a greater or
+less portion of the carboniferous epoch; and that, in virtue of this
+circumstance, Mother Earth was enabled to cover up her vegetable
+treasures, and preserve them from destruction.
+
+Wherever a coal-field now exists, there must formerly have been free
+access for a great river, or for a shallow sea, bearing sediment in
+the shape of sand and mud. When the coal-forest area became slowly
+depressed, the waters must have spread over it, and have deposited
+their burden upon the surface of the bed of coal, in the form of
+layers, which are now converted into shale, or sandstone. Then
+followed a period of rest, in which the superincumbent shallow waters
+became completely filled up, and finally replaced, by fine mud, which
+settled down into a new under-clay, and furnished the soil for a fresh
+forest growth. This flourished, and heaped up its spores and wood into
+coal, until the stage of slow depression recommenced. And, in some
+localities, as I have mentioned, the process was repeated until the
+first of the alternating beds had sunk to near three miles below its
+original level at the surface of the earth.
+
+In reflecting on the statement, thus briefly made, of the main facts
+connected with the origin of the coal formed during the carboniferous
+epoch, two or three considerations suggest themselves.
+
+In the first place, the great phantom of geological time rises before
+the student of this, as of all other, fragments of the history of our
+earth--springing irrepressibly out of the facts, like the Djin from
+the jar which the fisherman so incautiously opened; and like the Djin
+again, being vaporous, shifting, and indefinable, but unmistakably
+gigantic. However modest the bases of one's calculation may be,
+the minimum of time assignable to the coal period remains something
+stupendous.
+
+Principal Dawson is the last person likely to be guilty of
+exaggeration in this matter, and it will be well to consider what he
+has to say about it:--
+
+    "The rate of accumulation of coal was very slow. The climate
+    of the period, in the northern temperate zone, was of such
+    a character that the true conifers show rings of growth, not
+    larger, nor much less distinct, than those of many of their
+    modern congeners. The _Sigillariae_ and _Calamites_ were not,
+    as often supposed, composed wholly, or even principally, of
+    lax and soft tissues, or necessarily short-lived. The former
+    had, it is true, a very thick inner bark; but their dense
+    woody axis, their thick and nearly imperishable outer bark,
+    and their scanty and rigid foliage, would indicate no very
+    rapid growth or decay. In the case of the _Sigillariae_, the
+    variations in the leaf-scars in different parts of the trunk,
+    the intercalation of new ridges at the surface representing
+    that of new woody wedges in the axis, the transverse marks
+    left by the stages of upward growth, all indicate that several
+    years must have been required for the growth of stems of
+    moderate size. The enormous roots of these trees, and the
+    condition of the coal-swamps, must have exempted them from the
+    danger of being overthrown by violence. They probably fell in
+    successive generations from natural decay; and making every
+    allowance for other materials, we may safely assert that every
+    foot of thickness of pure bituminous coal implies the
+    quiet growth and fall of at least fifty generations of
+    _Sigillariae_, and therefore an undisturbed condition of
+    forest growth enduring through many centuries. Further, there
+    is evidence that an immense amount of loose parenchymatous
+    tissue, and even of wood, perished by decay, and we do not
+    know to what extent even the most durable tissues may have
+    disappeared in this way; so that, in many coal-seams, we may
+    have only a very small part of the vegetable matter produced."
+
+Undoubtedly the force of these reflections is not diminished when the
+bituminous coal, as in Britain, consists of accumulated spores and
+spore-cases, rather than of stems. But, suppose we adopt Principal
+Dawson's assumption, that one foot of coal represents fifty
+generations of coal plants; and, further, make the moderate
+supposition that each generation of coal plants took ten years to come
+to maturity--then, each foot-thickness of coal represents five hundred
+years. The superimposed beds of coal in one coal-field may amount to
+a thickness of fifty or sixty feet, and therefore the coal alone, in
+that field, represents 500 x 50 = 25,000 years. But the actual coal is
+but an insignificant portion of the total deposit, which, as has been
+seen, may amount to between two and three miles of vertical thickness.
+Suppose it be 12,000 feet--which is 240 times the thickness of the
+actual coal--is there any reason why we should believe it may not have
+taken 240 times as long to form? I know of none. But, in this case,
+the time which the coal-field represents would be 25,000 x 240
+=6,000,000 years. As affording a definite chronology, of course such
+calculations as these are of no value; but they have much use in
+fixing one's attention upon a possible minimum. A man may be puzzled
+if he is asked how long Rome took a-building; but he is proverbially
+safe if he affirms it not to have been built in a day; and our
+geological calculations are all, at present, pretty much on that
+footing.
+
+A second consideration which the study of the coal brings prominently
+before the mind of anyone who is familiar with palaeontology is, that
+the coal Flora, viewed in relation to the enormous period of time
+which it lasted, and to the still vaster period which has elapsed
+since it flourished, underwent little change while it endured, and in
+its peculiar characters, differs strangely little from that which at
+present exists.
+
+The same species of plants are to be met with throughout the whole
+thickness of a coal-field, and the youngest are not sensibly different
+from the oldest. But more than this. Notwithstanding that the
+carboniferous period is separated from us by more than the whole time
+represented by the secondary and tertiary formations, the great types
+of vegetation were as distinct then as now. The structure of the
+modern club-moss furnishes a complete explanation of the fossil
+remains of the _Lepidodendra_, and the fronds of some of the ancient
+ferns are hard to distinguish from existing ones. At the same time,
+it must be remembered, that there is nowhere in the world, at present,
+any _forest_ which bears more than a rough analogy with a coal-forest.
+The types may remain, but the details of their form, their relative
+proportions, their associates, are all altered. And the tree-fern
+forest of Tasmania, or New Zealand, gives one only a faint and remote
+image of the vegetation of the ancient world.
+
+Once more, an invariably-recurring lesson of geological history,
+at whatever point its study is taken up: the lesson of the almost
+infinite slowness of the modification of living forms. The lines of
+the pedigrees of living things break off almost before they begin to
+converge.
+
+Finally, yet another curious consideration. Let us suppose that one of
+the stupid, salamander-like Labyrinthodonts, which pottered, with
+much belly and little leg, like Falstaff in his old age, among the
+coal-forests, could have had thinking power enough in his small brain
+to reflect upon the showers of spores which kept on falling through
+years and centuries, while perhaps not one in ten million fulfilled
+its apparent purpose, and reproduced the organism which gave it birth:
+surely he might have been excused for moralizing upon the thoughtless
+and wanton extravagance which Nature displayed in her operations.
+
+But we have the advantage over our shovel-headed predecessor--or
+possibly ancestor--and can perceive that a certain vein of thrift runs
+through this apparent prodigality. Nature is never in a hurry, and
+seems to have had always before her eyes the adage, "Keep a thing long
+enough, and you will find a use for it." She has kept her beds of coal
+many millions of years without being able to find much use for them;
+she has sent them down beneath the sea, and the sea-beasts could make
+nothing of them; she has raised them up into dry land, and laid the
+black veins bare, and still, for ages and ages, there was no living
+thing on the face of the earth that could see any sort of value in
+them; and it was only the other day, so to speak, that she turned a
+new creature out of her workshop, who by degrees acquired sufficient
+wits to make a fire, and then to discover that the black rock would
+burn.
+
+I suppose that nineteen hundred years ago, when Julius Caesar was good
+enough to deal with Britain as we have dealt with New Zealand, the
+primaeval Briton, blue with cold and woad, may have known that the
+strange black stone, of which he found lumps here and there in his
+wanderings, would burn, and so help to warm his body and cook his
+food. Saxon, Dane, and Norman swarmed into the land. The English
+people grew into a powerful nation, and Nature still waited for a full
+return of the capital she had invested in the ancient club-mosses. The
+eighteenth century arrived, and with it James Watt. The brain of that
+man was the spore out of which was developed the steam-engine, and all
+the prodigious trees and branches of modern industry which have grown
+out of this. But coal is as much an essential condition of this growth
+and development as carbonic acid is for that of a club-moss. Wanting
+coal, we could not have smelted the iron needed to make our engines,
+nor have worked our engines when we had got them. But take away the
+engines, and the great towns of Yorkshire and Lancashire vanish like a
+dream. Manufactures give place to agriculture and pasture, and not ten
+men can live where now ten thousand are amply supported.
+
+Thus, all this abundant wealth of money and of vivid life is Nature's
+interest upon her investment in club-mosses, and the like, so long
+ago. But what becomes of the coal which is burnt in yielding this
+interest? Heat comes out of it, light comes out of it, and if we could
+gather together all that goes up the chimney; and all that remains in
+the grate of a thoroughly-burnt coal-fire, we should find ourselves in
+possession of a quantity of carbonic acid, water, ammonia, and mineral
+matters, exactly equal in weight to the coal. But these are the very
+matters with which Nature supplied the club-mosses which made the
+coal. She is paid back principal and interest at the same time; and
+she straightway invests the carbonic acid, the water, and the ammonia
+in new forms of life, feeding with them the plants that now live.
+Thrifty Nature! Surely no prodigal, but most notable of housekeepers!
+
+
+
+
+VI.
+
+ON CORAL AND CORAL REEFS.
+
+
+The marine productions which are commonly known by the names of
+"Corals" and "Corallines," were thought by the ancients to be
+sea-weeds, which had the singular property of becoming hard and
+solid, when they were fished up from their native depths and came into
+contact with the air.
+
+    "Sic et curalium, quo primum contigit auras Tempore durescit:
+    mollis fuit herba sub undis,"
+
+says Ovid (Metam. xv.); and it was not until the seventeenth century
+that Boccone was emboldened, by personal experience of the facts, to
+declare that the holders of this belief were no better than "idiots,"
+who had been misled by the softness of the outer coat of the living
+red coral to imagine that it was soft all through.
+
+Messer Boccone's strong epithet is probably undeserved, as the
+notion he controverts, in all likelihood, arose merely from the
+misinterpretation of the strictly true statement which any coral
+fisherman would make to a curious inquirer; namely, that the outside
+coat of the red coral is quite soft when it is taken out of the sea.
+At any rate, he did good service by eliminating this much error from
+the current notions about coral. But the belief that corals are plants
+remained, not only in the popular, but in the scientific mind; and
+it received what appeared to be a striking confirmation from the
+researches of Marsigli in 1706. For this naturalist, having the
+opportunity of observing freshly-taken red coral, saw that its
+branches were beset with what looked like delicate and beautiful
+flowers, each having eight petals. It was true that these "flowers"
+could protrude and retract themselves, but their motions were hardly
+more extensive, or more varied, than those of the leaves of the
+sensitive plant; and therefore they could not be held to militate
+against the conclusion so strongly suggested by their form and their
+grouping upon the branches of a tree-like structure.
+
+Twenty years later, a pupil of Marsigli, the young Marseilles
+physician, Peyssonel, conceived the desire to study these singular
+sea-plants, and was sent by the French Government on a mission to the
+Mediterranean for that purpose. The pupil undertook the investigation
+full of confidence in the ideas of his master, but being able to see
+and think for himself, he soon discovered that those ideas by no means
+altogether corresponded with reality. In an essay entitled "Traite du
+Corail," which was communicated to the French Academy of Science, but
+which has never been published, Peyssonel writes:--
+
+    "Je fis fleurir le corail dans des vases pleins d'eau de mer,
+    et j'observai que ce que nous croyons etre la fleur de cette
+    pretendue plante n'etait au vrai, qu'un insecte semblable a
+    une petite Ortie ou Poulpe. J'avais le plaisir de voir remuer
+    les pattes, ou pieds, de cette Ortie, et ayant mis le vase
+    plein d'eau ou le corail etait a une douce chaleur aupres
+    du feu, tous les petites insectes s'epanouirent ... L'Ortie
+    sortie etend les pieds, et forme ce que M. de Marsigli et moi
+    avions pris pour les petales de la fleur. Le calice de cette
+    pretendue fleur est le corps meme de l'animal avance et sorti
+    hors de la cellule."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: This extract from Peysonnel's manuscript is given by
+M. Lacaze Duthiers in his valuable "Histoire Naturelle du Corail"
+(1866).]
+
+The comparison of the flowers of the coral to a "petite ortie" or
+"little nettle" is perfectly just, but needs explanation. "Ortie de
+mer," or "sea-nettle," is, in fact, the French appellation for our
+"sea-anemone," a creature with which everybody, since the great
+aquarium mania, must have become familiar, even to the limits of
+boredom. In 1710, the great naturalist, Reaumur, had written a memoir
+for the express purpose of demonstrating that these "orties" are
+animals; and with this important paper Peyssonel must necessarily have
+been familiar. Therefore, when he declared the "flowers" of the red
+coral to be little "orties," it was the same thing as saying that
+they were animals of the same general nature as sea-anemones. But
+to Peyssonel's contemporaries this was an extremely startling
+announcement. It was hard to imagine the existence of such a thing
+as an association of animals into a structure with stem and branches
+altogether like a plant, and fixed to the soil as a plant is fixed;
+and the naturalists of that day preferred not to imagine it. Even
+Reaumur could not bring himself to accept the notion, and France being
+blessed with Academicians, whose great function (as the late Bishop
+Wilson and an eminent modern writer have so well shown) is to cause
+sweetness and light to prevail, and to prevent such unmannerly fellows
+as Peyssonel from blurting out unedifying truths, they suppressed him;
+and, as aforesaid, his great work remained in manuscript, and may
+at this day be consulted by the curious in that state, in the
+"Bibliotheque du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle." Peyssonel, who
+evidently was a person of savage and untameable disposition, so far
+from appreciating the kindness of the Academicians in giving him time
+to reflect upon the unreasonableness, not to say rudeness, of making
+public statements in opposition to the views of some of the most
+distinguished of their body, seems bitterly to have resented the
+treatment he met with. For he sent all further communications to the
+Royal Society of London, which never had, and it is to be hoped never
+will have, anything of an academic constitution; and finally took
+himself off to Guadaloupe, and became lost to science altogether.
+
+Fifteen or sixteen years after the date of Peyssonel's suppressed
+paper, the Abbe Trembley published his wonderful researches upon the
+fresh-water _Hydra_. Bernard de Jussieu and Guettard followed them
+up by like inquiries upon the marine sea-anemones and corallines;
+Reaumur, convinced against his will of the entire justice of
+Peyssonel's views, adopted them, and made him a half-and-half apology
+in the preface to the next published volume of the "Memoires pour
+servir a l'Histoire des Insectes;" and, from this time forth,
+Peyssonel's doctrine that corals are the work of animal organisms has
+been part of the body of established scientific truth.
+
+Peyssonel, in the extract from his memoir already cited, compares the
+flower-like animal of the coral to a "poulpe," which is the French
+form of the name "polypus,"--"the many-footed,"--which the ancient
+naturalists gave to the soft-bodied cuttle-fishes, which, like the
+coral animal, have eight arms, or tentacles, disposed around a central
+mouth. Reaumur, admitting the analogy indicated by Peyssonel, gave the
+name of _polypes_, not only to the sea-anemone, the coral animal, and
+the fresh-water _Hydra_, but to what are now known as the _Polyzoa_,
+and he termed the skeleton which they fabricate a "_polypier_" or
+"polypidom."
+
+The progress of discovery, since Reaumur's time, has made us very
+completely acquainted with the structure and habits of all these
+polypes. We know that, among the sea-anemones and coral-forming
+animals, each polype has a mouth leading to a stomach, which is open
+at its inner end, and thus communicates freely with the general cavity
+of the body; that the tentacles placed round the mouth are hollow, and
+that they perform the part of arms in seizing and capturing prey. It
+is known that many of these creatures are capable of being multiplied
+by artificial division, the divided halves growing, after a time, into
+complete and separate animals; and that many are able to perform a
+very similar process naturally, in such a manner that one polype may,
+by repeated incomplete divisions, give rise to a sort of sheet,
+or turf, formed by innumerable connected, and yet independent,
+descendants. Or, what is still more common, a polype may throw out
+buds, which are converted into polypes, or branches bearing polypes,
+until a tree-like mass, sometimes of very considerable size, is
+formed.
+
+This is what happens in the case of the red coral of commerce. A
+minute polype, fixed to the rocky bottom of the deep sea, grows up
+into a branched trunk. The end of every branch and twig is terminated
+by a polype; and all the polypes are connected together by a fleshy
+substance, traversed by innumerable canals which place each polype in
+communication with every other, and carry nourishment to the substance
+of the supporting stem. It is a sort of natural co-operative store,
+every polype helping the whole, at the same time as it helps itself.
+The interior of the stem, like that of the branches, is solidified
+by the deposition of carbonate of lime in its tissue, somewhat in the
+same fashion as our own bones are formed of animal matter impregnated
+with lime salts; and it is this dense skeleton (usually turned
+deep red by a peculiar colouring matter) cleared of the soft animal
+investment, as the heart-wood of a tree might be stripped of its bark,
+which is the red coral.
+
+In the case of the red coral, the hard skeleton belongs to the
+interior of the stem and branches only; but in the commoner white
+corals, each polype has a complete skeleton of its own. These
+polypes ate sometimes solitary, in which case the whole skeleton is
+represented by a single cup, with partitions radiating from its centre
+to its circumference. When the polypes formed by budding or division
+remain associated, the polypidom is sometimes made up of nothing but
+an aggregation of these cups, while at other times the cups are at
+once separated and held together, by an intermediate substance, which
+represents the branches of the red coral. The red coral polype
+again is a comparatively rare animal, inhabiting a limited area, the
+skeleton of which has but a very insignificant mass; while the white
+corals are very common, occur in almost all seas, and form skeletons
+which are sometimes extremely massive.
+
+With a very few exceptions, both the red and the white coral polypes
+are, in their adult state, firmly adherent to the sea-bottom; nor do
+their buds naturally become detached and locomotive. But, in addition
+to budding and division, these creatures possess the more ordinary
+methods of multiplication; and, at particular seasons, they give
+rise to numerous eggs of minute size. Within these eggs the young are
+formed, and they leave the egg in a condition which has no sort of
+resemblance to the perfect animal. It is, in fact, a minute oval body,
+many hundred times smaller than the full-grown creature, and it
+swims about with great activity by the help of multitudes of little
+hair-like filaments, called cilia, with which its body is covered.
+These cilia all lash the water in one direction, and so drive the
+little body along as if it were propelled by thousands of extremely
+minute paddles. After enjoying its freedom for a longer or shorter
+time, and being carried either by the force of its own cilia, or by
+currents which bear it along, the embryo coral settles down to the
+bottom, loses its cilia, and becomes fixed to the rock, gradually
+assuming the polype form and growing up to the size of its parent.
+As the infant polypes of the coral may retain this free and active
+condition for many hours, or even days, and as a tidal or other
+current in the sea may easily flow at the speed of two or even
+more miles in an hour, it is clear that the embryo must often be
+transported to very considerable distances from the parent. And it
+is easily understood how a single polype, which may give rise to
+hundreds, or perhaps thousands, of embryos, may, by this process of
+partly active and partly passive migration, cover an immense surface
+with its offspring. The masses of coral which may be formed by the
+assemblages of polypes which spring by budding, or by dividing, from a
+single polype, occasionally attain very considerable dimensions. Such
+skeletons are sometimes great plates, many feet long and several feet
+in thickness; or they may form huge half globes, like the brainstone
+corals, or may reach the magnitude of stout shrubs, or even small
+trees. There is reason to believe that such masses as these take a
+long time to form, and hence that the age a polype tree, or polype
+turf, may attain, may be considerable. But, sooner or later, the coral
+polypes, like all other things, die; the soft flesh decays, while the
+skeleton is left as a stony mass at the bottom of the sea, where it
+retains its integrity for a longer or a shorter time, according as its
+position affords it more or less protection from the wear and tear of
+the waves.
+
+The polypes which give rise to the white coral are found, as has been
+said, in the seas of all parts of the world; but in the temperate and
+cold oceans they are scattered and comparatively small in size,
+so that the skeletons of those which die do not accumulate in any
+considerable quantity. But it is otherwise in the greater part of the
+ocean which lies in the warmer parts of the world, comprised within a
+distance of about 1,800 miles on each side of the equator. Within the
+zone thus bounded, by far the greater part of the ocean is inhabited
+by coral polypes, which not only form very strong and large skeletons,
+but associate together into great masses, like the thickets and the
+meadow turf, or, better still, the accumulations of peat, to which
+plants give rise on the dry land. These masses of stony matter, heaped
+up beneath the waters of the ocean, become as dangerous to mariners
+as so much ordinary rock, and to these, as to common rock ridges, the
+seaman gives the name of "reefs."
+
+Such coral reefs cover many thousand square miles in the Pacific and
+in the Indian Oceans. There is one reef, or rather great series of
+reefs, called the Barrier Reef, which stretches, almost continuously,
+for more than 1,100 miles off the east coast of Australia. Multitudes
+of the island in the Pacific are either reefs themselves, or are
+surrounded by reefs. The Red Sea is in many parts almost a maze of
+such reefs; and they abound no less in the West Indies, along the
+coast of Florida, and even as far north as the Bahama Islands. But it
+is a very remarkable circumstance that, within the area of what we may
+call the "coral zone," there are no coral reefs upon the west coast of
+America, nor upon the west coast of Africa; and it is a general fact
+that the reefs are interrupted, or absent, opposite the mouths of
+great rivers. The causes of this apparent caprice in the distribution
+of coral reefs are not far to seek. The polypes which fabricate them
+require for their vigorous growth a temperature which must not fall
+below 68 degrees Fahrenheit all the year round, and this temperature
+is only to be found within the distance on each side of the equator
+which has been mentioned, or thereabouts. But even within the coral
+zone this degree of warmth is not everywhere to be had. On the west
+coast of America, and on the corresponding coast of Africa, currents
+of cold water from the icy regions which surround the South Pole set
+northward, and it appears to be due to their cooling influence that
+the sea in these regions is free from the reef builders. Again, the
+coral polypes cannot live in water which is rendered brackish by
+floods from the land, or which is perturbed by mud from the same
+source, and hence it is that they cease to exist opposite the mouths
+of rivers, which damage them in both these ways.
+
+Such is the general distribution of the reef-building corals, but
+there are some very interesting and singular circumstances to be
+observed in the conformation of the reefs, when we consider them
+individually. The reefs, in fact, are of three different kinds; some
+of them stretch out from the shore, almost like a prolongation of the
+beach, covered only by shallow water, and in the case of an island,
+surrounding it like a fringe of no considerable breadth. These are
+termed "fringing reefs." Others are separated by a channel which may
+attain a width of many miles, and a depth of twenty or thirty fathoms
+or more, from the nearest land; and when this land is an island, the
+reef surrounds it like a low wall, and the sea between the reef and
+the land is, as it were, a moat inside this wall. Such reefs as these
+are called "encircling" when they surround an island; and "barrier"
+reefs, when they stretch parallel with the coast of a continent.
+In both these cases there is ordinary dry land inside the reef, and
+separated from it only by a narrower or a wider, a shallower or a
+deeper, space of sea, which is called a "lagoon," or "inner passage."
+But there is a third kind of reef, of very common occurrence in the
+Pacific and Indian Oceans, which goes by the name of an "Atoll." This
+is, to all intents and purposes, an encircling reef, without anything
+to encircle; or, in other words, without an island in the middle
+of its lagoon. The atoll has exactly the appearance of a vast,
+irregularly oval, or circular, breakwater, enclosing smooth water in
+its midst. The depth of the water in the lagoon rarely exceeds twenty
+or thirty fathoms, but, outside the reef, it deepens with great
+rapidity to 200 or 300 fathoms. The depth immediately outside the
+barrier, or encircling, reefs, may also be very considerable; but, at
+the outer edge of a fringing reef, it does not amount usually to more
+than twenty or twenty-five fathoms; in other words, from 120 to 150
+feet.
+
+Thus, if the water of the ocean could be suddenly drained away, we
+should see the atolls rising from the sea-bed like vast truncated
+cones, and resembling so many volcanic craters, except that their
+sides would be steeper than those of an ordinary volcano. In the case
+of the encircling reefs, the cone, with the enclosed island, would
+look like Vesuvius with Monte Nuovo within the old crater of Somma;
+while, finally, the island with a fringing reef would have the
+appearance of an ordinary hill, or mountain, girded by a vast parapet,
+within which would lie a shallow moat. And the dry bed of the Pacific
+might afford grounds for an inhabitant of the moon to speculate
+upon the extraordinary subterranean activity to which these vast and
+numerous "craters" bore witness!
+
+When the structure of a fringing reef is investigated, the bottom of
+the lagoon is found to be covered with fine whitish mud, which results
+from the breaking up of the dead corals. Upon this muddy floor there
+lie, here and there, growing corals, or occasionally great blocks of
+dead coral, which have been torn by storms from the outer edge of
+the reef, and washed into the lagoon. Shell-fish and worms of various
+kinds abound; and fish, some of which prey upon the coral, sport in
+the deeper pools. But the corals which are to be seen growing in the
+shallow waters of the lagoon are of a different kind from those which
+abound on the outer edge of the reef, and of which the reef is built
+up. Close to the seaward edge of the reef, over which, even in calm
+weather, a surf almost always breaks, the coral rock is encrusted with
+a thick coat of a singular vegetable organism, which contains a great
+deal of lime--the so-called _Nullipora_. Beyond this, in the part of
+the edge of the reef which is always covered by the breaking waves,
+the living, true, reef--polypes make their appearance; and, in
+different forms, coat the steep seaward face of the reef to a depth of
+100 or even 150 feet. Beyond this depth the sounding-lead rests, not
+upon the wall-like face of the reef, but on the ordinary shelving
+sea-bottom. And the distance to which a fringing reef extends from the
+land corresponds with that at which the sea has a depth of twenty or
+five-and-twenty fathoms.
+
+If, as we have supposed, the sea could be suddenly withdrawn from
+around an island provided with a fringing reef, such as the Mauritius,
+the reef would present the aspect of a terrace, its seaward face,
+100 feet or more high, blooming with the animal flowers of the coral,
+while its surface would be hollowed out into a shallow and irregular
+moat-like excavation.
+
+The coral mud, which occupies the bottom of the lagoon, and with which
+all the interstices of the coral skeletons which accumulate to form
+the reef are filled up, does not proceed from the washing action of
+the waves alone; innumerable fishes, and other creatures which prey
+upon the coral, add a very important contribution of finely-triturated
+calcareous matter; and the corals and mud becoming incorporated
+together, gradually harden and give rise to a sort of limestone rock,
+which may vary a good deal in texture. Sometimes it remains friable
+and chalky, but, more often, the infiltration of water, charged with
+carbonic acid, dissolves some of the calcareous matter, and deposits
+it elsewhere in the interstices of the nascent rock, thus glueing
+and cementing the particles together into a hard mass; or it may even
+dissolve the carbonate of lime more extensively, and re-deposit it in
+a crystalline form. On the beach of the lagoon, where the coral sand
+is washed into layers by the action of the waves, its grains become
+thus fused together into strata of a limestone, so hard that they
+ring when struck with a hammer, and inclined at a gentle angle,
+corresponding with that of the surface of the beach. The hard parts
+of the many animals which live upon the reef become imbedded in this
+coral limestone, so that a block may be full of shells of bivalves and
+univalves, or of sea-urchins; and even sometimes encloses the eggs of
+turtles in a state of petrifaction. The active and vigorous growth of
+the reef goes on only at the seaward margins, where the polypes are
+exposed to the wash of the surf, and are thereby provided with an
+abundant supply of air and of food. The interior portion of the reef
+may be regarded as almost wholly an accumulation of dead skeletons.
+Where a river comes down from the land there is a break in the reef,
+for the reasons which have been already mentioned.
+
+The origin and mode of formation of a fringing reef, such as that just
+described, are plain enough. The embryos of the coral polypes have
+fixed themselves upon the submerged shore of the island, as far out as
+they could live, namely, to a depth of twenty or twenty-five fathoms.
+One generation has succeeded another, building itself up upon the dead
+skeletons of its predecessor. The mass has been consolidated by
+the infiltration of coral mud, and hardened by partial solution and
+redeposition, until a great rampart of coral rock 100 or 150 feet high
+on its seaward face has been formed all round the island, with only
+such gaps as result from the outflow of rivers, in the place of
+sally-ports.
+
+The structure of the rocky accumulation in the encircling reefs and
+in the atolls is essentially the same as in the fringing reef. But, in
+addition to the differences of depth inside and out, they present
+some other peculiarities. These reefs, and especially the atolls, are
+usually interrupted at one part of their circumference, and this part
+is always situated on the leeward side of the reef, or that which is
+the more sheltered side. Now, as all these reefs are situated within
+the region in which the trade-winds prevail, it follows that, on the
+north side of the equator, where the trade-wind is a north-easterly
+wind, the opening of the reef is on the south-west side: while in the
+southern hemisphere, where the trade-winds blow from the south-east,
+the opening lies to the north-west. The curious practical result
+follows from this structure, that the lagoons of these reefs really
+form admirable harbours, if a ship can only get inside them. But the
+main difference between the encircling reefs and the atolls, on the
+one hand, and the fringing reefs on the other, lies in the fact of the
+much greater depth of water on the seaward faces of the former. As a
+consequence of this fact, the whole of this face is not, as it is in
+the case of the fringing reef, covered with living coral polypes. For,
+as we have seen, these polypes cannot live at a greater depth than
+about twenty-five fathoms; and actual observation has shown that
+while, down to this depth, the sounding-lead will bring up branches of
+live coral from the outer wall of such a reef, at a greater depth it
+fetches to the surface nothing but dead coral and coral sand. We must,
+therefore, picture to ourselves an atoll, or an encircling reef, as
+fringed for 100 feet, or more, from its summit, with coral polypes
+busily engaged in fabricating coral; while, below this comparatively
+narrow belt, its surface is a bare and smooth expanse of coral sand,
+supported upon and within a core of coral limestone. Thus, if the bed
+of the Pacific were suddenly laid bare, as was just now supposed, the
+appearance of the reef-mountains would be exactly the reverse of that
+presented by many high mountains on land. For these are white with
+snow at the top, while their bases are clothed with an abundant and
+gaudily-coloured vegetation. But the coral cones would look grey and
+barren below, while their summits would be gay with a richly-coloured
+parterre of flower-like coral polypes.
+
+The practical difficulties of sounding upon, and of bringing up
+portions of, the seaward face of an atoll or of an encircling reef,
+are so great, in consequence of the constant and dangerous swell which
+sets towards it, that no exact information concerning the depth to
+which the reefs are composed of coral has yet been obtained. There is
+no reason to doubt, however, that the reef-cone has the same structure
+from its summit to its base, and that its sea-wall is throughout
+mainly composed of dead coral.
+
+And now arises a serious difficulty. If the coral polypes cannot live
+at a greater depth than 100 or 150 feet, how can they have built up
+the base of the reef-cone, which may be 2,000 feet, or more, below the
+surface of the sea?
+
+In order to get over this objection, it was at one time supposed that
+the reef-building polypes had settled upon the summits of a chain
+of submarine mountains. But what is there in physical geography
+to justify the assumption of the existence of a chain of mountains
+stretching for 1,000 miles or more, and so nearly of the same height,
+that none should rise above the level of the sea, nor fall 150 feet
+below that level?
+
+How again, on this hypothesis, are atolls to be accounted for, unless,
+as some have done, we take refuge in the wild supposition that every
+atoll corresponds with the crater of a submarine volcano? And what
+explanation does it afford of the fact that, in some parts of the
+ocean, only atolls and encircling reefs occur, while others present
+none but fringing reefs?
+
+These and other puzzling facts remained insoluble until the
+publication, in the year 1840, of Mr. Darwin's famous work on
+coral reefs; in which a key was given to all the difficult problems
+connected with the subject, and every difficulty was shown to be
+capable of solution by deductive reasoning from a happy combination of
+certain well-established geological and biological truths. Mr.
+Darwin, in fact, showed, that so long as the level of the sea remains
+unaltered in any area in which coral reefs are being formed, or if the
+level of the sea relatively to that of the land is falling, the
+only reefs which can be formed are fringing reefs. While if, on the
+contrary, the level of the sea is rising relatively to that of the
+land, at a rate not faster than that at which the upward growth of
+the coral can keep pace with it, the reef will gradually pass from the
+condition of a fringing, into that of an encircling or barrier reef.
+And, finally, that if the relative level of the sea rise so much that
+the encircled land is completely submerged, the reef must necessarily
+pass into the condition of an atoll.
+
+For, suppose the relative level of the sea to remain stationary, after
+a fringing reef has reached that distance from the land at which
+the depth of water amounts to 150 feet. Then the reef cannot extend
+seaward by the migration of coral germs, because these coral germs
+would find the bottom of the sea to be too deep for them to live in.
+And the only manner in which the reef could extend outwards, would
+be by the gradual accumulation, at the foot of its seaward face, of a
+talus of coral fragments torn off by the violence of the waves, which
+talus might, in course of time, become high enough to bring its upper
+surface within the limits of coral growth, and in that manner provide
+a sort of factitious sea-bottom upon which the coral embryos might
+perch. If, on the other hand, the level of the sea were slowly and
+gradually lowered, it is clear that the parts of its bottom originally
+beyond the limit of coral growth, would gradually be brought within
+the required distance of the surface, and thus the reef might be
+indefinitely extended. But this process would give rise neither to an
+encircling reef nor to an atoll, but to a broad belt of upheaved
+coral rock, increasing the dimensions of the dry land, and continuous
+seawards with the fresh fringing reef.
+
+Suppose, however, that the sea-level rose instead of falling, at the
+same slow and gradual rate at which we know it to be rising in some
+parts of the world--not more, in fact, than a few inches, or, at
+most, a foot or two, in a hundred years. Then, while the reef would
+be unable to extend itself seaward, the sea-bottom outside it being
+gradually more and more removed from the depth at which the life of
+the coral polypes is possible, it would be able to grow upwards
+as fast as the sea rose. But the growth would take place almost
+exclusively around the circumference of the reef, this being the only
+region in which the coral polypes would find the conditions favourable
+for their existence. The bottom of the lagoon would be raised, in the
+main, only by the coral _debris_ and coral mud, formed in the manner
+already described; consequently, the margins of the reef would
+rise faster than the bottom, or, in other words, the lagoon would
+constantly become deeper. And, at the same time, it would gradually
+increase in breadth; as the rising sea, covering more and more of the
+land, would occupy a wider space between the edge of the reef and what
+remained of the land. Thus the rising sea would eventually convert a
+large island with a fringing reef, into a small island surrounded by
+an encircling reef. And it will be obvious that when the rising of the
+sea has gone so far as completely to cover the highest points of the
+island, the reef will have passed into the condition of an atoll.
+
+But how is it possible that the relative level of the land and sea
+should be altered to this extent? Clearly, only in one of two ways:
+either the sea must have risen over those areas which are now covered
+by atolls and encircling reefs; or, the land upon which the sea rests
+must have been depressed to a corresponding extent.
+
+If the sea has risen, its rise must have taken place over the whole
+world simultaneously, and it must have risen to the same height over
+all parts of the coral zone. Grounds have been shown for the belief
+that the general level of the sea may have been different at different
+times; it has been suggested, for example, that the accumulation of
+ice about the poles during one of the cold periods of the earth's
+history, necessarily implies a diminution in the volume of the sea
+proportioned to the amount of its water thus permanently locked up in
+the Arctic and Antarctic ice-cellars; while, in the warm periods,
+the greater or less disappearance of the polar ice-cap implies a
+corresponding addition of water to the ocean. And no doubt this
+reasoning must be admitted to be sound in principle; though it is very
+hard to say what practical effect the additions and subtractions thus
+made have had on the level of the ocean; inasmuch as such additions
+and subtractions might be either intensified or nullified, by
+contemporaneous changes in the level of the land. And no one has yet
+shown that any such great melting of polar ice, and consequent raising
+of the level of the water of the ocean, has taken place since the
+existing atolls began to be formed.
+
+In the absence of any evidence that the sea has ever risen to the
+extent required to give rise to the encircling reefs and the atolls,
+Mr. Darwin adopted the opposite hypothesis, viz. that the land has
+undergone extensive and slow depression in those localities in which
+these structures exist.
+
+It seems, at first, a startling paradox, to suppose that the land
+is less fixed than the sea; but that such is the case is the uniform
+testimony of geology. Beds of sandstone or limestone, thousands of
+feet thick, and all full of marine remains, occur in various parts of
+the earth's surface, and prove, beyond a doubt, that when these beds
+were formed, that portion of the sea-bottom which they then occupied
+underwent a slow and gradual depression to a distance which cannot
+have been less than the thickness of those beds, and may have been
+very much greater. In supposing, therefore, that the great areas of
+the Pacific and of the Indian Ocean, over which atolls and encircling
+reefs are found scattered, have undergone a depression of some
+hundreds, or, it may be, thousands of feet, Mr. Darwin made a
+supposition which had nothing forced or improbable, but was entirely
+in accordance with what we know to have taken place over similarly
+extensive areas, in other periods of the world's history. But Mr.
+Darwin subjected his hypothesis to an ingenious indirect test. If
+his view be correct, it is clear that neither atolls, nor encircling
+reefs, should be found in those portions of the ocean in which we have
+reason to believe, on independent grounds, that the sea-bottom has
+long been either stationary, or slowly rising. Now it is known that,
+as a general rule, the level of the land is either stationary, or is
+undergoing a slow upheaval, in the neighbourhood of active volcanoes;
+and, therefore, neither atolls nor encircling reefs ought to be found
+in regions in which volcanoes are numerous and active. And this turns
+out to be the case. Appended to Mr. Darwin's great work on coral
+reefs, there is a map on which atolls and encircling reefs are
+indicated by one colour, fringing reefs by another, and active
+volcanoes by a third. And it is at once obvious that the lines of
+active volcanoes lie around the margins of the areas occupied by the
+atolls and the encircling reefs. It is exactly as if the upheaving
+volcanic agencies had lifted up the edges of these great areas, while
+their centres had undergone a corresponding depression. An atoll area
+may, in short, be pictured as a kind of basin, the margins of which
+have been pushed up by the subterranean forces, to which the craters
+of the volcanoes have, at intervals, given vent.
+
+Thus we must imagine the area of the Pacific now covered by the
+Polynesian Archipelago, as having been, at some former time,
+occupied by large islands, or, may be, by a great continent, with the
+ordinarily diversified surface of plain, and hill, and mountain chain.
+The shores of this great land were doubtless fringed by coral reefs;
+and, as it slowly underwent depression, the hilly regions, converted
+into islands, became, at first, surrounded by fringing reefs, and
+then, as depression went on, these became converted into encircling
+reefs, and these, finally, into atolls, until a maze of reefs and
+coral-girdled islets took the place of the original land masses.
+
+Thus the atolls and the encircling reefs furnish us with clear, though
+indirect, evidence of changes in the physical geography of large parts
+of the earth's surface; and even, as my lamented friend, the late
+Professor Jukes, has suggested, give us indications of the manner in
+which some of the most puzzling facts connected with the distribution
+of animals have been brought about. For example, Australia and New
+Guinea are separated by Torres Straits, a broad belt of sea 100 or
+120 miles wide. Nevertheless, there is in many respects a curious
+resemblance between the land animals which inhabit New Guinea and
+the land animals which inhabit Australia. But, at the same time, the
+marine shell-fish which are found in the shallow waters of the shores
+of New Guinea, are quite different from those which are met with upon
+the coasts of Australia. Now, the eastern end of Torres Straits is
+full of atolls, which, in fact, form the northern termination of the
+Great Barrier Reef which skirts the eastern coast of Australia. It
+follows, therefore, that the eastern end of Torres Straits is an area
+of depression, and it is very possible, and on many grounds highly
+probable, that, in former times, Australia and New Guinea were
+directly connected together, and that Torres Straits did not exist.
+If this were the case, the existence of cassowaries and of marsupial
+quadrupeds, both in New Guinea and in Australia, becomes intelligible;
+while the difference between the littoral molluscs of the north and
+the south shores of Torres Straits is readily explained by the great
+probability that, when the depression in question took place, and
+what was, at first, an arm of the sea became converted into a strait
+separating Australia from New Guinea, the northern shore of this new
+sea became tenanted with marine animals from the north, while the
+southern shore was peopled by immigrants from the already existing
+marine Australian fauna.
+
+Inasmuch as the growth of the reef depends upon that of successive
+generations of coral polypes, and as each generation takes a certain
+time to grow to its full size, and can only separate its calcareous
+skeleton from the water in which it lives at a certain rate, it is
+clear that the reefs are records not only of changes in physical
+geography, but of the lapse of time. It is by no means easy, however,
+to estimate the exact value of reef-chronology, and the attempts which
+have been made to determine the rate at which a reef grows vertically,
+have yielded anything but precise results. A cautious writer, Mr.
+Dana, whose extensive study of corals and coral reefs makes him an
+eminently competent judge, states his conclusion in the following
+terms:--
+
+    "The rate of growth of the common branching madrepore is not
+    over one and a half inches a year. As the branches are open,
+    this would not be equivalent to more than half an inch in
+    height of solid coral for the whole surface covered by
+    the madrepore; and, as they are also porous, to not over
+    three-eighths of an inch of solid limestone. But a coral
+    plantation has large bare patches without corals, and the
+    coral sands are widely distributed by currents, part of them
+    to depths over one hundred feet where there are no living
+    corals; not more than one-sixth of the surface of a reef
+    region is, in fact, covered with growing species. This reduces
+    the three-eighths to _one-sixteenth_. Shells and other organic
+    relics may contribute one-fourth as much as corals. At the
+    outside, the average upward increase of the whole reef-ground
+    per year would not exceed _one-eighth_ of an inch.
+
+    "Now some reefs are at least two thousand feet thick, which at
+    one-eighth of an inch a year, corresponds to one hundred and
+    ninety-two thousand years."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Dana, "Manual of Geology," p. 591.]
+
+Halve, or quarter, this estimate if you will, in order to be certain
+of erring upon the right side, and still there remains a prodigious
+period during which the ancestors of the existing coral polypes have
+been undisturbedly at work; and during which, therefore, the climatal
+conditions over the coral area must have been much what they are now.
+
+And all this lapse of time has occurred within the most recent period
+of the history of the earth. The remains of reefs formed by coral
+polypes of different kinds from those which exist now, enter largely
+into the composition of the limestones of the Jurassic period; and
+still more widely different coral polypes have contributed their quota
+to the vast thickness of the carboniferous and Devonian strata. Then
+as regards the latter group of rocks in America, the high authority
+already quoted tells us:--
+
+    "The Upper Helderberg period is eminently the coral reef
+    period of the palaeozoic ages. Many of the rocks abound in
+    coral, and are as truly coral reefs as the modern reefs of the
+    Pacific. The corals are sometimes standing on the rocks in the
+    position they had when growing: others are lying in fragments,
+    as they were broken and heaped by the waves; and others were
+    reduced to a compact limestone by the finer trituration before
+    consolidation into rock. This compact variety is the most
+    common kind among the coral reef rocks of the present seas;
+    and it often contains but few distinct fossils, although
+    formed in water that abounded in life. At the fall of the
+    Ohio, near Louisville, there is a magnificent display of
+    the old reef. Hemispherical _Favosites_, five or six feet
+    in diameter, lie there nearly as perfect as when they were
+    covered by their flower-like polypes; and besides these,
+    there are various branching corals, and a profusion of
+    _Cyathophiyllia_, or cup-corals."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Dana, "Manual of Geology," p. 272.]
+
+Thus, in all the great periods of the earth's history of which we
+know anything, a part of the then living matter has had the form of
+polypes, competent to separate from the water of the sea the carbonate
+of lime necessary for their own skeletons. Grain by grain, and
+particle by particle, they have built up vast masses of rock, the
+thickness of which is measured by hundreds of feet, and their area by
+thousands of square miles. The slow oscillations of the crust of the
+earth, producing great changes in the distribution of land and water,
+have often obliged the living matter of the coral-builders to shift
+the locality of its operations; and, by variation and adaptation to
+these modifications of condition, its forms have as often changed. The
+work it has done in the past is, for the most part, swept away, but
+fragments remain; and, if there were no other evidence, suffice to
+prove the general constancy of the operations of Nature in this world,
+through periods of almost inconceivable duration.
+
+
+
+
+VII.
+
+ON THE METHODS AND RESULTS OF ETHNOLOGY.
+
+
+Ethonology is the science which determines the distinctive characters
+of the persistent modifications of mankind; which ascertains the
+distribution of those modifications in present and past times, and
+seeks to discover the causes, or conditions of existence, both of
+the modifications and of their distribution. I say "persistent"
+modifications, because, unless incidentally, ethnology has nothing to
+do with chance and transitory peculiarities of human structure. And
+I speak of "persistent modifications" or "stocks" rather than of
+"varieties," or "races," or "species," because each of these last
+well-known terms implies, on the part of its employer, a preconceived
+opinion touching one of those problems, the solution of which is the
+ultimate object of the science; and in regard to which, therefore,
+ethnologists are especially bound to keep their minds open and their
+judgments freely balanced.
+
+Ethnology, as thus defined, is a branch of anthropology, the great
+science which unravels the complexities of human structure; traces out
+the relations of man to other animals; studies all that is especially
+human in the mode in which man's complex functions are performed; and
+searches after the conditions which have determined his presence in
+the world. And anthropology is a section of zoology, which again is
+the animal half of biology--the science of life and living things.
+
+Such is the position of ethnology, such are the objects of the
+ethnologist. The paths or methods, by following which he may hope to
+reach his goal, are diverse. He may work at man from the point of
+view of the pure zoologist, and investigate the anatomical and
+physiological peculiarities of Negroes, Australians, or Mongolians,
+just as he would inquire into those of pointers, terriers, and
+turnspits,--"persistent modifications" of man's almost universal
+companion. Or he may seek aid from researches into the most human
+manifestation of humanity--language; and assuming that what is true of
+speech is true of the speaker--a hypothesis as questionable in science
+as it is in ordinary life--he may apply to mankind themselves the
+conclusions drawn from a searching analysis of their words and
+grammatical forms.
+
+Or, the ethnologist may turn to the study of the practical life
+of men; and relying upon the inherent conservatism and small
+inventiveness of untutored mankind, he may hope to discover in manners
+and customs, or in weapons, dwellings, and other handiwork, a clue to
+the origin of the resemblances and differences of nations. Or, he may
+resort to that kind of evidence which is yielded by history proper,
+and consists of the beliefs of men concerning past events, embodied
+in traditional, or in written, testimony. Or, when that thread breaks,
+archaeology, which is the interpretation of the unrecorded remains of
+man's works, belonging to the epoch since the world has reached its
+present condition, may still guide him. And, when even the dim light
+of archaeology fades, there yet remains paleontology, which, in these
+latter years, has brought to daylight once more the exuvia of ancient
+populations, whose world was not our world, who have been buried in
+river beds immemorially dry, or carried by the rush of waters into
+caves, inaccessible to inundation since the dawn of tradition.
+
+Along each, or all, of these paths the ethnologist may press towards
+his goal; but they are not equally straight, or sure, or easy to
+tread. The way of palaeontology has but just been laid open to us.
+Archaeological and historical investigations are of great value for
+all those peoples whose ancient state has differed widely from their
+present condition, and who have the good or evil fortune to possess a
+history. But on taking a broad survey of the world, it is astonishing
+how few nations present either condition. Respecting five-sixths of
+the persistent modifications of mankind, history and archaeology are
+absolutely silent. For half the rest, they might as well be silent for
+anything that is to be made of their testimony. And, finally, when the
+question arises as to what was the condition of mankind more than a
+paltry two or three thousand years ago, history and archaeology are,
+for the most part, mere dumb dogs. What light does either of these
+branches of knowledge throw on the past of the man of the New World,
+if we except the Central Americans and the Peruvians; on that of the
+Africans, save those of the valley of the Nile and a fringe of the
+Mediterranean; on that of all the Polynesian, Australian, and central
+Asiatic peoples, the former of whom probably, and the last certainly,
+were, at the dawn of history, substantially what they are now? While
+thankfully accepting what history has to give him, therefore, the
+ethnologist must not look for too much from her.
+
+Is more to be expected from inquiries into the customs and handicrafts
+of men? It is to be feared not. In reasoning from identity of custom
+to identity of stock the difficulty always obtrudes itself, that
+the minds of men being everywhere similar, differing in quality and
+quantity but not in kind of faculty, like circumstances must tend to
+produce like contrivances; at any rate, so long as the need to be
+met and conquered is of a very simple kind. That two nations use
+calabashes or shells for drinking-vessels, or that they employ
+spears, or clubs, or swords and axes of stone and metal as weapons and
+implements, cannot be regarded as evidence that these two nations
+had a common origin, or even that intercommunication ever took place
+between them; seeing that the convenience of using calabashes or
+shells for such purposes, and the advantage of poking an enemy with a
+sharp stick, or hitting him with a heavy one, must be early forced
+by nature upon the mind of even the stupidest savage. And when he had
+found out the use of a stick, he would need no prompting to discover
+the value of a chipped or wetted stone, or an angular piece of native
+metal, for the same object. On the other hand, it may be doubted
+whether the chances are not greatly against independent peoples
+arriving at the manufacture of a boomerang, or of a bow; which last,
+if one comes to think of it, is a rather complicated apparatus; and
+the tracing of the distribution of inventions as complex as these,
+and of such strange customs as betel-chewing and tobacco-smoking, may
+afford valuable ethnological hints.
+
+Since the time of Leibnitz, and guided by such men as Humboldt, Abel
+Remusat, and Klaproth, Philology has taken far higher ground. Thus
+Prichard affirms that "the history of nations, termed Ethnology, must
+be mainly founded on the relations of their languages."
+
+An eminent living philologer, August Schleicher, in a recent essay,
+puts forward the claims of his science still more forcibly:--
+
+    "If, however, language is the human [Greek: kat ezochhen], the
+    suggestion arises whether it should not form the basis of
+    any scientific systematic arrangement of mankind; whether the
+    foundation of the natural classification of the genus Homo has
+    not been discovered in it.
+
+    "How little constant are cranial peculiarities and other
+    so-called race characters! Language, on the other hand,
+    is always a perfectly constant diagnostic. A German may
+    occasionally compete in hair and prognathism with a negro,
+    but a negro language will never be his mother tongue. Of how
+    little importance for mankind the so-called race characters
+    are, is shown by the fact that speakers of languages belonging
+    to one and the same linguistic family may exhibit the
+    peculiarities of various races. Thus the settled Osmanli Turk
+    exhibits Caucasian characters, while other so-called Tartaric
+    Turks exemplify the Mongol type. On the other hand, the
+    Magyar and the Basque do not depart in any essential physical
+    peculiarity from the Indo-Germans, whilst the Magyar, Basque,
+    and Indo-Germanic tongues are widely different. Apart from
+    their inconstancy, again, the so-called race characters can
+    hardly yield a scientifically natural system. Languages, on
+    the other hand, readily fall into a natural arrangement, like
+    that of which other vital products are susceptible, especially
+    when viewed from their morphological side.... The externally
+    visible structure of the cerebral and facial skeletons, and
+    of the body generally, is less important than that no less
+    material but infinitely more delicate corporeal structure, the
+    function of which is speech. I conceive, therefore, that
+    the natural classification of languages is also the natural
+    classification of mankind. With language, moreover, all the
+    higher manifestations of man's vital activity are closely
+    interwoven, so that these receive due recognition in and by
+    that of speech."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: August Schleicher. Ueber die Bedeutung der Sprache fuer
+die Naturgeschichte des Menschen, pp. 16-18. Weimar, 1858.]
+
+Without the least desire to depreciate the value of philology as
+an adjuvant to ethnology, I must venture to doubt, with Rudolphi,
+Desmoulins, Crawfurd, and others, its title to the leading position
+claimed for it by the writers whom I have just quoted. On the
+contrary, it seems to me obvious that, though, in the absence of any
+evidence to the contrary, unity of languages may afford a certain
+presumption in favour of the unity of stock of the peoples speaking
+those languages, it cannot be held to prove that unity of stock,
+unless philologers are prepared to demonstrate, that no nation can
+lose its language and acquire that of a distinct nation, without a
+change of blood corresponding with the change of language. Desmoulins
+long ago put this argument exceedingly well:--
+
+    "Let us imagine the recurrence of one of those slow, or
+    sudden, political revolutions, or say of those secular changes
+    which among different people and at different epochs have
+    annihilated historical monuments and even extinguished
+    tradition. In that case, the evidence, now so clear, that the
+    negroes of Hayti were slaves imported by a French colony, who,
+    by the very effect of the subordination involved in slavery,
+    lost their own diverse languages and adopted that of their
+    masters, would vanish. And metaphysical philosophers,
+    observing the identity of Haytian French with that spoken on
+    the shores of the Seine and the Loire, would argue that the
+    men of St. Domingo with woolly heads, black and oily skins,
+    small calves, and slightly bent knees, are of the same race,
+    descended from the same parental stock, as the Frenchmen with
+    silky brown, chestnut, or fair hair, and white skins. For they
+    would say, their languages are more similar than French is to
+    German or Spanish."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Desmoulins, "Histoire Naturelle des Races Humaines," p.
+345. 1826.]
+
+It must not be imagined that the case put by Desmoulins is a merely
+hypothetical one. Events precisely similar to the transport of a body
+of Africans to the West India Islands, indeed, cannot have happened
+among uncivilized races, but similar results have followed the
+importation of bodies of conquerors among an enslaved people over and
+over again. There is hardly a country in Europe in which two or more
+nations speaking widely different tongues have not become intermixed;
+and there is hardly a language of Europe of which we have any right
+to think that its structure affords a just indication of the amount of
+that intermixture.
+
+As Dr. Latham has well said:--
+
+    "It is certain that the language of England is of Anglo-Saxon
+    origin, and that the remains of the original Keltic are
+    unimportant. It is by no means so certain that the blood of
+    Englishmen is equally Germanic. A vast amount of Kelticism,
+    not found in our tongue, very probably exists in our
+    pedigrees. The ethnology of France is still more complicated.
+    Many writers make the Parisian a Roman on the strength of his
+    language; whilst others make him a Kelt on the strength of
+    certain moral characteristics, combined with the previous
+    Kelticism of the original Gauls. Spanish and Portuguese, as
+    languages, are derivations from the Latin; Spain and Portugal,
+    as countries, are Iberic, Latin, Gothic, and Arab, in
+    different proportions. Italian is modern Latin all the world
+    over; yet surely there must be much Keltic blood in Lombardy,
+    and much Etruscan intermixture in Tuscany.
+
+    "In the ninth century every man between the Elbe and the
+    Niemen spoke some Slavonic dialect; they now nearly all speak
+    German. Surely the blood is less exclusively Gothic than the
+    speech."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Latham, "Man and his Migrations," p. 171.]
+
+In other words, what philologer, if he had nothing but the vocabulary
+and grammar of the French and English languages to guide him, would
+dream of the real causes of the unlikeness of a Norman to a Provencal,
+of an Orcadian to a Cornishman? How readily might he be led to suppose
+that the different climatal conditions to which these speakers of
+one tongue have so long been exposed, have caused their physical
+differences; and how little would he suspect that these are due (as we
+happen to know they are) to wide differences of blood.
+
+Few take duly into account the evidence which exists as to the
+ease with which unlettered savages gain or lose a language. Captain
+Erskine, in his interesting "Journal of a Cruise among the Islands of
+the Western Pacific," especially remarks upon the "avidity with
+which the inhabitants of the polyglot islands of Melanesia, from New
+Caledonia to the Solomon Islands, adopt the improvements of a more
+perfect language than their own, which different causes and accidental
+communication still continue to bring to them;" and he adds that
+"among the Melanesian islands scarcely one was found by us which did
+not possess, in some cases still imperfectly, the decimal system of
+numeration in addition to their own, in which they reckon only to
+five."
+
+Yet how much philological reasoning in favour of the affinity
+or diversity of two distinct peoples has been based on the mere
+comparison of numerals!
+
+But the most instructive example of the fallacy which may attach to
+merely philological reasonings, is that afforded by the Feejeans, who
+are, physically, so intimately connected with the adjacent Negritos of
+New Caledonia, &c., that no one can doubt to what stock they belong,
+and who yet, in the form and substance of their language, are
+Polynesian. The case is as remarkable as if the Canary Islands should
+have been found to be inhabited by negroes speaking Arabic, or some
+other clearly Semitic dialect, as their mother tongue. As it happens,
+the physical peculiarities of the Feejeans are so striking, and
+the conditions under which they live are so similar to those of the
+Polynesians, that no one has ventured to suggest that they are merely
+modified Polynesians--a suggestion which could otherwise certainly
+have been made. But if languages may be thus transferred from one
+stock to another, without any corresponding intermixture of blood,
+what ethnological value has philology?--what security does unity of
+language afford us that the speakers of that language may not have
+sprung from two, or three, or a dozen, distinct sources?
+
+Thus we come, at last, to the purely zoological method, from which
+it is not unnatural to expect more than from any other, seeing that,
+after all, the problems of ethnology are simply those which are
+presented to the zoologist by every widely distributed animal he
+studies. The father of modern zoology seems to have had no doubt upon
+this point. At the twenty-eighth page of the standard twelfth edition
+of the "Systema Naturae," in fact, we find:--
+
+
+
+I. PRIMATES.
+
+
+_Dentes primores incisores: superiores IV. paralleli, mammae
+pectorales II._
+
+1. HOMO.        Nosce te ipsum.
+Sapiens.        1. H. diurnus: _varians cultura, loco._
+_Ferus_.   Tetrapus, mutus, hirsutus.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Americanus_ [Greek: a].  Rufus, cholericus, rectus--_Pilis_
+                               nigris, rectis, crassis--_Naribus_
+                               patulis--_Facie_ ephelitica:
+                               _Mento_ subimberbi.
+                               _Pertinax_, contentus, liber. _Pingit_
+                               se lineis daedaleis rubris.
+                               _Regitur_ Consuetudine.
+
+_Europaeus_ [Greek: b].   Albus sauguineus torosus. _Pilis_
+                               flavescentibus, prolixis.
+                               _Oculis_ caeruleis.
+                               _Levis_, argutus, inventor.
+                               _Tegitur_ Vestimentis arctis.
+                               _Regitur_ Ritibus.
+
+_Asiaticus_ [Greek: g].   Luridus, melancholicus, rigidus.
+                               _Pilis_ nigricantibus. _Oculis_
+                               fuscis.  _Severus_, fastuosus, avarus.
+                               _Tegitur_ Indumentis laxis.
+                               _Regitur_ Opinionibus.
+
+_Afer_ [Greek: d].        Niger, phlegmaticus, laxus. _Pilis_
+                               atris, contortuplicatis. _Cute_ holosericea.
+                               _Naso_ simo.  _Labiis_ tumidis.
+                               _Feminis_ sinus pudoris.
+                               _Mammae_ lactantes prolixae.
+                               _Vafer_, segnis, negligens. _Ungit_ se
+                               pingui. _Regitur_ Arbitrio.
+
+_Monstrosus_ [Greek: e].  Solo (a) et arte (b c) variat.:
+                            a. _Alpini_ parvi, agiles, timidi.
+                               _Patagonici_ magni, segnes.
+                            b. _Monorchides_ ut minus fertiles:
+                               Hottentotti.
+                               _Junceae_ puellae, abdomine attenuato:
+                               Europoeae.
+                            c. _Macrocephali_ capiti conico: Chinenses.
+                               _Plagiocephali_ capite antice compresso:
+                               Canadenses.
+
+Turn a few pages further on in the same volume, and there appears,
+with a fine impartiality in the distribution of capitals and
+sub-divisional headings:--
+
+III. FERAE.
+
+
+_Dentes primores superiores sex, acutiusculi. Canini solitarii._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+12. CANIS.           _Dentes primores_ superiores VI.: laterales
+                     longiores distantes: intermedii lobati.
+                     Inferiores VI.: laterales lobati.
+                     _Laniarii_ solitarii, incurvati.
+                     Molares VI. s. VII. (pluresve quam in reliquis).
+
+_familiaris_ [Greek: i].  C. cauda (sinistrorsum) recurvata....
+
+_domesticus_ [Greek: a].  auriculis erectis, cauda subtus lanata.
+
+_sagax_ [Greek: b].       auriculis pendulis, digito spurio ad
+                          tibias posticas.
+
+_grajus_ [Greek: g].      magnitudine lupi, trunco curvato, rostro
+                          attenuato, &c. &c.
+
+Linnaeus' definition of what he considers to be mere varieties of
+the species Man are, it will be observed, as completely free from
+any allusion to linguistic peculiarities as those brief and pregnant
+sentences in which he sketches the characters of the varieties of
+the species Dog. "Pilis nigris, naribus patulis" may be set against
+"auriculis erectis, cauda subtus lanata;" while the remarks on the
+morals and manners of the human subject seem as if they were thrown in
+merely by way of makeweight.
+
+Buffon, Blumenbach (the founder of ethnology as a special science),
+Rudolphi, Bory de St. Vincent, Desmoulins, Cuvier, Retzius, indeed I
+may say all the naturalists proper, have dealt with man from a no
+less completely zoological point of view; while, as might have been
+expected, those who have been least naturalists, and most linguists,
+have most neglected the zoological method, the neglect culminating in
+those who have been altogether devoid of acquaintance with anatomy.
+
+Prichard's proposition, that language is more persistent than physical
+characters, is one which has never been proved, and indeed admits of
+no proof, seeing that the records of language do not extend so far
+as those of physical characters. But, until the superior tenacity
+of linguistic over physical peculiarities is shown, and until the
+abundant evidence which exists, that the language of a people may
+change without corresponding physical change in that people, is shown
+to be valueless, it is plain that the zoological court of appeal
+is the highest for the ethnologist, and that no evidence can be set
+against that derived from physical characters.
+
+What, then, will a new survey of mankind from the Linnaean point of
+view teach us?
+
+The great antipodal block of land we call Australia has, speaking
+roughly, the form of a vast quadrangle, 2,000 miles on the side, and
+extends from the hottest tropical, to the middle of the temperate,
+zone. Setting aside the foreign colonists introduced within the
+last century, it is inhabited by people no less remarkable for the
+uniformity, than for the singularity, of their physical characters and
+social state. For the most part of fair stature, erect and well built,
+except for an unusual slenderness of the lower limbs, the AUSTRALIANS
+have dark, usually chocolate-coloured skins; fine dark wavy hair; dark
+eyes, overhung by beetle brows; coarse, projecting jaws; broad and
+dilated, but not especially flattened, noses; and lips which, though
+prominent, are eminently flexible.
+
+The skulls of these people are always long and narrow, with a smaller
+development of the frontal sinuses than usually corresponds with such
+largely developed brow ridges. An Australian skull of a round form,
+or one the transverse diameter of which exceeds eight-tenths of its
+length, has never been seen. These people, in a word, are eminently
+"dolichocephalic," or long-headed; but, with this one limitation,
+their crania present considerable variations, some being comparatively
+high and arched, while others are more remarkably depressed than
+almost any other human skulls.
+
+The female pelvis differs comparatively little from the European;
+but in the pelves of male Australians which I have examined, the
+antero-posterior and transverse diameters approach equality more
+nearly than is the case in Europeans.
+
+No Australian tribe has ever been known to cultivate the ground,
+to use metals, pottery, or any kind of textile fabric. They rarely
+construct huts. Their means of navigation are limited to rafts or
+canoes, made of sheets of bark. Clothing, except skin cloaks for
+protection from cold, is a superfluity with which they dispense; and
+though they have some singular weapons, almost peculiar to themselves,
+they are wholly unacquainted with bows and arrows.
+
+It is but a step, as it were, across Bass's Straits to Tasmania.
+Neither climate nor the characteristic forms of vegetable or animal
+life change largely on the south side of the Straits, but the early
+voyagers found Man singularly different from him on the north side.
+The skin of the Tasmanian was dark, though he lived between parallels
+of latitude corresponding with those of middle Europe in our own
+hemisphere; his jaws projected, his head was long and narrow; his
+civilization was about on a footing with that of the Australian, if
+not lower, for I cannot discover that the Tasmanian understood the
+use of the throwing-stick. But he differed from the Australian in his
+woolly, negro-like hair, whence the name of NEGRITO, which has been
+applied to him and his congeners.
+
+Such Negritos--differing more or less from the Tasmanian, but agreeing
+with him in dark skin and woolly hair--occupy New Caledonia, the New
+Hebrides, the Louisiade Archipelago; and stretching to the Papuan
+Islands, and for a doubtful extent beyond them to the north and
+west, form a sort of belt, or zone, of Negrito population, interposed
+between the Australians on the west and the inhabitants of the great
+majority of the Pacific islands on the east.
+
+The cranial characters of the Negritos vary considerably more than
+those of their skin and hair, the most notable circumstance being
+the strong Australian aspect which distinguishes many Negrito skulls,
+while others tend rather towards forms common in the Polynesian
+islands.
+
+In civilization, New Caledonia exhibits an advance upon Tasmania, and,
+farther north, there is a still greater improvement. But the bows
+and arrows, the perched houses, the outrigger canoes, the habits of
+betel-chewing and of kawa-drinking, which abound more or less among
+the northern Negritos, are probably to be regarded not as the products
+of an indigenous civilization, but merely as indications of the extent
+to which foreign influences have modified the primitive social state
+of these people.
+
+From Tasmania or New Caledonia, to New Zealand or Tongataboo, is again
+but a brief voyage; but it brings about a still more notable change
+in the aspect of the indigenous population than that effected by the
+passage of Bass's Straits. Instead of being chocolate-coloured people,
+the Maories and Tongans are light brown; instead of woolly, they have
+straight, or wavy, black hair. And if from New Zealand, we travel
+some 5,000 miles east to Easter Island; and from Easter Island, for as
+great a distance north-west, to the Sandwich Islands; and thence 7,000
+miles, westward and southward, to Sumatra; and even across the Indian
+Ocean, into the interior of Madagascar, we shall everywhere meet with
+people whose hair is straight or wavy, and whose skins exhibit various
+shades of brown. These are the Polynesians, Micronesians, Indonesians,
+whom Latham has grouped together under the common title of
+AMPHINESIANS.
+
+The cranial characters of these people, as of the Negritos, are less
+constant than those of their skin and hair. The Maori has a long
+skull; the Sandwich Islander a broad skull. Some, like these, have
+strong brow ridges; others, like the Dayaks and many Polynesians, have
+hardly any nasal indentation.
+
+It is only in the westernmost parts of their area that the Amphinesian
+nations know anything about bows and arrows as weapons, or are
+acquainted with the use of metals or with pottery. Everywhere they
+cultivate the ground, construct houses, and skilfully build and manage
+outrigger, or double, canoes; while, almost everywhere, they use some
+kind of fabric for clothing.
+
+Between Easter Island, or the Sandwich Islands, and any part of the
+American coast is a much wider interval than that between Tasmania and
+New Zealand, but the ethnological interval between the American and
+the Polynesian is less than that between either of the previously
+named stocks.
+
+The typical AMERICAN has straight black hair and dark eyes, his skin
+exhibiting various shades of reddish or yellowish brown, sometimes
+inclining to olive. The face is broad and scantily bearded; the skull
+wide and high. Such people extend from Patagonia to Mexico, and much
+farther north along the west coast. In the main a race of hunters,
+they had nevertheless, at the time of the discovery of the Americas,
+attained a remarkable degree of civilization in some localities. They
+had domesticated ruminants, and not only practised agriculture,
+but had learned the value of irrigation. They manufactured textile
+fabrics, were masters of the potter's art, and knew how to erect
+massive buildings of stone. They understood the working of the
+precious, though not of the useful, metals; and had even attained to a
+rude kind of hieroglyphic, or picture, writing.
+
+The Americans not only employ the bow and arrow, but, like some
+Amphinesians, the blow-pipe, as offensive weapons: but I am not aware
+that the outrigger canoe has ever been observed among them.
+
+I have reason to suspect that some of the Fuegian tribes differ
+cranially from the typical Americans; and the Northern and Eastern
+American tribes have longer skulls than their Southern compatriots.
+But the ESQUIMAUX, who roam on the desolate and ice-bound coasts of
+Arctic America, certainly present us with a new stock. The Esquimaux
+(among whom the Greenlanders are included), in fact, though they
+share the straight black hair of the proper Americans, are a duller
+complexioned, shorter, and more squat people, and they have still
+more prominent cheek-bones. But the circumstance which most completely
+separates them from the typical Americans, is the form of their
+skulls, which instead of being broad, high, and truncated behind, are
+eminently long, usually low, and prolonged backwards.
+
+These Hyperborean people clothe themselves in skins, know nothing of
+pottery, and hardly anything of metals. Dependent for existence upon
+the produce of the chase, the seal and the whale are to them what
+the cocoa-nut tree and the plantain are to the savages of more genial
+climates. Not only are those animals meat and raiment, but they are
+canoes, sledges, weapons, tools, windows, and fire; while they support
+the dog, who is the indispensable ally and beast of burden of the
+Esquimaux.
+
+It is admitted that the Tchuktchi, on the eastern side of Behring's
+Straits, are, in all essential respects, Esquimaux; and I do not know
+that there is any satisfactory evidence to show that the Tunguses and
+Samoiedes do not essentially share the physical characters of the same
+people. Southward, there are indications of Esquimaux characters among
+the Japanese, and it is possible that their influence may be traced
+yet further.
+
+However this may be, Eastern Asia, from Mantchouria to Siam, Thibet,
+and Northern Hindostan, is continuously inhabited by men, usually of
+short stature, with skins varying in colour from yellow to olive; with
+broad cheek-bones and faces that, owing to the insignificance of the
+nose, are exceedingly flat; and with small, obliquely-set, black eyes
+and straight black hair, which sometimes attains a very great length
+upon the scalp, but is always scanty upon the face and body. The
+skull is never much elongated, and is, generally, remarkably broad
+and rounded, with hardly any nasal depression, and but slight, if any,
+projection of the jaws.
+
+Many of these people, for whom the old name of MONGOLIANS may be
+retained, are nomades; others, as the Chinese, have attained a
+remarkable and apparently indigenous civilization, only surpassed by
+that of Europe.
+
+At the north-western extremity of Europe the Lapps repeat the
+characters of the Eastern Asiatics. Between these extreme points, the
+Mongolian stock is not continuous, but is represented by a chain of
+more or less isolated tribes, who pass under the name of Calmucks and
+Tartars, and form Mongolian islands, as it were, in the midst of an
+ocean of other people.
+
+The waves of this ocean are the nations for whom, in order
+to avoid the endless confusion produced by our present
+half-physical, half-philological classification, I shall use a new
+name--XANTHOCHROI--indicating that they are "yellow" haired and "pale"
+in complexion. The Chinese historians of the Han dynasty, writing
+in the third century before our era, describe, with much minuteness,
+certain numerous and powerful barbarians with "yellow hair, green
+eyes, and prominent noses," who, the black-haired, skew-eyed, and
+flat-nosed annalists remark in passing, are "just like the apes from
+whom they are descended." These people held, in force, the upper
+waters of the Yenisei, and thence under various names stretched
+southward to Thibet and Kashgar. Fair-haired and blue-eyed northern
+enemies were no less known to the ancient Hindoos, to the Persians,
+and to the Egyptians, on the south of the great central Asiatic area;
+while the testimony of all European antiquity is to the effect that,
+before and since the period in question, there lay beyond the Danube,
+the Rhine, and the Seine, a vast and dangerous yellow or red haired,
+fair-skinned, blue-eyed population. Whether the disturbers of the
+marches of the Roman Empire were called Gauls or Germans, Goths,
+Alans, or Scythians, one thing seems certain, that until the invasion
+of the Huns, they were tall, fair, blue-eyed men.
+
+If any one should think fit to assume that in the year 100 B.C.,
+there was one continuous Xanthochroic population from the Rhine to the
+Yenisei, and from the Ural mountains to the Hindoo Koosh, I know not
+that any evidence exists by which that position could be upset, while
+the existing state of things is rather in its favour than otherwise.
+For the Scandinavians, wholly, the Germans to a great extent, the
+Slavonian and the Finnish tribes, some of the inhabitants of Greece,
+many Turks, some Kirghis, and some Mantchous, the Ossetes in the
+Caucasus, the Siahposh, the Rohillas, are at the present day fair,
+yellow or red haired, and blue-eyed; and the interpolation of tribes
+of Mongolian hair and complexion, as far west as the Caspian Steppes
+and the Crimea, might justly be accounted for by those subsequent
+westward irruptions of the Mongolian stock, of which history furnishes
+abundant testimony.
+
+The furthermost limit of the Xanthochroi north-westward is Iceland
+and the British Isles; south-westward, they are traceable at intervals
+through the Berber country, and end in the Canary Islands.
+
+The cranial characters of the Xanthochroi are not, at present,
+strictly definable. The Scandinavians are certainly long-headed; but
+many Germans, the Swiss so far as they are Germanized, the Slavonians,
+the Fins, and the Turks, are short-headed. What were the cranial
+characters of the ancient "U-suns" and "Ting-lings" of the valley of
+the Yenisei is unknown.
+
+West of the area occupied by the chief mass of the Xanthochroi, and
+north of the Sahara, is a broad belt of land, shaped like a =Y=.
+Between the forks of the =Y= lies the Mediterranean; the stem of it
+is Arabia. The stem is bathed by the Indian Ocean, the western ends of
+the forks by the Atlantic. The people inhabiting the area thus roughly
+sketched have, like the Xanthochroi, prominent noses, pale skins and
+wavy hair, with abundant beards; but, unlike them, the hair is black
+or dark, and the eyes usually so. They may thence be called the
+MELANOCHROI. Such people are found in the British Islands, in Western
+and Southern Gaul, in Spain, in Italy south of the Po, in parts of
+Greece, in Syria and Arabia, stretching as far northward and eastward
+as the Caucasus and Persia. They are the chief inhabitants of Africa
+north of the Sahara, and, like the Xanthochroi, they end in the
+Canary Islands. They are known as Kelts, Iberians, Etruscans, Romans,
+Pelasgians, Berbers, Semites. The majority of them are long-headed,
+and of smaller stature than the Xanthochroi.
+
+It is needless to remark upon the civilization of these two great
+stocks. With them has originated everything that is highest in
+science, in art, in law, in politics, and in mechanical inventions.
+In their hands, at the present moment, lies the order of the social
+world, and to them its progress is committed.
+
+South of the Atlas, and of the Great Desert, Middle Africa exhibits
+a new type of humanity in the NEGRO, with his dark skin, woolly hair,
+projecting jaws, and thick lips. As a rule, the skull of the Negro
+is remarkably long; it rarely approaches the broad type, and never
+exhibits the roundness of the Mongolian. A cultivator of the ground,
+and dwelling in villages; a maker of pottery, and a worker in the
+useful as well as the ornamental metals; employing the bow and arrow
+as well as the spear, the typical negro stands high in point of
+civilization above the Australian.
+
+Resembling the Negroes in cranial characters, the BUSHMEN of South
+Africa differ from them in their yellowish brown skins, their tufted
+hair, their remarkably small stature, and their tendency to fatty and
+other integumentary outgrowths; nor is the wonderful click with which
+their speech is interspersed to be overlooked in enumerating the
+physical characteristics of this strange people.
+
+The so-called "Drawidian" populations of Southern Hindostan lead us
+back, physically as well as geographically, towards the Australians;
+while the diminutive MINCOPIES of the Andaman Islands lie midway
+between the Negro and Negrito races, and, as Mr. Busk has pointed
+out, occasionally present the rare combination of Brachycephaly, or
+short-headedness, with woolly hair.
+
+In the preceding progress along the outskirts of the habitable world,
+eleven readily distinguishable stocks, or persistent modifications, of
+mankind, have been recognized. I have purposely omitted such people as
+the Abyssinians and the Hindoos, who there is every reason to believe
+result from the intermixture of distinct stocks. Perhaps I ought, for
+like reasons, to have ignored the Mincopies. But I do not pretend that
+my enumeration is complete or, in any sense, perfect. It is enough for
+my purpose if it be admitted (and I think it cannot be denied) that
+those which I have mentioned exist, are well marked, and occupy the
+greater part of the habitable globe.
+
+In attempting to classify these persistent modifications after the
+manner of naturalists, the first circumstance that attracts one's
+attention is the broad contrast between the people with straight and
+wavy hair, and those with crisp, woolly, or tufted hair. Bory de
+St. Vincent, noting this fundamental distinction, divided mankind
+accordingly into the two primary groups of _Leiotrichi_ and
+_Ulotrichi_,--terms which are open to criticism, but which I adopt in
+the accompanying table, because they have been used. It is better for
+science to accept a faulty name which has the merit of existence, than
+to burthen it with a faultless newly invented one.
+
+Under each of these divisions are two columns, one for the
+Brachycephali, or short heads, and one for the Dolichocephali[1], or
+long heads. Again, each column is subdivided transversely into four
+compartments, one for the "leucous," people with fair complexions and
+yellow or red hair; one for the "leucomelanous," with dark hair and
+pale skins; one for the "xanthomelanous," with black hair and yellow,
+brown, or olive skins; and one for the "melanous," with black hair and
+dark brown or blackish skins.
+
+[Footnote 1: Skulls, the transverse diameter of which is more than
+eight-tenths the long diameter, are short; those which have the
+transverse diameter less than eight-tenths the longitudinal, are
+long.]
+
+             LEIOTRICHI.                       ULOTRICHI.
+   ______________________________     ____________________________
+  /                              \   /                            \
+    Dolichocephali. Brachycephali.   Dolichocephali. Brachycephali.
+Leucous.
+        .... Xanthochroi ....
+Leucomelanous.
+        .... Melanochroi ....
+Xanthomelanous.
+  _Esquimaux_.    Mongolians.   _Bushmen_.
+         _Amphinesians_.
+          _Americans_.
+Melanous.
+  _Australians_.                 Negroes.            _Mincopies_(?)
+                                   _Negritos_
+
+NOTE: _The names of the stocks known only since the fifteenth century
+are put into italics. If the "Skraelings" of the Norse discoverers of
+America were Esquimaux, Europeans became acquainted with the latter
+six or seven centuries earlier_.
+
+It is curious to observe that almost all the woolly-headed people are
+also long-headed; while among the straight-haired nations broad heads
+preponderate, and only two stocks, the Esquimaux and the Australians,
+are exclusively long-headed.
+
+One of the acutest and most original of ethnologists, Desmoulins,
+originated the idea, which has subsequently been fully developed by
+Agassiz, that the distribution of the persistent modifications of man
+is governed by the same laws as that of other animals, and that both
+fall into the same great distributional provinces. Thus, Australia;
+America, south of Mexico; the Arctic regions; Europe, Syria,
+Arabia, and North Africa, taken together, are each regions eminently
+characterized by the nature of their animal and vegetable populations,
+and each, as we have seen, has its peculiar and characteristic form of
+man. But it may be doubted whether the parallel thus drawn will hold
+good strictly, and in all cases. The Tasmanian Fauna and Flora are
+essentially Australian, and the like is true to a less extent of many,
+if not of all, the Papuan islands; but the Negritos who inhabit these
+islands are strikingly different from the Australians. Again, the
+differences between the Mongolians and the Xanthochroi are out of all
+proportion greater than those between the Faunae and Florae of Central
+and Eastern Asia. But whatever the difficulties in the way of the
+detailed application of this comparison of the distribution of men
+with that of animals, it is well worthy of being borne in mind, and
+carried as far as it will go.
+
+Apart from all speculation, a very curious fact regarding the
+distribution of the persistent modifications of mankind becomes
+apparent on inspecting an Ethnological chart, projected in such
+a manner that the Pacific Ocean occupies its centre. Such a chart
+exhibits an Australian area occupied by dark smooth-haired people,
+separated by an incomplete inner zone of dark woolly-haired
+Negritos and Negroes, from an outer zone of comparatively pale and
+smooth-haired men, occupying the Americas, and nearly all Asia and
+North Africa.
+
+Such is a brief sketch of the characters and distribution of the
+persistent modifications, or stocks, of mankind at the present day.
+If we seek for direct evidence of how long this state of things
+has lasted, we shall find little enough, and that little far from
+satisfactory. Of the eleven different stocks enumerated, seven have
+been known to us for less than 400 years; and of these seven not
+one possessed a fragment of written history at the time it came into
+contact with European civilization. The other four--the Negroes,
+Mongolians, Xanthochroi, and Melanochroi--have always existed in some
+of the localities in which they are now found, nor do the negroes ever
+seem to have voluntarily travelled beyond the limits of their present
+area. But ancient history is in a great measure the record of the
+mutual encroachments of the other three stocks.
+
+On the whole, however, it is wonderful how little change has been
+effected by these mutual invasions and intermixtures. As at the
+present time, so at the dawn of history, the Melanochroi fringed
+the Atlantic and the Mediterranean; the Xanthochroi occupied most
+of Central and Eastern Europe, and much of Western and Central Asia;
+while Mongolians held the extreme east of the Old World. So far as
+history teaches us, the populations of Europe, Asia, and Africa were,
+twenty centuries ago, just what they are now, in their broad features
+and general distribution.
+
+The evidence yielded by Archaeology is not very definite, but, so
+far as it goes, it is to much the same effect. The mound builders of
+Central America seem to have had the characteristic short and broad
+head of the modern inhabitants of that continent. The tumuli and tombs
+of Ancient Scandinavia, of pre-Roman Britain, of Gaul, of Switzerland,
+reveal two types of skull--a broad and a long--of which, in
+Scandinavia, the broad seems to have belonged to the older stock,
+while the reverse was probably the case in Britain, and certainly
+in Switzerland. It has been assumed that the broad-skulled people of
+ancient Scandinavia were Lapps; but there is no proof of the fact,
+and they may have been, like the broad-skulled Swiss and Germans,
+Xanthochroi. One of the greatest of ethnological difficulties is to
+know where the modern Swedes, Norsemen, and Saxons got their long
+heads, as all their neighbours, Fins, Lapps, Slavonians, and
+South Germans, are broad-headed. Again, who were the small-handed,
+long-headed people of the "bronze epoch," and what has become of the
+infusion of their blood among the Xanthochroi?
+
+At present Palaeontology yields no safe data to the ethnologist. We
+know absolutely nothing of the ethnological characters of the men of
+Abbeville and Hoxne; but must be content with the demonstration, in
+itself of immense value, that Man existed in Western Europe when its
+physical condition was widely different from what it is now, and
+when animals existed, which, though they belong to what is, properly
+speaking, the present order of things, have long been extinct. Beyond
+the limits of a fraction of Europe, Palaeontology tells us nothing of
+man or of his works.
+
+To sum up our knowledge of the ethnological past of man: so far as the
+light is bright, it shows him substantially as he is now; and, when it
+grows dim, it permits us to see no sign that he was other than he is
+now.
+
+It is a general belief that men of different stocks differ as much
+physiologically as they do morphologically; but it is very hard
+to prove, in any particular case, how much of a supposed national
+characteristic is due to inherent physiological peculiarities, and
+how much to the influence of circumstances. There is much evidence to
+show, however, that some stocks enjoy a partial or complete immunity
+from diseases which destroy, or decimate, others. Thus there seems
+good ground for the belief that Negroes are remarkably exempt from
+yellow fever; and that, among Europeans, the melanochrous people are
+less obnoxious to its ravages than the xanthochrous. But many writers,
+not content with physiological differences of this kind, undertake to
+prove the existence of others of far greater moment; and, indeed, to
+show that certain stocks of mankind exhibit, more or less distinctly,
+the physiological characters of true species. Unions between these
+stocks, and still more between the half-breeds arising from their
+mixture, are affirmed to be either infertile, or less fertile than
+those which take place between males and females of either stock under
+the same circumstances. Some go so far as to assert that no mixed
+breeds of mankind can maintain themselves without the assistance of
+one or other of the parent stocks, and that, consequently, they must
+inevitably be obliterated in the long run.
+
+Here, again, it is exceedingly difficult to obtain trustworthy
+evidence, and to free the effects of the pure physiological experiment
+from adventitious influences. The only trial which, by a strange
+chance, was kept clear of all such influences--the only instance in
+which two distinct stocks of mankind were crossed, and their progeny
+intermarried without any admixture from without--is the famous case
+of the Pitcairn Islanders, who were the progeny of Bligh's English
+sailors by Tahitian women. The results of this experiment, as
+everybody knows, are dead against those who maintain the doctrine of
+human hybridity, seeing that the Pitcairn Islanders, even though they
+necessarily contracted consanguineous marriages, throve and multiplied
+exceedingly.
+
+But those who are disposed to believe in this doctrine should study
+the evidence brought forward in its support by M. Broca, its latest
+and ablest advocate, and compare this evidence with that which the
+botanists, as represented by a Gaertner, or by a Darwin, think it
+indispensable to obtain before they will admit the infertility of
+crosses between two allied kinds of plants. They will then, I think,
+be satisfied that the doctrine in question rests upon a very unsafe
+foundation; that the facts adduced in its support are capable of many
+other interpretations; and, indeed, that from the very nature of
+the case, demonstrative evidence one way or the other is almost
+unattainable. _A priori_, I should be disposed to expect a certain
+amount of infertility between some of the extreme modifications of
+mankind; and still more between the offsprings of their intermixture.
+_A posteriori_, I cannot discover any satisfactory proof that such
+infertility exists.
+
+From the facts of ethnology I now turn to the theories and
+speculations of ethnologists, which have been devised to explain
+these facts, and to furnish satisfactory answers to the inquiry--what
+conditions have determined the existence of the persistent
+modifications of mankind, and have caused their distribution to be
+what it is?
+
+These speculations may be grouped under three heads: firstly, the
+Monogenist hypotheses; secondly, those of the Polygenists; and
+thirdly, that which would result from a simple application of
+Darwinian principles to mankind.
+
+According to the Monogenists, all mankind have sprung from a single
+pair, whose multitudinous progeny spread themselves over the world,
+such as it now is, and became modified into the forms we meet with in
+the various regions of the earth, by the effect of the climatal and
+other conditions to which they were subjected.
+
+The advocates of this hypothesis are divisible into several schools.
+There are those who represent the most numerous, respectable,
+and would-be orthodox of the public, and are what may be called
+"Adamites," pure and simple. They believe that Adam was made out of
+earth somewhere in Asia, about six thousand years ago; that Eve was
+modelled from one of his ribs; and that the progeny of these two
+having been reduced to the eight persons who were landed on the summit
+of Mount Ararat after an universal deluge, all the nations of the
+earth have proceeded from these last, have migrated to their present
+localities, and have become converted into Negroes, Australians,
+Mongolians, &c., within that time. Five-sixths of the public are
+taught this Adamitic Monogenism, as if it were an established truth,
+and believe it. I do not; and I am not acquainted with any man of
+science, or duly instructed person, who does.
+
+A second school of monogenists, not worthy of much attention, attempts
+to hold a place midway between the Adamites and a third division, who
+take up a purely scientific position, and require to be dealt with
+accordingly. This third division, in fact, numbers in its ranks
+Linnaeus, Buffon, Blumenbach, Cuvier, Prichard, and many distinguished
+living ethnologists.
+
+These "Rational Monogenists," or, at any rate, the more modern among
+them, hold, firstly, that the present condition of the earth has
+existed for untold ages; secondly, that, at a remote period, beyond
+the ken of Archbishop Usher, man was created, somewhere between the
+Caucasus and the Hindoo Koosh; thirdly, that he might have migrated
+thence to all parts of the inhabited world, seeing that none of them
+are unattainable from some other inhabited part, by men provided with
+only such means of transport as savages are known to possess and
+must have invented; fourthly, that the operation of the existing
+diversities of climate and other conditions upon people so migrating,
+is sufficient to account for all the diversities of mankind.
+
+Of the truth of the first of these propositions no competent judge now
+entertains any doubt. The second is more open to discussion, for in
+these latter days many question the special creation of man: and even
+if his special creation be granted, there is not a shadow of a reason
+why he should have been created in Asia rather than anywhere else.
+Of all the odd myths that have arisen in the scientific world, the
+"Caucasian mystery," invented quite innocently by Blumenbach, is the
+oddest. A Georgian woman's skull was the handsomest in his collection.
+Hence it became his model exemplar of human skulls, from which all
+others might be regarded as deviations; and out of this, by some
+strange intellectual hocus-pocus, grew up the notion that the
+Caucasian man is the prototypic "Adamic" man, and his country the
+primitive centre of our kind. Perhaps the most curious thing of all
+is, that the said Georgian skull, after all, is not a skull of average
+form, but distinctly belongs to the brachycephalic group.
+
+With the third proposition I am quite disposed to agree, though
+it must be recollected that it is one thing to allow that a given
+migration is possible, and another to admit there is good reason to
+believe it has really taken place.
+
+But I can find no sufficient ground for accepting the fourth
+proposition; and I doubt if it would ever have obtained its general
+currency except for the circumstance that fair Europeans are very
+readily tanned and embrowned by the sun. But I am not aware that there
+is a particle of proof that the cutaneous change thus effected can
+become hereditary, any more than that the enlarged livers, which
+plague our countrymen in India, can be transmitted;--while there is
+very strong evidence to the contrary. Not only, in fact, are there
+such cases as those of the English families in Barbadoes, who have
+remained for six generations unaltered in complexion, but which are
+open to the objection that they may have received infusions of
+fresh European blood; but there is the broad fact, that not a single
+indigenous Negro exists either in the great alluvial plains of
+tropical South America, or in the exposed islands of the Polynesian
+Archipelago, or among the populations of equatorial Borneo or Sumatra.
+No satisfactory explanation of these obvious difficulties has been
+offered by the advocates of the direct influence of conditions. And as
+for the more important modifications observed in the structure of the
+brain, and in the form of the skull, no one has ever pretended to show
+in what way they can be effected directly by climate.
+
+It is here, in fact, that the strength of the Polygenists, or those
+who maintain that men primitively arose, not from one, but from many
+stocks, lies. Show us, they say to the Monogenists, a single case in
+which the characters of a human stock have been essentially modified
+without its being demonstrable, or, at least, highly probable, that
+there has been intermixture of blood with some foreign stock. Bring
+forward any instance in which a part of the world, formerly inhabited
+by one stock, is now the dwelling-place of another, and we will prove
+the change to be the result of migration, or of intermixture, and not
+of modification of character by climatic influences. Finally, prove
+to us that the evidence in favour of the specific distinctness of many
+animals, admitted to be distinct species by all zoologists, is a whit
+better than that upon which we maintain the specific distinctness of
+men.
+
+If presenting unanswerable objections to your adversary were the same
+thing as proving your own case, the Polygenists would be in a fair way
+towards victory; but, unfortunately, as I have already observed, they
+have as yet completely failed to adduce satisfactory positive proof
+of the specific diversity of mankind. Like the Monogenists, the
+Polygenists are of several sects; some imagine that their assumed
+species of mankind were created where we find them--the African in
+Africa, and the Australian in Australia, along with the other animals
+of their distributional province; others conceive that each species of
+man has resulted from the modification of some antecedent species of
+ape--the American from the broad-nosed Simians of the New World, the
+African from the Troglodytic stock, the Mongolian from the Orangs.
+
+The first hypothesis is hardly likely to win much favour. The whole
+tendency of modern science is to thrust the origination of things
+further and further into the background; and the chief philosophical
+objection to Adam being, not his oneness, but the hypothesis of his
+special creation; the multiplication of that objection tenfold is,
+whatever it may look, an increase, instead of a diminution, of the
+difficulties of the case. And, as to the second alternative, it may
+safely be affirmed that, even if the differences between men are
+specific, they are so small, that the assumption of more than one
+primitive stock for all is altogether superfluous. Surely no one can
+now be found to assert that any two stocks of mankind differ as much
+as a chimpanzee and an orang do; still less that they are as unlike as
+either of these is to any New World Simian!
+
+Lastly, the granting of the Polygenist premises does not, in the
+slightest degree, necessitate the Polygenist conclusion. Admit that
+Negroes and Australians, Negritos and Mongols are distinct species,
+or distinct genera, if you will, and you may yet, with perfect
+consistency, be the strictest of Monogenists, and even believe in Adam
+and Eve as the primaeval parents of all mankind.
+
+It is to Mr. Darwin we owe this discovery: it is he who, coming
+forward in the guise of an eclectic philosopher, presents his doctrine
+as the key to ethnology, and as reconciling and combining all that is
+good in the Monogenistic and Polygenistic schools.
+
+It is true that Mr. Darwin has not, in so many words, applied his
+views to ethnology; but even he who "runs and reads" the "Origin of
+Species" can hardly fail to do so; and, furthermore, Mr. Wallace and
+M. Pouchet have recently treated of ethnological questions from this
+point of view. Let me, in conclusion, add my own contribution to the
+same store.
+
+I assume Man to have arisen in the manner which I have discussed
+elsewhere, and probably, though by no means necessarily, in one
+locality. Whether he arose singly, or a number of examples appeared
+contemporaneously, is also an open question for the believer in the
+production of species by the gradual modification of pre-existing
+ones. At what epoch of the world's history this took place, again, we
+have no evidence whatever. It may have been in the older tertiary,
+or earlier, but what is most important to remember is, that the
+discoveries of late years have proved that man inhabited Western
+Europe, at any rate, before the occurrence of those great physical
+changes which have given Europe its present aspect. And as the same
+evidence shows that man was the contemporary of animals which are now
+extinct, it is not too much to assume that his existence dates back
+at least as far as that of our present Fauna and Flora, or before the
+epoch of the drift.
+
+But if this be true, it is somewhat startling to reflect upon the
+prodigious changes which have taken place in the physical geography of
+this planet since man has been an occupant of it.
+
+During that period the greater part of the British islands, of Central
+Europe, of Northern Asia, have been submerged beneath the sea and
+raised up again. So has the great desert of Sahara, which occupies the
+major part of Northern Africa. The Caspian and the Aral seas have been
+one, and their united waters have probably communicated with both the
+Arctic and the Mediterranean oceans. The greater part of North America
+has been under water, and has emerged. It is highly probable that
+a large part of the Malayan Archipelago has sunk, and its primitive
+continuity with Asia has been destroyed. Over the great Polynesian
+area subsidence has taken place to the extent of many thousands of
+feet--subsidence of so vast a character, in fact, that if a continent
+like Asia had once occupied the area of the Pacific, the peaks of its
+mountains would now show not more numerous than the islands of the
+Polynesian Archipelago.
+
+What lands may have been thickly populated for untold ages, and
+subsequently have disappeared and left no sign above the waters, it
+is of course impossible for us to say; but unless we are to make the
+wholly unjustifiable assumption that no dry land rose elsewhere when
+our present dry land sank, there must be half-a-dozen Atlantises
+beneath the waves of the various oceans of the world. But if the
+regions which have undergone these slow and gradual, but immense
+alterations, were wholly or in part inhabited before the changes I
+have indicated began--and it is more probable that they were, than
+that they were not--what a wonderfully efficient "Emigration Board"
+must have been at work all over the world long before canoes, or even
+rafts, were invented; and before men were impelled to wander by any
+desire nobler or stronger than hunger. And as these rude and primitive
+families were thrust, in the course of long series of generations,
+from land to land, impelled by encroachments of sea or of marsh, or
+by severity of summer heat or winter cold, to change their positions,
+what opportunities must have been offered for the play of natural
+selection, in preserving one family variation and destroying another!
+
+Suppose, for example, that some families of a horde which had reached
+a land charged with the seeds of yellow fever, varied in the direction
+of woolliness of hair and darkness of skin. Then, if it be true that
+these physical characters are accompanied by comparative or absolute
+exemptions from that scourge, the inevitable tendency would be to the
+preservation and multiplication of the darker and woollier families,
+and the elimination of the whiter and smoother-haired. In fact, by the
+operation of causes precisely similar to those which, in the famous
+instance cited by Mr. Darwin, have given rise to a race of black pigs
+in the forests of Louisiana, a negro stock would eventually people the
+region.
+
+Again, how often, by such physical changes, must a stock have been
+isolated from all others for innumerable generations, and have found
+ample time for the hereditary hardening of its special peculiarities
+into the enduring characters of a persistent modification.
+
+Nor, if it be true that the physiological difference of species may be
+produced by variation and natural selection, as Mr. Darwin supposes,
+would it be at all astonishing if, in some of these separated stocks,
+the process of differentiation should have gone so far as to give
+rise to the phenomena of hybridity. In the face of the overwhelming
+evidence in favour of the unity of the origin of mankind afforded by
+anatomical considerations, satisfactory proof of the existence of any
+degree of sterility in the unions of members of two of the "persistent
+modifications" of mankind, might well be appealed to by Mr. Darwin
+as crucial evidence of the truth of his views regarding the origin of
+species in general.
+
+
+
+
+VIII.
+
+ON SOME FIXED POINTS IN BRITISH ETHNOLOGY.
+
+
+In view of the many discussions to which the complicated problems
+offered by the ethnology of the British Islands have given rise, it
+may be useful to attempt to pick out, from amidst the confused masses
+of assertion and of inference, those propositions which appear to rest
+upon a secure foundation, and to state the evidence by which they are
+supported. Such is the purpose of the present paper.
+
+Some of these well-based propositions relate to the physical
+characters of the people of Britain and their neighbours; while others
+concern the languages which they spoke. I shall deal, in the first
+place, with the physical questions.
+
+I. _Eighteen hundred years ago the population of Britain comprised
+people of two types of complexion--the one fair, and the other dark.
+The dark people resembled the Aquitani and the Iberians; the fair
+people were like the Belgic Gauls._
+
+The chief direct evidence of the truth of this proposition is the
+well-known passage of Tacitus:--
+
+    "Ceterum Britanniam qui mortales initio coluerint, indigenae
+    an advecti, ut inter barbaros, parum compertum. Habitus
+    corporum varii: atque ex eo argumenta: nam rutilae Caledoniam
+    habitantium comae, magni artus Germanicam originem asseverant.
+    Silurum colorati vultus et torti plerumque crines, et posita
+    contra Hispaniam, Iberos veteres trajecisse, easque sedes
+    occupasse, fidem faciunt. Proximi Gallis et similes sunt; seu
+    durante originis vi, seu procurrentibus in diversa terris,
+    positio coeli corporibus habitum dedit. In universum tamen
+    aestimanti, Gallos vicinum solum occupasse, credibile est;
+    eorum sacra deprehendas, superstitionum persuasione; sermo
+    haud multum diversus."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Taciti Agricola, c. 11.]
+
+This passage, it will be observed, contains statements as to facts,
+and certain conclusions deduced from these facts. The matters of fact
+asserted are: firstly, that the inhabitants of Britain exhibit much
+diversity in their physical characters; secondly, that the Caledonians
+are red-haired and large-limbed, like the Germans; thirdly, that
+the Silures have curly hair and dark complexions, like the people of
+Spain; fourthly, that the British people nearest Gaul resemble the
+"Galli."
+
+Tacitus, therefore, states positively what the Caledonians and Silures
+were like; but the interpretation of what he says about the other
+Britons must depend upon what we learn from other sources as to the
+characters of these "Galli." Here the testimony of "divus Julius"
+comes in with great force and appropriateness. Caesar writes:--
+
+    "Britanniae pars interior ab iis incolitur, quos natos in
+    insula ipsi memoria proditum dicunt: marituma pars ab iis,
+    qui predae ac belli inferendi causa ex Belgio transierant; qui
+    omnes fere iis nominibus civitatum appellantur quibus orti ex
+    civitatibus eo pervenerunt, et bello inlato ibi permanserunt
+    atque agros colere coeperunt."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: De Bello Gallico, v. 12.]
+
+From these passages it is obvious that in the opinion of Caesar
+and Tacitus, the southern Britons resembled the northern Gauls, and
+especially the Belgae; and the evidence of Strabo is decisive as to
+the characters in which the two people resembled one another: "The men
+(of Britain) are taller than the Kelts, with hair less yellow; they
+are slighter in their persons."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "The Geography of Strabo." Translated by Hamilton and
+Falconer; v. 5.]
+
+The evidence adduced appears to leave no reasonable ground for
+doubting that, at the time of the Roman conquest, Britain contained
+people of two types, the one dark and the other fair complexioned, and
+that there was a certain difference between the latter in the north
+and in the south of Britain: the northern folk being, in the judgment
+of Tacitus, or, more properly, according to the information he had
+received from Agricola and others, more similar to the Germans than
+the latter. As to the distribution of these stocks, all that is clear
+is, that the dark people were predominant in certain parts of the west
+of the southern half of Britain, while the fair stock appears to have
+furnished the chief elements of the population elsewhere.
+
+No ancient writer troubled himself with measuring skulls, and
+therefore there is no direct evidence as to the cranial characters
+of the fair and the dark stocks. The indirect evidence is not very
+satisfactory. The tumuli of Britain of pre-Roman date have yielded two
+extremely different forms of skull, the one broad and the other long;
+and the same variety has been observed in the skulls of the ancient
+Gauls[1]. The suggestion is obvious that the one form of skull may
+have been associated with the fair, and the other with the dark,
+complexion. But any conclusion of this kind is at once checked by the
+reflection that the extremes of long and short-headedness are to be
+met with among the fair inhabitants of Germany and of Scandinavia
+at the present day--the south-western Germans and the Swiss being
+markedly broad-headed, while the Scandinavians are as predominantly
+long-headed.
+
+[Footnote 1: See Dr. Thurnam "On the Two principal Forms of Ancient
+British and Gaulish Skulls."]
+
+What the natives of Ireland were like at the time of the Roman
+conquest of Britain, and for centuries afterwards, we have no certain
+knowledge; but the earliest trustworthy records prove the existence,
+side by side with one another, of a fair and a dark stock, in Ireland
+as in Britain. The long form of skull is predominant among the
+ancient, as among modern, Irish.
+
+II. _The people termed Gauls, and those called Germans, by the Romans,
+did not differ in any important physical character._
+
+The terms in which the ancient writers describe both Gauls and Germans
+are identical. They are always tall people, with massive limbs, fair
+skins, fierce blue eyes, and hair the colour of which ranges from
+red to yellow. Zeuss, the great authority on these matters, affirms
+broadly that no distinction in bodily feature is to be found between
+the Gauls, the Germans, and the Wends, so far as their characters are
+recorded by the old historians; and he proves his case by citations
+from a cloud of witnesses.
+
+An attempt has been made to show that the colour of the hair of the
+Gauls must have differed very much from that which obtained among the
+Germans, on the strength of the story told by Suetonius (Caligula, 4),
+that Caligula tried to pass off Gauls for Germans by picking out the
+tallest, and making them "rutilare et summittere comam."
+
+The Baron de Belloguet remarks upon this passage:--
+
+    "It was in the very north of Gaul, and near the sea, that
+    Caligula got up this military comedy. And the fact proves
+    that the Belgae were already sensibly different from their
+    ancestors, whom Strabo had found almost identical with their
+    _brothers_ on the other side of the Rhine."
+
+But the fact recorded by Suetonius, if fact it be, proves nothing;
+for the Germans themselves were in the habit of reddening their hair.
+Ammianus Marcellinus[1] tells how, in the year 367 A.D., the Roman
+commander, Jovinus, surprised a body of Alemanni near the town now
+called Charpeigne, in the valley of the Moselle; and how the Roman
+soldiers, as, concealed by the thick wood, they stole upon their
+unsuspecting enemies, saw that some were bathing and others "comas
+rutilantes ex more." More than two centuries earlier Pliny gives
+indirect evidence to the same effect when he says of soap:--
+
+[Footnote 1: Res Gestae, xxvii.]
+
+    "Galliarum hoc inventum rutilandis capillis ... apud Germanos
+    majore in usu viris quam foeminis."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Historia Naturalis, xxviii. 51.]
+
+Here we have a writer who flourished only a short time after the date
+of the Caligula story, telling us that the Gauls invented soap for the
+purpose of doing that which, according to Suetonius, Caligula forced
+them to do. And, further, the combined and independent testimony of
+Pliny and Ammianus assures us that the Germans were as much in the
+habit of reddening their hair as the Gauls. As to De Belloguet's
+supposition that, even in Caligula's time, the Gauls had become darker
+than their ancestors were, it is directly contradicted by Ammianus
+Marcellinus, who knew the Gauls well. "Celsioris staturae et candidi
+poene Galli sunt onions, et rutili, luminumque torvitate terribiles,"
+is his description; and it would fit the Gauls who sacked Rome.
+
+III. _In none of the invasions of Britain which have taken place since
+the Roman dominion, has any other type of man been introduced than one
+or other of the two which existed during that dominion_.
+
+
+
+The North Germans, who effected what is commonly called the Saxon
+conquest of Britain, were, most assuredly, a fair, yellow, or
+red-haired, blue eyed, long-skulled people. So were the Danes and the
+Norsemen who followed them; though it is very possible that the active
+slave trade which went on, and the intercourse with Ireland, may have
+introduced a certain admixture of the dark stock into both Denmark and
+Norway. The Norman conquest brought in new ethnological elements, the
+precise value of which cannot be estimated with exactness; but as to
+their quality, there can be no question, inasmuch as even the wide
+area from which William drew his followers could yield him nothing but
+the fair and the dark types of men, already present in Britain. But
+whether the Norman settlers, on the whole, strengthened the fair or
+the dark element, is a problem, the elements of the solution of which
+are not attainable.
+
+I am unable to discover any grounds for believing that a Lapp element
+has ever entered into the population of these islands. So far as the
+physical evidence goes, it is perfectly consistent with the hypothesis
+that the only constituent stocks of that population, now, or at any
+other period about which we have evidence, are the dark whites, whom
+I have proposed to call "_Melanochroi_" and the fair whites, or
+"_Xanthochroi._"
+
+IV. _The Xanthochroi and the Melanochroi of Britain are, speaking
+broadly, distributed, at present, as they were in the time of Tacitus;
+and their representatives on the continent of Europe have the same
+general distribution as at the earliest period of which we have any
+record._
+
+At the present day, and notwithstanding the extensive intermixture
+effected by the movements consequent on civilization and on political
+changes, there is a predominance of dark men in the west, and of fair
+men in the east and north, of Britain. At the present day, as from
+the earliest times, the predominant constituents of the riverain
+population of the North Sea and the eastern half of the British
+Channel, are fair men. The fair stock continues in force through
+Central Europe, until it is lost in Central Asia. Offshoots of this
+stock extend into Spain, Italy, and Northern India, and by way of
+Syria and North Africa, to the Canary Islands. They were known in
+very early times to the Chinese, and in still earlier to the ancient
+Egyptians, as frontier tribes. The Thracians were notorious for their
+fair hair and blue eyes many centuries before our era.
+
+On the other hand, the dark stock predominates in Southern and
+Western France, in Spain, along the Ligurian shore, and in Western and
+Southern Italy; in Greece, Asia, Syria, and North Africa; in Arabia,
+Persia, Afghanistan, and Hindostan, shading gradually, through all
+stages of darkening, into the type of the modern Egyptian, or of the
+wild Hill-man of the Dekkan. Nor is there any record of the existence
+of a different population in all these countries.
+
+The extreme north of Europe, and the northern part of Western Asia,
+are at present occupied by a Mongoloid stock, and, in the absence of
+evidence to the contrary, may be assumed to have been so peopled from
+a very remote epoch. But, as I have said, I can find no evidence that
+this stock ever took part in peopling Britain. Of the three great
+stocks of mankind which extend from the western coast of the
+great Eurasiatic continent to its southern and eastern shores, the
+Mongoloids occupy a vast triangle, the base of which is the whole of
+Eastern Asia, while its apex lies in Lapland. The Melanochroi, on the
+other hand, may be represented as a broad band stretching from Ireland
+to Hindostan; while the Xanthochroic area lies between the two, thins
+out, so to speak, at either end, and mingles, at its margins, with
+both its neighbours.
+
+Such is a brief and summary statement of what I believe to be the
+chief facts relating to the physical ethnology of the people of
+Britain. The conclusions which I draw from these and other facts are
+(1) That the Melanochroi and the Xanthochroi are two separate races in
+the biological sense of the word race; (2) That they have had the same
+general distribution as at present from the earliest times of which
+any record exists on the continent of Europe; (3) That the population
+of the British Islands is derived from them, and from them only.
+
+The people of Europe, however, owe their national names, not to
+their physical characteristics, but to their languages, or to their
+political relations; which, it is plain, need not have the slightest
+relation to these characteristics.
+
+Thus, it is quite certain that, in Caesar's time, Gaul was divided
+politically into three nationalities--the Belgae, the Celtae, and
+the Aquitani; and that the last were very widely different, both in
+language and in physical characteristics, from the two former. The
+Belgae and the Celtae, on the other hand, differed comparatively
+little either in physique or in language. On the former point there is
+the distinct testimony of Strabo; as to the latter, St. Jerome states
+that the "Galatians had almost the same language as the Treviri." Now,
+the Galatians were emigrant Volcae Tectosages, and therefore Celtae;
+while the Treviri were Belgae.
+
+At the present day, the physical characters of the people of
+Belgic Gaul remain distinct from those of the people of Aquitaine,
+notwithstanding the immense changes which have taken place since
+Caesar's time; but Belgae, Celtae, and Aquitani (all but a mere
+fraction of the last two, represented by the Basques and the Britons)
+are fused into one nationality, "le peuple Francais." But they have
+adopted the language of one set of invaders, and the name of another;
+their original names and languages having almost disappeared.
+Suppose that the French language remained as the sole evidence of
+the existence of the population of Gaul, would the keenest philologer
+arrive at any other conclusion than that this population was
+essentially and fundamentally a "Latin" race, which had had some
+communication with Celts and Teutons? Would he so much as suspect the
+former existence of the Aquitani?
+
+Community of language testifies to close contact between the people
+who speak the language, but to nothing else; philology has absolutely
+nothing to do with ethnology, except so far as it suggests the
+existence or the absence of such contact. The contrary assumption,
+that language is a test of race, has introduced the utmost confusion
+into ethnological speculation, and has nowhere worked greater
+scientific and practical mischief than in the ethnology of the British
+Islands.
+
+What is known, for certain, about the languages spoken in these
+islands and their affinities may, I believe, be summed up as
+follows:--
+
+I. _At the time of the Roman conquest, one language, the Celtic, under
+two principal dialectical divisions, the Cymric and the Gaelic, was
+spoken throughout the British Islands. Cymric was spoken in Britain,
+Gaelic in Ireland._
+
+If a language allied to Basque had in earlier times been spoken in
+the British Islands, there is no evidence that any Euskarian-speaking
+people remained at the time of the Roman conquest. The dark and the
+fair population of Britain alike spoke Celtic tongues, and therefore
+the name "Celt" is as applicable to the one as to the other.
+
+What was spoken in Ireland can only be surmised by reasoning from the
+knowledge of later times; but there seems to be no doubt that it was
+Gaelic; and that the Gaelic dialect was introduced into the Western
+Highlands by Irish invaders.
+
+II. _The Belgae and the Celtae, with the offshoots of the latter in
+Asia Minor, spoke dialects of the Cymric division of Celtic_.
+
+The evidence of this proposition lies in the statement of St. Jerome
+before cited; in the similarity of the names of places in Belgic Gaul
+and in Britain; and in the direct comparison of sundry ancient Gaulish
+and Belgic words which have been preserved, with the existing Cymric
+dialects, for which I must refer to the learned work of Brandes.
+
+Formerly, as at the present day, the Cymric dialects of Celtic were
+spoken by both the fair and the dark stocks.
+
+III. _There is no record of Gaelic being spoken anywhere save in
+Ireland, Scotland, and the Isle of Man_.
+
+This appears to be the final result of the long discussions which have
+taken place on this much-debated question. As is the case with the
+Cymric dialects, Gaelic is now spoken by both dark and fair stocks.
+
+IV. _When the Teutonic languages first became known, they were spoken
+only Xanthochroi, that is to say, by the Germans, the Scandinavians,
+and Goths. And they were imported by Xanthochroi into Gaul and into
+Britain._
+
+In Gaul the imported Teutonic dialect has been completely overpowered
+by the more or less modified Latin, which it found already in
+possession; and what Teutonic blood there may be in modern Frenchmen
+is not adequately represented in their language. In Britain, on the
+contrary, the Teutonic dialects have overpowered the pre-existing
+forms of speech, and the people are vastly less "Teutonic" than
+their language. Whatever may have been the extent to which the
+Celtic-speaking population of the eastern half of Britain was trodden
+out and supplanted by the Teutonic-speaking Saxons and Danes, it is
+quite certain that no considerable displacement of the Celtic-speaking
+people occurred in Cornwall, Wales, or the Highlands of Scotland; and
+that nothing approaching to the extinction of that people took place
+in Devonshire, Somerset, or the western moiety of Britain generally.
+Nevertheless, the fundamentally Teutonic English language is now
+spoken throughout Britain, except by an insignificant fraction of the
+population in Wales and the Western Highlands. But it is obvious
+that this fact affords not the slightest justification for the common
+practice of speaking of the present inhabitants of Britain as an
+"Anglo-Saxon" people. It is, in fact, just as absurd as the habit of
+talking of the French people as a "Latin" race, because they speak a
+language which is, in the main, derived from Latin. And the absurdity
+becomes the more patent when those who have no hesitation in calling
+a Devonshire man, or a Cornish man, an "Anglo-Saxon," would think it
+ridiculous to call a Tipperary man by the same title, though he and
+his forefathers may have spoken English for as long a time as the
+Cornish man.
+
+Ireland, at the earliest period of which we have any knowledge,
+contained like Britain, a dark and a fair stock, which, there is every
+reason to believe, were identical with the dark and the fair stocks
+of Britain. When the Irish first became known they spoke a Gaelic
+dialect, and though, for many centuries, Scandinavians made continual
+incursions upon, and settlements among them, the Teutonic languages
+made no more way among the Irish than they did among the French. How
+much Scandinavian blood was introduced there is no evidence to show.
+But after the conquest of Ireland by Henry II., the English people,
+consisting in part of the descendants of Cymric speakers, and in part
+of the descendants of Teutonic speakers, made good their footing in
+the eastern half of the island, as the Saxons and Danes made good
+theirs in England; and did their best to complete the parallel by
+attempting the extirpation of the Gaelic-speaking Irish. And they
+succeeded to a considerable extent; a large part of Eastern Ireland is
+now peopled by men who are substantially English by descent, and the
+English language has spread over the land far beyond the limits of
+English blood.
+
+Ethnologically, the Irish people were originally, like the people of
+Britain, a mixture of Melanochroi and Xanthochroi. They resembled the
+Britons in speaking a Celtic tongue; but it was a Gaelic and not a
+Cymric form of the Celtic language. Ireland was untouched by the Roman
+conquest, nor do the Saxons seem to have had any influence upon
+her destinies, but the Danes and Norsemen poured in a contingent of
+Teutonism, which has been largely supplemented by English and Scotch
+efforts.
+
+What, then, is the value of the ethnological difference between the
+Englishman of the western half of England and the Irishman of the
+eastern half of Ireland? For what reason does the one deserve the
+name of a "Celt," and not the other? And further, if we turn to
+the inhabitants of the western half of Ireland, why should the term
+"Celts" be applied to them more than to the inhabitants of Cornwall?
+And if the name is applicable to the one as justly as to the other,
+why should not intelligence, perseverance, thrift, industry, sobriety,
+respect for law, be admitted to be Celtic virtues? And why should we
+not seek for the cause of their absence in something else than the
+idle pretext of "Celtic blood?"
+
+I have been unable to meet with any answers to these questions.
+
+V. _The Celtic and the Teutonic dialects are members of the same
+great Aryan family of languages; but there is evidence to show that a
+non-Aryan language was at one time spoken over a large extent of the
+area occupied by Melanochroi in Europe_.
+
+The non-Aryan language here referred to is the Euskarian, now spoken
+only by the Basques, but which seems in earlier times to have been
+the language of the Aquitanians and Spaniards, and may possibly have
+extended much further to the East. Whether it has any connection with
+the Ligurian and Oscan dialects are questions upon which, of course,
+I do not presume to offer any opinion. But it is important to remark
+that it is a language the area of which has gradually diminished
+without any corresponding extirpation of the people who primitively
+spoke it; so that the people of Spain and of Aquitaine at the present
+day must be largely "Euskarian" by descent in just the same sense as
+the Cornish men are "Celtic" by descent.
+
+Such seem to me to be the main facts respecting the ethnology of the
+British islands and of Western Europe, which may be said to be fairly
+established. The hypothesis by which I think (with De Belloguet and
+Thurnam) the facts may best be explained is this: In very remote times
+Western Europe and the British islands were inhabited by the dark
+stock, or the Melanochroi, alone, and these Melanochroi spoke dialects
+allied to the Euskarian. The Xanthochroi, spreading over the great
+Eurasiatic plains westward, and speaking Aryan dialects, gradually
+invaded the territories of the Melanochroi. The Xanthochroi, who
+thus came into contact with the Western Melanochroi, spoke a Celtic
+language; and that Celtic language, whether Cymric or Gaelic, spread
+over the Melanochroi far beyond the limits of intermixture of blood,
+supplanting Euskarian, just as English and French, have supplanted
+Celtic. Even as early as Caesar's time, I suppose that the Euskarian
+was everywhere, except in Spain and in Aquitaine, replaced by Celtic,
+and thus the Celtic speakers were no longer of one ethnological stock,
+but of two. Both in Western Europe and in England a third wave of
+language--in the one case Latin, in the other Teutonic--has spread
+over the same area. In Western Europe, it has left a fragment of the
+primary Euskarian in one corner of the country, and a fragment of the
+secondary Celtic in another. In the British islands, only outlying
+pools of the secondary linguistic wave remain in Wales, the Highlands,
+Ireland, and the Isle of Man. If this hypothesis is a sound one, it
+follows that the name of Celtic is not properly applicable to the
+Melanochroic or dark stock of Europe. They are merely, so to speak,
+secondary Celts. The primary and aboriginal Celtic-speaking people are
+Xanthochroi--the typical Gauls of the ancient writers, and the close
+allies by blood, customs, and language, of the Germans.
+
+
+
+
+IX.
+
+PALAEONTOLOGY AND THE DOCTRINE OF EVOLUTION.
+
+(THE ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS TO THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY, FOR 1870.)
+
+
+It is now eight years since, in the absence of the late Mr. Leonard
+Homer, who then presided over us, it fell to my lot, as one of the
+Secretaries of this Society, to draw up the customary Annual Address.
+I availed myself of the opportunity to endeavour to "take stock"
+of that portion of the science of biology which is commonly called
+"palaeontology," as it then existed; and, discussing one after another
+the doctrines held by palaeontologists, I put before you the results
+of my attempts to sift the well-established from the hypothetical or
+the doubtful. Permit me briefly to recall to your minds what those
+results were:--
+
+1. The living population of all parts of the earth's surface which
+have yet been examined has undergone a succession of changes which,
+upon the whole, have been of a slow and gradual character.
+
+2. When the fossil remains which are the evidences of these successive
+changes, as they have occurred in any two more or less distant parts
+of the surface of the earth, are compared, they exhibit a certain
+broad and general parallelism. In other words, certain forms of life
+in one locality occur in the same general order of succession as, or
+are _homotaxial_ with, similar forms in the other locality.
+
+3. Homotaxis is not to be held identical with synchronism without
+independent evidence. It is possible that similar, or even identical,
+faunae and florae in two different localities may be of extremely
+different ages, if the term "age" is used in its proper chronological
+sense. I stated that "geographical provinces, or zones, may have been
+as distinctly marked in the Palaeozoic epoch as at present; and those
+seemingly sudden appearances of new genera and species, which we
+ascribe to new creation, may be simple results of migration."
+
+4. The opinion that the oldest known fossils are the earliest forms of
+life has no solid foundation.
+
+5. If we confine ourselves to positively ascertained facts, the total
+amount of change in the forms of animal and vegetable life, since the
+existence of such forms is recorded, is small. When compared with the
+lapse of time since the first appearance of these forms, the amount
+of change is wonderfully small. Moreover, in each great group of the
+animal and vegetable kingdoms, there are certain forms which I termed
+PERSISTENT TYPES, which have remained, with but very little apparent
+change, from their first appearance to the present time.
+
+6. In answer to the question "What, then, does an impartial survey of
+the positively ascertained truths of palaeontology testify in relation
+to the common doctrines of progressive modification, which suppose
+that modification to have taken place by a necessary progress from
+more to less embryonic forms, from more to less generalized types,
+within, the limits of the period represented by the fossiliferous
+rocks?" I reply, "It negatives these doctrines; for it either shows us
+no evidence of such modification, or demonstrates such modification as
+has occurred to have been very slight; and, as to the nature of
+that modification, it yields no evidence whatsoever that the earlier
+members of any long-continued group were more generalized in structure
+than the later ones."
+
+I think that I cannot employ my last opportunity of addressing you,
+officially, more properly--I may say more dutifully--than in
+revising these old judgments with such help as further knowledge and
+reflection, and an extreme desire to get at the truth, may afford me.
+
+1. With respect to the first proposition, I may remark that
+whatever may be the case among the physical geologists, catastrophic
+palaeontologists are practically extinct. It is now no part of
+recognized geological doctrine that the species of one formation all
+died out and were replaced by a brand-new set in the next formation.
+On the contrary, it is generally, if not universally, agreed that
+the succession of life has been, the result of a slow and gradual
+replacement of species by species; and that all appearances of
+abruptness of change are due to breaks in the series of deposits, or
+other changes in physical conditions. The continuity of living forms
+has been unbroken from the earliest times to the present day.
+
+2, 3. The use of the word "homotaxis" instead of "synchronism" has
+not, so far as I know, found much favour in the eyes of geologists.
+I hope, therefore, that it is a love for scientific caution, and not
+mere personal affection for a bantling of my own, which leads me still
+to think that the change of phrase is of importance, and that the
+sooner it is made, the sooner shall we get rid of a number of pitfalls
+which beset the reasoner upon the facts and theories of geology.
+
+One of the latest pieces of foreign intelligence which has reached
+us is the information that the Austrian geologists have, at last,
+succumbed to the weighty evidence which M. Barrande has accumulated,
+and have admitted the doctrine of colonies. But the admission of the
+doctrine of colonies implies the further admission that even identity
+of organic remains is no proof of the synchronism of the deposits
+which contain them.
+
+4. The discussions touching the _Eozoon_, which commenced in 1864,
+have abundantly justified the fourth proposition. In 1862, the oldest
+record of life was in the Cambrian rocks; but if the _Eozoon_ be,
+as Principal Dawson and Dr. Carpenter have shown so much reason for
+believing, the remains of a living being, the discovery of its true
+nature carried life back to a period which, as Sir William Logan has
+observed, is as remote from that during which the Cambrian rocks were
+deposited, as the Cambrian epoch itself is from the tertiaries. In
+other words, the ascertained duration of life upon the globe was
+nearly doubled at a stroke.
+
+5. The significance of persistent types, and of the small amount of
+change which has taken place even in those forms which can be shown to
+have been modified, becomes greater and greater in my eyes, the longer
+I occupy myself with the biology of the past.
+
+Consider how long a time has elapsed since the Miocene epoch. Yet, at
+that time, there is reason to believe that every important group in
+every order of the _Mammalia_ was represented. Even the comparatively
+scanty Eocene fauna yields examples of the orders _Cheiroptera,
+Insectivora, Rodentia_, and _Perissodactyla_; of _Artiodactyla_
+under both the Ruminant and the Porcine modifications; of _Carnivora,
+Cetacea_, and _Marsupialia_.
+
+Or, if we go back to the older half of the Mesozoic epoch, how truly
+surprising it is to find every order of the _Reptilia_, except
+the _Ophidia_, represented; while some groups, such as the
+_Ornithoscelida_ and the _Pterosauria_, more specialized than any
+which now exist, abounded.
+
+There is one division of the _Amphibia_ which offers especially
+important evidence upon this point, inasmuch as it bridges over the
+gap between the Mesozoic and the Palaeozoic formations (often supposed
+to be of such prodigious magnitude), extending, as it does, from the
+bottom of the Carboniferous series to the top of the Trias, if not
+into the Lias. I refer to the Labyrinthodonts. As the address of 1862
+was passing through the press, I was able to mention, in a note, the
+discovery of a large Labyrinthodont, with well-ossified vertebrae, in
+the Edinburgh coal-field. Since that time eight or ten distinct genera
+of Labyrinthodonts have been discovered in the Carboniferous rocks
+of England, Scotland, and Ireland, not to mention the American forms
+described by Principal Dawson and Professor Cope. So that, at the
+present time, the Labyrinthodont Fauna of the Carboniferous rocks is
+more extensive and diversified than that of the Trias, while its chief
+types, so far as osteology enables us to judge, are quite as highly
+organized. Thus it is certain that a comparatively highly organized
+vertebrate type, such as that of the Labyrinthodonts, is capable
+of persisting, with no considerable change, through the period
+represented by the vast deposits which constitute the Carboniferous,
+the Permian, and the Triassic formations.
+
+The very remarkable results which have been brought to light by the
+sounding and dredging operations, which have been carried on with
+such remarkable success by the expeditions sent out by our own, the
+American, and the Swedish Governments, under the supervision of
+able naturalists, have a bearing in the same direction. These
+investigations have demonstrated the existence, at great depths in the
+ocean, of living animals in some cases identical with, in others very
+similar to, those which are found fossilized in the white chalk. The
+_Globigerinae_, Cyatholiths, Coccospheres, Discoliths in the one are
+absolutely identical with those in the other; there are identical, or
+closely analogous, species of Sponges, Echinoderms, and Brachiopods.
+Off the coast of Portugal, there now lives a species of _Beryx_,
+which, doubtless, leaves its bones and scales here and there in the
+Atlantic ooze, as its predecessor left its spoils in the mud of the
+sea of the Cretaceous epoch.
+
+Many years ago[1] I ventured to speak of the Atlantic mud as "modern
+chalk," and I know of no fact inconsistent with the view which
+Professor Wyville Thomson has advocated, that the modern chalk is not
+only the lineal descendant of the ancient chalk, but that it remains,
+so to speak, in the possession of the ancestral estate; and that from
+the Cretaceous period (if not much earlier) to the present day, the
+deep sea has covered a large part of what is now the area of the
+Atlantic. But if _Globigerinae_, and _Terebratula caput-serpentis_
+and _Beryx_, not to mention other forms of animals and of plants, thus
+bridge over the interval between the present and the Mesozoic periods,
+is it possible that the majority of other living things underwent a
+"sea-change into something new and strange" all at once?
+
+[Footnote 1: See an article in the _Saturday Review_, for 1858, on
+"Chalk, Ancient and Modern."]
+
+6. Thus far I have endeavoured to expand and to enforce by fresh
+arguments, but not to modify in any important respect, the ideas
+submitted to you on a former occasion. But when I come to the
+propositions touching progressive modification, it appears to me, with
+the help of the new light which has broken from various quarters, that
+there is much ground for softening the somewhat Brutus-like severity
+with which, in 1862, I dealt with a doctrine, for the truth of which I
+should have been glad enough to be able to find a good foundation.
+So far, indeed, as the _Invertebrata_, and the lower _Vertebrata_ are
+concerned, the facts and the conclusions which are to be drawn from
+them appear to me to remain what they were. For anything that, as yet,
+appears to the contrary, the earliest known Marsupials may have been
+as highly organized as their living congeners; the Permian lizards
+show no signs of inferiority to those of the present day; the
+Labyrinthodonts cannot be placed below the living Salamander and
+Triton; the Devonian Ganoids are closely related to _Polypterus_ and
+to _Lepidosiren_.
+
+But when we turn to the higher _Vertebrata_, the results of recent
+investigations, however we may sift and criticise them, seem to me to
+leave a clear balance in favour of the doctrine of the evolution
+of living forms one from another. Nevertheless, in discussing this
+question, it is very necessary to discriminate carefully between the
+different kinds of evidence from fossil remains which are brought
+forward in favour of evolution.
+
+Every fossil which takes an intermediate place between forms of
+life already known, may be said, so far as it is intermediate, to be
+evidence in favour of evolution, inasmuch as it shows a possible road
+by which evolution may have taken place. But the mere discovery of
+such a form does not, in itself, prove that evolution took place by
+and through it, nor does it constitute more than presumptive evidence
+in favour of evolution in general. Suppose A, B, C to be three
+forms, while B is intermediate in structure between A and C. Then the
+doctrine of evolution offers four possible alternatives. A may have
+become C by way of B; or C may have become A by way of B; or A and
+C may be independent modifications of B; or A, B, and C may be
+independent modifications of some unknown D. Take the case of the
+Pigs, the _Anoplotheridae_, and the Ruminants. The _Anoplotheridae_
+are intermediate between the first and the last; but this does not
+tell us whether the Ruminants have come from the Pigs, or the Pigs
+from Ruminants, or both from _Anoplotheridae_, or whether Pigs,
+Ruminants, and _Anoplotheridae_ alike may not have diverged from some
+common stock.
+
+But if it can be shown that A, B, and C exhibit successive stages in
+the degree of modification, or specialization, of the same type; and
+if, further, it can be proved that they occur in successively
+newer deposits. A being in the oldest and C in the newest, then the
+intermediate character of B has quite another importance, and I should
+accept it, without hesitation, as a link in the genealogy of C. I
+should consider the burden of proof to be thrown upon anyone who
+denied C to have been derived from A by way of B, or in some closely
+analogous fashion; for it is always probable that one may not hit upon
+the exact line of filiation, and, in dealing with fossils, may mistake
+uncles and nephews for fathers and sons.
+
+I think it necessary to distinguish between the former and the latter
+classes of intermediate forms, as _intercalary types_ and _linear
+types_. When I apply the former term, I merely mean to say that as
+a matter of fact, the form B, so named, is intermediate between the
+others, in the sense in which the _Anoplotherium_ is intermediate
+between the Pigs and the Ruminants--without either affirming, or
+denying, any direct genetic relation between the three forms involved.
+When I apply the latter term, on the other hand, I mean to express the
+opinion that the forms A, B, and C constitute a line of descent, and
+that B is thus part of the lineage of C.
+
+From the time when Cuvier's wonderful researches upon the extinct
+Mammals of the Paris gypsum first made intercalary types known, and
+caused them to be recognized as such, the number of such forms has
+steadily increased among the higher _Mammalia_. Not only do we now
+know numerous intercalary forms of _Ungulata_, but M. Gaudry's great
+monograph upon the fossils of Pikermi (which strikes me as one of the
+most perfect pieces of palaeontological work I have seen for a long
+time) shows us, among the _Primates, Mesopithecus_ as an intercalary
+form between the _Semnopitheci_ and the _Macaci_; and among the
+_Carnivora, Hyaenictis_ and _Ictitherium_ as intercalary, or, perhaps,
+linear types between the _Viverridae_ and the _Hyaenidae_.
+
+Hardly any order of the higher _Mammalia_ stands so apparently
+separate and isolated from the rest as that of the _Cetacea_; though
+a careful consideration of the structure of the pinnipede _Carnivora_,
+or Seals, shows, in them, many an approximation towards the still more
+completely marine mammals. The extinct _Zeuglodon_, however, presents
+us with an intercalary form between the type of the Seals and that of
+the Whales. The skull of this great Eocene sea-monster, in fact, shows
+by the narrow and prolonged interorbital region; the extensive union
+of the parietal bones in a sagittal suture; the well-developed nasal
+bones; the distinct and large incisors implanted in premaxillary
+bones, which take a full share in bounding the fore part of the gape;
+the two-fanged molar teeth with triangular and serrated crowns,
+not exceeding five on each side in each jaw; and the existence of a
+deciduous dentition--its close relation with the Seals. While, on
+the other hand, the produced rostral form of the snout, the
+long symphysis, and the low coronary process of the mandible are
+approximations to the cetacean form of those parts.
+
+The scapula resembles that of the cetacean _Hyperoodon_, but the
+supra-spinous fossa is larger and more seal-like; as is the humerus,
+which differs from that of the _Cetacea_ in presenting true articular
+surfaces for the free jointing of the bones of the fore-arm. In the
+apparently complete absence of hinder limbs, and in the characters of
+the vertebral column, the _Zeuglodon_ lies on the cetacean side of the
+boundary line; so that, upon the whole, the Zeuglodonts, transitional
+as they are, are conveniently retained in the cetacean order. And the
+publication, in 1864, of M. Van Beneden's memoir on the Miocene and
+Pliocene _Squalodon_, furnished much better means than anatomists
+previously possessed of fitting in another link of the chain which
+connects the existing _Cetacea_ with _Zeuglodon_. The teeth are much
+more numerous, although the molars exhibit the zeuglodont double fang;
+the nasal bones are very short, and the upper surface of the rostrum
+presents the groove, filled up during life by the prolongation of the
+ethmoidal cartilage, which is so characteristic of the majority of the
+_Cetacea_.
+
+It appears to me that, just as among the existing _Carnivora_,
+the walruses and the eared seals are intercalary forms between the
+fissipede Carnivora and the ordinary seals, so the Zeuglodonts are
+intercalary between the _Carnivora_, as a whole, and the _Cetacea_.
+Whether the Zeuglodonts are also linear types in their relation to
+these two groups cannot be ascertained, until we have more definite
+knowledge than we possess at present, respecting the relations in time
+of the _Carnivora_ and _Cetacea_.
+
+Thus far we have been concerned with the intercalary types which
+occupy the intervals between Families or Orders of the same class; but
+the investigations which have been carried on by Professor Gegenbaur,
+Professor Cope, and myself into the structure and relations of the
+extinct reptilian forms of the _Ornithoscelida_ (or _Dinosauria_ and
+_Compsognatha_) have brought to light the existence of intercalary
+forms between what have hitherto been always regarded as very distinct
+classes of the vertebrate sub-kingdom, namely _Reptilia_ and _Aves_.
+Whatever inferences may, or may not, be drawn from the fact, it is now
+an established truth that, in many of these _Ornithoscelida_, the hind
+limbs and the pelvis are much more similar to those of Birds than
+they are to those of Reptiles, and that these Bird-reptiles, or
+Reptile-birds, were more or less completely bipedal.
+
+When I addressed you in 1862, I should have been bold indeed had I
+suggested that palaeontology would before long show us the possibility
+of a direct transition from the type of the lizard to that of the
+ostrich. At the present moment we have, in the _Ornithoscelida_, the
+intercalary type, which proves that transition to be something more
+than a possibility; but it is very doubtful whether any of the genera
+of _Ornithoscelida_ with which we are at present acquainted are the
+actual linear types by which the transition from the lizard to the
+bird was effected. These, very probably, are still hidden from us in
+the older formations.
+
+Let us now endeavour to find some cases of true linear types, or forms
+which are intermediate between others because they stand in a direct
+genetic relation to them. It is no easy matter to find clear and
+unmistakable evidence of filiation among fossil animals; for, in order
+that such evidence should be quite satisfactory, it is necessary that
+we should be acquainted with all the most important features of the
+organization of the animals which are supposed to be thus related, and
+not merely with the fragments upon which the genera and species of the
+palaeontologist are so often based. M. Gaudry has arranged the species
+of _Hyaenidae, Proboscidea, Rhinocerotidae_, and _Equidae_ in their
+order of filiation from their earliest appearance in the Miocene epoch
+to the present time, and Professor Ruetimeyer has drawn up similar
+schemes for the Oxen and other _Ungulata_--with what, I am disposed
+to think, is a fair and probable approximation to the order of nature.
+But, as no one is better aware than these two learned, acute, and
+philosophical biologists, all such arrangements must be regarded as
+provisional, except in those cases in which, by a fortunate accident,
+large series of remains are obtainable from a thick and wide-spread
+series of deposits. It is easy to accumulate probabilities--hard
+to make out some particular case in such a way that it will stand
+rigorous criticism.
+
+After much search, however, I think that such a case is to be made out
+in favour of the pedigree of the Horses.
+
+The genus _Equus_ is represented as far back as the latter part of the
+Miocene epoch; but in deposits belonging to the middle of that
+epoch its place is taken by two other genera, _Hipparion_ and
+_Anchitherium_[1]; and, in the lowest Miocene and upper Eocene, only
+the last genus occurs. A species of _Anchitherium_ was referred by
+Cuvier to the _Palaeotheria_ under the name of _P. aurelianense_. The
+grinding-teeth are in fact very similar in shape and in pattern, and
+in the absence of any thick layer of cement, to those of some species
+of _Palaeotherium_, especially Cuvier's _Palaeotherium minus_, which
+has been formed into a separate genus, _Plagiolophus_, by Pomel. But
+in the fact that there are only six full-sized grinders in the lower
+jaw, the first premolar being very small; that the anterior grinders
+are as large as, or rather larger than, the posterior ones; that the
+second premolar has an anterior prolongation; and that the posterior
+molar of the lower jaw has, as Cuvier pointed out, a posterior lobe of
+much smaller size and different form, the dentition of _Anchitherium_
+departs from the type of the _Palaeotherium_, and approaches that of
+the Horse.
+
+[Footnote 1: Hermann von Meyer gave the name of _Anchitherium_ to _A.
+Ezguerrae_; and in his paper on the subject he takes great pains
+to distinguish the latter as the type of a new genus, from Cuvier's
+_Palaeotherium d'Orleans._ But it is precisely the _Palaeotherium
+d'Orleans_ which is the type of Christol's genus _Hipparitherium_; and
+thus, though _Hipparitherium_ is of later date than _Anchitherium_,
+it seemed to me to have a sort of equitable right to recognition
+when this address was written. On the whole, however, it seems most
+convenient to adopt _Anchitherium_.]
+
+Again, the skeleton of _Anchitherium_ is extremely equine. M. Christol
+goes so far as to say that the description of the bones of the
+horse, or the ass, current in veterinary works, would fit those of
+_Anchitherium._ And, in a general way, this may be true enough; but
+there are some most important differences, which, indeed, are justly
+indicated by the same careful observer. Thus the ulna is complete
+throughout, and its shaft is not a mere rudiment, fused into one bone
+with the radius. There are three toes, one large in the middle and one
+small on each side. The femur is quite like that of a horse, and has
+the characteristic fossa above the external condyle. In the British
+Museum there is a most instructive specimen of the leg-bones, showing
+that the fibula was represented by the external malleolus and by a
+flat tongue of bone, which extends up from it on the outer side of the
+tibia, and is closely ankylosed with the latter bone.[1] The hind toes
+are three, like those of the fore leg; and the middle metatarsal bone
+is much less compressed from side to side than that of the horse.
+
+[Footnote 1: I am indebted to M. Gervais for a specimen which
+indicates that the fibula was complete, at any rate, in some cases;
+and for a very interesting ramus of a mandible, which shows that, as
+in the _Palaeotheria_, the hindermost milk-molar of the lower jaw
+was devoid of the posterior lobe which exists in the hindermost true
+molar.]
+
+In the _Hipparion_ the teeth nearly resemble those of the Horses,
+though the crowns of the grinders are not so long; like those of the
+Horses, they are abundantly coated with cement. The shaft of the
+ulna is reduced to a mere style ankylosed throughout nearly its whole
+length with the radius, and appearing to be little more than a ridge
+on the surface of the latter bone until it is carefully examined. The
+front toes are still three, but the outer ones are more slender than
+in _Anchitherium_, and their hoofs smaller in proportion to that of
+the middle toe: they are, in fact, reduced to mere dew-claws, and do
+not touch the ground. In the leg, the distal end of the fibula is so
+completely united with the tibia that it appears to be a mere process
+of the latter bone, as in the Horses.
+
+In _Equus_, finally, the crowns of the grinding-teeth become longer,
+and their patterns are slightly modified; the middle of the shaft of
+the ulna usually vanishes, and its proximal and distal ends ankylose
+with the radius. The phalanges of the two outer toes in each foot
+disappear, their metacarpal and metatarsal bones being left as the
+"splints."
+
+The _Hipparion_ has large depressions on the face in front of the
+orbits, like those for the "larmiers" of many ruminants; but traces
+of these are to be seen in some of the fossil horses from the Sewalik
+Hills; and, as Leidy's recent researches show, they are preserved in
+_Anchitherium_.
+
+When we consider these facts, and the further circumstance that
+the Hipparions, the remains of which have been collected in immense
+numbers, were subject, as M. Gaudry and others have pointed out, to
+a great range of variation, it appears to me impossible to resist the
+conclusion that the types of the _Anchitherium_, of the _Hipparion_,
+and of the ancient Horses constitute the lineage of the modern Horses,
+the _Hipparion_ being the intermediate stage between the other two,
+and answering; to B in my former illustration.
+
+The process by which the _Anchitherium_ has been converted into
+_Equus_ is one of specialization, or of more and more complete
+deviation from what might be called the average form of an ungulate
+mammal. In the Horses, the reduction of some parts of the limbs,
+together with the special modification of those which are left, is
+carried to a greater extent than in any other hoofed mammals. The
+reduction is less and the specialization is less in the _Hipparion_,
+and still less in the _Anchitherium_; but yet, as compared with
+other mammals, the reduction and specialization of parts in the
+_Anchitherium_ remain great.
+
+Is it not probable then, that, just as in the Miocene epoch, we find
+an ancestral equine form less modified than _Equus_, so, if we go
+back to the Eocene epoch, we shall find some quadruped related to the
+_Anchitherium_, as _Hipparion_ is related to _Equus_, and consequently
+departing less from the average form?
+
+I think that this desideratum is very nearly, if not quite, supplied
+by _Plagiolophus_, remains of which occur abundantly in some parts
+of the Upper and Middle Eocene formations. The patterns of
+the grinding-teeth of _Plagiolophus_ are similar to those of
+_Anchitherium_, and their crowns are as thinly covered with cement;
+but the grinders diminish in size forwards, and the last lower molar
+has a large hind lobe, convex outwards and concave inwards, as in
+_Palceotherium_. The ulna is complete and much larger than in any
+of the _Equidae_, while it is more slender than in most of the true
+_Palaeotheria_; it is fixedly united, but not ankylosed, with the
+radius. There are three toes in the fore limb, the outer ones being
+slender, but less attenuated than in the _Equidae_. The femur is more
+like that of the _Palaeotheria_ than that of the horse, and has only
+a small depression above its outer condyle in the place of the great
+fossa which is so obvious in the _Equidae_. The fibula is distinct,
+but very slender, and its distal end is ankylosed with the tibia.
+There are three toes on the hind foot having similar proportions to
+those on the fore foot. The principal metacarpal and metatarsal bones
+are flatter than they are in any of the _Equidae_; and the metacarpal
+bones are longer than the metatarsals, as in the _Palaeotheria_.
+
+In its general form, _Plagiolophus_ resembles a very small and slender
+horse[1], and is totally unlike the reluctant, pig-like creature
+depicted in Cuvier's restoration of his _Palaeotherium minus_ in the
+"Os semens Fossils."
+
+[Footnote 1: Such, at least, is the conclusion suggested by the
+proportions of the skeleton figured by Cuvier and De Blainville; but
+perhaps something between a Horse and an Agouti would be nearest the
+mark.]
+
+It would be hazardous to say that _Plagiolophus_ is the exact radical
+form of the Equine quadrupeds; but I do not think there can be any
+reasonable doubt that the latter animals have resulted from the
+modification of some quadruped similar to _Plagiolophus_.
+
+We have thus arrived at the Middle Eocene formation, and yet
+have traced back the Horses only to a three-toed stock; but these
+three-toed forms, no less than the Equine quadrupeds themselves,
+present rudiments of the two other toes which appertain to what I
+have termed the "average" quadruped. If the expectation raised by
+the splints of the Horses that, in some ancestor of the Horses, these
+splints would be found to be complete digits, has been verified,
+we are furnished with very strong reasons for looking for a no
+less complete verification of the expectation that the three-toed.
+_Plagiolophus_-like "avus" of the horse must have had a five-toed
+"atavus" at some earlier period.
+
+No such five-toed "atavus," however, has yet made its appearance among
+the few middle and older Eocene _Mammalia_ which are known.
+
+Another series of closely affiliated forms, though the evidence they
+afford is perhaps less complete than that of the Equine series,
+is presented to us by the _Dichobune_ of the Eocene epoch, the
+_Cainotherium_ of the Miocene, and the _Tragulidae_, or so-called
+"Musk-deer," of the present day.
+
+The _Tragulidae_ have no incisors in the upper jaw, and only six
+grinding-teeth on each side of each jaw; while the canine is moved up
+to the outer incisor, and there is a diastema, in the lower jaw. There
+are four complete toes on the hind foot, but the middle metatarsals
+usually become, sooner or later, ankylosed into a cannon bone. The
+navicular and the cuboid unite, and the distal end of the fibula is
+ankylosed with the tibia.
+
+In _Cainotherium_ and _Dichobune_ the upper incisors are fully
+developed. There are seven grinders; the teeth form a continuous
+series without a diastema. The metatarsals, the navicular and cuboid,
+and the distal end of the fibula, remain free. In the _Cainotherium_,
+also, the second metacarpal is developed, but is much shorter than the
+third, while the fifth is absent or rudimentary. In this respect it
+resembles _Anoplotherium secundarium_. This circumstance, and the
+peculiar pattern of the upper molars in _Cainotherium_, lead me
+to hesitate in considering it as the actual ancestor of the modern
+_Tragulidae_. If _Dichobune_ has a four-toed fore foot (though I am
+inclined to suspect that it resembles _Cainotherium_), it will be a
+better representative of the oldest forms of the Traguline series; but
+_Dichobune_ occurs in the Middle-Eocene, and is, in fact, the oldest
+known artiodactyle mammal. Where, then, must we look for its five-toed
+ancestor?
+
+If we follow down other lines of recent and tertiary _Ungulata_, the
+same question presents itself. The Pigs are traceable back through
+the Miocene epoch to the Upper Eocene, where they appear in the
+two well-marked forms of _Hyopotamus_ and _Chaeropotamus_; but
+_Hyopotamus_ appears to have had only two toes.
+
+Again, all the great groups of the Ruminants, the _Bovidae,
+Antilopidae, Camelopardalidae_, and _Cervidae_, are represented in
+the Miocene epoch, and so are the Camels. The Upper Eocene
+_Anoplotherium_, which is intercalary between the Pigs and the
+_Tragulidae_, has only two or, at most, three toes. Among the scanty
+mammals of the Lower Eocene formation we have the perissodactyle
+_Ungulata_ represented by _Coryphodon, Hyra-cotherium_, and
+_Pliolophus_. Suppose for a moment, for the sake of following out
+the argument, that _Pliolophus_ represents the primary stock of the
+Perissodactyles, and _Dichobune_ that of the Artiodactyles (though
+I am far from saying that such is the case), then we find, in the
+earliest fauna of the Eocene epoch to which our investigations carry
+us, the two divisions of the _Ungulata_ completely differentiated, and
+no trace of any common stock of both, or of five-toed predecessors to
+either. With the case of the Horses before us, justifying a belief in
+the production of new animal forms by modification of old ones, I see
+no escape from the necessity of seeking for these ancestors of the
+_Ungulata_ beyond the limits of the Tertiary formations.
+
+I could as soon admit special creation, at once, as suppose that the
+Perissodactyles and Artiodactyles had no five-toed ancestors. And when
+we consider how large a portion of the Tertiary period elapsed before
+_Anchitherium_ was converted into _Equus_, it is difficult to escape
+the conclusion that a large proportion of time anterior to the
+Tertiary period must have been expended in converting the common stock
+of the _Ungulata_ into Perissodactyles and Artiodactyles.
+
+The same moral is inculcated by the study of every other order of
+Tertiary monodelphous _Mammalia_. Each of these orders is represented
+in the Miocene epoch: the Eocene formation, as I have already said,
+contains _Cheiroptera, Insectivora, Rodentia, Ungulata, Carnivora,_
+and _Cetacea_. But the _Cheiroptera_ are extreme modifications of the
+_Insectivora_, just as the _Cetacea_ are extreme modifications of
+the Carnivorous type; and therefore it is to my mind incredible
+that monodelphous _Insectivora_ and _Carnivora_ should not have been
+abundantly developed, along with _Ungulata_, in the Mesozoic epoch.
+But if this be the case, how much further back must we go to find the
+common stock of the monodelphous _Mammalia_? As to the _Didelphia_,
+if we may trust the evidence which seems to be afforded by their
+very scanty remains, a Hypsiprymnoid form existed at the epoch of the
+Trias, contemporaneously with a Carnivorous form. At the epoch of the
+Trias, therefore, the _Marsupialia_ must have, already existed long
+enough to have become differentiated into carnivorous and herbivorous
+forms. But the _Monotremata_ are lower forms than the _Didelphia,_
+which last are intercalary between the _Ornithodelphia_ and the
+_Monodelphia_. To what point of the Palaeozoic epoch, then, must we,
+upon any rational estimate, relegate the origin of the _Monotremata_?
+
+The investigation of the occurrence of the classes and of the orders
+of the _Sauropsida_ in time points in exactly the same direction.
+If, as there is great reason to believe, true Birds existed in the
+Triassic epoch, the ornithoscelidous forms by which Reptiles passed
+into Birds must have preceded them. In fact there is, even at present,
+considerable ground for suspecting the existence of _Dinosauria_ in
+the Permian formations; but, in that case, lizards must be of still
+earlier date. And if the very small differences which are observable
+between the _Crocodilia_ of the older Mesozoic formations and those of
+the present day furnish any sort of approximation towards an estimate
+of the average rate of change among the _Sauropsida_, it is almost
+appalling to reflect how far back in Palaeozoic times we must go,
+before we can hope to arrive at that common stock from which the
+_Crocodilia, Lacertilia, Ornithoscelida_, and _Plesiosauria_, which
+had attained so great a development in the Triassic epoch, must have
+been derived.
+
+The _Amphibia_ and _Pisces_ tell the same story. There is not a
+single class of vertebrated animals which, when it first appears,
+is represented by analogues of the lowest known members of the same
+class. Therefore, if there is any truth in the doctrine of evolution,
+every class must be vastly older than the first record of its
+appearance upon the surface of the globe. But if considerations of
+this kind compel us to place the origin of vertebrated animals at
+a period sufficiently distant from the Upper Silurian, in which the
+first Elasmobranchs and Ganoids occur, to allow of the evolution of
+such fishes as these from a Vertebrate as simple as the _Amphioxus_,
+I can only repeat that it is appalling to speculate upon the extent to
+which that origin must have preceded the epoch of the first recorded
+appearance of vertebrate life.
+
+Such is the further commentary which I have to offer upon the
+statement of the chief results of palaeontology which I formerly
+ventured to lay before you.
+
+But the growth of knowledge in the interval makes me conscious of
+an omission of considerable moment in that statement, inasmuch as it
+contains no reference to the bearings of palaeontology upon the theory
+of the distribution of life; nor takes note of the remarkable manner
+in which the facts of distribution, in present and past times, accord
+with the doctrine of evolution, especially in regard to land animals.
+
+That connection between palaeontology and geology and the present
+distribution of terrestrial animals, which so strikingly impressed
+Mr. Darwin, thirty years ago, as to lead him to speak of a "law of
+succession of types," and of the wonderful relationship on the same
+continent between the dead and the living, has recently received much
+elucidation from the researches of Gaudry, of Ruetimeyer, of Leidy,
+and of Alphonse Milne-Edwards, taken in connection with the
+earlier labours of our lamented colleague Falconer; and it has been
+instructively discussed in the thoughtful and ingenious work of Mr.
+Andrew Murray "On the Geographical Distribution of Mammals."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: The paper "On the Form and Distribution of the
+Land-tracts during the Secondary and Tertiary Periods respectively;
+and on the Effect upon Animal Life which great Changes in Geographical
+Configuration have probably produced," by Mr. Searles V. Wood, jun.,
+which was published in the _Philosophical Magazine_, in 1862, was
+unknown to me when this Address was written. It is well worthy of the
+most careful study.]
+
+I propose to lay before you, as briefly as I can, the ideas to which a
+long consideration of the subject has given rise in my own mind.
+
+If the doctrine of evolution is sound, one of its immediate
+consequences clearly is, that the present distribution of life
+upon the globe is the product of two factors, the one being the
+distribution which obtained in the immediately preceding epoch, and
+the other the character and the extent of the changes which have taken
+place in physical geography between the one epoch and the other; or,
+to put the matter in another way, the Fauna and Flora of any given
+area, in any given epoch, can consist only of such forms of life as
+are directly descended from those which constituted the Fauna and
+Flora of the same area in the immediately preceding epoch, unless the
+physical geography (under which I include climatal conditions) of
+the area has been so altered as to give rise to immigration of living
+forms from some other area.
+
+The evolutionist, therefore, is bound to grapple with the following
+problem whenever it is clearly put before him:--Here are the Faunae of
+the same area during successive epochs. Show good cause for believing
+either that these Faunae have been derived from one another by gradual
+modification, or that the Faunae have reached the area in question
+by migration from some area in which they have undergone their
+development.
+
+I propose to attempt to deal with this problem, so far as it is
+exemplified by the distribution of the terrestrial _Vertebrata_, and I
+shall endeavour to show you that it is capable of solution in a sense
+entirely favourable to the doctrine of evolution.
+
+I have elsewhere[1] stated at length the reasons which lead me to
+recognize four primary distributional provinces for the terrestrial
+_Vertebrata_ in the present world, namely,--first, the _Novozelanian_,
+or New-Zealand province; secondly, the _Australian_ province,
+including Australia, Tasmania, and the Negrito Islands; thirdly,
+_Austro-Columbia_, or South America _plus_ North America as far as
+Mexico; and fourthly, the rest of the world, or _Arctogaea_, in which
+province America north of Mexico constitutes one sub-province, Africa
+south of the Sahara a second, Hindostan a third, and the remainder of
+the Old World, a fourth.
+
+[Footnote 1: "On the Classification and Distribution of the
+Alectoromorphae;" Proceedings of the Zoological Society, 1868.]
+
+Now the truth which Mr. Darwin perceived and promulgated as "the law
+of the succession of types" is, that, in all these provinces, the
+animals found in Pliocene or later deposits are closely affined to
+those which now inhabit the same provinces; and that, conversely, the
+forms characteristic of other provinces are absent. North and South
+America, perhaps, present one or two exceptions to the last rule, but
+they are readily susceptible of explanation. Thus, in Australia, the
+later Tertiary mammals are marsupials (possibly with exception of the
+Dog and a Rodent or two, as at present). In Austro-Columbia the later
+Tertiary fauna exhibits numerous and varied forms of Platyrrhine
+Apes, Rodents, Cats, Dogs, Stags, _Edentata_, and Opossums; but, as
+at present, no Catarrhine Apes, no Lemurs, no _Insectivora_, Oxen,
+Antelopes, Rhinoceroses, nor _Didelphia_ other than Opossums. And in
+the wide-spread Arctogaeal province, the Pliocene and later mammals
+belong to the same groups as those which now exist in the province.
+The law of succession of types, therefore, holds good for the present
+epoch as compared with its predecessor. Does it equally well apply to
+the Pliocene fauna when we compare it with that of the Miocene epoch?
+By great good fortune, an extensive mammalian fauna of the latter
+epoch has now become known, in four very distant portions of the
+Arctogaeal province which do not differ greatly in latitude. Thus
+Falconer and Cautley have made known the fauna of the sub-Himalayas
+and the Perim Islands; Gaudry that of Attica; many observers that of
+Central Europe and France; and Leidy that of Nebraska, on the eastern
+flank of the Rocky Mountains. The results are very striking. The total
+Miocene fauna comprises many genera, and species of Catarrhine Apes,
+of Bats, of _Insectivora_; of Arctogaeal types of _Rodentia_; of
+_Proboscidea_; of equine, rhinocerotic, and tapirine quadrupeds; of
+cameline, bovine, antilopine, cervine, and traguline Ruminants; of
+Pigs and Hippopotamuses; of _Viverridae_ and _Hyaenidae_ among other
+_Carnivora_; with _Edentata_ allied to the Arctogaeal _Orycteropus_
+and _Manis_, and not to the Austro-Columbian Edentates. The only type
+present in the Miocene, but absent in the existing, fauna of Eastern
+Arctogaea, is that of the _Didelphidae_, which, however, remains in
+North America.
+
+But it is very remarkable that while the Miocene fauna of the
+Arctogaeal province, as a whole, is of the same character as the
+existing fauna of the same province, as a whole, the component
+elements of the fauna were differently associated. In the Miocene
+epoch, North America possessed Elephants, Horses, Rhinoceroses, and
+a great number and variety of Ruminants and Pigs, which are absent
+in the present indigenous fauna; Europe had its Apes, Elephants,
+Rhinoceroses, Tapirs, Musk-deer, Giraffes, Hyaenas, great Cats,
+Edentates, and Opossum-like Marsupials, which have equally vanished
+from its present fauna; and in Northern India, the African types of
+Hippopotamuses, Giraffes, and Elephants were mixed up with what
+are now the Asiatic types of the latter, and with Camels, and
+Semnopithecine and Pithecine Apes of no less distinctly Asiatic forms.
+
+In fact the Miocene mammalian fauna of Europe and the Himalayan
+regions contains, associated together, the types which are at present
+separately located in the South-African and Indian sub-provinces of
+Arctogaea. Now there is every reason to believe, on other grounds,
+that both Hindostan, south of the Ganges, and Africa, south of the
+Sahara, were separated by a wide sea from Europe and North Asia during
+the Middle and Upper Eocene epochs. Hence it becomes highly probable
+that the well-known similarities, and no less remarkable differences,
+between the present Faunae of India and South Africa have arisen
+in some such fashion as the following. Some time during the Miocene
+epoch, possibly when the Himalayan chain was elevated, the bottom of
+the nummulitic sea was upheaved and converted into dry land, in the
+direction of a line extending from Abyssinia to the mouth of the
+Ganges. By this means, the Dekhan on the one hand, and South Africa
+on the other, became connected with the Miocene dry land and with one
+another. The Miocene mammals spread gradually over this intermediate
+dry land; and if the condition of its eastern and western ends offered
+as wide contrasts as the valleys of the Ganges and Arabia do now, many
+forms which made their way into Africa must have been different from
+those which reached the Dekhan, while others might pass into both
+these sub-provinces.
+
+That there was a continuity of dry land between Europe and North
+America during the Miocene epoch, appears to me to be a necessary
+consequence of the fact that many genera of terrestrial mammals, such
+as _Castor_, _Hystrix_, _Elephas_, _Mastodon_, _Equus_, _Hipparion_,
+_Anchitherium_, _Rhinoceros_, _Cervus_, _Amphicyon_, _Hyaenarctos_,
+and _Machairodus_, are common to the Miocene formations of the two
+areas, and have as yet been found (except perhaps _Anchitherium_) in
+no deposit of earlier age. Whether this connection took place by the
+east, or by the west, or by both sides of the Old World, there is at
+present no certain evidence, and the question is immaterial to the
+present argument; but, as there are good grounds for the belief that
+the Australian province and the Indian and South-African sub-provinces
+were separated by sea from the rest of Arctogaea before the Miocene
+epoch, so it has been rendered no less probable, by the investigations
+of Mr. Carrick Moore and Professor Duncan, that Austro-Columbia was
+separated by sea from North America during a large part of the Miocene
+epoch.
+
+It is unfortunate that we have no knowledge of the Miocene mammalian
+fauna of the Australian and Austro-Columbian provinces; but, seeing
+that not a trace of a Platyrrhine Ape, of a Procyonine Carnivore, of a
+characteristically South-American Rodent, of a Sloth, an Armadillo,
+or an Ant-eater has yet been found in Miocene deposits of Arctogaea, I
+cannot doubt that they already existed in the Miocene Austro-Columbian
+province.
+
+Nor is it less probable that the characteristic types of Australian
+Mammalia were already developed in that region in Miocene times.
+
+But Austro-Columbia presents difficulties from which Australia is
+free; _Camelidae_ and _Tapiridae_ are now indigenous in South America
+as they are in Arctogaea; and, among the Pliocene Austro-Columbian
+mammals, the Austro-Columbian genera _Equus_, _Mastodon_, and
+_Machairodus_ are numbered. Are these Postmiocene immigrants, or
+Praemiocene natives?
+
+Still more perplexing are the strange and interesting forms _Toxodon_,
+_Macrauchenia_, _Typotherium_, and a new Anoplotherioid mammal
+(_Homalodotherium_) which Dr. Cunningham sent over to me some time ago
+from Patagonia. I confess I am strongly inclined to surmise that these
+last, at any rate, are remnants of the population of Austro-Columbia
+before the Miocene epoch, and were not derived from Arctogaea by way
+of the north and east.
+
+The fact that this immense fauna of Miocene Arctogaea is now fully
+and richly represented only in India and in South Africa, while it
+is shrunk and depauperized in North Asia, Europe, and North America,
+becomes at once intelligible, if we suppose that India and South
+Africa had but a scanty mammalian population before the Miocene
+immigration, while the conditions were highly favourable to the new
+comers. It is to be supposed that these new regions offered themselves
+to the Miocene Ungulates, as South America and Australia offered
+themselves to the cattle, sheep, and horses of modern colonists. But,
+after these great areas were thus peopled, came the Glacial epoch,
+during which the excessive cold, to say nothing of depression and
+ice-covering, must have almost depopulated all the northern parts of
+Arctogaea, destroying all the higher mammalian forms, except those
+which, like the Elephant and Rhinoceros, could adjust their coats to
+the altered conditions. Even these must have been driven away from the
+greater part of the area; only those Miocene mammals which had passed
+into Hindostan and into South Africa would escape decimation by such
+changes in the physical geography of Arctogaea. And when the northern
+hemisphere passed into its present condition, these lost tribes of the
+Miocene Fauna were hemmed by the Himalayas, the Sahara, the Red Sea,
+and the Arabian deserts, within their present boundaries. Now, on the
+hypothesis of evolution, there is no sort of difficulty in admitting
+that the differences between the Miocene forms of the mammalian
+Fauna and those which exist at present are the results of gradual
+modification; and, since such differences in distribution as obtain
+are readily explained by the changes which have taken place in the
+physical geography of the world since the Miocene epoch, it is clear
+that the result of the comparison of the Miocene and present Fauna is
+distinctly in favour of evolution. Indeed I may go further. I may
+say that the hypothesis of evolution explains the facts of Miocene,
+Pliocene, and Recent distribution, and that no other supposition even
+pretends to account for them. It is, indeed, a conceivable supposition
+that every species of Rhinoceros and every species of Hyaena, in the
+long succession of forms between the Miocene and the present species,
+was separately constructed out of dust, or out of nothing, by
+supernatural power; but until I receive distinct evidence of the fact,
+I refuse to run the risk of insulting any sane man by supposing that
+he seriously holds such a notion.
+
+Let us now take a step further back in time, and inquire into the
+relations between the Miocene Fauna and its predecessor of the Upper
+Eocene formation.
+
+Here it is to be regretted that our materials for forming a judgment
+are nothing to be compared in point of extent or variety with those
+which are yielded by the Miocene strata. However, what we do know
+of this Upper Eocene Fauna of Europe gives sufficient positive
+information to enable us to draw some tolerably safe inferences. It
+has yielded representatives of _Insectivora_, of _Cheiroptera_,
+of _Rodentia_, of _Carnivora_, of artiodactyle and perissodactyle
+_Ungulata_, and of opossum-like Marsupials. No Australian type of
+Marsupial has been discovered in the Upper Eocene strata, nor any
+Edentate mammal. The genera (except perhaps in the case of some of the
+_Insectivora_, _Cheiroptera_, and _Rodentia_) are different from those
+of the Miocene epoch, but present a remarkable general similarity to
+the Miocene and recent genera. In several cases, as I have already
+shown, it has now been clearly made out that the relation between
+the Eocene and Miocene forms is such that the Eocene form is the less
+specialized; while its Miocene ally is more so, and the specialization
+reaches its maximum in the recent forms of the same type.
+
+So far as the Upper Eocene and the Miocene Mammalian Faunae are
+comparable, their relations are such as in no way to oppose the
+hypothesis that the older are the progenitors of the more recent
+forms, while, in some cases, they distinctly favour that hypothesis.
+The period in time and the changes in physical geography represented
+by the nummulitic deposits are undoubtedly very great, while the
+remains of Middle Eocene and Older Eocene Mammals are comparatively
+few. The general facies of the Middle Eocene Fauna, however, is quite
+that of the Upper. The Older Eocene pre-nummulitic mammalian Fauna
+contains Bats, two genera of _Carnivora_, three genera of _Ungulata_
+(probably all perissodactyle), and a didelphid Marsupial; all these
+forms, except perhaps the Bat and the Opossum, belong to genera
+which are not known to occur out of the Lower Eocene formation. The
+_Coryphodon_ appears to have been allied to the Miocene and later
+Tapirs, while _Pliolophus_, in its skull and dentition, curiously
+partakes of both artiodactyle and perissodactyle characters; the third
+trochanter upon its femur, and its three-toed hind foot, however,
+appear definitely to fix its position in the latter division.
+
+There is nothing, then, in what is known of the older Eocene mammals
+of the Arctogaeal province to forbid the supposition that they stood
+in an ancestral relation to those of the Calcaire Grossier and the
+Gypsum of the Paris basin, and that our present fauna, therefore, is
+directly derived from that which already existed in Arctogaea at the
+commencement of the Tertiary period. But if we now cross the frontier
+between the Cainozoic and the Mesozoic faunae, as they are preserved
+within the Arctogaeal area, we meet with an astounding change, and
+what appears to be a complete and unmistakable break in the line of
+biological continuity.
+
+Among the twelve or fourteen species of _Mammalia_ which are said to
+have been found in the Purbecks, not one is a member of the orders
+_Cheiroptera_, _Rodentia_, _Ungulata_, or _Carnivora_, which are so
+well represented in the Tertiaries. No _Insectivora_ are certainly
+known, nor any opossum-like Marsupials. Thus there is a vast negative
+difference between the Cainozoic and the Mesozoic mammalian faunae
+of Europe. But there is a still more important positive difference,
+inasmuch as all these Mammalia appear to be Marsupials belonging to
+Australian groups, and thus appertaining to a different distributional
+province from the Eocene and Miocene marsupials, which are
+Austro-Columbian. So far as the imperfect materials which exist enable
+a judgment to be formed, the same law appears to have held good for
+all the earlier Mesozoic _Mammalia_. Of the Stonesfield slate mammals,
+one, _Amphitherium_, has a definitely Australian character; one,
+_Phascolotherium_, may be either Dasyurid or Didelphine; of a third,
+_Stereognathus_, nothing can at present be said. The two mammals of
+the Trias, also, appear to belong to Australian groups.
+
+Every one is aware of the many curious points of resemblance between
+the marine fauna of the European Mesozoic rocks and that which now
+exists in Australia. But if there was this Australian facies about
+both the terrestrial and the marine faunae of Mesozoic Europe, and
+if there is this unaccountable and immense break between the fauna
+of Mesozoic and that of Tertiary Europe, is it not a very obvious
+suggestion that, in the Mesozoic epoch, the Australian province
+included Europe, and that the Arctogaeal province was contained within
+other limits? The Arctogaeal province is at present enormous, while
+the Australian is relatively small. Why should not these proportions
+have been different during the Mesozoic epoch?
+
+Thus I am led to think that by far the simplest and most rational
+mode of accounting for the great change which took place in the living
+inhabitants of the European area at the end of the Mesozoic epoch, is
+the supposition that it arose from a vast alteration of the physical
+geography of the globe; whereby an area long tenanted by Cainozoic
+forms was brought into such relations with the European area that
+migration from the one to the other became possible, and took place on
+a great scale.
+
+This supposition relieves us, at once, from the difficulty in which we
+were left, some time ago, by the arguments which I used to demonstrate
+the necessity of the existence of all the great types of the Eocene
+epoch in some antecedent period.
+
+It is this Mesozoic continent (which may well have lain in the
+neighbourhood of what are now the shores of the North Pacific Ocean)
+which I suppose to have been occupied by the Mesozoic _Monodelphia_;
+and it is in this region that I conceive they must have gone through
+the long series of changes by which they were specialized into the
+forms which we refer to different orders. I think it very probable
+that what is now South America may have received the characteristic
+elements of its mammalian fauna during the Mesozoic epoch; and there
+can be little doubt that the general nature of the change which took
+place at the end of the Mesozoic epoch in Europe was the upheaval of
+the eastern and northern regions of the Mesozoic sea-bottom into a
+westward extension of the Mesozoic continent, over which the mammalian
+fauna, by which it was already peopled, gradually spread. This
+invasion of the land was prefaced by a previous invasion of the
+Cretaceous sea by modern forms of mollusca and fish.
+
+It is easy to imagine how an analogous change might come about in the
+existing world. There is, at present, a great difference between the
+fauna of the Polynesian Islands and that of the west coast of America.
+The animals which are leaving their spoils in the deposits now forming
+in these localities are widely different. Hence, if a gradual
+shifting of the deep sea, which at present bars migration between the
+easternmost of these islands and America, took place to the westward,
+while the American side of the sea-bottom was gradually upheaved,
+the palaeontologist of the future would find, over the Pacific area,
+exactly such a change as I am supposing to have occurred in the
+North-Atlantic area at the close of the Mesozoic period. An Australian
+fauna would be found underlying an American fauna, and the transition
+from the one to the other would be as abrupt as that between the Chalk
+and lower Tertiaries; and as the drainage-area of the newly formed
+extension of the American continent gave rise to rivers and lakes, the
+mammals mired in their mud would differ from those of like deposits on
+the Australian side, just as the Eocene mammals differ from those of
+the Purbecks.
+
+How do similar reasonings apply to the other great change of
+life--that which took place at the end of the Palaeozoic period?
+
+In the Triassic epoch, the distribution of the dry land and of
+terrestrial vertebrate life appears to have been, generally, similar
+to that which existed in the Mesozoic epoch; so that the Triassic
+continents and their faunae seem to be related to the Mesozoic lands
+and their faunae, just as those of the Miocene epoch are related to
+those of the present day. In fact, as I have recently endeavoured
+to prove to the Society, there was an Arctogaeal continent and an
+Arctogaeal province of distribution in Triassic times as there is now;
+and the _Sauropsida_ and _Marsupialia_ which constituted that
+fauna were, I doubt not, the progenitors of the _Sauropsida_ and
+_Marsupialia_ of the whole Mesozoic epoch.
+
+Looking at the present terrestrial fauna of Australia, it appears to
+me to be very probable that it is essentially a remnant of the
+fauna of the Triassic, or even of an earlier, age[1]; in which
+case Australia must at that time have been in continuity with the
+Arctogaeal continent.
+
+[Footnote 1: Since this Address was read, Mr. Krefft has sent us
+news of the discovery in Australia of a fresh-water fish of strangely
+Palaeozoic aspect, and apparently a Ganoid intermediate between
+_Dipterus_ and _Lepidosiren_.]
+
+But now comes the further inquiry. Where was the highly differentiated
+Sauropsidan fauna of the Trias in Palaeozoic times? The supposition
+that the Dinosaurian, Crocodilian, Dicynodontian, and Plesiosaurian
+types were suddenly created at the end of the Permian epoch may
+be dismissed, without further consideration, as a monstrous and
+unwarranted assumption. The supposition that all these types were
+rapidly differentiated out of _Lacertilia_, in the time represented by
+the passage from the Palaeozoic to the Mesozoic formation, appears to
+me to be hardly more credible, to say nothing of the indications of
+the existence of Dinosaurian forms in the Permian rocks which have
+already been obtained.
+
+For my part, I entertain no sort of doubt that the Reptiles, Birds,
+and Mammals of the Trias are the direct descendants of Reptiles,
+Birds, and Mammals which existed in the latter part of the Palaeozoic
+epoch, but not in any area of the present dry land which has yet been
+explored by the geologist.
+
+This may seem a bold assumption, but it will not appear unwarrantable
+to those who reflect upon the very small extent of the earth's surface
+which has hitherto exhibited the remains of the great Mammalian fauna
+of the Eocene times. In this respect, the Permian land Vertebrate
+fauna appears to me to be related to the Triassic much as the Eocene
+is to the Miocene. Terrestrial reptiles have been found in Permian
+rocks only in three localities; in some spots of France, and recently
+of England, and over a more extensive area in Germany. Who can suppose
+that the few fossils yet found in these regions give any sufficient
+representation of the Permian fauna?
+
+It may be said that the Carboniferous formations demonstrate the
+existence of a vast extent of dry land in the present dry-land area,
+and that the supposed terrestrial Palaeozoic Vertebrate Fauna ought to
+have left its remains in the Coal-measures, especially as there is now
+reason to believe that much of the coal was formed by the accumulation
+of spores and sporangia on dry land. But if we consider the matter
+more closely, I think that this apparent objection loses its force. It
+is clear that, during the Carboniferous epoch, the vast area of land
+which is now covered by Coal-measures must have been undergoing a
+gradual depression. The dry land thus depressed must, therefore, have
+existed, as such, before the Carboniferous epoch--in other words, in
+Devonian times--and its terrestrial population may never have been
+other than such as existed during the Devonian, or some previous
+epoch, although much higher forms may have been developed elsewhere.
+
+Again, let me say that I am making no gratuitous assumption of
+inconceivable changes. It is clear that the enormous area of Polynesia
+is, on the whole, an area over which depression has taken place to
+an immense extent; consequently a great continent, or assemblage of
+subcontinental masses of land, must have existed at some former time,
+and that at a recent period, geologically speaking, in the area of
+the Pacific. But if that continent had contained Mammals, some of
+them must have remained to tell the tale; and as it is well known that
+these islands have no indigenous _Mammalia_, it is safe to assume that
+none existed. Thus, midway between Australia and South America, each
+of which possesses an abundant and diversified mammalian fauna, a mass
+of land, which may have been as large as both put together, must have
+existed without a mammalian inhabitant. Suppose that the shores of
+this great land were fringed, as those of tropical Australia are now,
+with belts of mangroves, which would extend landwards on the one
+side, and be buried beneath littoral deposits on the other side,
+as depression went on; and great beds of mangrove lignite might
+accumulate over the sinking land. Let upheaval of the whole now take
+place, in such a manner as to bring the emerging land into continuity
+with the South-American or Australian continent, and, in course of
+time, it would be peopled by an extension of the fauna of one of these
+two regions--just as I imagine the European Permian dry land to have
+been peopled.
+
+I see nothing whatever against the supposition that distributional
+provinces of terrestrial life existed in the Devonian epoch, inasmuch
+as M. Barrande has proved that they existed much earlier. I am aware
+of no reason for doubting that, as regards the grades of terrestrial
+life contained in them, one of these may have been related to another
+as New Zealand is to Australia, or as Australia is to India, at the
+present day. Analogy seems to me to be rather in favour of, than
+against, the supposition that while only Ganoid fishes inhabited the
+fresh waters of our Devonian land, _Amphibia_ and _Reptilia_, or even
+higher forms, may have existed, though we have not yet found them. The
+earliest Carboniferous _Amphibia_ now known, such as _Anthracosaurus_,
+are so highly specialized that I can by no means conceive that they
+have been developed out of piscine forms in the interval between the
+Devonian and the Carboniferous periods, considerable as that is. And I
+take refuge in one of two alternatives: either they existed in our own
+area during the Devonian epoch and we have simply not yet found them;
+or they formed part of the population of some other distributional
+province of that day, and only entered our area by migration at the
+end of the Devonian epoch. Whether _Reptilia_ and _Mammalia_ existed
+along with them is to me, at present, a perfectly open question, which
+is just as likely to receive an affirmative as a negative answer from
+future inquirers.
+
+Let me now gather together the threads of my argumentation into the
+form of a connected hypothetical view of the manner in which the
+distribution of living and extinct animals has been brought about.
+
+I conceive that distinct provinces of the distribution of terrestrial
+life have existed since the earliest period at which that life is
+recorded, and possibly much earlier; and I suppose, with Mr. Darwin,
+that the progress of modification of terrestrial forms is more rapid
+in areas of elevation than in areas of depression. I take it to be
+certain that Labyrinthodont _Amphibia_ existed in the distributional
+province which included the dry land depressed during the
+Carboniferous epoch; and I conceive that, in some other distributional
+provinces of that day, which remained in the condition of stationary
+or of increasing dry land, the various types of the terrestrial
+_Sauropsida_ and of the _Mammalia_ were gradually developing.
+
+The Permian epoch marks the commencement of a new movement of upheaval
+in our area, which attained its maximum in the Triassic epoch, when
+dry land existed in North America, Europe, Asia, and Africa, as it
+does now. Into this great new continental area the Mammals, Birds, and
+Reptiles developed during the Palaeozoic epoch spread, and formed the
+great Triassic Arctogaeal province. But, at the end of the Triassic
+period, the movement of depression recommenced in our area, though
+it was doubtless balanced by elevation elsewhere; modification and
+development, checked in the one province, went on in that "elsewhere;"
+and the chief forms of Mammals, Birds, and Reptiles, as we know them,
+were evolved and peopled the Mesozoic continent. I conceive Australia
+to have become separated from the continent as early as the end of
+the Triassic epoch, or not much later. The Mesozoic continent must, I
+conceive, have lain to the east, about the shores of the North Pacific
+and Indian Oceans; and I am inclined to believe that it continued
+along the eastern side of the Pacific area to what is now the province
+of Austro-Columbia, the characteristic fauna of which is probably a
+remnant of the population of the latter part of this period.
+
+Towards the latter part of the Mesozoic period the movement of
+upheaval around the shores of the Atlantic once more recommenced,
+and was very probably accompanied by a depression around those of the
+Pacific. The Vertebrate fauna elaborated in the Mesozoic continent
+moved westward and took possession of the new lands, which gradually
+increased in extent up to, and in some directions after, the Miocene
+epoch.
+
+It is in favour of this hypothesis, I think, that it is consistent
+with the persistence of a general uniformity in the positions of the
+great masses of land and water. From the Devonian period, or earlier,
+to the present day, the four great oceans, Atlantic, Pacific, Arctic,
+and Antarctic, may have occupied their present positions, and only
+their coasts and channels of communication have undergone an incessant
+alteration. And, finally, the hypothesis I have put before you
+requires no supposition that the rate of change in organic life has
+been either greater or less in ancient times than it is now; nor
+any assumption, either physical or biological, which has not its
+justification in analogous phenomena of existing nature.
+
+I have now only to discharge the last duty of my office, which is
+to thank you, not only for the patient attention with which you have
+listened to me so long to-day, but also for the uniform kindness with
+which, for the past two years, you have rendered my endeavours
+to perform the important, and often laborious, functions of your
+President a pleasure instead of a burden.
+
+
+
+
+X.
+
+MR. DARWIN'S CRITICS.[1]
+
+
+The gradual lapse of time has now separated us by more than a decade
+from the date of the publication of the "Origin of Species"--and
+whatever may be thought or said about Mr. Darwin's doctrines, or the
+manner in which he has propounded them, this much is certain, that,
+in a dozen years, the "Origin of Species" has worked as complete
+a revolution in biological science as the "Principia" did in
+astronomy--and it has done so, because, in the words of Helmholtz, it
+contains "an essentially new creative thought."[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: 1. "Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection."
+By A.R. Wallace. 1870.--2. "The Genesis of Species." By St. George
+Mivart, F.R.S. Second Edition. 1871.--3. "Darwin's Descent of Man."
+_Quarterly Review_, July 1871.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Helmholtz: "Ueber das Ziel und die Fortschritte der
+Naturwissenschaft." Eroeffnungsrede fuer die Naturforscherversammlung zu
+Innsbruck. 1869.]
+
+And as time has slipped by, a happy change has come over Mr. Darwin's
+critics. The mixture of ignorance and insolence which, at first,
+characterized a large proportion of the attacks with which he
+was assailed, is no longer the sad distinction of anti-Darwinian
+criticism. Instead of abusive nonsense, which merely discredited its
+writers, we read essays, which are, at worst, more or less intelligent
+and appreciative; while, sometimes, like that which appeared in the
+_North British Review_ for 1867, they have a real and permanent value.
+
+The several publications of Mr. Wallace and Mr. Mivart contain
+discussions of some of Mr. Darwin's views, which are worthy of
+particular attention, not only on account of the acknowledged
+scientific competence of these writers, but because they exhibit an
+attention to those philosophical questions which underlie all physical
+science, which is as rare as it is needful. And the same may be said
+of an article in the _Quarterly Review_ for July 1871, the comparison
+of which with an article in the same Review for July 1860, is perhaps
+the best evidence which can be brought forward of the change which has
+taken place in public opinion on "Darwinism."
+
+The Quarterly Reviewer admits "the certainty of the action of natural
+selection" (p. 49); and further allows that there is an _a priori_
+probability in favour of the evolution of man from some lower animal
+form, if these lower animal forms themselves have arisen by evolution.
+
+Mr. Wallace and Mr. Mivart go much further than this. They are as
+stout believers in evolution as Mr. Darwin himself; but Mr. Wallace
+denies that man can have been evolved from a lower animal by that
+process of natural selection which he, with Mr. Darwin, holds to have
+been sufficient for the evolution of all animals below man; while
+Mr. Mivart, admitting that natural selection has been one of the
+conditions of the evolution of the animals below man, maintains that
+natural selection must, even in their case, have been supplemented by
+"some other cause"--of the nature of which, unfortunately, he does
+not give us any idea. Thus Mr. Mivart is less of a Darwinian than Mr.
+Wallace, for he has less faith in the power of natural selection. But
+he is more of an evolutionist than Mr. Wallace, because Mr. Wallace
+thinks it necessary to call in an intelligent agent--a sort of
+supernatural Sir John Sebright--to produce even the animal frame of
+man; while Mr. Mivart requires no Divine assistance till he comes to
+man's soul.
+
+Thus there is a considerable divergence between Mr. Wallace and Mr.
+Mivart. On the other hand, there are some curious similarities between
+Mr. Mivart and the Quarterly Reviewer, and these are sometimes so
+close, that, if Mr. Mivart thought it worth while, I think he
+might make out a good case of plagiarism against the Reviewer, who
+studiously abstains from quoting him.
+
+Both the Reviewer and Mr. Mivart reproach Mr. Darwin with being, "like
+so many other physicists," entangled in a radically false metaphysical
+system, and with setting at nought the first principles of both
+philosophy and religion. Both enlarge upon the necessity of a sound
+philosophical basis, and both, I venture to add, make a conspicuous
+exhibition of its absence. The Quarterly Reviewer believes that man
+"differs more from an elephant or a gorilla than do these from the
+dust of the earth on which they tread," and Mr. Mivart has expressed
+the opinion that there is more difference between man and an ape than
+there is between an ape and a piece of granite.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: See the _Tablet_ for March 11, 1871.]
+
+And even when Mr. Mivart (p. 86) trips in a matter of anatomy, and
+creates a difficulty for Mr. Darwin out of a supposed close similarity
+between the eyes of fishes and cephalopods, which (as Gegenbaur and
+others have clearly shown) does not exist, the Quarterly Reviewer
+adopts the argument without hesitation (p. 66).
+
+There is another important point, however, in which it is hard to say
+whether Mr. Mivart diverges from the Quarterly Reviewer or not.
+
+The Reviewer declares that Mr. Darwin has, "with needless opposition,
+set at nought the first principles of both philosophy and religion"
+(p. 90).
+
+It looks, at first, as if this meant, that Mr. Darwin's views being
+false, the opposition to "religion" which flows from them must be
+needless. But I suspect this is not the right view of the meaning of
+the passage, as Mr. Mivart, from whom the Quarterly Reviewer plainly
+draws so much inspiration, tells us that "the consequences which have
+been drawn from evolution, whether exclusively Darwinian or not, to
+the prejudice of religion, by no means follow from it, and are in fact
+illegitimate" (p. 5).
+
+I may assume, then, that the Quarterly Reviewer and Mr. Mivart admit
+that there is no necessary opposition between "evolution, whether
+exclusively Darwinian or not," and religion. But then, what do they
+mean by this last much-abused term? On this point the Quarterly
+Reviewer is silent. Mr. Mivart, on the contrary, is perfectly
+explicit, and the whole tenor of his remarks leaves no doubt that by
+"religion" he means theology; and by theology, that particular variety
+of the great Proteus, which is expounded by the doctors of the Roman
+Catholic Church, and held by the members of that religious community
+to be the sole form of absolute truth and of saving faith.
+
+According to Mr. Mivart, the greatest and most orthodox authorities
+upon matters of Catholic doctrine agree in distinctly asserting
+"derivative creation" or evolution; "and thus their teachings
+harmonize with all that modern science can possibly require" (p. 305).
+
+I confess that this bold assertion interested me more than anything
+else in Mr. Mivart's book. What little knowledge I possessed of
+Catholic doctrine, and of the influence exerted by Catholic authority
+in former times, had not led me to expect that modern science was
+likely to find a warm welcome within the pale of the greatest and most
+consistent of theological organizations.
+
+And my astonishment reached its climax when I found Mr. Mivart citing
+Father Suarez as his chief witness in favour of the scientific freedom
+enjoyed by Catholics--the popular repute of that learned theologian
+and subtle casuist not being such as to make his works a likely place
+of refuge for liberality of thought. But in these days, when Judas
+Iscariot and Robespierre, Henry VIII. and Catiline, have all been
+shown to be men of admirable virtue, far in advance of their age,
+and consequently the victims of vulgar prejudice, it was obviously
+possible that Jesuit Suarez might be in like case. And, spurred by Mr.
+Mivart's unhesitating declaration, I hastened to acquaint myself
+with such of the works of the great Catholic divine as bore upon
+the question, hoping, not merely to acquaint myself with the true
+teachings of the infallible Church, and free myself of an unjust
+prejudice; but, haply, to enable myself, at a pinch, to put some
+Protestant bibliolater to shame, by the bright example of Catholic
+freedom from the trammels of verbal inspiration.
+
+I regret to say that my anticipations have been cruelly disappointed.
+But the extent to which my hopes have been crushed can only be fully
+appreciated by citing, in the first place, those passages of Mr.
+Mivart's work by which they were excited. In his introductory chapter
+I find the following passages:--
+
+"The prevalence of this theory [of evolution] need alarm no one, for
+it is, without any doubt, perfectly consistent with the strictest and
+most orthodox Christian[1] theology" (p. 5).
+
+[Footnote 1: It should be observed that Mr. Mivart employs the term
+"Christian" as if it were the equivalent of "Catholic."]
+
+"Mr. Darwin and others may perhaps be excused if they have not devoted
+much time to the study of Christian philosophy; but they have no right
+to assume or accept without careful examination, as an unquestioned
+fact, that in that philosophy there is a necessary antagonism between
+the two ideas 'creation' and 'evolution,' as applied to organic forms.
+
+"It is notorious and patent to all who choose to seek, that many
+distinguished Christian thinkers have accepted, and do accept, both
+ideas, i.e. both 'creation' and 'evolution.'
+
+"As much as ten years ago an eminently Christian writer observed: 'The
+creationist theory does not necessitate the perpetual search after
+manifestations of miraculous power and perpetual "catastrophes."
+Creation is not a miraculous interference with the laws of nature, but
+the very institution of those laws. Law and regularity, not arbitrary
+intervention, was the patristic ideal of creation. With this notion
+they admitted, without difficulty, the most surprising origin of
+living creatures, provided it took place by _law_. They held that
+when God said, "Let the waters produce," "Let the earth produce," He
+conferred forces on the elements of earth and water, which enabled
+them naturally to produce the various species of organic beings. This
+power, they thought, remains attached to the elements throughout all
+time.' The same writer quotes St. Augustin and St. Thomas Aquinas,
+to the effect that, 'in the institution of nature, we do not look for
+miracles, but for the laws of nature,' And, again, St. Basil speaks
+of the continued operation of natural laws in the production of all
+organisms.
+
+"So much for the writers of early and mediaeval times. As to the
+present day, the author can confidently affirm that there are many
+as well versed in theology as Mr. Darwin is in his own department
+of natural knowledge, who would not be disturbed by the thorough
+demonstration of his theory. Nay, they would not even be in the least
+painfully affected at witnessing the generation of animals of complex
+organization by the skilful artificial arrangement of natural forces,
+and the production, in the future, of a fish by means analogous to
+those by which we now produce urea.
+
+"And this because they know that the possibility of such phenomena,
+though by no means actually foreseen, has yet been fully provided
+for in the old philosophy centuries before Darwin, or even centuries
+before Bacon, and that their place in the system can be at once
+assigned them without even disturbing its order or marring its
+harmony.
+
+"Moreover, the old tradition in this respect has never been abandoned,
+however much it may have been ignored or neglected by some modern
+writers. In proof of this, it may be observed that perhaps no
+post-mediaeval theologian has a wider reception amongst Christians
+throughout the world than Suarez, who has a separate section[1] in
+opposition to those who maintain the distinct creation of the various
+kinds--or substantial forms--of organic life" (pp. 19-21).
+
+[Footnote 1: Suarez; Metaphysica. Edition Vives. Paris, 1868, vol. i.
+Disput. xv. Sec. 2.]
+
+Still more distinctly does Mr. Mivart express himself, in the same
+sense, in his last chapter, entitled "Theology and Evolution" (pp.
+302-5).
+
+"It appears, then, that Christian thinkers are perfectly free to
+accept the general evolution theory. But are there any theological
+authorities to justify this view of the matter?
+
+"Now, considering how extremely recent are these biological
+speculations, it might hardly be expected _a priori_ that writers of
+earlier ages should have given expression to doctrines harmonizing
+in any degree with such very modern views; nevertheless, this is
+certainly the case, and it would be easy to give numerous examples.
+It will be better, however, to cite one or two authorities of weight.
+Perhaps no writer of the earlier Christian ages could be quoted whose
+authority is more generally recognized than that of St. Augustin. The
+same may be said of the mediaeval period for St. Thomas Aquinas: and
+since the movement of Luther, Suarez may be taken as an authority,
+widely venerated, and one whose orthodoxy has never been questioned.
+
+"It must be borne in mind that for a considerable time even after
+the last of these writers no one had disputed the generally received
+belief as to the small age of the world, or at least of the kinds of
+animals and plants inhabiting it. It becomes, therefore, much more
+striking if views formed under such a condition of opinion are found
+to harmonize with modern ideas concerning 'Creation' and organic Life.
+
+"Now St. Augustin insists in a very remarkable manner on the merely
+derivative sense in which God's creation of organic forms is to
+be understood; that is, that God created them by conferring on the
+material world the power to evolve them under suitable conditions."
+
+Mr. Mivart then cites certain passages from St. Augustin, St. Thomas
+Aquinas, and Cornelius a Lapide, and finally adds:--
+
+    "As to Suarez, it will be enough to refer to Disp. xv. sec.
+    2, No. 9, p. 508, t.i. edition Vives, Paris; also Nos. 13--15.
+    Many other references to the same effect could easily be
+    given, but these may suffice.
+
+    "It is then evident that ancient and most venerable
+    theological authorities distinctly assert _derivative_
+    creation, and thus their teachings harmonize with all that
+    modern science can possibly require."
+
+It will be observed that Mr. Mivart refers solely to Suarez's
+fifteenth Disputation, though he adds, "Many other references to the
+same effect could easily be given." I shall look anxiously for these
+references in the third edition of the "Genesis of Species." For the
+present, all I can say is, that I have sought in vain, either in
+the fifteenth Disputation, or elsewhere, for any passage in Suarez's
+writings which, in the slightest degree, bears out Mr. Mivart's views
+as to his opinions.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: The edition of Suarez's "Disputationes" from which the
+following citations are given, is Birckmann's, in two volumes folio,
+and is dated 1630.]
+
+The title of this fifteenth Disputation is "De causa formali
+substantiali," and the second section of that Disputation (to which
+Mr. Mivart refers) is headed, "Quomodo possit forma substantialis
+fieri in materia et ex materia?"
+
+The problem which Suarez discusses in this place may be popularly
+stated thus: According to the scholastic philosophy every natural body
+has two components--the one its "matter" (_materia prima_), the other
+its "substantial form" (_forma substantialis_). Of these the matter
+is everywhere the same, the matter of one body being indistinguishable
+from the matter of any other body. That which differentiates any one
+natural body from all others is its substantial form, which inheres
+in the matter of that body, as the human soul inheres in the matter
+of the frame of man, and is the source of all the activities and other
+properties of the body.
+
+Thus, says Suarez, if water is heated, and the source of heat is then
+removed, it cools again. The reason of this is that there is a certain
+"_intimius principium_" in the water, which brings it back to the
+cool condition when the external impediment to the existence of that
+condition is removed. This _intimius principium_, is the "substantial
+form" of the water. And the substantial form of the water is not only
+the cause (_radix_) of the coolness of the water, but also of its
+moisture, of its density, and of all its other properties.
+
+It will thus be seen that "substantial forms" play nearly the same
+part in the scholastic philosophy as "forces" do in modern science;
+the general tendency of modern thought being to conceive all bodies as
+resolvable into material particles and forces, in virtue of which last
+these particles assume those dispositions and exercise those powers
+which are characteristic of each particular kind of matter.
+
+But the Schoolmen distinguished two kinds of substantial forms,
+the one spiritual and the other material. The former division is
+represented by the human soul, the _anima rationalis_; and they affirm
+as a matter, not merely of reason, but of faith, that every human soul
+is created out of nothing, and by this act of creation is endowed with
+the power of existing for all eternity, apart from the _materia
+prima_ of which the corporeal frame of man is composed. And the _anima
+rationalis_, once united with the _materia prima_ of the body,
+becomes its substantial form, and is the source of all the powers and
+faculties of man--of all the vital and sensitive phenomena which he
+exhibits--just as the substantial form of water is the source of all
+its qualities.
+
+The "material substantial forms" are those which inform all other
+natural bodies except that of man; and the object of Suarez in the
+present Disputation, is to show that the axiom "_ex nihilo nihil
+fit_," though not true of the substantial form of man, is true of the
+substantial forms of all other bodies, the endless mutations of which
+constitute the ordinary course of nature. The origin of the difficulty
+which he discusses is easily comprehensible. Suppose a piece of bright
+iron to be exposed to the air. The existence of the iron depends on
+the presence within it of a substantial form, which is the cause of
+its properties, e.g. brightness, hardness, weight. But, by degrees,
+the iron becomes converted into a mass of rust, which is dull, and
+soft, and light, and, in all other respects, is quite different from
+the iron. As, in the scholastic view, this difference is due to the
+rust being informed by a new substantial form, the grave problem
+arises, how did this new substantial form come into being? Has it been
+created? or has it arisen by the power of natural causation? If the
+former hypothesis is correct, then the axiom, "_ex nihilo nihil fit_,"
+is false, even in relation to the ordinary course of nature, seeing
+that such mutations of matter as imply the continual origin of new
+substantial forms are occurring every moment. But the harmonization of
+Aristotle with theology was as dear to the Schoolmen, as the smoothing
+down the differences between Moses and science is to our Broad
+Churchmen, and they were proportionably unwilling to contradict one
+of Aristotle's fundamental propositions. Nor was their objection to
+flying in the face of the Stagirite likely to be lessened by the fact
+that such flight landed them in flat Pantheism.
+
+So Father Suarez fights stoutly for the second hypothesis; and I quote
+the principal part of his argumentation as an exquisite specimen of
+that speech which is a "darkening of counsel."
+
+    "13. Secundo de omnibus aliis formis substantialibus (sc.
+    materialibus) dicendum est non fieri proprie ex nihilo, sed
+    ex potentia praejacentis materiae educi: ideoque in effectione
+    harum formarum nil fieri contra illud axioma, _Ex nihila
+    nihil fit_, si recte intelligatur. Haec assertio sumitur ex
+    Aristotele 1. Physicorum per totum et libro 7. Metaphyss.
+    et ex aliis authoribus, quos statim referam. Et declaratur
+    breviter, nam fieri ex nihilo duo dicit, unum est fieri
+    absolute et simpliciter, aliud est quod talis effectio fit ex
+    nihilo. Primum proprie dicitur de re subsistente, quia ejus
+    est fieri, cujus est esse: id autem proprie quod subsistit et
+    habet esse; nam quod alteri adjacet, potius est quo aliud est.
+    Ex hac ergo parte, formae substantiales materiales non fiunt
+    ex nihilo, quia proprie non fiunt. Atque hanc rationem reddit
+    Divus Thomas I parte, quaestione 45, articulo 8, et quaestione
+    90, articulo 2, et ex dicendis magis explicabitur. Sumendo
+    ergo ipsum _fieri_ in hac proprietate et rigore, sic fieri
+    ex nihilo est fieri secundum se totum, id est nulla sui parte
+    praesupposita, ex quo fiat. Et hac ratione res naturales
+    dum de novo fiunt, non fiunt ex nihilo, quia fiunt ex
+    praesupposita materia, ex qua componuntur, et ita non fiunt,
+    secundum se totae, sed secundum aliquid sui. Formae autem
+    harum rerum, quamvis revera totam suam entitatem de novo
+    accipiant, quam antea non habebant, quia vero ipsae non fiunt,
+    ut dictum est, ideo neque ex nihilo fiunt. Attamen, quia
+    latiori modo sumendo verbum illud _fieri_ negari non potest:
+    quia forma facta sit, eo modo quo nunc est, et antea non erat,
+    ut etiam probat ratio dubitandi posita in principio sectionis,
+    ideo addendum est, sumpto _fieri_ in hac amplitudine, fieri
+    ex nihilo non tamen negare habitudinem materialis causea
+    intrinsece componentis id quod fit, sed etiam habitudinem
+    causae materialis per se causantis et sustentantis formam quae
+    fit, seu confit. Diximus enim in superioribus materiam et esse
+    causam compositi et formae dependentis ab ilia: ut res ergo
+    dicatur ex nihilo fieri uterque modus causalitatis negari
+    debet; et eodem sensu accipiendum est illud axioma, ut
+    sit verum: _Ex nihilo nihil fit_, scilicet virtute agentis
+    naturalis et finiti nihil fieri, nisi ex praesupposito
+    subjecto per se concurrente, et ad compositum et ad formam,
+    si utrumque suo modo ab eodem agente fiat. Ex his ergo recte
+    concluditur, formas substantiales materiales non fieri ex
+    nihilo, quia fiunt ex materia, quae in suo genere per se
+    concurrit, et influit ad esse, et fieri talium formarum;
+    quia, sicut esse non possunt nisi affixae materiae, a qua
+    sustententur in esse: ita nec fieri possunt, nisi earum
+    effectio et penetratio in eadem materia sustentetur. Et haec
+    est propria et per se differentia inter effectionem ex nihilo,
+    et ex aliquo, propter quam, ut infra ostendemus, prior modus
+    effciendi superat vim finitam naturaliam agentium, non vero
+    posterior.
+
+    "14. Ex his etiam constat, proprie de his formis dici non
+    creari, sed educi de potentia materiae."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Suarez, _loc. cit_. Disput. xv. Sec. ii.]
+
+If I may venture to interpret these hard sayings, Suarez conceives
+that the evolution of substantial forms in the ordinary course of
+nature, is conditioned not only by the existence of the _materia
+prima_, but also by a certain "concurrence and influence" which
+that _materia_ exerts; and every new substantial form being thus
+conditioned, and in part, at any rate, caused, by a pre-existing
+something, cannot be said to be created out of nothing.
+
+But as the whole tenor of the context shows, Suarez applies this
+argumentation merely to the evolution of material substantial forms
+in the ordinary course of nature. How the substantial forms of animals
+and plants primarily originated, is a question to which, so far as
+I am able to discover, he does not so much as allude in his
+"Metaphysical Disputations." Nor was there any necessity that he
+should do so, inasmuch as he has devoted a separate treatise of
+considerable bulk to the discussion of all the problems which arise
+out of the account of the Creation which is given in the Book of
+Genesis. And it is a matter of wonderment to me that Mr. Mivart, who
+somewhat sharply reproves "Mr. Darwin and others" for not acquainting
+themselves with the true teachings of his Church, should allow
+himself to be indebted to a heretic like myself for a knowledge of
+the existence of that "Tractatus de opere sex Dierum," I in which
+the learned Father, of whom he justly speaks, as "an authority widely
+venerated, and whose orthodoxy has never been questioned," directly
+opposes all those opinions, for which Mr. Mivart claims the shelter of
+his authority.
+
+In the tenth and eleventh chapters of the first book of this treatise,
+Suarez inquires in what sense the word "day," as employed in the first
+chapter of Genesis, is to be taken. He discusses the views of Philo
+and of Augustin on this question, and rejects them. He suggests that
+the approval of their allegorizing interpretations by St. Thomas
+Aquinas, merely arose out of St. Thomas's modesty, and his desire not
+to seem openly to controvert St. Augustin--"voluisse Divus Thomas pro
+sua modestia subterfugere vim argumenti potius quam aperte Augustinum
+inconstantiae arguere."
+
+Finally, Suarez decides that the writer of Genesis meant that the
+term "day" should be taken in its natural sense; and he winds up
+the discussion with the very just and natural remark that "it is
+not probable that God, in inspiring Moses to write a history of the
+Creation which was to be believed by ordinary people, would have made
+him use language, the true meaning of which it is hard to discover,
+and still harder to believe."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "Tractatus de opere sex Dierum, seu de Universi
+Creatione, quatenus sex diebus perfecta esse, in libro Genesis cap. i.
+refertur, et praesertim de productioue hominis in statu innocentiae."
+Ed. Birckmann, 1622.]
+
+And in chapter xii. 3, Suarez further observes:--
+
+    "Ratio enim retinendi veram significationem diei naturalis est
+    illa communis, quod verba Scripturae non sunt ad metaphoras
+    transferenda, nisi vel necessitas cogit, vel ex ipsa scriptura
+    constet, et maxime in historica narratione et ad instructionem
+    fidei pertinente: sed haec ratio non minus cogit ad
+    intelligendum proprie dierum numerum, quam diei qualitatem,
+    QUIA NON MINUS UNO MODO QUAM ALIO DESTRUITUR SINCERITAS,
+    IMO ET VERITAS HISTORIAE. Secundo hoc valde confirmant alia
+    Scripturae loca, in quibus hi sex dies tanquam veri, et inter
+    se distincti commemorantur, ut Exod. 20 dicitur, _Sex diebus
+    operabis et facies omnia opera tua, septimo autem die Sabbatum
+    Domini Dei tui est_. Et infra: _Sex enim diebus fecit Dominus
+    caelum et terram et mare et omnia quae in eis sunt_, et idem
+    repetitur in cap. 31. In quibus locis sermonis proprietas
+    colligi potest tum ex aequiparatione, nam cum dicitur: _sex
+    diebus operabis_, propriissime intelligitur: tum quia non est
+    verisimile, potuisse populum intelligere verba illa in alio
+    sensu, et e contrario incredibile est, Deum in suis praeceptis
+    tradendis illis verbis ad populum fuisse loquutum, quibus
+    deciperetur, falsum sensum concipiendo, si Deus non per sex
+    veros dies opera sua fecisset."
+
+These passages leave no doubt that this great doctor of the Catholic
+Church, of unchallenged authority and unspotted orthodoxy, not only
+declares it to be Catholic doctrine that the work of creation took
+place in the space of six natural days; but that he warmly repudiates,
+as inconsistent with our knowledge of the Divine attributes, the
+supposition that the language which Catholic faith requires the
+believer to hold that God inspired, was used in any other sense than
+that which He knew it would convey to the minds of those to whom it
+was addressed.
+
+And I think that in this repudiation Father Suarez will have the
+sympathy of every man of common uprightness, to whom it is certainly
+"incredible" that the Almighty should have acted in a manner which He
+would esteem dishonest and base in a man.
+
+But the belief that the universe was created in six natural days is
+hopelessly inconsistent with the doctrine of evolution, in so far as
+it applies to the stars and planetary bodies; and it can be made to
+agree with a belief in the evolution of living beings only by the
+supposition that the plants and animals, which are said to have been
+created on the third, fifth, and six days, were merely the primordial
+forms, or rudiments, out of which existing plants and animals have
+been evolved; so that, on these days, plants and animals were not
+created actually, but only potentially.
+
+The latter view is that held by Mr. Mivart, who follows St. Augustin,
+and implies that he has the sanction of Suarez. But, in point of fact,
+the latter great light of orthodoxy takes no small pains to give the
+most explicit and direct contradiction to all such imaginations, as
+the following passages prove. In the first place, as regards plants,
+Suarez discusses the problem:--
+
+    "_Quomodo herba virens et caetera vegetabilia hoc [tertio] die
+    fuerint producta._[1]
+
+    [Footnote 1: "Propter haec ergo sententia illa Augustini et
+    propter nimiam obscuritatem et subtilitatem ejus difficilis
+    creditu est: quia verisimile non est Deum inspirasse Moysi,
+    ut historiam de creatione mundi ad fidem totius populi adeo
+    necessariam per nomina dierum explicaret, quorum significatio
+    vix inveniri et difficillime ab aliquo credi posset." _(Loc.
+    cit._ Lib. I. cap. xi. 42.)]
+
+    "Praecipua enim difficultas hic est, quam attingit Div. Thomas
+    I, par. qu. 69, art. 2, an haec productio plantarum hoc die
+    facta intelligenda sit de productione ipsarum in proprio esse
+    actuali et formali (ut sic rem explicerem) vel de productione
+    tantum in semine et in potentia. Nam Divus Augustinus libro
+    quinto Genes, ad liter, cap. 4 et 5 et libro 8, cap. 3,
+    posteriorem partem tradit, dicens, terram in hoc die accepisse
+    virtutem germinandi omnia vegetabilia quasi concepto omnium
+    illorum semine, non tamen statim vegetabilia omnia produxisse.
+    Quod primo suadet verbis illis capitis secundi. _In die quo
+    fecit Deus coelum et terram et omne virgultum agri priusquam,
+    germinaret_. Quomodo enim potuerunt virgulta fieri antequam
+    terra germinaret nisi quia causaliter prius et quasi in
+    radice, seu in semine facta sunt, et postea in actu producta?
+    Secundo confirmari potest, quia verbum illud _germinet terra_
+    optime exponitur potestative ut sic dicam, id est, accipiat
+    terra vim germinandi. Sicut in eodem capite dicitur _crescite
+    et multiplicamini_. Tertio potest confirmari, quia actualis
+    productio vegetabilium non tarn ad opus creationis, quam ad
+    opus propagationis pertinet, quod postea factum est. Et hanc
+    sententiam sequitur Eucherius lib. 1, in Gen. cap. 11, et illi
+    faveat Glossa, interli. Hugo. et Lyran. dum verbum _germinet_
+    dicto modo exponunt. NIHILOMINUS CONTRARIA SENTENTIA TENENDA
+    EST: SCILICET, PRODUXISSE DEUM HOC DIE HERBAM, ARBORES, ET
+    ALIA VEGETABILIA ACTU IN PROPRIA SPECIE ET NATURA. Haec est
+    communis sententia Patrum.--Basil, homil. 5; Exaemer. Ambros.
+    lib. 3; Exaemer. cap. 8,11, et 16; Chrysost, homil. 5 in Gen.
+    Damascene, lib. 2 de Fid. cap. 10; Theodor. Cyrilli. Bedae,
+    Glossae ordinariae et aliorum in Gen. Et idem sentit Divus
+    Thomas, _supra_, solvens argumenta Augustini, quamvis propter
+    reverentiam ejus quasi problematice semper procedat. Denique
+    idem sentiunt omnes qui in his operibus veram successionem et
+    temporalem distinctionem agnoscant."
+
+Secondly, with respect to animals, Suarez is no less decided:--
+
+    _De animalium ratione carentium productione quinto et sexto
+    die facta._[1]
+
+    "32. Primo ergo nobis certum sit haec animantia non in virtute
+    tantum aut in semine, sed actu, et in seipsis, facta fuisse
+    his diebus in quibus facta narrantur. Quanquam Augustinus
+    lib. 3, Gen. ad liter, cap. 5 in sua persistens sententia
+    contrarium sentire videatur."
+
+[Footnote 1: _Loc. cit._ Lib. II. cap. vii. et viii. 1, 32, 35.]
+
+But Suarez proceeds to refute Augustin's opinions at great length, and
+his final judgment may be gathered from the following passage:--
+
+    "35. Tertio dicendum est, haec animalia omnia his diebus
+    producta esse, IN PERFECTO STATU, IN SINGULIS INDIVIDUIS, SEU
+    SPECIEBUS SUIS, JUXTA UNIUSCUJUSQUE NATURAM.... ITAQUE FUERUNT
+    OMNIA CREATA INTEGRA ET OMNIBUS SUIS MEMBRIS PERFECTA."
+
+As regards the creation of animals and plants, therefore, it is clear
+that Suarez, so far from "distinctly asserting derivative creation,"
+denies it as distinctly and positively as he can; that he is at much
+pains to refute St. Augustin's opinions; that he does not hesitate to
+regard the faint acquiescence of St. Thomas Aquinas in the views of
+his brother saint as a kindly subterfuge on the part of Divus Thomas;
+and that he affirms his own view to be that which is supported by the
+authority of the Fathers of the Church. So that, when Mr. Mivart tells
+us that Catholic theology is in harmony with all that modern science
+can possibly require; that "to the general theory of evolution, and
+to the special Darwinian form of it, no exception ... need be taken on
+the ground of orthodoxy;" and that "law and regularity, not arbitrary
+intervention, was the Patristic ideal of creation," we have to choose
+between his dictum, as a theologian, and that of a great light of
+his Church, whom he himself declares to be "widely venerated as an
+authority, and whose orthodoxy has never been questioned."
+
+But Mr. Mivart does not hesitate to push his attempt to harmonize
+science with Catholic orthodoxy to its utmost limit; and, while
+assuming that the soul of man "arises from immediate and direct
+creation," he supposes that his body was "formed at first (as now
+in each separate individual) by derivative, or secondary creation,
+through natural laws" (p. 331).
+
+This means, I presume, that an animal, having the corporeal form and
+bodily powers of man, may have been developed out of some lower form
+of life by a process of evolution; and that, after this anthropoid
+animal had existed for a longer or shorter time, God made a soul by
+direct creation, and put it into the manlike body, which, heretofore,
+had been devoid of that _anima rationalis_, which is supposed to be
+man's distinctive character.
+
+This hypothesis is incapable of either proof or disproof, and
+therefore may be true; but if Suarez is any authority, it is not
+Catholic doctrine. "Nulla est in homine forma educta de potentia
+materiae,"[1] is a dictum which is absolutely inconsistent with the
+doctrine of the natural evolution of any vital manifestation of the
+human body.
+
+[Footnote 1: Disput. xv. Sec. x. No. 27.]
+
+Moreover, if man existed as an animal before he was provided with a
+rational soul, he must, in accordance with the elementary requirements
+of the philosophy in which Mr. Mivart delights, have possessed a
+distinct sensitive and vegetative soul, or souls. Hence, when the
+"breath of life" was breathed into the manlike animal's nostrils,
+he must have already been a living and feeling creature. But Suarez
+particularly discusses this point, and not only rejects Mr. Mivart's
+view, but adopts language of very theological strength regarding it.
+
+    "Possent praeterea his adjungi argumenta theologica, ut est
+    illud quod sumitur ex illis verbis Genes. 2. _Formavit Deus
+    hominem ex limo terrae et inspiravit in faciem ejus spiraculum
+    vitae et factus est homo in animam viventem_: ille enim
+    spiritus, quam Deus spiravit, anima rationalis fuit, et PER
+    EADEM FACTUS EST HOMO VIVENS, ET CONSEQUENTER, ETIAM SENTIENS.
+
+    "Aliud est ex VIII. Synodo Generali quae est
+    Constantinopolitana IV. can. 11, qui sic habet. _Apparet
+    quosdam in tantum impietatis venisse ut homines duas animas
+    habere dogmatizent: talis igitur impietatis inventores et
+    similes sapientes, cum Vetus et Novum Testamentum_ _omnesque
+    Ecclesiae patres unam animam rationalem hominem habere
+    asseverent, Sancta et universalis Synodus anathematizat_."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Disput. xv. "De causa formali substantiali," Sec. x. No.
+24.]
+
+Moreover, if the animal nature of man was the result of evolution, so
+must that of woman have been. But the Catholic doctrine, according to
+Suarez, is that woman was, in the strictest and most literal sense of
+the words, made out of the rib of man.
+
+    "Nihilominus sententia Catholica est, verba illa Scripturae
+    esse ad literam intelligenda. AC PROINDE VERE, AC REALITER,
+    TULISSE DEUM COSTAM ADAE, ET, EX ILLA, CORPUS EVAE
+    FORMASSE."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "Tractatus de Opere," Lib. III. "De hominis creatione,"
+cap. ii. No. 3.]
+
+Nor is there any escape in the supposition that some woman existed
+before Eve, after the fashion of the Lilith of the rabbis;
+since Suarez qualifies that notion, along with some other Judaic
+imaginations, as simply "damnabilis."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Ibid. Lib. III. cap. iv. Nos. 8 and 9.]
+
+After the perusal of the "Tractatus de Opere" it is, in fact,
+impossible to admit that Suarez held any opinion respecting the origin
+of species, except such as is consistent with the strictest and most
+literal interpretation of the words of Genesis. For Suarez, it is
+Catholic doctrine, that the world was made in six natural days. On the
+first of these days the _materia prima_ was made out of nothing, to
+receive afterwards those "substantial forms" which moulded it into
+the universe of things; on the third day, the ancestors of all living
+plants suddenly came into being, full-grown, perfect, and possessed of
+all the properties which now distinguish them; while, on the fifth
+and sixth days, the ancestors of all existing animals were similarly
+caused to exist in their complete and perfect state, by the infusion
+of their appropriate material substantial forms into the matter
+which had already been created. Finally on the sixth day, the _anima
+rationalis_--that rational and immortal substantial form which is
+peculiar to man--was created out of nothing, and "breathed into" a
+mass of matter which, till then, was mere dust of the earth, and so
+man arose. But the species man was represented by a solitary male
+individual, until the Creator took out one of his ribs and fashioned
+it into a female.
+
+This is the view of the "Genesis of Species," held by Suarez to be the
+only one consistent with Catholic faith: it is because he holds this
+view to be Catholic that he does not hesitate to declare St. Augustin
+unsound, and St. Thomas Aquinas guilty of weakness, when the one
+swerved from this view and the other tolerated the deviation. And,
+until responsible Catholic authority--say, for example, the Archbishop
+of Westminster--formally declares that Suarez was wrong, and that
+Catholic priests are free to teach their flocks that the world was
+_not_ made in six natural days, and that plants and animals were _not_
+created in their perfect and complete state, but have been evolved by
+natural processes through long ages from certain germs in which they
+were potentially contained, I, for one, shall feel bound to believe
+that the doctrines of Suarez are the only ones which are sanctioned
+by Infallible Authority, as represented by the Holy Father and the
+Catholic Church.
+
+I need hardly add that they are as absolutely denied and repudiated by
+Scientific Authority, as represented by Reason and Fact. The question
+whether the earth and the immediate progenitors of its present living
+population were made in six natural days or not, is no longer one upon
+which two opinions can be held.
+
+The fact that it did not so come into being stands upon as sound a
+basis as any fact of history whatever. It is not true that existing
+plants and animals came into being within three days of the creation
+of the earth out of nothing, for it is certain that innumerable
+generations of other plants and animals lived upon the earth before
+its present population. And when, Sunday after Sunday, men who profess
+to be our instructors in righteousness read out the statement, "In
+six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that in them
+is," in innumerable churches, they are either propagating what they
+may easily know, and, therefore, are bound to know, to be falsities;
+or, if they use the words in some non-natural sense, they fall below
+the moral standard of the much-abused Jesuit.
+
+Thus far the contradiction between Catholic verity and Scientific
+verity is complete and absolute, quite independently of the truth or
+falsehood of the doctrine of evolution. But, for those who hold the
+doctrine of evolution, all the Catholic verities about the creation of
+living beings must be no less false. For them, the assertion that
+the progenitors of all existing plants were made on the third day, of
+animals on the fifth and sixth days, in the forms they now present, is
+simply false. Nor can they admit that man was made suddenly out of the
+dust of the earth; while it would be an insult to ask an evolutionist
+whether he credits the preposterous fable respecting the fabrication
+of woman to which Suarez pins his faith. If Suarez has rightly stated
+Catholic doctrine, then is evolution utter heresy. And such I believe
+it to be. In addition to the truth of the doctrine of evolution,
+indeed, one of its greatest merits in my eyes, is the fact that it
+occupies a position of complete and irreconcilable antagonism to that
+vigorous and consistent enemy of the highest intellectual, moral, and
+social life of mankind--the Catholic Church. No doubt, Mr. Mivart,
+like other putters of new wine into old bottles, is actuated by
+motives which are worthy of respect, and even of sympathy; but his
+attempt has met with the fate which the Scripture prophesies for all
+such.
+
+Catholic theology, like all theologies which are based upon the
+assumption of the truth of the account of the origin of things given
+in the Book of Genesis, being utterly irreconcilable with the doctrine
+of evolution, the student of science, who is satisfied that the
+evidence upon which the doctrine of evolution rests, is incomparably
+stronger and better than that upon which the supposed authority of
+the Book of Genesis rests, will not trouble himself further with these
+theologies, but will confine his attention to such arguments against
+the view he holds as are based upon purely scientific data--and
+by scientific data I do not merely mean the truths of physical,
+mathematical, or logical science, but those of moral and metaphysical
+science. For, by science, I understand all knowledge which rests upon
+evidence and reasoning of a like character to that which claims our
+assent to ordinary scientific propositions. And if any one is able to
+make good the assertion that his theology rests upon valid evidence
+and sound reasoning, then it appears to me that such theology will
+take its place as a part of science.
+
+The present antagonism between theology and science does not arise
+from any assumption by the men of science that all theology must
+necessarily be excluded from science; but simply because they are
+unable to allow that reason and morality have two weights and two
+measures; and that the belief in a proposition, because authority
+tells you it is true, or because you wish to believe it, which is a
+high crime and misdemeanour when the subject matter of reasoning is
+of one kind, becomes under the _alias_ of "faith" the greatest of all
+virtues, when the subject matter of reasoning is of another kind.
+
+The Bishop of Brechin said well the other day:--"Liberality in
+religion--I do not mean tender and generous allowances for the
+mistakes of others--is only unfaithfulness to truth."[1] And, with
+the same qualification, I venture to paraphrase the Bishop's dictum:
+"Ecclesiasticism in science is only unfaithfulness to truth."
+
+[Footnote 1: Charge at the Diocesan Synod of Brechin. _Scotsman_,
+Sept. 14, 1871.]
+
+Elijah's great question, "Will you serve God or Baal? Choose ye," is
+uttered audibly enough in the ears of every one of us as we come to
+manhood. Let every man who tries to answer it seriously, ask himself
+whether he can be satisfied with the Baal of authority, and with all
+the good things his worshippers are promised in this world and the
+next. If he can, let him, if he be so inclined, amuse himself with
+such scientific implements as authority tells him are safe and will
+not cut his fingers; but let him not imagine he is, or can be, both a
+true son of the Church and a loyal soldier of science.
+
+And, on the other hand, if the blind acceptance of authority appears
+to him in its true colours, as mere private judgment _in excelsis_,
+and if he have the courage to stand alone, face to face with the abyss
+of the Eternal and Unknowable, let him be content, once for all, not
+only to renounce the good things promised by "Infallibility," but even
+to bear the bad things which it prophesies; content to follow reason
+and fact in singleness and honesty of purpose, wherever they may lead,
+in the sure faith that a hell of honest men will, to him, be more
+endurable than a paradise full of angelic shams.
+
+Mr. Mivart asserts that "without a belief in a personal God, there is
+no religion worthy of the name." This is a matter of opinion. But
+it may be asserted, with less reason to fear contradiction, that the
+worship of a personal God, who, on Mr. Mivart's hypothesis, must
+have used language studiously calculated to deceive His creatures and
+worshippers, is "no religion worthy of the name." "Incredibile est,
+Deum illis verbis ad populum fuisse locutum quibus deciperetur," is a
+verdict in which, for once, Jesuit casuistry concurs with the healthy
+moral sense of all mankind.
+
+Having happily got quit of the theological aspect of evolution, the
+supporter of that great truth who turns to the scientific objections
+which are brought against it by recent criticism, finds, to his
+relief, that the work before him is greatly lightened by the
+spontaneous retreat of the enemy from nine-tenths of the territory
+which he occupied ten years ago. Even the Quarterly Reviewer not only
+abstains from venturing to deny that evolution has taken place, but he
+openly admits that Mr. Darwin has forced on men's minds "a recognition
+of the probability, if not more, of evolution, and of the certainty of
+the action of natural selection" (p. 49).
+
+I do not quite see, myself, how, if the action of natural selection is
+_certain_, the occurrence of evolution is only _probable_; inasmuch as
+the development of a new species by natural selection is, so far as
+it goes, evolution. However, it is not worth while to quarrel with
+the precise terms of a sentence which shows that the high watermark of
+intelligence among those most respectable of Britons, the readers of
+the _Quarterly Review_, has now reached such a level that the next
+tide may lift them easily and pleasantly on the once-dreaded shore of
+evolution. Nor, having got there, do they seem likely to stop, until
+they have reached the inmost heart of that great region, and accepted
+the ape ancestry of, at any rate, the body of man. For the Reviewer
+admits that Mr. Darwin can be said to have established:
+
+    "That if the various kinds of lower animals have been evolved
+    one from the other by a process of natural generation or
+    evolution, then it becomes highly probable, _a priori_, that
+    man's body has been similarly evolved; but this, in such a
+    case, becomes equally probable from the admitted fact that he
+    is an animal at all" (p. 65).
+
+From the principles laid down in the last sentence, it would follow
+that if man were constructed upon a plan as different from that of any
+other animal as that of a sea-urchin is from that of a whale, it
+would be "equally probable" that he had been developed from some other
+animal as it is now, when we know that for every bone, muscle, tooth,
+and even pattern of tooth, in man, there is a corresponding bone,
+muscle, tooth, and pattern of tooth, in an ape. And this shows one
+of two things--either that the Quarterly Reviewer's notions of
+probability are peculiar to himself; or, that he has such an
+overpowering faith in the truth of evolution, that no extent of
+structural break between one animal and another is sufficient to
+destroy his conviction that evolution has taken place.
+
+But this by the way. The importance of the admission that there is
+nothing in man's physical structure to interfere with his having been
+evolved from an ape, is not lessened because it is grudgingly made and
+inconsistently qualified. And instead of jubilating over the extent of
+the enemy's retreat, it will be more worth while to lay siege to his
+last stronghold--the position that there is a distinction in kind
+between the mental faculties of man and those of brutes; and that, in
+consequence of this distinction in kind, no gradual progress from
+the mental faculties of the one to those of the other can have taken
+place.
+
+The Quarterly Reviewer entrenches himself within formidable-looking
+psychological outworks, and there is no getting at him without
+attacking them one by one.
+
+He begins by laying down the following proposition: "'Sensation' is
+not 'thought,' and no amount of the former would constitute the most
+rudimentary condition of the latter, though sensations supply the
+conditions for the existence of 'thought' or 'knowledge'" (p. 67).
+
+This proposition is true, or not, according to the sense in which the
+word "thought" is employed. Thought is not uncommonly used in a sense
+co-extensive with consciousness, and, especially, with those states
+of consciousness we call memory. If I recall the impression made by a
+colour or an odour, and distinctly remember blueness or muskiness, I
+may say with perfect propriety that I "think of" blue or musk; and,
+so long as the thought lasts, it is simply a faint reproduction of the
+state of consciousness to which I gave the name in question, when it
+first became known to me as a sensation.
+
+Now, if that faint reproduction of a sensation, which we call the
+memory of it, is properly termed a thought, it seems to me to be
+a somewhat forced, proceeding to draw a hard and fast line of
+demarcation between thoughts and sensations. If sensations are
+not rudimentary thoughts, it may be said that some thoughts are
+rudimentary sensations. No amount of sound constitutes an echo, but
+for all that no one would pretend that an echo is something of totally
+different nature from a sound. Again, nothing can be looser, or more
+inaccurate, than the assertion that "sensations supply the conditions
+for the existence of thought or knowledge." If this implies that
+sensations supply the conditions for the existence of our memory of
+sensations or of our thoughts about sensations, it is a truism which
+it is hardly worth while to state so solemnly. If it implies that
+sensations supply anything else, it is obviously erroneous. And if it
+means, as the context would seem to show it does, that sensations are
+the subject-matter of all thought or knowledge, then it is no less
+contrary to fact, inasmuch as our emotions, which constitute a
+large part of the subject-matter of thought or of knowledge, are not
+sensations.
+
+More eccentric still is the Quarterly Reviewer's next piece of
+psychology.
+
+    "Altogether, we may clearly distinguish at least six kinds of
+    action to which the nervous system ministers:--
+
+    "I. That in which impressions received result in appropriate
+    movements without the intervention of sensation or thought, as
+    in the cases of injury above given.--This is the reflex action
+    of the nervous system.
+
+    "II. That in which stimuli from without result in sensations
+    through the agency of which their due effects are wrought
+    out--Sensation.
+
+    "III. That in which impressions received result in
+    sensations which give rise to the observation of sensible
+    objects.--Sensible perception.
+
+    "IV. That in which sensations and perceptions continue to
+    coalesce, agglutinate, and combine in more or less complex
+    aggregations, according to the laws of the association of
+    sensible perceptions.--Association.
+
+    "The above four groups contain only indeliberate operations,
+    consisting, as they do at the best, but of mere _presentative_
+    sensible ideas in no way implying any reflective or
+    _representative_ faculty. Such actions minister to and form
+    _Instinct_. Besides these, we may distinguish two other kinds
+    of mental action, namely:--
+
+    "V. That in which sensations and sensible perceptions are
+    reflected on by thought, and recognized as our own, and
+    we ourselves recognized by ourselves as affected and
+    perceiving.--Self-consciousness.
+
+    "VI. That in which we reflect upon our sensations or
+    perceptions, and ask what they are, and why they are.--Reason.
+
+    "These two latter kinds of action are deliberate operations,
+    performed, as they are, by means of representative ideas
+    implying the use of a _reflective representative_ faculty.
+    Such actions distinguish the _intellect_ or rational faculty.
+    Now, we assert that possession in perfection of all the first
+    four _(presentative)_ kinds of action by no means implies
+    the possession of the last two _(representative)_ kinds.
+    All persons, we think, must admit the truth of the following
+    proposition:--
+
+    "Two faculties are distinct, not in degree but _in kind_,
+    if we may possess the one in perfection without that fact
+    implying that we possess the other also. Still more will
+    this be the case if the two faculties tend to increase in
+    an inverse ratio. Yet this is the distinction between the
+    _instinctive_ and the _intellectual_ parts of man's nature.
+
+    "As to animals, we fully admit that they may possess all the
+    first four groups of actions--that they may have, so to speak,
+    mental images of sensible objects combined in all degrees of
+    complexity, as governed by the laws of association. We deny to
+    them, on the other hand, the possession of the last two
+    kinds of mental action. We deny them, that is, the power of
+    reflecting on their own existence, or of inquiring into the
+    nature of objects and their causes. We deny that they know
+    that they know or know themselves in knowing. In other words,
+    we deny them _reason_. The possession of the presentative
+    faculty, as above explained, in no way implies that of the
+    reflective faculty; nor does any amount of direct operation
+    imply the power of asking the reflective question before
+    mentioned, as to 'what' and 'why.'" _(Loc. cit_. pp. 67, 68.)
+
+Sundry points are worthy of notice in this remarkable account of the
+intellectual powers. In the first place the Reviewer ignores emotion
+and volition, though they are no inconsiderable "kinds of action to
+which the nervous system ministers," and memory has a place in his
+classification only by implication. Secondly, we are told that the
+second "kind of action to which the nervous system ministers" is "that
+in which stimuli from without result in sensations through the agency
+of which their due effects are wrought out.--Sensation." Does this
+really mean that, in the writer's opinion, "sensation" is the "agent"
+by which the "due effect" of the stimulus, which gives rise to
+sensation, is "wrought out"? Suppose somebody runs a pin into me. The
+"due effect" of that particular stimulus will probably be threefold;
+namely, a sensation of pain, a start, and an interjectional expletive.
+Does the Quarterly Reviewer really think that the "sensation" is the
+"agent" by which the other two phenomena are wrought out?
+
+But these matters are of little moment to anyone but the Reviewer
+and those persons who may incautiously take their physiology, or
+psychology, from him. The really interesting point is this, that when
+he fully admits that animals "may possess all the first four groups
+of actions," he grants all that is necessary for the purposes of
+the evolutionist. For he hereby admits that in animals "impressions
+received result in sensations which give rise to the observation
+of sensible objects," and that they have what he calls "sensible
+perception." Nor was it possible to help the admission; for we have
+as much reason to ascribe to animals, as we have to attribute to our
+fellow-men, the power, not only of perceiving external objects as
+external, and thus practically recognizing the difference between the
+self and the not-self; but that of distinguishing between like
+and unlike, and between simultaneous and successive things. When a
+gamekeeper goes out coursing with a greyhound in leash, and a hare
+crosses the field of vision, he becomes the subject of those states
+of consciousness we call visual sensation, and that is all he receives
+from without. Sensation, as such, tells him nothing whatever about
+the cause of these states of consciousness; but the thinking faculty
+instantly goes to work upon the raw material of sensation furnished to
+it through the eye, and gives rise to a train of thoughts. First comes
+the thought that there is an object at a certain distance; then arises
+another thought--the perception of the likeness between the states of
+consciousness awakened by this object to those presented by memory,
+as, on some former occasion, called up by a hare; this is succeeded
+by another thought of the nature of an emotion--namely, the desire
+to possess the hare; then follows a longer or shorter train of other
+thoughts, which end in a volition and an act--the loosing of the
+greyhound from the leash. These several thoughts are the concomitants
+of a process which goes on in the nervous system of the man. Unless
+the nerve-elements of the retina, of the optic nerve, of the brain, of
+the spinal chord, and of the nerves of the arms went through certain
+physical changes in due order and correlation, the various states
+of consciousness which have been enumerated would not make their
+appearance. So that in this, as in all other intellectual operations,
+we have to distinguish two sets of successive changes--one in the
+physical basis of consciousness, and the other in consciousness
+itself; one set which may, and doubtless will, in course of time,
+be followed through all their complexities by the anatomist and the
+physicist, and one of which only the man himself can have immediate
+knowledge.
+
+As it is very necessary to keep up a clear distinction between
+these two processes, let the one be called _neurosis_, and the other
+_psychosis_. When the gamekeeper was first trained to his work, every
+step in the process of neurosis was accompanied by a corresponding
+step in that of psychosis, or nearly so. He was conscious of seeing
+something, conscious of making sure it was a hare, conscious of
+desiring to catch it, and therefore to loose the greyhound at the
+right time, conscious of the acts by which he let the dog out of the
+leash. But with practice, though the various steps of the neurosis
+remain--for otherwise the impression on the retina would not result
+in the loosing of the dog--the great majority of the steps of the
+psychosis vanish, and the loosing of the dog follows unconsciously, or
+as we say, without thinking about it, upon the sight of the hare.
+No one will deny that the series of acts which originally intervened
+between the sensation and the letting go of the dog were, in the
+strictest sense, intellectual and rational operations. Do they cease
+to be so when the man ceases to be conscious of them? That depends
+upon what is the essence and what the accident of those operations,
+which, taken together, constitute ratiocination.
+
+Now ratiocination is resolvable into predication, and predication
+consists in marking, in some way, the existence, the co-existence,
+the succession, the likeness and unlikeness, of things or their ideas.
+Whatever does this, reasons; and if a machine produces the effects of
+reason, I see no more ground for denying to it the reasoning power,
+because it is unconscious, than I see for refusing to Mr. Babbage's
+engine the title of a calculating machine on the same grounds.
+
+Thus it seems to me that a gamekeeper reasons, whether he is conscious
+or unconscious, whether his reasoning is carried on by neurosis alone,
+or whether it involves more or less psychosis. And if this is true
+of the gamekeeper, it is also true of the greyhound. The essential
+resemblances in all points of structure and function, so far as they
+can be studied, between the nervous system of the man and that of the
+dog, leave no reasonable doubt that the processes which go on in the
+one are just like those which take place in the other. In the dog,
+there can be no doubt that the nervous matter which lies between
+the retina and the muscles undergoes a series of changes, precisely
+analogous to those which, in the man, give rise to sensation, a train
+of thought, and volition.
+
+Whether this neurosis is accompanied by such psychosis as ours, it is
+impossible to say; but those who deny that the nervous changes, which,
+in the dog, correspond with those which underlie thought in a man, are
+accompanied by consciousness, are equally bound to maintain that those
+nervous changes in the dog, which correspond with those which underlie
+sensation in a man, are also unaccompanied by consciousness. In other
+words, if there is no ground for believing that a dog thinks, neither
+is there any for believing that he feels.
+
+As is well known, Descartes boldly faced this dilemma, and
+maintained that all animals were mere machines and entirely devoid of
+consciousness. But he did not deny, nor can anyone deny, that in this
+case they are reasoning machines, capable of performing all those
+operations which are performed by the nervous system of man when he
+reasons. For even supposing that in man, and in man only, psychosis is
+superadded to neurosis--the neurosis which is common to both man
+and animal gives their reasoning processes a fundamental unity.
+But Descartes's position is open to very serious objections, if the
+evidence that animals feel is insufficient to prove that they really
+do so. What is the value of the evidence which leads one to believe
+that one's fellow-man feels? The only evidence in this argument of
+analogy, is the similarity of his structure and of his actions to
+one's own. And if that is good enough to prove that one's fellow-man
+feels, surely it is good enough to prove that an ape feels. For the
+differences of structure and function between men and apes are utterly
+insufficient to warrant the assumption, that while men have those
+states of consciousness we call sensations, apes have nothing of the
+kind. Moreover, we have as good evidence that apes are capable of
+emotion and volition as we have that men other than ourselves are. But
+if apes possess three out of the four kinds of states of consciousness
+which we discover in ourselves, what possible reason is there for
+denying them the fourth? If they are capable of sensation, emotion,
+and volition, why are they to be denied thought (in the sense of
+predication)?
+
+No answer has ever been given to these questions. And as the law of
+continuity is as much opposed, as is the common sense of mankind, to
+the notion that all animals are unconscious machines, it may safely be
+assumed that no sufficient answer ever will be given to them.
+
+There is every reason to believe that consciousness is a function
+of nervous matter, when, that nervous matter has attained a certain
+degree of organization, just as we know the other "actions to which
+the nervous system ministers," such as reflex action and the like, to
+be. As I have ventured to state my view of the matter elsewhere, "our
+thoughts are the expression of molecular changes in that matter of
+life which is the source of our other vital phenomena."
+
+Mr. Wallace objects to this statement in the following terms:--
+
+    "Not having been able to find any clue in Professor Huxley's
+    writings to the steps by which he passes from those vital
+    phenomena, which consist only, in their last analysis, of
+    movements by particles of matter, to those other phenomena
+    which we term thought, sensation, or consciousness; but,
+    knowing that so positive an expression of opinion from him
+    will have great weight with many persons, I shall endeavour
+    to show, with as much brevity as is compatible with clearness,
+    that this theory is not only incapable of proof, but is also,
+    as it appears to me, inconsistent with accurate conceptions of
+    molecular physics."
+
+With all respect for Mr. Wallace, it appears to me that his remarks
+are entirely beside the question. I really know nothing whatever, and
+never hope to know anything, of the steps by which the passage from
+molecular movement to states of consciousness is effected; and I
+entirely agree with the sense of the passage which he quotes from
+Professor Tyndall, apparently imagining that it is in opposition to
+the view I hold.
+
+All that I have to say is, that, in my belief, consciousness and
+molecular action are capable of being expressed by one another, just
+as heat and mechanical action are capable of being expressed in terms
+of one another. Whether we shall ever be able to express consciousness
+in foot-pounds, or not, is more than I will venture to say; but
+that there is evidence of the existence of some correlation between
+mechanical motion and consciousness, is as plain as anything can be.
+Suppose the poles of an electric battery to be connected by a platinum
+wire. A certain intensity of the current gives rise in the mind of a
+bystander to that state of consciousness we call a "dull red light"--a
+little greater intensity to another which we call a "bright red
+light;" increase the intensity, and the light becomes white; and,
+finally, it dazzles, and a new state of consciousness arises, which we
+term pain. Given the same wire and the same nervous apparatus, and the
+amount of electric force required to give rise to these several states
+of consciousness will be the same, however often the experiment
+is repeated. And as the electric force, the light-waves, and the
+nerve-vibrations caused by the impact of the light-waves on the
+retina, are all expressions of the molecular changes which are taking
+place in the elements of the battery; so consciousness is, in the same
+sense, an expression of the molecular changes which take place in that
+nervous matter, which is the organ of consciousness.
+
+And, since this, and any number of similar examples that may be
+required, prove that one form of consciousness, at any rate, is, in
+the strictest sense, the expression of molecular change, it really
+is not worth while to pursue the inquiry, whether a fact so easily
+established is consistent with any particular system of molecular
+physics or not.
+
+Mr. Wallace, in fact, appears to me to have mixed up two very distinct
+propositions: the one, the indisputable truth that consciousness is
+correlated with molecular changes in the organ of consciousness;
+the other, that the nature of that correlation is known, or can be
+conceived, which is quite another matter. Mr. Wallace, presumably,
+believes in that correlation of phenomena which we call cause and
+effect as firmly as I do. But if he has ever been able to form the
+faintest notion how a cause gives rise to its effect, all I can say is
+that I envy him. Take the simplest case imaginable--suppose a ball in
+motion to impinge upon another ball at rest. I know very well, as a
+matter of fact, that the ball in motion will communicate some of its
+motion to the ball at rest, and that the motion of the two balls after
+collision is precisely correlated with the masses of both balls and
+the amount of motion of the first. But how does this come about? In
+what manner can we conceive that the _vis viva_ of the first ball
+passes into the second? I confess I can no more form any conception
+of what happens in this case, than I can of what takes place when the
+motion of particles of my nervous matter, caused by the impact of a
+similar ball, gives rise to the state of consciousness I call pain. In
+ultimate analysis everything is incomprehensible, and the whole object
+of science is simply to reduce the fundamental incomprehensibilities
+to the smallest possible number.
+
+But to return to the Quarterly Reviewer. He admits that animals
+have "mental images of sensible objects, combined in all degrees of
+complexity, as governed by the laws of association." Presumably, by
+this confused and imperfect statement the Reviewer means to admit
+more than the words imply. For mental images of sensible objects,
+even though "combined in all degrees of complexity," are, and can be,
+nothing more than mental images of sensible objects. But judgments,
+emotions, and volitions cannot by any possibility be included under
+the head of "mental images of sensible objects."
+
+If the greyhound had no better mental endowment than the Reviewer
+allows him, he might have the "mental image" of the "sensible
+object"--the hare--and that might be combined with the mental images
+of other sensible objects, to any degree of complexity, but he would
+have no power of judging it to be at a certain distance from him; no
+power of perceiving its similarity to his memory of a hare; and no
+desire to get at it. Consequently he would stand stock still, and the
+noble art of coursing would have no existence. On the other hand,
+as that art is largely practised, it follows that greyhounds alone
+possess a number of mental powers, the existence of which, in any
+animal, is absolutely denied by the Quarterly Reviewer.
+
+Finally, what are the mental powers which he reserves as the especial
+prerogative of man? They are two. First, the recognition of "ourselves
+by ourselves as affected and perceiving.--Self-consciousness."
+
+Secondly. "The reflection upon our sensations and perceptions, and
+asking what they are and why they are.--Reason."
+
+To the faculty defined in the last sentence, the Reviewer, without
+assigning the least ground for thus departing from both common usage
+and technical propriety, applies the name of reason. But if man is not
+to be considered a reasoning being, unless he asks what his sensations
+and perceptions are, and why they are, what is a Hottentot, or an
+Australian black fellow; or what the "swinked hedger" of an ordinary
+agricultural district? Nay, what becomes of an average country squire
+or parson? How many of these worthy persons who, as their wont is,
+read the _Quarterly Review_, would do other than stand agape, if you
+asked them whether they had ever reflected what their sensations and
+perceptions are, and why they are?
+
+So that if the Reviewer's new definition of reason be correct, the
+majority of men, even among the most civilized nations, are devoid of
+that supreme characteristic of manhood. And if it be as absurd as I
+believe it to be, then, as reason is certainly not self-consciousness,
+and as it, as certainly, is one of the "actions to which the nervous
+system ministers," we must, if the Reviewer's classification is to be
+adopted, seek it among those four faculties which he allows animals
+to possess. And thus, for the second time, he really surrenders, while
+seeming to defend, his position.
+
+The Quarterly Reviewer, as we have seen, lectures the evolutionists
+upon their want of knowledge of philosophy altogether. Mr. Mivart
+is not less pained at Mr. Darwin's ignorance of moral science. It is
+grievous to him that Mr. Darwin (and _nous autres_) should not
+have grasped the elementary distinction between material and formal
+morality; and he lays down as an axiom, of which no tyro ought to be
+ignorant, the position that "acts, unaccompanied by mental acts
+of conscious will directed towards the fulfilment of duty," are
+"absolutely destitute of the most incipient degree of real or formal
+goodness."
+
+Now this may be Mr. Mivart's opinion, but it is a proposition which,
+really, does not stand on the footing of an undisputed axiom. Mr. Mill
+denies it in his work on Utilitarianism. The most influential writer
+of a totally opposed school, Mr. Carlyle, is never weary of denying
+it, and upholding the merit of that virtue which is unconscious; nay,
+it is, to my understanding, extremely hard to reconcile Mr. Mivart's
+dictum with that noble summary of the whole duty of man--"Thou shalt
+love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and
+with all thy strength; and thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself."
+According to Mr. Mivart's definition, the man who loves God and his
+neighbour, and, out of sheer love and affection for both, does all he
+can to please them, is, nevertheless, destitute of a particle of real
+goodness.
+
+And it further happens that Mr. Darwin, who is charged by Mr. Mivart
+with being ignorant of the distinction between material and formal
+goodness, discusses the very question at issue, in a passage which
+is well worth reading (vol. i.p. 87), and also comes to a conclusion
+opposed to Mr. Mivart's axiom. A proposition which has been so much
+disputed and repudiated, should, under no circumstances, have been
+thus confidently assumed to be true. For myself, I utterly reject
+it, inasmuch as the logical consequence of the adoption of any such
+principle is the denial of all moral value to sympathy and affection.
+According to Mr. Mivart's axiom, the man who, seeing another
+struggling in the water, leaps in at the risk of his own life to save
+him, does that which is "destitute of the most incipient degree of
+real goodness," unless, as he strips off his coat, he says to himself,
+"Now mind, I am going to do this because it is my duty and for no
+other reason;" and the most beautiful character to which humanity
+can attain, that of the man who does good without thinking about it,
+because he loves justice and mercy and is repelled by evil, has no
+claim on our moral approbation. The denial that a man acts morally
+because he does not think whether he does so or not, may be put upon
+the same footing as the denial of the title of an arithmetician to the
+calculating boy, because he did not know how he worked his sums. If
+mankind ever generally accept and act upon Mr. Mivart's axiom, they
+will simply become a set of most unendurable prigs; but they never
+have accepted it, and I venture to hope that evolution has nothing so
+terrible in store for the human race.
+
+But, if an action, the motive of which is nothing out affection or
+sympathy, may be deserving of moral approbation and really good, who
+that has ever had a dog of his own will deny that animals are capable
+of such actions? Mr. Mivart indeed says:--"It may be safely affirmed,
+however, that there is no trace in brutes of any actions simulating
+morality which are not explicable by the fear of punishment, by the
+hope of pleasure, or by personal affection" (p. 221). But it may
+be affirmed, with equal truth, that there is no trace in men of any
+actions which are not traceable to the same motives. If a man does
+anything, he does it either because he fears to be punished if he
+does not do it, or because he hopes to obtain pleasure by doing it, or
+because he gratifies his affections[1] by doing it.
+
+[Footnote 1: In separating pleasure and the gratification of
+affection, I simply follow Mr. Mivart without admitting the justice of
+the separation.]
+
+Assuming the position of the absolute moralists, let it be granted
+that there is a perception of right and wrong innate in every man.
+This means, simply, that when certain ideas are presented to his
+mind, the feeling of approbation arises; and when certain others, the
+feeling of disapprobation. To do your duty is to earn the approbation
+of your conscience, or moral sense; to fail in your duty is to feel
+its disapprobation, as we all say. Now, is approbation a pleasure or
+a pain? Surely a pleasure. And is disapprobation a pleasure or a pain?
+Surely a pain. Consequently all that is really meant by the absolute
+moralists is that there is, in the very nature of man, something which
+enables him to be conscious of these particular pleasures and pains.
+And when they talk of immutable and eternal principles of morality,
+the only intelligible sense which I can put upon the words, is that
+the nature of man being what it is, he always has been, and always
+will be, capable of feeling these particular pleasures and pains. _A
+priori_, I have nothing to say against this proposition. Admitting its
+truth, I do not see how the moral faculty is on a different footing
+from any of the other faculties of man. If I choose to say that it is
+an immutable and eternal law of human nature that "ginger is hot
+in the mouth," the assertion has as much foundation of truth as the
+other, though I think it would be expressed in needlessly pompous
+language. I must confess that I have never been able to understand why
+there should be such a bitter quarrel between the intuitionists and
+the utilitarians. The intuitionist is, after all, only a utilitarian
+who believes that a particular class of pleasures and pains has an
+especial importance, by reason of its foundation in the nature of man,
+and its inseparable connection with his very existence as a thinking
+being. And as regards the motive of personal affection: Love, as
+Spinoza profoundly says, is the association of pleasure with that
+which is loved.[1] Or, to put it to the common sense of mankind,
+is the gratification of affection a pleasure or a pain? Surely a
+pleasure. So that whether the motive which leads us to perform
+an action is the love of our neighbour, or the love of God, it is
+undeniable that pleasure enters into that motive.
+
+[Footnote 1: "Nempe, Amor nihil aliud est, quam Laetitia, concomitante
+idea causae externae."--_Ethices_ III. xiii.]
+
+Thus much in reply to Mr. Mivart's arguments. I cannot but think
+that it is to be regretted that he ekes them out by ascribing to the
+doctrines of the philosophers with whom he does not agree, logical
+consequences which have been over and over again proved not to flow
+from them: and when reason fails him, tries the effect of an injurious
+nickname. According to the views of Mr. Spencer, Mr. Mill, and Mr.
+Darwin, Mr. Mivart tells us, "_virtue is a mere kind of retrieving;"
+_ and, that we may not miss the point of the joke, he puts it in
+italics. But what if it is? Does that make it less virtue? Suppose I
+say that sculpture is a "mere way" of stone-cutting, and painting
+a "mere way" of daubing canvas, and music a "mere way" of making a
+noise, the statements are quite true; but they only show that I see no
+other method of depreciating some of the noblest aspects of humanity,
+than that of using language in an inadequate and misleading sense
+about them. And the peculiar in appropriateness of this particular
+nickname to the views in question, arises from the circumstance which
+Mr. Mivart would doubtless have recollected, if his wish to ridicule
+had not for the moment obscured his judgment--that whether the law
+of evolution applies to man or not, that of hereditary transmission
+certainly does. Mr. Mivart will hardly deny that a man owes a large
+share of the moral tendencies which he exhibits to his ancestors;
+and the man who inherits a desire to steal from a kleptomaniac, or a
+tendency to benevolence from a Howard, is, so far as he illustrates
+hereditary transmission, comparable to the dog who inherits the desire
+to fetch a duck out of the water from his retrieving sire. So that,
+evolution, or no evolution, moral qualities are comparable to a "kind
+of retrieving;" though the comparison, if meant for the purposes of
+casting obloquy on evolution, does not say much for the fairness of
+those who make it.
+
+The Quarterly Reviewer and Mr. Mivart base their objections to the
+evolution of the mental faculties of man from those of some lower
+animal form, upon what they maintain to be a difference in kind
+between the mental and moral faculties of men and brutes; and I
+have endeavoured to show, by exposing the utter unsoundness of their
+philosophical basis, that these objections are devoid of importance.
+
+The objections which Mr. Wallace brings forward to the doctrine of
+the evolution of the mental faculties of man from those of brutes
+by natural causes, are of a different order, and require separate
+consideration.
+
+If I understand him rightly, he by no means doubts that both the
+bodily and the mental faculties of man have been evolved from those of
+some lower animal; but he is of opinion, that some agency beyond that
+which has been concerned in the evolution of ordinary animals, has
+been operative in the case of man. "A superior intelligence has guided
+the development of man in a definite direction and for a special
+purpose, just as man guides the development of many animal and
+vegetable forms."[1] I understand this to mean that, just as the
+rock-pigeon has been produced by natural causes, while the
+evolution of the tumbler from the blue rock has required the special
+intervention of the intelligence of man, so some anthropoid form may
+have been evolved by variation and natural selection; but it could
+never have given rise to man, unless some superior intelligence had
+played the part of the pigeon-fancier.
+
+[Footnote 1: The limits of Natural Selection as applied to Man _(loc.
+cit_. p. 359).]
+
+According to Mr. Wallace, "whether we compare the savage with the
+higher developments of man, or with the brutes around him, we are
+alike driven to the conclusion, that, in his large and well-developed
+brain, he possesses an organ quite disproportioned to his
+requirements" (p. 343); and he asks, "What is there in the life of the
+savage but the satisfying of the cravings of appetite in the simplest
+and easiest way? What thoughts, idea, or actions are there that raise
+him many grades above the elephant or the ape?" (p. 342). I answer Mr.
+Wallace by citing a remarkable passage which occurs in his instructive
+paper on "Instinct in Man and Animals."
+
+    "Savages make long journeys in many directions, and, their
+    whole faculties being directed to the subject, they gain a
+    wide and accurate knowledge of the topography, not only
+    of their own district, but of all the regions round about.
+    Everyone who has travelled in a new direction communicates his
+    knowledge to those who have travelled less, and descriptions
+    of routes and localities, and minute incidents of travel, form
+    one of the main staples of conversation around the evening
+    fire. Every wanderer or captive from another tribe adds to
+    the store of information, and, as the very existence of
+    individuals and of whole families and tribes depends upon
+    the completeness of this knowledge, all the acute perceptive
+    faculties of the adult savage are directed to acquiring and
+    perfecting it. The good hunter or warrior thus comes to know
+    the bearing of every hill and mountain range, the directions
+    and junctions of all the streams, the situation of each tract
+    characterized by peculiar vegetation, not only within the
+    area he has himself traversed, but perhaps for a hundred miles
+    around it. His acute observation enables him to detect the
+    slightest undulations of the surface, the various changes of
+    subsoil and alterations in the character of the vegetation
+    that would be quite imperceptible to a stranger. His eye is
+    always open to the direction in which he is going; the mossy
+    side of trees, the presence of certain plants under the shade
+    of rocks, the morning and evening flight of birds, are to
+    him indications of direction almost as sure as the sun in the
+    heavens" (pp. 207-8).
+
+I have seen enough of savages to be able to declare that nothing can
+be more admirable than this description of what a savage has to learn.
+But it is incomplete. Add to all this the knowledge which a savage
+is obliged to gain of the properties of plants, of the characters and
+habits of animals, and of the minute indications by which their course
+is discoverable: consider that even an Australian can make excellent
+baskets and nets, and neatly fitted and beautifully balanced spears;
+that he learns to use these so as to be able to transfix a quartern
+loaf at sixty yards; and that very often, as in the case of the
+American Indians, the language of a savage exhibits complexities which
+a well-trained European finds it difficult to master: consider that
+every time a savage tracks his game, he employs a minuteness of
+observation, and an accuracy of inductive and deductive reasoning
+which, applied to other matters, would assure some reputation to a man
+of science, and I think we need ask no further why he possesses such a
+fair supply of brains. In complexity and difficulty, I should say that
+the intellectual labour of a "good hunter or warrior" considerably
+exceeds that of an ordinary Englishman. The Civil Service Examiners
+are held in great terror by young Englishmen; but even their ferocity
+never tempted them to require a candidate to possess such a knowledge
+of a parish, as Mr. Wallace justly points out savages may possess of
+an area a hundred miles, or more, in diameter.
+
+But suppose, for the sake of argument, that a savage has more brains
+than seems proportioned to his wants, all that can be said is that
+the objection to natural selection, if it be one, applies quite
+as strongly to the lower animals. The brain of a porpoise is quite
+wonderful for its mass, and for the development of the cerebral
+convolutions. And yet since we have ceased to credit the story of
+Arion, it is hard to believe that porpoises are much troubled with
+intellect: and still more difficult is it to imagine that their big
+brains are only a preparation for the advent of some accomplished
+cetacean of the future. Surely, again, a wolf must have too much
+brains, or else how is it that a dog, with only the same quantity and
+form of brain, is able to develop such singular intelligence? The wolf
+stands to the dog in the same relation as the savage to the man; and,
+therefore, if Mr. Wallace's doctrine holds good, a higher power must
+have superintended the breeding up of wolves from some inferior stock,
+in order to prepare them to become dogs.
+
+Mr. Wallace further maintains that the origin of some of man's mental
+faculties by the preservation of useful variations is not possible.
+Such, for example, are "the capacity to form ideal conceptions of
+space and time, of eternity and infinity; the capacity for intense
+artistic feelings of pleasure in form, colour, and composition; and
+for those abstract notions of form and number which render geometry
+and arithmetic possible." "How," he asks, "were all or any of these
+faculties first developed, when they could have been of no possible
+use to man in his early stages of barbarism?"
+
+Surely the answer is not far to seek. The lowest savages are as
+devoid of any such conceptions as the brutes themselves. What sort of
+conceptions of space and time, of form and number, can be possessed by
+a savage who has not got so far as to be able to count beyond five or
+six, who does not know how to draw a triangle or a circle, and has not
+the remotest notion of separating the particular quality we call
+form, from the other qualities of bodies? None of these capacities
+are exhibited by men, unless they form part of a tolerably advanced
+society. And, in such a society, there are abundant conditions by
+which a selective influence is exerted in favour of those persons who
+exhibit an approximation towards the possession of these capacities.
+
+The savage who can amuse his fellows by telling a good story over the
+nightly fire, is held by them in esteem and rewarded, in one way or
+another, for so doing in other words, it is an advantage to him to
+possess this power. He who can carve a paddle, or the figure-head of
+a canoe better, similarly profits beyond his duller neighbour. He
+who counts a little better than others, gets most yams when barter
+is going on, and forms the shrewdest estimate of the numbers of an
+opposing tribe. The experience of daily life shows that the conditions
+of our present social existence exercise the most extraordinarily
+powerful selective influence in favour of novelists, artists, and
+strong intellects of all kinds; and it seems unquestionable that
+all forms of social existence must have had the same tendency, if we
+consider the indisputable facts that even animals possess the power of
+distinguishing form and number, and that they are capable of deriving
+pleasure from particular forms and sounds. If we admit, as Mr. Wallace
+does, that the lowest savages are not raised "many grades above the
+elephant and the ape;" and if we further admit, as I contend must be
+admitted, that the conditions of social life tend, powerfully, to
+give an advantage to those individuals who vary in the direction of
+intellectual or aesthetic excellence, what is there to interfere
+with the belief that these higher faculties, like the rest, owe their
+development to natural selection?
+
+Finally, with respect to the development of the moral sense out of the
+simple feelings of pleasure and pain, liking and disliking, with which
+the lower animals are provided, I can find nothing in Mr. Wallace's
+reasonings which has not already been met by Mr. Mill, Mr. Spencer, or
+Mr. Darwin.
+
+I do not propose to follow the Quarterly Reviewer and Mr. Mivart
+through the long string of objections in matters of detail which they
+bring against Mr. Darwin's views. Everyone who has considered
+the matter carefully will be able to ferret out as many more
+"difficulties;" but he will also, I believe, fail as completely as
+they appear to me to have done, in bringing forward any fact which is
+really contradictory of Mr. Darwin's views. Occasionally, too, their
+objections and criticisms are based upon errors of their own. As, for
+example, when Mr. Mivart and the Quarterly Reviewer insist upon the
+resemblances between the eyes of _Cephalopoda_ and _Vertebrata_,
+quite forgetting that there are striking and altogether fundamental
+differences between them; or when the Quarterly Reviewer corrects Mr.
+Darwin for saying that the gibbons, "without having been taught,
+can walk or run upright with tolerable quickness, though they move
+awkwardly, and much less securely than man." The Quarterly Reviewer
+says, "This is a little misleading, inasmuch as it is not stated that
+this upright progression is effected by placing the enormously long
+arms behind the head, or holding them out backwards as a balance in
+progression."
+
+Now, before carping at a small statement like this, the Quarterly
+Reviewer should have made sure that he was quite right. But he happens
+to be quite wrong. I suspect he got his notion of the manner in which
+a gibbon walks from a citation in "Man's Place in Nature." But at
+that time I had not seen a gibbon walk. Since then I have, and I can
+testify that nothing can be more precise than Mr. Darwin's statement.
+The gibbon I saw walked without either putting his arms behind his
+head or holding them out backwards. All he did was to touch the ground
+with the outstretched fingers of his long arms now and then, just as
+one sees a man who carries a stick, but does not need one, touch the
+ground with it as he walks along.
+
+Again, a large number of the objections brought forward by Mr. Mivart
+and the Quarterly Reviewer apply to evolution in general, quite as
+much as to the particular form of that doctrine advocated by Mr.
+Darwin; or, to their notions of Mr. Darwin's views and not to what
+they really are. An excellent example of this class of difficulties
+is to be found in Mr. Mivart's chapter on "Independent Similarities
+of Structure." Mr. Mivart says that these cannot be explained by
+an "absolute and pure Darwinian," but "that an innate power and
+evolutionary law, aided by the corrective action of natural selection,
+should have furnished like needs with like aids, is not at all
+improbable" (p. 82).
+
+I do not exactly know what Mr. Mivart means by an "absolute and
+pure Darwinian;" indeed Mr. Mivart makes that creature hold so many
+singular opinions that I doubt if I can ever have seen one alive. But
+I find nothing in his statement of the view which he imagines to
+be originated by himself, which is really inconsistent with what I
+understand to be Mr. Darwin's views.
+
+I apprehend that the foundation of the theory of natural selection is
+the fact that living bodies tend incessantly to vary. This variation
+is neither indefinite, nor fortuitous, nor does it take place in all
+directions, in the strict sense of these words.
+
+Accurately speaking, it is not indefinite, nor does it take place in
+all directions, because it is limited by the general characters of the
+type to which the organism exhibiting the variation belongs. A whale
+does not tend to vary in the direction of producing feathers, nor a
+bird in the direction of developing whalebone. In popular language
+there is no harm in saying that the waves which break upon the
+sea-shore are indefinite, fortuitous, and break in all directions.
+In scientific language, on the contrary, such a statement would be
+a gross error, inasmuch as every particle of foam is the result of
+perfectly definite forces, operating according to no less definite
+laws. In like manner, every variation of a living form, however
+minute, however apparently accidental, is inconceivable except as the
+expression of the operation of molecular forces or "powers" resident
+within the organism. And, as these forces certainly operate according
+to definite laws, their general result is, doubtless, in accordance
+with some general law which subsumes them all. And there appears to
+be no objection to call this an "evolutionary law." But nobody is the
+wiser for doing so, or has thereby contributed, in the least degree,
+to the advance of the doctrine of evolution, the great need of which
+is a theory of variation.
+
+When Mr. Mivart tells us that his "aim has been to support the
+doctrine that these species have been evolved by ordinary _natural
+laws_ (for the most part unknown), aided by the _subordinate_ action
+of 'natural selection'" (pp. 332-3), he seems to be of opinion that
+his enterprise has the merit of novelty. All I can say is that I have
+never had the slightest notion that Mr. Darwin's aim is in any way
+different from this. If I affirm that "species have been evolved by
+variation[1] (a natural process, the laws of which are for the most
+part unknown), aided by the subordinate action of natural selection,"
+it seems to me that I enunciate a proposition which constitutes the
+very pith and marrow of the first edition of the "Origin of Species."
+And what the evolutionist stands in need of just now, is not an
+iteration of the fundamental principle of Darwinism, but some light
+upon the questions, What are the limits of variation? and, If
+a variety has arisen, can that variety be perpetuated, or even
+intensified, when selective conditions are indifferent, or perhaps
+unfavourable, to its existence? I cannot find that Mr. Darwin has ever
+been very dogmatic in answering these questions. Formerly, he seems
+to have inclined to reply to them in the negative, while now his
+inclination is the other way. Leaving aside those broad questions of
+theology, philosophy, and ethics, by the discussion of which neither
+the Quarterly Reviewer nor Mr. Mivart can be said to have damaged
+Darwinism--whatever else they have injured--this is what their
+criticisms come to. They confound a struggle for some rifle-pits with
+an assault on the fortress.
+
+[Footnote 1: Including under this head hereditary transmission.]
+
+In some respects, finally, I can only characterize the Quarterly
+Reviewer's treatment of Mr. Darwin as alike unjust and unbecoming.
+Language of this strength requires justification, and on that ground I
+add the remarks which follow.
+
+The Quarterly Reviewer opens his essay by a careful enumeration of
+all those points upon which, during the course of thirteen years of
+incessant labour, Mr. Darwin has modified his opinions. It has often
+and justly been remarked, that what strikes a candid student of Mr.
+Darwin's works is not so much his industry, his knowledge, or even
+the surprising fertility of his inventive genius; but that unswerving
+truthfulness and honesty which never permit him to hide a weak place,
+or gloss over a difficulty, but lead him, on all occasions, to point
+out the weak places in his own armour, and even sometimes, it appears
+to me, to make admissions against himself which are quite unnecessary.
+A critic who desires to attack Mr. Darwin has only to read his works
+with a desire to observe, not their merits, but their defects, and
+he will find, ready to hand, more adverse suggestions than are likely
+ever to have suggested themselves to his own sharpness, without Mr.
+Darwin's self-denying aid.
+
+Now this quality of scientific candour is not so common that it needs
+to be discouraged; and it appears to me to deserve other treatment
+than that adopted by the Quarterly Reviewer, who deals with Mr. Darwin
+as an Old Bailey barrister deals with a man against whom he wishes
+to obtain a conviction, _per fas aut nefas_, and opens his case by
+endeavouring to create a prejudice against the prisoner in the minds
+of the jury. In his eagerness to carry out this laudable design, the
+Quarterly Reviewer cannot even state the history of the doctrine
+of natural selection without an oblique and entirely unjustifiable
+attempt to depreciate Mr. Darwin. "To Mr. Darwin," says he, "and
+(through Mr. Wallace's reticence) to Mr. Darwin alone, is due the
+credit of having first brought it prominently forward and demonstrated
+its truth." No one can less desire than I do, to throw a doubt upon
+Mr. Wallace's originality, or to question his claim to the honour of
+being one of the originators of the doctrine of natural selection; but
+the statement that Mr. Darwin has the sole credit of originating the
+doctrine because of Mr. Wallace's reticence is simply ridiculous. The
+proof of this is, in the first place, afforded by Mr. Wallace himself,
+whose noble freedom from petty jealousy in this matter, smaller folk
+would do well to imitate; and who writes thus:--"I have felt all my
+life, and I still feel, the most sincere satisfaction that Mr. Darwin
+had been at work long before me, and that it was not left for me to
+attempt to write the 'Origin of Species.' I have long since measured
+my own strength, and know well that it would be quite unequal to that
+task." So that if there was any reticence at all in the matter, it
+was Mr. Darwin's reticence during the long twenty years of study which
+intervened between the conception and the publication of his theory,
+which gave Mr. Wallace the chance of being an independent discoverer
+of the importance of natural selection. And, finally, if it be
+recollected that Mr. Darwin's and Mr. Wallace's essays were published
+simultaneously in the _Journal of the Linnaean Society_ for 1858, it
+follows that the Reviewer, while obliquely depreciating Mr. Darwin's
+deserts, has in reality awarded to him a priority which, in legal
+strictness, does not exist.
+
+Mr. Mivart, whose opinions so often concur with those of the Quarterly
+Reviewer, puts the case in a way, which I much regret to be obliged to
+say, is, in my judgment, quite as incorrect; though the injustice may
+be less glaring. He says that the theory of natural selection is,
+in general, exclusively associated with the name of Mr. Darwin, "on
+account of the noble self-abnegation of Mr. Wallace." As I have said,
+no one can honour Mr. Wallace more than I do, both for what he has
+done and for what he has not done, in his relation to Mr. Darwin. And
+perhaps nothing is more creditable to him than his frank declaration
+that he could not have written such a work as the "Origin of Species."
+But, by this declaration, the person most directly interested in the
+matter repudiates, by anticipation, Mr. Mivart's suggestion that Mr.
+Darwin's eminence is more or less due to Mr. Wallace's modesty.
+
+
+
+
+XI.
+
+THE GENEALOGY OF ANIMALS.[1]
+
+
+Considering that Germany now takes the lead of the world in scientific
+investigation, and particularly in biology, Mr. Darwin must be well
+pleased at the rapid spread of his views among some of the ablest and
+most laborious of German naturalists.
+
+[Footnote 1: "The Natural History of Creation." By Dr. Ernst Haeckel
+(_Natuerliche Schoepfungs-Geschichte._--Von Dr. Ernst Haeckel, Professor
+an der Universitaet Jena.) Berlin, 1868.]
+
+Among those, Professor Haeckel, of Jena, is the Coryphaeus. I know of
+no more solid and important contributions to biology in the past seven
+years than Haeckel's work on the _Radiolaria_, and the researches of
+his distinguished colleague Gegenbaur, in vertebrate anatomy; while
+in Haeckel's _Generelle Morphologie_ there is all the force,
+suggestiveness, and, what I may term the systematizing power, of Oken,
+without his extravagance. The _Generelle Morphologie_ is, in fact, an
+attempt to put the doctrine of Evolution, so far as it applies to
+the living world, into a logical form; and to work out its practical
+applications to their final results. The work before us, again, may
+be said to be an exposition of the _Generelle Morphologie_ for an
+educated public, consisting, as it does, of the substance of a series
+of lectures delivered before a mixed audience at Jena, in the session
+1867-8.
+
+"The Natural History of Creation,"--or, as Professor Haeckel admits
+it would have been better to call his work, "The History of the
+Development or Evolution of Nature,"--deals, in the first six
+lectures, with the general and historical aspects of the question,
+and contains a very interesting and lucid account of the views of
+Linnaeus, Cuvier, Agassiz, Goethe, Oken, Kant, Lamarck, Lyell, and
+Darwin, and of the historical filiation of these philosophers.
+
+The next six lectures are occupied by a well-digested statement of Mr.
+Darwin's views. The thirteenth lecture discusses two topics which are
+not touched by Mr. Darwin, namely, the origin of the present form of
+the solar system, and that of living matter. Full justice is done to
+Kant, as the originator of that "cosmic gas theory," as the Germans
+somewhat quaintly call it, which is commonly ascribed to Laplace. With
+respect to spontaneous generation, while admitting that there is no
+experimental evidence in its favour, Professor Haeckel denies the
+possibility of disproving it, and points out that the assumption that
+it has occurred is a necessary part of the doctrine of Evolution. The
+fourteenth lecture, on "Schoepfungs-Perioden und Schoepfungs-Urkunden,"
+answers pretty much to the famous disquisition on the "Imperfection of
+the Geological Record" in the _Origin of Species_.
+
+The following five lectures contain the most original matter of any,
+being devoted to "Phylogeny," or the working out of the details of the
+process of Evolution in the animal and vegetable kingdoms, so as
+to prove the line of descent of each group of living beings, and to
+furnish it with its proper genealogical tree, or "phylum."
+
+The last lecture considers objections and sums up the evidence in
+favour of biological Evolution.
+
+I shall best testify to my sense of the value of the work thus briefly
+analysed if I now proceed to note down some of the more important
+criticisms which have been suggested to me by its perusal.
+
+I. In more than one place, Professor Haeckel enlarges upon the service
+which the _Origin of Species_ has done, in favouring what he terms
+the "causal or mechanical" view of living nature as opposed to the
+"teleological or vitalistic" view. And no doubt it is quite true that
+the doctrine of Evolution is the most formidable opponent of all
+the commoner and coarser forms of Teleology. But perhaps the most
+remarkable service to the philosophy of Biology rendered by Mr. Darwin
+is the reconciliation of Teleology and Morphology, and the explanation
+of the facts of both which his views offer.
+
+The Teleology which supposes that the eye, such as we see it in man
+or one of the higher _Vertebrata_, was made with the precise structure
+which it exhibits, for the purpose of enabling the animal which
+possesses it to see, has undoubtedly received its death-blow.
+Nevertheless it is necessary to remember that there is a wider
+Teleology, which is not touched by the doctrine of Evolution, but is
+actually based upon the fundamental proposition of Evolution. That
+proposition is, that the whole world, living and not living, is the
+result of the mutual interaction, according to definite laws, of the
+forces possessed by the molecules of which the primitive nebulosity of
+the universe was composed. If this be true, it is no less certain that
+the existing world lay, potentially, in the cosmic vapour; and that a
+sufficient intelligence could, from a knowledge of the properties of
+the molecules of that vapour, have predicted, say the state of the
+Fauna of Britain in 1869, with as much certainty as one can say what
+will happen to the vapour of the breath in a cold winter's day.
+
+Consider a kitchen clock, which ticks loudly, shows the hours,
+minutes, and seconds, strikes, cries "cuckoo!" and perhaps shows the
+phases of the moon. When the clock is wound up, all the phenomena
+which it exhibits are potentially contained in its mechanism, and a
+clever clockmaker could predict all it will do after an examination of
+its structure.
+
+If the evolution theory is correct, the molecular structure of the
+cosmic gas stands in the same relation to the phenomena of the world
+as the structure of the clock to its phenomena.
+
+Now let us suppose a death-watch, living in the clock-case, to be a
+learned and intelligent student of its works. He might say, "I find
+here nothing but matter and force and pure mechanism from beginning to
+end," and he would be quite right. But if he drew the conclusion that
+the clock was not contrived for a purpose, he would be quite wrong.
+On the other hand, imagine another death-watch of a different turn of
+mind. He, listening to the monotonous "tick! tick!" so exactly like
+his own, might arrive at the conclusion that the clock was itself a
+monstrous sort of death-watch, and that its final cause and purpose
+was to tick. How easy to point to the clear relation of the whole
+mechanism to the pendulum, to the fact that the one thing the clock
+did always and without intermission was to tick, and that all the rest
+of its phenomena were intermittent and subordinate to ticking! For
+all this, it is certain that kitchen clocks are not contrived for the
+purpose of making a ticking noise.
+
+Thus the teleological theorist would be as wrong as the mechanical
+theorist, among our death-watches; and, probably, the only death-watch
+who would be right would be the one who should maintain that the
+sole thing death-watches could be sure about was the nature of the
+clock-works and the way they move; and that the purpose of the clock
+lay wholly beyond the purview of beetle faculties.
+
+Substitute "cosmic vapour" for "clock," and "molecules" for "works,"
+and the application of the argument is obvious. The teleological
+and the mechanical views of nature are not, necessarily, mutually
+exclusive. On the contrary, the more purely a mechanist the speculator
+is, the more firmly does he assume a primordial molecular arrangement,
+of which all the phenomena of the universe are the consequences; and
+the more completely is he thereby at the mercy of the teleologist,
+who can always defy him to disprove that this primordial molecular
+arrangement was not intended to evolve the phenomena of the universe.
+On the other hand, if the teleologist assert that this, that, or
+the other result of the working of any part of the mechanism of the
+universe is its purpose and final cause, the mechanist can always
+inquire how he knows that it is more than an unessential incident--the
+mere ticking of the clock, which he mistakes for its function. And
+there seems to be no reply to this inquiry, any more than to the
+further, not irrational, question, why trouble oneself about matters
+which are out of reach, when the working of the mechanism itself,
+which is of infinite practical importance, affords scope for all our
+energies?
+
+Professor Haeckel has invented a new and convenient name,
+"Dysteleology," for the study of the "purposelessnesses" which are
+observable in living organisms--such as the multitudinous cases of
+rudimentary and apparently useless structures. I confess, however,
+that it has often appeared to me that the facts of Dysteleology cut
+two ways. If we are to assume, as evolutionists in general do,
+that useless organs atrophy, such cases as the existence of lateral
+rudiments of toes, in the foot of a horse, place us in a dilemma. For,
+either these rudiments are of no use to the animal, in which case,
+considering that the horse has existed in its present form since the
+Pliocene epoch, they surely ought to have disappeared; or they are of
+some use to the animal, in which case they are of no use as arguments
+against Teleology. A similar, but still stronger, argument may be
+based upon the existence of teats, and even functional mammary glands,
+in male mammals. Numerous cases of "Gynaecomasty," or functionally
+active breasts in men, are on record, though there is no mammalian
+species whatever in which the male normally suckles the young. Thus,
+there can be little doubt that the mammary gland was as apparently
+useless in the remotest male mammalian ancestor of man as in living
+men, and yet it has not disappeared. Is it then still profitable
+to the male organism to retain it? Possibly; but in that case its
+dysteleological value is gone.
+
+II. Professor Haeckel looks upon the causes which have led to the
+present diversity of living nature as twofold. Living matter, he tells
+us, is urged by two impulses: a centripetal, which tends to preserve
+and transmit the specific form, and which he identifies with heredity;
+and a centrifugal, which results from the tendency of external
+conditions to modify the organism and effect its adaptation to
+themselves. The internal impulse is conservative, and tends to the
+preservation of specific, or individual, form; the external impulse is
+metamorphic, and tends to the modification of specific, or individual,
+form.
+
+In developing his views upon this subject, Professor Haeckel
+introduces qualifications which disarm some of the criticisms I should
+have been disposed to offer; but I think that his method of stating
+the case has the inconvenience of tending to leave out of sight
+the important fact--which is a cardinal point in the Darwinian
+hypothesis--that the tendency to vary, in a given organism, may have
+nothing to do with the external conditions to which that individual
+organism is exposed, but may depend wholly upon internal conditions.
+No one, I imagine, would dream of seeking in the direct influence of
+the external conditions of his life for the cause of the development
+of the sixth finger and toe in the famous Maltese.
+
+I conceive that both hereditary transmission and adaptation need to be
+analysed into their constituent conditions by the further application
+of the doctrine of the Struggle for Existence. It is a probable
+hypothesis, that what the world is to organisms in general, each
+organism is to the molecules of which it is composed. Multitudes of
+these, having diverse tendencies, are competing with one another for
+opportunity to exist and multiply; and the organism, as a whole, is as
+much the product of the molecules which are victorious as the Fauna,
+or Flora, of a country is the product of the victorious organic beings
+in it.
+
+On this hypothesis, hereditary transmission is the result of the
+victory of particular molecules contained in the impregnated germ.
+Adaptation to conditions is the result of the favouring of the
+multiplication of those molecules whose organizing tendencies are
+most in harmony with such conditions. In this view of the matter,
+conditions are not actively productive, but are passively permissive;
+they do not cause variation in any given direction, but they permit
+and favour a tendency in that direction which already exists.
+
+It is true that, in the long run, the origin of the organic molecules
+themselves, and of their tendencies, is to be sought in the external
+world; but if we carry our inquiries as far back as this, the
+distinction between internal and external impulses vanishes. On the
+other hand, if we confine ourselves to the consideration of a single
+organism, I think it must be admitted that the existence of an
+internal metamorphic tendency must be as distinctly recognized as
+that of an internal conservative tendency; and that the influence of
+conditions is mainly, if not wholly, the result of the extent to which
+they favour the one, or the other, of these tendencies.
+
+III. There is only one point upon which I fundamentally and entirely
+disagree with Professor Haeckel, but that is the very important one
+of his conception of geological time, and of the meaning of the
+stratified rocks as records and indications of that time. Conceiving
+that the stratified rocks of an epoch indicate a period of depression,
+and that the intervals between the epochs correspond with periods
+of elevation of which we have no record, he intercalates between the
+different epochs, or periods, intervals which he terms "Ante-periods."
+Thus, instead of considering the Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous, and
+Eocene periods, as continuously successive, he interposes a
+period before each, as an "Antetrias-zeit," "Antejura-zeit,"
+"Antecreta-zeit," "Antecocen-zeit," &c. And he conceives that the
+abrupt changes between the Faunae of the different formations are due
+to the lapse of time, of which we have no organic record, during their
+"Ante-periods."
+
+The frequent occurrence of strata containing assemblages of organic
+forms which are intermediate between those of adjacent formations, is,
+to my mind, fatal to this view. In the well-known St. Cassian beds,
+for example, Palaeozoic and Mesozoic forms are commingled, and,
+between the Cretaceous and the Eocene formations, there are similar
+transitional beds. On the other hand, in the middle of the Silurian
+series, extensive unconformity of the strata indicates the lapse of
+vast intervals of time between the deposit of successive beds, without
+any corresponding change in the Fauna.
+
+Professor Haeckel will, I fear, think me unreasonable, if I say that
+he seems to be still overshadowed by geological superstitions; and
+that he will have to believe in the completeness of the geological
+record far less than he does at present. He assumes, for example, that
+there was no dry land, nor any terrestrial life, before the end of the
+Silurian epoch, simply because, up to the present time, no indications
+of fresh water, or terrestrial organisms, have been found in rocks of
+older date. And, in speculating upon the origin of a given group, he
+rarely goes further back than the "Ante-period," which precedes that
+in which the remains of animals belonging to that group are found.
+Thus, as fossil remains of the majority of the groups of _Reptilia_
+are first found in the Trias, they are assumed to have originated in
+the "Antetriassic" period, or between the Permian and Triassic epochs.
+
+I confess this is wholly incredible to me. The Permian and the
+Triassic deposits pass completely into one another; there is no sort
+of discontinuity answering to an unrecorded "Antetrias;" and, what
+is more, we have evidence of immensely extensive dry land during the
+formation of these deposits. We know that the dry land of the Trias
+absolutely teemed with reptiles of all groups except Pterodactyles,
+Snakes, and perhaps Tortoises; there is every probability that true
+Birds existed, and _Mammalia_ certainly did. Of the inhabitants of the
+Permian dry land, on the contrary, all that have left a record are a
+few lizards. Is it conceivable that these last should really
+represent the whole terrestrial population of that time, and that
+the development of Mammals, of Birds, and of the highest forms of
+Reptiles, should have been crowded into the time during which the
+Permian conditions quietly passed away, and the Triassic conditions
+began? Does not any such supposition become in the highest degree
+improbable, when, in the terrestrial or fresh-water Labyrinthodonts,
+which lived on the land of the Carboniferous epoch, as well as on
+that of the Trias, we have evidence that one form, of terrestrial life
+persisted, throughout all these ages, with no important modification?
+For my part, having regard to the small amount of modification (except
+in the way of extinction) which the Crocodilian, Lacertilian, and
+Chelonian _Reptilia_ have undergone, from the older Mesozoic times to
+the present day, I cannot but put the existence of the common stock
+from which they sprang far back in the Palaeozoic epoch; and I should
+apply a similar argumentation to all other groups of animals.
+
+IV. Professor Haeckel proposes a number of modifications in Taxonomy,
+all of which are well worthy of consideration. Thus he establishes a
+third primary division of the living world, distinct from both
+animals and plants, under the name of the _Protista_, to include the
+_Myxomycetes_, the _Diatomaceae_, and the _Labyrinthulae_, which are
+commonly regarded as plants, with the _Noctilucae_, the _Flagellata_,
+the _Rhizopoda_, the _Protoplasta_, and the _Monera_, which are most
+generally included within the animal world. A like attempt has been
+made, by other writers, to escape the inconvenience of calling these
+dubious organisms by the name of plant or animal; but I confess,
+it appears to me, that the inconvenience which is eluded in one
+direction, by this step, is met in two others. Professor Haeckel
+himself doubts whether the _Fungi_ ought not to be removed into his
+_Protista_. If they are not, indeed, the _Myxomycetes_ render the
+drawing of every line of demarcation between _Protista_ and Plants
+impossible. But if they are, who is to define the _Fungi_ from the
+_Algae_? Yet the sea-weeds are surely, in every respect, plants.
+On the other hand, Professor Haeckel puts the sponges among the
+_Coelenterata_ (or polypes and corals), with the double inconvenience,
+as it appears to me, of separating the sponges from their immediate
+kindred, the _Protoplasta_, and destroying the definition of the
+_Coelenterata_. So again, the _Infusoria_ possess all the characters
+of animality, but it can hardly be said that they are as clearly
+allied to the worms as they are to the _Noctilucae_.
+
+On the whole, it appears to me to be most convenient to adhere to
+the old plan of calling such of these low forms as are more animal in
+habit, _Protozoa_, and such as are more vegetal, _Protophyta_.
+
+Another considerable innovation is the proposition to divide the class
+Pisces into the four groups of _Leptocardia, Cyclostomata, Pisces_,
+and _Dipneusta_. As regards the establishment of a separate class for
+the Lancelet _(Amphioxus)_, I think there can be little doubt of the
+propriety of so doing, inasmuch as it is far more different from all
+other fishes than they are from one another. And there is much to
+be said in favour of the same promotion of the _Cyclostomata_, or
+Lampreys and Hags. But considering the close relation of the
+Mudfish with the _Ganoidei_, and the wide differences between the
+_Elasmobranchii_ and the _Teleostei_, I greatly doubt the propriety of
+separating the _Dipneusta_, as a class, from the other _Pisces_.
+
+Professor Haeckel proposes to break up the vertebrate sub-kingdom,
+first, into the two provinces of _Leptocardia_ and _Pachycardia;
+Amphioxus_ being in the former, and all other vertebrates in the
+latter division. The _Pachycardia_ are then divided into _Monorhina_,
+which contains the Cyclostome fishes, distinguished by their single
+nasal aperture; and _Amphirhina_, comprising the other _Vertebrata_,
+which have two nasal apertures. These are further subdivided into
+_Anamnia (Pisces, Dipneusta, Amphibia)_ and _Amniota (Reptilia, Aves,
+Mammalia)_. This classification undoubtedly expresses many of the most
+important facts in vertebrate structure in a clear and compendious
+way; whether it is the best that can he adopted remains to be seen.
+
+With much reason the Lemurs are removed altogether from the
+_Primates_, under the name of _Prosimiae_. But I am surprised to
+find the _Sirenia_ left in one group with the _Cetacea_, and the
+_Plesiosauria_ with the _Ichthyosauria_; the ordinal distinctness of
+these having, to my mind, been long since fully established.
+
+V. In Professor Haeckel's speculations on Phylogeny, or the genealogy
+of animal forms, there is much that is profoundly interesting, and
+his suggestions are always supported by sound knowledge and great
+ingenuity. Whether one agrees or disagrees with him, one feels that
+he has forced the mind into lines of thought in which it is more
+profitable to go wrong than to stand still.
+
+To put his views into a few words, he conceives that all forms of life
+originally commenced as _Monera_, or simple particles of protoplasm;
+and that these _Monera_ originated from not-living matter. Some of the
+_Monera_ acquired tendencies towards the Protistic, others towards the
+Vegetal, and others towards the Animal modes of life. The last became
+animal _Monera_. Some of the animal _Monera_ acquired a nucleus, and
+became amoeba-like creatures; and, out of certain of these, ciliated
+infusorium-like animals were developed. These became modified into two
+stirpes: A, that of the worms; and B, that of the sponges. The latter
+by progressive modification gave rise to all the _Coelenterata_; the
+former to all other animals. But A soon broke up into two principal
+stirpes, of which one, _a_, became the root of the _Annelida,
+Echinodermata_, and _Arthropoda_, while the other, _b_, gave rise to
+the _Polyzoa_ and _Ascidioida_, and produced the two remaining stirpes
+of the _Vertebrata_ and the _Mollusca_.
+
+Perhaps the most startling proposition of all those which Professor
+Haeckel puts before us is that which he bases upon Kowalewsky's
+researches into the development of _Amphioxus_ and of the
+_Ascidioida_, that the origin of the _Vertebrata_ is to be sought
+in an Ascidioid form. Goodsir long ago insisted upon the resemblance
+between _Amphioxus_ and the Ascidians; but the notion of a genetic
+connection between the two, and especially the identification of the
+notochord of the _Vertebrate_ with the axis of the caudal appendage of
+the larva of the Ascidian, is a novelty which, at first, takes one's
+breath away. I must confess, however, that the more I have pondered
+over it, the more grounds appear in its favour, though I am not
+convinced that there is any real parallelism between the mode
+of development of the ganglion of the _Ascidian_ and that of the
+_Vertebrate_ cerebro-spinal axis.
+
+The hardly less startling hypothesis that the _Echinoderms_ are
+coalesced worms, on the other hand, appears to be open to serious
+objection. As a matter of anatomy, it does not seem to me to
+correspond with fact; for there is no worm with a calcareous skeleton,
+nor any which has a band-like ventral nerve, superficial to which lies
+an ambulacral vessel. And, as a question of development, the formation
+of the radiate _Echinoderm_ within its vermiform larva seems to me
+to be analogous to the formation of a radiate Medusa upon a Hydrozoic
+stock. But a Medusa is surely not the result of the coalescence of as
+many organisms as it presents morphological segments.
+
+Professor Haeckel adduces the fossil _Crossopodia_ and _Phyllodocites_
+as examples of the Annelidan forms, by the coalescence of which
+the Echinoderms may have been produced; but, even supposing the
+resemblance of these worms to detached starfish arms to be perfect,
+it is possible that they may be the extreme term, and not the
+commencement, of Echinoderm development. A pentacrinoid Echinoderm,
+with a complete jointed stalk, is developed within the larva of
+_Antedon_. Is it not possible that the larva of _Crossopodia_ may have
+developed a vermiform Echinoderm?
+
+With respect to the Phylogeny of the _Arthropoda_, I find myself
+disposed to take a somewhat different view from that of Professor
+Haeckel. He assumes that the primary stock of the whole group was
+a crustacean, having that _Nauplius_ form in which Fritz Mueller
+has shown that so many _Crustacea_ commence their lives. All the
+_Entomostraca_ arose by the modification of some one or other of these
+Naupliform "_Archicarida_." Other _Archicarida_ underwent a further
+metamorphosis into a _Zoaea_-form. From some of these "_Zoeopoda_"
+arose all the remaining Malacostracous _Crustacea_; while, from
+others, was developed some form analogous to the existing _Galeodes_,
+out of which proceeded, by gradual differentiation, all the
+_Myriapoda, Arachnida,_ and _Insecta_.
+
+I should, be disposed to interpret the facts of the embryological
+history and of the anatomy of the _Arthropoda_ in a different manner.
+The _Copepoda_, the _Ostracoda_, and the _Branchiopoda_ are
+the _Crustacea_ which have departed least from the embryonic or
+_Nauplius_-forms; and, of these, I imagine that the _Copepoda_
+represent the hypothetical _Archicarida_ most closely. _Apus_ and
+_Sapphirina_ indicate the relations of these Archaeocarids with the
+_Trilobita_, and the _Eurypterida_ connect the _Trilobita_ and the
+_Copepoda_ with the _Xiphosura_. But the _Xiphosura_ have such close
+morphological relations with the _Arachnida_, and especially with the
+oldest known Arachnidan, _Scorpio_, that I cannot doubt the existence
+of a genetic connection between the two groups. On the other hand, the
+_Branchiopoda_ do, even at the present day, almost pass into the
+true _Podophthalmia_, by _Nebalia_. By the _Trilobita_, again, the
+_Archicarida_ are connected with such _Edriophthalmia_ as _Serolis_.
+The _Stomapoda_ are extremely modified _Edriophthalmia_ of the
+amphipod type. On the other side, the _Isopoda_ lead to the
+_Myriapoda_, and the latter to the _Insecta_. Thus the Arthropod
+phylum, which suggests itself to me, is that the branches of the
+_Podophthalmia_, of the _Insecta_ (with the _Myriapoda_), and of the
+_Arachnida_, spring separately and distinctly from the Archaeocarid
+root--and that the _Zoaea_-forms occur only at the origin of the
+Podophthalmous branch.
+
+The phylum of the _Vertebrata_ is the most interesting of all, and is
+admirably discussed by Professor Haeckel. I can note only a few points
+which seem to me to be open to discussion. The _Monorhina_, having
+been developed out of the _Leptocardia_, gave rise, according to
+Professor Haeckel, to a shark-like form, which was the common stock
+of all the _Amphirhina_. From this "Protamphirhine" were developed, in
+divergent lines, the true Sharks, Rays, and _Chimaerae_; the Ganoids,
+and the _Dipneusta_. The _Teleostei_ are modified _Ganoidei_. The
+_Dipneusta_ gave rise to the _Amphibia_, which are the root of all
+other _Vertebrata_, inasmuch as out of them were developed the first
+_Vertebrata_ provided with an amnion, or the _Protamniota_. The
+_Protamniota_ split up into two stems, one that of the _Mammalia_, the
+other common to _Reptilia_ and _Aves_.
+
+The only modification which it occurs to me to suggest in this
+general view of the Phylogeny of the _Vertebrata_ is, that the
+"Protamphirhine" was possibly more ganoid than shark-like. So far as
+our present information goes the Ganoids are as old as the Sharks;
+and it is very interesting to observe that the remains of the oldest
+Ganoids, _Cephalaspis_ and _Pteraspis_, have as yet displayed no trace
+of jaws. It is just possible that they may connect the _Monorhina_,
+with the Sturgeons among the _Amphirhina_. On the other hand,
+the Crossopterygian Ganoids exhibit the closest connection with
+_Lepidosiren_, and thereby with the _Amphibia_. It should not be
+forgotten that the development of the Lampreys exhibits curious points
+of resemblance with that of the _Amphibia_, which are absent in
+the Sharks and Rays. Of the development of the _Ganoidei_ we have
+unfortunately no knowledge, but their brains and their reproductive
+organs are more amphibian than are those of the Sharks.
+
+On the whole, I am disposed to think that the direct stem of ascent
+from the _Monorhina_ to the _Amphibia_ is formed by the Ganoids and
+the Mudfishes; while the Osseous fishes and the Sharks are branches in
+different directions from this stem.
+
+What the _Protamniota_ were like, I do not suppose any one is in a
+position to say, but I cannot think that the thoroughly Lacertian
+_Protorosaurus_ had anything to do with them. The reptiles which are
+most amphibian in their characters, and therefore, probably, most
+nearly approach the _Protamniota_, are the _Ichthyosauria_ and the
+_Chelonia_.
+
+That the _Didelphia_ were developed out of some ornithodelphous form,
+as Professor Haeckel supposes, seems to be unquestionable; but the
+existing Opossums and Kangaroos are certainly extremely modified and
+remote from their ancestors the "_Prodidelphia_," of which we have
+not, at present the slightest knowledge. The mode of origin of the
+_Monodelphia_ from these is a very difficult problem, for the most
+part left open by Professor Haeckel. He considers the _Prosimiae_, or
+Lemurs, to be the common stock of the _Deciduata_, and the _Cetacea_
+(with which he includes the _Sirenia_) to be modified _Ungulata_. As
+regards the latter question, I have little doubt that the _Sirenia_
+connect the _Ungulata_ with the _Proboscidea_; and none, that the
+_Cetacea_ are extremely modified _Carnivora_. The passage between the
+Seals and the _Cetacea_ by _Zeuglodon_ is complete. I also think
+that there is much to be said for the opinion, that the _Insectivora_
+represent the common stock of the _Primates_ (which passed into
+them by the _Prosimiae_), the _Cheiroptera_, the _Rodentia_, and the
+_Carnivora_. And I am greatly disposed to look for the common root
+of all the _Ungulata_, as well, in some ancient non-deciduate Mammals
+which were more like _Insectivora_ than anything else. On the other
+hand, the _Edentata_ appear to form a series by themselves.
+
+The latter part of this notice of the _Natuerliche
+Schoepfungs-Geschichte_, brings so strongly into prominence the points
+of difference between its able author and myself, that I do not like
+to conclude without reminding the reader of my entire concurrence with
+the general tenor and spirit of the work, and of my high estimate of
+its value.
+
+
+
+
+XII.
+
+BISHOP BERKELEY ON THE METAPHYSICS OF SENSATION.[1]
+
+
+Professor Fraser has earned the thanks of all students of philosophy
+for the conscientious labour which he has bestowed upon his new
+edition of the works of Berkeley; in which, for the first time, we
+find collected together every thought which can be traced to the
+subtle and penetrating mind of the famous Bishop of Cloyne; while the
+"Life and Letters" will rejoice those who care less for the idealist
+and the prophet of tar-water, than for the man who stands out as one
+of the noblest and purest figures of his time: that Berkeley from whom
+the jealousy of Pope did not withhold a single one of all "the virtues
+under heaven;" nor the cynicism of Swift, the dignity of "one of the
+first men of the kingdom for learning and virtue;" the man whom the
+pious Atterbury could compare to nothing less than an angel; and whose
+personal influence and eloquence filled the Scriblerus Club and the
+House of Commons with enthusiasm for the evangelization of the North
+American Indians; and even led Sir Robert Walpole to assent to the
+appropriation of public money to a scheme which was neither business
+nor bribery.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: "The Works of George Berkeley, D.D., formerly Bishop
+of Cloyne, including many of his Works hitherto unpublished, with
+Preface, Annotations, his Life and Letters, and an Account of his
+Philosophy." By A.C. Fraser. Four vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
+1871.]
+
+[Footnote 2: In justice to Sir Robert, however, it is proper to remark
+that he declared afterwards, that he gave his assent to Berkeley's
+scheme for the Bermuda University only because he thought the House of
+Commons was sure to throw it out.]
+
+Hardly any epoch in the intellectual history of England is more
+remarkable in itself, or possesses a greater interest for us in these
+latter days, than that which coincides broadly with the conclusion of
+the seventeenth and the opening of the eighteenth century.
+
+The political fermentation of the preceding age was gradually working
+itself out; domestic peace gave men time to think; and the toleration
+won by the party of which Locke was the spokesman, permitted a freedom
+of speech and of writing such as has rarely been exceeded in later
+times.
+
+Fostered by these circumstances, the great faculty for physical and
+metaphysical inquiry, with which the people of our race are naturally
+endowed, developed itself vigorously; and at least two of its products
+have had a profound and a permanent influence upon the subsequent
+course of thought in the world. The one of these was English
+Freethinking; the other, the Theory of Gravitation.
+
+Looking back to the origin of the intellectual impulses of which these
+were the results, we are led to Herbert, to Hobbes, to Bacon; and to
+one who stands in advance of all these, as the most typical man of his
+time--Descartes. It is the Cartesian doubt--the maxim that assent may
+properly be given to no propositions but such as are perfectly
+clear and distinct--which, becoming incarnate, so to speak, in the
+Englishmen, Anthony Collins, Toland, Tindal, Woolston, and in the
+wonderful Frenchman, Pierre Bayle, reached its final term in Hume.
+
+And, on the other hand, although the theory of Gravitation set
+aside the Cartesian vortices--yet the spirit of the "Principes de
+Philosophie" attained its apotheosis when Newton demonstrated all the
+host of heaven to be but the elements of a vast mechanism, regulated
+by the same laws as those which govern the falling of a stone to the
+ground. There is a passage in the preface to the first edition of the
+"Principia" which shows that Newton was penetrated, as completely
+as Descartes, with the belief that all the phenomena of nature are
+expressible in terms of matter and motion.
+
+"Would that the rest of the phenomena of nature could be deduced by
+a like kind of reasoning from mechanical principles. For many
+circumstances lead me to suspect that all these phenomena may depend
+upon certain forces, in virtue of which the particles of bodies, by
+causes not yet known, are either mutually impelled against one another
+and cohere into regular figures, or repel and recede from one another;
+which forces being unknown, philosophers have as yet explored nature
+in vain. But I hope that, either by this method of philosophizing, or
+by some other and better, the principles here laid down may throw some
+light upon the matter."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "Utinam caetera naturae phaenomena ex principiis
+mechanicis, eodem argumentandi genere, derivare licet. Nam multa me
+movent, ut nonnihil suspicer ca omnia ex viribus quibusdam pendere
+posse, quibus corporum particulae, per causas nondum cognitas, vel in
+se mutuo impelluntur et secundum figuras regulares cohaerent vel ab
+invicem fugantur et reced ent: quibus viribus ignotis, Philosophi
+hactenus Naturam frustra tentarunt. Spero autem quod vel huic
+philosophandi modo, vel veriori, alicui, principia hic posita lucem
+aliquam praebebunt."--Preface to First Edition of _Principia_, May 8,
+1686.]
+
+But the doctrine that all the phenomena of nature are resolvable into
+mechanism is what people have agreed to call "materialism;" and when
+Locke and Collins maintained that matter may possibly be able
+to think, and Newton himself could compare infinite space to the
+sensorium of the Deity, it was not wonderful that the English
+philosophers should be attacked as they were by Leibnitz in the famous
+letter to the Princess of Wales, which gave rise to his correspondence
+with Clarke.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "Collection of Papers which passed between the late
+learned Mr. Leibnitz and Dr. Clarke."--1717.]
+
+"1. Natural religion itself seems to decay [in England] very much.
+Many will have human souls to be material; others make God Himself a
+corporeal Being.
+
+"2. Mr. Locke and his followers are uncertain, at least, whether the
+soul be not material and naturally perishable.
+
+"3. Sir Isaac Newton says that space is an organ which God makes use
+of to perceive things by. But if God stands in need of any organ to
+perceive things by, it will follow that they do not depend altogether
+upon Him, nor were produced by Him.
+
+"4. Sir Isaac Newton and his followers have also a very odd opinion
+concerning the work of God. According to their doctrine, God Almighty
+wants to wind up His watch from time to time; otherwise it would cease
+to move.[1] He had not, it seems, sufficient foresight to make it a
+perpetual motion. Nay, the machine of God's making is so imperfect,
+according to these gentlemen, that He is obliged to clean it now
+and then by an extraordinary concourse, and even to mend it as a
+clockmaker mends his work."
+
+[Footnote 1: Goethe seems to have had this saying of Leibnitz in his
+mind when he wrote his famous lines--
+
+"Was waer' ein Gott der nur von aussen stiesse Im Kreis das All am
+Finger laufen liesse."]
+
+It is beside the mark, at present, to inquire how far Leibnitz paints
+a true picture, and how far he is guilty of a spiteful caricature of
+Newton's views in these passages; and whether the beliefs which Locke
+is known to have entertained are consistent with the conclusions which
+may logically be drawn from some parts of his works. It is undeniable
+that English philosophy in Leibnitz's time had the general character
+which he ascribes to it. The phenomena of nature were held to be
+resolvable into the attractions and the repulsions of particles
+of matter; all knowledge was attained through the senses; the mind
+antecedent to experience was a _tabula rasa_. In other words, at the
+commencement of the eighteenth century, the character of speculative
+thought in England was essentially sceptical, critical, and
+materialistic. Why "materialism" should be more inconsistent with the
+existence of a Deity, the freedom of the will, or the immortality
+of the soul, or with any actual or possible system of theology, than
+"idealism," I must declare myself at a loss to divine. But in the
+year 1700 all the world appears to have been agreed, Tertullian
+notwithstanding, that materialism necessarily leads to very dreadful
+consequences. And it was thought that it conduced to the interests of
+religion and morality to attack the materialists with all the weapons
+that came to hand. Perhaps the most interesting controversy which
+arose out of these questions is the wonderful triangular duel between
+Dodwell, Clarke, and Anthony Collins, concerning the materiality of
+the soul, and--what all the disputants considered to be the necessary
+consequence of its materiality--its natural mortality. I do not think
+that anyone can read the letters which passed between Clarke and
+Collins, without admitting that Collins, who writes with wonderful
+power and closeness of reasoning, has by far the best of the argument,
+so far as the possible materiality of the soul goes; and that, in this
+battle, the Goliath of Freethinking overcame the champion of what was
+considered Orthodoxy.
+
+But in Dublin, all this while, there was a little David practising
+his youthful strength upon the intellectual lions and bears of Trinity
+College. This was George Berkeley, who was destined to give the same
+kind of development to the idealistic side of Descartes' philosophy,
+that the Freethinkers had given to its sceptical side, and the
+Newtonians to its mechanical side.
+
+Berkeley faced the problem boldly. He said to the materialists: "You
+tell me that all the phenomena of nature are resolvable into matter
+and its affections. I assent to your statement, and now I put to you
+the further question, 'What is matter?' In answering this question you
+shall be bound by your own conditions; and I demand, in the terms of
+the Cartesian axiom, that in turn you give your assent only to such
+conclusions as are perfectly clear and obvious."
+
+It is this great argument which is worked out in the "Treatise
+concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge," and in those "Dialogues
+between Hylas and Philonous," which rank among the most exquisite
+examples of English style, as well as among the subtlest of
+metaphysical writings; and the final conclusion of which is summed
+up in a passage remarkable alike for literary beauty and for calm
+audacity of statement.
+
+    "Some truths there are so near and obvious to the mind that
+    a man need only open his eyes to see them. Such I take this
+    important one to be, viz., that all the choir of heaven and
+    furniture of the earth--in a word, all those bodies which
+    compose the mighty frame of the world--have not any substance
+    without a mind; that their being is to be perceived or known;
+    that consequently, so long as they are not actually perceived
+    by me, or do not exist in my mind or that of any other created
+    spirit, they must either have no existence at all or else
+    subsist in the mind of some eternal spirit; it being
+    perfectly unintelligible, and involving all the absurdity
+    of abstraction, to attribute to any single part of them an
+    existence independent of a spirit."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "Treatise concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge,"
+Part I. Sec. 6.]
+
+Doubtless this passage sounds like the acme of metaphysical paradox,
+and we all know that "coxcombs vanquished Berkeley with a grin;" while
+common-sense folk refuted him by stamping on the ground, or some such
+other irrelevant proceeding. But the key to all philosophy lies in the
+clear apprehension of Berkeley's problem--which is neither more nor
+less than one of the shapes of the greatest of all questions, "What
+are the limits of our faculties?" And it is worth any amount of
+trouble to comprehend the exact nature of the argument by which
+Berkeley arrived at his results, and to know by one's own knowledge
+the great truth which he discovered--that the honest and rigorous
+following up of the argument which leads us to materialism, inevitably
+carries us beyond it.
+
+Suppose that I accidentally prick my finger with a pin. I immediately
+become aware of a condition of my consciousness--a feeling which I
+term pain. I have no doubt whatever that the feeling is in myself
+alone; and if anyone were to say that the pain I feel is something
+which inheres in the needle, as one of the qualities of the
+substance of the needle, we should all laugh at the absurdity of the
+phraseology. In fact, it is utterly impossible to conceive pain except
+as a state of consciousness.
+
+Hence, so far as pain is concerned, it is sufficiently obvious
+that Berkeley's phraseology is strictly applicable to our power of
+conceiving its existence--"its being is to be perceived or known," and
+"so long as it is not actually perceived by me, or does not exist in
+my mind, or that of any other created spirit, it must either have no
+existence at all, or else subsist in the mind of some eternal spirit."
+
+So much for pain. Now let us consider an ordinary sensation. Let the
+point of the pin be gently rested upon the skin, and I become aware
+of a feeling or condition of consciousness quite different from the
+former--the sensation of what I call "touch." Nevertheless this touch
+is plainly just as much in myself as the pain was. I cannot for a
+moment conceive this something which I call touch as existing apart
+from myself, or a being capable of the same feelings as myself. And
+the same reasoning applies to all the other simple sensations. A
+moment's reflection is sufficient to convince one that the smell, and
+the taste, and the yellowness, of which we become aware when an
+orange is smelt, tasted, and seen, are as completely states of our
+consciousness as is the pain which arises if the orange happens to
+be too sour. Nor is it less clear that every sound is a state of the
+consciousness of him who hears it. If the universe contained only
+blind and deaf beings, it is impossible for us to imagine but that
+darkness and silence should reign everywhere.
+
+It is undoubtedly true, then, of all the simple sensations that,
+as Berkeley says, their "_esse_ is _percipi_"--their being is to be
+"perceived or known." But that which perceives, or knows, is mind
+or spirit; and therefore that knowledge which the senses give us is,
+after all, a knowledge of spiritual phenomena.
+
+All this was explicitly or implicitly admitted, and, indeed, insisted
+upon, by Berkeley's contemporaries, and by no one more strongly than
+by Locke, who terms smells, tastes, colours, sounds, and the like,
+"secondary qualities," and observes, with respect to these "secondary
+qualities," that "whatever reality we by mistake attribute to them
+[they] are in truth nothing in the objects themselves."
+
+And again: "Flame is denominated hot and light; snow, white and cold;
+and manna, white and sweet, from the ideas they produce in us; which
+qualities are commonly thought to be the same in these bodies; that
+those ideas are in us, the one the perfect resemblance of the other
+as they are in a mirror; and it would by most men be judged very
+extravagant if one should say otherwise. And yet he that will consider
+that the same fire that at one distance produces in us the sensation
+of warmth, does at a nearer approach produce in us the far different
+sensation of pain, ought to bethink himself what reason he has to say
+that his idea of warmth, which was produced in him by the fire,
+is actually in the fire; and his idea of pain which the same fire
+produced in him in the same way, is not in the fire. Why are whiteness
+and coldness in snow, and pain not, when it produces the one and the
+other idea in us; and can do neither but by the bulk, figure, number,
+and motion of its solid parts?"[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Locke, "Human Understanding," Book II. chap. viii. Sec.Sec. 14,
+15.]
+
+Thus far then materialists and idealists are agreed. Locke and
+Berkeley, and all logical thinkers who have succeeded them, are of
+one mind about secondary qualities--their being is to be perceived or
+known--their materiality is, in strictness, a spirituality.
+
+But Locke draws a great distinction between the secondary qualities of
+matter, and certain others which he terms "primary qualities." These
+are extension, figure, solidity, motion and rest, and number; and he
+is as clear that these primary qualities exist independently of the
+mind, as he is that the secondary qualities have no such existence.
+
+    "The particular bulk, number, figure, and motion of the parts
+    of fire and snow are really in them, whether anyone's senses
+    perceive them or not, and therefore they may be called real
+    qualities, because they really exist in those bodies; but
+    light, heat, whiteness, or coldness, are no more really in
+    them, than sickness, or pain, is in manna. Take away the
+    sensation of them; let not the eyes see light or colours, nor
+    the ears hear sounds; let the palate not taste, nor the nose
+    smell; and all colours, tastes, odours and sounds, as they are
+    such particular ideas, vanish and cease, and are reduced to
+    their causes, i.e. bulk, figure, and motion of parts.
+
+    "18. A piece of manna of sensible bulk is able to produce in
+    us the idea of a round or square figure; and, by being removed
+    from one place to another, the idea of motion. This idea of
+    motion represents it as it really is in the manna moving; a
+    circle and square are the same, whether in idea or existence,
+    in the mind or in the manna; and thus both motion and figure
+    are really in the manna, whether we take notice of them or no:
+    this everybody is ready to agree to."
+
+So far as primary qualities are concerned, then, Locke is as
+thoroughgoing a realist as St. Anselm. In Berkeley, on the other
+hand, we have as complete a representative of the nominalists and
+conceptualists--an intellectual descendant of Roscellinus and of
+Abelard. And by a curious irony of fate, it is the nominalist who is,
+this time, the champion of orthodoxy, and the realist that of heresy.
+
+Once more let us try to work out Berkeley's principles for ourselves,
+and inquire what foundation there is for the assertion that extension,
+form, solidity, and the other "primary qualities," have an existence
+apart from mind. And for this purpose let us recur to our experiment
+with the pin.
+
+It has been seen that when the finger is pricked with a pin, a state
+of consciousness arises which we call pain; and it is admitted that
+this pain is not a something which inheres in the pin, but a something
+which exists only in the mind, and has no similitude elsewhere.
+
+But a little attention will show that this state of consciousness is
+accompanied by another, which can by no effort be got rid of. I not
+only have the feeling, but the feeling is localized. I am just as
+certain that the pain is in my finger, as I am that I have it at all.
+Nor will any effort of the imagination enable me to believe that the
+pain is not in my finger.
+
+And yet nothing is more certain than that it is not, and cannot be, in
+the spot in which I feel it, nor within a couple of feet of that spot.
+For the skin of the finger is connected by a bundle of fine nervous
+fibres, which run up the whole length of the arm, with the spinal
+marrow and brain, and we know that the feeling of pain caused by the
+prick of a pin is dependent on the integrity of those fibres. After
+they have been cut through close to the spinal cord, no pain will be
+felt, whatever injury is done to the finger; and if the ends which
+remain in connection with the cord be pricked, the pain which arises
+will appear to have its seat in the finger just as distinctly as
+before. Nay, if the whole arm be cut off, the pain which arises from
+pricking the nerve stump will appear to be seated in the fingers, just
+as if they were still connected with the body.
+
+It is perfectly obvious, therefore, that the localization of the
+pain at the surface of the body is an act of the mind. It is an
+_extradition_ of that consciousness, which has its seat in the
+brain, to a definite point of the body--which takes place without our
+volition, and may give rise to ideas which are contrary to fact. We
+might call this extradition of consciousness a reflex feeling, just
+as we speak of a movement which is excited apart from, or contrary to,
+our volition, as a reflex motion. Locality is no more in the pin than
+pain is; of the former, as of the latter, it is true that "its being
+is to be perceived," and that its existence apart from a thinking mind
+is not conceivable.
+
+The foregoing reasoning will be in no way affected, if, instead of
+pricking the finger, the point of the pin rests gently against it, so
+as to give rise merely to a tactile sensation. The tactile sensation
+is referred outwards to the point touched, and seems to exist there.
+But it is certain that it is not and cannot be there really, because
+the brain is the sole seat of consciousness; and, further, because
+evidence, as strong as that in favour of the sensation being in the
+finger, can be brought forward in support of propositions which are
+manifestly absurd.
+
+For example, the hairs and nails are utterly devoid of sensibility,
+as everyone knows. Nevertheless, if the ends of the nails or hairs
+are touched, ever so lightly, we feel that they are touched, and the
+sensation seems to be situated in the nails or hairs. Nay more, if a
+walking-stick a yard long is held firmly by the handle and the other
+end is touched, the tactile sensation, which is a state of our own
+consciousness, is unhesitatingly referred to the end of the stick; and
+yet no one will say that it _is_ there.
+
+Let us now suppose that, instead of one pin's point resting against
+the end of my finger, there are two. Each of these can be known to
+me, as we have seen, only as a state of a thinking mind, referred
+outwards, or localized. But the existence of these two states, somehow
+or other, generates in my mind a host of new ideas, which did not make
+their appearance when only one state was present.
+
+For example, I get the ideas of co-existence, of number, of distance,
+and of relative place or direction. But all these ideas are ideas of
+relations, and imply the existence of something which perceives those
+relations. If a tactile sensation is a state of the mind, and if
+the localization of that sensation is an act of the mind, how is it
+conceivable that a relation between two localized sensations should
+exist apart from the mind? It is, I confess, quite as easy for me to
+imagine that redness may exist apart from a visual sense, as it is to
+suppose that co-existence, number, and distance can have any existence
+apart from the mind of which they are ideas.
+
+Thus it seems clear that the existence of some, at any rate, of
+Locke's primary qualities of matter, such as number and extension,
+apart from mind, is as utterly unthinkable as the existence of colour
+and sound under like circumstances.
+
+Will the others--namely, figure, motion and rest, and
+solidity--withstand a similar criticism? I think not. For all these,
+like the foregoing, are perceptions by the mind of the relations
+of two or more sensations to one another. If distance and place are
+inconceivable, in the absence of the mind, of which they are ideas,
+the independent existence of figure, which is the limitation of
+distance, and of motion, which is change of place, must be equally
+inconceivable. Solidity requires more particular consideration, as it
+is a term applied to two very different things, the one of which is
+solidity of form, or geometrical solidity; while the other is solidity
+of substance, or mechanical solidity.
+
+If those motor nerves of a man by which volitions are converted into
+motion were all paralysed, and if sensation remained only in the palm
+of his hand (which is a conceivable case), he would still be able to
+attain to clear notions of extension, figure, number, and motion, by
+attending to the states of consciousness which might be aroused by the
+contact of bodies with the sensory surface of the palm. But it does
+not appear that such a person could arrive at any conception of
+geometrical solidity. For that which does not come in contact with the
+sensory surface is non-existent for the sense of touch; and a solid
+body, impressed upon the palm of the hand, gives rise only to the
+notion of the extension of that particular part of the solid which is
+in contact with the skin.
+
+Nor is it possible that the idea of outness (in the sense of
+discontinuity with the sentient body) could be attained by such a
+person; for, as we have seen, every tactile sensation is referred to
+a point either of the natural sensory surface itself, or of some
+solid in continuity with that surface. Hence it would appear that the
+conception of the difference between the Ego and the non-Ego could
+not be attained by a man thus situated. His feelings would be his
+universe, and his tactile sensations his "moenia mundi." Time would
+exist for him as for us, but space would have only two dimensions.
+
+But now remove the paralysis from the motor apparatus, and give the
+palm of the hand of our imaginary man perfect freedom to move, so as
+to be able to glide in all directions over the bodies with which it is
+in contact. Then with the consciousness of that mobility, the notion
+of space of three dimensions--which is "_Raum_" or "room" to move with
+perfect freedom--is at once given. But the notion that the tactile
+surface itself moves, cannot be given by touch alone, which is
+competent to testify only to the fact of change of place, not to its
+cause. The idea of the motion of the tactile surface could not, in
+fact, be attained, unless the idea of change of place were accompanied
+by some state of consciousness, which does not exist when the tactile
+surface is immoveable. This state of consciousness is what is termed
+the muscular sense, and its existence is very easily demonstrable.
+
+Suppose the back of my hand to rest upon a table, and a sovereign to
+rest upon the upturned palm, I at once acquire a notion of extension,
+and of the limit of that extension. The impression made by the
+circular piece of gold is quite different from that which would be
+made by a triangular, or a square, piece of the same size, and thereby
+I arrive at the notion of figure. Moreover, if the sovereign slides
+over the palm, I acquire a distinct conception of change of place
+or motion, and of the direction of that motion. For as the sovereign
+slides, it affects new nerve-endings, and gives rise to new states of
+consciousness. Each of them is definitely and separately localized by
+a reflex act of the mind, which, at the same time, becomes aware of
+the difference between two successive localizations; and therefore of
+change of place, which is motion.
+
+If, while the sovereign lies on the hand, the latter being kept quite
+steady, the fore-arm is gradually and slowly raised; the tactile
+sensations, with all their accompaniments, remain exactly as they
+were. But, at the same time, something new is introduced; namely, the
+sense of effort. If I try to discover where this sense of effort seems
+to be, I find myself somewhat perplexed at first; but, if I hold the
+fore-arm in position long enough, I become aware of an obscure sense
+of fatigue, which is apparently seated either in the muscles of the
+arm, or in the integument directly over them. The fatigue seems to be
+related to the sense of effort, in much the same way as the pain which
+supervenes upon the original sense of contact, when a pin is slowly
+pressed against the skin, is related to touch.
+
+A little attention will show that this sense of effort accompanies
+every muscular contraction by which the limbs, or other parts of the
+body, are moved. By its agency the fact of their movement is known;
+while the direction of the motion is given by the accompanying tactile
+sensations. And, in consequence of the incessant association of the
+muscular and the tactile sensations, they become so fused together
+that they are often confounded tinder the same name.
+
+If freedom to move in all directions is the very essence of that
+conception of space of three dimensions which we obtain by the sense
+of touch; and if that freedom to move is really another name for the
+feeling of unopposed effort, accompanied by that of change of place,
+it is surely impossible to conceive of such space as having existence
+apart from that which is conscious of effort.
+
+But it may be said that we derive our conception of space of three
+dimensions not only from touch, but from vision; that if we do not
+feel things actually outside us, at any rate we see them. And it was
+exactly this difficulty which presented itself to Berkeley at the
+outset of his speculations. He met it, with characteristic boldness,
+by denying that we do see things outside us; and, with no less
+characteristic ingenuity, by devising that "New Theory of Vision"
+which has met with wider acceptance than any of his views, though it
+has been the subject of continual controversies.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: I have not specifically alluded to the writings of
+Bailey, Mill, Abbott, and others, on this vexed question, not because
+I have failed to study them carefully, but because this is not a
+convenient occasion for controversial discussion. Those who are
+acquainted with the subject, however, will observe that the view I
+have taken agrees substantially with that of Mr. Barley.]
+
+In the "Principles of Human Knowledge," Berkeley himself tells us how
+he was led to those views which he published in the "Essay towards the
+New Theory of Vision."
+
+    "It will be objected that we see things actually without, or
+    at a distance from us, and which consequently do not exist in
+    the mind; it being absurd that those things which are seen at
+    the distance of several miles, should be as near to us as our
+    own thoughts. In answer to this, I desire it may be considered
+    that in a dream we do oft perceive things as existing at a
+    great distance off, and yet, for all that, those things are
+    acknowledged to have their existence only in the mind.
+
+    "But for the fuller clearing of this point, it may be worth
+    while to consider how it is that we perceive distance and
+    things placed at a distance by sight. For that we should in
+    truth see external space and bodies actually existing in it,
+    some nearer, others further off, seems to carry with it some
+    opposition to what hath been said of their existing nowhere
+    without the mind. The consideration of this difficulty it
+    was that gave birth to my 'Essay towards the New Theory of
+    Vision,' which was published not long since, wherein it is
+    shown that distance, or outness, is neither immediately of
+    itself perceived by sight, nor yet apprehended, or judged
+    of, by lines and angles or anything that hath any necessary
+    connection with it; but that it is only suggested to our
+    thoughts by certain visible ideas and sensations attending
+    vision, which, in their own nature, have no manner of
+    similitude or relation either with distance, or with things
+    placed at a distance; but by a connection taught us by
+    experience, they come to signify and suggest them to us, after
+    the same manner that words of any language suggest the ideas
+    they are made to stand for; insomuch that a man born blind and
+    afterwards made to see, would not, at first sight, think the
+    things he saw to be without his mind or at any distance from
+    him."
+
+The key-note of the Essay to which Berkeley refers in this passage is
+to be found in an italicized paragraph of section 127:--
+
+    "_The extensions; figures, and motions perceived by sight are
+    specifically distinct from the ideas of touch called by the
+    same names; nor is there any such thing as an idea, or kind of
+    idea, common to both senses_."
+
+It will be observed that this proposition expressly declares that
+extension, figure, and motion, and consequently distance, are
+immediately perceived by sight as well as by touch; but that visual
+distance, extension, figure, and motion, are totally different in
+quality from the ideas of the same name obtained through the sense
+of touch. And other passages leave no doubt that such was Berkeley's
+meaning. Thus in the 112th section of the same Essay, he carefully
+defines the two kinds of distance, one visual, the other tangible:--
+
+    "By the distance between any two points nothing more is meant
+    than the number of intermediate points. If the given points
+    are visible, the distance between them is marked out by the
+    number of interjacent visible points; if they are tangible,
+    the distance between, them is a line consisting of tangible
+    points."
+
+Again, there are two sorts of magnitude or extension:--
+
+    "It has been shown that there are two sorts of objects
+    apprehended by sight, each whereof has its distinct magnitude
+    or extension: the one properly tangible, _i.e._ to be
+    perceived and measured by touch, and not immediately falling
+    under the sense of seeing; the other properly and immediately
+    visible, by mediation of which the former is brought into
+    view."--Sec. 55.
+
+But how are we to reconcile these passages with others which will be
+perfectly familiar to every reader of the "New Theory of Vision "? As,
+for example:--
+
+    "It is, I think, agreed by all, that distance of itself, and
+    immediately, cannot be seen."--Sec. 2.
+
+    "Space or distance, we have shown, is no otherwise the object
+    of sight than of hearing."--Sec. 130.
+
+    "Distance is in its own nature imperceptible, and yet it is
+    perceived by sight. It remains, therefore, that it is
+    brought into view by means of some other idea, that is itself
+    immediately perceived in the act of vision."--Sec. 11.
+
+    "Distance or external space."--Sec. 155.
+
+The explanation is quite simple, and lies in the fact that Berkeley
+uses the word "distance" in three senses. Sometimes he employs it to
+denote visible distance, and then he restricts it to distance in two
+dimensions, or simple extension. Sometimes he means tangible distance
+in two dimensions; but most commonly he intends to signify tangible
+distance in the third dimension. And it is in this sense that he
+employs "distance" as the equivalent of "space." Distance in two
+dimensions is, for Berkeley, not space, but extension. By taking a
+pencil and interpolating the words "visible" and "tangible" before
+"distance" wherever the context renders them necessary, Berkeley's
+statements may be made perfectly consistent; though he has not always
+extricated himself from the entanglement caused by his own loose
+phraseology, which rises to a climax in the last ten sections of
+the "Theory of Vision," in which he endeavours to prove that a pure
+intelligence able to see, but devoid of the sense of touch, could have
+no idea of a plane figure. Thus he says in section 156:--
+
+    "All that is properly perceived by the visual faculty amounts
+    to no more than colours with their variations and different
+    proportions of light and shade; but the perpetual mutability
+    and fleetingness of those immediate objects of sight
+    render them incapable of being managed after the manner of
+    geometrical figures, nor is it in any degree useful that they
+    should. It is true there be divers of them perceived at once,
+    and more of some and less of others; but accurately to compute
+    their magnitude, and assign precise determinate proportions
+    between things so variable and inconstant, if we suppose
+    it possible to be done, must yet be a very trifling and
+    insignificant labour."
+
+If, by this, Berkeley means that by vision alone, a straight line
+cannot be distinguished from a curved one, a circle from a square,
+a long line from a short one, a large angle from a small one, his
+position is surely absurd in itself and contradictory to his own
+previously cited admissions; if he only means, on the other hand, that
+his pure spirit could not get very far on in his geometry, it may be
+true or not; but it is in contradiction with his previous assertion,
+that such a pure spirit could never attain to know as much as the
+first elements of plane geometry.
+
+Another source of confusion, which arises out of Berkeley's
+insufficient exactness in the use of language, is to be found in what
+he says about solidity, in discussing Molyneux's problem, whether a
+man born blind and having learned to distinguish between a cube and a
+sphere, could, on receiving his sight, tell the one from the other
+by vision. Berkeley agrees with Locke that he could not, and adds the
+following reflection:--
+
+    "Cube, sphere, table, are words he has known applied to things
+    perceivable by touch, but to things perfectly intangible
+    he never knew them applied. Those words in their wonted
+    application always marked out to his mind bodies or solid
+    things which were perceived by the resistance they gave. But
+    there is no solidity, no resistance or protrusion perceived by
+    sight."
+
+Here "solidity" means resistance to pressure, which is apprehended by
+the muscular sense; but when in section 154 Berkeley says of his pure
+intelligence--
+
+    "It is certain that the aforesaid intelligence could have no
+    idea of a solid or quantity of three dimensions, which follows
+    from its not having any idea of distance "--
+
+he refers to that notion of solidity which may be obtained by the
+tactile sense, without the addition of any notion of resistance in the
+solid object; as, for example, when the finger passes lightly over the
+surface of a billiard ball.
+
+Yet another source of difficulty in clearly understanding Berkeley
+arises out of his use of the word "outness." In speaking of touch
+he seems to employ it indifferently, both for the localization of
+a tactile sensation in the sensory surface, which we really obtain
+through touch; and for the notion of corporeal separation, which is
+attained by the association of muscular and tactile sensations. In
+speaking of sight, on the other hand, Berkeley employs "outness" to
+denote corporeal separation.
+
+When due allowance is made for the occasional looseness and ambiguity
+of Berkeley's terminology, and the accessories are weeded out of the
+essential parts of his famous Essay, his views may, I believe, be
+fairly and accurately summed up in the following propositions:--
+
+1. The sense of touch gives rise to ideas of extension, figure,
+magnitude, and motion.
+
+2. The sense of touch gives rise to the idea of "outness," in the
+sense of localization.
+
+3. The sense of touch gives rise to the idea of resistance, and thence
+to that of solidity, in the sense of impenetrability.
+
+4. The sense of touch gives rise to the idea of "outness," in the
+sense of distance in the third dimension, and thence to that of space,
+or geometrical solidity.
+
+5. The sense of sight gives rise to ideas of extension, of figure,
+magnitude, and motion.
+
+6. The sense of sight does not give rise to the idea of "outness,"
+in the sense of distance in the third dimension, nor to that of
+geometrical solidity, no visual idea appearing to be without the mind,
+or at any distance off (Sec.Sec. 43, 50).
+
+7. The sense of sight does not give rise to the idea of mechanical
+solidity.
+
+8. There is no likeness whatever between the tactile ideas called
+extension, figure, magnitude, and motion, and the visual ideas which
+go by the same names; nor are any ideas common to the two senses.
+
+9. When we think we see objects at a distance, what really happens
+is that the visual picture suggests that the object seen has tangible
+distance; we confound the strong belief in the tangible distance of
+the object with actual sight of its distance.
+
+10. Visual ideas, therefore, constitute a kind of language, by which
+we are informed of the tactile ideas which will, or may, arise in us.
+
+Taking these propositions into consideration _seriatim_, it may be
+assumed that everyone will assent to the first and second; and that
+for the third and fourth we have only to include the muscular sense
+tinder the name of sense of touch, as Berkeley did, in order to make
+it quite accurate. Nor is it intelligible to me that anyone should
+explicitly deny the truth of the fifth proposition, though some
+of Berkeley's supporters, less careful than himself, have done so.
+Indeed, it must be confessed that it is only grudgingly, and as it
+were against his will, that Berkeley admits that we obtain ideas of
+extension, figure, and magnitude by pure vision, and that he more than
+half retracts the admission; while he absolutely denies that sight
+gives us any notion of outness in either sense of the word, and even
+declares that "no proper visual idea appears to be without the mind,
+or at any distance off." By "proper visual ideas," Berkeley denotes
+colours, and light, and shade; and, therefore, he affirms that colours
+do not appear to be at any distance from us. I confess that this
+assertion appears to me to be utterly unaccountable. I have made
+endless experiments on this point, and by no effort of the imagination
+can I persuade myself, when looking at a colour, that the colour is
+in my mind, and not at a "distance off," though of course I know
+perfectly well, as a matter of reason, that colour is subjective. It
+is like looking at the sun setting, and trying to persuade oneself
+that the earth appears to move and not the sun, a feat I have never
+been able to accomplish. Even when the eyes are shut, the darkness
+of which one is conscious, carries with it the notion of outness. One
+looks, so to speak, into a dark space. Common language expresses the
+common experience of mankind in this matter. A man will say that a
+smell is in his nose, a taste in his mouth, a singing in his ears, a
+creeping or a warmth in his skin; but if he is jaundiced, he does not
+say that he has yellow in his eyes, but that everything looks yellow;
+and if he is troubled with _muscae volitantes_, he says, not that he
+has specks in his eyes, but that he sees specks dancing before his
+eyes. In fact, it appears to me that it is the special peculiarity
+of visual sensations, that they invariably give rise to the idea of
+remoteness, and that Berkeley's dictum ought to be reversed. For I
+think that anyone who interrogates his consciousness carefully will
+find that "every proper visual idea" appears to be without the mind
+and at a distance off.
+
+Not only does every _visibile_ appear to be remote, but it has a
+position in external space, just as a _tangibile_ appears to be
+superficial and to have a determinate position on the surface of
+the body. Every _visibile_, in fact, appears (approximately) to be
+situated upon a line drawn from it to the point of the retina on which
+its image falls. It is referred outwards, in the general direction of
+the pencil of light by which it is rendered visible, just as, in the
+experiment with the stick, the _tangibile_ is referred outwards to the
+end of the stick.
+
+It is for this reason that an object, viewed with both eyes, is seen
+single and not double. Two distinct images are formed, but each image
+is referred to that point at which the two optic axes intersect;
+consequently, the two images exactly cover one another, and appear as
+completely one as any other two exactly similar superimposed images
+would be. And it is for the same reason, that, if the ball of the
+eye is pressed upon at any point, a spot of light appears apparently
+outside the eye, and in a region exactly opposite to that in which the
+pressure is made.
+
+But while it seems to me that there is no reason to doubt that the
+extradition of sensation is more complete in the case of the eye than
+in that of the skin, and that corporeal distinctness, and hence space,
+are directly suggested by vision, it is another, and a much more
+difficult question, whether the notion of geometrical solidity is
+attainable by pure vision; that is to say, by a single eye, all the
+parts of which are immoveable. However this may be, for an absolutely
+fixed eye, I conceive there can be no doubt in the case of an eye that
+is moveable and capable of adjustment. For, with the moveable eye,
+the muscular sense comes into play in exactly the same way as with the
+moveable hand; and the notion of change of place, _plus_ the sense of
+effort, gives rise to a conception of visual space, which runs exactly
+parallel with that of tangible space. When two moveable eyes are
+present, the notion of space of three dimensions is obtained in the
+same way as it is by the two hands, but with, much greater precision.
+
+And if, to take a case similar to one already assumed, we suppose a
+man deprived of every sense except vision, and of all motion except
+that of his eyes, it surely cannot be doubted that he would have a
+perfect conception of space; and indeed a much more perfect conception
+than he who possessed touch alone without vision. But of course our
+touchless man would be devoid of any notion of resistance; and hence
+space, for him, would be altogether geometrical and devoid of body.
+
+And here another curious consideration arises, what likeness, if
+any, would there be between the visual space of the one man, and the
+tangible space of the other?
+
+Berkeley, as we have seen (in the eighth proposition), declares that
+there is no likeness between the ideas given by sight and those given
+by touch; and one cannot but agree with him, so long as the term ideas
+is restricted to mere sensations. Obviously, there is no more likeness
+between the feel of a surface and the colour of it, than there is
+between its colour and its smell. All simple sensations, derived
+from different senses, are incommensurable with one another, and only
+gradations of their own intensity are comparable. And thus so far as
+the primary facts of sensation go, visual figure and tactile figure,
+visual magnitude and tactile magnitude, visual motion and tactile
+motion, are truly unlike, and have no common term. But when Berkeley
+goes further than this, and declares that there are no "ideas" common
+to the "ideas" of touch and those of sight, it appears to me that he
+has fallen into a great error, and one which is the chief source of
+his paradoxes about geometry.
+
+Berkeley in fact employs the word "idea" in this instance to denote
+two totally different classes of feelings, or states of consciousness.
+For these may be divided into two groups: the primary feelings,
+which exist in themselves and without relation to any other, such as
+pleasure and pain, desire, and the simple sensations obtained through
+the sensory organs; and the secondary feelings, which express those
+relations of primary feelings which are perceived by the mind; and the
+existence of which, therefore, implies the pre-existence of at least
+two of the primary feelings. Such are likeness and unlikeness in
+quality, quantity, or form; succession and contemporaneity; contiguity
+and distance; cause and effect; motion and rest.
+
+Now it is quite true that there is no likeness between the primary
+feelings which are grouped under sight and touch; but it appears to me
+wholly untrue, and indeed absurd, to affirm that there is no likeness
+between the secondary feelings which express the relations of the
+primary ones.
+
+The relation of succession perceived between the visible taps of
+a hammer, is, to my mind, exactly like the relation of succession
+between the tangible taps; the unlikeness between red and blue is a
+mental phenomenon of the same order as the unlikeness between rough
+and smooth. Two points visibly distant are so, because one or more
+units of visible length _(minima visibilia_) are interposed between
+them; and as two points tangibly distant are so, because one or more
+units of tangible length _(minima tangibilia_) are interposed between
+them, it is clear that the notion of interposition of units of
+sensibility, or _minima sensibilia_, is an idea common to the two. And
+whether I see a point move across the field of vision towards another
+point, or feel the like motion, the idea of the gradual diminution of
+the number of sensible units between the two points appears to me to
+be common to both kinds of motion.
+
+Hence, I conceive, that though it be true that there is no likeness
+between the primary feelings given by sight and those given by touch,
+yet there is a complete likeness between the secondary feelings
+aroused by each sense.
+
+Indeed, if it were not so, how could Logic, which deals with those
+forms of thought which are applicable to every kind of subject-matter,
+be possible? How could numerical proportion be as true of _visibilia_,
+as of _tangibilia_, unless there were some ideas common to the two?
+And to come directly to the heart of the matter, is there any more
+difference between the relations between tangible sensations which we
+call place and direction, and those between visible sensations which
+go by the same name, than there is between those relations of tangible
+and visible sensations which we call succession? And if there be
+none, why is Geometry not just as much a matter of _visibilia_ as of
+_tangibilia_?
+
+Moreover, as a matter of fact, it is certain that the muscular sense
+is so closely connected with both the visual and the tactile senses,
+that, by the ordinary laws of association, the ideas which it suggests
+must needs be common to both.
+
+From what has been said it will follow that the ninth proposition
+falls to the ground; and that vision, combined with the muscular
+sensations produced by the movement of the eyes, gives us as complete
+a notion of corporeal separation and of distance in the third
+dimension of space, as touch, combined with the muscular sensations
+produced by the movements of the hand, does. The tenth proposition
+seems to contain a perfectly true statement, but it is only half
+the truth. It is no doubt true that our visual ideas are a kind of
+language by which we are informed of the tactile ideas which may or
+will arise in us; but this is true, more or less, of every sense in
+regard to every other. If I put my hand in my pocket, the tactile
+ideas which I receive prophesy quite accurately what I shall
+see--whether a bunch of keys or half-a-crown--when I pull it out
+again; and the tactile ideas are, in this case, the language which
+informs me of the visual ideas which will arise. So with the other
+senses: olfactory ideas tell me I shall find the tactile and visual
+phenomena called violets, if I look for them; taste tells me that
+what I am tasting will, if I look at it, have the form of a clove; and
+hearing warns me of what I shall, or may, see and touch every minute
+of my life.
+
+But while the "New Theory of Vision" cannot be considered to possess
+much value in relation to the immediate object its author had in view,
+it had a vastly important influence in directing attention to the real
+complexity of many of those phenomena of sensation, which appear at
+first to be simple. And even if Berkeley was, as I imagine he was,
+quite wrong in supposing that we do not see space, the contrary
+doctrine makes quite as strongly for his general view, that space can
+be conceived only as something thought by a mind.
+
+The last of Locke's "primary qualities" which remain to be considered
+is mechanical solidity, or impenetrability. But our conception of this
+is derived from the sense of resistance to our own effort, or active
+force, which we meet with in association with sundry tactile or visual
+phenomena; and, undoubtedly, active force is inconceivable except as a
+state of consciousness. This may sound paradoxical; but let anyone try
+to realize what he means by the mutual attraction of two particles,
+and I think he will find, either, that he conceives them simply as
+moving towards one another at a certain rate, in which case he only
+pictures motion to himself, and leaves force aside; or, that he
+conceives each particle to be animated by something like his own
+volition, and to be pulling as he would pull. And I suppose that this
+difficulty of thinking of force except as something comparable to
+volition, lies at the bottom of Leibnitz's doctrine of monads, to say
+nothing of Schopenhauer's "Welt als Wille und Vorstellung;" while the
+opposite difficulty of conceiving force to be anything like volition,
+drives another school of thinkers into the denial of any connection,
+save that of succession, between cause and effect.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+To sum up. If the materialist affirms that the universe and all its
+phenomena are resolvable into matter and motion, Berkeley replies,
+True; but what you call matter and motion are known to us only as
+forms of consciousness; their being is to be conceived or known; and
+the existence of a state of consciousness, apart from a thinking mind,
+is a contradiction in terms.
+
+I conceive that this reasoning is irrefragable. And therefore, if
+I were obliged to choose between absolute materialism and absolute
+idealism, I should feel compelled to accept the latter alternative.
+Indeed, upon this point Locke does, practically, go as far in the
+direction of idealism, as Berkeley, when he admits that "the simple
+ideas we receive from sensation and reflection are the boundaries of
+our thoughts, beyond which the mind, whatever efforts it would make,
+is not able to advance one jot."--Book II. chap, xxiii. Sec. 29.
+
+But Locke adds, "Nor can it make any discoveries when it would pry
+into the nature and hidden causes of these ideas."
+
+Now, from this proposition, the thorough materialists dissent as much,
+on the one hand, as Berkeley does, upon the other hand.
+
+The thorough materialist asserts that there is a something which he
+calls the "substance" of matter; that this something is the cause of
+all phenomena, whether material or mental; that it is self-existent
+and eternal, and so forth.
+
+Berkeley, on the contrary, asserts with equal confidence that there is
+no substance of matter, but only a substance of mind, which he terms
+spirit; that there are two kinds of spiritual substance, the one
+eternal and uncreated, the substance of the Deity, the other created,
+and, once created, naturally eternal; that the universe, as known
+to created spirits, has no being in itself, but is the result of
+the action of the substance of the Deity on the substance of those
+spirits.
+
+In contradiction to which bold assertion, Locke affirms that we simply
+know nothing about substance of any kind.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Berkeley virtually makes the same confession of
+ignorance, when he admits that we can have no idea or notion of a
+spirit ("Principles of Human Knowledge," Sec. 138); and the way in which
+he tries to escape the consequences of this admission, is a splendid
+example of the floundering of a mired logician.]
+
+    "So that if anyone will examine himself concerning his notion
+    of pure substance in general, he will find he has no other
+    idea of it at all, but only a supposition of he knows not
+    what support of such qualities, which are capable of producing
+    simple ideas in us, which qualities are commonly called
+    accidents.
+
+    "If anyone should be asked, what is the subject wherein colour
+    or weight inheres? he would have nothing to say but the
+    solid extended parts; and if he were demanded what is it that
+    solidity and extension inhere in? he would not be in much
+    better case than the Indian before mentioned, who, urging that
+    the world was supported by a great elephant, was asked what
+    the elephant rested on? to which his answer was, a great
+    tortoise. But being again pressed to know what gave support
+    to the broad-backed tortoise I replied, something, he knew not
+    what. And thus here, as in all other cases when we use
+    words without having clear and distinct ideas, we talk like
+    children, who, being questioned what such a thing is, readily
+    give this satisfactory answer, that it is something; which in
+    truth signifies no more when so used, either by children or
+    men, but that they know not what, and that the thing they
+    pretend to talk and know of is what they have no distinct idea
+    of at all, and are, so, perfectly ignorant of it and in the
+    dark. The idea, then, we have, to which we give the general
+    name substance, being nothing but the supposed but unknown
+    support of those qualities we find existing, which we imagine
+    cannot exist _sine re substante_, without something to support
+    them, we call that support _substantia_, which, according to
+    the true import of the word, is, in plain English, standing
+    under or upholding."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Locke, "Human Understanding," Book II. chap, xiii. Sec. 2.]
+
+I cannot but believe that the judgment of Locke is that which
+Philosophy will accept as her final decision.
+
+Suppose that a piano were conscious of sound, and of nothing else. It
+would become acquainted with a system of nature entirely composed
+of sounds, and the laws of nature would be the laws of melody and of
+harmony. It might acquire endless ideas of likeness and unlikeness, of
+succession, of similarity and dissimilarity, but it could attain to no
+conception of space, of distance, or of resistance; or of figure, or
+of motion.
+
+The piano might then reason thus: All my knowledge consists of sounds
+and the perception of the relations of sounds; now the being of sound
+is to be heard; and it is inconceivable that the existence of the
+sounds I know, should depend upon any other existence than that of the
+mind of a hearing being.
+
+This would be quite as good reasoning as Berkeley's, and very sound
+and useful, so far as it defines the limits of the piano's faculties.
+But for all that, pianos have an existence quite apart from sounds,
+and the auditory consciousness of our speculative piano would be
+dependent, in the first place, on the existence of a "substance" of
+brass, wood, and iron, and, in the second, on that of a musician. But
+of neither of these conditions of the existence of his consciousness
+would the phenomena of that consciousness afford him the slightest
+hint.
+
+So that while it is the summit of human wisdom to learn the limit of
+our faculties, it may be wise to recollect that we have no more right
+to make denials, than to put forth affirmatives, about what lies
+beyond that limit. Whether either mind, or matter, has a "substance"
+or not, is a problem which we are incompetent to discuss; and it is
+just as likely that the common notions upon the subject should be
+correct as any others. Indeed, Berkeley himself makes Philonous wind
+up his discussions with Hylas, in a couple of sentences which aptly
+express this conclusion:--
+
+    "You see, Hylas, the water of yonder fountain, how it is
+    forced upwards in a round column to a certain height, at which
+    it breaks and falls back into the basin from whence it rose;
+    its ascent as well as its descent proceeding from the same
+    uniform law or principle of gravitation. Just so, the same
+    principles which, at first view, lead to scepticism, pursued
+    to a certain point, bring men back to common sense."
+
+THE END.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Critiques and Addresses, by Thomas Henry Huxley
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